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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Inventions in the Century, by William
+Henry Doolittle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: Inventions in the Century
+
+Author: William Henry Doolittle
+
+Release Date: July 18, 2011 [eBook #36776]
+Last Updated: September 3, 2023
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+Produced by: Chris Curnow, Stephanie Kovalchik and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY ***
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+
+Misspellings in the source text have been corrected.
+
+The oe-ligature is indicated with œ in this text version.
+
+Missing page entries for “Wooden shoes” was assigned a page number by
+the transcriber.
+
+Index entry for “Stamfield, Jas.” was removed since this name does not
+occur in the main text.
+
+
+
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES
+
+
+  EDITOR:
+    JUSTIN McCARTHY.
+
+  ASSOCIATE EDITORS:
+    REV. W. H. WITHROW, M.A., D.D., F.R.S.C.
+    CHARLES G. D. ROBERTS, M.A., F.R.C.I.
+    J. CASTELL HOPKINS, F.R.S.L.
+    T. G. MARQUIS, B.A.
+    REV. T. S. LINSCOTT, F.R.C.I.
+
+
+
+
+INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM H. DOOLITTLE
+
+
+
+_Expert and Patent Solicitor, Ex-Examiner in the Patent Office and
+Assistant Commissioner of Patents at Washington, Writer of Inventions,
+Etc._
+
+
+
+
+THE LINSCOTT PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+TORONTO AND PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+W. & R. CHAMBERS, Limited
+
+LONDON AND EDINBURGH
+
+1903
+
+
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand Nine
+Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited, in the Office
+of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Year One
+Thousand Nine Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited,
+in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture.
+
+
+_All Rights Reserved._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.
+
+ Inventions and Discoveries.--Distinctions and Contrast.--The
+ One, Useful Contrivances of Man; the Other, New Things Found
+ in Nature.--Galileo and the Telescope.--Newton and the Law of
+ Gravitation.--Often United as Soul and Body.--Inventions and
+ Discoveries do not Precede or Succeed in Order.--Inventions--
+ Alphabetical Writing; Arabic Notation; The Mariner’s Compass;
+ The Telescope; The Steam Engine.--Discoveries;--Attraction of
+ Gravitation; Planetary Motions; Circulation of Blood; Velocity
+ of Light.--Nineteenth Century Inventions and Discoveries.--
+ Further Definitions.--Law of Development.--Contrivances, not
+ Creations.--Man Always an Inventor.--Prof. Langley on Slow
+ Growth of Inventions.--Inventions of this Century Outgrowth of
+ Past Ones.--Egyptian Crooked Stick, Precursor of Modern
+ Plough.--Hero of Alexandria and James Watt.--David’s Harp and
+ the Grand Piano.--Electrical Science in 1600 and the Present
+ Day.--Evolution and Interrelation of the Arts.--Age of Machine
+ Inventions.--Its Beginning.--The Inducements to Invention.--
+ Necessity not Always the Mother.--Wants of Various Kinds.--
+ Accident.--Governmental Protection the Greatest Incentive.--
+ Origin and Growth of Patent Laws.--Influence of Personal,
+ Political and Intellectual Freedom and Education.--Arts of
+ Civilization Due to the Inventor.--Macaulay’s Estimate.--
+ Will Inventions Continue to Increase or Decrease.--Effect of
+ Economic, Industrial and Social Life upon Inventions.--What
+ Inventions have Done for Humanity.--Thread of the Centuries.--
+ The Roll of Inventions too Vast for Enumeration.                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.
+
+ The Egyptians the Earliest and Greatest Agriculturists.--
+ Rome and Farming.--Cato, Varro, Virgil.--Columella.--Pliny.--
+ Palladius.--The Decline of Agriculture.--Northern Barbarism.--
+ Lowest Ebb in the Middle Ages.--Revival in the Fifteenth and
+ Sixteenth Centuries.--With Invention of Printing.--Publications
+ then, Concerning.--Growth in Seventeenth and Eighteenth
+ Centuries.--Jethro Tull.--Arthur Young.--Washington.--
+ Jefferson.--The Art Scientifically Commenced with Sir Humphry
+ Davy’s Lectures on Soils and Plants, 1802-1812.--Societies.--
+ “Book Farming” and Prejudice of Farmers.--A Revisit of Ruth
+ and Cincinnatus at Beginning of Nineteenth Century.--Their
+ Implements still the Common Ones in Use.--The Plough and its
+ History.--Its Essential Parts and their Evolution to Modern
+ Forms.--Originated in Holland.--Growth in England and
+ America.--Small, Jefferson, Newbold.--Lord Kames’ Complaint.--
+ The American Plough.--Cutting Disks.--Steam Ploughs: Implements
+ for Preparing the Soil for Planting.--Various Forms of Harrows.      13
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
+
+ The Sowing of Grain.--The Sower of the Parables.--His Art and
+ its Defects Lasted until Nineteenth Century.--The Problems to
+ be Solved.--Assyrian and Chinese Seeding Implements.--India.--
+ Italy First to Introduce a Grain Sowing Machine, Seventeenth
+ Century.--Zanon’s Work on Agriculture, 1764.--Austria and
+ England.--A Spaniard’s Invention.--Don Lescatello.--The Drill
+ of Jethro Tull.--A Clergyman, Cooke’s Machine.--Washington
+ and Others.--Modern Improvements in Seeders and their Operation
+ and Functions.--Force Feed and Gravity Feed.--Graduated Flow.--
+ Divided Feeds for Separate Grains and Fertilizing Material.--
+ Garden Ploughs and Seeders.--Gangs of Heavy Ones.--Operated by
+ Steam.--Corn Planters.--Walking and Riding.--Objects of Proper
+ Planting.--How Accomplished by Machinery.--Variety of
+ Machines.--Potatoes and the Finest Seeds.--Transplanters.--
+ Cultivators.--Their Purposes and Varieties.--Primitive and
+ Modern Toilers.--Millet.--Tillers of the Soil no Longer
+ “Brothers of the Ox.”                                                23
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
+
+ Harvesting in Ancient Times.--The Sickle.--Pliny’s Machine.--
+ Now the Clover Header.--Palladius’ Description.--Improved in
+ 1786.--Scotchman’s Grain Cradle in 1794.--The Seven Ancient
+ Wonders and the Seven Modern Wonders.--The Modern Harvester
+ and the Cotton Gin.--Requirements of the Harvester.--Boyce.--
+ Meares.--Plucknett.--Gladstone and the First Front Draft
+ Machine, 1806.--Salonen introduced Vibrating Knives over
+ Stationary Blades, 1807.--Ogle and Reciprocating Knife Bar,
+ 1822.--Rev. Patrick Bell, 1823, Cuts an Acre of Grain in an
+ Hour.--Mowers and Reapers in America in 1820.--Reaper and
+ Thresher combined by Lane, of Maine, 1828.--Manning’s Harvester,
+ 1831.--Schnebly.--Hussey.--McCormick, 1833-34.--Harvesters and
+ Mowers at World’s Fair, London, 1851.--Automatic Binders.--Wire
+ and Twine.--Advances Shown at Centennial Exhibition, 1876.--
+ Inventions Beyond the Wildest Dreams of Former Farmers.--One
+ Invention Generates Another.--Lawn Mowers.--Hay Forks and
+ Stackers.--Corn, Cotton, Potato, Flax Harvesters.--Threshing.--
+ The Old Flail.--Egyptian and Roman Methods.--The First Modern
+ Threshing Machine.--Menzies, Leckie, Meikle.--Combined
+ Harvesters and Threshers.--Flax Threshers and Brakes.--Cotton
+ Gins.--Eli Whitney.--Enormous Importance of this Machine in
+ Cotton Products.--Displacement of Labour.                            32
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (_continued_).
+
+ Harvest Ended, Comes the Preparation of Grain and Fruits for
+ Food.--Cleaning.--Separating.--Grinding.--Fanning Mills and
+ Sir Walter Scott.--The Rudimentary Mills.--Egyptian.--Hebrew,
+ Grecian, and Roman Methods, Prevailed until Middle of Eighteenth
+ Century.--The Upper and Nether Mill Stone in Modern Dress.--
+ Modern Mills Invented at Close of Eighteenth Century.--Oliver
+ Evans of America, 1755-1819.--Evans’ System Prevailed for Three
+ Quarters of a Century.--New System.--Middlings.--Low Milling.--
+ High Milling.--Roller Mills.--Middlings Separators.--Dust
+ Explosions and Prevention.--Vegetable Cutters.--Choppers.--Fruit
+ Parers and Slicers.--Great Range of Mechanisms to Treat the
+ Tenderest Pods and Smallest Seeds.--Crushing Sugar Cane.--
+ Pressing and Baling.--Every Product has its own Proper Machine
+ for Picking, Pressing, Packing, or Baling.--Cotton Compress.--
+ Extensive and Enormous Cotton Crops of the World.--Cotton
+ Presses of Various Kinds.--Hay and its Baling.--Bale Ties.--
+ Fruits and Foods.--Machines for Gathering, Packing, Preserving,
+ etc., all Modern.--Drying and Evaporating.--Sealing.--
+ Transporting.--Tobacco.--Its Enormous Production.--The Interdict
+ of James I., and of Popes, Kings, Sultans, etc.--Variety of
+ Machines for its Treatment.                                          45
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CHEMISTRY, MEDICINES, SURGERY, DENTISTRY.
+
+ Chemistry among the Ancients.--Egyptians.--Phœnicians.--
+ Israelites.--Greeks and Romans.--Chinese.--Became a Science in
+ the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.--Libavius.--Van
+ Helmont.--Glauber--Tachenius.--Boyle.--Lémery.--Becher.--
+ Stahl.--Boerhaave.--Black.--Cavendish.--Lavoisier.--Priestley.--
+ Chemistry of Nineteenth Century a New World.--Atomic and
+ Molecular Theories.--Light, Heat, and Electricity.--Correlation
+ and Conservation of Forces.--Spectrum Analysis.--Laws of
+ Chemical Changes.--John Dalton.--Wollaston.--Gay.--Lussac.--
+ Berzelius.--Huygens’and Newton’s Discoveries in Light in
+ Seventeenth Century.--Unfolded and Developed by Fraunhofer,
+ Kirchoff.--Bunsen in the Nineteenth.--Young of America.--
+ Combination of Spectroscope and Telescope.--Huggins of England,
+ Spectrum Analysis of the Stars.--Heat and other Forces.--Count
+ Rumford.--Davy.--Mayer.--Helmholtz.--Colding.--Joule.--Grove.--
+ Faraday.--Sir William Thomson.--Le Conte and Martin.--French
+ Revolution and Agricultural Chemistry.--Lavoisier, Berthollet.--
+ Guyton.--Fourcroy.--Napoleon.--Sir Humphry Davy.--Liebig.--
+ Fermentation.--Alcohol.--Yeast.--Malt.--Wines.--Beer.--Huxley’s
+ Lecture on Yeast, 1871.--Protein.--Protoplasm.--Evolution from
+ one all-pervading Force.--Alcohol and Pasteur.--Manufacture of
+ Liquors.--Carbonating.--Soils and Fertilisers.--Liquids, Oils,
+ Sugar and Fats.--Bleaching and Dyeing.--Aniline Colours.--
+ Perfumes.--Electro-Chemical Methods.--Applied to the Production
+ of Artificial Light.--Abradants.--Disinfectants.--Pigments.--
+ Mineral Analysis.--Purification of Water and Sewage.--
+ Electroplating Metals.--Chemicals and the Fine Arts.--Redemption
+ of Waste Materials.--Medicines and Surgery.--Their Growth from
+ Empiricism.--Anæsthetics.--Davy.--Morton.--Jackson.--Innumerable
+ Medical Compounds.--Antiseptic Treatment of Wounds.--Vast
+ Variety of Surgical Instruments Invented.--Four Thousand Patents
+ in United States Alone.--Dentistry.--Its Ancient Origin.--
+ Account of Herodotus.--Revolution in, during Nineteenth
+ Century.--Instruments.--Artificial Teeth.--Vast Relief from Pain.    58
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.
+
+ Prophecy of Dr. Darwin in Eighteenth Century.--Review of the Art
+ from Hero to James Watt.--Pumping Engines.--Road Carriages.--
+ Watt.--Cugnot.--Rumsey.--Fitch.--Oliver Evans.--Read.--
+ Symington.--Trevithick.--Locomotives.--Blenkinsop.--Griffith.--
+ Bramah.--Horse Engine.--Hancock.--Blackett.--George
+ Stephenson.--Hackworth.--Braithwaite.--Ericsson.--Huskisson
+ First Victim of Railroad Accident.--Seguin.--John C. Stevens.--
+ Horatio Allen.--Peter Cooper.--Symington.--Lord Dundas.--Fulton
+ and Livingston.--The First Successful Steamboat.--Transatlantic
+ Steam Navigation.--Scarborough of Georgia.--Bell of Scotland.--
+ Cunard Line; Paddle Wheels.--Screw Propellers.--The Age of
+ Kinetic Energy.--Professor Thurston.--Variety of Engines and
+ Boilers.--Corliss.--Bicycle and Automobile Engines.--Napoleon’s
+ Stage Trip and Present Locomotion.--Daniel Webster’s Survey of
+ the Art.                                                             73
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.
+
+ The Duties of a Civil Engineer.--Great Engineering of the
+ Past.--The Divisions.--Steam.--Mining.--Hydraulic.--
+ Electrical.--Marine.--Bridge Making, Its Development.--First
+ Arched Iron Bridge.--Darby.--Telford.--Leading Bridges of the
+ Century.--Suspension.--Tubular.--Tubular Arch.--Truss.--
+ Cantilever.--Spider’s Web and Suspension.--Sir Samuel Brown.--
+ The Tweed.--Menai Straits and Telford.--M. Chaley and
+ Fribourg.--J. K. Brunel and Isle of Bourbon.--British America
+ and the United States united in 1855--Niagara.--John A.
+ Roebling.--The Brooklyn Bridge.--Caissons and the Caisson
+ Disease.--Tubular Bridge at Menai.--“The Grandest Lift in
+ Engineering.”--Robert Stephenson.--The Tubular Arch at
+ Washington.--Captain Meigs and Captain Eads.--St. Louis
+ Bridge.--Truss System and Vast Modern Bridges.--Cantilever
+ Succeeded the Suspension.--New Niagara and River
+ Forth.--Schneider.--Hayes.--Fowler and Baker.--Milton’s
+ Description.--Lighthouses.--Smeaton.--Douglass.--Bartholdi.--
+ Eiffel.--Excavating, Dredging, Draining.--Road-making.--
+ Railroads.--Canals.--Tunnels.--Excavating.--Desert Lands
+ Reclaimed.--Holland and Florida Swamps.--The Tunnels of the
+ Alps.--Suez Canal.--Engineering, as seen from a Pullman
+ Car.--Cable Transportation.--Pneumatic Lock System.--Grain
+ Elevators--Progress in Civilisation.                                 93
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ELECTRICITY.
+
+ Theories and Definitions.--Franklin’s and a Modern One.--
+ Varieties of the Force.--Generation.--Dynamic Energy.--
+ Discoveries before the Nineteenth Century.--Magnetism and
+ Electricity.--Fathers of the Science.--Doctor Gilbert.--Otto
+ von Guericke.--Sir Isaac Newton.--Gray.--Dufay.--Professor
+ Muschenbroeck.--Cuneus.--Charles Morrison.--Franklin and
+ Galvani.--Volta.--The Door to Nineteenth Century Inventions
+ then Opened.--Fabroni.--Sir Humphry Davy, Wollaston, Nicholson,
+ and Carlisle.--Ritter Followed--Electrolysis.--Faraday and its
+ Laws.--Davy and the Electric Light.--Batteries.--Daniell.--
+ Grove.--Bunsen.--Brilliant Discoveries from 1800 to 1820.--
+ Oersted, Schweigger.--Magnetising Helix.--Indicators.--Arago
+ and Davy.--Ampère’s Discoveries.--Sturgeon and the first
+ Electro-Magnet, 1825.--Telegraphy.--Gauss, Weber, Schilling.--
+ Professor Barlow’s Demonstration that Telegraphy was
+ Impracticable.--Joseph Henry.--Powerful Magnets.--Modern and
+ Ancient Telegraphy of Various Kinds.--The Third Decade.--George
+ Simon Ohm.--Steinheil.--Telegraph of Morse, Vail, Dana, Gale.--
+ Wheatstone.--U.S. Supreme Court on Morse System.--His Alphabet
+ and Submarine Telegraph.--Michael Faraday and Science of
+ Magnets.--Steam and Magneto-Dynamo Machines.--Chemical Affinity
+ and Electricity.--Helmholtz, Faraday, Henry, and Pixii.--
+ Ruhmkorff Coil.--Page.--Electrical Light.--Decomposition of
+ Water.--Professor Nollet.--First Practical Electric Light
+ Shone on the Sea, 1858.--Faraday and Holmes.--Lighthouse
+ Illumination.--Dr. W. Siemens.--Wilde’s Machine.--Other
+ Powerful Magnetic Machines.--Field Magnets.--Z. Gramme.--
+ The Various Ways and Means of Developing Electric Light.--
+ Geissler Tubes.--First House Lighted in America.--Moses
+ G. Farmer.--Jablochoff’s Candle.--French Regulators.--Outdoor
+ and Indoor Illumination.--Siemens, Farmer, Brush, Maxim,
+ Westinghouse, Edison, Swan, Lane--Fox and Others.--Arc Lamps
+ of Heffner von Alteneck.--Ocean Cables.--Cyrus W. Field.--John
+ Bright’s Expression.--Weak Currents.--Thomson’s Remedy.--Mirror
+ Galvanometer.--Centennial Exhibition and the Telephone.--
+ Alexander Graham Bell, 1875.--The Telephone and Helmholtz’
+ Theory of Tone.--Scott’s Phonautograph.--Page’s Production of
+ Galvanic Music and Researches of Reis.--Its Slow Growth.--The
+ Ideas of Faraday and Henry still the Basis of the Great
+ Machines.--“Lines of Force.”--Electric Railway.--Storage
+ Batteries.--Dynamos.--First Railway at Berlin, 1879.--Then
+ Saxony, Paris, London, New York.--Telpherage by Professor
+ Jenkin.--Problems Solved.--Electrical Magicians.--Edison and
+ Tesla.--Recent Improvements in Telegraphy.--The Talks Both Ways
+ at Same Time and Multiplied.--Printing Systems by Types and
+ Otherwise.--Electrical Elevators.--Microphone.--Ticks of a
+ Watch and the Tread of a Fly Recorded.--Musical Sounds from
+ Minerals and Other Substances.--Signalling and Other
+ Appliances.--The X Rays.--Wireless Telegraphy.                      111
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HOISTING, CONVEYING, AND STORING.
+
+ Drudgery of Ancient Times Relieved by Modern Inventions.--
+ The Labour of Men and Beasts now Done by Steam Giants.--
+ Labour-Saving Appliances for Transportation.--Tall Buildings
+ and Elevators.--Evolution Slow until 19th Century.--Carrying
+ of Weights.--The Pyramids.--Modern Methods.--Ship-Loading.--
+ The Six Ordinary Powers Alone Used until the Time of Watt.--
+ Elevator Mills of Oliver Evans.--The Hydraulic Press of
+ Bramah.--The Lifting of Tubular Bridge by Robt. Stephenson.--
+ Compressed Air Elevator of Slade.--Counterbalance Lifts of
+ Van Elvean.--Modern Elevator of Otis, 1859.--Steam-Water.--
+ Compressed Air.--Electricity: Elevators, how Controlled.--
+ Store Service Conveyors.--Pneumatic Transmission: Dodge’s
+ Air Blast Conveyor.--Mode of Switching Conveyors.--“Lazy
+ Tongs” Conveyors.--Buffers.--Endless Cables.--Clutches,
+ Safety.--Labour-Saving Devices and Derangement of Labour.--
+ In One Sense, Inventions Labour-Increasing Devices.                 152
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+ Old as the Thirst of Man.--Prehistoric Inventions.--China.--
+ Pliny’s Record.--Egyptian, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman Water
+ Works.--“Pneumatics of Hero.”--Overshot, Undershot, and Breast
+ Wheels, Ancient.--Screw of Archimedes.--Frontinus, a Roman
+ Inspector.--1593, Servière Invents the Rotary Pump.--1586,
+ Stevinus of Holland, Father of the Elementary Science.--Galileo,
+ Torricelli, Pascal, and Sir Isaac Newton in the Seventeenth
+ Century.--Bernoulli, D’Alembert, Euler, Abbé Bossut, Venturi,
+ and Eylewein in the Eighteenth.--Water Distribution then
+ Originated.--Peter Maurice and the London Bridge Pumps.--La
+ Hire’s Double Acting Pump.--Dr. John Allen and David Ramsey of
+ England.--Franklin’s Force Pump.--Water Ram of Whitehurst and
+ Montgolfier.--Nineteenth Century Opens with Bramah’s Pumps.--
+ Water and Steam.--Pumps the Strong Hands of Hydraulics.--Review
+ of Past Inventions: Pascal’s Paradox.--Turbines of Forneyron.--
+ Power of Niagara and Turbines there.--Jonval’s.--Euler’s Old
+ Centrifugal Pumps Revived.--Massachusetts and Appold Systems.--
+ Lowlands of Holland, Marshes of Italy, Swamps of Florida,
+ Drained.--Injectors.--Giffard.--Intensifiers.--Hydraulicising.--
+ Hydraulic Jack and Cleopatra’s Needle.--Flow of Cold Metal.--
+ Lead Pipe Made, and Cold Steel Stretched by Water Pressure.--
+ Cotton Presses, Sir Wm. Armstrong’s Inventions.--Tweddle and Sir
+ Wm. Fairbairn.--Water Motors.--Baths and Closets.--Results of
+ Modern Improvements.--Germ Theory and Filters.                      164
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
+
+ The Slow March of the Human Mind.--Burke.--The Age of Mechanical
+ Inventions not until nearly Watt’s Steam Engine.--Review of
+ “Learning” until that Time.--Motor Engines not Produced until
+ Seventeenth Century.--Suggested by the Bellows and the
+ Cannon.--Huygens and Papin.--Van Helmont the Author of the
+ Term “Gas,” 1577-1644.--Robert Boyle and the Air Pump.--Law
+ of Gases.--Mariotte.--Abbé Hauteville, 1682.--The Heart and
+ a Motor.--Sun Burner.--Murdock, 1798, Uses Coal Gas for
+ Illumination.--John Barber and Carburetted Hydrogen.--
+ Street’s Heated Gas.--1801, Lebon Proposes Coal Gas Motor.--
+ Investigations of Dalton and Gay-Lussac, 1810.--Heat engines:
+ Air, Gas, Steam, Vapor, Solar.--Explosive.--Temperature the Tie
+ that Binds them as One Family.--1823-26, Sir Samuel Brown.--
+ Gunpowder and Gas Engine.--Davy and Faraday.--Gas to a Liquid
+ State.--Wright, 1833.--Burdett’s Compressed Air Engine, 1838.--
+ Lenoir’s.--Hugon’s.--Beau de Rohes’ Investigations.--Oil Wells
+ of United States, 1860.--Petroleum Engines.--Brayton, Spiel.--
+ Otto’s Gas Engine and Improvements.--Ammoniacal Gas Engines.--
+ Nobels’ Inventions.--Storm’s Gunpowder Engine.--Gas and Vapour
+ Compared with Steam.--Prof. Jenkins’ Prediction.--Gas to
+ Supplant Steam.--Compressed Air Engines.--Innumerable
+ Applications of Pneumatic Machines.--A Number Mentioned.--
+ Their Universal Application to the Useful and Fine Arts.            182
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATING AND LIGHTING.
+
+ Prometheus and the Modern Match.--1680, Godfrey Hanckwitz
+ Invented First Phosphorous Match.--Other Forms of Matches.--
+ Promethean Matches in 1820.--John Walker.--Lucifer.--Tons of
+ Chemicals, Hundreds of Pine Trees Yearly Made into Matches.--
+ Splints and Machines.--Reuben Partridge.--Poririer.--Pasteboard
+ Box.--Machines for Assorting and Dipping, Drying and Boxing.--
+ Cooking and Heating Stoves.--History of, from Rome to Ben
+ Franklin.--The Old-Fashioned Fireplace.--Varieties of Coal
+ Stoves.--Stove Fireplace.--Ventilation.--Hot Air Furnaces.--
+ How Heat is Distributed, Retained, and Moistened.--Hot Water
+ Circulation.--Incubators.--Baking Ovens, the Dutch and the
+ Modern.--Vast Number of Stove and Furnace Foundries in United
+ States.--Ventilation.--Parliament Buildings and U. S. Capitol.--
+ Eminent Scientific Men who have Made Ventilation a Study.--Best
+ Modes.--Its Great Importance.--Car Heaters.--Grass and Refuse
+ Burning Stoves.--Oil, Vapour, and Gas Stoves, their Construction
+ and Operation.--Sterilising.--Electric Heating and Cooking.--
+ Refrigeration.--Messrs. Carré of France, 1870.--Artificial
+ Ice.--Sulphuric Acid and Ammonia Processes.--Absorption and
+ Compression Methods Described.--Refrigerating Cars.--Liquid Air.    199
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+ The Antiquity of the Art.--The “Lost Arts” Rediscovered.--
+ The Earliest Forms of Smelting Furnaces.--Ancient Iron and
+ Steel.--India and Africa.--Early Spain and the Catalan
+ Furnace.--The Armour of Don Quixote.--Bell’s History of the
+ Art.--Germany.--Cast Iron Made by Ancients, Disused for 15
+ Centuries.--Reinvented by Page and Baude in England, 1543.--
+ German Furnaces.--Dud Dudley, the Oxford Graduate and his
+ Furnace, 1619.--Origin of Coke in England.--Use in United
+ States.--Revival of Cast Iron.--Cast Steel in England, Huntsman,
+ 1740.--Henry Cort and Puddling, 1784, and its Subsequent
+ Wonderful Value.--Steam Engine of Watt and Iron.--Refining of
+ Precious Metals.--Amalgamating Process.--Review of the 18th
+ Century.--Herschel’s Distinction of Empirical and Scientific
+ Art.--The Nineteenth Century, Scientific Metallurgy.--Steam,
+ Chemistry, Electricity.--Rogers’ Iron Floor.--Neilson’s Hot Air
+ Blast, 1828, Patent Sustained.--Anthracite Coal.--Colossal
+ Furnaces.--Gas Producers.--Bunsen’s Experiments.--Constituents
+ of Ores.--Squeezing Process.--Burden’s Method.--Mechanical
+ Puddlers.--Rotary.--Henry Bessemer’s Great Process--1855-1860.--
+ Steel from Iron.--Holley’s Apparatus.--Effects of and Changes in
+ Bessemer Process.--Old Methods and Means Revived and Improved.--
+ Eminent Inventors.--New Metals and New Processes Discovered.--
+ Harveyised Steel.--Irresistible Projectiles and Impenetrable
+ Armour Plate.--Krupp’s Works.--Immense Manufactures in United
+ States.--Treatment of Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, etc.; Mining
+ Operations, Separation, Reduction.--Chemical Methods:
+ Lixiviation or Leaching.--MacArthur.--Forrest.--Sir Humphry
+ Davy.--Scheele.--Chlorine and Cyanide Processes.--Alloys.--
+ Babbitting.--Metallic Lubricants.--Various Alloys and Uses.--
+ Reduction of Aluminium and other Metals.--Electro-Metallurgy.--
+ Diamonds to be Made.--All Arts have Waited on Development of
+ this Art.                                                           218
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+METAL WORKING PROCESSES AND MACHINES.--TUBE MAKING.--WELDING.--ANNEALING
+AND TEMPERING.--COATING AND METAL FOUNDING.--METAL WARE.--WIRE WORKING.
+
+ Metal Working Tools One of the Glories of 19th Century.--Wood
+ Working and Metal Working.--Ancient and Modern Lathe.--Turning
+ Metal Lathe.--A Lost Art in Use in Egypt and in Solomon’s
+ Time.--Revived in Sixteenth Century.--Forgotten and Revived
+ again in Eighteenth.--Sir Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah
+ Laid Foundation of Nineteenth Century Tools.--The Slide Rest
+ and Henry Maudsley.--Nasmyth’s Description.--Vast Rolls, and
+ Most Delicate Watch Mechanisms, cut by the Lathe and its
+ Tools.--Metal Planing.--Eminent Inventors, 1811-1840.--
+ Many Inventions and Modifications Resulting in a Wonderful
+ Evolution.--Metal-Boring Machines.--Modern Vulcan’s Titanic
+ Work-Shop.--Screw Making.--Demand Impossible to Supply under
+ Old Method.--Great Display at London Exhibition, 1851, and
+ Centennial, Philadelphia, 1876.--J. Whitworth & Co., of England,
+ Sellers & Co., of America, and Others.--The Great Revelation.--
+ Hoopes and Townsend and the Flow of Cold, Solid Metal.--Cold
+ Punching, etc.--Machine-Made Horse-Shoes.--The Blacksmith
+ and Modern Inventions.--Making of Great Tubes.--Welding by
+ Electricity, and Tempering and Annealing.--How Armour Plate
+ is Hardened.--Metals Coated.--Electro-Plating and Casting.--
+ Great Domes Gilded.--Moulds for Metal Founding.--Machines
+ and Methods.--Steel Ingots.--Sheet Metal and Personal Ware.--
+ Great Variety of Machines for Making.--Wire Made Articles.--
+ Description of Great Modern Work-Shop.                              240
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ORDNANCE, ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND EXPLOSIVES.
+
+ This Art Slow in Growth, but no Art Progressed Faster.--The
+ Incentives to its Development.--The Greatest Instruments in
+ the New Civilisation.--Peace and its Fruits Established by
+ them.--Its History.--Chinese Cannon.--India.--The Moors.--
+ Arabs.--Cannon at Cordova in 1280.--The Spaniards and Gibraltar,
+ 1309.--The Spread of Artillery through Europe.--Description of
+ Ancient Guns.--Breech Loaders and Stone Cannon Balls.--Wrought
+ Iron Cannon and Shells in 15th Century.--Big Cannon of the
+ Hindoos and Russians.--Strange Names.--France under Louis
+ XI.--Improvements of the Sixteenth Century.--Holland’s Mortar
+ Shells and Grenades in the Seventeenth.--Coehorn Mortars and
+ Dutch Howitzers.--Louis XIV.--French Artillery Conquers Italy.--
+ Eighteenth Century.--“Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece.”--Gribeauval
+ the Inventor of the Greatest Improvements in the Eighteenth.--
+ His System Used by Bonaparte at Toulon, the French Revolution,
+ and in Italy.--Marengo, 1800.--Small Arms, their History.--From
+ the Arquebus to the Modern Rifle.--Rifle, the Weapon of the
+ American Settler, and the Revolution.--Puckle’s Celebrated
+ Breech-Loading Cannon Patent, and Christian and Turk Bullets.--
+ 1803, Percussion Principle in Fire-arms, Invented by a
+ Clergyman, Forsyth.--1808, Genl. Shrapnel.--Bormann of
+ Belgium.--1814, Shaw and the Cap.--Flint Locks Still in Use,
+ 1847.--Colt’s Revolvers, 1835-1851.--History of Cannon again
+ Reverted to.--Columbiads of Bomford.--Paixhan in 1822.--Shells
+ of the Crimea.--Kearsarge and Alabama.--Requirements of Modern
+ Ordnance.--Rodman One of the Pioneers.--Woodbridge’s Wire Wound
+ Guns, Piezometer, and Shell Sabot.--Sir William Armstrong and
+ Sir Jos. Whitworth.--Krupp’s Cannon and Works.--The Latest
+ Improvements.--Compressed Air Ordnance.--Constructions of
+ Metals and Explosives.--The “Range Finder.”--Small Arms again
+ Considered.--History of the Breech Loader and Metallic
+ Cartridges.--Wooden Walls and Stone Forts disappeared.--Monitor
+ and Merrimac.--Blanchard and Hall.--Gill.--Springfield Rifle.--
+ Machine Guns.--Electric Battery.--Gatling’s, Hotchkiss’.--
+ Explosives.--Torpedoes.--Effect of Modern Weapons.                  252
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PAPER AND PRINTING, TYPEWRITING AND THE LINOTYPE.
+
+ Paper-making Preceded the Art of Printing.--The Wasp Preceded
+ Man.--The Chinese, the Hindoos, Egyptians, and other Orientals
+ had Invented Both Arts.--History of Papyrus.--Parchment.--
+ Twelfth Century Documents Written on Linen Paper still
+ Extant.--Water Marks.--Wall Paper, Substitute for Tapestry,
+ 1640.--Holland in Advance, Seventeenth Century.--Rittenhouse
+ of Holland Introduces Paper-Making in America, Eighteenth
+ Century.--Paper a Dear Commodity.--The Revolution of the
+ Nineteenth Century.--400 Different Materials now Used.--
+ Nineteenth Century Opens with Robert’s Paper-Making Machine.--
+ Messrs. Fourdrinier.--Immense Growth of their System.--Modern
+ Discoveries of Chemists.--Soda Pulp and Sulphite Processes.--
+ Paper Mills.--Paper Bag Machines, etc.--Printing.--Chinese
+ Invented Both Block and Movable Types.--European Inventors.--
+ The Claims of Different Nations.--From Southern Italy to
+ Sweden.--Spread of the Art.--Printing Press and the
+ Reformation.--First Printing Press in New World Set up in
+ Mexico, 1536.--Then in Brazil.--Then in 1639 in
+ Massachusetts.--Types and Presses.--English and American.--
+ Ramage and Franklin.--Blaew of Amsterdam.--Nineteenth Century
+ Opens with Earl of Stanhope’s Hand Press.--Clymer of
+ Philadelphia, 1817.--The First Machine Presses.--Nicholson in
+ Eighteenth.--Konig and Bauer in Nineteenth Century, 1813.--
+ London Times, 1814.--1815, Cowper’s Electrotype plates.--1822,
+ First Power Press in United States.--Treadwell.--Bruce’s Type
+ Casting Machines.--Hoe’s Presses.--John Walter’s.--German and
+ American Presses.--Capacities of Modern Presses.--Mail
+ Marking.--Typewriting.--Suggested in Eighteenth Century.--
+ Revived by French in 1840.--Leading Features Invented in
+ U. S., 1857.--Electro-Magnet Typewriters.--Cahill.--
+ Book-binding.--Review of the Art.--Linotype “Most Remarkable
+ Machine of Century.”--Merganthaler.--Rogers.--Progress and
+ Triumphs of the Art.                                                273
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+TEXTILES.
+
+ The Distaff and the Spindle, without a Change from Ancient
+ Days to Middle of Fourteenth Century.--Ancient and Modern Cloth
+ Making.--Woman the Natural Goddess of the Art.--The Ancient and
+ Isolated Weavers of Mexico.--After 40 Centuries of Hand-Weaving
+ Comes John Kay, of England, 1733.--The Spinning Machines of
+ Wyatt and Hargreaves.--1738-1769, Richard Arkwright.--The
+ “Spinning Jenny” and the “Throstle.”--The Steam Engine and
+ Weaving.--1776, Crompton and the “Mule.”--1785, Cartwright
+ and Power Looms.--1793, Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin.--
+ 1793-1813, Samuel Slater, Lowell, and Cotton Factories of
+ America.--The Dominion of the Nineteenth Century.--What it
+ Comprises in the Art of Spinning and Weaving.--Description
+ of Operations.--Bobbins of Asa Arnold and the Ring Frame of
+ Jenks.--Spooling Machines.--Warping and Dressing and other
+ Finishing Operations.--Embroidery.--Cloth Finishing.--The
+ Celebrated Jacquard Loom.--Jacquard and Napoleon.--Bonelli’s
+ Electric Loom.--Fancy Woollen Looms of George Crompton.--
+ Bigelow’s Carpet Looms.--Figuring, Colouring, Embossing.--
+ Cloth Pressing and Creasing.--Felting.--Ribbons.--Comparison
+ of Penelopes of Past and Present.--Knitting Days of our
+ Grandmothers and Knitting Machines.--A Mile of Stockings.--
+ Fancy Stocking and Embroidery Machines.--Netting and Turkish
+ Carpets.--Matting.--Spun Glass, etc.--Hand, and the Skilled
+ Labour of Machinery.                                                292
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GARMENTS.
+
+ “Man is a Tool-using Animal, of which Truth, Clothes are
+ but one Example.”--Form of Needle not Changed until 1775.--
+ Weisenthal.--Embroidery Needle.--Saint’s Sewing Machine,
+ 1790.--John Duncan’s Tamboring Machine, 1804.--Eye Pointed
+ Needles for Rope Matting, 1807.--Madersperger’s Sewing Machine,
+ 1814.--France and the Thimonnier Machine, 1830-1848-50, Made of
+ Wood.--Destroyed by Mob.--English Embroidering Machine, 1841.--
+ Concurrent Inventions in Widely Separated Countries.--Thimonnier
+ in France, Hunt in America, 1832, 1834.--Elias Howe, 1846.--
+ Description of Howe’s Inventions.--Recital of his Struggles and
+ final Triumphs.--The Test of Priority.--Leather Sewing Machines
+ of Greenough and Corliss, 1842-43.--Bean’s Running Stitch,
+ 1843.--The Decade of 1849-1859, Greatest in Century in Sewing
+ Machine Inventions.--Hood’s “Song of the Shirt,” a Dying
+ Drudgery.--Improvements after Howe.--Blodgett and Lerow’s Dip
+ Motion.--Wilson’s Four-Motion Feed.--Singer’s Inventions, their
+ Importance, his Rise from Poverty to Great Wealth.--The Grover
+ and Baker.--The Display in 1876 at the Centennial.--Vast Growth
+ of the Industry.--Extraordinary Versatility of Invention in
+ Sewing and Reaping Machines, and Breech-Loading Fire-arms.--
+ Commercial Success due to Division of Labour and Assembling
+ of Parts.--Innumerable Additions to the Art.--Seventy-five
+ Different Stitches.--Passing of the Quilting Party.--Embroidery
+ and Button-hole Machines.--Garment-cutting Machines.--Bonnets
+ and Inventions of Women.--Hat Making.--Its History.--Bonjeau’s
+ Improvements in Plain Cloths, 1834.--Effect of Modern Inventions
+ on Wearing Apparel and Condition of the Poor.--The Epoch of Good
+ Clothes.                                                            310
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.
+
+ Inventions Engender Others.--Co-operative Growth.--Broom
+ Making.--Crude Condition until the Modern Lathe, Mandrel,
+ Shuttle and Sewing Machine.--Broom Sewing Machines.--Effect
+ on Labour.--The Brush and Brush Machines.--A Hundred Species
+ of Brushes, each Made by a Special Machine.--First Successful
+ Brush Machine, Woodbury’s, 1870.--Wonderful Operations.--
+ Street-Sweeping Machines, 1831.--Most Effective Form.--Abrading
+ Machines.--Application of Sand Blast.--Nature’s Machine
+ Patented by Tilghman in 1870.--Things Done by the Sand Blast
+ and How.--Emery and Corundum Machines.--Vast Application in
+ Cutting, Grinding, Polishing.--Washing and Ironing Machines.--
+ Their Contribution to Cleanliness and Comfort.--Laundry
+ Appliances.--Old and the New Mangle.--Starch Applying.--Steam
+ Laundry Machinery.--Description of Work done in a Modern Laundry.   328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+WOOD-WORKING.
+
+ Contrast of Prehistoric Labour and Implements and Modern
+ Tools.--The Ages of Stone, Bronze, Iron, and the Age of
+ Wood.--The Slow Growth of Wood-working Inventions.--Tools
+ of the Egyptians.--Saw of the Greeks.--Known to Hindoos
+ and Africans.--Accounts of Pliny and Ansonius as to Planes
+ and Marble Sawing.--Saw-mills of France, Germany, Norway,
+ Sweden.--Holland 100 Years ahead of England, and Why.--William
+ Penn Found Saw-mills in America in 1682.--What made Americans
+ Inventors.--Progress Unknown where Saw-mills are not.--Steam
+ and Saw Mills.--Splendid System and Inventions of Samuel
+ Bentham, Bramah and Branch at Close of Eighteenth Century.--
+ First Decade of Nineteenth Century Produces Wonderful Inventor,
+ Thomas Blanchard.--His Life and Inventions.--Machines for
+ Turning Irregular Forms in Wood and Metal.--The Boring Worm
+ and Boring Machine.--Gun-making and Mortising Machines.--
+ Complicated Ornamental Wood-cutting and Carving Machines.--
+ Whatever Made by Hand can be Better Made by Machinery.--
+ Pattern-Cutting Machines.--Xyloplasty.--Art of Hand Carving
+ Revived.--Bending of Wood by Fire and Steam.--The Problems
+ Solved by Wood-working Inventors.--Great Saws at the Vienna
+ Exposition, 1873.--Boring Tools, Augers, Planes, Lathes, etc.
+ How Improved and by Whom.--“The Universal Wood Workers.”--
+ Flexible Shafting.--Shingles and Tiles.--A Great Log, how
+ Turned into Bundles of Shingles.--Veneering.--What Pliny
+ Thought of It.--Brunel’s Machines, 1805-1808.--Homes Made
+ Beautiful by Modern Wood-working.--Objects without and Within
+ a House, Made by Such Machinery.--Array of Wood-working
+ Machinery at International Expositions.--The Art of Forestry.       339
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+FURNITURE.--BOTTLING, PRESERVING, AND LAMPLIGHTING.
+
+ Universal Supply of Convenient and Ornamental Furniture Due
+ to Modern Inventions and Machinery.--The Furniture of the
+ Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.--Tables.--Modern Improvements.--
+ Combined Tables, Desks, and Chairs.--Special Forms of Each.--
+ Beds: Advance from the Ponderous Bedsteads of Former Times.--
+ Modern, Ornamental, Healthful Styles.--Iron, Brass, Springs,
+ Surgical and Invalid Chairs and Beds.--Kitchen Utensils.--Vast
+ Amount of Drudgery Relieved.--Curtains, Shades, and Screens.--
+ Great Changes Produced by Steaming and Bending Wood.--The
+ Bentwood Ware Factories of Austria, Hungary, Moravia (1870-73),
+ in Vast Beech Forests Followed in other Countries.--Modern
+ Chairs of Various Kinds.--The Dentist and the Theatre.--Bottle
+ Stoppers.--Enormous Demand for Cork Exhausting the Supply.--
+ Modern Substitutes.--Fruit Jars, etc.--Lamplighting, Ancient
+ and Modern.--Revolution Produced by Petroleum.--Wickless and
+ Electric Lamps.                                                     354
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+LEATHER.
+
+ Leather and Prehistoric Man.--Earliest Implements and Processes
+ Forerunners of Modern Inventions.--Modern Leather Unknown to
+ the Earliest Races.--Tanning.--Leathers of Different Nations.--
+ Hand Tools and Variety of Operations.--Inventions of Nineteenth
+ Century--Labour-Saving Machinery and New Processes.--Epoch of
+ Modern Machinery.--1780, John Bull and his Scraping Machine,
+ Hide-mill, Pioneer Machine of Century.--Fleshing Machines.--
+ Tanning Apparatus.--Reel Machines.--Tanning Processes and the
+ Chemists.--Machines for Different Operations.--Pendulum Lever
+ Machine.--Leather Splitting, and other Remarkable Machines.--
+ Boots and Shoes, their Character before Modern Inventions.--
+ Randolph’s Riveting Machine of 1809.--Great Civil Engineer,
+ J. M. Brunel’s Machines.--1818, Walker Invents the Wooden
+ Peg.--Peg-making Machines.--1858, Sturtevant’s Great
+ Improvement.--Fifty-five Million Pairs of Boots and Shoes then
+ Annually Pegged.--Metal Wire, and Screw Pegs.--Last-turning
+ Machines of Blanchard.--McKay’s Shoe Sewing Machine.--
+ Revolution in Shoe Making.--Special Machines for Making Every
+ Part.--One Machine Makes 300 Pairs a Day.--Many Millions made
+ Daily.--Vast Increase of Labourers as the Art Advances.--
+ Illustrations of Yankee Enterprise.--Modern and Ancient
+ Harnesses.--Embossed Leather.--Book Covers and the many Useful
+ and Beautiful Leather Articles.--The Vast and Important Leather
+ Manufactures.                                                       361
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+MINERALS.--WELLS.
+
+ Ancient Tools and the Art of Building.--The Parthenon.--
+ Aqueducts of Rome.--Tombs of India.--Halls of Alhambra.--
+ Gothic Cathedrals.--Steam First Drew Coal, then Sawed Wood and
+ then Stone.--Stone-cutting Machinery.--Carving.--Dressing.--
+ Drilling.--Tunnels.--Wonderful Work of Stone-Boring Machine
+ on Pillars of Ohio State Capitol.--Stone Drills and Compressed
+ Air.--Hell Gate.--Crushing Stones and Ores.--Blake’s Crusher.--
+ “Road Metal.”--Different Form of Crushers.--Assorting Coal.--
+ Steam and Coal, strong Brothers.--Compressed Air for Mining
+ Machinery.--Mighty Picks Driven by Air.--Electric Motor.--
+ Machines for Screening, Loading, and Weighing.--Ore Mills.--
+ Separators.--Centrifugal Action.--Ore Washing.--Amalgamators:
+ Electric, Lead, Mercury, Plate, Vacuum, Vapour, etc.--The
+ Revolution in Mining.--Well Boring an Ancient Art.--Artesian
+ Wells.--Coal Oil and Coal Wells.--Preceded by Discovery of
+ Paraffine and its Uses.--Reichenbach, Young.--Petroleum
+ Discovery.--New Industry.--Col. Drake and First Oil Well.--
+ Sudden Riches of Farmers.--Boring Water Wells.--Green’s Driven
+ Wells.--The Deserts Made to Bloom as the Rose.                      373
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.
+
+ Time Measuring Instruments of Antiquity.--Sun-dial.--Clepsydra,
+ Hour-glass, Graduated Candle.--Plato’s Bell.--The Clepsydra
+ of Ctesibius.--Incense Sticks of Chinese.--Sun-dials of Greeks
+ and Romans.--Candles of Alfred the Great.--Wonderful Clocks
+ of the Middle Ages.--Henry de Vick of France, 1370.--Two
+ Hundred Years without Advance.--Astronomers, Brache and
+ Valherius.--1525, Zech’s Fusee.--Progenitors of Modern Watch,
+ 1500.--1582, Swinging Lamp of Galileo.--1639, Galileo’s
+ Book.--Huygens and the Pendulum.--Dr. Hooke’s and David Ramsey’s
+ Inventions.--Hair-Spring Balances.--George the Third’s Small
+ Time-Piece.--Eighteenth Century Division of Time Pieces into
+ Hours, Minutes and Seconds.--Stem Winders.--Astronomical
+ Discoveries and Chronometers.--Dutch, Leading Clockmakers;
+ Germany, Switzerland.--Systems Followed in these Countries.--
+ Minute Sub-divisions of Labour.--Watch and Clock Making in the
+ United States.--American System.--Wonderful Machines for every
+ Part.--Watch factories.--Pope’s Simile.--Revolution in
+ Nineteenth Century.--Electric System.--4000 Patents in U.S.
+ since 1800.--Registering Devices.--“A Mechanical Conscience.”--
+ Cash Registers.--Voting Machines.--Electrical Recorders.--
+ Cyclometers.--Speed Indicators.--Weighing Scales and Machines,
+ History of.--The Fairbanks of Vermont, 1831.--Platform and other
+ Scales.--Spring Weighing.--Automatic Recorders of Weight and
+ Prices.--Testing Machines, English, German, American.--The Emery
+ Scales.--Gages, Dynamometers.--Hydraulic Testing.--Delicate
+ Operations.--Strength of a Horse-hair and Great Steel Beam,
+ Tested by Same Machine.--Effect on Public Works.                    384
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, PHOTOGRAPHY, FINE ARTS.
+
+ Musical Instruments Old as Religion.--Abounded before the Lyre
+ of Apollo or the Harp of Orpheus.--Their Evolution.--To Meet
+ Wants and Growing Tastes.--Nineteenth Century and the Laws
+ of Helmholtz.--The Story of the Piano, the Queen, Involves
+ whole History of the Art of Music.--Ancient Harp and Growth.--
+ Psaltery and Dulcimer of Assyrians and Hebrews.--No Inventions
+ by Greeks and Romans in this Art.--Fifteenth Century and the
+ Clavicitherium.--Sixteenth Century, the Virginal and the
+ Spinet.--Seventeenth Century, the Clavichord and Harpsichord.--
+ Italian Cembello.--Bach, Mozart, Handel, Haydn.--Cristofori of
+ Florence, Schreiber of Germany and Modern Piano.--Eighteenth
+ Century, Pianos of Broadwood and Clementi of London, Erard of
+ Strasburg, Petzold of Paris and Others.--Two Thousand Years
+ Taken to Ripen the Modern Piano.--Description of Piano Parts.--
+ Helmholtz’s Great Work, 1862.--Effect on System of Music and
+ Musical Instruments.--The Organ, King in the Realm of Music.--
+ History of, from Earliest Times.--Improvements of the Nineteenth
+ Century.--The Auto-harp.--Self-playing Instruments.--The Science
+ of Acoustics and Practical Applications.--Auricular Tubes.--
+ Telephone, Phonograph, Graphophone, Gramophone.--Their
+ Evolution and their Inventors.--Optical Instruments.--Their
+ Growth.--Lippersheim, Galileo, Lieberkulm, John Dolland.--The
+ Improvements and Inventors of the Nineteenth Century.--Brewster
+ and the Kaleidoscope, Stereoscope.--Lenticular Lenses.--
+ Lighthouse Illumination.--Faraday and Tyndall.--Abbé Moigno’s
+ Troubles.--Ophthalmoscope.--Spectroscope.--Making of Great
+ Lenses.--Solarmeter.--Measuring the Position and Distances
+ of Unseen Objects.--Light Converted into Music.--Daguerre and
+ Photography.--History and Development.--Colour Reproduction.--
+ Pencils.--Painting.--Air Brushes.--Telegraphic Photographs.         400
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+SAFES AND LOCKS.
+
+ Safes, how Constructed before this Century.--Classification.--
+ Century Starts out to Make Safes Fireproof.--Scott in 1801.--
+ Marr, 1834.--Result of Great Fire in New York, 1835.--Wilder’s
+ and Herring’s Safes.--Burglar-proof Safes, 1835.--Chubb, Newton,
+ Thompson, Hall, Marvin and Others.--Electricity.--Seal Locks
+ from 1815.--Locks of Various Kinds in Ancient Days.--Of
+ Ponderous Size.--Key of the House of David.--Lock of Penelope’s
+ House.--Locks of the Middle Ages.--Letter Locks of the Dutch,
+ 1650.--Carew’s Verse.--Eighteenth Century Locks.--Tumblers.--
+ Joseph Bramah’s Locks.--Combination, Permutation and Time
+ Locks.--Yale Locks.--Modern Locks Invented for Special Uses.--
+ Master or Secondary Key Locks.--Value of Simple, Cheap,
+ Effective Locks.--Mail Locks and Others.--Greater General
+ Security for Property of all Kinds now Obtained.                    420
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+CARRIAGES AND CARRYING MACHINES GENERALLY.
+
+ Review of Conveyances from Time of Ptolemy’s Great Procession,
+ 270 B. C., until Nineteenth Century.--The Old Stage Coaches.--
+ Coaches of the Rich, the Middle Classes and the Poor.--The Past
+ Art Compared with the Art as Exhibited at Centennial Exhibition
+ in 1876 at Philadelphia.--The Varieties of Different Vehicles
+ there Displayed by Different Nations.--Velocipedes and
+ Bicycles.--1800 to 1869.--French, German, English, Scotch.--
+ The “Draisine” of Von Drais, 1816.--Johnson’s “Curricle,”
+ 1818.--Gompertz’s “Dandy” and “Hobby Horse,” 1821.--Michaux’s,
+ 1863.--Lallement’s of France, 1866, Crank and Pedal.--America
+ and Europe Adopts it, 1866, 1869.--Pneumatic Rubber Tire
+ Invented by Thomson, 1845.--Sleeps Forty Years.--Improvements
+ since 1869.--Motor Vehicles and Automobiles.--Traction
+ Engines.--Brakes, Railway, Air and Electric.--Automatic
+ Couplers, Buffers, and Vestibule Trains.                            428
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+SHIPS AND SHIP BUILDING.
+
+ “Ships are but Boards.”--“The Great Harry.”--Noah’s Ark the
+ Prototype of the Modern “Whale-back.”--Phœnicians.--
+ Northmen.--Dutch, French, English, and American Types.--
+ Nineteenth Century, the Yankee Clippers.--Donald McKay.--
+ “Great Republic.”--Steam as Motive Power in Ships the Leading
+ Event in the Art.--Lord Dundas and Steam Canal Boats.--Iron
+ Ships in Place of Wood, 1829-30.--John Laird of Birkenhead.--
+ Sir William Fairbairn.--Clyde Works.--Comparison of Wood and
+ Iron.--1844, the Great Britain.--John Ericsson.--Monitor and
+ Merrimac.--Composite Style of Vessels.--Marine Propulsion.--
+ Paddle Wheels.--Screws.--1804, John Stevens.--1807, Fulton.--
+ Screw Propeller of Ericsson.--The Ogden, the Stockton and the
+ Princeton, the First Naval Warship of its Kind.--The Two
+ Revolutions Produced by Ericsson.--Pneumatic Propellers.--
+ Description of a Warship.--The Deutschland.--Torpedo Boats.--
+ Franklin and Oil on the Waves.--Air Ships.--Count Zeppelin’s
+ Boat.--Other Plans of Air Navigation.--The Problems to be Solved.   438
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+ILLUMINATING GAS.
+
+ What Artificial Light has done for Man.--Its Condition before
+ the Nineteenth Century.--Experiments of Dr. Clayton, Hon. R.
+ Boyle, Dr. Hales, Bishop Watson, Lord Dundonald, Dr. Rickel,
+ and William Murdock in Eighteenth Century.--1801, Le Bon Makes
+ Gas, Proposes to Light Paris.--1803, English Periodicals
+ Discuss the Subject.--1806, Melville of Newport, U. S., Lights
+ House and Street.--1817, First Lighthouse Lit by Gas.--The
+ Beaver Tail on Atlantic Coast.--Parliament in 1813, London
+ Streets Lit in 1815, Paris, 1820, American Cities 1816-25.--
+ Gas Processes.--Chemistry.--Priestley and Dalton.--Berthollet,
+ Graham, and Others.--Clegg of England and his Gas Machines.--
+ Art Revolutionised by Invention of Water Gas, 1823-1847.--
+ Donovan, Lowe, White.--T. S. C. Lowe, Anthracite Process,
+ 1873.--Competition with Electricity.--Siemens’ Regenerative
+ System.--The Generators, Carburetors, Retorts, Mixers,
+ Purifiers, Meters, Scrubbers, Holders, Condensers, Governors,
+ Indicators, Registers, Chargers, Pressure Regulators, etc.--
+ Portable Gas Apparatus.--Argand Burners.--Acetylene Gas.--
+ Calcium Carbide.--Magnesium.--Bunsen Burner and Welsbach Mantle.    450
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+POTTERY, PLASTICS, PORCELAINS, STONEWARE, GLASS, RUBBER, CELLULOID.
+
+ Brickmaking from the Earliest Ages to Nineteenth Century.--
+ Pottery, its Origin Unknown.--Its Evolution.--Women the First
+ Inventors in Ceramic and Textile Arts.--Progress of Man Traced
+ in Pottery.--Review of Pottery from Time of Homer to the
+ Wedgwood Ware of Eighteenth Century.--Labour-Saving Devices
+ of Nineteenth.--Operations in Brickmaking and Machinery.--The
+ Celebrated Pug Mill, the Pioneer.--Moulding and Pressing.--
+ Drying and Burning.--The Slow Growth of Methods.--Useful
+ Contrivances never wholly Supplanted.--Modern Heat
+ Distributors.--Hoffman’s Kilns.--Wedgwood’s Pottery in
+ Eighteenth.--Siemens’ Regenerators in Nineteenth, and other
+ Kilns.--Susan Frackelton’s.--The Filter Press.--Chinese and
+ French Porcelains--Battam’s Imitations of Marbles and Plaster
+ Moulds.--Faience.--Porcelain Moulding and Colours.--Atomisers
+ and Backgrounds.--Rookwood Pottery and Miss Fry.--Enamelled
+ Ware.--Artificial Stone.--Modern Cements.--Glass the Sister
+ of Pottery.--The Inventors of Blowing, Cutting, Trimming by
+ Shears and Diamond Cutting, Ancient and Unknown.--Glass Windows
+ and Mirrors Unknown to the Poor Prior to Eighteenth Century.--
+ The Nineteenth Century the Scientific Age of Glass.--Its
+ Commercial Development.--Crystal Palace of 1851.--Description
+ of Modern Discoveries.--Materials.--Colours and Faraday’s
+ Discovery in 1824.--Gaffield’s Extensive Experiments in
+ Producing Colours.--The German Glass Works at Jena of Abbe
+ and Schott.--Methods Followed for Different Varieties.--
+ Machines for Different Purposes.--Cut Glass and other
+ Beautiful Ware.--Cameo Cutting.--Porcelain Electroplating.--
+ Rubber, History of, in Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth
+ Centuries.--Sketch of Goodyear.--His Inventions and Present
+ State of the Art.--Glass Wool of Volcano of Kilauea and Krupp’s
+ Blast Furnaces.                                                     457
+
+
+
+
+INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY--INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES--THEIR DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+In treating of the subject of Inventions it is proper to distinguish
+them from their scientific kindred--Discoveries.
+
+The history of inventions is the history of new and useful contrivances
+made by man for practical purposes. The history of scientific
+discoveries is the record of new things found in Nature, its laws,
+forces, or materials, and brought to light, as they exist, either
+singly, or in relation, or in combination.
+
+Thus Galileo invented the telescope, and Newton discovered the law of
+gravitation. The practical use of the invention when turned to the
+heavenly bodies served to confirm the truth of the discovery.
+
+Discovery and invention may be, and often are, united as the soul is to
+the body. The union of the two produces one or more inventions. Thus the
+invented electro-telegraph consists of the combination of discoveries of
+certain laws of electricity with an apparatus, by which signs are
+communicated to distances by electrical influence.
+
+Inventions and discoveries do not precede or follow each other in order.
+The instrument may be made before the laws which govern its operation
+are discovered. The discovery may long precede its adaptation in
+physical form, and both the discovery and adaptation may occur together.
+
+Among the great _inventions_ of the past are alphabetical writing,
+Arabic notation, the mariner’s compass, the telescope, the
+printing-press, and the steam-engine. Among the great _discoveries_ of
+the past are the attraction of gravitation, the laws of planetary
+motion, the circulation of the blood, and velocity of light. Among the
+great inventions of the nineteenth century are the spectroscope, the
+electric telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, the railways, and the
+steam-ships. Among the great discoveries of this century are the
+correlation and conservation of forces, anæsthetics, laws of electrical
+energy, the germ theory of disease, the molecular theory of gases, the
+periodic law of Mendeljeff in chemistry, antiseptic surgery, and the
+vortex theory of matter. This short enumeration will serve to indicate
+the different roads along which inventions and the discoveries of
+science progress.
+
+By many it is thought that the inventions and discoveries of the
+nineteenth century exceed in number and importance all the achievements
+of the kind in all the ages of the past.
+
+So marvellous have been these developments of this century that, not
+content with sober definitions, men have defined _invent_, even when
+speaking only of mechanical productions, as “creating what had not
+before existed;” and this period has been described as an age of new
+creations. The far-off cry of the Royal Preacher, “There is no new thing
+under the sun: Is there anything whereof it may be said, see this is
+new, it hath been already of old time which was before us,” is regarded
+as a cry of satiety and despair, finding no responsive echo in the array
+of inventions of this bright age.
+
+But in one sense the Preacher’s words are ever profoundly true. The
+forces and materials of Nature always exist, awaiting man’s discovery,
+and at best he can but vary their relations, re-direct their course, or
+change their forms. In a still narrower sense the truth of the
+Preacher’s declaration is apparent:--
+
+In an address before the Anthropological Society of Washington in 1885,
+the late Prof. F. A. Seely, of the United States Patent Office, set
+forth that it was one of the established laws of Invention, that,
+
+“Every human invention has sprung from some prior invention, or from
+some prior known expedient.”
+
+Inventions, he said, do not, like their protectress, Pallas Athene,
+spring forth full grown from the heads of their authors; that both as to
+modern inventions and as to those whose history is unrecorded, each
+exhibits in itself the evidence of a similar sub-structure; and that,
+“in the process of elimination we go back and back and find no resting
+place till we reach the rude set of expedients, the original endowment
+of men and brutes alike.”
+
+Inventions, then, are not creations, but the evolution of man-made
+contrivances.
+
+It may be remarked, however, as was once said by William H. Seward: “The
+exercise of the inventive faculty is the nearest akin to that of the
+Creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind; for while it does
+not create in the same sense that the Creator did, yet it is the nearest
+approach to it of anything known to man.”
+
+There is no history, rock-record, or other evidence of his existence as
+man, which discloses a period when he was not an inventor.
+
+Invention is that divine spark which drove, and still drives him to the
+production of means to meet his wants, while it illuminates his way.
+From that inward spark must have soon followed the invention of that
+outer fire to warm and cheer him, and to melt and mould the earth to his
+desires. Formed for society, the necessity of communication with his
+fellows developed the power of speech. Speech developed written
+characters and alphabets. Common communication developed concert of
+action, and from concert of action sprung the arts of society.
+
+But the evolution of invention has not been uniform. Long periods of
+slowness and stagnation have alternated with shorter or longer periods
+of prolific growth, and these with seasons of slumber and repression.
+
+Thus, Prof. Langley has said that man was thousands of years, and
+possibly millions, in evolving a cutting edge by rubbing one stone on
+another; but only a few thousand years to next develop bronze tools, and
+a still shorter period tools of iron.
+
+We cannot say how long the period was from the age of iron tools to the
+building of the pyramids, but we know that before those stupendous
+structures arose, the six elementary mechanical powers, the lever, the
+wheel, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge and the screw, were
+invented. And without those powers, what mechanical tool or machine has
+since been developed? The age of inventions in the times of the ancients
+rested mainly upon simple applications of these mechanical powers. The
+middle ages slumbered, but on the coming of the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries, the inventions of the ancients were revived, new ones added,
+and their growth and development extended with ever-increasing speed to
+the present time.
+
+The inventions of the nineteenth century, wonderful and innumerable as
+they are, and marvellous in results produced, are but the fruit of the
+seed sown in the past, and the blossom of the buds grown upon the stalks
+of former generations. The early crude stone hatchet has become the keen
+finished metal implement of to-day, and the latter involves in itself
+the culmination of a long series of processes for converting the rough
+ore into the hard and glistening steel.
+
+The crooked and pointed stick with which the Egyptian turned the sands
+of the Nile has slowly grown to be the finished plough that is now
+driven through the sod by steam.
+
+The steam-operated toys of Hero of Alexandria were revived in principle
+and incorporated in the engines of Papin and the Marquis of Worcester in
+the seventeenth century; and the better engines of Savery, Newcomen, and
+more especially of James Watt in the eighteenth century, left the
+improvements in steam-engines of the nineteenth century--great as they
+are--inventions only in matter of detail.
+
+It has been said that electrical science began with the labours of Dr.
+Gilbert, published in 1600. These, with the electrical discoveries and
+inventions of Gray, Franklin, Galvani, and others in the next century,
+terminating with the invention of his battery by Volta in 1800,
+constituted the framework on which was built that world of flashing
+light and earth-circling messages in which we now live.
+
+The study of inventions in any one or all eras cannot proceed
+intelligently unless account is taken not only of their mode of
+construction, and of their evolution one from another, but of the
+evolution of distinct arts, their relation, their interdependence in
+growth, and their mutual progress.
+
+The principles adopted by the ancients in weaving and spinning by hand
+are those still in force; but so great was the advance of inventions
+from hand-operated mechanisms to machines in these and other arts, and
+especially in steam, in the last half of the eighteenth century, that it
+has been claimed that the age of machine production or invention then
+for the first time really began.
+
+When the humble lift became the completed elevator of to-day, the
+“sky-scraper” buildings appeared; but these buildings waited upon the
+invention of their steel skeletons, and the steel was the child of the
+Bessemer process.
+
+The harp with which David stirred the dead soul of Saul was the
+prototype of the sweet clavichord, the romantic virginal, the tinkling
+harpsichord, and the grand piano. The thrumming of the chords by the
+fingers was succeeded by the striking keys; and the more perfect
+rendition of tones awaited the application of new discoveries in the
+realm of musical sounds. The keys and the levers in the art of musical
+instruments were transferred to the art of printing, and are found
+to-day striking a more homely music on the type-writer and on those
+other and more wonderful printing instruments that mould, and set, and
+distribute the type. But these results of later days did not reach their
+perfected operations and forms until many other arts had been discovered
+and developed, by which to treat and improve the wood, and the wire, and
+all the other materials of which those early instruments were composed,
+and by which the underlying principles of their operations became known.
+
+Admitting that man possesses the faculty of invention, what are the
+motives that induce its exercise? Why so prolific in inventions now? And
+will they continue to increase in number and importance, or decrease?
+
+An interesting treatise of bulky dimensions might be written in answer
+to these queries, and the answers might not then be wholly satisfactory.
+Space permits the submission of but a few observations and suggestions
+on these points:----
+
+_Necessity_ is still the mother of inventions, but not of all of them.
+The pressing needs of man in fighting nakedness and hunger, wild beasts
+and storms, may have driven him to the production of most of his early
+contrivances; but as time went on and his wants of every kind
+multiplied, other factors than mere necessity entered into the problem,
+and now it is required to account for the multiplicity of inventions
+under the general head of _Wants_.
+
+To-day it is the want of the luxuries, as well as of the necessities of
+life, the want of riches, distinction, power, and place, the wants of
+philanthropy and the wants of selfishness, and that restless, inherent,
+unsatisfied, indescribable want which is ever pushing man onward on the
+road of progress, that must be regarded as the springs of invention.
+
+_Accident_ is thought to be the fruitful source of great inventions. It
+is a factor that cannot be ignored. But accidents are only occasional
+helps, rarely occurring,--flashes of light suddenly revealing the end of
+the path along which the inventor has been painfully toiling, and
+unnoticed except by him alone. They are sudden discoveries which for the
+most part simply shorten his journey. The rare complete contrivance
+revealed by accident is not an invention at all, but a discovery.
+
+The greatest incentive in modern times to the production of inventions
+is governmental protection.
+
+When governments began to recognize the right of property in inventions,
+and to devise and enforce means by which their author should hold and
+enjoy the same, as he holds his land, his house, or his horse, then
+inventions sprung forth as from a great unsealed fountain.
+
+This principle first found recognition in England in 1623, when
+parliament, stung by the abuse of the royal prerogative in the grant of
+exclusive personal privileges that served to crush the growth of
+inventions and not to multiply them, by its celebrated Statute of
+Monopolies, abolished all such privileges, but excepted from its
+provisions the grant of patents “for the sole working or making of any
+manner of new manufactures within this realm to the true and first
+inventor” thereof.
+
+This statute had little force, however, in encouraging and protecting
+inventors until the next century, and until after the great inventions
+of Arkwright in spinning and James Watt in steam-engines had been
+invaded, and the attention of the courts called more seriously thereby
+to the property rights of inventors, and to the necessity of a liberal
+exposition of the law and its proper enforcement.
+
+Then followed in 1789 the incorporation of that famous provision in the
+Constitution of the United States, declaring that Congress shall have
+the power “To promote the progress of science and useful arts by
+securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right
+to their respective writings and discoveries.”
+
+In 1791 followed the law of the National Assembly of France for the
+protection of new inventions, setting forth in the preamble, among other
+things, “that not to regard an industrial invention as the property of
+its author would be to attack the essential rights of man.”
+
+These fundamental principles have since been adopted and incorporated in
+their laws by all the nations of the earth.
+
+Inventions in their nature being for the good of all men and for all
+time, it has been deemed wise by all nations in their legislation not to
+permit the inventor to lock up his property in secret, or confine it to
+his own use; and hence the universal practice is to enact laws giving
+him, his heirs, and assigns, exclusive ownership to this species of his
+property for a limited time only, adjudged sufficient to reward him for
+his efforts in its production, and to encourage others in like
+productions; while he, in consideration for this protection, is to fully
+make known his invention, so that the public may be enabled to freely
+make and use it after its exclusive ownership shall have expired.
+
+In addition to the motives and incentives mentioned inducing this modern
+mighty outflow of inventions, regard must be had to the conditions of
+personal, political and intellectual freedom, and of education. There is
+no class of inventors where the mass of men are slaves; and when dense
+ignorance abounds, invention sleeps.
+
+In the days of the greatest intellectual freedom of Greece, Archimedes,
+Euclid, and Hero, its great inventors, flourished; but when its
+political _status_ had reduced the mass of citizens to slaves, when the
+work of the artisan and the inventor was not appreciated beyond the gift
+of an occasional crown of laurel, when manual labour and the labourer
+were scorned, inventions were not born, or, if born, found no
+nourishment to prolong their lives.
+
+In Rome, the labourer found little respect beyond the beasts of burden
+whose burdens he shared, and the inventor found no provision of
+fostering care or protection in her mighty jurisprudence. The middle
+ages carefully repressed the minds of men, and hid away in dark recesses
+the instruments of learning. When men at length awoke to claim their
+birthright of freedom, they invented the printing-press and rediscovered
+gunpowder, with which to destroy the tyranny of both priests and kings.
+Then arose the modern inventor, and with him came the freedom and the
+arts of civilisation which we now enjoy.
+
+What the exercise of free and protected invention has brought to this
+century is thus summarised by Macaulay:
+
+“It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; has extinguished
+diseases; has increased the fertility of the soil; given new security to
+the mariner; furnished new arms to the warrior; spanned great rivers and
+estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers; it has guided the
+thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth; it has lighted up the
+night with splendour of the day; it has extended the range of human
+vision; it has multiplied the power of the human muscles; it has
+accelerated motion; it has annihilated distance; it has facilitated
+intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all despatch of
+business; it has enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea, to
+soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of
+the earth; to traverse the land in carts which whirl along without
+horses; to cross the ocean in ships which run many knots an hour against
+the wind. Those are but a part of its fruits, and of its first fruits,
+for it is a philosophy which never rests, which is never perfect. Its
+law is progress. A point which yesterday was invisible is its goal
+to-day, and will be its starting point to-morrow.”
+
+The onward flow of inventions may be interrupted, if not materially
+stayed, by the cessation of some of the causes and incentives which now
+give them life. When comfort for all and rest for all, and a suitable
+division of labour, and an equal distribution of its fruits are reached,
+in that state of society which is pictured in the visions of the social
+philosopher, or as fast as such conditions are reached, so soon will
+cease the pricking of those spurs of invention,--individual rewards, the
+glorious strife of competition, the harrowing necessities, and the
+ambitions for place and power. If all are to co-operate and share alike,
+what need of exclusive protection and fierce and individual struggle?
+Why not sit down now and break the loaf and share it, and pour the wine,
+and enjoy things as they are, without a thought for the morrow?
+
+The same results as to inventions may be reached in different but less
+pleasant ways: When all the industries are absorbed by huge combinations
+of capital the strife of competition among individuals, and the making
+of individual inventions to meet such competition, will greatly
+disappear. Or, the same results may be effected by stringent laws of
+labour organisations, in restricting or repressing all individual
+independent effort, prescribing what shall be done or what shall not be
+done along certain lines of manufacture or employment. So that the
+progress of future inventions depends on the outcome of the great
+economic, industrial, and social battles which are now looming on the
+pathway of the future.
+
+But what the inventions of the nineteenth century were and what they
+have done for Humanity, is a chapter that must be read by all those now
+living or to come who wish to learn the history of their race. It is a
+story which gathers up all the threads of previous centuries and weaves
+them into a fabric which must be used in all the coming ages in the
+attainment of their comforts, their adornments, and their civilisations.
+
+To enumerate all the inventions of the century would be like calling up
+a vast army of men and proclaiming the name of each. The best that can
+be done is to divide the wide field into chapters, and in these chapters
+give as best one may an idea of the leading inventions that have
+produced the greatest industries of the World.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+The Egyptians were the earliest and greatest agriculturists, and from
+them the art was learned by the Greeks. Greece in the days of her glory
+greatly improved the art, and some of her ablest men wrote valuable
+treatises on its different topics. Its farmers thoroughly ploughed and
+fertilised the soil, used various implements for its cultivation, paid
+great attention to the raising of fruits,--the apple, pear, cherry,
+plum, quince, peach, lemon, fig and many other varieties suitable to
+their climate, and improved the breeds of cattle, horse and sheep. When,
+however, social pride and luxurious city life became the dominant
+passions, agriculture was left to menials, and the art gradually faded
+with the State. Rome in her best days placed farming in high regard. Her
+best writers wrote voluminously on agricultural subjects, a tract of
+land was allotted to every citizen, which was carefully cultivated, and
+these citizen farmers were her worthiest and most honoured sons. The
+condition and needs of the soil were studied, its strength replenished
+by careful fertilisation, and it was worked with care. There were
+ploughs which were made heavy or light as the different soils required,
+and there were a variety of farm implements, such as spades, hoes,
+harrows and rakes. Grains, such as wheat, barley, rye and oats, were
+raised, a variety of fruits and vegetables, and great attention paid to
+the breeding of stock. Cato and Varro, Virgil and Columella, Pliny and
+Palladius delighted to instruct the farmer and praise his occupation.
+
+But as the Roman Empire grew, its armies absorbed its intelligent
+farmers, the tilling of the soil was left to the menial and the slave,
+and the Empire and agriculture declined together.
+
+Then came the hordes of northern barbarians pouring in waves over the
+southern countries and burying from sight their arts and civilisation.
+The gloom of the middle ages then closed down upon the European world.
+Whatever good may have been accomplished in other directions by the
+crusades, agriculture reached its lowest ebb, save in those instances
+where the culture of the soil received attention from monastic
+institutions.
+
+The sixteenth century has been fixed upon as the time when Europe awoke
+from its long slumber. Then it was after the invention of the printing
+press had become well established that publications on agriculture began
+to appear. The _Boke of Husbandrie_, in 1523, by Sir Anthony
+Fitzherbert; Thomas Tusser’s _Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_;
+Barnaby Googe’s _The Whole Art of Husbandry_; _The Jewel House of Art
+and Nature_, by Sir Hugh Platt; the _English Improver_ of Walter Blithe,
+and the writings of Sir Richard Weston on the husbandry of Brabant and
+Flanders, were the principal torches by which the light on this subject
+was handed down through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Further
+awakening was had in the eighteenth century, the chief part of which was
+given by Jethro Tull, an English agriculturist, who lived, and wrote,
+and laboured in the cause between 1680 and 1740. Tull’s leading idea was
+the thorough pulverisation of the soil, his doctrines being that plants
+derived their nourishment from minute particles of soil, hence the need
+of its pulverisation. He invented and introduced a horse hoe, a grain
+drill, and a threshing machine.
+
+Next appeared Arthur Young, of England, born in 1741, whose life was
+extended into the 19th century, and to whom the world was greatly
+indebted for the spread of agricultural knowledge. He devoted frequent
+and long journeys to obtaining information on agricultural subjects, and
+his writings attracted the attention and assistance of the learned
+everywhere. His chief work was the making known widely of the beneficial
+effects of ammonia and ammoniacal compounds on vegetation. Many other
+useful branches of the subject, clearly treated by him, are found in his
+_Annals of Agriculture_. It was this same Arthur Young with whom
+Washington corresponded from his quiet retreat at Mount Vernon. After
+the close of the War of Independence in 1783 and before the adoption of
+the Constitution in 1789 and his elevation to the Presidency in that
+year, Washington devoted very much of his time to the cultivation of his
+large estate in Virginia. He took great interest in every improvement in
+agriculture and its implements. He invented a plough and a rotary seed
+drill, improved his harrows and mills, and made many inquiries relative
+to the efficacy of ploughs and threshing machines made in England and
+other parts of Europe. It was during this period that he opened an
+interesting correspondence with Young on improvements in agriculture,
+which was carried on even while he was President, and he availed himself
+of the proffer of Young’s services to fill an order for seeds and two
+ploughs from a London merchant. He also wrote to Robert Cary & Co.,
+merchants in London, concerning an engine he had heard of as being
+constructed in Switzerland, for pulling up trees and their stumps by the
+roots, and ordered one to be sent him if the machine were efficient.
+
+Jefferson, Washington’s great contemporaneous statesman and Virginia
+planter, and to whom has been ascribed the chief glory of the American
+patent system, himself also an inventor, enriched his country by the
+full scientific knowledge he had gained from all Europe of agricultural
+pursuits and improvements.
+
+The progress of the art, in a fundamental sense, that is in a knowledge
+of the constituents, properties, and needs of the soil, commenced with
+the investigations of Sir Humphry Davy at the close of the 18th century,
+resulting in his celebrated lectures before the Board of Agriculture
+from 1802 to 1812, and his practical experiments in the growth of plants
+and the nature of fertilisers. Agricultural societies and boards were a
+characteristic product of the eighteenth century in Europe and America.
+But this birth, or revival of agricultural studies, the enthusiastic
+interest taken therein by its great and learned men, and all its
+valuable publications and discoveries, bore comparatively little fruit
+in that century. The ignorance and prejudice of the great mass of
+farmers led to a determined, and in many instances violent resistance to
+the introduction of labour-saving machinery and the practical
+application of what they called “book-farming.” A fear of driving people
+out of employment led them to make war upon new agricultural machines
+and their inventors, as they had upon weaving and spinning inventions.
+This war was more marked in England than elsewhere, because there more
+of the new machines were first introduced, and the number of labourers
+in those fields was the greatest. In America the ignorance took the
+milder shape of contempt and prejudice. Farmers refused, for instance,
+to use cast-iron ploughs as it was feared they would poison the soil.
+
+So slow was the invention and introduction of new devices, that if Ruth
+had revisited the earth at the beginning of the nineteenth century, she
+might have seen again in the fields of the husbandmen everywhere the
+sickle of the reapers behind whom she gleaned in the fields of Boaz,
+heard again the beating on the threshing floor, and felt the old
+familiar rush of the winnowing wind. Cincinnatus returning then would
+have recognised the plough in common use as about the same in form as
+that which he once abandoned on his farm beyond the Tiber.
+
+But with the spread of publications, the extension of learning, the
+protection now at last obtained and enforced for inventions, and with
+the foundations laid and the guide-posts erected in nearly every art and
+science by previous discoverers, inventors and writers, the century was
+now ready to start on that career of inventions which has rendered it so
+glorious.
+
+As the turning over and loosening of the sod and the soil for the
+reception of seed was, and still is the first step in the art of
+agriculture, the plough is the first implement to be considered in this
+review.
+
+A plough possesses five essential features,--a frame or beam to which
+the horses are attached and which is provided with handles by which the
+operator guides the plough, a share to sever the bottom of a slice of
+land--the furrow--from the land beneath, a mould board following the
+share to turn the furrow over to one side, and a landside, the side
+opposite the mould board and which presses against the unploughed ground
+and steadies the plough. To these have been commonly added a device
+called the coulter, which is a knife or sharp disk fastened to the frame
+in advance of the share and adapted to cut the sod or soil so that the
+furrow may be more easily turned, an adjustable gauge wheel secured to
+the beam in advance of the coulter, and which runs upon the surface of
+the soil to determine by the distance between the perimeter of the wheel
+at the bottom and the bottom of the plough share the depth of the
+furrow, and a clevis, which is an adjustable metal strap attached to the
+end of the beam to which the draught is secured, and by which the pitch
+of the beam and the depth and width of the furrow are regulated. The
+general features, the beam, handles, and share, have existed in ploughs
+from the earliest ages in history. A plough with a metal share was
+referred to by the prophecy of Isaiah seven centuries before Christ,
+“They shall beat their swords into plough-shares;” and such a plough
+with the coulter and gauge wheel added is found in the Caylus collection
+of Greek antiquities. The inventions of centuries in ploughs have
+proceeded along the lines of the elements above enumerated.
+
+The leading features of the modern plough with a share and mould board
+constructed to run in a certain track and turn its furrows one over
+against the other, appear to have originated in Holland in the 18th
+century, and from there were made known to England. James Small of
+Scotland wrote of and made ploughs having a cast-iron mould board and
+cast and wrought iron shares in 1784-85.
+
+In America, about the same time, Thos. Jefferson studied and wrote upon
+the proper shape to be given to the mould board.
+
+Charles Newbold in 1797 took out the first patent in the United States
+for a plough--all parts cast in one piece of solid iron except the beam
+and handles.
+
+It is a favourite idea with some writers and with more talkers, that
+when the necessity really arises for an invention the natural inventive
+genius of man will at once supply it. Nothing was more needed and sought
+after for thirty centuries among tillers of the soil than a good plough,
+and what finally supplied it was not necessity alone, but improved
+brains. Long were the continued efforts, stimulated no doubt in part by
+necessity, but stimulated also by other motives, to which allusion has
+already been made, and among which are the love of progress, the hope of
+gain, and legislative protection in the possession of inventive
+property.
+
+The best plans of writers and inventors of the eighteenth century were
+not fully developed until the nineteenth, and it can be safely said that
+within the last one hundred years a better plough has been produced than
+in all of the thousands of years before. The defects which the
+nineteenth century’s improvements in ploughs were designed to remedy can
+best be understood by first realising what was the condition of ploughs
+in common use when the century opened.
+
+Different parts of the plough, such as the share and coulter, were
+constructed of iron, but the general practice among farmers was to make
+the beam and frame, handles and mould board of strong and heavy timber.
+The beam was straight, long, and heavy, and that and the mould generally
+hewed from a tree. The mould board on both sides to prevent its wearing
+out too rapidly was covered with more or less thick plates of iron. The
+handles were made from crooked branches of trees. “The beam,” it is
+said, “was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the handles
+fastened on almost at right angles with it, thus leaving the ploughman
+little control over his implement which did its work in a very slow and
+imperfect manner.” It was some such plough that Lord Kames complained
+about in the _Gentleman Farmer_ in 1768, as being used in Scotland--two
+horses and two oxen were necessary to pull it, “the ridges in the fields
+were high and broad, in fact enormous masses of accumulated earth, that
+could not admit of cross ploughing or cultivation; shallow ploughing
+universal; ribbing, by which half the land was left untilled, a general
+practice over the greater part of Scotland; a continual struggle between
+the corn and weeds for superiority.” As late as 1820 an American writer
+was making the same complaint. “Your furrows,” he said, “stand up like
+the ribs of a lean horse in the month of March. A lazy ploughman may sit
+on the beam and count every bout of his day’s work; besides the greatest
+objection to all these ploughs is that they do not perform the work well
+and the expense is enormous for blacksmith work.” It was complained by
+another that it took eight or ten oxen to draw it, a man to ride upon
+the beam to keep it on the ground, and a man followed the plough with a
+heavy iron hoe to dig up the “baulks.”
+
+The improvements made in the plough during the century have had for
+their object to lessen the great friction between the wide, heavy,
+ill-formed share and mould board, and the ground, which has been
+accomplished by giving to the share a sharp clean tapering form, and to
+the mould board a shape best calculated to turn the furrow slice; to
+improve the line of draught so that the pull of the team may be most
+advantageously employed, which has been effected after long trials,
+study and experiment in the arrangement of beam, clevis and draft rod,
+setting the coulter at a proper angle and giving the landside a plane
+and parallel surface; to increase the wear and lessen the weight of the
+parts, which has been accomplished by ingenious processes in treating
+the metal of which the parts are composed, and lessening the number of
+parts; to render the plough easily repairable by casting the parts in
+sets and numbering them, by which any part may be replaced by the
+manufacturer without resort to the blacksmith. In short there is no part
+of the plough but what has received the most careful attention of the
+inventor. This has been evidenced by the fact that in the United States
+alone nearly eleven thousand patents on ploughs were issued during the
+nineteenth century. When it is considered that all the applications for
+these patents were examined as to their novelty, before the grant of the
+patent, the enormous amount of study and invention expended on this
+article can be appreciated. Among the century’s improvements in this
+line is the use of disks in place of the old shovel blades to penetrate
+the earth and revolve in contact therewith. Cutting disks are harnessed
+to steam motors and are adapted to break up at one operation a wide
+strip of ground. The long-studied problem of employing a gang of ploughs
+to plough back and forth and successfully operated by steam has been
+solved, and electricity is now being introduced as a motor in place of
+steam. Thus millions of broad acres which never would have been
+otherwise turned are now cultivated. The tired muscle-strained ploughman
+who homeward plodded his weary way at night may now comfortably ride at
+his ease upon the plough, while at the same time the beasts that pull it
+have a lighter load than ever before.
+
+Next to the plough among the implements for breaking, clearing and
+otherwise preparing the soil for the reception of seed, comes the
+_harrow_. From time immemorial it has been customary to arm some sort of
+a frame with wooden or iron spikes to scratch the earth after the
+ploughing. But this century has greatly improved the old constructions.
+Harrows are now found everywhere made in sections to give flexibility to
+the frame; collected in gangs to increase the extent of operation; made
+with disks instead of spikes, with which to cut the roots of weeds and
+separate the soil, instead of merely scratching them. A still later
+invention, curved spring teeth, has been found far superior to spikes or
+disks in throwing up, separating and pulverising the soil. A harrow
+comprising two ranks of oppositely curved trailing teeth is especially
+popular in some countries. These three distinct classes of harrows, the
+disk type, the curved spring tooth type, and gangs of sections of
+concavo-convex disks, particularly distinguish this class of implements
+from the old forms of previous ages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+It is wonderful for how many generations men were contented to throw
+grain into the air as the Parable relates:
+
+“Behold, a sower went forth to sow, and when he sowed some seeds fell by
+the way side, and the fowls came and devoured them up: some fell on
+stony places where they had not much earth, and forthwith they sprung
+up, because they had no deepness of earth; and when the sun was up they
+were scorched; and because they had no root they withered away. And some
+fell among thorns and the thorns sprung up and choked them. But others
+fell into good ground and brought forth fruit, some a hundredfold, some
+sixtyfold, and some thirtyfold.”
+
+Here are indicated the defects in depositing the seed that only the
+inventions of the century have fully corrected. The equal distribution
+of the seed and not its wide scattering, its sowing in regular drills or
+planting at intervals, at certain and uniform depths, the adaptation of
+devices to meet the variations in the land to be planted, and in short
+the substitution of quick, certain, positive mechanisms for the slow,
+uncertain, variable hand of man. Not only has the increase an
+hundredfold been obtained, but with the machines of to-day the sowing
+and planting of a hundredfold more land has been made possible, the
+employment of armies of men where idleness would have reigned, and the
+feeding of millions of people among whom hunger would otherwise have
+prevailed. Not only did this machinery not exist at the beginning of the
+century, but the agricultural machines and devices in this line of the
+character existing fifty years ago are now discarded as useless and
+worthless.
+
+It is true that, as in the case of the ploughs, attempts had been made
+through the centuries to invent and improve seeding implements. The
+Assyrians 500 years B. C. had in use a rude plough in which behind the
+sharp wooden plough point was fixed a bowl-shaped hopper through which
+seed was dropped into the furrow, and was covered by the falling back of
+the furrow upon it. The Chinese, probably before that time, had a
+wheelbarrow arrangement with a seed hopper and separate seed spouts. In
+India a drilling hopper had been attached to a plough. Italy claims the
+honour among European nations of first introducing a machine for sowing
+grain. It was invented about the beginning of the seventeenth century
+and is described by Zanon in his _Work on Agriculture_ printed at Venice
+in 1764. It was a machine mounted on two wheels, that had a seed box in
+the bottom of which was a series of holes opening into a corresponding
+number of metal tubes or funnels. At their front these tubes at their
+lower ends were sharpened to make small furrows into which the seed
+dropped.
+
+Similar single machines were in the course of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries devised in Austria and England. The one in Austria
+was invented by a Spaniard, one Don Joseph de Lescatello, tested in
+Luxembourg in 1662. The inventor was rewarded by the Emperor,
+recommended to the King of Spain, and in 1663 and 1664 his machines were
+made and sold at Madrid. The knowledge of this Spaniard’s invention was
+made known in England in 1699 by the Earl of Sandwich and John Evelyn.
+Jethro Tull in England shortly after invented and introduced a combined
+system of drilling, ploughing and cultivating. He sowed different seeds
+from the same machine, and arranged that they might be covered at
+different depths. Tull’s machines were much improved by James Cooke, a
+clergyman of Lancashire, England; and also in the last decade of the
+eighteenth century by Baldwin and Wells of Norfolk, England.
+
+Washington and others in America had also commenced to invent and
+experiment with seeding machines. But as before intimated, the
+nineteenth century found the great mass of farmers everywhere sowing
+their wheat and other grains by throwing them into the air by hand, to
+be met by the gusts of wind and blown into hollows and on ridges, on
+stones and thorny places,--requiring often a second and third repetition
+of the same tedious process.
+
+In 1878 Mr. Coffin, a distinguished journalist of Boston, in an address
+before the Patent Committee of the U. S. Senate, set forth the
+advantages obtained by the modern improvements in seeders as follows:
+
+“The seeder covers the soil to a uniform depth. It sows evenly, and sows
+a specific quantity. You may graduate it so that, after a little
+experience, you can determine the amount per acre even to a quart of
+wheat. They sow all kinds of grain,--wheat, clover, and superphosphate,
+if need be, at once. They harrow at the same time. They make the crop
+more certain. It is the united testimony of manufacturers and farmers
+alike that the crop is increased from one-eighth to one-fourth,
+especially in the winter wheat. Winter wheat, you are aware, in the
+freezing and thawing season, is apt to heave out. It is desirable to
+bury the seed a uniform and proper depth and to throw over the young
+plant such an amount of soil that it shall not heave with the freezing
+and thawing. Of the 360,000,000 bushels of wheat raised last year I
+suppose more than 300,000,000 was winter wheat. One-eighth of this is
+37,700,000 bushels.”
+
+It would seem to many that after the adoption of a seed hopper, and
+spouts with sharpened ends that cut the drill rows in the furrows and
+deposited the seed therein, that little was left to be done in this
+class of inventions; but a great many improvements were necessary.
+Gravity alone could not be depended upon for feeding the seed. Means had
+to be devised for a continuous and regular discharge from each grain
+tube; for varying the quantity of the seed fed by varying the escape
+openings, or by positive mechanical movements variable in speed; for
+fixing accurately the quantity of seed discharged; for changing the
+apparatus to feed coarse or fine seed; and for rendering the apparatus
+efficient on different surfaces--steep hillsides, level plains,
+irregular lands.
+
+An important step was the substitution of what is called the “force
+feed” for the gravity feed. There is a variety of devices for this
+purpose, the principle of one of them being a revolving feed wheel
+located beneath the hopper, and above each spout, the two casings
+between which the feed wheel revolves forming the outer walls of a
+complete measuring channel, or throat, through which the grain is
+carried by the rotary motion of the wheel, thus providing the means of
+measuring the seed with as much accuracy as could be done by a small
+measure. The quantity sown per acre is governed by simply increasing or
+diminishing the speed of the feed wheel. In one form of device this
+change of speed is altered by a system of cone gearing. A graduated flow
+of the seed has also been effected by the employment of a cylinder
+having a smooth and fluted part working in a cup beneath the hopper with
+provision for adjustment of the smooth part towards and from the fluted
+part to cut off or increase the flow.
+
+To avoid the use of a separate apparatus for separate sizes of grain and
+other seed, the seed holder has been divided into parts--one part for
+containing wheat, barley and other medium-sized grains, and another for
+corn, peas and the larger seeds. And as these parts are used on separate
+occasions, the respective apertures are opened or closed by a sliding
+bottom and by a single movement of the hand.
+
+Rubber tubes for conducting the seed through the hollow holes were
+introduced in place of the metal spouts that answered both as a spout
+and a hoe.
+
+In place of the common hoe drill of a form used in the early part of the
+century, the hoes being forced into the soil by the use of levers and
+weights, what are known as “shoe drills” have largely succeeded. A
+series of shoes are pivoted to the frame, extend beneath the seed box,
+and are provided with springs for depressing or raising them.
+
+All kinds of seeds and fertilisers, separately or together, may be now
+sown, and the broadcast sowing of a larger area than that covered by the
+throw of the hand can now be given by machinery.
+
+Corn and cotton seed are thus also planted, mixed or unmixed with the
+fertilising material.
+
+Not only have light ploughs been combined with small seed boxes and one
+or more seed tubes, for easy work in gardens, but the arrangements
+varied and graded for different uses until is reached that great machine
+run by steam power, in which is assembled a gang of heavy harrows in
+front to loosen and pulverise the soil, then the seed and fertilising
+drill of capacious width for sowing the grain in rows, followed by a
+lighter broad harrow to cover the seed, and all so arranged that the
+steam lifts the heavy frames on turning, and all controlled easily by
+the man who rides upon the machine.
+
+In planting at intervals or in hills, as corn and potatoes, and other
+like larger seeds, no longer is the farmer required to trudge across the
+wide field carrying a heavy load in bag or box, or compel his boys or
+women folk to drop the seed while he follows on laboriously with the
+hoe. He may now ride, if he so choose, and the machine which carries him
+furnishes the motive power for operating the supply and cut-off of the
+grain at intervals.
+
+The object of the farmer in planting corn is to plant it in straight
+lines about four feet apart each way, putting from three to five grains
+into each spot in a scattered and not huddled condition. These objects
+are together nicely accomplished by a variety of modern machines.
+
+The planting of great fields of potatoes has been greatly facilitated by
+machinery that first slices them and then sows the slices continuously
+in a row, or drops them in separate spots or hills, as may be desired.
+The finest seeds, such as grass and clover, onion and turnip seed, and
+delicate seed like rice, are handled and sown by machines without
+crushing or bruising, and with the utmost exactness. Just what seed is
+necessary to be supplied to the machine for a given area is decided
+upon, and the machine distributes the same with the same nicety that a
+doctor distributes the proper dose of pellets upon the palm of his
+patient.
+
+Transplanters as well as planters have been devised. These transplanters
+will dig the plant trench, distribute the fertiliser, set the plant,
+pack the earth and water the plant, automatically.
+
+The class of machines known as cultivators are those only, properly
+speaking, which are employed to cultivate the plant after the crop is
+above the ground. The duties which they perform are to loosen the earth,
+destroy the weeds, and throw the loosened earth around the growing
+plant.
+
+Here again the laborious hoe has been succeeded by the labour-saving
+machine.
+
+Cultivators have names which indicate their construction and the crop
+with which they are adapted to be used. Thus there are “corn
+cultivators,” “cotton cultivators,” “sugar-cane cultivators,” etc.
+Riding cultivators are known as “sulky cultivators” where they are
+provided with two wheels and a seat for the driver.
+
+If worked between two rows they are termed single, and when between
+three rows, double cultivators. A riding cultivator adapted to work
+three rows has an arched axle to pass over the rows of the growing
+plants and cultivate both sides of the plants in each row. Double
+cultivators are constructed so that their outside teeth may be adjusted
+in and out from the centre of the machine to meet the width of the rows
+between which they operate. A “walking cultivator” is when the operator
+walks and guides the machine with the hands as with ploughs. Ordinary
+ploughs are converted into cultivators by supplying them with double
+adjustable mould boards. Ingenious arrangements generally exist for
+widening or narrowing the cultivator and for throwing the soil from the
+centre of the furrow to opposite sides and against the plant. The depth
+to which the shares or cultivator blades work in the ground may be
+adjusted by a gauge wheel upon the draught beam, or a roller on the back
+of the frame.
+
+Disk cultivators are those in which disk blades instead of ploughs are
+used with which to disturb the soil already broken. As with ploughs, so
+with cultivators, steam-engines are employed to draw a gang of
+cultivating teeth or blades, their framework, and the operator seated
+thereon, to and fro across the field between two or more rows, turning
+and running the machine at the end of the rows.
+
+Millet’s recent celebrated painting represents a brutal, primitive type
+of a man leaning heavily on a hoe as ancient and woful in character as
+the man himself. It is a picture of hopeless drudgery and blank
+ignorance. Markham, the poet, has seized upon this picture, dwelt
+eloquently on its horrors, and apostrophised it as if it were a
+condition now existing. He exclaims,
+
+  “O masters, lords and rulers in all lands
+  How will the future reckon with this man?”
+
+The present has already reckoned with him, and he and his awkward
+implement of drudgery nowhere exist, except as left-over specimens of
+ancient and pre-historic misery occasionally found in some benighted
+region of the world.
+
+The plough and the hoe are the chief implements with which man has
+subdued the earth. Their use has not been confined to the drudge and the
+slave, but men, the leaders and ornaments of their race, have stood
+behind them adding to themselves graces, and crowning labor with
+dignity. Cincinnatus is only one of a long line of public men in ancient
+and modern times who have served their country in the ploughfield as
+well as on the field of battle and in the halls of Legislation. We hear
+the song of the poet rising with that of the lark as he turns the sod.
+Burns, lamenting that his share uptears the bed of the “wee modest
+crimson-tipped flower” and sorrowing that he has turned the “Mousie”
+from its “bit o’ leaves and stibble” by the cruel coulter. The finest
+natures, tuned too fine to meet the rude blasts of the world, have
+shrunk like Cowper to rural scenes, and sought with the hoe among
+flowers and plants for that balm and strength unfound in crowded marts.
+
+But the dignity imparted to the profession of Agriculture by a few has
+now by the genius of invention become the heritage of all.
+
+While prophets have lamented, and artists have painted, and poets
+sorrowed over the drudgeries of the tillers of the soil, the tillers
+have steadily and quietly and with infinite patience and toil worked out
+their own salvation. They no longer find themselves “plundered and
+profaned and disinherited,” but they have yoked the forces of nature to
+their service, and the cultivation of the earth, the sowing of the seed,
+the nourishment of the plant, have become to them things of pleasurable
+labour.
+
+With the aid of these inventions which have been turned into their hands
+by the prolific developments of the century they are, so far as the soil
+is concerned, no longer “brothers of the ox,” but king of kings and lord
+of lords.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
+
+
+If the farmer, toward the close of the 18th century, tired with the
+sickle and the scythe for cutting his grass and grain, had looked about
+for more expeditious means, he would have found nothing better for
+cutting his grass; and for harvesting his grain he would have been
+referred to a machine that had existed since the beginning of the
+Christian era. This machine was described by Pliny, writing about A. D.
+60, who says that it was used on the plains of Rhætia. The same machine
+was described by Palladius in the fourth century. That machine is
+substantially the machine that is used to-day for cutting and gathering
+clover heads to obtain the seed. It is now called a header.
+
+A machine that has been in use for eighteen centuries deserves to be
+described, and its inventor remembered; but the name of the inventor has
+been lost in oblivion. The description of Palladius is as follows:
+
+“In the plains of Gaul, they use this quick way of reaping, and without
+reapers cut large fields with an ox in one day. For this purpose a
+machine is made carried upon two wheels; the square surface has boards
+erected at the side, which, sloping outward, make a wider space above.
+The board on the fore part is lower than the others. Upon it there are a
+great many small teeth, wide set in a row, answering to the height of
+the ears of corn (wheat), and turned upward at the ends. On the back
+part of the machine two short shafts are fixed like the poles of a
+litter; to these an ox is yoked, with his head to the machine, and the
+yoke and traces likewise turned the contrary way. When the machine is
+pushed through the standing corn all the ears are comprehended by the
+teeth and cut off by them from the straw and drop into the machine. The
+driver sets it higher or lower as he finds it necessary. By a few goings
+and returnings the whole field is reaped. This machine does very well in
+plain and smooth fields.”
+
+As late as 1786 improvements were being attempted in England on this old
+Gallic machine. At that time Pitt, in that country, arranged a cylinder
+with combs or ripples which tore off the heads of the grain-stalks and
+discharged them into a box on the machine. From that date until 1800
+followed attempts to make a cutting apparatus consisting of blades on a
+revolving cylinder rotated by the rotary motion of the wheels on which
+the machine was carried.
+
+In 1794, a Scotchman invented the grain cradle. Above the blade of a
+scythe were arranged a set of fingers projecting from a post in the
+scythe snath. This was considered a wonderful implement. A report of a
+Scottish Highland Agricultural Society about that time said of this new
+machine:
+
+“With a common sickle, seven men in ten hours reaped one and one-half
+acres of wheat,--about one-quarter of an acre each. With the new machine
+a man can cut one and one-half acres in ten hours, to be raked, bound,
+and stacked by two others.”
+
+It was with such crude and imperfect inventions that the farmers faced
+the grain and grass fields of the nineteenth century.
+
+The Seven Wonders of the ancient world have often been compared with the
+wonders of invention of this present day.
+
+Senator Platt in an address at the Patent Centennial Celebration in
+Washington, in 1891, made such a contrast:
+
+“The old wonders of the world were the Pyramids, the Hanging Gardens of
+Babylon, the Phidian statue of Jupiter, the Mausoleum, the Temple of
+Diana at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Pharos of Alexandria.
+Two were tombs of kings, one was the playground of a petted queen, one
+was the habitat of the world’s darkest superstition, one the shrine of a
+heathen god, another was a crude attempt to produce a work of art solely
+to excite wonder, and one only, the lighthouse at Alexandria, was of the
+slightest benefit to mankind. They were created mainly by tyrants; most
+of them by the unrequited toil of degraded and enslaved labourers. In
+them was neither improvement nor advancement for the people.” With some
+excess of patriotic pride, he contrasts these with what he calls “the
+seven wonders of American invention.” They were the cotton-gin; the
+adaptation of steam to methods of transportation; the application of
+electricity to business pursuits; the harvester; the modern
+printing-press; the ocean cable; and the sewing machine. “How
+wonderful,” he adds, “in conception, in construction, in purpose, these
+great inventions are; how they dwarf the Pyramids and all the wonders of
+antiquity; what a train of blessings each brought with its entrance into
+social life; how wide, direct and far-reaching their benefits. Each was
+the herald of a social revolution; each was a human benefactor; each was
+a new Goddess of Liberty; each was a great Emancipator of man from the
+bondage of labour; each was a new teacher come upon earth; each was a
+moral force.”
+
+Of these seven wonders, the harvester and the cotton-gin will only be
+described in this chapter. “Harvester” has sometimes been used as a
+broad term to cover both mowers and reapers. In a recent and more
+restricted sense, it is applied to a machine that cuts grain, separates
+it into gavels, and binds it.
+
+The difficulty that confronted the invention of mowers was the
+construction, location and operation of the cutting part. To convert the
+scythe or the sickle, or some other sharp blade into a fast
+reciprocating cutter, to hang such cutter low so that it would cut near
+the ground, to protect it from contact with stones by a proper guard, to
+actuate it by the wheels of the vehicle, to hinge the cutter-bar to the
+frame so that its outer end might be raised, and to arrange a seat on
+the machine so that the driver could control the operating parts by
+means of a lever, or handles, were the main problems to be solved.
+
+In 1799, Boyce, of England, had a vertical shaft with six rotating
+scythes beneath the frame of the implement. This died with the century.
+
+In 1800, Meares, his countryman, tried to adapt shears. He was followed
+there, in 1805, by Plucknett, who introduced a horizontal, rotating,
+circular blade. Others, subsequently, adopted this idea, both in England
+and America. It had been customary, as in olden times, to push the
+apparatus forward by a horse or horses hitched behind. But, in 1806,
+Gladstone had patented a front draft machine, with a revolving wheel
+armed with knife-blades cutting at one side of the machine and a
+segment-bar with fingers which gathered the grain and held the straw
+while the knife cut it.
+
+Then, in 1807, Salonen introduced vibrating knifes over stationary
+blades, fingers to gather grain to the cutters, and a rake to carry the
+grain off to one side.
+
+In 1822, Ogle, also of England, was the first to invent the
+_reciprocating_ knife-bar. This is the movement that has been given in
+all the successful machines since. Ogle’s was a crude machine, but it
+furnished the ideas of projecting the cutter-bar at the side of a reel
+to gather the grain to the cutter and of a grain platform which was
+tilted to drop the sheaf.
+
+The world is indebted also to the Rev. Patrick Bell, of Scotland, who
+had invented and built as early as 1823-26, a machine which would cut an
+acre of grain in an hour, and is thus described by Knight:
+
+“The machine had a square frame on two wheels which ran loose on the
+axle, except when clutched thereto to give motion to the cutters. The
+cutter-bar had fixed triangular cutters between each of which was a
+movable vibrating cutter, which made a shear cut against the edge of the
+stationary cutter, on each side. It had a reel with twelve vanes to
+press the grain toward the cutters, and cause it to fall upon a
+travelling apron which carried away cut grain and deposited it at the
+side of the machine. The reel was driven by bevel-gearing.”
+
+It was used but a few years and then revived again at the World’s Fair
+in London, in 1851.
+
+In the United States, inventions in mowers and reapers began to make
+their appearance about 1820. In 1822, Bailey was the first to patent a
+mowing machine. It was a circular revolving scythe on a vertical axis,
+rotated by gearing from the main axle, and so that the scythe was
+self-sharpened by passing under a whet-stone fixed on an axis and
+revolving with the scythe and was pulled by a horse in front. In 1828,
+Lane, of Maine, combined the reaper and thresher. In 1831, Manning had a
+row of fingers and a reciprocating knife, and in 1833, Schnebly
+introduced the idea of a horizontal endless apron on which the grain
+fell, constructed to travel intermittently so as to divide the grain
+into separate parts or gavels, and deliver the gavels at one side.
+Hussey, of Maryland, in 1833, produced the most useful harvester up to
+that time. It had open guard fingers, a knife made of triangular
+sections, reciprocating in the guard, and a cutter-bar on a hinged
+frame.
+
+Then came the celebrated reaper of McCormick, of Virginia, in 1834, and
+his improvements of 1845-1847, and by 1850 he had built hundreds of his
+machines. Other inventors, too numerous to mention, from that time
+pushed forward with their improvements. Then came many public trials and
+contests between rival manufacturers and inventors.
+
+One of the earliest and most notable was the contest at the World’s
+Fair, in London, in 1851. This exhibition, the first of the kind the
+world had seen, giving to the nations taking part such an astonishing
+revelation of each other’s productions, and stimulating in each such a
+surprising growth in all the industrial and fine arts, revealed nothing
+more gratifying to the lover of his kind than those inventions of the
+preceding half-century that had so greatly lifted the farm labourer from
+his furrow of drudgery.
+
+Among the most conspicuous of such inventions were the harvesters.
+Bell’s machine, previously described, and Hussey’s and McCormick’s were
+the principal contesting machines. They were set to work in fields of
+grain, and to McCormick was finally awarded the medal of honour.
+
+This contest also opened the eyes of the world to the fact that vast
+tracts of idle land, exceeding in extent the areas of many states and
+countries, could now be sown and reaped--a fact impossible with the
+scythe and the sickle. It was the herald of the admission into the
+family of nations of new territories and states, which, without these
+machines, would unto this day be still wild wildernesses and trackless
+deserts.
+
+This great trial also was followed by many others, State and
+International. In 1852, there was in the United States a general trial
+of reapers and mowers at Geneva, New York; in 1855, at the French
+Exposition, at Paris, where again McCormick met with a triumph; in 1857,
+at Syracuse, New York, and subsequently at all the great State and
+International Expositions. These contests served to bring out the
+failures, and the still-existing wants in this line of machinery. The
+earlier machines were clumsy. They were generally one-wheeled machines,
+lacked flexibility of parts and were costly. They cut, indeed, vast
+tracts of grain and grass, but the machines had to be followed by an
+army of men to bind and gather the fallen grain. This army demanded high
+wages and materially increased the cost of reaping the crop, and sadly
+diminished the profits.
+
+When the Vienna Exposition, in 1873, was held, a great advance was shown
+in this and all other classes of agricultural machinery. Reapers and
+mowers were lighter in construction, and far less in cost, and stronger
+and more effective in every way. The old original machines of McCormick
+on which he had worked for twenty years prior to the 1851 triumph, had
+been succeeded by another of his machines, on which an additional twenty
+years of study, experiment and improvement had been expended. An endless
+number of inventors had in the meantime entered the lists. The frame,
+the motive gearing, the hinged cutter-bar and knives, the driver’s seat,
+the reel, the divider, for separating the swath of grain to be cut from
+the uncut, the raising and depressing lever, the self-raker, and the
+material of which all the parts were composed had all received the
+greatest attention, and now was awaiting the coming of a perfect
+mechanical binder that would roll the grain on the machine into a
+bundle, automatically bind it, and drop the bound bundles on the ground.
+The latter addition came in an incomplete shape to Vienna. The best form
+was a crude wire binder. In 1876 at the Centennial Exhibition at
+Philadelphia, the mowers and reapers blossomed still more fully, but not
+into full fruition; for it was not until two or three years thereafter
+that the celebrated _twine_ binders, which superseded the wire, were
+fully developed.
+
+Think of the almost miraculous exercise of invention in making a machine
+to automatically cut the grain, elevate it to a platform, separate and
+roll it into sheaves, seize a stout cord from a reel, wrap it about the
+sheaf, tie a knot that no sailor could untie, cut the cord, and throw
+the bound sheaf to one side upon the ground!
+
+So great became the demand for this binders’ twine that great
+corporations engaged in its manufacture, and they in turn formed a great
+trust to control the world’s supply. This one item of twine, alone,
+amounted to millions of dollars every year, and from its manufacture
+arose economic questions considered by legislators, and serious
+litigation requiring the attention of the courts.
+
+At this Centennial Exhibition, besides twenty or more great
+manufacturing firms of the United States who exhibited reapers and
+mowers, Canada, far-away Australia, and Russia brought each a fine
+machine of this wonderful class. And not only these countries, but
+nearly all of Europe sent agricultural machines and implements in such
+numbers and superior construction that they surpassed the wildest dreams
+of the farmer of a quarter of a century before.
+
+Up to this time, about eleven thousand patents have been granted in the
+United States, all presumably on separate improvements in mowers and
+reapers alone. This number includes, of course, many patents issued to
+inventors of other countries.
+
+Before leaving this branch of the subject the lawn-mower should not be
+overlooked, with its spiral blades on a revolving cylinder, a hand lever
+by which it can be pushed over a lawn and the grass cut as smooth as the
+green rug upon a lady’s chamber.
+
+It is the law of inventions that one invention necessitates and
+generates another. Thus the vastly increased facilities for cutting
+grass necessitated new means for taking care of it when cut. And these
+new means were the hay tedder to stir it, the horse hay-rake, the great
+hay-forks to load, and the hay-stackers. Harvesters for grass and grain
+have been supplemented by Corn, Cotton, Potato and Flax Harvesters.
+
+The threshing-floor still resounds to the flail as the grain is beaten
+from the heads of the stalks. Men and horses still tread it out, the
+wooden drag and the heavy wain with its gang of wheels, and all the old
+methods of threshing familiar to the Egyptians and later among the
+Romans may still be found in use in different portions of the world.
+
+Menzies of Scotland, about the middle of the eighteenth century, was the
+first to invent a threshing machine. It was unsuccessful. Then came
+Leckie, of Stirlingshire, who improved it. But the type of the modern
+threshing machine was the invention of a Scotchman, one Meikle, of
+Tyningham, East Lothian, in 1786. Meikle threw the grain on to an
+inclined board, from whence it was fed between two fluted rollers to a
+cylinder armed with blades which beat it, thence to a second beating
+cylinder operating over a concave grating through which the loosened
+grain fell to a receptacle beneath; thence the straw was carried over a
+third beating cylinder which loosened the straw and shook out the
+remaining grain to the same receptacle, and the beaten straw was then
+carried out of the machine. Meikle added many improvements, among which
+was a fan-mill by which the grain was separated and cleaned from both
+straw and chaff. This machine, completed and perfected about the year
+1800, has seen no departure in principle in England, and in the United
+States the principal change has been the substitution of a spiked drum
+running at a higher speed for Meikle’s beater drum armed with blades.
+
+In countries like California, says the U.S. Commissioner of Patents in
+his report for 1895, “Where the climate is dry and the grain is ready
+for threshing as soon as it is cut, there is in general use a type of
+machine known as a combined harvester and thresher in which a thresher
+and a harvester machine of the header type are mounted on a single
+platform, and the heads of grain are carried directly from the harvester
+by elevators into the threshing machine, from which the threshed grain
+is delivered into bags and is then ready for shipment. Some of these
+machines are drawn by horses and some have a portable engine mounted on
+the same truck with the harvester propelling the machine, while
+furnishing power to drive the mechanism at the same time. Combined
+harvesters and threshers have been known since 1836, but they have been
+much improved and are now built on a much larger scale.”
+
+Flax-threshers for beating the grain from the bolls of the cured flax
+plant, removing the bolls, releasing and cleaning the seed, are also a
+modern invention.
+
+Flax and Hemp Brakes, machines by which the woody and cellular portion
+of the flax is separated from the fibrous portion, produced in practical
+shape in the century, and flanked by the improved pullers, cutters,
+threshers, scutchers, hackles, carders, and rovers, have supplanted
+Egyptian methods of 3,000 years’ standing, for preparing the flax for
+spinning, as well as the crude improvements of the 18th century.
+
+After the foundation of cotton manufacture had been laid “as one of the
+greatest of the world’s industries,” in the 18th century by those five
+great English inventors, Kay, who invented the fly-shuttle, Hargreaves,
+the “Spinning Jenny,” Arkwright, the water-frame, Crompton, the
+spinning-mule, and Cartwright, the power-loom, came Eli Whitney in 1793,
+a young school teacher from Massachusetts located in Georgia, who
+invented the _cotton-gin_. His crude machine, worked by a single person,
+could clean more cotton in a single day than could be done by a man in
+several months, by hand.
+
+The enormous importance of such a machine began to be appreciated at the
+beginning of the century, and it set cotton up as a King whose dominion
+has extended across the seas.
+
+Prior to 1871, inventions in this art were mainly directed to perfecting
+the structure of this primary gin. By that machine only the long staple
+fibre was secured, leaving the cotton seed covered with a short fibre,
+which with the seed was regarded as a waste product. To reclaim this
+short fibre and secure the seed in condition for use, have been the
+endeavours of many inventors during the last twenty years. These objects
+have been attained by a machine known as the _delinter_, one of the
+first practical forms of which appeared about 1883.
+
+In a bulletin published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1895,
+entitled, “Production and Price of Cotton for One Hundred Years,” the
+period commences with the introduction of Whitney’s saw gin, and ends
+with the year mentioned and with the production in that year of the
+largest crop the world had ever seen. No other agricultural crop
+commands such universal attention. Millions of people are employed in
+its production and manufacture. How insignificant compared with the
+wonder wrought by this one machine seems indeed any of the old seven
+wonders of the world! Although the displacement of labour occasioned by
+the introduction of the cotton-gin was not severely felt, as it was
+slave labour, yet that invention affords a good illustration of the fact
+that labour-saving machines increase the supply of the article, the
+increased supply lowers its price, the lower price increases the demand,
+the increased demand gives rise to more machines and develops other
+inventions and arts, all of which results in the employment of ten
+thousand people to every one thousand at work on the product originally.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (_continued_).
+
+
+When the harvest is ended and the golden stores of grains and fruits are
+gathered, then the question arises what shall be next done to prepare
+them for food and for shipment to the distant consumer.
+
+If the cleaning of the grain and separating it from the chaff and dirt
+are not had in the threshing process, separate machines are employed for
+fanning and screening.
+
+It was only during the 18th century that fanning mills were introduced;
+and it is related by Sir Walter Scott in one of his novels that some of
+his countrymen considered it their religious duty to wait for a natural
+wind to separate the chaff from the wheat; that they were greatly
+shocked by an invention which would raise a whirlwind in calm weather,
+and that they looked upon the use of such a machine as rebellion against
+God.
+
+As to the grinding of the grain, the rudimentary means still exist, and
+are still used by rudimentary peoples, and to meet exceptional
+necessities; these are the primeval hollowed stone and mortar and
+pestle, and they too were “the mills of the Gods” in Egyptian, Hebrew
+and Early Greek days: the _quern_--that is, the upper running stone and
+the lower stationary grooved one--was a later Roman invention and can be
+found described only a century or two before the Christian era.
+
+Crude as these means were they were the chief ones used in milling until
+within a century and a quarter ago.
+
+In a very recent bright work published in London, by Richard Bennett and
+John Elton, on Corn Mills, etc., they say on this point: “The mill of
+the last century, that, by which, despite its imperfections, the
+production of flour rose from one of the smallest to one of the greatest
+and most valuable industries of the world, was essentially a structure
+of few parts, whether driven by water or wind, and its processes were
+exceedingly simple. The wheat was cleaned by a rude machine consisting
+of a couple of cylinders and screens, and an air blast passed through a
+pair of mill-stones, running very close together, in order that the
+greatest amount of flour might be produced at one grinding. The meal was
+then bolted, and the tailings, consisting of bran, middlings and
+adherent flour, again sifted and re-ground. It seems probable that the
+miller of the time had a fair notion of the high grade of flour ground
+from middlings, but no systematic method of procedure for its production
+was adopted.”
+
+The upper and the nether mill-stone is still a most useful device. The
+“dress,” which consists of the grooves which are formed in the meeting
+faces of the stones, has been changed in many ways to meet the
+requirements in producing flour in varying degrees of fineness. Machines
+have been invented to make such grooves. A Swiss machine for this
+purpose consists of two disks carrying diamonds in their peripheries,
+which, being put in rapid revolution, cut parallel grooves in the face
+of the stone.
+
+A great advance in milling was made both in America and Europe by the
+inventions of Oliver Evans. Evans was born in the State of Delaware,
+U.S., in 1755, and died in 1819. He was a poor boy and an apprentice to
+a wheelwright, and while thus engaged his inventive powers were
+developed. He had an idea of a land carriage propelled without animal
+power. At the age of 22 he invented a machine for making card teeth,
+which superseded the old method of making them by hand. Later he
+invented steam-engines and steam-boats, to which attention will
+hereafter be called. Entering into business with his brothers within the
+period extending from 1785 to 1800, he produced those inventions in
+milling which by the opening of the 19th century had revolutionised the
+art. A description of the most important of these inventions was
+published by him in 1795 in a book entitled _The Young Millwright and
+Miller’s Grist_. Patents were granted Evans by the States of Delaware,
+Maryland and Pennsylvania in 1787, and by the U.S. Government in 1790
+and 1808.
+
+As these inventions formed the basis of the most important subsequent
+devices of the century, a brief statement of his system is proper:
+
+From the time the grain was emptied from the waggon to the final
+production of the finest flour at the close of the process, all manual
+labour was dispensed with. The grain was first emptied into a box hung
+on a scale beam where it was weighed, then run into an elevator which
+raised it to a chamber over cleaning machines through which it was
+passed, and reclaimed by the same means if desired; then it was run down
+into a chamber over the hoppers of the mill-stones; when ground it fell
+from the mill-stones into conveyors and as carried along subjected to
+the heated air of a kiln drier; then carried into a meal elevator to be
+raised and dropped on to a cooling floor where it was met by what is
+called a hopper boy, consisting of a central round upright shaft
+revolving on a pivot, and provided with horizontal arms and sweeps
+adapted to be raised and lowered and turned, by which means the meal was
+continually stirred around, lifted and turned on the floor and then
+gathered on to the bolting hoppers, the bolts being cylindrical sieves
+of varying degrees of fineness to separate the flour from its coarser
+impurities, and when not bolted sufficiently, carried by a conveyor
+called a drill to an elevator to be dumped again into the bolting
+hoppers and be re-bolted. When not sufficiently ground the same drill
+was used to carry the meal to the grind stones. It was the design of the
+process to keep the meal in constant motion from first to last so as to
+thoroughly dry and cool it, to heat it further in the meantime, and to
+run the machines so slowly as to prevent the rise and waste of the flour
+in the form of dust.
+
+The Evans system, with minor modifications and improvements, was the
+prevailing one for three-quarters of a century. New mills, when erected,
+were provided with this system, and many mills in their quiet retreats
+everywhere awoke from their drowsy methods and were equipped with the
+new one.
+
+But the whole system of milling has undergone another great change
+within the last thirty years:
+
+During that time it has been learned that the coarser portion or kernel
+of wheat which lies next to the skin of the berry and between the skin
+and the heart is the most valuable and nutritious part, as it consists
+largely of gluten, while the interior consists of starch, which when dry
+becomes a pearly powder. Under the old systems this coarser part, known
+as middlings, was eliminated, and ground for feed for cattle, or into
+what was regarded as an inferior grade of flour from which to make
+coarse bread. It was customary, therefore, under the old method to set
+the grinding surfaces very close with keen sharp burrs, so that this
+coarser part was cut off and mixed with the small particles of bran,
+fine fuzz and other foreign substances, which was separated from the
+finer part of the kernel by the bolting.
+
+The new process consists of removing the outer skin and adherent
+impurities from the middlings, then separating the middlings from the
+central finer part and then regrinding the middlings into flour.
+
+This middlings flour being superior, as stated, to what was called
+straight grade, it became desirable to obtain as much middlings as
+possible, and to this end it was necessary to set the grinding surfaces
+further apart so as to grind _high_, hence the _high_ milling process as
+distinguished from _low_ milling. For the better performance of the high
+rolling process, roller mills were invented. It was found that the
+cracking process by which the kernel could be cracked and the gluten
+middlings separated from the starchy heart could best be had by the
+employment of rollers or cylinders in place of face stones, and at the
+same time the heating of the product, which injures it, be avoided.
+
+The rollers operate in sets, and successive crackings are obtained by
+passing and repassing, if necessary, the grain through these rollers,
+set at different distances apart. The operation on grains of different
+qualities, whether hard or soft, or containing more or less of the
+gluten middlings, or starchy parts, and their minute and graded
+separation, thus are obtained with the greatest nicety.
+
+The Hungarians, the Germans, the Austrians, the Swiss, the English and
+the Americans have all invented useful forms of these rollers.
+
+This process was accompanied by the invention of new forms of middlings
+separators and purifiers, in which upward drafts of air are made to pass
+up through flat, graded shaking bolts, in an enclosed case, by which the
+bran specks and fuzz are lifted and conveyed away from the shaken
+material. In some countries, such as the great wheat state of Minnesota,
+U.S., where the wheat had before been of inferior market value owing to
+the poorer grade of flour obtained by the old processes, that same wheat
+was made to produce the most superior flour under the new processes,
+thus increasing the yearly value of the crops by many millions of
+dollars.
+
+Disastrous flour dust explosions in some of the great mills at
+Minneapolis, in 1877-78, developed the invention of dust collectors, by
+which the suspended particles of flour dust are withdrawn from the
+machinery and the mill, and the air is cleared for respiration and for
+the production of the finest flour, while the mill is kept closed and
+comfortable in cold seasons. One of the latest forms of such a collector
+has for its essential principle the vertical or rotatory air current,
+which it is claimed moves and precipitates the finest particles.
+
+The inventions in the class of mills have so multiplied in these latter
+days, that nearly every known article that needs to be cleaned and
+hulled, or ground, or cracked or pulverized, has its own specially
+designed machine. Wind and water as motive powers have been supplanted
+by steam and electricity. It would be impossible in one volume to
+describe this great variety. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary, gives
+a list under “Mills,” of more than a hundred distinct machines and
+processes relating to grinding, hulling, crushing, pulverising and
+mixing products.
+
+_Vegetable Cutters._--Modern ingenuity has not neglected those more
+humble devices which save the drudgery of hand work in the preparation
+of vegetables and roots for food for man and beasts, and for use
+especially when large quantities are to be prepared. Thus, we find
+machines armed with blades and worked by springs and a lever, for
+chopping, others for cutting stalks, other machines for paring and
+slicing, such as apple and potato parers and slicers, others for grating
+and pulping, others for seeding fruits, such as cherries and raisins,
+and an entire range of mechanisms, from those which handle delicately
+the tenderest pod and smallest seed, to the ponderous machines for
+cutting and crushing the cane in sugar making.
+
+_Pressing and Baling._--The want of pressing loose materials and packing
+bulky ones, like hay, wool, cotton, hops, etc, and other coarser
+products, into small, compact bales and bodies, to facilitate their
+transportation, was immediately felt on the great increase of such
+products in the century.
+
+From this arose pressing and baling machines of a great variety, until
+nearly every agricultural product that can be pressed, packed or baled
+has its special machine for that operation. Besides those above
+indicated relating to agricultural products, we have cane presses,
+cheese presses, butter presses, cigar and tobacco presses, cork presses,
+and flour packers, fruit and lard presses, peat presses, sugar presses
+and others. Leading mechanical principles in presses are also indicated
+by name, as screw presses, toggle presses, beater press, revolving
+press, hydraulic press, rack and pinion press, and rolling pressure
+press and so on.
+
+There are the presses also that are used in compressing cotton. When it
+is remembered that cotton is raised in about twenty different countries,
+and that the cotton crop of the United States of 1897-98 was 10,897,857
+bales, of about 500 lbs. each; of India, (estimated) for the same
+period, 2,844,000, of 400 lbs each; of China about 1,320,000, of 500 lbs
+each, and between two and three million bales in the other countries, it
+is interesting to consider how the world’s production of this enormous
+mass of elastic fibre, amounting to seventeen or eighteen million bales,
+of four and five hundred pounds each, is compressed and bound.
+
+The screw press was the earliest form of machine used, and then came the
+hydraulic press. Later it has been customary to press the cotton by
+screw presses or small hydraulic presses at the plantation, bind it with
+ropes or metal bands and then transport it to some central or seaboard
+station where an immense establishment exists, provided with a great
+steam-operated press, in which the bale from the country is placed and
+reduced to one-fourth or one-third its size, and while under pressure
+new metallic bands applied, when the bale is ready for shipment. This
+was a gain of a remarkable amount of room on shipboard and on cars, and
+solved a commercial problem. But now this process, and the commercial
+rectangular bale, seem destined to be supplanted by roller presses set
+up near the plantations themselves, into which the cotton is fed
+directly from the gin, rolled upon itself between the rollers and
+compressed into round bales of greater density than the square bale,
+thus saving a great amount of cost in dispensing with the steam and
+hydraulic plants, with great additional advantages in convenience of
+handling and cost of transportation.
+
+It is so arranged also that the cotton may be rolled into clean, uniform
+dense layers, so that the same may be unwound at the mill and directly
+applied to the machines for its manufacture into fabrics, without the
+usual tedious and expensive preliminary operations of combing and
+re-rolling.
+
+It has also remained for the developed machine of the century to convert
+hay into an export commodity to distant countries by the baling process.
+Bale ties themselves have received great attention from inventors, and
+the most successful have won fortunes for their owners.
+
+Most ingenious machines have been devised for picking cotton in the
+fields, but none have yet reached that stage of perfection sufficient to
+supplant the human fingers.
+
+_Fruits and Foods._--To prepare and transport fruits in their natural
+state to far distant points, while preserving them from decay for long
+times, is, in the large way demanded by the world’s great appetites,
+altogether a success of modern invention.
+
+To gather the fruit without bruising by mechanical pickers, and then to
+place the fruit, oranges for instance, in the hands of an intelligent
+machine which will automatically, but delicately and effectually, wrap
+the same in a paper covering, and discharge them without harm, are among
+the recent inventive wonders. In the United States alone 67 patents had
+been granted up to 1895 for fruit wrapping machines.
+
+Inventions relating to drying and evaporating fruit, and having for
+their main object to preserve as much as possible the natural taste and
+colour of the fruit, have been numerous. Spreading the fruit in the air
+and letting the sun and air do the rest is now a crude process.
+
+These are the general types of drying and evaporating machines:
+
+First, those in which trays of fruit are placed upon stationary ledges
+within a heated chamber; second, those in which the trays are raised and
+lowered by mechanical means toward or farther from the source of heat as
+the drying progresses; third, those in which the fruit is placed in
+imperforate steam jacketed pans. Many improvements, of course, have been
+made in detail of form, in ventilation, the supplying and regulating of
+heat and the moving of trays.
+
+The hermetically sealed glass or earthenware fruit jar, the lids of
+which can be screwed or locked down upon a rubber band, after the jar is
+filled and the small remainder of air drawn out by a convenient steam
+heater, now used by the million, is an illustration of the many useful
+modern contrivances in this line.
+
+_Sterilisation._--In preserving, the desirability of preventing disease
+and keeping foods in a pure state has developed in the last quarter of a
+century many devices by which the food is subjected to a steam heat in
+chambers, and, by devices operated from the outside, the cans or bottles
+are opened and shut while still within the steam-filled chamber.
+
+_Diastase._--By heating starchy matters with substances containing
+diastase, a partial transformation is effected, which will materially
+shorten and aid its digestion, and this fact has been largely made use
+of in the preparation of soluble foods, especially those designed for
+infants and invalids, such as malted milk and lactated food.
+
+_Milkers._--Invention has not only been exercised in the preservation
+and transportation of milk, but in the task of milking itself. Since
+1860 inventors have been seeking patents for milkers, some having tubes
+operated by air-pumps, others on the same principle in which the vacuum
+is made to increase and decrease or pulsate, and others for machines in
+which the tubes are mechanically contracted by pressure plates.
+
+_Slaughtering._--Great improvements have been made in the slaughtering
+of animals, by which a great amount of its repulsiveness and the
+unhealthfulness of its surroundings have been removed. These
+improvements relate to the construction of proper buildings and
+appliances for the handling of the animals, the means for slaughtering,
+and modes of taking care of the meat and transporting the same.
+Villages, towns, and even many cities, are now relieved of the formerly
+unsavoury slaughter-houses, and the work is done from great centres of
+supply, where meats in every shape are prepared for food and shipment.
+
+It would be impossible in a bulky volume, much less in a single chapter,
+to satisfactorily enumerate those thousands of inventions which, taking
+hold of the food products of the earth, have spread them as a feast
+before the tribes of men.
+
+_Tobacco._--Some of the best inventive genius of the century has been
+exercised in providing for man’s comfort, not a food, but what he
+believes to be a solace.
+
+  “Sublime Tobacco! which from East to West
+  Cheers the tar’s labour or the Turkman’s rest.”
+
+In the United States alone, in the year 1885, there were 752,520 acres
+of land devoted to the production of tobacco, the amount in pounds grown
+being 562,736,000, and the value of which was estimated as $43,265,598.
+These amounts have been somewhat less in years since then, but the
+appetite continues, and any deficiency in the supply is made up by
+enormous importation. Thus, in 1896, there were imported into the United
+States, 32,924,966 pounds of tobacco, of various kinds, valued at
+$16,503,130. There are no reliable statistics showing that, man for man,
+the people of that country are greater lovers of the weed than the
+people of other countries, but the annual value of tobacco raised and
+imported by them being thus about $60,000,000, it indicates the strength
+of the habit and the interest in the nurture of the plant throughout the
+world. Neither the “Counterblaste to Tobacco” of King James I., and the
+condemnations of kings, popes, priests and sultans, that followed its
+early introduction into Europe, served to choke the weed in its infancy
+or check its after growth. Now it is attended from the day of its
+planting until it reaches the lips of the consumer by contrivances of
+consummate skill to fit it for its destined purpose. Besides the
+ploughs, the cultivators and the weeders of especial forms used to
+cultivate the plant, there are, after the grown plant is cut in the
+field, houses of various designs for drying it, machines for rolling the
+leaves out smoothly in sheets; machines for removing the stems from the
+leaves and for crushing the stem; machines for pressing it into shape,
+and for pressing it, whether solid or in granular form, into boxes, tubs
+and bags; machines for granulating it and for grinding it into snuff;
+machines for twisting it into cords; machines for flavouring the leaf
+with saccharine and other matters; machines for making cigars, and
+machines of a great variety and of the most ingenious construction for
+making cigarettes and putting them in packages.
+
+Samples of pipes made by different ages and by different peoples would
+form a collection of wonderful art and ingenuity, second only to an
+exhibition of the means and methods of making them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+
+Chemistry, having for its field the properties and changes of matter,
+has excited more or less attention ever since men had the power to
+observe, to think, and to experiment.
+
+Some knowledge of chemistry must have existed among the ancients to have
+enabled the Egyptians to smelt ores and work metals, to dye their
+cloths, to make glass, and to preserve their dead from decomposition;
+so, too, to this extent among the Phœnicians, the Israelites, the
+Greeks and the Romans; and perhaps to a greater extent among the
+Chinese, who added powder to the above named and other chemical
+products. Aristotle speculated, and the alchemists of the middle ages
+busied themselves in magic and guess-work. It reached the dignity of a
+science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by the labours of
+such men, in the former century, as Libavius, Van Helmont, Glauber,
+Tachenius, Boyle, Lémery and Becher; Stahl, Boerhaave and Hamberg in
+both; and of Black, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Priestley and others in the
+eighteenth.
+
+But so great have been the discoveries and inventions in this science
+during the nineteenth century that any chemist of any previous age, if
+permitted to look forward upon them, would have felt
+
+  “Like some watcher of the skies
+  When a new planet swims into his ken.”
+
+Indeed, the chemistry of this century is a new world, of which all the
+previous discoveries in that line were but floating nebulæ.
+
+So vast and astonishingly fast has been the growth and development of
+this science that before the century was two-thirds through its course
+Watts published his _Dictionary of Chemistry_ in five volumes, averaging
+a thousand closely printed pages, followed soon by a thousand-page
+supplement; and it would have required such a volume every year since to
+adequately report the progress of the science. Nomenclatures, formulas,
+apparatuses and processes have all changed. It was deemed necessary to
+publish works on _The New Chemistry_, and Professor J. P. Cooke is the
+author of an admirable volume under that title.
+
+We can, therefore, in this chapter only step from one to another of some
+of the peaks that rise above the vast surrounding country, and note some
+of the lesser objects as they appear in the vales below.
+
+The leading discoveries of the century which have done so much to aid
+Chemistry in its giant strides are the atomic and molecular theories,
+the mechanics of light, heat, and electricity, the correlation and
+conservation of forces, their invariable quantity, and their
+indestructibility, spectrum analysis and the laws of chemical changes.
+
+John Dalton, that humble child of English north-country Quaker stock,
+self-taught and a teacher all his life, in 1803 gave to the world his
+atomic theory of chemistry, whereby the existence of matter in ultimate
+atoms was removed from the region of the speculation of certain ancient
+philosophers, and established on a sure foundation.
+
+The question asked and answered by Dalton was, what is the relative
+weight of the atoms composing the elementary bodies?
+
+He discovered that one chemical element or compound can combine with
+another chemical element, to form a new compound, in two different
+proportions by weight, which stand to each other in the simple ratio of
+one to two; and at the same time he published a table of the _Relative
+weight of the ultimate particles of Gaseous and other Bodies_. Although
+the details of this table have since been changed, the principles of his
+discovery remain unchanged. Says Professor Roscoe:
+
+  “Chemistry could hardly be said to exist as a science before the
+  establishment of the laws of combination in multiple proportions, and
+  the subsequent progress of chemical science materially depended upon
+  the determination of these combined proportions or atomic weights of
+  the elements first set up by Dalton. So that among the founders of our
+  science, next to the name of the great French Philosopher, Lavoisier,
+  will stand in future ages the name of John Dalton, of Manchester.”
+
+Less conspicuous but still eminently useful were his discoveries and
+labours in other directions, in the expansion of gases, evaporation,
+steam, etc.
+
+Wollaston and Gay-Lussac, both great chemists, applied Dalton’s
+discovery to wide and most important fields in the chemical arts.
+
+Also contemporaneous with Dalton was the great German chemist,
+Berzelius, who confirmed and extended the discoveries of Dalton. More
+than this, it has been said of Berzelius:
+
+  “In him were united all the different impulses which have advanced the
+  science since the beginning of the present epoch. The fruit of his
+  labors is scattered throughout the entire domain of the science.
+  Hardly a substance exists to the knowledge of which he has not in some
+  way contributed. A direct descendant of the school of his countryman,
+  Bergman, he was especially renowned as an analyst. No chemist has
+  determined by direct experiment the composition of a greater number of
+  substances. No one has exerted a greater influence in extending the
+  field of analytical chemistry.”
+
+As to light, the great Huygens, the astronomer and mathematician, the
+improver of differential calculus and of telescopes, the inventor of the
+pendulum clock, chronometers, and the balance wheel to the watch, and
+discoverer of the laws of the double refraction of light and of
+polarisation, had in the 17th century clearly advanced the idea that
+light was propagated from luminous bodies, not as a stream of particles
+through the air but in waves or vibrations of ether, which is a
+universal medium extending through all space and into all bodies. This
+fundamental principle now enters into the explanation of all the
+phenomena of light.
+
+Newton in the next century, with the prism, decomposed light, and in a
+darkened chamber reproduced all the colours and tints of the rainbow.
+But there were dark lines in that beam of broken sunlight which Newton
+did not notice.
+
+It was left to Joseph von Fraunhofer, a German optician, and to the 19th
+century, and nearly one hundred years after Newton’s experiments with
+the prism, to discover, with finer prisms that he had made, some 590 of
+these black lines crossing the solar spectrum. What they were he did not
+know, but conjectured that they were caused by something which existed
+in the sun and stars and not in our air. But from that time they were
+called Fraunhofer’s dark lines.
+
+From the vantage ground of these developments we are now enabled to step
+to that mountain peak of discovery from which the sun and stars were
+looked into, their elements portrayed, their very motions determined,
+and their brotherhood with the earth, in substance, ascertained.
+
+The great discovery of the cause of Fraunhofer’s dark bands in the
+broken sunlight was made by Gustave Robert Kirchoff, a German physician,
+in his laboratory in Heidelberg, in 1860, in conjunction with his fellow
+worker, Robert Bunsen.
+
+Kirchoff happened to let a solar ray pass through a flame coloured with
+sodium, and through a prism, so that the spectrum of the sun and the
+flame fell one upon another. It was expected that the well known yellow
+line of sodium would come out in the solar spectrum, but it was just the
+opposite that took place. Where the bright yellow line should have
+fallen appeared a dark line.
+
+With this observation was coupled the reflection that heat passes from a
+body of a higher temperature to one of a lower, and not inversely.
+Experiments followed: iron, sodium, copper, etc., were heated to
+incandescence and their colours prismatically separated. These were
+transversed with the same colours of other heated bodies, and the latter
+were absorbed and rendered black. Kirchoff then announced his law that
+all bodies absorb chiefly those colours which they themselves emit.
+Therefore these vapours of the sun which were rendered in black lines
+were so produced by crossing terrestrial vapors of the same nature.
+
+Thus by the prism and the blowpipe were the same substances found in the
+sun, the stars, and the earth. The elements of every substance submitted
+to the process were analysed, and many secrets in the universe of matter
+were revealed.
+
+Young, of America, invented a splendid combination of spectroscope and
+telescope, and Huggins of England was the first to establish by spectrum
+analysis the approach and retreat of the stars.
+
+It was prior to this time that those wonderful discoveries and labours
+were made which developed the true nature of heat, which demonstrated
+the kinship and correlation of the forces of Nature, their conservation,
+or property of being converted one into another, and the
+indestructibility of matter, of which force is but another name.
+
+The first demonstrations as to the nature of heat were given by the
+American Count Rumford, and then by Sir Humphry Davy, just at the close
+of the 18th century, and then followed in this the brilliant labours and
+discoveries of Mayer and Helmholtz of Germany, Colding of Denmark, and
+Joule, Grove, Faraday, Sir William Thomson of England, of Henry, Le
+Conte and Martin of America, as to the correlation and convertibility of
+all the forces.
+
+The French revolution, and the Napoleonic wars, isolating France and
+exhausting its resources, its chemists were appealed to devote their
+genius and researches to practical things; to the munitions of war, the
+rejuvenation of the soil, the growing of new crops, like the sugar beet,
+and new manufacturing products.
+
+Lavoisier had laid deep and broad in France the foundations of
+chemistry, and given the science nomenclature that lasted a century. So
+that the succeeding great teachers, Berthollet, Guyton, Fourcroy and
+their associates, and the institutions of instruction in the sciences
+fostered by them, and inspired in that direction by Napoleon, bent their
+energies in material directions, and a tremendous impulse was thus given
+to the practical application of chemistry to the arts and manufactures
+of the century.
+
+The same spirit, to a less extent, however, manifested itself in
+England, and as early as 1802 we find Sir Humphry Davy beginning his
+celebrated lectures on the _Elements of Agricultural Chemistry_ before a
+board of agriculture, a work that has passed through many editions in
+almost every modern language.
+
+When the fact is recalled that agricultural chemistry embraces the
+entire natural science of vegetable and animal production, and includes,
+besides, much of physics, meteorology and geology, the extent and
+importance of the subject may be appreciated; and yet such appreciation
+was not manifested in a practical manner until the 19th century. It was
+only toward the end of the 18th century that the vague and ancient
+notions that air, water, oil and salt formed the nutrition of plants,
+began to be modified. Davy recognized and explained the beneficial
+fertilizing effects of ammonia, and analysed and explained numerous
+fertilizers, including guano. It is due to his discoveries and
+publications, combined with those of the eminent men on the continent,
+above referred to, that agricultural chemistry arose to the dignity of a
+science. The most brilliant, eloquent and devoted apostle of that
+science who followed Davy was Justus von Liebig of Germany, who was born
+in Darmstadt in 1803, the year after Davy commenced his lectures in
+England. It was in response to the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science that he gave to the world his great publications
+on _Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, Commerce, Physiology,
+and Pathology_, from which great practical good resulted the world over.
+One of his favorite subjects was that of fermentation, and this calls up
+the exceedingly interesting discoveries in the nature of alcohol, yeast,
+mould--aging malt, wines and beer--and their accompanying beneficial
+results.
+
+In one of Huxley’s charming lectures--such as he delighted to give
+before a popular audience--delivered in 1871, at Manchester, on the
+subject of “Yeast,” he tells how any liquid containing sugar, such as a
+mixture of honey and water, if left to itself undergoes the peculiar
+change we know as fermentation, and in the process the scum, or thicker
+muddy part that forms on top, becomes yeast, carbonic acid gas escapes
+in bubbles from the liquid, and the liquid itself becomes spirits of
+wine or alcohol. “Alcohol” was a term used until the 17th century to
+designate a very fine subtle powder, and then became the name of the
+subtle spirit arising from fermentation. It was Leeuwenhoek of Holland
+who, two hundred years ago, by the use of a fine microscope he invented,
+first discovered that the muddy scum was a substance made up of an
+enormous multitude of very minute grains floating separately, and in
+lumps and in heaps, in the liquid. Then, in the next century the
+Frenchman, Cagniard de la Tour, discovered that these bodies grew to a
+certain size and then budded, and from the buds the plant multiplied;
+and thus that this yeast was a mass of living plants, which received in
+science the name of “torula,” that the yeast plant was a kind of fungus
+or mould, growing and multiplying. Then came Fabroni, the French
+chemist, at the end of the 18th century, who discovered that the yeast
+plant was of bag-like form, or a cell of woody matter, and that the cell
+contained a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
+This was a vegeto-animal substance, having peculiarities of “animal
+products.”
+
+Then came the great chemists of the 19th century, with their delicate
+methods of analysis, and decided that this plant in its chief part was
+identical with that element which forms the chief part of our own blood.
+That it was protein, a substance which forms the foundation of every
+animal organism. All agreed that it was the yeast plant that fermented
+or broke up the sugar element, and produced the alcohol. Helmholtz
+demonstrated that it was the minute particles of the solid part of the
+plant that produced the fermentation, and that such particles must be
+growing or alive, to produce it. From whence sprang this wonderful
+plant--part vegetable, part animal? By a long series of experiments it
+was found that if substances which could be fermented were kept entirely
+closed to the outer air, no plant would form and no fermentation take
+place. It was concluded then, and so ascertained, that the torulae in
+the plant proceeded from the torulae in the atmosphere, from “gay motes
+that people the sunbeams.” Concerning just how the torulae broke up or
+fermented the sugar, great chemists have differed.
+
+After the discovery that the yeast was a plant having cells formed of
+the pure matter of wood, and containing a semi-fluid mass identical with
+the composition which constitutes the flesh of animals, came the further
+discovery that all plants, high and low, are made up of the same kind of
+cells, and their contents. Then this remarkable result came out, that
+however much a plant may otherwise differ from an animal, yet, in
+essential constituents the cellular constructure of animal and plant is
+the same. To this substance of energy and life, common in the minute
+plant cell and the animal cell, the German botanist, Hugo von Mohl,
+about fifty years ago gave the name “protoplasm.” Then came this
+astounding conclusion, that this _protoplasm_ being common to both plant
+and animal life, the essential difference consisted only in the manner
+in which the cells are built up and are modified in the building.
+
+And from that part of these great discoveries which revealed the fact
+that the sugary element was infected, as it were, from the germs of the
+air, producing fermentation and its results, arose that remarkable
+theory of many diseases known as the “germ theory.” And, as it was found
+in the yeast plant that only the solid part or particle of the plant
+germinated fermentation and reaction, so, too, it has been found by the
+germ theory that only the solid particle of the contagious matter can
+germinate or grow the disease.
+
+In this unfolding of the wonders of chemistry in the nineteenth century,
+the old empirical walls between forces and organisms, and organic and
+inorganic chemistry, are breaking down, and celestial and terrestrial
+bodies and vapours, living beings, and growing plants are discovered to
+be the evolution of one all-pervading essence and force. One is reminded
+of the lines of Tennyson:
+
+    “Large elements in order brought
+    And tracts of calm from tempest made,
+    And world fluctuation swayed
+    In vassal tides that followed thought.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    One God, one law, one element,
+    And one far-off divine event
+    To which the whole creation moves.”
+
+In the class of alcohol and in the field of yeast, the work of Pasteur,
+begun in France, has been followed by improvements in methods for
+selecting proper ferments and excluding improper ones, and in improved
+processes for aging and preserving alcoholic liquors by destroying
+deleterious ferments. Takamine, in using as ferment, koji, motu and
+moyashi, different forms of mould, and proposing to do entirely away
+with malt in the manufacture of beer and whiskey, has made a noteworthy
+departure. Manufacturing of malt by the pneumatic process, and stirring
+malt during germination, are among the improvements.
+
+_Carbonating._--The injecting of carbonic acid gas into various waters
+to render them wholesome, and also into beers and wines during
+fermentation, and to save delay and prevent impurities, are decided
+improvements.
+
+The immense improvements and discoveries in the character of soils and
+fertilisers have already been alluded to. Hundreds of instruments have
+been invented for measuring, analysing, weighing, separating,
+volatilising and otherwise applying chemical processes to practical
+purposes.
+
+To the chemistry of the century the world is indebted for those devices
+and processes for the utilisation and manufacture of many useful
+products from the liquids and oils, sugar from cane and beets,
+revivifying bone-black, centrifugal machinery for refining sugar, in
+defecating it by chemicals and heat, in evaporating it in pans, in
+separating starch and converting it into glucose, etc.
+
+_Oils and Fats._--Up to within this century the vast amount of cotton
+seed produced with that crop was a waste. Then by the process, first of
+steaming the seed and expressing the oil, now by the process of
+extraction by the aid of volatile solvents, and casting off the solvents
+by distillation, an immensely valuable product has been obtained.
+
+The utilising of oils in the manufacture of oilcloth and linoleum and
+rubber, has become of great commercial value. Formerly sulphur was the
+vulcanising agent, now chloride of sulphur has been substituted for pure
+sulphur.
+
+Steam and the distillation processes have been applied with great
+success to the making of glycerine from fat and from soap underlye and
+in extracting fat from various waste products.
+
+_Bleaching and Dyeing._--Of course these arts are very old, but the old
+methods would not be recognised in the modern processes; and those who
+lived before the century knew nothing of the magnificent colours, and
+certain essences, and sweet savours that can be obtained from the black,
+hand-soiling pieces of coal. In the making of illuminating gas, itself a
+finished chemical product of the century, a vast amount of once wasted
+products, especially coal tar, are now extensively used; and from coal
+tar and the residuum of petroleum oils, now come those splendid aniline
+dyes which have produced such a revolution in the world of colours. The
+saturation of sand by a dye and its application to fabrics by an air
+blast; the circulation of the fluid colors, or of fluids for bleaching
+or drying, or oxidising, through perforated cylinders or cops on which
+the cloths are wound; devices for the running of skeins through dyes,
+the great improvements in carbon dyes and kindred colours, the processes
+of making the colours on the fibre, and the perfumes made by the
+synthetic processes, are among the inventions in this field.
+
+The space that a list of the new chemical products of this age and their
+description would fill, has already been indicated by reference to the
+great dictionary of Watts. Some of the electro-chemical products will be
+hereinafter referred to in the Chapter on Electricity, and the chemistry
+of Metallurgy will be treated under the latter topic.
+
+_Electro-chemical Methods._--Space will only permit it to be said that
+these methods are now employed in the production of a large number of
+elements, by means of which very many of them which were before mere
+laboratory specimens, have now become cheap and useful servants of
+mankind in a hundred different ways; such as aluminium, that light and
+non-corrosive metal, reduced from many dollars an ounce a generation
+ago, to 30 and 40 cents a pound now; carborundum, largely superseding
+emery and diamond dust as an abradant; artificial diamonds; calcium
+carbide, from which the new illuminating acetylene gas is made;
+disinfectants of many kinds; pigments, chromium, manganese, and
+chlorates by the thousand tons. The most useful new chemical processes
+are those used in purifying water sewage and milk, in electroplating
+metals and other substances, in the application of chemicals to the fine
+arts, in extracting grease from wool, and the making of many useful
+products from the waste materials of the dumps and garbage banks.
+
+_Medicines and Surgery._--One hundred years ago, the practice of
+medicine was, in the main, empirical. Certain effects were known to
+usually follow the giving of certain drugs, or the application of
+certain measures, but why or how these effects were produced, was
+unknown. The great steps forward have been made upon the true scientific
+foundation established by the discoveries and inventions in the fields
+of physics, chemistry and biology. The discovery of anaesthetics and
+their application in surgery and the practice of medicine, no doubt
+constitutes the leading invention of the century in this field.
+
+Sir Humphry Davy suggested it in 1800, and Dr. W. T. Morton was the
+first to apply an anaesthetic to relieve pain in a surgical operation,
+which he did in a hospital in Boston in 1846. Both its original
+suggestion and application were also claimed by others.
+
+Not only relief from intense pain to the patient during the operation,
+but immense advantages are gained by the long and careful examination
+afforded of injured or diseased parts, otherwise difficult or impossible
+in a conscious patient.
+
+The exquisite pain and suffering endured previous to the use of
+anaesthetics often caused death by exhaustion. Many delicate operations
+can now be performed for the relief of long-continued diseases which
+before would have been hazardous or impossible. How many before suffered
+unto death long-drawn-out pain and disease rather than submit to the
+torture of the knife! How many lives have been saved, and how far
+advanced has become the knowledge of the human body and its painful
+diseases, by this beneficent remedy!
+
+Inventions in the field of medicine consist chiefly in those innumerable
+compositions and compounds which have resulted from chemical
+discoveries. Gelatine capsules used to conceal unpalatable remedies may
+be mentioned as a most acceptable modern invention in this class.
+Inventions and discoveries in the field of surgery relate not only to
+instrumentalities but processes. The antiseptic treatment of wounds, by
+which the long and exhausting suppuration is avoided, is among the most
+notable of the latter. In instruments vast improvements have been made;
+special forms adapted for operation in every form of injury; in
+syringes, especially hypodermic, those used for subcutaneous injections
+of liquid remedies; inhalers for applying medicated vapours and devices
+for applying volatile anaesthetics, and devices for atomising and
+spraying liquids. In the United States alone about four thousand patents
+have been granted for inventions in surgical instruments.
+
+_Dentistry._--This art has been revolutionised during the century. Even
+in the time of Herodotus, one special set of physicians had the
+treatment of teeth; and artificial teeth have been known and used for
+many ages, but all seems crude and barbarous until these later days. In
+addition to the use of anaesthetics, improvements have been made in
+nearly every form of dental instruments, such as forceps, dental
+engines, pluggers, drills, hammers, etc., and in the means and materials
+for making teeth. Later leading inventions have reference to utilising
+the roots of destroyed teeth as supports on which to form bridges to
+which artificial teeth are secured, and to crowns for decayed teeth that
+still have a solid base.
+
+There exists no longer the dread of the dentist’s chair unless the
+patient has neglected too long the visit. Pain cannot be all avoided,
+but it is ameliorated; and the new results in workmanship in the saving
+and in the making of teeth are vast improvements over the former
+methods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.
+
+    “Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar
+    Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car;
+    Or in wide waving wings expanded bear
+    The flying chariot through the field of air.”
+
+
+Thus sang the poet prophet, the good Dr. Darwin of Lichfield, in the
+eighteenth century. Newcomen and Watt had not then demonstrated that
+steam was not unconquerable, but the hitching it to the slow barge and
+the rapid car was yet to come. It has come, and although the prophecy is
+yet to be rounded into fulfilment by the driving of the “flying chariot
+through the field of air,” that too is to come.
+
+The prophecy of the doctor poet was as suggestive of the practical means
+of carrying it into effect as were all the means proposed during the
+first seventeen centuries of the Christian Era for conquering steam and
+harnessing it as a useful servant to man.
+
+Toys, speculations, dreams, observations, startling experiments, these
+often constitute the framework on which is hung the title of Inventor;
+but the nineteenth century has demanded a better support for that proud
+title. He alone who first transforms his ideas into actual work and
+useful service in some field of man’s labor, or clearly teaches others
+to do so, is now recognised as the true inventor. Tested by this rule
+there was scarcely an inventor in the field of steam in all the long
+stretches of time preceding the seventeenth century. And if there were,
+they had no recording scribes to embalm their efforts in history.
+
+We shall never know how early man learned the wonderful power of the
+spirit that springs from heated water. It was doubtless from some sad
+experience in ignorantly attempting to put fetters on it.
+
+The history of steam as a motor generally commences with reference to
+that toy called the aeolipile, described by Hero of Alexandria in a
+treatise on pneumatics about two centuries before Christ, and which was
+the invention of either himself or Ctesibius, his teacher.
+
+This toy consisted of a globe pivoted on two supports, one of which was
+a communicating pipe leading into a heated cauldron of water beneath.
+The globe was provided with two escape pipes on diametrically opposite
+sides and bent so as to discharge in opposite directions. Steam admitted
+into the globe from the cauldron escaped through the side pipes, and its
+pressure on these pipes caused the globe to rotate.
+
+Hero thus demonstrated that water can be converted into steam and steam
+into work.
+
+Since that ancient day Hero’s apparatus has been frequently reinvented
+by men ignorant of the early effort, and the principle of the invention
+as well as substantially the same form have been put into many practical
+uses. Hero in his celebrated treatise described other devices, curious
+siphons and pumps. Many of them are supposed to have been used in the
+performance of some of the startling religious rites at the altars of
+the Greek priests.
+
+From Hero’s day the record drops down to the middle ages, and still it
+finds progress in this art confined to a few observations and
+speculations. William of Malmesbury in 1150 wrote something on the
+subject and called attention to some crude experiments he had heard of
+in Germany. Passing from the slumber of the middle ages, we are assured
+by some Spanish historians that one Blasco de Garay, in 1543, propelled
+a ship having paddle wheels by steam at Barcelona. But the publication
+was long after the alleged event, and is regarded as apocryphal.
+
+Observations became more acute in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, experiments more frequent, and publications more full and
+numerous.
+
+Cardan Ramelli and Leonardo da Vinci, learned Italians, and the
+accomplished Prof. Jacob Besson of Orleans, France, all did much by
+their writings to make known theoretically the wonderful powers of
+steam, and to suggest modes of its practical operation, in the latter
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+Giambattista della Porta, a gentleman of Naples, possessing high and
+varied accomplishments in all the sciences as they were known at that
+day, 1601, and who invented the magic-lantern and _camera obscura_, in a
+work called _Spiritalia_, described how steam pressure could be employed
+to raise a column of water, how a vacuum was produced by the
+condensation of steam in a closed vessel, and how the condensing vessel
+should be separated from the boiler. Revault in France showed in 1605
+how a bombshell might be exploded by steam.
+
+Salomon de Caus, engineer and architect to Louis XIII, in 1615 described
+how water might be raised by the expansion of steam.
+
+In 1629 the Italian, Branco, published at Rome an account of the
+application of a steam jet upon the vanes of a small wheel to run it,
+and told how in other ways Hero’s engine might be employed for useful
+purposes.
+
+The first English publication describing a way of applying steam
+appeared in 1630 in a patent granted to David Ramseye, for a mode of
+raising water thereby. This was followed by patents to Grant in 1632 and
+to one Ford in 1640. During that century these crude machines were
+called “fire engines.” It seems to have been common in some parts of
+Europe during the seventeenth century to use a blast of steam to improve
+the draft of chimneys and of blast furnaces. This application of steam
+to smoke and smelting has been frequently revived by modern inventors
+with much flourish of originality.
+
+It is with a certain feeling of delight and relief, after a prolonged
+search through the centuries for some evidence of harnessing this mighty
+agent to man’s use, that we come to the efforts of the good Marquis of
+Worcester--Edward Somerset. He it was who in 1655 wrote of the
+_Inventions of the Sixteenth Century_. He afterwards amplified this
+title by calling his book _A Century of Names and Scantlings of such
+Inventions as at present I call to mind to have tried and perfected_,
+etc.
+
+There are about one hundred of these “Scantlings,” and his descriptions
+of them are very brief but interesting. Some, if revived now and put to
+use, would throw proposed flying machines into the background, as they
+involved perpetual motion.
+
+But to his honor be it said that he was the first steam-engine builder.
+A patent was issued to him in 1663. It was about 1668 that he built and
+put in successful operation at Raglan Castle at Vauxhall, near London, a
+steam engine to force water upward. He made separate boilers, which he
+worked alternately, and conveyed the steam from them to a vessel in
+which its pressure operated to force the water up. Unfortunately he did
+not leave a description of his inventions sufficiently full to enable
+later mechanics to make and use them. He strove in vain to get capital
+interested and a company formed to manufacture his engines. The age of
+fear and speculation as to steam ceased when the Marquis set his engine
+to pumping water, and from that time inventors went on to put the arm of
+steam to work.
+
+In 1683 Sir Samuel Morland commenced the construction of the Worcester
+engines for use and sale; Hautefeuille of France taught the use of gas,
+described how gas as well as steam engines might be constructed, and was
+the first to propose the use of the piston. The learned writings of the
+great Dutch scientist and inventor, Huygens, on heat and light steam and
+gas, also then came forth, and his assistant, the French physicist and
+doctor, Denis Papin, in 1690, proposed steam as a universal motive
+power, invented a steam engine having a piston and a safety valve, and
+even a crude paddle steamer, which it is said was tried in 1707 on the
+river Fulda. Then in 1698 came Thomas Savery, who patented a steam
+engine that was used in draining mines.
+
+The eighteenth century thus commenced with a practical knowledge of the
+power of steam and of means for controlling and working it.
+
+Then followed the combined invention of Newcomen, Cawley and Savery, in
+1705, of the most successful pumping engine up to that time. In this
+engine a cylinder was employed for receiving the steam from a separate
+boiler. There was a piston in the cylinder driven up by the steam
+admitted below it, aided by a counterpoise at one end of an engine beam.
+The steam was then cut off from the boiler and condensed by the
+introduction beneath the piston of a jet of water, and the condensed
+steam and water drawn off by a pipe. Atmospheric pressure forced the
+piston down. The piston and pump rods were connected to the opposite
+ends of a working beam of a pumping engine, as in some modern engines.
+Gauge cocks to indicate the height of water, and a safety valve to
+regulate the pressure of steam, were employed. Then came the ingenious
+improvement of the boy Humphrey Potter, connecting the valve gear with
+the engine beam by cords, so as to do automatically what he was set to
+do by hand, and the improvement on that of the Beighton plug rod. Still
+further improved by others, the Newcomen engine came into use through
+out Europe.
+
+Jonathan Hulls patented in England in 1736 a marine steam engine, and in
+1737 published a description of a Newcomen engine applied to his system
+for towing ships. William Henry, of Pennsylvania, tried a model
+steamboat on the Conestoga river in 1763.
+
+This was practically the state of the art, in 1763, when James Watt
+entered the field. His brilliant inventions harnessed steam to more than
+pumping engines, made it a universal servant in manifold industries, and
+started it on a career which has revolutionized the trade and
+manufactures of the world.
+
+To understand what the nineteenth century has done in steam motive power
+we must first know what Watt did in the eighteenth century, as he then
+laid the foundation on which the later inventions have all been built.
+
+Taking up the crude but successful working engine of Newcomen, a model
+of which had been sent to him for repairs, he began an exhaustive study
+of the properties of steam and of the means for producing and
+controlling it. He found it necessary to devise a new system.
+
+Watt saw that the alternate heating and cooling of the cylinder made the
+engine work slowly and caused an excessive consumption of steam. He
+concluded that “the cylinder should always be as hot as the steam that
+entered it.” He therefore closed the cylinder and provided a separate
+condensing vessel into which the steam was led after it raised the
+piston. He provided an air-tight jacket for the cylinder, to maintain
+its heat. He added a tight packing in the cylinder-head for the
+piston-rod to move through, and a steam-tight stuffing-box on the top of
+the cylinder. He caused the steam to alternately enter below and above
+the piston and be alternately condensed to drive the piston down as well
+as up, and this made the engine double-acting, increasing its power and
+speed. He converted the reciprocating motion of the piston into a rotary
+motion by the adoption of the crank, and introduced the well-known
+parallel motion, and many other improvements. In short, he demonstrated
+for the first time by a practical and efficient engine that the
+expansive force of steam could be used to drive all ordinary machinery.
+He then secured his inventions by patents against piracy, and sustained
+them successfully in many a hard-fought battle. It had taken him the
+last quarter of the 18th century to do all these things.
+
+Watt was the proper precursor of the nineteenth century inventions, as
+in him were combined the power and attainments of a great scientist and
+the genius of a great mechanic. The last eighteen years of his life were
+passed in the 19th century, and he was thus enabled to see his
+inventions brought within its threshold and applied to those arts which
+have made this age so glorious in mechanical achievements.
+
+Watt so fitly represents the class of modern great inventors in his
+character and attainments that the description of him by Sir Walter
+Scott is here pertinent as a tribute to that class, and as a delineation
+of the general character of those benefactors of his race of which he
+was so conspicuous an example:--
+
+Says Sir Walter:--
+
+  “Amidst this company stood Mr. Watt, the man whose genius discovered
+  the means of multiplying our national resources to a degree, perhaps,
+  even beyond his own stupendous powers of calculation and combination;
+  bringing the treasures of the abyss to the summit of the earth--giving
+  to the feeble arm of man the momentum of an Afrite--commanding
+  manufactures to rise--affording means of dispensing with that time and
+  tide which wait for no man--and of sailing without that wind which
+  defied the commands and threats of Xerxes himself. This potent
+  commander of the elements--this abridger of time and space--this
+  magician, whose cloudy machinery has produced a change in the world,
+  the effects of which, extraordinary as they are, are perhaps only
+  beginning to be felt--was not only the most profound man of science,
+  the most successful combiner of powers and calculator of numbers, as
+  adapted to practical purposes, was not only one of the most generally
+  well-informed, but one of the best and kindest of human beings.”
+
+The first practical application of steam as a working force was to
+pumping, as has been stated. After Watt’s system was devised,
+suggestions and experiments as to road locomotives and carriages were
+made, and other applications came thick and fast. A French officer,
+Cugnot, in 1769 and 1770, was the first to try the road carriage engine.
+Other prominent Frenchmen made encouraging experiments on small
+steamboats--followed in 1784-86 by James Rumsey and John Fitch in
+America in the same line. Watt patented a road engine in 1784. About the
+same time his assistant, Murdock, completed and tried a model locomotive
+driven by a “grasshopper” engine. Oliver Evans, the great American
+contemporary of Watt, had in 1779 devised a high-pressure non-condensing
+steam engine in a form still used. In 1786-7 he obtained in Pennsylvania
+and Maryland patents for applying steam to driving flour mills and
+propelling waggons. Also about this time, Symington, the Scotchman,
+constructed a working model of a steam carriage, which is still
+preserved in the museum at South Kensington, London. Symington and his
+fellow Scotchmen, Miller and Taylor, in 1788-89 also constructed working
+steamboats. In 1796 Richard Trevithick, a Cornish marine captain, was
+producing a road locomotive. The century thus opened with activity in
+steam motive power. The “scantlings” of the Marquis of Worcester were
+now being converted into complete structures. And so great was the
+activity and the number of inventors that he is a daring man who would
+now decide priority between them. The earliest applications in this
+century of steam power were in the line of road engines.
+
+On Christmas eve of 1801, Trevithick made the initial trip with the
+first successful steam road locomotive through the streets of Camborne
+in Cornwall, carrying passengers. In one of his trips he passed into the
+country roads and came to a tollgate through which a frightened keeper
+hastily passed him without toll, hailing him as the devil.
+
+Persistent efforts continued to be made to introduce a practical steam
+road carriage in England until 1827. After Trevithick followed
+Blenkinsop, who made a locomotive which ran ten miles an hour. Then came
+Julius Griffith, in 1821, of Brompton, who patented a steam carriage
+which was built by Joseph Bramah, one of the ablest mechanics of his
+time. Gordon, Brunton and Gurney attempted a curious and amusing steam
+carriage, resembling a horse in action--having jointed legs and feet,
+but this animal was not successful. Walter Hancock, in 1827, was one of
+the most persistent and successful inventors in this line; but bad roads
+and an unsympathetic public discouraged inventors in their efforts to
+introduce steam road carriages, and their attention was turned to the
+locomotive to run on rails or tracks especially prepared for them.
+Wooden and iron rails had been introduced a century before for heavy
+cars and wagons in pulling loads from mines and elsewhere, but when at
+the beginning of the century it had been found that the engines of Watt
+could be used to drag such loads, it was deemed necessary to make a rail
+having its top surface roughened with ridges and the wheels of the
+engine and cars provided with teeth or cogs to prevent anticipated
+slipping.
+
+In England, Blackett and George Stephenson discovered that the adhesion
+of smooth wheels to smooth rails was sufficient. Without overlooking the
+fact that William Hendley built and operated a locomotive called the
+_Puffing Billy_ in 1803, and Hackworth one a little later, yet to the
+genius of Stephenson is due chiefly the successful introduction of the
+modern locomotive. His labours and inventions continued from 1812 for
+twenty years, and culminated at two great trials: the first one on the
+Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829, when he competed with
+Hackworth and Braithwaite and Ericsson, and with the _Rocket_ won the
+race; and the second at the opening of the same road in 1830, when with
+the _Northumbrian_, at the head of seven other locomotives and a long
+train of twenty-eight carriages, in which were seated six hundred
+passengers, he ran the train successfully between the two towns.
+
+On this occasion Mr. Huskisson, Home Secretary in the British Cabinet,
+while the cars were stopping to water the engines, and he was out on the
+track talking with the Duke of Wellington, was knocked down by one of
+the engines and had one of his legs crushed. Placed on board of the
+_Northumbrian_, it was driven at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour by
+Stephenson to Eccles. Mr. Huskisson died there that night. This was its
+first victim, and the greatest speed yet attained by a locomotive.
+
+The year 1829 therefore can be regarded as the commencement of the life
+of the locomotive for transportation of passengers. The steam blast
+thrown into the smokestack by Hackworth, the tubular boiler of Seguin
+and the link motion of Stephenson were then, as they now are, the
+essential features of locomotives.
+
+In the meantime America had not been idle. The James Watt of America,
+Oliver Evans, in 1804 completed a flat-bottomed boat to be used in
+dredging at the Philadelphia docks, and mounting it on wheels drove it
+by its own steam engine through the streets to the river bank. Launching
+the craft, he propelled it down the river by using the same engine to
+drive the paddle wheels. He gave to this engine the strange name of
+_Oruktor Amphibolos_.
+
+John C. Stevens of New Jersey was, in 1812, urging the legislature of
+the State of New York to build railways, and asserting that he could see
+nothing to hinder a steam carriage from moving with a velocity of one
+hundred miles an hour. In 1829 George Stephenson in England had made for
+American parties a locomotive called _The Stourbridge Lion_, which in
+that year was brought to America and used on the Delaware and Hudson R.
+R. by Horatio Allen. Peter Cooper in the same year constructed a
+locomotive for short curves, for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
+
+Returning now to steam navigation:--Symington again entered the field in
+1801-2 and constructed for Lord Dundas a steamboat, named after his
+wife, the _Charlotte Dundas_, for towing on a canal, which was
+successfully operated.
+
+Robert Fulton, an American artist, and subsequently a civil engineer,
+built a steamboat on the Seine in 1803, assisted by R. Livingston, then
+American Minister to France. Then in 1806 Fulton, having returned to the
+United States, commenced to build another steamboat, in which he was
+again assisted by Livingston, and in which he placed machinery made by
+Boulton and Watt in England. This steamboat, named the _Clermont_, was
+130 ft. long, 18 ft. beam, 7 ft. depth and 160 tons burden. It made its
+first trip on the Hudson, from New York to Albany and return, in August,
+1807, and subsequently made regular trips. It was the first commercially
+successful steamboat ever made, as George Stephenson’s was the first
+commercially successful locomotive. In the meantime Col. John Stevens of
+New Jersey was also at work on a steamboat, and had in 1804 built such a
+boat at his shops, having a screw propeller and a flue boiler. Almost
+simultaneously with Fulton he brought out the _Phœnix_, a side-wheel
+steamer having hollow water lines and provided with feathering paddle
+wheels, and as Fulton and Livingston had a monopoly of the Hudson,
+Stevens took his boat by sea from New York around to Delaware bay and up
+the Delaware river. This was in 1808, and was the first sea voyage ever
+made by a steam vessel.
+
+Transatlantic steamship navigation was started in 1819. A Mr.
+Scarborough of Savannah, Ga., in 1818 purchased a ship of about three
+hundred and fifty tons burden, which was named the _Savannah_. Equipped
+with engine and machinery it steamed out of New York Harbour on the 27th
+day of March, 1819, and successfully reached Savannah, Georgia. On the
+20th of May in the same year she left Savannah for Liverpool, making the
+trip in 22 days. From Liverpool she went to Copenhagen, Stockholm, St.
+Petersburg, Cronstadt and Arundel, and from the latter port returned to
+Savannah, making the passage in twenty-five days.
+
+But Scottish waters, and the waters around other coasts of the British
+Islands, had been traversed by steamboats before this celebrated trip of
+the _Savannah_. Bell’s steamboat between Glasgow and Greenock in 1812
+was followed by five others in 1814; and seven steamboats plied on the
+Thames in 1817.
+
+So the locomotives and the steamboats and steamships continued to
+multiply, and when the first forty years of the century had been reached
+the Iron Horse was fairly installed on the fields of Europe and America,
+and the rivers and the oceans were ploughed by its sisters, the steam
+vessels.
+
+It was in 1840 that the famous Cunard line of transatlantic steamers was
+established, soon followed by the Collins line and others.
+
+A few years before, John C. Stevens in America and John Ericsson in
+England had brought forward the screw propeller; and Ericsson was the
+first to couple the engine to the propeller shaft. It succeeded the
+successful paddle wheels of Fulton in America and Bell in England.
+
+The nineteenth century is the age of kinetic energy: the energy of
+either solid, liquid, gaseous or electrical matter transformed into
+useful work.
+
+It has been stated by that eminent specialist in steam engineering,
+Prof. R. H. Thurston, that “the steam engine is a machine which is
+especially designed to transform energy originally dormant or potential
+into active and useful available kinetic energy;” and that the great
+problem in this branch of science is “to construct a machine which shall
+in the most perfect manner possible convert the kinetic energy of heat
+into mechanical power, the heat being derived from the combustion of
+fuel, and steam being the receiver and conveyor of that heat.”
+
+Watt and his contemporaries regarded heat as a material substance called
+“Phlogiston.” The modern kinetic theory of heat was a subsequent
+discovery, as elsewhere explained.
+
+The inventors of the last part of the eighteenth century and of the
+nineteenth century have directed their best labours to construct an
+engine as above defined by Thurston.
+
+First as to the boiler: Efforts were made first to get away from the
+little old spherical boiler of Hero. In the 18th century Smeaton devised
+the horizontal lengthened cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue. Oliver
+Evans followed with two longitudinal flues. Nathan Read of Salem,
+Massachusetts, in 1791, invented a tubular boiler in which the flues and
+gases are conducted through tubes passing through the boiler into the
+smokestack. Such boilers are adapted for portable stationary engines,
+locomotives, fire and marine engines, and the fire is built within the
+boiler frame. Then in the 19th century came the use of sectional
+boilers--a combination of small vessels instead of a large common one,
+increasing the strength while diminishing capacity--to obtain high
+pressure of steam. Then came improved weighted and other safety valves
+to regulate and control this pressure. The compound or double cylinder
+high-pressure engine of Hornblower of England, in 1781, and the
+high-pressure non-condensing steam engine devised by Evans in 1779, were
+reconstructed and improved in the early part of the century.
+
+To give perfect motion and the slightest friction to the piston; to
+regulate the supply of steam to the engine by proper valves; to
+determine such supply by many varieties of governors and thus control
+the speed; to devise valve gear which distributes the steam through its
+cycles of motion by which to admit the steam alternately to each end of
+the steam cylinder as the piston moves backward and forward, and exhaust
+valves to open and close the parts through which the steam escapes; to
+automatically operate such valves; to condense the escaping steam and to
+remove the water of condensation; to devise powerful steam brakes--these
+are some of the important details on which inventors have exercised
+their keenest wits. Then again the extensive inventions of the century
+have given rise to a great classification to designate their forms or
+their uses: condensing and non-condensing, high-pressure or
+low-pressure--the former term being applied to engines supplied with
+steam of 50 lbs. pressure to the square inch and upward, and the latter
+to engines working under 40 lbs. pressure--and the low pressure are
+nearly always the condensing and the high pressure the non-condensing;
+reciprocating and rotary--the latter having a piston attached to a shaft
+and revolving within a cylinder of which the axis is parallel with the
+axis of rotation of the piston.
+
+Direct acting, where the piston rod acts directly upon the connecting
+rod and through it upon the crank, without the intervention of a beam or
+lever; oscillating, in which the piston rods are attached directly to
+the crank pin and as the crank revolves the cylinder oscillates upon
+trunnions, one on each side of it, through which the steam enters and
+leaves the steam chest.
+
+Then as to their use, engines are known as stationary, pumping,
+portable, locomotive or marine.
+
+The best-known engine of the stationary kind is the Corliss, which is
+very extensively used in the United States and Europe.
+
+Among other later improvements is the duplex pumping engine, in which
+one engine controls the valve of the other; compensating devices for
+steam pumping, by which power is accumulated by making the first half of
+the stroke of the steam piston assist in moving the piston the other
+half of the stroke during the expansion of steam; steam or air hand
+hammers on which the piston is the hammer and strikes a tool projecting
+through the head into the cylinder; rock drilling, in which the movement
+of the valves is operated by the piston at any portion of its stroke;
+shaft governors, in which the eccentric for operating the engine valves
+is moved around or across the main or auxiliary shaft; multiple
+cylinders, in which several cylinders, either single or double, are
+arranged to co-operate with a common shaft; impact rotary, known as
+steam turbines, a revival in some respects of Hero’s engine. And then,
+finally, the delicate and ingenious bicycle and automobile steam
+engines.
+
+Then there are steam sanding devices for locomotives by which sand is
+automatically fed to the rails at the same time the air brake is
+applied.
+
+Starting valves used for starting compound locomotives on ascending
+steep grades, in which both low and high pressure cylinders are supplied
+with live steam, and when the steam, exhausted from either high or low
+pressure cylinders into the receivers, has reached a predetermined
+pressure, the engine works on the compound principle. Single acting
+compound engines, in which two or more cylinders are arranged tandem,
+the steam acting only in one direction, and the exhaust steam of one
+acting upon the piston in the cylinder next of the series, are arranged
+in pairs, so that while one is acting downward the other is acting
+upward.
+
+Throttle valves automatically closed upon the bursting of a pipe, or the
+breaking of machinery, are operated by electricity, automatically, or by
+hand at a distance.
+
+Napoleon, upon his disastrous retreat from Moscow, anxious to reach
+Paris as soon as possible, left his army on the way, provided himself
+with a travelling and sleeping carriage, and with relays of fresh horses
+at different points managed, by extraordinary strenuous efforts day and
+night, to travel from Smorgoni to Paris, a distance of 1000 miles,
+between the 5th and 10th of December, 1812. This was at the average rate
+of about two hundred miles a day, or eight or nine miles an hour. It was
+a most remarkable ride for any age by horse conveyance.
+
+Within the span of a man’s life after that event any one could take a
+trip of that distance in twenty-four hours, with great ease and comfort,
+eating and sleeping on the car, and with convenient telegraph and
+telephone stations along the route by which to comunicate by pen, or
+word of mouth, with distant friends at either end of the journey.
+
+If Napoleon had deemed it best to have continued his journey across the
+Atlantic to America he would have been compelled to pass several weeks
+on an uncomfortable sailing vessel. Now, a floating palace would await
+him which would carry him across in less than six days.
+
+Should mankind be seized with a sudden desire to replace all the
+locomotives in the world by horse power it would be utterly impossible
+to do it. It was recently estimated that there were one hundred and
+fifty thousand locomotives in use on the railroads of the world; and as
+a fair average would give them five hundred horse power each, it will be
+seen that they are the equivalent of seventy-five million horses.
+
+Space and time will not admit of minute descriptions, or hardly a
+mention, of the almost innumerable improvements of the century in steam.
+Having seen the principles on which these inventions have been
+constructed, enumerated the leading ones and glanced at the most
+prominent facts in their history, we must refer the seeker for more
+particulars to those publications of modern patent offices, in which
+each regiment and company of this vast army is embalmed in its own
+especial and ponderous volume.
+
+A survey of the field will call to mind, however, the eloquent words of
+Daniel Webster:--
+
+“And, last of all, with inimitable power, and with a ‘whirlwind sound’
+comes the potent agency of steam. In comparison with the past, what
+centuries of improvement has this single agent compressed in the short
+compass of fifty years! Everywhere practicable, everywhere efficient, it
+has an arm a thousand times stronger than that of Hercules, and to which
+human ingenuity is capable of fitting a thousand times as many hands as
+belonged to Briareus. Steam is found triumphant in operation on the
+seas; and under the influence of its strong propulsion, the gallant
+ship,
+
+  ‘Against the wind, against the tide
+  Still steadies with an upright keel.’
+
+It is on the rivers, and the boatman may repose upon his oars; it is on
+highways, and exerts itself along the courses of land conveyances; it is
+at the bottom of mines, a thousand feet below the earth’s surface; it is
+in the mills and in the workshops of the trades. It rows, it pumps, it
+excavates, it carries, it draws, it lifts, it hammers, it spins, it
+weaves, it prints. It seems to say to men, at least to the class of
+artisans: ‘Leave off your manual labour, give up your bodily toil;
+bestow but your skill and reason to the directing of my power and I will
+bear the toil, with no muscle to grow weary, no nerve to relax, no
+breast to feel faintness!’ What further improvement may still be made in
+the use of this astonishing power it is impossible to know, and it were
+vain to conjecture. What we do know is that it has most essentially
+altered the face of affairs, and that no visible limit yet appears
+beyond which its progress is seen to be impossible.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.
+
+
+The field of service of a civil engineer has thus been eloquently stated
+by a recent writer in _Chambers’s Journal_:
+
+“His duties call upon him to devise the means for surmounting obstacles
+of the most formidable kind. He has to work in the water, over the
+water, and under the water; to cause streams to flow; to check them from
+overflowing; to raise water to a great height; to build docks and walls
+that will bear the dashing of waves; to convert dry land into harbours,
+and low water shores into dry land; to construct lighthouses on lonely
+rocks; to build lofty aqueducts for the conveyance of water, and
+viaducts, for the conveyance of railway trains; to burrow into the
+bowels of the earth with tunnels, shafts, pits and mines; to span
+torrents and ravines with bridges; to construct chimneys that rival the
+loftiest spires and pyramids in height; to climb mountains with roads
+and railways; to sink wells to vast depths in search of water. By
+untiring patience, skill, energy and invention, he produces in these
+several ways works which certainly rank among the marvels of human
+power.”
+
+The pyramids of Egypt, the roads, bridges and aqueducts built by the
+Chinese and by Rome; the great bridges of the Middle Ages, and
+especially those built by that strange fraternal order known as the
+“Brothers of the Bridge”; the ocean-defying lighthouses of a later
+period--these, and more than these, attest the fact that there were
+great engineers before the nineteenth century.
+
+But the engineering of to-day is the hand-maid of all the Sciences; and
+as they each have advanced during the century beyond all that was
+imagined, or dreamed of as possible in former times, so have the labours
+of engineering correspondingly multiplied. No longer are such labours
+classified and grouped in one field, called Civil Engineering, but they
+have been necessarily divided into great additional new and independent
+fields, known as Steam Engineering, Mining Engineering, Hydraulic
+Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Marine Engineering. Within each
+of these fields are assembled innumerable appliances which are the
+offspring of the inventive genius of the century just closed.
+
+We have seen how one discovery, or the development of a certain art,
+brings in its train and often necessitates other inventions and
+discoveries. The development and dedication of the steam engine to the
+transportation of goods and men called for improvements in the roads and
+rails on which the engine and its load were to travel, and this demand
+brought forth those modern railway bridges which are the finest examples
+in the art of bridge making that the world has ever seen.
+
+The greatest bridges of former ages were built of stone and solid
+masonry. Now iron and steel have been substituted, and these light but
+substantial frameworks span wide rivers and deep ravines with almost the
+same speed and gracefulness that the spider spins his silken web from
+limb to limb. These, too, waited for their construction on that next
+turn in the wheel of evolution, which brought better processes in the
+making of iron and steel, and better tools and appliances for working
+metals, and in handling vast and heavy bodies.
+
+The first arched iron bridge was over the Severn at Coalbrookdale,
+England, erected by Abraham Darby in 1777. In 1793 one was erected by
+Telford at Buildwas, and in the same year Burden completed an arch
+across the weir at Sunderland. The most prominent classes of bridges in
+which the highest inventive and constructive genius of the engineers of
+the century are illustrated are known as the _suspension_, the _tubular_
+and the _tubular arch_, the _truss and cantilever_.
+
+Suspension bridges consisting of twisted vines, of iron chains, or of
+bamboo, or cane, or of ropes, have been known in different parts of the
+world from time immemorial, but they bear only a primitive and
+suggestive resemblance to the great iron cable bridges of the nineteenth
+century. The first notable structure of this kind was constructed by Sir
+Samuel Brown, across the Tweed at Berwick, England, in 1819. Brown was
+born in London in 1776 and died in 1852. He entered the navy at the age
+of 18, was made commander in 1811, and retired as captain in 1842. We
+have alluded to the spider’s web, and Smiles, in his _Self Help_,
+relates as an example of intelligent observation that while Capt Brown
+was occupied in studying the character of bridges with the view of
+constructing one of a cheap description to be thrown across the Tweed,
+near which he lived, he was walking in his garden one dewy autumn
+morning when he saw a tiny spider’s web suspended across his path. The
+idea immediately occurred to him of a bridge of iron wires. In 1829
+Brown also was the engineer for suspension bridges built over the Esk at
+Montrose and over the Thames at Hammersmith. Before that time, a span in
+a bridge of 100 feet was considered remarkably long. Suspension bridges
+are best adapted for long spans, and have been constructed with spans
+more than twice as long as any other form. Sir Samuel Brown’s bridge had
+a span of 449 feet. This class of bridges is usually constructed with
+chains or cables passing over towers, with the roadway suspended
+beneath. The ends of the chains or cables are securely anchored. The
+cables are then passed over towers, on which they are supported in
+movable saddles, so that the towers are not overthrown by the strain on
+the cables. Nice calculations have to be made as to the tension to be
+placed on the cables, the allowance for deflection, and the equal
+distribution of weight. The floor-way in the earlier bridges of this
+type was supported by means of a series of equidistant vertical rods,
+and was lacking stiffness, but this was remedied by trussing the road
+bed, using inclined stays extending from the towers and partially
+supporting the roadway for some distance out from the tower.
+
+The next finest suspension bridge was constructed by Thomas Telford and
+finished in 1826, across the Menai Strait to connect the island of
+Anglesea with the mainland of Wales. Telford was born in Dumfriesshire,
+Scotland, in 1757, and died in Westminster in 1834. Beginning life as a
+stone mason, he rose by his own industry to be a master among architects
+and a prince among builders of iron bridges, aqueducts, canals, tunnels,
+harbours and docks.
+
+The Menai bridge was composed of chains or wire ropes, each nearly a
+third of a mile in length, and which descended 60 feet into sloping pits
+or drifts, where they were screwed to cast-iron frames embedded in the
+rocks. The span of the suspended central arch was 560 feet, and the
+platform was 100 feet above high water. Seven stone arches of 52½
+feet span make up the rest of the bridge.
+
+But a suspension bridge was completed in 1834 by M. Challey of Lyon over
+the Saane at Fribourg, Switzerland, which greatly surpassed the Menai
+bridge. The span is 880 feet from pier to pier, and the roadway is 167
+feet above the river. It is supported by four iron wire cables, each
+consisting of 1056 wires. It was tested by placing 15 pieces of
+artillery, drawn by 50 horses and accompanied by 300 men crowded
+together as closely as possible, first at the centre, and then at each
+extreme, causing a depression of 39½ inches, but no sensible
+oscillation was experienced.
+
+Isambard K. Brunel was another great engineer, who constructed a
+suspension bridge at the Isle of Bourbon in 1823, and the Charing Cross
+over the Thames at Hungerford in 1845, which was a footbridge, having a
+span of 675 feet, the longest span of any bridge in England. Then
+followed finer and larger suspension bridges in other parts of the
+world. It was across the Niagara in front of the great falls that in
+1855 British America and the United States were joined by a magnificent
+suspension bridge, one of the finest in the world, and the two English
+speaking countries were then physically and commercially united. At the
+opening of the bridge, one portion of which was for a railway, the
+shriek of the locomotive and the roar of the train mingled with the roar
+of the wild torrent 250 feet below. The bridge, 800 feet long, is a
+single span, supported by four enormous cables of wire stretching from
+the Canadian cliff to the opposite United States cliff. The cables pass
+over the tops of lofty stone towers arising from these cliffs, and each
+cable consists of no less than 4,000 distinct wires. The roadway hangs
+from these cables, suspended by 624 vertical rods.
+
+The engineer of this bridge was John A. Roebling, a native of Prussia,
+born there in 1806, and who died in New York in 1869. He was educated at
+the Polytechnic School in Berlin, and emigrated to America at the age of
+25. His labors were first as a canal and railway engineer, then he
+became the inventor and manufacturer of a new form of wire rope, and
+then turned his attention to the construction of aqueducts and
+suspension bridges. After the Niagara bridge, above described, he
+commenced another bridge of greater dimensions over the same river,
+which was finished within two or three years. His next work was the
+splendid suspension bridge at Cincinnati, Ohio, which has a clear span
+of 1057 feet. In 1869, in connection with his son, Washington A.
+Roebling, he commenced that magnificent suspension bridge to unite the
+great cities of New York and Brooklyn, and which, by its completion,
+resulted in the consolidation of those cities as Greater New York. The
+Roeblings, father and son, were to the engineering of America what
+George Stephenson and his son Robert were to the locomotive and railway
+and bridge engineering of Great Britain.
+
+The Brooklyn bridge, known also as the East River bridge, was formally
+opened to the public on the 24th of May 1883. Most enormous and
+unexpected technical difficulties were met and overcome in its
+construction. Its total length is nearly 6,000 feet. The length of the
+suspended structure from anchorage to anchorage is 3,454 feet. A
+statement of the general features of this bridge indicates the nature of
+the construction of such bridges as a class, and distinguishes them from
+the comparatively simple forms of past ages. This structure is supported
+by two enormous towers, having a height of 276 feet above the surface of
+the water, carrying at their tops the saddles which support the cables,
+and having a span between them of 1,595 feet. The towers are each
+pierced by two archways, 31½ feet wide, and 120½ feet high,
+through which openings passes the floor of the bridge at the height of
+118 feet above high water mark. There are four supporting cables, each
+16 inches in diameter, and each composed of about 5,000 single wires.
+The wire is one-eighth size; 278 single wires are grouped into a rope,
+and 19 ropes bunched to form a cable. The iron saddles at the top of the
+lofty towers, and on which the cables rest, are made movable to permit
+its expansion and compression--and they glide through minute distances
+on iron rollers in saddle plates embedded and anchored in the towers, in
+response to strains and changes of temperature. The enormous cables pass
+from the towers shoreward to their anchorages 930 feet away, and which
+are solid masses of masonry, each 132 x 119 feet at base and top, 89
+feet high, and weighing 60,000 tons. The bridge is divided into five
+avenues: one central one for foot passengers, two outer ones for
+vehicles, and the others for the street cars. The cost of the bridge was
+nearly $15,000,000.
+
+Twenty fatal and many disabling accidents occurred during the
+construction of the bridge. The great engineer Roebling was the first
+victim to an accident. He had his foot crushed while laying the
+foundation of one of the stone piers, and died of lockjaw.
+
+It was necessary to build up the great piers by the aid of caissons,
+which are water-tight casings built of timber and metal and sunk to the
+river bed and sometimes far below it, within which are built the
+foundations of piers or towers, and into which air is pumped for the
+workmen. A fire in one of the caissons, which necessitated its flooding
+by water, and to which the son, Washington Roebling, was exposed,
+resulted in prostrating him with a peculiar form of caisson disease,
+which destroyed the nerves of motion without impairing his intellectual
+faculties. But, although disabled from active work, Mr. Roebling
+continued to superintend the vast project through the constant mediation
+of his wife.
+
+_Tubular Bridges._--These are bridges formed by a great tube or hollow
+beam through the center of which a roadway or railway passes. The name
+would indicate that the bridge was cylindrical in form, and this was the
+first idea. But it was concluded after experiment that a rectangular
+form was the best, as it is more rigid than either a cylindrical or
+elliptical tube. The adoption of this form was due to Fairbairn, the
+celebrated English inventor and engineer of iron structures. The Menai
+tubular railway bridge, adjacent to the suspension bridge of Telford
+across the same strait, and already described, was the first example of
+this type of bridge. Robert Stephenson was the engineer of this great
+structure, aided by the suggestions of Fairbairn and other eminent
+engineers. This bridge was opened for railway traffic in March, 1850. It
+was built on three towers and shore abutments. The width of the strait
+is divided by these towers into four spans--two of 460 feet each, and
+two of 230 feet. In appearance, the bridge looked like one huge, long,
+narrow iron box, but it consisted really of four bridges, each made of a
+pair of rectangular tubes, and through one set of tubes the trains
+passed in going in one direction, and through the other set in going the
+opposite direction. These ponderous tubes were composed of wrought-iron
+plates, from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick, the
+largest 12 feet in length, riveted together and stiffened by angle
+irons. They varied in height--the central ones being the highest and
+those nearest the shore the lowest. The central ones are 30 feet high,
+and the inner ones about 22 feet. Their width was about 14 feet. They
+were built upon platforms on the Caernarvon shore, and the great problem
+was how to lift them and put them in place, especially the central ones,
+which were 460 feet in length. Each tube weighed 1,800 pounds, and they
+were to be raised 192 feet. This operation has been described as “the
+grandest lift ever effected in engineering.” It was accomplished by
+means of powerful hydraulic presses. Another and still grander example
+of this style of bridge is the Victoria at Montreal, Canada. This also
+was designed by Robert Stephenson and built under his direction by James
+Hodges of Montreal. Work was commenced in 1854 and it was completed in
+December, 1859, and opened for travel in 1860. It consists of 24 piers,
+242 feet apart, except the centre one, from which the span is 330 feet.
+The tube is in sections and quadrangular in form. Every plate and piece
+of iron was made and punched in England and brought across the Atlantic.
+In Canada little remained to be done but to put the parts together and
+in position. This, however, was in itself a Herculean task. The enormous
+structure was to be placed sixty feet above the swift current of the
+broad St. Lawrence, and wherein huge masses of ice, each block from
+three to five feet in thickness, accumulated every winter. The work was
+accomplished by the erection of a vast rigid stage of timber, on which
+the tubes were built up plate by plate. When all was completed the great
+staging was removed, and the mighty tube rested alone and secure upon
+its massive wedge-faced piers rising from the bedrock of the flood
+below.
+
+_The Tubular Arch Bridge._--This differs from the tubular bridge proper,
+in that the former consists of a bridge the body of which is supported
+by a tubular archway of iron and steel, whereas in the latter the body
+of the bridge itself is a tube. The tubular arch is also properly
+classed as a girder bridge because the great tube which covers the span
+is simply an immense beam or girder, which supports the superstructure
+on which the floor of the bridge is laid. A fine illustration of this
+style of bridge is seen in what is known as the aqueduct bridge over
+Rock Creek at Washington, D. C., in which the arch consists of two
+cast-iron jointed pipes, supporting a double carriage and a double
+street car way, and through which pipes all the water for the supply of
+the City of Washington passes. General M. C. Meigs was the engineer.
+
+Another far grander illustration of such a structure, in combination
+with the truss system, is that of the Illinois and St. Louis bridge,
+across the Mississippi, of which Captain James B. Eads was the engineer.
+There are three great spans, the central one of which has a length of
+about 520 feet, and the others a few feet less. Four arches form each
+span, each arch consisting of an upper and lower curved member or rib,
+extending from pier to pier, and each member composed of two parallel
+steel tubes.
+
+_Truss and truss arched bridges._--These, for the most part, are those
+quite modern forms of iron or wooden bridges in which a supplementary
+frame work, consisting of iron rods placed obliquely, vertically or
+diagonally, and cemented together, and with the main horizontal beams
+either above or below the same, to produce a stiff and rigid structure,
+calculated to resist strain from all directions.
+
+Previous to the 19th century, the greatest bridges being constructed
+mostly of solid masonry piers and arches, no demand for a bridge of this
+kind existed; but after the use of wrought iron and steel became
+extensive in bridge making, and as these apparently light and airy
+frames may be extended, piece by piece across the widest rivers,
+straits, and arms of the sea, a substitute for the great, expensive, and
+frequent supporting piers became a want, and was supplied by the system
+of trusses and truss arches. The truss system has also been applied to
+the construction of vast modern bridges in places where timber is
+accessible and cheap. Each different system invented bears the name of
+its inventor. Thus, we have the Rider, the Fink, the Bollman, the
+Whipple, the Howe, the Jones, the Linville, the McCallum, Towne’s
+lattice and other systems.
+
+What is called the cantilever system has of late years to a great extent
+superseded the suspension construction. This consists of beams or
+girders extending out from the opposite piers at an upward diagonal
+angle, and meeting at the centre over the span, and there solidly
+connected together, or to horizontal girders, in such manner that the
+compression load is thrown on to the supporting piers, upward strains
+received at the centre, and side deflections provided against. It is
+supposed that greater rigidity is obtained by this means than by the
+suspension, and, like the suspension, great widths may be spanned
+without an under supporting frame work. Two fine examples of this type
+are found, one in a bridge across the Niagara adjacent to the suspension
+bridge above described and one across the river Forth at Queens Ferry in
+Scotland. The Niagara Bridge is a combination of cast steel and iron. It
+was designed by C. C. Schneider and Edmund Hayes. It was built for a
+double-track railroad. The total length of the bridge is 910 feet
+between the centres of the anchorage piers. The cantilevers rest on two
+gigantic steel towers, standing on massive stone piers 39 feet high. The
+clear span between the towers is 470 feet, and the height of the bridge,
+from the mad rush of waters to the car track is 239 feet.
+
+Messrs Fowler and Baker were the engineers of the Forth railway bridge.
+It was begun in 1883 and finished in 1890. It is built nearly all of
+steel, and is one of the most stupendous works of the kind. It crosses
+two channels formed by the island of Inchgarvie, and each of the channel
+spans is 1710 feet in the clear and a clear headway of 150 feet under
+the bridge. Three balanced cantilevers are employed, poised on four
+gigantic steel tube legs supported on four huge masonry piers. The
+height of the bridge above the piers is 330 feet. The cantilever portion
+has the appearance of a vast elongated diamond. Steel lattice work of
+girders, forms the upper side of the cantilever, while the under side
+consists of a hollow curve approaching in form a quadrant of a circle
+drawn from the base of the legs or struts to the ends of the cantilever.
+
+Such is the growth of these great bridges with their tremendous spans
+across which man is spinning his iron webs, that when seen at night with
+a fiery engine pulling its thundering train across in the darkness, one
+is reminded of Milton’s description, “over the dark abyss whose boiling
+gulf tamely endured a bridge of wondrous length, from Hell continued,
+reaching the utmost orb of this frail world.”
+
+The _lighthouses_ of the century, in masonry, do not greatly excel in
+general principles those of preceding ones, as at Eddystone, designed by
+Smeaton. Nicholas Douglass, however, invented a new system of
+dovetailing, and great improvements have been made in the system of
+illuminating.
+
+Lighthouses are also distinguished from those of preceding centuries by
+the substitution of iron and cast steel for masonry. The first cast-iron
+lighthouse was put up at Point Morant, Jamaica, in 1842. Since then they
+have taken the form of iron skeleton towers.
+
+One of the latest and most picturesque of lighthouses is that of
+Bartholdi’s statue of Liberty enlightening the world, the gift of the
+French government to the United States, framed by M. Eiffel, the great
+French engineer, and set up by the United States at Bedloe’s Island in
+New York harbor. It consists of copper plates on a network of iron.
+Although the statue is larger than any in the world of such composite
+construction, its success as a lighthouse is not as notable as many
+farther seaward.
+
+In _excavating_, _dredging_ and _draining_, the inventions of the
+century have been very numerous, but, like numerous advances in the
+arts, such inventions, so far as great works are concerned, have
+developed from and are closely related to steam engineering.
+
+The making of roads, railroads, canals and tunnels has called forth
+thousands of ingenious mechanisms for their accomplishment. A half dozen
+men with a steam-power excavator or dredger can in one day perform a
+greater extent of work than could a thousand men and a thousand horses
+in a single day a few generations ago.
+
+An excavating machine consisting of steel knives to cut the earth, iron
+scoops, buckets and dippers to scoop it up, endless chains or cranes to
+lift them, actuated by steam, and operated by a single engineer, will
+excavate cubic yards of earth by the minute and at a cost of but a few
+dollars a day.
+
+Dredging machines of a great variety have been constructed. Drags and
+scoops for elevating, and buckets, scrapers and shovels, and rotating
+knives to first loosen the earth, suction pumps and pipes, which will
+suck great quantities of the loosened earth through pipes to places to
+be filled--these and kindred devices are now constantly employed to dig
+and excavate, to deepen and widen rivers, to drain lands, to dig canals,
+to make harbours, to fill up the waste places and to make courses for
+water in desert lands.
+
+Inventions for the excavating of clay, piling and burning it in a crude
+state for ballast for railways, are important, especially for those
+railways which traverse areas where clay is plentiful, and stones and
+gravel are lacking.
+
+Sinking shafts through quicksands by artificially freezing the sand, so
+as to form a firm frozen wall immediately around the area where the
+shaft is to be sunk, is a recent new idea.
+
+Modern countries especially are waking up to the necessity of good
+roads, not only as a necessary means of transportation, but as a
+pre-requisite to decent civilisation in all respects. And, therefore,
+great activity has been had in the last third of a century in invention
+of machines for finishing and repairing roads.
+
+In the matter of sewer construction, regarded now so necessary in all
+civilised cities and thickly-settled communities as one of the means of
+proper sanitation, great improvements have been made in deep sewerage,
+in which the work is largely performed below the surface and with little
+obstruction to street traffic.
+
+In connection with excavating and dredging machines, mention should be
+made of those great works in the construction of which they bore such
+important parts, as drainage and land reclamation, such as is seen in
+the modern extensions of land reclamation in Holland, in the Haarlem
+lake district in the North part of England, the swamps of Florida and
+the drainage of the London district; in modern tunnels such as the
+Hoosac in America and the three great ones through the Alps: the Mont
+Cenis, St. Gothard, and Arlberg, the work in which developed an entirely
+new system of engineering, by the application of newly-discovered
+explosives for blasting, new rock-drilling machinery, new
+air-compressing machines for driving the drill machines and ventilating
+the works, and new hydraulic and pumping machinery for sinking shafts
+and pumping out the water.
+
+The great canals, especially the Suez, developed a new system of canal
+engineering. Thus by modern inventions of devices for digging and
+blasting, dredging and draining and attendant operations, some of the
+greatest works of man on earth have been produced, and evinced the
+exercise of his highest inventive genius.
+
+If one wishes an ocular demonstration of the wonders wrought in the 19th
+century in the several domains of engineering, let him take a Pullman
+train across the continent from New York to San Francisco. The distance
+is 3,000 miles and the time is four days and four nights. The car in
+which the passenger finds himself is a marvel of woodwork and
+upholstery--a description of the machinery and processes for producing
+which belongs to other arts. The railroad tracks upon which the vehicle
+moves are in themselves the results of many inventions. There is the
+width of the track, and it was only after a long and expensive contest
+that countries and corporations settled upon a uniform gauge. The common
+gauge of the leading countries and roads is now 4 feet 8½ inches. A
+greater width is known as a broad gauge, a less width as a narrow gauge.
+Then as to the rail: first the wooden, then the iron and now the steel,
+and all of many shapes and weights. The T-rail invented by Birkensaw in
+1820, having two flanges at the top to form a wide berth for the wheels
+of the rolling stock, the vertical portion gripped by chairs which are
+spiked to the ties, is the best known. Then the frogs, a V-shaped device
+by which the wheels are guided from one line of rails to another, when
+they form angles with each other; the car wheel made with a flange or
+flanges to fit the rail, and the railway gates, ingenious contrivances
+that guard railway crossings and are operated automatically by the
+passing trains, but more commonly by watchmen. The car may be lighted
+with electricity, and as the train dashes along at the rate of 30 to 80
+miles an hour, it may be stopped in less than a minute by the touch of
+the engineer on an air brake. Is it midwinter and are mountains of snow
+encountered? They disappear before the railway snow-plough more quickly
+than they came. It passes over bridges, through tunnels, across
+viaducts, around the edges of mountain peaks, every mile revealing the
+wondrous work of man’s inventive genius for encompassing the earth with
+speed, safety and comfort. Over one-half million miles of these railway
+tracks are on the earth’s surface to-day!
+
+Not only has the railway superseded horse power in the matter of
+transportation to a vast extent, but other modes of transportation are
+taking the place of that useful animal. The old-fashioned stage coach,
+and then the omnibus, were successively succeeded by the street car
+drawn by horses, and then about twenty years ago the horse began to be
+withdrawn from that work and the cable substituted.
+
+_Cable transportation_ developed from the art of making iron wire and
+steel wire ropes or cables. And endless cables placed underground,
+conveyed over rollers and supported on suitable yokes, and driven from a
+great central power house, came into use, and to which the cars were
+connected by ingeniously contrived lever grips--operated by the driver
+on the car. These great cable constructions, expensive as they were,
+were found more economical than horse power. In fact, there is no
+modernly discovered practical motive power but what has been found less
+expensive both as to time and money than horse power. But the cable for
+this purpose is now in turn everywhere yielding to electricity, the
+great motor next to steam. The overhead cable system for the
+transportation of materials of various descriptions in carriers, also
+run by a central motor, is still very extensively used. The cable plan
+has also been tried with some success in the propelling of canal boats.
+
+_Canals_, themselves, although finding a most serious and in some
+localities an entirely destructive rival in the railroad, have grown in
+size and importance, and in appliances that have been substituted for
+the old-style locks. The latest form of this device is what is known as
+the pneumatic balance lock system.
+
+It has been said by Octave Chanute that “Progress in civilisation may
+fairly be said to be dependent upon the facilities for men to get about,
+upon their intercourse with other men and nations, not only in order to
+supply their mutual needs cheaply, but to learn from each other their
+wants, their discoveries and their inventions.” Next to the power and
+means for moving people, come the immense and wonderful inventions for
+lifting and loading, such as cranes and derricks, means for coaling
+ships and steamers, for handling and storing the great agricultural
+products, grain and hay, and that modern wonder, the _grain elevator_,
+that dots the coasts of rivers, lakes and seas, receives the vast stores
+of golden grain from thousands of steam cars that come to it laden from
+distant plains and discharges it swiftly in mountain loads into vessels
+and steamers to be carried to the multitudes across the seas, and to
+satisfy that ever-continuing cry, “Give us this day our daily bread.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ELECTRICITY.
+
+
+In 1900 the real nature of electricity appears to be as unknown as it
+was in 1800.
+
+Franklin in the eighteenth century defined electricity as consisting of
+particles of matter incomparably more subtle than air, and which
+pervaded all bodies. At the close of the nineteenth century electricity
+defined as “simply a form of energy which imparts to material substances
+a peculiar state or condition, and that all such substances partake more
+or less of this condition.”
+
+These theories and the late discovery of Hertz that electrical energy
+manifests itself in the form of waves, oscillations or vibrations,
+similar to light, but not so rapid as the vibrations of light,
+constitute about all that is known about the nature of this force.
+
+Franklin believed it was a single fluid, but others taught that there
+were two kinds of electricity, positive and negative, that the like
+kinds were repulsive and the unlike kinds attractive, and that when
+generated it flowed in currents.
+
+Such terms are not now regarded as representing actual varieties of this
+force, but are retained as convenient modes of expression, for want of
+better ones, as expressing the conditions or states of electricity when
+produced.
+
+Electricity produced by friction, that is, developed upon the surface of
+a body by rubbing it with a dissimilar body, and called frictional or
+static electricity, was the only kind produced artificially in the days
+of Franklin. What is known as galvanism, or animal electricity, also
+takes its date in the 18th century, to which further reference will be
+made. Since 1799 there have been discovered additional sources, among
+which are voltaic electricity, or electricity produced by chemical
+action, such as is manifested when two dissimilar metals are brought
+near each other or together, and electrical manifestations produced by a
+decomposing action, one upon the other through a suitable medium;
+inductive electricity, or electricity developed or induced in one body
+by its proximity to another body through which a current is flowing;
+magnetic electricity, the conversion of the power of a magnet into
+electric force, and the reverse of this, the production of magnetic
+force by a current of electricity; and thermal electricity, or that
+generated by heat. Electricity developed by these, or other means in
+contra-distinction to that produced by friction, has been called
+dynamic; but all electric force is now regarded as dynamic, in the sense
+that forces are always in motion and never at rest.
+
+Many of the manifestations and experiments in later day fields which, by
+reason of their production by different means, have been given the names
+of discovery and invention, had become known to Franklin and others, by
+means of the old methods in frictional electricity. They are all,
+however, but different routes leading to the same goal. In the midst of
+the brilliant discoveries of modern times confronting us on every side
+we should not forget the honourable efforts of the fathers of the
+science.
+
+We need not dwell on what the ancients produced in this line. It was a
+single fact only:--The Greeks discovered that amber, a resinous
+substance, when rubbed would attract lighter bodies to it.
+
+In 1600 appeared the father of modern electricity--Dr. Gilbert of
+Colchester, physician to Queen Elizabeth. He revived the one experiment
+of antiquity, and added to it the further fact that many substances
+besides amber, when rubbed, would manifest the same electric condition,
+such as sulphur, sapphire, wax, glass and other bodies. And thus he
+opened the field of electrodes. He was the first to use the terms,
+electricity, electric and electrode, which he derived from the word
+_elektron_, the Greek name for amber. He observed the actions of
+magnets, and conjectured the fundamental identity of magnetism and
+electricity. He arranged an electrometer, consisting of an iron needle
+poised on a pivot, by which to note the action of the magnet. This was
+about the time that Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg, Germany, was born.
+He became a “natural” philosopher, and for thirty-five years was
+burgomaster of his native town. He invented the air-pump, and he it was
+who illustrated the force of atmospheric pressure by fitting together
+two hollow brass hemispheres which, after the air within them had been
+exhausted, could not be pulled apart. He also invented a barometer, and
+as an astronomer suggested that the return of comets might be
+calculated. He invented and constructed the first machine for generating
+electricity. It consisted of a ball of sulphur rotated on an axis, and
+which was electrified by friction of the hand, the ball receiving
+negative electricity while the positive flowed through the person to the
+earth. With this machine “he heard the first sound and saw the first
+light in artificially excited electricity.” The machine was improved by
+Sir Isaac Newton and others, and before the close of that century was
+put into substantially its present form of a round glass plate rotated
+between insulated leather cushions coated with an amalgam of tin and
+zinc, the positive or vitreous electricity thus developed being
+accumulated on two large hollow brass cylinders with globular ends,
+supported on glass pillars. Gray in 1729 discovered the conductive power
+of certain substances, and that the electrical influence could be
+conveyed to a distance by means of an insulated wire. This was the first
+step towards the electric telegraph.
+
+Dufay, the French philosopher and author, who in 1733-1737 wrote the
+_Memoirs of the French Academy_, was, it seems, the first to observe
+electrical attractions and repulsions; that electrified resinous
+substances repelled like substances while they attracted bodies
+electrified by contact with glass; and he, therefore, to the latter
+applied the term _vitreous_ electricity and to the former the term
+_resinous_ electricity. In 1745 Prof. Muschenbroeck of Leyden University
+developed the celebrated Leyden jar. This is a glass jar coated both
+inside and outside with tinfoil for about four-fifths of its height. Its
+mouth is closed with a cork through which is passed a metallic rod,
+terminating above in a knob and connected below with the inner coating
+by a chain or a piece of tinfoil. If the inner coating be connected with
+an electrical machine and the outer coating with the earth, a current of
+electricity is established, and the inner coating receives what is
+called a positive and the outer coating a negative charge. On connecting
+the two surfaces by means of a metallic discharger having a
+non-conducting handle a spark is obtained. Thus the Leyden jar is both a
+collector and a condenser of electricity. On arranging a series of such
+jars and joining their outer and inner surfaces, and connecting the
+series with an electrical machine, a battery is obtained of greater or
+less power according to the number of jars employed and the extent of
+supply from the machine.
+
+The principle of the Leyden jar was discovered by accident. Cuneus, a
+pupil of Muschenbroeck, was one day trying to charge some water in a
+glass bottle with electricity by connecting it with a chain to the
+sparking knob of an electrical machine. Holding the bottle in one hand
+he arranged the chain with the other, and received a violent shock. His
+teacher then tried the experiment himself, with a still livelier and
+more convincing result, whereupon he declared that he would not repeat
+the trial for the whole Kingdom of France.
+
+When the science of static electricity was thus far developed, with a
+machine for generating it and a collector to receive it, many
+experiments followed. Charles Morrison in 1753, in the _Scots Magazine_,
+proposed a telegraph system of insulated wires with a corresponding
+number of characters to be signalled between two stations. Other schemes
+were proposed at different times down to the close of the century.
+
+Franklin records among several other experiments with frictional
+electricity accumulated by the Leyden jar battery the following results,
+produced chiefly by himself: The existence of an attractive and a
+repulsive action of electricity; the restoration of the equilibrium of
+electrical force between electrified and non-electrified bodies, or
+between bodies differently supplied with the force; the electroscope, a
+body charged with electricity and used to indicate the presence and
+condition of electricity in another body; the production of work, as the
+turning of wheels, by which it was proposed a spit for roasting meat
+might be formed, and the ringing of chimes by a wheel, which was done;
+the firing of gunpowder, the firing of wood, resin and spirits; the
+drawing off a charge from electrified bodies at a near distance by
+pointed rods; the heating and melting of metals; the production of
+light; the magnetising of needles and of bars of iron, giving rise to
+the analogy of magnetism and electricity.
+
+Franklin, who had gone thus far, and who also had drawn the lightning
+from the clouds, identified it as electricity, and taught the mode of
+its subjection, felt chagrined that more had not been done with this
+subtle agent in the service of man. He believed, however, that the
+day-spring of science was opening, and he seemed to have caught some
+reflection of its coming light. Observing the return to life and
+activity of some flies long imprisoned in a bottle of Madeira wine and
+which he restored by exposure to the sun and air, he wrote that he
+should like to be immersed at death with a few friends in a cask of
+Madeira, to be recalled to life a hundred years thence to observe the
+state of his country. It would not have been necessary for him to have
+been embalmed that length of time to have witnessed some great
+developments of his favorite science. He died in 1790, and it has been
+said that there was more real progress in this science in the first
+decade of the nineteenth century than in all previous centuries put
+together.
+
+Before opening the door of the 19th century, let us glance at one more
+experiment in the 18th:
+
+While the aged Franklin was dying, Dr. Luigi Galvani of Bologna, an
+Italian physician, medical lecturer, and learned author, was preparing
+for publication his celebrated work, _De viribus Electricitatis in Motu
+Musculari Commentarius_, in which he described his discovery made a few
+years before of the action of the electric current on the legs and
+spinal column of a frog hung on a copper nail. This discovery at once
+excited the attention of scientists, but in the absence of any immediate
+practical results the multitude dubbed him the “frog philosopher.” He
+proceeded with his experiments on animals and animal matter, and
+developed the doctrine and theories of what is known as animal or
+galvanic electricity. His fellow countryman and contemporary, Prof.
+Volta of Pavia, took decided issue with Galvani and maintained that the
+pretended animal electricity was nothing but electricity developed by
+the contact of two different metals. Subsequent investigations and
+discoveries have established the fact that both theories have truth for
+their basis, and that electricity is developed both by muscular and
+nervous energy as well as by chemical action. In 1799 Volta invented his
+celebrated pile, consisting of alternate disks of copper and zinc
+separated by a cloth moistened with a dilute acid; and soon after an
+arrangement of cups--each containing a dilute acid and a copper and a
+zinc plate placed a little distance apart, and thus dispensing with the
+cloth. In both instances he connected the end plate of one kind with the
+opposite end plate of the other kind by a wire, and in both arrangements
+produced a current of electricity. To the discoveries, experiments, and
+disputes of Galvani and Volta and to those of their respective
+adherents, the way was opened to the splendid electrical inventions of
+the century, and the discovery of a new world of light, heat, speech and
+power. The discoveries of Galvani and Volta at once set leading
+scientists at work. Fabroni of Florence, and Sir Humphry Davy and
+Wollaston of England, commenced interesting experiments, showing that
+rapid oxidation and chemical decomposition of the metals took place in
+the voltaic pile.
+
+By the discoveries of Galvani the physicians and physiologists were
+greatly excited, and believed that by this new vital power the nature of
+all kinds of nervous diseases could be explored and the remedy applied.
+Volta’s discovery excited the chemists. If two dissimilar metals could
+be decomposed and power at the same time produced they contended that
+practical work might be done with the force. In 1800 Nicholson and
+Carlisle decomposed water by passing the electric current through the
+same; Ritter decomposed copper sulphate, and Davy decomposed the
+alkalies, potash and soda. Thus the art of electrolysis--the
+decomposition of substances by the galvanic current, was established.
+Later Faraday laid down its laws. Naturally inventions sprung up in new
+forms of batteries. The pile and cup battery of Volta had been succeeded
+by the trough battery--a long box filled with separated plates set in
+dilute acid. The trough battery was used by Sir Humphry Davy in his
+series of great experiments--1806-1808--in which he isolated the
+metallic bases, calcium, sodium, potassium, etc. It consisted of 2000
+double plates of copper and zinc, each having a surface of 32 square
+inches. With this same trough battery Davy in 1812 produced the first
+electric carbon light, the bright herald of later glories.
+
+Among the most noted new batteries were Daniell’s, Grove’s and Bunsen’s.
+They are called the “two fluid batteries,” because in place of a single
+acidulated bath in which the dissimilar metals were before placed, two
+different liquid solutions were employed.
+
+John Frederick Daniell of London, noted for his great work,
+_Meteorological Essays_, and other scientific publications, and as
+Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, in 1836, described how a
+powerful and constant current of electricity may be continued for an
+unlimited period by a battery composed of zinc standing in an acid
+solution and a sheet of copper in a solution of sulphate of copper.
+
+Sir William Robert Grove, first an English physician, then an eminent
+lawyer, and then a professor of natural philosophy, and the first to
+announce the great theory of the Correlation of Physical Forces, in 1839
+produced his battery, much more powerful than any previous one, and
+still in general use. In it zinc and platinum are the metals used--the
+zinc bent into cylindrical form and placed in a glass jar containing a
+weak solution of sulphuric acid, while the platinum stands in a porous
+jar holding strong nitric acid and surrounded by the zinc. Among the
+electrical discoveries of Grove were the decomposition by electricity of
+water into free oxygen and hydrogen, the electricity of the flame of the
+blow-pipe, electrical action produced by proximity, without contact, of
+dissimilar metals, molecular movements induced in metals by the electric
+current, and the conversion of electricity into mechanical force.
+
+Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, a German chemist and philosopher and scientific
+writer, who invented some of the most important aids to scientific
+research of the century, who constructed the best working chemical
+laboratory on the continent and founded the most celebrated schools of
+chemistry in Europe, invented a battery, sometimes called the carbon
+battery, in which the expensive pole of platinum in the Grove battery is
+replaced by one of carbon. It was found that this combination gave a
+greater current than that of zinc and platinum.
+
+A great variety of useful voltaic batteries have since been devised by
+others, too numerous to be mentioned here. There is another form of
+battery having for its object the storing of energy by electrolysis, and
+liberating it when desired, in the form of an electric current, and
+known as an accumulator, or secondary, polarization, or storage battery.
+Prof. Ritter had noticed that the two plates of metal which furnished
+the electric current, when placed in the acid liquid and united, could
+in themselves furnish a current, and the inventing of _storage_
+batteries was thus produced. The principal ones of this class are
+Gustave Planté’s of 1860 and M. Camille Faure’s of 1880. These have
+still further been improved. Still another form are the _thermo-electric
+batteries_, in which the electro-motive force is produced by the joining
+of two different metals, connecting them by a wire and heating their
+junctions. Thus, an electric current is obtained directly from heat,
+without going through the intermediate processes of boiling water to
+produce steam, using this steam to drive an engine, and using this
+engine to turn a dynamo machine to produce power.
+
+But let us retrace our steps:--As previously stated, Franklin had
+experimented with frictional electricity on needles, and had magnetised
+and polarised them and noticed their deflection; and Lesage had
+established an experimental telegraph at Geneva by the same kind of
+electricity more than a hundred years ago. But frictional electricity
+could not be transmitted with power over long distances, and was for
+practical purposes uncontrollable by reason of its great diffusion over
+surfaces, while voltaic electricity was found to be more intense and
+could be developed with great power along a wire for any distance. Fine
+wires had been heated and even melted by Franklin by frictional
+electricity, and now Ritter, Pfaff and others observed the same effect
+produced on the conducting wires by a voltaic current; and Curtet, on
+closing the passage with a piece of charcoal, produced a brilliant
+light, which was followed by Davy’s light already mentioned.
+
+As early as 1802 an Italian savant, Gian D. Romagnosi of Trent, learning
+of Volta’s discovery, observed and announced in a public print the
+deflection of the magnetic needle when placed near a parallel conductor
+of the galvanic current. In the years 1819 and 1820 so many brilliant
+discoveries and inventions were made by eminent men, independently and
+together, and at such near and distant places, that it is hard telling
+who and which was first. It was in 1819 that the celebrated Danish
+physicist, Oersted of Copenhagen, rediscovered the phenomena that the
+voltaic current would deflect a magnetic needle, and that the needle
+would turn at right angles to the wire. In 1820 Prof. S. C. Schweigger
+of Halle discovered that this deflecting force was increased when the
+wire was wound several times round the needle, and thus he invented the
+magnetising helix. He also then invented a galvano-magnetic indicator (a
+single-wire circuit) by giving the insulated wire a number of turns
+around an elongated frame longitudinally enclosing the compass needle,
+thus multiplying the effect of the current upon the sensitive needle,
+and converting it into a practical _measuring_ instrument--known as the
+galvanometer, and used to observe the strength of currents. In the same
+year Arago found that iron filings were attracted by a voltaic charged
+wire; and Arago and Davy that a piece of soft iron surrounded spirally
+by a wire through which such a current was passed would become magnetic,
+attract to it other metals while in that condition, immediately drop
+them the instant the current ceased, and that such current would
+permanently magnetise a steel bar. The elements of the _electro-magnet_
+had thus been produced. It was in that year that Ampère discovered that
+magnetism is the circulation of currents of electricity at right angles
+to the axis of the needle or bar joining the two poles of the magnet. He
+then laid down the laws of interaction between magnets and electrical
+currents, and in this same year he proposed an electric-magneto
+telegraph consisting of the combination of a voltaic battery, conducting
+wires, and magnetic needles, one needle for each letter of the alphabet.
+
+The discoveries of Ampère as to the laws of electricity have been
+likened to the discovery of Newton of the law of gravitation.
+
+Still no practical result, that is, no useful machine, had been produced
+by the electro-magnet.
+
+In 1825 Sturgeon of England bent a piece of wire into the shape of a
+horse-shoe, insulated it with a coating of sealing wax, wound a fine
+copper wire around it, thus making a helix, passed a galvanic current
+through the helix, and thus invented the first practical electro-magnet.
+But Sturgeon’s magnet was weak, and could not transmit power for more
+than fifty feet. Already, however, it had been urged that Sturgeon’s
+magnet could be used for telegraphic purposes, and a futile trial was
+made. In the field during this decade also labored the German professors
+Gauss and Weber, and Baron Schilling of Russia. In 1829 Prof. Barlow of
+England published an article in which he summarised what had been done,
+and scientifically demonstrated to his own satisfaction that an
+electro-magnetic telegraph was impracticable, and his conclusion was
+accepted by the scientific world as a fact. This was, however, not the
+first nor the last time that scientific men had predicted
+impracticabilities with electricity which afterwards blossomed into full
+success. But even before Prof. Barlow was thus arriving at his
+discouraging conclusion, Prof. Joseph Henry at the Albany Institute in
+the State of New York had commenced experiments which resulted in the
+complete and successful demonstration of the power of electro-magnetism
+for not only telegraph purposes but for almost every advancement that
+has since been had in this branch of physics. In March 1829 he exhibited
+at his Institute the magnetic “spool” or “bobbin,” that form of coil
+composed of tightly-wound, silk-covered wire which he had constructed,
+and which since has been universally employed for nearly every
+application of electro-magnetism, of induction, or of magneto-electrics.
+And in the same year and in 1830 he produced those powerful magnets
+through which the energy of a galvanic battery was used to lift hundreds
+of tons of weight.
+
+In view of all the facts now historically established, there can be no
+doubt that previous to Henry’s experiments the means for developing
+magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and that, as found
+by Prof. Barlow, the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable
+and impracticable for the transmission of power to a distance. Prof.
+Henry was the first to prove that a galvanic battery of “intensity” must
+be employed to project the current through a long conductor, and that a
+magnet of one long wire must be used to receive this current; the first
+to magnetise a piece of soft iron at a distance and call attention to
+its applicability to the telegraph; the first to actually sound a bell
+at a distance by means of the electro-magnet; and the first to show that
+the principles he developed were applicable and necessary to the
+practical operation of an effective telegraph system.
+
+Sturgeon, the parent of the electro-magnet, on learning of Henry’s
+discoveries and inventions, wrote: “Professor Henry has been enabled to
+produce a magnetic force which totally eclipses every other in the whole
+annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be found since the miraculous
+suspension of the celebrated oriental impostor in his iron coffin.”
+(_Philosophical Magazine and Annals_, 1832.)
+
+The third decade was now prepared for the development of the telegraph.
+As to the telegraph in its broadest sense, as a means for conveying
+intelligence to a distance quickly and without a messenger, successful
+experiments of that kind have existed from the earliest times:--from the
+signal fires of the ancients; from the flag signals between ships at
+sea, introduced in the seventeenth century by the Duke of York, then
+Admiral of the English fleet, and afterwards James II of England; from
+the semaphore telegraph of M. Chappe, adopted by the French government
+in 1794, consisting of bars pivoted to an upright stationary post, and
+made to swing vertically or horizontally to indicate certain signals;
+and from many other forms of earlier and later days.
+
+As to electricity as an agent for the transmission of signals, the idea
+dates, as already stated, from the discovery of Stephen Gray in 1729,
+that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by the
+means of an insulated wire. This was followed by the practical
+suggestions of Franklin and others. But when, as we have seen, voltaic
+electricity entered the field, electricity became a more powerful and
+tractable servant, and distant intelligent signals became one of its
+first labors.
+
+The second decade was also made notable by the discovery and
+establishment by George Simon Ohm, a German professor of Physics, of the
+fundamental mathematical law of electricity: It has been expressed in
+the following terms: (a) the current strength is equal to the
+electro-motive force divided by the resistance; (b) the force is equal
+to the current strength multiplied by the resistance; (c) the resistance
+is equal to the force divided by the current strength.
+
+The historical development and evolution of the telegraph may be now
+summarized:--
+
+1. The discovery of galvanic electricity by Galvani--1786-1790.
+
+2. The galvanic or voltaic battery by Volta in 1800.
+
+3. The galvanic influence on a magnetic needle by Romagnosi (1802)
+Oersted (1820).
+
+4. The galvanometer of Schweigger, 1820--the parent of the needle
+system.
+
+5. The electro-magnet by Arago and Sturgeon--1820-1825--the parent of
+the magnet system.
+
+Then followed in the third decade the important series of steps in the
+evolution, consisting of:--
+
+_First_, and most vital, Henry’s discovery in 1829 and 1830 of the
+“intensity” or spool-wound magnet, and its intimate relation to the
+“intensity” battery, and the subordinate use of an armature as the
+signalling device.
+
+_Second_, Gauss’s improvement in 1833 (or probably Schilling’s
+considerably earlier) of reducing the electric conductors to a single
+circuit by the ingenious use of a dual sign so combined as to produce a
+true alphabet.
+
+_Third_, Weber’s discovery in 1833 that the conducting wires of an
+electric telegraph could be efficiently carried through the air without
+any insulation except at their points of support.
+
+_Fourth_, Daniell’s invention of a “constant” galvanic battery in 1836.
+
+_Fifth_, Steinheil’s remarkable discovery in 1837 that the earth may
+form the returning half of a closed galvanic circuit, so that a single
+conducting wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes.
+
+_Sixth_, Morse’s adaptation of the armature and electro-magnet of Henry
+as a recording instrument in 1837 in connection with his improvement in
+1838 on the Schilling, Gauss and Steinheil alphabets by employing the
+simple “dot and dash” alphabet in a single line. He was also assisted by
+the suggestions of Profs. Dana and Gale. To which must be added his
+adoption of Alfred Vail’s improved alphabet, and Vail’s practical
+suggestions in respect to the recording and other instrumentalities.
+
+To these should be added the efforts in England, made almost
+simultaneously with those of Morse, of Wheatstone and Cook and Davy, who
+were reaching the same goal by somewhat different routes.
+
+Morse in 1837 commenced to put the results of his experiments and
+investigations in the form of caveats, applications and letters patent
+in the United States and in Europe. He struggled hard against
+indifference and poverty to introduce his invention to the world. It was
+not until 1844 that he reduced it to a commercial practical success. He
+then laid a telegraph from Washington to Baltimore under the auspices of
+the United States Government, which after long hesitation appropriated
+$30,000 for the purpose. It was on the 24th day of May, 1844, that the
+first formal message was transmitted on this line between the two cities
+and recorded by the electro-magnet in the dot and dash alphabet, and
+this was immediately followed by other messages on the same line.
+
+Morse gathered freely from all sources of which he could avail himself
+knowledge of what had gone before. He was not a scientific discoverer,
+but an inventor, who, adding a few ideas of his own to what had before
+been discovered, was the first to combine them in a practical useful
+device. What he did as an inventor, and what anyone may do to constitute
+himself an inventor, by giving to the world a device which is useful in
+the daily work of mankind, as distinguished from the scientific
+discoverer who stops short of successful industrial work, is thus stated
+by the United States Supreme Court in an opinion sustaining the validity
+of his patents, after all the previous art had been produced before
+it:--
+
+“Neither can the inquiries he made nor the information or advice he
+received from men of science in the course of his researches impair his
+right to the character of an inventor. No invention can possibly be
+made, consisting of a combination of different elements of power,
+without a thorough knowledge of the properties of each of them, and the
+mode in which they operate on each other. And it can make no difference
+in this respect, whether he derives his information from books, or from
+conversation with men skilled in the science. If it were otherwise, no
+patent in which a combination of different elements is used would ever
+be obtained, for no man ever made such an invention without having first
+obtained this information, unless it was discovered by some fortunate
+accident. And it is evident that such an invention as the
+electro-magnetic telegraph could never have been brought into action
+without it; for a very high degree of scientific knowledge and the
+nicest skill in the mechanic arts are combined in it, and were both
+necessary to bring it into successful operation. The fact that Morse
+sought and obtained the necessary information and counsel from the best
+sources, and acted upon it, neither impairs his rights as an inventor
+nor detracts from his merits.”--_O’Reilly vs. Morse, 5 Howard_.
+
+The combination constituting Morse’s invention comprised a main wire
+circuit to transmit the current through its whole length whenever
+closed; a main galvanic battery to supply the current; operating keys to
+break and close the main circuit; office circuits; a circuit of
+conductors and batteries at each office to record the message there;
+receiving spring lever magnets to close an office circuit when a current
+passes through the main circuit; adjusting screws to vary the force of
+the main current; marking apparatus, consisting of pointed pieces of
+wire, to indent dots and lines upon paper; clockwork to move the paper
+indented; and magnet sounders to develop the power of the pointer and of
+the armatures to produce audible distinguishable sounds.
+
+It was soon learned by operators how to distinguish the signs or letters
+sent by the length of the “click” of the armature, and by thus reading
+by sound the reading of the signs on paper was dispensed with, and the
+device became an electric-magnetic acoustic telegraph.
+
+What is known as the Morse system has been improved, but its fundamental
+principles remain, and their world-wide use constitute still the daily
+evidence of the immense value of the invention to mankind.
+
+Before the 1844 reduction to practice, Morse had originated and laid the
+first submarine telegraph. This was in New York harbour in 1842. In a
+letter to the Secretary of the United States Treasury, August 10, 1843,
+he also suggested the project of an Atlantic telegraph.
+
+While Henry was busy with his great magnets and Morse struggling to
+introduce his telegraph, Michael Faraday was making those investigations
+and discoveries which were to result in the application of electricity
+to the service of man in still wider and grander fields.
+
+Faraday was a chemist, and Davy’s most brilliant pupil and efficient
+assistant. His earliest experiments were in the line of electrolysis.
+This was about 1822, but it was not until 1831 that he began to devote
+his brilliant talents as an experimentalist and lecturer wholly to
+electrical researches, and for a quarter of a century his patient,
+wonderful labours and discoveries continued. It has been said that
+“although Oersted was the discoverer of electro-magnetism and Ampère its
+expounder, Faraday made the science of magnets electrically what it is
+at the present day.”
+
+Great magnetic power having been developed by passing a galvanic current
+around a bar of soft iron, Faraday concluded that it was reasonable to
+suppose that as mechanical action is accompanied by an equal amount of
+reaction, electricity ought to be evolved from magnetism.
+
+“It was in 1831 that Faraday demonstrated before the Royal Society that
+if a magnetized bar of steel be introduced into the centre of a helix of
+insulated wire, there is at the moment of introduction of the magnet a
+current of electricity set up in a certain direction in the insulated
+wire forming the helix, while on the withdrawal of the magnet from the
+helix a current in an opposite direction takes place.
+
+“He also discovered that the same phenomenon was to be observed if for
+the magnet was substituted a coil of insulated wire, through which the
+current from a voltaic element was passing; and further that when an
+insulated coil of wire was made to revolve before the poles of a
+permanent magnet, electric currents were induced in the wires of the
+coil.”--_Journal of the Society of Arts._
+
+On these discoveries were based the action of all magneto-dynamo
+electric machines--machines that have enabled the world to convert the
+energy of a steam engine in its stall, or a distant waterfall, into
+electric energy for the performance of the herculean labours of lighting
+a great city, or an ocean-bound lighthouse, or transporting quickly
+heavy loads of people or freight up and down and to and fro upon the
+earth.
+
+As before stated, Faraday was also the first to proclaim the laws of
+electrolysis, or electro-chemical decomposition. He expressed conviction
+that the forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one and the
+same. Subsequently the great Helmholtz, having proved by experiment that
+in the phenomena of electrolysis no other force acts but the mutual
+attractions of the atomic electric charges, came to the conclusion,
+“that the very mightiest among the chemical forces are of electric
+origin.”
+
+Faraday having demonstrated by his experiments that chemical
+decomposition, electricity, magnetism, heat and light, are all
+inter-convertible and correlated forces, the inventors of the age were
+now ready to step forward and put these theories at work in machines in
+the service of man. Faraday was a leader in the field of discovery. He
+left to inventors the practical application of his discoveries.
+
+Prof. Henry in America was, contemporaneously with Faraday, developing
+electricity by means of magnetic induction.
+
+In 1832, Pixii, a philosophical instrument-maker of Paris, and Joseph
+Saxton, an American then residing in London, invented and constructed
+magneto-machines on Faraday’s principle of rendering magnetic a core of
+soft iron surrounded with insulated wire from a permanent magnet, and
+rapidly reversing its polarity, which machines were used to produce
+sparks, decompose liquids and metals, and fire combustible bodies.
+Saxton’s machine was the well-known electric shock machine operated by
+turning a crank. A similar device is now used for ringing telephone call
+bells.
+
+Prof. C. G. Page of Washington and Ruhmkorff of Paris each made a
+machine, well known as the Ruhmkorff coil, by which intense
+electro-magnetic currents by induction were produced. The production of
+electrical illumination was now talked of more than ever. Scientists and
+inventors now had two forms of electrical machines to produce light: the
+voltaic battery and the magneto-electric apparatus. But a period of
+comparative rest took place in this line until 1850, when Prof. Nollet
+of Brussels made an effort to produce a powerful magneto-electric
+machine for decomposing water into its elements of hydrogen and oxygen,
+which gases were then to be used in producing the lime light; and a
+company known as “The Alliance” was organized at Paris to make large
+machines for the production of light.
+
+We have seen that Davy produced a brilliant electric light with two
+pieces of charcoal in the electric circuit of a voltaic battery. Greener
+and Staite revived this idea in a patent in 1845. Shortly after Nollet’s
+machine, F. H. Holmes of England improved it and applied the current
+directly to the production of electric light between carbon points. And
+Holmes and Faraday in 1857 prepared this machine for use.
+
+On the evening of December 8, 1858, the first practical electric light,
+the work of Faraday and Holmes, flashed over the troubled sea from the
+South Foreland Lighthouse. On June 6, 1862, this light was also
+introduced into the lighthouse at Dungeness, England. The same light was
+introduced in French lighthouses in December, 1863, and also in the work
+on the docks of Cherbourg. At this time Germany was also awake to the
+importance of this invention, and Dr. Werner Siemens of Berlin was at
+work developing a machine for the purpose into one of less cost and of
+greater use. Inventors were not yet satisfied with the power developed
+from either the voltaic battery or the magneto-electric machine, and
+continued to improve the latter.
+
+In 1867, the same year that Faraday died, and too late for him to
+witness its glory, came out the most powerful magneto-electric machine
+that had yet been produced. It was invented by Wilde of London, and
+consisted of very large electro-magnets, or field magnets, receiving
+their electric power from the “lines of force” discovered by Faraday,
+radiating from the poles of a soft iron magnet, combined with a small
+magneto-electric machine having permanent magnets, and by which the
+current developed in the smaller machine was sent through the coils of
+the larger magnets. By this method the magnetic force was vastly
+multiplied, and electricity was produced in such abundance as to fuse
+thick iron wire fifteen inches long and one-fourth of an inch in
+diameter, and to develop a magnificent arc light. Quickly succeeding the
+Wilde machine came independent inventions in the same direction from
+Messrs. G. Farmer of Salem, Mass., Alfred Yarley and Prof. Charles
+Wheatstone of England, and Dr. Siemens of Berlin, and Ladd of America.
+These inventors conceived and put in practice the great idea of
+employing the current from an electro-magnetic machine to excite its own
+electric magnet. They were thus termed “self-exciting.” The idea was
+that the commutator (an instrument to change the direction, strength or
+circuit of the current) should be so connected with the coils of the
+field magnets that all or a part of the current developed in the
+armature would flow through these coils, so that all permanent magnets
+might be dispensed with, and the machine used to excite itself or charge
+its own field magnets without the aid of any outside charging or feeding
+mechanism.
+
+Mr. Z. Gramme, of France, a little later than Wilde made a great
+improvement. Previously, machines furnished only momentary currents of
+varying strength and polarity; and these intermittent currents were hard
+to control without loss in the strength of current and the frequent
+production of sparks. Gramme produced a machine in which, although as in
+other machines the magnetic field of force was created by a powerful
+magnet, yet the armature was a ring made of soft iron rods, and
+surrounded by an endless coil of wire, and made to revolve between the
+poles of the magnet with great rapidity, producing a constant current in
+one direction. By Faraday’s discovery, when the coil of the closed
+circuit was moved before the poles of the magnet, the current was
+carried half the time in one direction and half in the other,
+constituting what is called an alternating current. Gramme employed the
+commutator to make the current direct instead of alternating.
+
+Dynamo-electric machines for practical work of many kinds had now been
+born and grown to strength.
+
+In addition to these and many other electrical machines this century has
+discovered several ways by which the electricity developed by such
+machines may be converted into light. I. By means of two carbon
+conductors between which passes a series of intensely brilliant sparks
+which form a species of flame known as the _voltaic arc_, and the heat
+of which is more intense than that from any other known artificial
+source. II. By means of a rod of carbon or kaolin, strip of platinum or
+iridium, a carbon filament, or other substance placed between two
+conductors, the resistance opposed by such rod, strip, or filament to
+the passage of the current being so great as to develop heat to the
+point of incandescence, and produce a steady white and pure light.
+Attempts also have been made to produce illumination by what is called
+stratified light produced by the electric discharge passing through
+tubes containing various gases. These tubes are known as Geissler tubes,
+from their inventor. Still another method is the production of a
+continuous light from a vibratory movement of carbon electrodes to and
+from each other, producing a bright flash at each separation, and
+maintaining the separations at such a rate that the effect of the light
+produced is continuous. But these additional methods do not appear as
+yet to be commercially successful.
+
+It must not be overlooked that before dynamo-magneto-electric machines
+were used practically in the production of the electric light for the
+purposes of illumination, the voltaic battery was used for the same
+purpose, but not economically.
+
+The first private dwelling house ever lighted in America, or doubtless
+anywhere else, by electricity, was that of Moses G. Farmer, in Salem,
+Massachusetts, in the year 1859. A voltaic battery furnished the current
+to conducting wires which led to two electric lamps on the mantel-piece
+of the drawing-room, and in which strips of platinum constituted the
+resisting and lighting medium. A soft, mild, agreeable light was
+produced, which was more delightful to read or sew by than any
+artificial light ever before known. Either or both lamps could be
+lighted by turning a button, and they were maintained for several weeks,
+but were discontinued for the reason that the cost of maintaining them
+was much greater than of gas light.
+
+It was in connection with the effective dynamo-electric apparatus of
+M. Gramme above referred to that the electric candle invented by
+M. Paul Jablochoff became soon thereafter extensively employed for
+electric lighting in Paris, and elsewhere in Europe. This invention,
+like the great majority of useful inventions, is noted for its
+simplicity. It consists of two carbon pencils placed side by side and
+insulated from each other by means of a thin plate of some refractory
+material which is a non-conductor at ordinary temperatures, but which
+becomes a conductor, and consequently a light, when fused by the action
+of a powerful current. Plaster of Paris was found to be the most
+suitable material for this purpose, and the light produced was soft,
+mellow, slightly rose-coloured, and quite agreeable to the eye.
+
+It having been found that carbon was better adapted for lighting
+purposes than platinum or other metals, by reason of its greater
+radiating power for equal temperatures, and still greater infusibility
+at high temperatures, inventors turned their attention to the production
+of the best carbon lamp.
+
+The two pointed pieces of hard conducting carbon used for the separated
+terminals constitute the voltaic arc light--a light only excelled in
+intense brilliancy by the sun itself. It is necessary in order to make
+such a light successful that it should be continuous. But as it is found
+that both carbons waste away under the consuming action of the intense
+heat engendered by their resistance to the electric current, and that
+one electrode, the positive, wastes away twice as fast as the opposite
+negative electrode, the distance between the points soon becomes too
+great for the current longer to leap over it, and the light is then
+extinguished. Many ingenious contrivances have been devised for
+correcting this trouble, and maintaining a continuously uniform distance
+between the carbons by giving to them a self-adjusting automatic action.
+Such an apparatus is called a _regulator_, and the variety of regulators
+is very great. The French were among the first to contrive such
+regulators,--Duboscq, Foucault, Serrin, Houdin, and Lontin invented most
+useful forms of such apparatus. Other early inventors were Hart of
+Scotland, Siemens of Germany, Thompson and Houston of England, and
+Farmer, Brush, Wallace, Maxim, and Weston and Westinghouse of America.
+Gramme made his armature of iron rods to prevent its destruction by
+heat. Weston in 1882 improved this method by making the armature of
+separate and insulated sheets of iron around which the coil is wound.
+The arc light is adapted for streets and great buildings, etc.; but for
+indoor illumination, when a milder, softer light is desirable, the
+_incandescent_ light was invented, and this consists of a curved
+filament of carbon about the size of a coarse horsehair, seated in a
+bulb of glass from which the air has been exhausted. In exhausted air
+carbon rods or filaments are not consumed, and so great ingenuity was
+exercised on that line. Among the early noted inventors of incandescent
+carbon filament lamps were Edison and Maxim of New York, Swan, and
+Lane-Fox of England.
+
+Another problem to be solved arose in the proposed use of arc lamps upon
+an extended scale, or in series, as in street lighting, wherein the
+current to all lamps was supplied by a single wire, and where it was
+found that owing to the unequal consumption of the carbons some were
+burning well, some poorly, and some going out. It was essential,
+therefore, to make each lamp independent of the resistance of the main
+circuit and of the action of the other lamps, and to have its regulating
+mechanism governed entirely by the resistance of its own arc. The
+solution of this difficult problem was the invention by Heffner von
+Alteneck of Germany, and his device came into use wherever throughout
+the world arc lamps were operated. Westinghouse also improved the direct
+alternating system of lighting by one wire by the introduction of two
+conducting wires parallel to each other, and passing an interrupted or
+alternating current through one, thereby inducing a similar and always
+an alternating current through the other. Brush adopted a three-wire
+system; and both obtained a uniform consumption of the carbons.
+
+In a volume like this, room exists for mention only of those inventions
+which burn as beacon lights on the tallest hills--and so we must now
+pass on to others.
+
+Just as Faraday was bringing his long series of experimental researches
+to a close in 1856-59, and introducing the fruits of his labours into
+the lighthouses of England, Cyrus W. Field of New York had commenced his
+trials in the great scheme of an ocean cable to “moor the new world
+alongside the old,” as John Bright expressed it. After crossing the
+ocean from New York to England fifty times, and baffled often by the
+ocean, which broke his cables, and by the incredulous public of both
+hemispheres, who laughed at him, and by electricity, which refused to do
+his bidding, he at last overcame all obstacles, and in 1866 the cable
+two thousand miles in length had been successfully stretched and
+communication perfected. To employ currents of great power, the cable
+insulation would have been disintegrated and finally destroyed by heat.
+Therefore only feeble currents could be used. But across that long
+distance these currents for many reasons grew still weaker. The
+inventor, Sir William Thomson, was at hand to provide the remedy. First,
+by his _mirror galvanometer_. A needle in the shape of a small magnet
+and connected to the current wires, is attached to the back of a small
+concave mirror having a hole in its centre; opposite the mirror is
+placed a graduated scale board, having slits through it, and a lighted
+lamp behind it. The light is thrown through the slits across to the hole
+at the center of the mirror and upon the needle. The feeblest imaginable
+current suffices to deflect the needle in one direction, which throws
+back the little beam of light upon it to the graduated front of the
+scale. When the current is reversed the needle and its shadow are
+deflected in the other direction, and so by a combination of right and
+left motions, and pauses, of the spots of light to represent letters,
+the message is spelled out. Second, a more expeditious instrument called
+the _syphon recorder_. In this the galvanometer needle is connected to a
+fine glass syphon tube conducting ink from a reservoir on to a strip of
+paper which is drawn under the point of the tube with a uniform motion.
+The irregular movements given the galvanometer needle by the varying
+current are clearly delineated on the paper. Or in writing very long
+cables the point of the syphon may not touch the paper, but the ink by
+electrical attraction from the paper is ejected from the syphon upon the
+paper in a succession of fine dots. The irregular lines of dots and
+dashes were translated into words in accordance with the principles of
+the Morse telegraph.
+
+An instrument was exhibited at the Centennial International Exhibition
+at Philadelphia in 1876, which was considered by the judges “the
+greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph.” Such was
+the language used both by Prof. Joseph Henry and Sir Wm. Thomson, and
+concurred in by the other eminent judges from America, Germany, France,
+Austria and Switzerland. This instrument was the _Telephone_. It
+embodied, for the practical purpose of transmitting articulate speech to
+distances, the union of the two great forces,--sound and electricity. It
+consisted of a method and an apparatus. The apparatus or means consisted
+of an electric battery circuit, a transmitting cone placed at one end of
+the line into which speech and other vocal sounds were uttered, a
+diaphragm against which the sounds were projected, an armature secured
+to or forming a part of the diaphragm, an electro-magnet loosely
+connected to the armature, a wire connecting this magnet with another
+precisely similar arrangement of magnet, armature, diaphragm, and cone,
+at the receiving end. When speech was uttered in the transmitter the
+sound vibrations were received on the diaphragm, communicated to the
+electricised armature, from thence by induction to the magnet and the
+connecting wire current, which, undulating with precisely the same form
+of sound vibrations, carried them in exactly the same form to the
+receiving magnet. They were then carried through the receiving armature
+and reproduced on the receiving diaphragm, with all the same
+characteristics of pitch, loudness and quality.
+
+The inventor was Alexander Graham Bell, by nativity a Scotchman, then a
+resident of Canada, and finally a citizen of the United States. His
+father was a teacher of vocal physiology at Edinburgh, and he himself
+became a teacher of deaf mutes. This occupation naturally led him to a
+thorough investigation of the laws of sound. He acknowledged the aid he
+received from the great work of Helmholtz on the _Theory of Tone_. His
+attention was called to sounds transmitted and reproduced by the
+electric current, especially by the ease with which telegraph operators
+read their messages by the duration of the “click” of their instruments.
+He knew of the old device of a tightly-stretched string or wire between
+two little boxes. He had read the publication of Prof. C. G. Page, of
+America, in 1837, on the _Production of Galvanic Music_, in which was
+described how musical notes were transmitted and reproduced by an
+interrupted magnetic circuit. He became acquainted with the experimental
+musical telephonic and acoustic researches of Reis, and others of
+Germany, and those of celebrated scientists in France, especially the
+phonautograph of Scott, a delicate instrument having a cone membrane and
+pointer, and used to reproduce on smoked glass the waves of sound. He
+commenced his experiments with magneto instruments in 1874, continued
+them in 1875, when he succeeded in reproducing speech, but poorly, owing
+to his imperfect instruments, and then made out his application, and
+obtained a patent in the United States in July, 1876.
+
+Like all the other remarkable inventions recorded in these pages, this
+“marvel” did not spring forth as a sudden creation, but was a slow
+growth of a plant derived from old ideas, although it blossomed out
+suddenly one day when audible sounds were accidentally produced upon an
+apparatus with which he was experimenting.
+
+It is impossible here to narrate the tremendous conflict that Bell now
+encountered to establish his title as first inventor, or to enumerate
+the multitude of improvements and changes made which go to make up the
+successful telephone of to-day.
+
+The messages of the voice are carried on the wings of electricity
+wherever any messages are carried, except under the widest seas, and
+this difficulty inventors are now seeking to overcome.
+
+The story of the marvellous inventions of the century in electricity is
+a fascinating one, but in length and details it is also marvellous, and
+we must hasten unwillingly to a close. Numerous applications of it will
+be mentioned in chapters relating to other arts.
+
+In the generation of this mighty force improvements have been made, but
+those of greatest power still involve the principles discovered by
+Faraday and Henry seventy years ago. The ideas of Faraday of the “lines
+of force”--the magnetic power streaming from the poles of the magnet
+somewhat as the rays of heat issue on all sides from a hot body, forming
+the magnetic field--and that a magnet behaves like an electric current,
+producing an electric wave by its approach to or recession from a coil
+of wire, joined with Henry’s idea of increasing the magnetising effect
+by increasing the number of coils around the magnet, enter into all
+powerful dynamo electric machines of to-day. In them the lines of force
+must flow around the frame and across the path of the armature; and
+there must be a set of conductors to cut the lines of force twice in
+every revolution of the cylinder carrying the armature from which the
+current is taken.
+
+When machines had been produced for generating with some economy
+powerful currents of electricity, their use for the world’s business
+purposes rapidly increased. Among such applications, and following
+closely the electric lighting, came the _electric railway_. A substitute
+for the slow animal, horse, and for the dangerous, noisy steam horse and
+its lumbering locomotive and train, was hailed with delight. Inventors
+came forward with adaptations of all the old systems they could think of
+for the purpose, and with many new ones. One plan was to adapt the
+storage battery--that silent chemical monster which carries its own
+power and its own machine--and place one on each car to actuate a motor
+connected to the driving wheels. Another plan was to conduct the current
+from the dynamo machine at its station along the rails on one side of
+the track to the motor on the car and the return current on the opposite
+track; another was to carry the current to the car on a third rail
+between the track, using both the other rails for the return; another to
+use an overhead wire for the current from the dynamo, and connect it
+with the car by a rod, one end of which had a little wheel or trolley
+running on the overhead wire, to take up the current, the other end
+being connected by a wire to the car motor; another plan to have a
+trench made leading from the central station underneath the track the
+whole length of the line, and put into this trench conducting wires from
+the dynamo, to one of which the car motor should be connected by a
+trolley rod or “brush,” extending down through a central slot between
+the rails of the track to carry the electric supply into the motor. In
+all these cases a lever was supplied to cut off communication between
+the conducting wire and the motor, and a brake lever to stop the car.
+
+All of these plans have been tried, and some of them are still being
+tried with many improvements in detail, but not in principle.
+
+The first electrical railway was constructed and operated at Berlin in
+1879, by Messrs Siemens and Halske. It was two thousand seven hundred
+feet long and built on the third rail system. This was an experiment but
+a successful one. It was followed very soon by another line near Berlin
+for actual traffic; then still another in Saxony. At the Paris
+Exposition in 1881, Sir Wm. Siemens had in operation a road about one
+thousand six hundred feet in length, on which it is estimated
+ninety-five thousand passengers were conveyed in seven weeks. Then in
+the next year in London; and then in the following year one in the
+United States near New York, constructed by Edison. And thus they
+spread, until every important town and city in the world seems to have
+its electric plant, and its electric car system, and of course its
+lighting, telephone and telegraph systems.
+
+In 1882 Prof. Fleeming Jenkin of England invented and has put to use a
+system called _Telpherage_, by which cars are suspended on an overhead
+wire which is both the track and electrical conductor. It has been found
+to be advantageous in the transportation of freight from mines and other
+places to central stations.
+
+With the coming of the electric railway, the slow, much-abused horse,
+the puffing steam engine blowing off smoke and cinders through the
+streets, the great heavy cars, rails and roadbeds, the dangerous
+collisions and accidents, have disappeared.
+
+The great problems to solve have related to generation, form,
+distribution and division of the electric current at the dynamos at the
+central stations for the purposes of running the distant motors and for
+furnishing independent supplies of light, heat, sound and power. These
+problems have received the attention of the keenest inventors and
+electrical engineers and have been solved.
+
+The description of the inventions made by such electrical magicians as
+Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla would fill volumes.
+
+The original plan of sending but one message over a wire at a time has
+also been improved; and duplex, quadruplex and multiplex systems have
+been invented (by Stearns, Farmer, Edison and others) and applied, which
+have multiplied the capacity of the telegraphs, and by which even the
+alleged all-talk-at-the-same-time habit of certain members of the great
+human family can be carried on in opposite directions on the same wire
+at the same time between their gatherings in different cities and
+without a break.
+
+To understand the manner of multiplying messages or signals on the same
+line, and using apparently the same electric current to perform
+different operations, the mind must revert to the theory already
+referred to, that a current of electricity does not consist of a stream
+of matter flowing like water through a conductor in one direction, but
+of particles of subtle ether, vibrating or oscillating in waves from and
+around the conductor which excites them; that the vibration of this line
+of waves proceeds at the rate of many thousand miles per second, almost
+with the velocity of waves of light, with which they are so closely
+related; that this wave current is susceptible of being varied in
+direction and in strength, according to the impulse given by the initial
+pressure of the transmitting and exciting instrument; and that some wave
+currents have power by reason of their form or strength to penetrate or
+pass others coming from an opposite direction. So that in the multiplex
+process, for instance, each transmission having a certain direction or
+strength and its own set of transmitting and receiving instruments, will
+have power to give its own peculiar and independent signal or message.
+Apparently there is but one continuous current, but in reality each
+transmission is separated from the others by an almost inconceivably
+short interval of time.
+
+Among the inventions in the class of Telegraphy should also be mentioned
+the dial and the printing systems. Ever since the electric telegraph was
+invented, attempts have been made to use the electric influence to
+operate either a pointer to point out the letters of the message sent on
+a dial, or to print them on a moving strip of paper; and also to
+automatically reproduce on paper the handwriting of the sender or writer
+of the message. The earliest efforts were by Cooke and Prof. Wheatstone
+of London, in 1836-37; but it was not until 1839, after Prof. Henry had
+succeeded in perfecting the electromagnet, that dial and printing
+telegraphs were successfully produced. Dial telegraphs consist of the
+combination with magnets, armatures and printed dial plate of a
+clock-work and a pointer, means to set the pointer at the communicating
+end (which in some instances has been a piano keyboard) to any letter,
+the current operating automatically to indicate the same letters at the
+receiving end. These instruments have been modified and improved by
+Brequet and Froment of France, Dr. Siemens and Kramer, and Siemens and
+Halske of Germany, Prof. Wheatstone of England, Chester and Hamblet of
+America, and others. They have been used extensively upon private and
+municipal lines both in Europe and the United States.
+
+The type-printing telegraph was coeval with the dial, and originated
+with Morse and Vail as early as 1837. The printing of the characters is
+effected in various ways; sometimes by clockwork mechanism and sometimes
+by the direct action of an electromagnet. Wheatstone exhibited one in
+1841. House of Vermont invented in 1845-1846 the first printing
+telegraph that was brought into any extensive use in the United States.
+Then followed that of David E. Hughes of Kentucky in 1855, aided by his
+co-inventor George M. Phelps of Troy, New York, and which was
+subsequently adopted by the French government, by the United Kingdom
+Telegraph Co. of Great Britain, and by the American Telegraph Co in the
+United States. The system was subsequently greatly improved by Hughes
+and others. Alexander Bain of Edinburgh in 1845-46 originated the modern
+automatic chemical telegraph. In this system a kind of punch was used to
+perforate two rows of holes grouped to represent letters on a strip of
+paper conducted over a metal cylinder and arranged so as to permit
+spring levers to drop through the perforations and touch the cylinder,
+thus forming an electrical contact; and a recording apparatus consisting
+of a strip of paper carried through a chemical solution of an acid and
+potash and over a metal roller, and underneath one or two styles, or
+pens, which pens were connected by live wires with the poles of two
+batteries at the sending station. The operation is such that colored
+marks upon the paper were made by the pens corresponding precisely to
+the perforations in the strip at the sending station. Siemens,
+Wheatstone and others also improved this system; but none of these
+systems have as yet replaced or equalled in extensive use the Morse key
+and sounder system, and its great acoustic advantage of reading the
+messages by the click of the instrument. The type-printing system,
+however, has been recently greatly improved by the inventions of Howe,
+C. L. Buckingham, Fiske and others in the United States. Special
+contrivances and adaptations of the telegraph for printing stock reports
+and for transmitting fire alarm, police, and emergency calls, have been
+invented.
+
+The erection of tall office and other buildings, some to the height of
+more than twenty stories, made practicable by the invention of the
+elevator system, has in turn brought out most ingenious devices for
+operating and controlling the elevators to insure safety and at the same
+time produce economy in the motive power.
+
+The utility of the telephone has been greatly increased by the
+inventions of Hughes and Edison of the _microphone_. This consists, in
+one form, of pieces of carbon in loose contact placed in the circuit of
+a telephone. The very slightest vibrations communicated to the wood are
+heard distinctly in the telephone. By these inventions and certain
+improvements not only every sound and note of an opera or concert has
+been carried to distant places, but the slightest whispers, the minute
+movements of a watch, even the tread of a fly, and the pressure of a
+finger, have been rendered audible.
+
+By the aid of the electric current certain rays of light directed upon
+the mineral selenium, and some other substances, have been discovered to
+emit musical sounds.
+
+So wonderful and mysterious appear these communications along the
+electric wire that each and every force in the universe seems to have a
+voice awaiting utterance to man. The hope is indulged that by some such
+means we may indeed yet receive the “touch of a vanished hand and the
+sound of a voice that is still.”
+
+In 1879 that eminent English scientist, Prof. Wm. Crookes, published his
+extensive researches in electrical discharges as manifested in glass
+tubes from which the air had been exhausted. These same tubes have
+already been referred to as Geissler tubes, from the name of a young
+artist of Bonn who invented them. In these tubes are inclosed various
+gases through which the sparks from an induction coil can be passed by
+means of platinum electrodes fused into the glass, and on the passage of
+the current a soft and delicately-tinted light is produced which streams
+through the tube from pole to pole.
+
+In 1895, Wm. Konrad Roentgen, professor of Physics in the Royal
+University of Würzburg, while experimenting with these Crookes and
+Geissler tubes, discovered with one of them, which he had covered with a
+sort of black cardboard, that the rays emanating from the same and
+impinging on certain objects would render them self-luminous, or
+fluorescent; and on further investigation that such rays, unlike the
+rays of sunlight, were not deflected, refracted or condensed; but that
+they proceeded in straight lines from the point at which they were
+produced, and penetrated various articles, such as flesh, blood, and
+muscle, and thicknesses of paper, cloth and leather, and other
+substances which are opaque to ordinary light; and that thus while
+penetrating such objects and rendering them luminous, if a portion of
+the same were of a character too dense to admit of the penetration, the
+dark shadow of such obstacle would appear in the otherwise luminous
+mass.
+
+Unable to explain the nature or cause of this wonderful revelation,
+Roentgen gave to the light an algebraic name for the unknown--the X
+rays.
+
+This wonderful discovery, at first regarded as a figment of scientific
+magic, soon attracted profound attention. At first the experiments were
+confined to the gratification of curiosity--the interior of the hand was
+explored, and on one occasion the little mummified hand of an Egyptian
+princess folded in death three or four thousand years ago, was held up
+to this light, and the bones, dried blood, and muscle of the ancient
+Pharaohs exhibited to the startled eyes of the present generation. But
+soon surgery and medicine took advantage of the unknown rays for
+practical purposes. The location of previously unreachable bullets, and
+the condition of internal injuries, were determined; the cause of
+concealed disease was traced, the living brain explored, and the
+pulsations of the living heart were witnessed.
+
+Retardation of the strength of the electric current by the inductive
+influence of neighboring wires and earth currents, together with the
+theory that the electric energy pervades all space and matter, gave rise
+to the idea that if the energy once established could be set in motion
+at such point above the ordinary surface of the earth as would free this
+upper current from all inductive disturbance, impulses of such power
+might be conveyed from one high point and communicated to another as to
+produce signals without the use of a conducting wire, retaining only the
+usual batteries and the earth connection. On July 30th, 1872, Mahlen
+Loomis of Washington, D. C., took out a patent for “the utilization of
+natural electricity from elevated points” for telegraphic purposes,
+based on the principle mentioned, and made successful experiments on the
+Blue Ridge mountains in Virginia near Washington, accounts of which were
+published in Washington papers at the time; but being poor and receiving
+no aid or encouragement he was compelled to give it up. Marconi of Italy
+has been more successful in this direction, and has sent electric
+messages and signals from high stations over the English Channel from
+the shores of France to England. So that now wireless telegraphy is an
+established fact.
+
+It is certainly thrilling to realize that there is a mysterious, silent,
+invisible and powerful mechanical agent on every side of us, waiting to
+do our bidding, and to lend a hand in every field of human labour, and
+yet unable to be so used without excitement to action and direction in
+its course by some master, intermediate between itself and man. The
+principal masters for this purpose are steam and water power. A small
+portion of the power of the resistless Niagara has been taken, diverted
+to turn the machinery which excites electricity to action, and this
+energy in turn employed to operate a multitude of the most powerful
+motors and machines of many descriptions.
+
+So great is the might of this willing agent that at a single turn of the
+hand of man it rushes forth to do work for him far exceeding in wonder
+and extent any labour of the gods of mythological renown.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HOISTING, CONVEYING AND STORING.
+
+
+Allusion has been made to the stupendous buildings and works of the
+ancients and of the middle ages; the immense multitude of workers and
+great extent of time and labour employed in their construction; and how
+the awful drudgery involved in such undertakings was relieved by the
+invention of modern engineering devices--the cranes, the derricks, and
+the steam giants to operate them, so that vast loads which required
+large numbers of men and beasts to move, and long periods of time in
+which to move them, can now be lifted with ease and carried to great
+heights and distances in a few minutes by the hands of one or of a few
+men.
+
+But outside of the line of such undertakings there is an immense field
+of labor-saving appliances adapted for use in transportation of smaller
+loads from place to place, within and without buildings, and for
+carrying people and freight from the lower to the upper stories of tall
+structures. In fact the tall buildings which we see now in almost every
+great city towering cloudward from the ground to the height of fifteen,
+twenty and twenty-five stories, would have been extravagant and useless
+had not the invention of the modern elevator rendered their highest
+parts as easy of access as their lowest, and at the same time given to
+the air space above the city lot as great a commercial value in feet and
+inches as the stretch of earth itself.
+
+Many of the “sky-scrapers” so called, are splendid monuments of the
+latest inventions of the century.
+
+It is by means of the modern elevator that the business of a whole town
+may be transacted under a single roof.
+
+In the multiplicity of modern human contrivances by which the sweat and
+drudgery of life are saved, and time economised for worthier objects, we
+are apt to overlook the painful and laborious steps by which they were
+reached, and to regard with impatience, or at least with indifference,
+the story of their evolution; and yet no correct or profound knowledge
+of the growth of humanity to its higher planes can be obtained without
+noting to what extent the minor inventions, as well as the startling
+ones, have aided the upward progress.
+
+For instance, consider how few and comparatively awkward were the
+mechanical means before this century. The innumerable army of men when
+men were slaves, and when blood and muscle and brain were cheap, who,
+labouring with the beast, toiled upward for years on inclined ways to
+lay the stones of the stupendous pyramids, still had their counterpart
+centuries later in the stream of men carrying on their shoulders the
+loads of grain and other freight and burdens from the shore to the holds
+of vessels, from vessels to the shore, from the ground to high buildings
+and from one part of great warehouses to another. Now look at a vessel
+moved to a wharf, capable of holding fifty thousand or one hundred
+thousand bushels of grain and having that amount poured into it in three
+hours from the spouts of an elevator, to which the grain has been
+carried in a myriad buckets on a chain by steam power in about the same
+time; or to those arrangements of carriers, travelling on ropes, cords,
+wires, or cables, by which materials are quickly conveyed from one part
+of some structure or place to another, as hay and grain in barns or
+mows, ores from mines to cars, merchandise of all kinds from one part of
+a great store to another; or shot through pipes underground from one
+section of a city or town to their destination by a current of air.
+
+True, as it has before been stated, the ancients and later generations
+had the wedge, the pulley, the inclined plane, the screw and the
+windlass, and by these powers, modified in form and increased in size as
+the occasion demanded, in the form of cranes, derricks, and operated by
+animal power, materials were lifted and transported; but down to the
+time of the practical and successful application of steam by Watt in the
+latter part of the 18th century, and until a much later period in most
+places in the world, these simple means actuated alone by men or animals
+were the best means employed for elevating and conveying loads, and even
+they were employed to a comparatively limited extent.
+
+The century was well started before it was common to employ cups on
+elevator bands in mills, invented by Oliver Evans in 1780, to carry
+grain to the top of the mill, from whence it was to fall by gravity to
+the grinding and flouring apparatus below. It was not until 1795 that
+that powerful modern apparatus--the hydraulic, or hydrostatic, press was
+patented by Bramah in England. The model he then made is now in the
+museum of the Commissioner of Patents, London. In this a reservoir for
+water is provided, on which is placed a pump having a piston rod worked
+by a hand lever. The water is conveyed from the reservoir to a cylinder
+by a pipe, and this cylinder is provided with a piston carrying at its
+top a table, which rises between guides. The load to be carried is
+placed on this table, and as the machine was at first designed to
+compress materials the load is pressed by the rising table against an
+upper stationary plate. The elevation of the table is proportionate to
+the quantity of water injected, and the power proportionate to the
+receptive areas of the pump and the cylinder. The first great
+application of machines built on this principle was by Robert Stephenson
+in the elevation of the gigantic tubes for the tubular bridge across the
+Menai straits, already described in the chapter on Civil Engineering.
+The century was half through with before it was proposed to use water
+and steam for passenger elevators.
+
+In 1852 J. T. Slade in England patented a device consisting of a drum to
+be actuated by steam, water, or compressed air, around which drum ropes
+were wound, and to which ropes were attached separate cages in separate
+wells, to counterbalance each other, the cages moving in guides, and
+provided with brakes and levers to stop and control the cages and the
+movement of the drum. Louis T. Van Elvean, also of England, in 1858
+invented counterbalance weights for such lifts. Otis, an American,
+invented and patented in America and England in 1859 the first approach
+to the modern passenger elevator for hotels, warehouses, and other
+structures. The motive power was preferably a steam engine; and the
+elevating means was a large screw placed vertically and made to revolve
+by suitable gearing, and a cylinder to which the car was attached,
+having projections to work in the threads of the screw. Means were
+provided to start and to stop the car, and to retard its otherwise
+sudden fall and stoppage.
+
+Elevators, which are now so largely used to raise passengers and freight
+from the lower to the upper stories of high edifices, have for their
+motive power steam, water, compressed air, and electricity. With steam a
+drum is rotated over which a hoisting wire-rope is wound, to which the
+elevator car is attached. The car for passengers may be a small but
+elegantly furnished room, which is carried on guide blocks, and the
+stationary guides are provided with ratchet teeth with which pawls on
+the car are adapted to engage should the hoisting rope give way. To the
+hoisting rope is attached a counterbalance weight to partly meet the
+weight of the car in order to prevent the car from sticking fast on its
+passage, and also to prevent a sudden dropping of the car should the
+rope become slack. A hand rope for the operator is provided, which at
+its lower end is connected with a starting lever controlling the valves
+of the cylinders into which steam is admitted to start the piston shaft,
+which in turn actuates the gear wheels, by which movement the ropes are
+wound around the drums.
+
+In another form of steam elevator the drums are turned in opposite
+directions, by right and left worms driven by a belt.
+
+In the hydraulic form of elevator, a motor worked by water is employed
+to lift the car, although steam power is also employed to raise the
+water. The car is connected to wire cables passing over large sheaves at
+the top of the well room to a counterbalancing bucket. This bucket fits
+closely in a water-tight upright tube, or stand-pipe, about two feet in
+diameter, extending from the basement to the upper story. Near this
+stand-pipe in the upper story is placed a water supply tank. A pipe
+discharges the water from the tank into the bucket, which moves up and
+down in the stand pipe. There is a valve in the tank which is opened by
+stepping on a treadle in the car, and this action admits to the bucket
+just enough weight of water to overbalance the load on the car. As soon
+as the bucket is heavier than the car it descends, and of course draws
+the car upward, thus using the minimum power required to raise each
+load, rather than, when steam is employed, the full power of the engine
+each and every time. The speed is controlled by means of brakes or
+clamps that firmly clasp wrought-iron slides secured to posts on each
+side of the well room, the operator having control of these brakes by a
+lever on the car. When the car has ascended as far as desired, the
+operator steps upon another treadle in the car connected with a valve in
+the bottom of the bucket and thus discharges the water into the
+receiving tank below until the car is heavier than the bucket, when it
+then of course descends. The water is thus taken from the upper tank
+into the bucket, discharged through the stand-pipe into the receiving
+tank under the floor of the basement and then pumped back again to the
+upper tank, so that it is used over and over again without loss.
+
+Various modifications have been made in the hydraulic forms. In place of
+steam, electricity was introduced to control the hydraulic operation.
+Again, an electric motor has been invented to be placed on the car
+itself, with connected gearing engaging rack bars in the well.
+
+Elevators have been contrived automatically controlled by switch
+mechanisms on the landings; and in connection with the electric motor
+safety devices are used to break the motor circuit and thus stop the car
+the moment the elevator door is opened; and there are devices to break
+the circuit and stop the car at once, should an obstruction, the foot
+for instance, be accidentally thrust out into the path of the car frame.
+Columns of water and of air have been so arranged that should the car
+fall the fall will be broken by the water or air cushion made to yield
+gradually to the pressure. So many safety devices have been invented
+that there is now no excuse for accidents. They result by a criminal
+neglect of builders or engineers to provide themselves with such
+devices, or by a most ignorant or careless management and operation of
+simple actuating mechanisms.
+
+Between 1880 and 1890 there was great activity in the invention of what
+is known as store service conveyors. One of the earliest forms, and one
+which had been partly selected from other arts, was to suspend from a
+rigid frame work connected to the floor, roof, or side of the building,
+a long platform in the direction through the building it was desired the
+road to run, giving this platform a slight inclination. On this platform
+were placed tracks, and from the tracks were suspended trucks, baskets,
+or other merchandise receptacles, having wheels resting on and adapted
+to roll on the tracks. Double or single tracks could be provided as
+desired. The cars ran on these tracks by gravity, and considerable
+ingenuity was displayed in the feature alone of providing the out-going
+and returning inclined tracks; in hand straps and levers for raising and
+lowering the carriage, part or all of it, to or from the tracks, and in
+buffers to break the force of the blow of the carriages when arriving at
+their stopping places.
+
+Then about 1882-83 it was found by some inventors if moderately fine
+wires were stretched level, and as tight as possible, they would afford
+such little friction and resistance to light and nicely balanced wheels,
+that no inclination of the tracks was necessary, and that the carriages
+mounted on such wheels and tracks would run the entire length of a long
+building and turn corners not too sharp by a single initial push of the
+hand. In other arrangements a carrier is self-propelled by means of a
+coiled spring on the carrier, which begins its operation as soon as the
+carrier is given a start; and to meet the exhausted strength of such
+spring, coiled springs at different points on the line are arranged to
+engage and give the carrier an additional push. Before the carrier is
+stopped its action is such as to automatically rewind its spring.
+
+A system of pneumatic transmission was invented, by which a carrier is
+caused to travel through a tube by the agency of an air current, created
+therein by an air compressor, blower, or similar device. The device is
+so arranged that the air current is caused to take either direction
+through the tube; and in some instances gravity may be used to assist a
+vacuum formed behind the carrier. The tube is controlled at each end by
+one or more sliding gates or valves, and the carrier is made to actuate
+the gates, and close the one behind it, so that the carrier may be
+discharged without permitting the escape of the air and consequent
+reduction of pressure.
+
+An interesting invention has been made by James M. Dodge of Philadelphia
+in the line of conveyors, whereby pea coal and other quite heavy
+materials introduced by a hopper into a trough are subjected to a
+powerful air blast which pushes the material forward; and as the trough
+is provided with a series of frequently occurring slots or perforations
+open to the outer air and inclined opposite the direction of travel, the
+powerful current from the blower in escaping through such outlets tends
+to lift or buoy the material and carry it forward in the air current,
+thereby greatly reducing frictional contact and increasing the impelling
+operation. The inventor claims that with such an apparatus many tons of
+material per hour may be conveyed with a comparatively small working air
+pressure.
+
+In order that a conveyor carriage may be automatically switched off at a
+certain place or station on the line, one mode adopted was to arrange at
+a gate or station a sort of pin or projection or other deflector to
+engage some recess or corresponding feature on the carriage, so as to
+arrest and turn the carriage in its new direction at that point. Another
+mode was the adoption of electro-magnets, which would operate at a
+certain place to arrest or divert the carriage; and in either case the
+carriage was so constructed that its engaging features would operate
+automatically only in conjunction with certain features at a particular
+place on the line.
+
+Signals have been also adopted, in some cases operated by an electric
+current, by which the operator can determine whether or not the
+controlling devices have operated to stop the carrier at the desired
+place. By electric or mechanical means it is also provided that one or
+more loop branches may be connected with or disconnected from the main
+circuit.
+
+The “lazy tongs” principle has been introduced, by which a long
+lazy-tongs is shot forth through a tube or box to carry forward the
+carriage; and the same principle is employed in fire-escapes to throw up
+a cage to a great height to a window or other point, which cage is
+lowered gently and safely by the same means to the ground. Buffers of
+all kinds have been devised to effect the stoppage of the carrier
+without injury thereto under the different degrees of force with which
+it is moved upon its way, to prevent rebounding, and to enable the
+carrier to be discharged with facility at the end of its route.
+
+Among the early mechanical means of transporting the carriage was an
+endless cable moved continuously by an engine, and this adoption of
+cable principle in store service was co-eval with its adoption for
+running street cars. Also the system of switching the cars from the main
+line to a branch, and in different parts of a city, at the same time
+that all lines are receiving their motive power from the main line,
+corresponds to the manner of conveying cash to all parts of a building
+at the same time from many points.
+
+To the great department store or monstrous building wherein, as we have
+said, the whole business of a town may be transacted, the assemblage and
+conjoint use of elevators and conveyors seem to be actually necessary.
+
+A very useful and important line of inventions consists in means for
+forming connections between rotary shafts and their pulleys and
+mechanisms to be operated thereby, by which such mechanism can be
+started or stopped at once, or their motion reversed or retarded; or by
+which an actuating shaft may be automatically stopped. These means are
+known as _clutches_.
+
+They are designed often to afford a yielding connection between the
+shaft and a machine which shall prevent excessive strain and wear upon
+starting of the shaft. They are also often provided with a spring
+connection, which, in the rotation of the shaft in either direction,
+will operate to relieve the strain upon the shaft, or shafts, and its
+driving motor. Safety clutches are numerous, by which the machine is
+quickly and automatically stopped by the action of electro-magnets
+should a workman or other obstruction be caught in the machinery.
+
+Electric auxiliary mechanism has also been devised to start or stop the
+main machine slowly, and thus prevent injury to small or delicate parts
+of complicated machines, like printing presses for instance. Clutches
+are arranged sometimes in the form of weights, resembling the action of
+the weights in steam governors, whereby centrifugal action is relied
+upon for swinging the weights outward to effect a clutching and coupling
+of the shaft, or other mechanism, so that two lines of shafting are
+coupled, or the machine started, or speeded, at a certain time during
+the operation. In order to avoid the great mischief arising sometimes
+from undue strain upon and the breaking of a shaft, a weak coupling
+composed of a link is sometimes employed between the shaft and the
+driven machine, whereby, should the force become suddenly too great, the
+link of weaker metal is broken, and the connection between the shaft
+thereby destroyed and the machine stopped.
+
+To this class of inventions, as well as to many others, the phrase,
+“labour-saving”, is applied as a descriptive term, and as it is a
+correct one in most instances, since they save the labour of many human
+hands, they are regarded by many as detrimental to a great extent, as
+they result in throwing out of employment a large number of persons.
+
+This derangement does sometimes occur, but the curtailment of the number
+of labourers is but temporary after all.
+
+The increased production of materials, resulting from cheaper and better
+processes, and from the reduced cost of handling them, necessitates the
+employment of a larger number of persons to take care of, in many ways,
+the greater output caused by the increased demand; the new machinery
+demands the labour of additional numbers in its manufacture; the
+increase in the size and heights of buildings involves new modes of
+construction and a greater number of artisans in their erection; new
+forms of industry springing from every practical invention which
+produces a new product or results in a new mode of operation,
+complicates the systems of labour, and creates a demand for a large
+number of employers and employees in new fields. Hence, it is only
+necessary to resort to comparative, statistics (too extensive to cite
+here) to show that the number of unemployed people in proportion to
+the populations, is less in the present age than in any previous
+one. In this sense, therefore, inventions should be classed as
+labour-_increasing_ devices.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+
+The science of Hydraulics appears to be as old as the thirst of man.
+
+When prehistoric men had only stone implements, with which to do their
+work, they built aqueducts, reservoirs and deep wells which rival in
+extent many great similar works that are the boast of their modern
+descendants. Modern inventors have also produced with a flourish nice
+instrumentalities for raising water, agencies which are covered with the
+moss of untold centuries in China.
+
+It was more than an ancient observation that came down to Pliny’s time
+for record, that water would rise to a level with its source. The
+observation, however, was put into practical use in his time and long
+before without a knowledge of its philosophical cause.
+
+Nothing in Egyptian sculpture portraying the arts in vogue around the
+cradle of the human race is older than the long lever rocking upon a
+cleft stick, one arm of the lever carrying a bracket and the other arm
+used to raise a bucket from a well. Forty centuries and more have not
+rendered this device obsolete.
+
+Among other machines of the Egyptians, the Carthaginians, the Greeks,
+and the Romans for raising water was the _tympanum_, a drum-shape wheel
+divided into radial partitions, chambers, or pockets, which were open to
+a short depth on the periphery of the wheel, and inclined toward the
+axis, and which was driven by animal or manual power. These pockets
+scooped up the water from the stream or pond in which the wheel was
+located as the wheel revolved, and directed it toward the axis of the
+wheel, where it ran out into troughs, pipes, or gutters. The _Noria_, a
+chain of pots, and the screw of Archimedes were other forms of ancient
+pumps. The bucket pumps with some modifications are known in modern
+times as scoop wheels, and have been used extensively in the drainage of
+lands, especially by the Dutch, who at first drove them by windmills and
+later by steam.
+
+The division of water-wheels into overshot, undershot and breast wheels
+is not a modern system.
+
+In the _Pneumatics of Hero_, which compilation of inventions appeared in
+225 B. C., seventy-nine illustrations are given and described of simple
+machines, between sixty and seventy of which are hydraulic devices.
+Among these, are siphon pumps, the force pump of Ctesibius, a
+“fire-pump,” having two cylinders, and two pistons, valves, and levers.
+We have in a previous chapter referred to Hero’s steam engine. The fact
+that a vacuum may be created in a pump into which water will rise by
+atmospheric pressure appears to have been availed of but not explained
+or understood.
+
+The employment of the rope, pulley and windlass to raise water was known
+to Hero and his countrymen as well as by the Chinese before them. The
+chain pump and other pumps of simple form have only been improved since
+Hero’s day in matters of detail. The screw of Archimedes has been
+extended in application as a carrier of water, and converted into a
+conveyor of many other materials.
+
+Thus, aqueducts, reservoirs, water-wheels (used for grinding grain),
+simple forms of pumps, fountains, hydraulic organs, and a few other
+hydraulic devices, were known to ancient peoples, but their limited
+knowledge of the laws of pneumatics and their little mechanical skill
+prevented much general progress or extensive general use of such
+inventions.
+
+It is said that Frontinus, a Roman Consul, and inspector of public
+fountains and aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan, and who wrote
+a book, _De Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae Commentarius_, describing the
+great aqueducts of Rome, was the first and the last of the ancients to
+attempt a scientific investigation of the motions of liquids.
+
+In 1593 Serviere, a Frenchman, born in Lyons, invented the rotary pump.
+In this the pistons consisted of two cog wheels, their leaves
+intermeshing, and rotated in an elliptical shaped chamber. The water
+entered the chamber from a lower pipe, and the action of the wheels was
+such as to carry the water around the chamber and force it out through
+an opposite upper pipe. Subsequent changes involved the rotating of the
+cylinder instead of the wheels and many modifications in the form of the
+wheels. The same principle was subsequently adopted in rotary steam
+engines.
+
+In 1586, a few years before this invention of Serviere, Stevinus, the
+great engineer of the dikes of Holland, wrote learnedly on the
+_Principles of Statics and Hydrostatics_, and Whewell states that his
+treatment of the subject embraces most of the elementary science of
+hydraulics and hydrostatics of the present day. This was followed by the
+investigations and treatises of Galileo, his pupil Torricelli, who
+discovered the law of air pressure, the great French genius, Pascal, and
+Sir Isaac Newton, in the 17th century; and Daniel Bernoulli, d’Alembert,
+Euler, the great German mathematician and inventor of the centrifugal
+pump, the Abbé Bossut, Venturi, Eylewein, and others in the 18th
+century.
+
+It was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that mankind departed much
+from the practice of supplying their towns and cities with water from
+distant springs, rivers and lakes, by pipes and aqueducts, and resorted
+to water distribution systems from towers and elevated reservoirs.
+Certain cities in Germany and France were the first to do this, followed
+in the 18th century by England. This seems strange, as to England, as in
+1582 one Peter Maurice, a Dutch engineer, erected at London, on the old
+arched bridge across the Thames, a series of forcing pumps worked by
+undershot wheels placed in the current of the river, by which he forced
+a supply of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty buildings adjacent to
+the bridge. Before the inventions of Newcomen and Watt in the latter
+part of the 18th century of steam pumps, the lift and force pumps were
+operated by wheels in currents, by horses, and sometimes by the force of
+currents of common sewers.
+
+When the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and cities thus began to be
+pumped for drinking purposes, _strainers_ and _filters_ of various kinds
+were invented of necessity. The first ones of which there is any printed
+record made their appearance in 1776.
+
+After the principles of hydraulics had thus been reviewed and discussed
+by the philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries and applied, to the
+extent indicated, further application of them was made, and especially
+for the propelling of vessels. In 1718 La Hire revived and improved the
+double-acting pump of Ctesibius, but to what extent he put it into use
+does not appear. However, it was the double-acting pump having two
+chambers and two valves, and in which the piston acted to throw the
+water out at each stroke.
+
+In 1730 Dr. John Allen of England designed a vessel having a tunnel or
+pipe open at the stern thereof through which water was to be pumped into
+the air or sea--the reaction thus occasioned driving the vessel forward.
+He put such a vessel at work in a canal, working the pumps by manual
+labor, and suggested the employment of a steam engine. A vessel of this
+kind was patented by David Ramsey of England in 1738. Rumsey of America
+in 1782 also invented a similar vessel, built one 50 feet long, and ran
+it experimentally on the Potomac river. Dr. Franklin also planned a boat
+of this kind in 1785 and illustrated the same by sketches. His plan has
+since been tried on the Scheldt, but two turbines were substituted for
+his simple force pump. Further mention will be made later on of a few
+more elaborate inventions of this kind.
+
+It also having been discovered that the fall of a column of water in a
+tube would cause a portion of it to rise higher than its source by
+reason of the force of momentum, a machine was devised by which
+successive impulses of this force were used, in combination with
+atmospheric pressure, to raise a portion of the water at each impulse.
+This was the well-known _ram_, and the first inventor of such a machine
+was John Whitehurst of Cheapside, England, who constructed one in 1772.
+From a reservoir, spring, or cistern of water, the water was discharged
+downward into a long pipe of small diameter, and from thence into a
+shorter pipe governed by a stop-cock. On the opening of the stop-cock
+the water was given a quick momentum, and on closing the cock water was
+forced by the continuing momentum through another pipe into an air
+chamber. A valve in the latter-mentioned pipe opened into the air
+chamber. The air pressure served to overcome the momentum and to close
+the chamber and at the same time forced the water received into the air
+chamber up an adjacent pipe. Another impulse was obtained and another
+injection of water into the chamber by again opening the stop-cock, and
+thus by successive impulses water was forced into the chamber and
+pressed by the air up through the discharge pipe and thence through a
+building or other receptacle. But the fact that the stop-valve had to be
+opened and closed by hand to obtain the desired number of lifts rendered
+the machine ineffective.
+
+In 1796 Montgolfier, a Frenchman and one of the inventors of the
+balloon, substituted for the stop-cock of the Whitehurst machine a loose
+impulse valve in the waste pipe, whereby the valve was raised by the
+rush of the water, made to set itself, check the outflow and turn the
+current into the air chamber. This simple alteration changed the
+character of the machine entirely, rendered it automatic in action and
+converted it into a highly successful water-raising machine. For this
+invention Montgolfier obtained a Gold Medal from the French Exposition
+of 1802. Where a head can be had from four to six feet, water can be
+raised to the height of 30 feet. Bodies of water greater in amount than
+is desired to be raised can thus be utilised, and this simple machine
+has come into very extensive use during the present century.
+
+Allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful hydraulic press of
+Joseph Bramah invented in 1795-1800, its practical introduction in this
+century and improvements therein of others. After the great improvements
+in the steam engine made by Watt, water, steam and air pressure joined
+their forces on the threshold of this century to lift and move the
+world, as it had never been moved before.
+
+The strong hands of hydraulics are pumps. They are divided into classes
+by names indicating their purpose and mode of operation, such as single,
+double-acting, lift or force, reciprocating or rotary, etc.
+
+Knight, in his celebrated _Mechanical Dictionary_, enumerates 100
+differently constructed pumps connected with the various arts. In a
+broader enumeration, under the head of _Hydraulic Engineering and
+Engineering Devices_, he gives a list of over 600 species. The number
+has since increased. About nine-tenths of these contrivances have been
+invented during the 19th century, although the philosophical principles
+of the operation of most of them had been previously discovered.
+
+The important epochs in the invention of pumps, ending with the 18th
+century, were thus the single-acting pump of Ctesibius, 225 B. C., the
+double-acting of La Hire in 1718, the hydraulic ram of Whitehurst, 1772,
+and the hydraulic press of Bramah of 1795-1802.
+
+Bramah’s press illustrates how the theories of one age often lie
+dormant, but if true become the practices of a succeeding age. Pascal,
+150 years before Bramah’s time, had written this seeming hydraulic
+paradox: “If a vessel closed on all sides has two openings, the one a
+hundred times as large as the other, and if each be supplied with a
+piston which fits it exactly, then a man pushing the small piston will
+equilibrate that of 100 men pushing the piston which is 100 times as
+large, and will overcome the other 99.” This is the law of the hydraulic
+press, that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same.
+
+The next important epoch was the invention of Forneyron in 1823, of the
+water-wheel known as the Turbine and also as the Vortex Wheel. If we
+will return a moment to the little steam engine of the ancient Hero of
+Alexandria, called the Eolipile, it will be remembered that the steam
+admitted into a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite
+pipes, having bent exits turned in contrary directions, caused the
+vessel to rotate by reason of the reaction of the steam against the
+pipes. In what is called Barker’s mill, brought out in the 18th century,
+substantially the same form of engine is seen with water substituted for
+the steam.
+
+A turbine is a wheel usually placed horizontally to the water. The wheel
+is provided with curved internal buckets against which the water is led
+by outer curved passages, the guides and the buckets both curved in such
+manner that the water shall enter the wheel as nearly as possible
+without shock, and leave it with the least possible velocity, thereby
+utilising the greatest possible amount of energy.
+
+In the chapter on Electrical inventions reference is made to the mighty
+power of Niagara used to actuate a great number of electrical and other
+machines of vast power. This utilisation had long been the dream of
+engineers. Sir William Siemens had said that the power of all the coal
+raised in the world would barely represent the power of Niagara. The
+dream has been realised, and the turbine is the apparatus through which
+the power of the harnessed giant is transmitted. A canal is dug from the
+river a mile above the falls. It conducts water to a power house near
+the falls. At the power house the canal is furnished with a gate, and
+with cribs to keep back the obstructions, such as sticks. At the gate is
+placed a vertical iron tube called a penstock, 7½ feet in diameter
+and 160 feet deep. At the bottom of the penstock is placed a turbine
+wheel fixed on a shaft, and to which shaft is connected an electric
+generator or other power machine. On opening the gate a mass of water
+7½ feet in diameter falls upon the turbine wheel 160 feet below. The
+water rushing through the wheel turns it and its shaft many hundred
+revolutions a minute. All the machinery is of enormous power and
+dimensions. One electric generator there is 11 feet 7 inches in diameter
+and spins around at the rate of 250 revolutions a minute. Means are
+provided by which the speed of each wheel is regulated automatically.
+Each turbine in a penstock represents the power of 5,000 horses, and
+there are now ten or more employed.
+
+After the water has done its work on the wheels it falls into a tunnel
+and is carried back to the river below the falls. Not only are the
+manufactures of various kinds of a large town at the falls thus supplied
+with power, but electric power is transmitted to distant towns and
+cities.
+
+Turbine pumps of the Forneyron type have an outward flow; but another
+form, invented also by a Frenchman, Jonval, has a downward discharge,
+and others are oblique, double, combined turbine, rotary, and
+centrifugal, embodying similar principles. The term _rotary_, broadly
+speaking, includes turbine and centrifugal pumps. The centrifugal pump,
+invented by Euler in 1754, was taken up in the nineteenth century and
+greatly improved.
+
+In the centrifugal pump of the ordinary form the water is received at
+the centre of the wheel and diverted and carried out in an upward
+direction, but in most of its modern forms derived from the turbine, the
+principle is adopted of so shaping the vanes that the water, striking
+them in the curved direction, shall not have its line of curvature
+suddenly changed.
+
+Among modern inventions of this class of pumps was the “Massachusetts”
+of 1818 and McCarty’s, in 1830, of America, that of some contemporary
+French engineers, and subsequently in France the Appold system, which
+latter was brought into prominent notice at the London Exposition of
+1851. Improvements of great value were also made by Prof. James Thompson
+of England.
+
+Centrifugal pumps have been used with great success in lifting large
+bodies of water to a moderate height, and for draining marshes and other
+low lands.
+
+Holland, Germany, France, England and America have, through some of
+their ablest hydraulic engineers and inventors, produced most remarkable
+results in these various forms of pumps. We have noted what has been
+done at Niagara with the turbines; and the drainage of the marshes of
+Italy, the lowlands of Holland, the fens of England and the swamps of
+Florida bear evidence of the value of kindred inventions.
+
+That modern form of pump known as the _injector_, has many uses in the
+arts and manufactures. One of its most useful functions is to
+automatically supply steam boilers with water, and regulate the supply.
+It was the invention of Giffard, patented in England in 1858, and
+consists of a steam pipe leading from the boiler and having its nozzle
+projecting into an annular space which communicates with a feed pipe
+from a water supply. A jet of steam is discharged with force into this
+space, producing a vacuum, into which the water from the feed pipe
+rushes, and the condensed steam and water are driven by the momentum of
+the jet into a pipe leading into the boiler. This exceedingly useful
+apparatus has been improved and universally used wherever steam boilers
+are found. This idea of injecting a stream of steam or water to create
+or increase the flow of another stream has been applied in
+_intensifiers_, to increase the pressure of water in hydraulic mains,
+pipes, and machines, by additional pressure energy. Thus the water from
+an ordinary main may be given such an increased pressure that a jet from
+a hydrant may be carried to the tops of high houses.
+
+In connection with pumping it may be said that a great deal has been
+discovered and invented during this century concerning the force and
+utilisation of jets of water and the force of water flowing through
+orifices. In the art of mining, a new system called _hydraulicising_ has
+been introduced, by which jets of water at high pressure have been
+directed against banks and hills, which have crumbled, been washed away,
+and made to reveal any precious ore they have concealed.
+
+To assist this operation _flexible nozzles_ have been invented which
+permit the stream to be easily turned in any desired direction.
+
+Returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic pressure, mention
+must be made of the recent invention of the _hydraulic jack_, a portable
+machine for raising loads, and which has displaced the older and less
+efficient screw jack. As an example of the practical utility of the
+hydraulic jack, about a half century ago it required the aid of 480 men
+working at capstans to raise the Luxor Obelisk in Paris, whilst within
+30 years thereafter Cleopatra’s Needle, a heavier monument, was raised
+to its present position on the Thames embankment by four men each
+working one hydraulic jack.
+
+By the high pressures, or stresses given by the hydraulic press it was
+learned that cold metals have plasticity and can be moulded or stretched
+like other plastic bodies. Thus in one modification a machine is had for
+making lead pipes:--A “container” is filled with molten lead and then
+allowed to cool. The container is then forced by the pump against an
+elongated die of the size of the pipe required. A pressure from one to
+two tons per square inch is exerted, the lead is forced up through the
+die, and the pipe comes out completed. Wrought iron and cold steel can
+be forced like wax into different forms, and a rod of steel may be drawn
+through a die to form a piano wire.
+
+By another modification of the hydraulic press pipes and cables are
+covered with a coating of lead to prevent deterioration from rust and
+other causes.
+
+Not only are cotton and other bulky materials pressed into small compass
+by hydraulic machines, but very valuable oils are pressed from cotton
+seed and from other materials--the seed being first softened, then made
+into cakes, and the cakes pressed.
+
+If it is desired to line tunnels or other channels with a metal lining,
+shield or casing, large segments of iron to compose the casing are put
+in position, and as fast as the tunnel is excavated the casing is
+pressed forward, and when the digging is done the cast-iron tunnel is
+complete.
+
+If the iron hoops on great casks are to be tightened the cask is set on
+the plate of a hydraulic press, the hoops connected to a series of steel
+arms projecting from an overhanging support, and the cask is pressed
+upward until the proper degree of tightness is secured.
+
+In the application of hydraulic power to machine tools great advances
+have been made. It has become a system, in which Tweddle of England was
+a pioneer. The great force of water pressure combined with comparatively
+slow motion constitutes the basis of the system. Sir William Fairbairn
+had done with steam what Tweddle and others accomplished with water.
+Thus the enormous force of men and the fearful clatter formerly
+displayed in these huge works where the riveting of boilers was carried
+on can now be dispensed with, and in place of the noisy hammer with its
+ceaseless blows has come the steam or the hydraulic riveting machine,
+which noiselessly drives the rivet through any thickness of metal,
+clinches the same, and smooths the jointed plate. The forging and the
+rolling of the plates are performed by the same means.
+
+William George Armstrong of England, afterward Sir William, first a
+lawyer, but with the strongest bearing toward mechanical subjects,
+performed a great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering. It
+is claimed that he did for hydraulic machinery, in the storage and
+transmission of power thereby, what Watt did for the steam engine and
+Bessemer did for steel. In 1838 he produced his first invention, an
+important improvement in the hydraulic engine. In 1840, in a letter to
+the _Mechanics’ Magazine_, he calls attention to the advantages of water
+as a mechanical agent and a reservoir of power, and showed how water
+pumped to an elevated reservoir by a steam engine might have the
+potential energy thus stored utilised in many advantageous ways. How,
+for instance, a small engine pumping continuously could thus supply many
+large engines working intermittently. In illustration of this idea he
+invented a crane, which was erected on Newcastle quay in 1846; another
+was constructed on the Albert dock at Liverpool, and others at other
+places. These cranes, adapted for the lifting and carrying of enormous
+loads, were worked by hydraulic pressure obtained from elevated tanks or
+reservoirs, as above indicated. But as a substitute for such tanks or
+reservoirs he invented the _Accumulator_. This consists of a large
+cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger, which is made to work
+water-tight therein by means of suitable packing. To this plunger is
+attached a weighted case filled with one or many tons of metal or other
+coarse material. Water is pumped into the cylinder until the plunger is
+raised to its full height within the cylinder, when the supply of water
+is cut off by the automatic operation of a valve. When the cranes or
+other apparatus to be worked thereby are in operation, water is passed
+from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates the crane through
+hydraulic pressure. This pressure of course depends upon the weight of
+the plunger. Thus a pressure of from 500 to 1,000 pounds per square inch
+may be obtained. The descending plunger maintains a constant pressure
+upon the water, and the water is only pumped into the cylinder when it
+is required to be filled. With sensitive accumulators of this character
+hydraulic machinery is much used on board ships for steering them, and
+for loading, discharging and storing cargoes.
+
+_Water Pressure Engines_ or _Water Motors_ of a great variety as to
+useful details have been invented to take advantage of a natural head of
+water from falls wherever it exists, or from artificial accumulators or
+from street mains. They resemble steam engines, in that the water under
+pressure drives a piston in a cylinder somewhat in the manner of steam.
+The underlying principle of this class of machinery is the admission of
+water under pressure to a cylinder which moves the piston and is allowed
+to escape on the completion of the stroke. They are divided into two
+great classes, single and double acting engines, accordingly as the
+water is admitted to one side of the piston only, or to both sides
+alternately. Both kinds are provided with a regulator in the form of a
+turn-cock, weight, or spring valve to regulate and control the flow of
+water and to make it continuous. They are used for furnishing a limited
+amount of power for working small printing presses, dental engines,
+organs, sewing machines, and for many other purposes where a light motor
+is desired.
+
+The nineteenth century has seen a revolution in _baths_ and accompanying
+_closets_. However useful, luxurious, and magnificent may have been the
+patrician baths of ancient Rome, that system, which modern investigators
+have found to be so complete to a certain extent, was not nor ever has
+been in the possession of the poor. It is within the memory of many now
+living everywhere how wretched was the sanitary accommodations in every
+populous place a generation or two ago. Now, with the modern water
+distribution systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which can be brought
+to the homes of all, with plunger, valved siphon and valved and washout
+closets, air valve, liquid seal, pipe inlet, and valve seal traps, and
+with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning systems for drains and
+cesspools, little excuse can be had for want of proper sanitary
+regulations in any intelligent community. The result of the adoption of
+these modern improvements in this direction on the health of the people
+has been to banish plagues, curtail epidemics, and prolong for years the
+average duration of human life.
+
+How multiplied are the uses to which water is put, and how completely it
+is being subjected to the use of man!
+
+Rivers and pipes have their metres, so that now the velocity and volume
+of rivers and streams are measured and controlled, and floods prevented.
+The supplies for cities and for families are estimated, measured and
+recorded as easily as are the supplies of illuminating gas, or the flow
+of food from elevators.
+
+Among the minor, but very useful inventions, are _water scoops_ for
+picking up water for a train while in motion, consisting of a curved
+open pipe on a car, the mouth of which strikes a current of water in an
+open trough between the tracks and picks up and deposits in a minute a
+car load of water for the engine. _Nozzles_ to emit jets of great
+velocity, and ball nozzles terminating in a cup in which a ball is
+loosely seated, and which has the effect, as it is lifted by the jet, to
+spread it into an umbrella-shaped spray, are of great value at fires in
+quenching flame and smoke.
+
+Next to pure air to breathe we need pure water to drink, and modern
+discoveries and inventions have done and are doing much to help us to
+both. Pasteur and others have discovered and explained the germ theory
+of disease and to what extent it is due to impure water. Inventors have
+produced _filters_, and there is a large class of that character which
+render the water pure as it enters the dwelling, and fit for all
+domestic purposes. A specimen of the latter class is one which is
+attached to the main service pipe as it enters from the street. The
+water is first led into a cylinder stored with coarse filtering material
+which clears the water of mud, sediment and coarser impurities, and then
+is conducted into a second cylinder provided with a mass of fine grained
+or powdered charcoal, or some other material which has the quality of
+not only arresting all remaining injurious ingredients, but destroys
+organisms, neutralises ammonia and other deleterious matter. From thence
+the water is returned to the service pipe and distributed through the
+house. The filter may be thoroughly cleansed by reversing the movement
+of the water, and carrying it off through a drain pipe until it runs
+clear and sweet, whereupon the water is turned in its normal course
+through the filter and house.
+
+In a very recent report of General J. M. Wilson, Chief of Engineers,
+U.S.A., the subject of filtration of water, and especially of public
+water supplies in England, the United States, and on the Continent, is
+very thoroughly treated, and the conclusion arrived at there is that the
+system termed “the American,” or mechanical system, is the most
+successful one.
+
+This consists, first, in leading the water into one or more reservoirs,
+then coagulating suspended matter in the water by the use of the
+sulphate of alumina, and then allowing the water to flow through a body
+of coarse sand, by which the coagulated aluminated matter is caught and
+held in the interstices of the sand, and the bacteria arrested. All
+objectionable matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of the sand
+body, which portion is from time to time scraped off, and the whole sand
+mass occasionally washed out by upward currents of water forced through
+the same.
+
+By this system great rapidity of filtration is obtained, the rate being
+120,000,000 gallons a day per acre.
+
+The English system consists more in the use of extended and successive
+reservoirs or beds of sand alone, or aided by the use of the sulphate.
+This also is extensively used in many large cities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
+
+
+“The march of the human mind is slow,” exclaimed Burke in his great
+speech on “Conciliation with the Colonies.” It was at the beginning of
+the last quarter of the 18th century that he was speaking, and he was
+referring to the slow discovery of the eternal laws of Providence as
+applied in the field of political administration to distant colonies.
+The same could then have been said of the march of the human mind in the
+realms of Nature. How slow had been the apprehension of the forces of
+that kind but silent Mother whose strong arms are ever ready to lift and
+carry the burdens of men whenever her aid is diligently sought! The
+voice of Burke was, however, hardly silent when the human mind suddenly
+awoke, and its march in the realms of government and of natural science
+since then cannot be regarded as slow.
+
+More than fifteen centuries before Burke spoke, not only had Greece
+discovered the principles of political freedom for its citizens and its
+colonies, but the power of steam had been discovered, and experimental
+work been done with it.
+
+Yet when the famous orator made his speech the Grecian experiment was a
+toy of Kings, and the steam engine had just developed from this toy into
+a mighty engine in the hands of Watt. The age of mechanical inventions
+had just commenced with the production of machines for spinning and
+weaving. And yet, in view of the rise of learning, and the appearance
+from time to time of mighty intellects in the highest walks of science,
+the growth of the mind in the line of useful machinery had indeed been
+strangely slow. “Learning” had revived in Italy in the 12th and 13th
+centuries and spread westward in the 14th. In the 15th, gunpowder and
+printing had been discovered, and Scaliger, the famous scholar of Italy,
+and Erasmus, the celebrated Dutch philosopher, were the leading
+restorers of ancient literature. Science then also revived, and
+Copernicus, the Pole, gave us the true theory of the solar system. The
+16th century produced the great mathematicians and astronomers Tycho
+Brahe, the Dane, Cardan and Galileo, the illustrious Italians, and
+Kepler, the German astronomer, whose discovery of the laws of planetary
+motion supplemented the works of Copernicus and Galileo and illuminated
+the early years of the 17th century.
+
+In the 17th century appeared Torricelli, the inventor of the barometer;
+Guericke, the German, inventor of the air pump; Fahrenheit, the inventor
+of the mercurial thermometer bearing his name; Leibnitz, eminent in
+every department of science and philosophy; Huygens, the great Dutch
+astronomer and philosopher; Pascal of France and Sir Isaac Newton of
+England, the worthy successors of Kepler, Galileo and Copernicus; and
+yet, with the exception of philosophical discoveries and a few
+experiments, the field of invention in the way of motor engines still
+remained practically closed. But slight as had been the discoveries and
+experiments referred to, they were the mine from which the inventions of
+subsequent times were quarried.
+
+One of the earliest, if not the first of pneumatic machines, was the
+bellows. Its invention followed the discovery of fire and of metals. The
+bladders of animals suggested it, and their skins were substituted for
+the bladders.
+
+The Egyptians have left a record of its use, thirty-four centuries ago,
+and its use has been continuous ever since.
+
+Mention has been made of the cannon. It was probably the earliest
+attempt to obtain motive power from heat. The ball was driven out of an
+iron cylinder by the inflammatory power of powder. Let a piston be
+substituted for the cannon ball, as was suggested by Huygens in 1680 and
+by Papin in 1690, and the charge of powder so reduced that when it is
+exploded the piston will not be thrown entirely out of the cylinder,
+another small explosive charge introduced on the other side of the
+piston to force it back, or let the cylinder be vertical and the piston
+be driven back by gravity, means provided to permit the escape of the
+gas after it has done its work, and means to keep the cylinder cool, and
+we have the prototype of the modern heat engines. The gunpowder
+experiments of Huygens and Papin were not successful, but they were the
+progenitors of similar inventions made two centuries thereafter.
+
+Jan Baptista van Helmont, a Flemish physician (1577-1644), was the first
+to apply the term, _gas_ to the elastic fluids which resemble air in
+physical properties. Robert Boyle, the celebrated Irish scholar and
+scientist, and improver of the air pump, and Edwin Mariotte, the French
+physicist who was first to show that a feather and a coin will drop the
+same distance at the same time in a reservoir exhausted of air, were the
+independent discoverers of Boyle’s and Mariotte’s law of
+gases(1650-1676). This was that at any given temperature of a gas which
+is at rest its volume varies inversely with the pressure put upon it. It
+follows from this law that the density and tension, and therefore the
+expansive force of a gas, are proportional to the compressing force to
+which it is subjected. It is said that Abbé Hauteville, the son of a
+baker of Orleans, about 1678 proposed to raise water by a powder motor;
+and that in 1682 he described a machine based on the principle of the
+circulation of the blood, produced by the alternate expansion and
+contraction of the heart.
+
+The production of heat by concentrating the rays of the sun, and for
+burning objects had been known from the time of Archimedes, and been
+repeated from time to time.
+
+Thus stood this art at the close of the 17th century, and thus it
+remained until near the close of the 18th.
+
+In England Murdock, the Cornish Steam Engineer, was the first to make
+and use coal gas for illuminating purposes, which he did in 1792 and
+1798. Its utilisation for other practical purposes was then suggested.
+
+Gas engines as motive powers were first described in the English patent
+to John Barber, in 1791, and then in one issued to Robert Street in
+1794. Barber proposed to introduce a stream of carbonated hydrogen gas
+through one port, and a quantity of air at another, and explode them
+against the piston. Street proposed to drive up the piston by the
+expansive force of a heated gas, and anticipated many modern ideas.
+Phillipe Lebon, a French engineer, in 1799 and in 1801 anticipated in a
+theoretical way many ideas since successfully reduced to practice. He
+proposed to use coal gas to drive a piston, which in turn should move
+the shaft that worked the pumps which forced in the gas and air, and
+thus make the machine double-acting; to introduce a charge of
+inflammable gas mixed with sufficient air to ignite it; to compress the
+air and gas before they entered the motor cylinder; to introduce the
+charge alternately on each side of the piston; and he also suggested the
+use of the electric spark to fire the mixture. But Lebon was
+assassinated and did not live to work out his ideas.
+
+At the very beginning of the 19th century John Dalton in England,
+1801-1807, and Gay-Lussac in France began their investigations of gases
+and vapours. Dalton was not only the author of the atomic theory, but
+the discoverer of the leading ideas in the “Constitution of Mixed
+Gases.” These features were the diffusion of gases, the action of gases
+on each other in vacuum--the influence of different temperatures upon
+them, their chemical constituents and their relative specific gravity.
+
+Gay-Lussac, continuing his investigations as to expansion of air and
+gases under increased temperatures, in 1807-10, established the law that
+when free from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to equal amounts
+for all equal increments of temperature. He also showed that the gases
+combine, as to volume, in simple proportions, and that several of them
+on being compounded contracted always in such simple proportions as
+one-half, one-third, or one-quarter, of their joint bulk. By these laws
+all forms of engines which were made to work through the agency of heat
+are classed as heat engines--so that under this head are included steam
+engines, air engines, gas engines, vapour engines and solar engines. The
+tie that binds these engines into one great family is temperature. It is
+the heat that does the work. Whether it is a cannon, the power of which
+is manifested in a flash, or the slower moving steam engine, whose
+throbbing heart beats not until water is turned to steam, or the sun,
+the parent of them all, whose rays are grasped and used direct, the
+question in all cases is, what is the amount of heat produced and how
+can it be controlled?
+
+It, then, can make no difference what the agent is that is employed,
+whether air, or gas, or steam, or the sun, or gunpowder explosion, but
+what is the temperature to be attained in the cylinder or vessel in
+which they work. Power is the measure of work done in a given time.
+Horse power is the unit of such measurement, and it consists of the
+amount of power that is required to raise one pound through a vertical
+distance of one foot. This power is pressure and the pressure is heat.
+The unit of heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
+of a pound of distilled water one degree--from 39 degrees to 40 degrees
+F. Its amount or measurement is determined in any instance by a
+dynamometer.
+
+These were the discoveries with which Philosophy opened the nineteenth
+century so brilliantly in the field of Pneumatics.
+
+Before that time it seemed impossible that explosive gases would ever be
+harnessed as steam had been and made to do continual successful work in
+a cylinder and behind a piston. As yet means were to be found to make
+the engine efficient as a double-acting one--to start the untamed steed
+at the proper moment and to stop him at the moment he had done his work.
+
+As Newcomen had been the first in the previous century to apply the
+steam engine to practical work--pumping water from mines--so Samuel
+Brown of England was the first in this century to invent and use a gas
+engine upon the water.
+
+Brown took out patents in 1823 and 1826. He proposed to use gunpowder
+gas as the motive power. His engine was also described in the
+_Mechanics’ Magazine_ published in London at that time. In the making of
+his engine he followed the idea of a steam engine, but used the flame of
+an ignited gas jet to create a vacuum within the cylinder instead of
+steam. He fitted up an experimental boat with such an engine, and means
+upon the boat to generate the gas. The boat was then operated upon the
+Thames. He also succeeded experimentally in adapting his engine to a
+road carriage. But Brown’s machines were cumbrous, complicated, and
+difficult to work, and therefore did not come into public use.
+
+About this time (1823), Davy and Faraday reawakened interest in gas
+engines by their discovery that a number of gases could be reduced to a
+liquid state, some by great pressure, and others by cold, and that upon
+the release of the pressure the gases would return to their original
+volume. In the condensation heat was developed, and in re-expansion it
+was rendered latent.
+
+Then Wright in 1833 obtained a patent in which he expounded and
+illustrated the principles of expansion and compression of gas and air,
+performed in separate cylinders, the production of a vacuum by the
+explosion and the use of a water jacket around the cylinder for cooling
+it.
+
+For William Burdett, in 1838, is claimed the honour of having been the
+first to invent the means of compressing the gas and air previous to the
+explosion, substantially the same as adopted in gas engines of the
+present day.
+
+The defects found in gas engines thus far were want of proper
+preliminary compression, then in complete expansion, and finally loss of
+heat through the walls.
+
+Some years later, Lenoir, a Frenchman, invented a gas engine of a
+successful type, of which three hundred in 1862 were in use in France.
+It showed what could be accomplished by an engine in which the fuel was
+introduced and fired directly in the piston cylinder. Its essential
+features were a cylinder into which a mixture of gas and air was
+admitted at atmospheric pressure, which was maintained until the piston
+made half its stroke, when the gas was exploded by an electric spark. A
+wheel of great weight was hung upon a shaft which was connected to the
+piston, and which weight absorbed the force suddenly developed by the
+explosion, and so moderated the speed. Another object of the use of the
+heavy wheel was to carry the machine over the one-half of the period in
+which the driving power was absent.
+
+Hugon, another eminent French engineer, invented and constructed a gas
+engine on the same principle as Lenair’s.
+
+About this time (1850-60) M. Beau de Rohes, a French engineer,
+thoroughly investigated the reasons of the uneconomical working of gas
+motors, and found that it was due to want of sufficient compression of
+the gas and air previous to explosion, incomplete expansion and loss of
+heat through the walls of the cylinder, and he was the first to
+formulate a “cycle” of operations necessary to be followed in order to
+render a gas engine efficient. They related to the size and dimensions
+of the cylinder; the maximum speed of the piston; the greatest possible
+expansion, and the highest pressure obtainable at the beginning of the
+act of expansion. The study and application of these conditions created
+great advancements in gas engines.
+
+With the discovery and development of the oil wells in the United States
+about 1860 a new fuel was found in the crude petroleum, as well as a
+source of light. The application of petroleum to engines, either to
+produce furnace heat, or as introduced directly into the piston cylinder
+mixed with inflammable gas to produce flame heat and expansion, has
+given a wonderful impetus to the utilisation of gas engines.
+
+G. H. Brayton of the United States in 1873 invented a very efficient
+engine in which the vapour of petroleum mixed with air constituted the
+fuel. Adolf Spiel of Berlin has also recently invented a petroleum
+engine.
+
+Principal among those to whom the world is indebted for the revolution
+in the construction of gas engines and its establishment as a successful
+rival to the steam engine is Nicolaus A. Otto of Deutz on the Rhine.
+
+In the Lenair and Hugon system the expansive force of the exploded gas
+was used directly upon the piston, and through this upon the other
+moving parts. A great noise was produced by these constant explosions.
+In the Otto system the explosion is used indirectly and only to produce
+a vacuum below the piston, when atmospheric pressure is used to give the
+return stroke of the piston and produce the effective work. The Otto
+engine is noiseless. This is accomplished by his method of mixing and
+admitting the gases. He employs two different mixtures, one a “feebly
+explosive mixture,” and the other “a strongly explosive mixture,” used
+to operate on the piston and thus prolong the explosions.
+
+The mode of operation of one of Otto’s most successful engines is as
+follows: The large fly wheel is started by hand or other means, and as
+the piston moves forward it draws into the cylinder a light charge of
+mixed coal gas and air, and the gas inlet is then cut off. As the piston
+returns it compresses this mixture. At the moment the down stroke is
+completed the compressed mixture is ignited, and, expanding, drives the
+piston before it. In the second return stroke the burnt gases are
+expelled from the cylinder and the whole made ready to start afresh.
+Work is actually done in the piston only during one-quarter of the time
+it is in motion. The fly-wheel carries forward the work at the outset
+and the gearing the rest of the time.
+
+Otto was associated with Langen in producing his first machine, and its
+introduction at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876
+excited great attention. Otto and E. W. and W. J. Crossley jointly, and
+then Otto singly, subsequently patented notable improvements.
+
+Simon Bischof and Clark, Hurd and Clayton in England; Daimler of Deutz
+on the Rhine, Riker and Wiegand of the United States, and others, have
+made improvements in the Otto system.
+
+Ammoniacal gas engines have been successfully invented. _Aqua ammonia_
+is placed in a generator in which it is heated. The heat separates the
+ammonia gas from the water, and the gas is then used to operate a
+suitable engine. The exhaust gas is cooled, passed into the previously
+weakened solution, reabsorbed and returned to the generator. In 1890
+Charles Tellier of France patented an ammoniacal engine, also means for
+utilising solar heat and exhaust steam for the same purpose; and in the
+same year De Susini, also of France, patented an engine operated by the
+vapour of ether; A. Nobel, another Frenchman, in 1894, patented a
+machine for propelling torpedoes and other explosive missiles, and for
+controlling the course of balloons, the motive power of which is a gas
+developed in a closed reservoir by the chemical reaction of metallic
+sodium or potassium in a solution of ammonia. These vapour engines are
+used for vapour launches, bicycles and automobiles.
+
+In 1851 the ideas of Huygens and Papin of two hundred years before were
+revived by W. M. Storm, who in that year took out a gunpowder engine
+patent in the United States, in which the air was compressed by the
+explosions of small charges of gunpowder. About fifteen other patents
+have been taken out in America since that time for such engines. In some
+the engines are fed by cartridges which are exploded by pulling a
+trigger.
+
+As to gas and vapor engines generally, it may now be said, in comparison
+with steam, that although the steam engine is now regarded as almost
+perfect in operation, and that it can be started and stopped and
+otherwise controlled quietly, smoothly, instantaneously, and in the most
+uniform and satisfactory manner, yet there is the comparatively long
+delay in generating the steam in the boiler, and the loss of heat and
+power as it is conducted in pipes to the working cylinder, resulting in
+the utilisation of only ten per cent of the actual power generated,
+whereas gas and vapour engines utilise twenty-five per cent of the power
+generated, and the flame and explosions are now as easily and
+noiselessly controlled as the flow of oil or water. The world is coming
+to agree with Prof. Fleeming Jenkins that “Gas engines will ultimately
+supplant the steam.”
+
+The smoke and cinder nuisance with them has been solved.
+
+The sister invention of the gas engine is the air engine. There can be
+no doubt about the success of this busy body, as it is now a swift and
+successful motor in a thousand different fields. Machines in which air,
+either hot or cold, is used in place of steam as the moving power to
+drive a piston, or to be driven by a piston, are known generally as air,
+caloric, or hot-air engines, air compressors, or compressed air engines,
+and are also classed as pneumatic machines, air brakes, or pumps. They
+are now specifically known by the name of the purpose to which they are
+applied, as air ship, ventilator, air brake, fan blower, air pistol, air
+spring, etc.
+
+The attention of inventors was directed towards compressed and heated
+air as a motor as soon as steam became a known and efficient servant;
+but the most important and the only successful air machine existing
+prior to this century was the air pump, invented by Guericke in 1650,
+and subsequently perfected by Robert Boyle and others. The original pump
+and the Magdeburg hemispheres are still preserved.
+
+It is recorded that Amontons of France, in 1699, had an atmospheric fire
+wheel or air engine in which a heated column of air was made to drive a
+wheel.
+
+It has already been noted what Papin (1680-1690) proposed and did in
+steam. His last published work was a Latin essay upon a new system for
+raising water by the action of fire, published in 1707.
+
+The action of confined and compressed steam and gases, and air, is so
+nearly the same in the machines in which they constitute the motive
+power that the history, development, construction, and operation of the
+machines of one class are closely interwoven with those of the others.
+
+Taking advantage of what had been taught them by Watt and others as to
+steam and steam engines, and of the principles and laws of gases as
+expounded by Boyle, Mariotte, Dalton, and Gay-Lussac, that many of the
+gases, such as air, preserve a permanent expansive gaseous form under
+all degrees of temperature and compression to which they had as yet been
+subjected, that when compressed and released they will expand, and exert
+a pressure in the contrary direction until the gas and outside
+atmospheric pressure are in equilibrium, that this compressed gas
+pressure is equal, and transmitted equally in all directions, and that
+the weight of a column of air resting on every horizontal square inch at
+the sea level is very nearly 14.6 pounds, the inventors of the
+nineteenth century were enabled by this supreme illumination to enter
+with confidence into that work of mechanical contrivances which has
+rendered the age so marvellous.
+
+It was natural that in the first development of mechanical appliances
+they should be devoted to those pursuits in which men had the greatest
+practical interest. Thus as to steam it was first applied to the raising
+of water from mines and then to road vehicles. And so in 1800 Thos.
+Parkinson of England invented and patented an “hydrostatic engine or
+machine for the purpose of drawing beer or any other liquid out of a
+cellar or vault in a public house, which is likewise intended to be
+applied for raising water out of mines, ships or wells.” By the use of a
+sort of an air pump he maintained an air pressure on the beer in an
+air-tight cask situated in the cellar, which was connected with pipes
+having air-tight valves, with the upper floor. The liquid was forced
+from the cellar by the air pressure, and when turned off, the air
+pressure was resumed in the cask, which “preserved the beer from being
+thrown into a state of flatness.” Substantially the same device in
+principle has been reinvented and incorporated in patents numerous times
+since.
+
+In the innumerable applications of the pneumatic machines and air tools
+of the century, especially of air-compressing devices, to the daily uses
+of life, we may, by turning first to our home, find its inner and outer
+walls painted by a pneumatic paint-spraying machine, for such have been
+made that will coat forty-six thousand square feet of surface in six
+hours; and it is said that paint can be thus applied not only more
+quickly, but more thoroughly and durably than by the old process. The
+periodical and fascinating practice of house cleaning is now greatly
+facilitated by an air brush having a pipe with a thin wide end in which
+are numerous perforations, and through which the air is forced by a
+little pump, and with which apparatus a far more efficient cleaning
+effect upon carpets, mattresses, curtains, clothes, and furniture can be
+obtained than by the time-honoured broom and duster.
+
+Is the home uncomfortable by reason of heat and summer insects? A
+compressor having tanks or cisterns in the cellar filled with cool or
+cold air may be set to work to reduce the temperature of the house and
+fan the inmates with a refreshing breeze.
+
+Air engines have been invented which can be used to either heat or cool
+the air, or do one or the other automatically. The heating when wanted
+is by fuel in a furnace forced up by a working cylinder, and the cooling
+by the circulation of water around small, thin copper tubes through
+which the air passes to the cylinder.
+
+Do the chimes of the distant church bells lead one to the house of
+worship? The worshipper goes with the comforting assurance that the
+chimes which send forth such sweet harmonies are operated not by
+toiling, sweating men at ropes, but by a musician who plays as upon an
+organ, and works the keys, valves and stops by the aid of compressed
+air, and sometimes by the additional help of electricity.
+
+Mention has already been made of office and other elevators, in which
+compressed air is an important factor in operating the same and for
+preventing accidents.
+
+If a waterfall is convenient, air is compressed by the body of
+descending water, and used to ventilate tunnels, and deep shafts and
+mines, or drive the drills or other tools.
+
+The pneumatic mail tube despatch system, by which letters, parcels,
+etc., are sent from place to place by the force of atmospheric pressure
+in an air-exhausted tube, is a decidedly modern invention, unknown in
+use even by those who are still children. Tubes as large as eight inches
+in diameter are now in use in which cartridge boxes are placed, each
+holding six hundred or more letters, and when the air is exhausted the
+cartridge is forced through the tubes to the distance sometimes of three
+miles and more in a few minutes.
+
+In travelling by rail the train is now guided in starting or in stopping
+on to the right track, which may be one out of forty or fifty, by a
+pneumatic switch, the switches for the whole number of tracks being
+under the control of a single operator. The fast-moving train is stopped
+by an air brake, and the locomotive bell is rung by touching an air
+cylinder. The “baggage smashing,” a custom more honoured in the breach
+than in the observance, is prevented by a pneumatic baggage arrangement
+consisting of an air-containing cylinder, and an arm on which to place
+the baggage, and which arm is then quickly raised by the cylinder piston
+and is automatically swung around by a cam action carrying the baggage
+out of or into the car.
+
+Bridge building has been so facilitated by the use of pneumatic machines
+for raising heavy loads of stone and iron, and for riveting and
+hammering, and other air tools, aided by the development in the art of
+quick transportation, that a firm of bridge builders in America can
+build a splendid bridge in Africa within a hundred days after the
+contract has been entered upon.
+
+Ship building is hastened by these same air drilling and riveting
+machines.
+
+The propelling of cars, road vehicles, boats, balloons, and even ships,
+by explosive gases and compressed air is an extensive art in itself, yet
+still in its infancy, and will be more fully described in the chapter on
+carrying machines.
+
+The realm of Art has received a notable advancement by the use of a
+little blow-pipe or atomiser by which the pigments forming the
+background on beautiful vases are blown with just that graduated force
+desired by the operator to produce the most exquisitely smooth and
+blended effects, while the varying colours are made to melt
+imperceptibly into one another as delicately as the mingled shade and
+coloured sunlight fall on a forest brook.
+
+But to enumerate the industrial arts to which air and other pneumatic
+machines have been adapted would be to catalogue them all. Mention is
+made of others in chapters in which those special arts are treated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATION AND LIGHTING.
+
+
+That Prometheus stole fire from heaven to give it to man is perhaps as
+authentic an account of the invention of fire as has been given. It is
+also reported that he brought it to earth in a hollow tube. If a small
+stick or twig had then been dipped into the divine fire the suggestion
+of the modern match may be supposed to have been made.
+
+But men went on to reproduce the fire in the old way by rubbing pieces
+of wood together, or using the flint, the steel and the tinder until
+1680, when Godfrey Hanckwitz of London, learning of the recent discovery
+of phosphorus and its nature, and inspired by the Promethean idea,
+wrapped the phosphorus in folds of brown paper, rubbed it until it took
+fire, and then ignited thereat one end of a stick which he had dipped in
+sulphur; and this is commonly known as the first invented match. There
+followed the production of a somewhat different form of match, sticks
+first dipped in sulphur, and then in a composition of chlorate potash,
+sulphur, colophony, gum of sugar, and cinnabar for coloring. These were
+arranged in boxes, and were accompanied by a vial containing sulphuric
+acid, into which the match was dipped and thereby instantly ignited.
+These were called chemical matches and were sold at first for the high
+price of fifteen shillings a box.
+
+They were too costly for common use, and so our fathers went on to the
+nineteenth century using the flint, the steel and the tinder, and
+depending on the coal kept alive upon their own or their neighbour’s
+hearth.
+
+Prometheus, however, did reappear about 1820-25, when a match bearing
+the name “Promethean” was invented. It consisted of a roll of paper
+treated with sugar and chlorate of potash and a small cell containing
+sulphuric acid. This cell was broken by a pair of pliers and the acid
+ignited the composition by contact therewith.
+
+It was not until 1827-29 that John Walker, chemist, at
+Stockton-upon-Tees, improved upon the idea of Prometheus and Hanckwitz
+of giving fire to men in a hollow tube. He used folded sanded paper--it
+may have been a tube--and through this he drew a stick coated with
+chlorate of potash and phosphorus. This successful match was named
+“Lucifer,” whose other name was Phosphor, the Morning Star, and the King
+of the Western Land. Faraday, to whom also was given Promethean
+inspiration, procured some of Walker’s matches and brought them to
+public notice.
+
+In many respects the mode of their manufacture has been improved, but in
+principle of composition and ignition they remain the same as Walker’s
+to-day. In 1845, Schrotter of Vienna discovered amorphous or allotropic
+phosphorus, which rendered the manufacture of matches less dangerous to
+health and property. Tons of chemicals and hundreds of pine trees are
+used yearly in the making of matches, and many hundreds of millions of
+them are daily consumed.
+
+But this vast number of matches could not be supplied had it not been
+for the invention of machines for making and packing them. Thus in 1842
+Reuben Partridge of America patented a machine for making splints.
+Others for making splints and the matches separately, quickly followed.
+Together with these came match dipping and match box machines. The
+splint machines were for slitting a block of wood of the proper height
+downward nearly the whole way into match splints, leaving their butts in
+the solid wood. These were square and known as block matches. Other
+mechanisms cut and divided the block into strips, which were then dipped
+at one end, dried and tied in bundles. By other means, a swing blade,
+for instance, the matches were all severed from the block. Matches are
+made round by one machine by pressing the block against a plate having
+circular perforations, and the interspaces are beveled so as to form
+cutting edges.
+
+Poririer, a Frenchman, invented a machine for making match boxes of
+pasteboard. Suitable sized rectangular pieces of pasteboard rounded at
+the angles for making the body of the box are first cut, then these
+pieces are introduced into the machine, where by the single blow of a
+plunger they are forced into a matrix or die and pressed, and receive by
+this single motion their complete and final shape. The lid is made in
+the same way.
+
+By one modern invention matches after they are cut are fed into a
+machine at the rate of one hundred thousand an hour, on to a horizontal
+table, each match separated from the other by a thin partition. They are
+thus laid in rows, one row over another, and while being laid, the
+matches are pushed out a little way beyond the edge of the table, a
+distance far enough to expose their ends and to permit them to be
+dipped. When a number of these rows are completed they are clamped
+together in a bundle and then dipped--first, into a vessel of hot
+sulphur, and then into one of phosphorus, or other equivalent
+ingredients may be used or added. After the dipping they are subjected
+to a drying process and then boxed. Processes differ, but all are
+performed by machinery.
+
+In many factories where phosphorus is used without great care workmen
+have been greatly affected thereby. The fumes of the phosphorus attack
+the teeth, especially when decayed, and penetrate to the jaw, causing
+its gradual destruction, but this has been avoided by proper
+precautions.
+
+The greatly-increased facility of kindling a fire by matches gave an
+impetus to the invention of _cooking and heating stoves_. Of course
+stoves, generically speaking, are not a production of the nineteenth
+century. The Romans had their _laconicum_ or heating stove, which from
+its name was an invention from Laconia. It probably was made in most
+cases of brick or marble, but might have been of beaten iron, was
+cylindrical in shape, with an open cupola at the top, and was heated by
+the flames of the _hypocaust_ beneath. The _hypocaust_ was a hot-air
+furnace built in the basement or cellar of the house and from which the
+heat was conducted by flues to the bath rooms and other apartments. The
+Chinese ages ago heated their hollow tiled floors by underground furnace
+fires. We know of the _athanor_ of the alchemists of the middle ages.
+Knight calls it the “original base-burning furnace.” A furnace of iron
+or earthenware was provided on one side with an open stack or tower
+which opened at the bottom into the furnace, and which stack was kept
+filled with charcoal, or other fuel, which fed itself automatically into
+the furnace as the fuel on the bed thereof burned away. Watt introduced
+an arrangement on the same principle in his steam boiler furnace in
+1767, and thousands of stoves are now constructed within England and the
+United States also embodying the same principle.
+
+The earthenware and soapstone stoves of continental Europe were used
+long before the present century.
+
+In Ben Franklin’s time in the American Colonies there was not much of a
+demand for stoves outside of the largest cities, where wood was getting
+a little scarce and high, but the philosopher not only deemed it proper
+to invent an improvement in chimneys to prevent their smoking and to
+better heat the room, but also devised an improved form of stove, and
+both inventions have been in constant use unto this day. Franklin
+invented and introduced his celebrated stove, which he called the
+Pennsylvania Fire Place, in 1745, having all the advantages of a
+cheerful open fireplace, and a heat producer; and which consisted of an
+iron stove with an open front set well into the room, in which front
+part the fire was kindled, and the products of combustion conducted up a
+flue, and thence under a false back and up the chimney. Open heat spaces
+were left between the two flues. Air inlets and dampers were provided.
+In his description of this stove at that time Franklin also referred to
+the iron box stoves used by the Dutch, the iron plates extending from
+the hearths and sides, etc., chimneys making a double fireplace used by
+the French, and the German stove of iron plates, and so made that the
+fuel had to be put into it from another room or from the outside of the
+house. He dwells upon the pleasure of an open fire, and the destruction
+of this pleasure by the use of the closed stoves. He also describes the
+discomforts of the fireplace in cold weather--of the “cold draught
+nipping one’s back and heels”--“scorched before and frozen behind”--the
+sharp draughts of cold from crevices from which many catch cold and from
+“whence proceed coughs, catarrhs, toothaches, fevers, pleurisies and
+many other diseases.” Added to the pleasure of seeing the crackling
+flames, feeling the genial warmth, and the diffusion of a spirit of
+sociability and hospitality, is the fact of increased purity of the air
+by reason of the fireplace as a first-class ventilator. Hence it will
+never be discarded by those who can afford its use; but it alone is
+inadequate for heating and cooking purposes. It is modernly used as a
+luxury by those who are able to combine with it other means for heating.
+
+The great question for solution in this art at all times has been how to
+produce through dwelling houses and larger buildings in cold and damp
+weather a uniform distribution and circulation of pure heated air. The
+solution of this question has of course been greatly helped in modern
+times by a better knowledge of the nature of air and other gases, and
+the laws which govern their motions and combinations at different
+temperatures.
+
+The most successful form of heating coal stove of the century has been
+one that combined in itself the features of base-burning: that is, a
+covered magazine at the centre or back of the stove open at or near the
+top of the stove into which the coal is placed, and which then feeds to
+the bottom of the fire pot as fast as the coal is consumed, a heavy open
+fire pot placed as low as possible, an ash grate connected with the
+bottom of the pot which can be shaken and dumped to an ash box beneath
+without opening the stove, thus preventing the escape of the dust, an
+illuminating chamber nearly or entirely surrounding the fire pot,
+provided with mica windows, through which the fire is reflected and the
+heat radiated, a chamber above the fire pot and surrounding the fuel
+chamber and into which the heat and hot gases arise, producing
+additional radiating surface and permitting the gases to escape through
+a flue in the chimney, or, leading them first through another chamber to
+the base of the stove and thence out, and dampers to control and
+regulate the supply of air to the fuel, and to cut off the escape or
+control the course of the products of combustion.
+
+The cheerful stove fireplace and stove of Franklin and the French were
+revived, combined and improved some years ago by Capt. Douglas Galton of
+the English army for use in barracks, but this stove is also admirably
+adapted for houses. It consists of an open stove or grate set in or at
+the front of the fireplace with an air inlet from without, the throat of
+the fireplace closed and a pipe extending through it from the stove into
+the chimney. Although a steady flow of heat, desirable regulation of
+temperature and great economy in the consumption of fuel, by reason of
+the utilisation of so much of the heat produced, were obtained by the
+modern stove, yet the necessity of having a stove in nearly every room,
+the ill-ventilation due to the non-supply of pure outer air to the room,
+the occasional diffusion of ash dust and noxious gases from the stove,
+and inability to heat the air along the floor, gave rise to a revival of
+the hot-air furnace, placed under the floor in the basement or cellar,
+and many modern and radical improvements therein.
+
+The heat obtained from stoves is effected by radiation--the throwing
+outward of the waves of heat from its source, while the heat obtained
+from a hot-air furnace is effected by convection--the moving of a body
+of air to be heated to the source of heat, and then when heated bodily
+conveyed to the room to be warmed. Hence in stoves and fireplaces only
+such obstruction is placed between the fire and the room as will serve
+to convey away the obnoxious smoke and gases, and the greatest facility
+is offered for radiation, while in hot-air furnaces, although provision
+is also made to carry away the smoke and impure gases, yet the radiation
+is confined as closely as possible to chambers around the fire space,
+which chambers are protected by impervious linings from the outer air,
+and into which fresh outdoor air is introduced, then heated and conveyed
+to different apartments by suitable pipes or flues, and admitted or
+excluded, as desired, by registers operated by hand levers.
+
+There are stationary furnaces and portable furnaces; the former class
+enclose the heating apparatus in walls of brick or other masonry, while
+in the latter the outer casing and the inner parts are metal structures,
+separable and removable. In both classes an outer current of pure air is
+made to course around the fire chamber and around among other flues and
+chambers through which the products of combustion are carried, so that
+all heat possible is utilised. Vessels of water are supplied at the most
+convenient place in one of the hot-air chambers to moisten and temper
+the air, and dampers are placed in the pipes to regulate and guide the
+supply of heat to the rooms above.
+
+After Watt had invented his improvements on the steam engine the idea
+occurred to him of using steam for heating purposes. Accordingly, in
+1784, he made a hollow sheet-iron box of plates, and supplied it with
+steam from the boiler of the establishment. It had an air-escape cock,
+and condensed-water-escape pipe; and in 1799 Boulton and Watt
+constructed a heating apparatus in Lee’s factory, Manchester, in which
+the steam was conducted through cast-iron pipes, which also served as
+supports to the floor. Patents were also taken out by others in England
+for steam-heating apparatuses during the latter part of the 18th
+century.
+
+Heating by the circulation of hot water through pipes was also
+originated or revived during the 18th century, and a short time before
+Watt’s circulation of steam. It is said that Bonnemain of England, in
+1777, desiring to improve the ancient methods of hatching poultry by
+artificial heat--practised by both ancient and modern Egyptians ages
+before it became a latter day wonder, and taught the Egyptians by the
+ostriches--conceived the idea of constructing quite a large incubator
+building with shelves for the eggs, coops for holding the chickens, and
+a tube for circulating hot water leading from a boiler below and above
+each shelf, and through the coops, and back to the boiler. This
+incubator contains the germs of modern water heaters. In both the steam
+and water heating systems the band or collection of pipes in each room
+may be covered with ornamental radiating plates, or otherwise treated or
+arranged to render them sightly and effective. In one form of the
+hot-water system, however, the collection of a mass of pipes in the
+rooms is dispensed with, and the pipes are massed in an air chamber over
+or adjacent to the furnace, where they are employed to heat a current of
+air introduced from the outside, and which heated pure air is conveyed
+through the house by flues and registers as in the hot-air furnace
+system.
+
+The hanging of the crane, the turning of the spit, the roasting in ashes
+and on hot stones, the heating of and the baking in the big “Dutch”
+ovens, and some other forms of cooking by our forefathers had their
+pleasures and advantages, and still are appreciated under certain
+circumstances, and for certain purposes, but are chiefly honoured in
+memory alone and reverenced by disuse; while the modern cooking stove
+with its roasting and hot water chambers, its numerous seats over the
+fire for pots, pans, and kettles, its easy means of controlling and
+directing the heat, its rotating grate, and, when desired, its rotating
+fire chamber, for turning the hot fire on top to the bottom, and the
+cold choked fire to the top, its cleanliness and thorough heat, its
+economy in the use of fuel, is adopted everywhere, and all the glowing
+names with which its makers and users christen it fail to exaggerate its
+qualities when rightly made and used.
+
+It would appear that the field of labour and the number of labourers,
+chiefly those who toiled with brick and mortar, were greatly reduced
+when those huge fireplaces were so widely discarded. This must have
+seemed so especially in those regions where the houses were built up to
+meet the yearning wants of an outside chimney, but armies of men are
+engaged in civilised countries in making stoves and furnaces, where
+three-quarters of a century ago very few were so employed. As in every
+industrial art old things pass away, but the new things come in greater
+numbers, demand a greater number of workers, develop new wants, new
+fields of labour, and the new and increasing supply of consumers refuse
+to be satisfied with old contrivances.
+
+In the United States alone there are between four and five hundred stove
+and furnace foundries, in which about ten thousand people are employed,
+and more than three million stoves and furnaces produced annually, which
+require nearly a million tons of iron to make, and the value of which is
+estimated as at least $100,000,000.
+
+The matter of _ventilation_ is such a material part of heating that it
+cannot escape attention. There can be no successful heating without a
+circulation of air currents, and fortunately for man in his house no
+good fire can be had without an outflow of heat and an inflow of cooler
+air. The more this circulation is prevented the worse the fire and the
+ventilation.
+
+It seems to many such a simple thing, this change of air--only to keep
+open the window a little--to have a fireplace, and convenient door. And
+yet some of the brightest intellects of the century have been engaged in
+devising means to accomplish the result, and all are not yet agreed as
+to which is the best way.
+
+How to remove the heated, vitiated air and to supply fresh air while
+maintaining the same uniform temperature is a problem of long standing.
+The history of the attempts to heat and ventilate the Houses of
+Parliament since Wren undertook it in 1660 has justly been said to be
+history of the Art of Ventilation since that time, as the most eminent
+scientific authorities in the world have been engaged or consulted in
+it, and the most exhaustive reports on the subject have been rendered by
+such men as Gay-Lussac, Sir Humphry Davy, Faraday and Dr. Arnott of
+England and Gen. Morin of France. The same may be said in regard to the
+Houses of Congress in the United States Capitol for the past thirty-five
+years. Prof. Henry, Dr. Billings, the architect, Clark, of that country,
+and many other bright inventors and men of ability have given the
+subject devoted attention. Among the means for creating ventilation are
+underground tunnels leading to the outer air, with fans in them to force
+the fresh air in or draw the poor air out, holes in the ceiling, fire
+places, openings over the doors, openings under the eaves, openings in
+the window frames, shafts from the floor or basement with fires or gas
+jets to create an upward draught, floors with screened openings to the
+outer air, steam engines to work a suction pipe in one place and a blow
+pipe in another, air boxes communicating with the outer air, screens,
+hoods, and deflectors at these various openings,--all these, separately
+or in combination, have been used for the purpose of drawing the
+vitiated air out and letting the pure air in without creating draughts
+to chill the sensitive, or overheating to excite the nervous.
+
+There seems to have been as many devices invented to keep a house or
+building closed up tight while highly heating it, as to ventilate the
+same and preserve an even, moderate temperature.
+
+The most approved system of ventilation recognises the fact that air is
+of the same weight and is possessed of the same constituents in one part
+of a room as at another, and to create a perfect ventilation a complete
+change and circulation must take place. It therefore creates a draught,
+arising from the production of a vacuum by a current of heat or by
+mechanical means, or by some other way, which draws out of a room the
+used up, vitiated air through outlets at different places, while pure
+outer air is admitted naturally, or forced in if need be, through
+numerous small inlets, such outlets and inlets so located and
+distributed and protected as not to give rise to sensible draughts on
+the occupants.
+
+The best system also recognises the fact that all parts of a house, its
+cellars and attic, its parlours and kitchens, its closets, bathrooms and
+chambers, should be alike clean and well ventilated, and that if one
+room is infected all are infected.
+
+The laurels bestowed on inventors are no more worthily bestowed than on
+those who have invented devices which give to our homes, offices,
+churches and places of amusement a pure and comfortable atmosphere.
+
+_Car Heaters._--The passing away of the good old portable foot stove for
+warming the feet, especially when away from home, and while travelling,
+is not to be regretted, although in some instances it was not at first
+succeeded by superior devices. For a long time after the introduction of
+steam, railroad cars and carriages, in which any heat at all was used,
+were heated by a stove in each car--generally kept full of red hot coal
+or wood--an exceedingly dangerous companion in case of accident. Since
+1871 systems have been invented and introduced, the most successful of
+which consists of utilising the heat of the steam from the locomotive
+for producing a hot-water circulation through pipes along the floor of
+each car, and in providing an emergency heater in each car for heating
+the water when steam from the locomotive is not available.
+
+_Grass-burning Stoves._--There are many places in this world where
+neither wood nor coal abound, or where the same are very scarce, but
+where waste grass and weeds, waste hay and straw, and similar
+combustible refuse are found in great abundance. Stoves have been
+invented especially designed for the economical consumption of such
+fuel. One requisite is that such light material should be held in a
+compressed state while in the stove to prevent a too rapid combustion.
+Means for so holding the material under compression appear to have been
+first invented and patented by Hamilton of America in 1874.
+
+Some means besides the sickle and scythe, hoe and plough, were wanted to
+destroy obnoxious standing grass and weeds. A weed like the Russian
+thistle, for instance, will defy all usual means for its extermination.
+A fire chamber has been invented which when drawn over the ground will
+burn a swath as it advances, and it is provided with means, such as a
+wide flange on the end of the chamber, which extinguishes the fire and
+prevents its spreading beyond the path. A similar stove with jets of
+flame from vapour burners has been used to soften hard asphalt pavement
+when it is desired to take it up.
+
+The art of heating and cooking by oil, vapour and gas stoves is one that
+has arisen during the latter half of this century, and has become the
+subject of a vast number of inventions and extensive industries. Stoves
+of this character are as efficient and economical as coal stoves, and
+are in great demand, especially where coal and wood are scarce and
+high-priced.
+
+_Oil stoves_ as first invented consisted of almost the ordinary lamp,
+without the glass shade set in the stove and were similar to gas stoves.
+But these were objectionable on account of the fumes emitted. By later
+inventions the lamp has been greatly improved. The wick is arranged
+within tubular sliding cylinders so as to be separated from the other
+parts of the stove when it is not lit, and better regulating devices
+adopted, whereby the oil is prevented from spreading from the wick on to
+the other parts of the stove, which give rise to obnoxious fumes by
+evaporation and heating. Some recent inventors have dispensed with the
+wick altogether and the oil is burned practically like vapour.
+_Gasoline_, and other heavy oily vapours are in many stoves first
+vapourised by a preliminary heating in a chamber before the gas is
+ignited for use. These vapours are then conducted by separate jets to
+different points in the stove where the heat is to be applied. The
+danger and unpleasant flame and smoke arising from this vapourising in
+the stove have been obviated by inventions which vapourise the fuel by
+other means, as by carbonating, or loading the air with the vapour in an
+elevated chamber and conducting the saturated air to the burners; or by
+agitation, by means of a quick-acting, small, but powerful fan.
+
+_Sterilising._--The recent scientific discoveries and investigations of
+injurious bacteria rendered it desirable to purify water by other means
+than filtering, especially for the treatment of disease-infected
+localities; and this gave rise to the invention of a system of heat
+sterilising and filtering the water, in one process, and out of contact
+with the germ-laden air, thus destroying the bacteria and delivering the
+water in as pure and wholesome condition as possible. West in 1892
+patented such a system.
+
+_Electric Heating and Cooking._--Reference has already been made in the
+Chapter on Electricity to the use of that agent in heating and cooking.
+The use of the electric current for these purposes has been found to be
+perfectly practical, and for heating cars especially, where electricity
+is the motive power, a portion of the current is economically employed.
+
+The art of heating and cooking naturally suggests the other end of the
+line of temperature--_Refrigeration_.
+
+A refrigeration by which ordinary ice is artificially produced,
+perishable food of all kinds preserved for long times, and transported
+for great distances, which has proved an immense advantage to mankind
+everywhere and is still daily practised to the gratification and comfort
+of millions of men, must receive at least a passing notice. The Messrs.
+E. and F. Carré of France invented successful machines about 1870 for
+making ice by the rapid absorption and evaporation of heat by the
+ammonia process. The discoveries and inventions of others in the
+artificial production of cold by means of volatile liquids, whether for
+the making of ice or other purposes, constituted a great step in the art
+of refrigeration.
+
+Vaporisation, absorption, compression or reduction of atmospheric
+pressure are the principal methods of producing cold. By vaporisation,
+water, ether, sulphuric acid, ammonia, etc., in assuming the vaporous
+form change sensible heat to latent heat and produce a degree of cold
+which freezes an adjacent body of water. The principle of making ice by
+evaporation and absorption may be illustrated by two examples of the
+Carré methods:--It is well known what a great attraction sulphuric acid
+has for water. Water to be frozen is placed in a vessel connected by a
+pipe to a reservoir containing sulphuric acid. A vacuum is produced in
+this reservoir by the use of an air pump, while the acid is being
+constantly stirred. Lessening of the atmospheric pressure upon water
+causes its evaporation, and as the vapour is quietly absorbed by the
+sulphuric acid the water is quickly congealed. It is known that ammonia
+can be condensed into liquid form by pressure or cold, and is absorbed
+by and soluble in water to an extraordinary degree. A generator
+containing a strong solution of ammonia is connected by a pipe to an
+empty receiver immersed in cold water. The ammonia generator is then
+heated, its vapour driven off and conducted to a jacket around the
+centre of the receiver and is there condensed by pressure of an air
+pump. The central cylindrical space in the receiver is now filled with
+water, and the operation is reversed. The generator is immersed in cold
+water and pressure on the liquid ammonia removed. The liquid ammonia now
+passes into the gaseous state, and is conducted to and reabsorbed by the
+water in the generator. But in this evaporation great cold is produced
+and the water in the receiver is soon frozen.
+
+Twining’s inventions in the United States in 1853 and 1862 of the
+compression machine, followed by Pictet of France, and a number of
+improvements elsewhere have bid fair to displace the absorption method.
+In dispensing with absorption these machines proceed on the now
+well-established theory that air and many other gases become heated when
+compressed; that this heat can then be drawn away, and that when the gas
+is allowed to re-expand it will absorb a large amount of heat from any
+solid or fluid with which it is brought in contact, and so freeze it.
+Accordingly such machines are so constructed that by the operation of a
+piston, or pistons, in a cylinder, and actuated by steam or other motive
+power, the air or gas is compressed to the desired temperature, the heat
+led off and the cold vapour conducted through pipes and around chambers
+where water is placed and where it is frozen. By the best machines from
+five hundred to one thousand pounds of ice an hour are produced.
+
+The art of refrigeration and of modern transportation have brought the
+fruits of the tropics in great abundance to the doors of the dwellers of
+the north, and from the shores of the Pacific to the Atlantic and across
+the Atlantic to Europe. A train of refrigerator cars in California laden
+with delicious assorted fruits, and provided with fan blowers driven by
+the car axles to force the air through ice chambers, from whence it is
+distributed by perforated pipes through the fruit chambers, and wherein
+the temperature is maintained at about 40° Fah., can be landed in New
+York four days after starting on its journey of 3,000 miles, with the
+fruits in perfect condition.
+
+But the public is still excited and wondering over the new king of
+refrigeration--_liquid air_.
+
+As has been stated, the compression of air to produce cold is a modern
+discovery applied to practical uses, and prominent among the inventors
+and discoverers in this line have been Prof. Dewar and Charles E.
+Tripler.
+
+Air may be compressed and heat generated in the process withdrawn until
+the temperature of the air is reduced to 312° below zero, at which point
+the air is visible and to a certain extent assumes a peculiar material
+form, in which form it can be confined in suitable vessels and used as a
+refrigerant and as a motor of great power when permitted to re-expand.
+It is said that it was not so long ago when Prof. Dewar produced the
+first ounce of liquid air at a cost of $3,000, but that now Mr. Tripler
+claims that he can produce it by his apparatus for five cents a gallon.
+
+Refrigeration is at present its most natural and obvious use, and it is
+claimed that eleven gallons of the material when gradually expanded has
+the refrigerating power of one ton of ice. Its use of course for all
+purposes for which cold can be used is thus assured. It is also to be
+used as a motor in the running of various kinds of engines. It is to be
+used as a great alleviator of human suffering in lowering and regulating
+the temperature of hospitals in hot weather, and in surgical operations
+as a substitute for anæsthetics and cauterising agents.
+
+It was one of the marvellous attractions at the great Paris Exposition
+of 1900.
+
+Lighting is closely allied to the various subjects herein considered,
+but consideration of the various modes and kinds of lamps for lighting
+will be reserved for the Chapter on Furniture for Houses, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+    “Nigh on the plain, in many cells prepared,
+    That underneath had veins of liquid fire
+    Sluiced from the lake, a second multitude
+    With wondrous art founded the massy ore;
+    Severing each kind, and scumm’d the bullion dross;
+    A third as soon had formed within the ground
+    A various mould, and from the boiling cells
+    By strange conveyance fill’d each hollow nook;
+    As in an organ, from one blast of wind,
+    To many a row of pipes the sound board breathes.”
+                                                  --_Paradise Lost._
+
+
+Ever since those perished races of men who left no other record but that
+engraven in rude emblems on the rocks, or no other signs of their
+existence but in the broken tools found buried deep among the solid
+leaves of the crusted earth, ever since Tubal Cain became “an instructor
+of every artificer in brass and iron,” the art of smelting has been
+known. The stone age flourished with implements furnished ready-made by
+nature, or needing little shaping for their use, but the ages of metal
+which followed required the aid of fire directed by the hand of man to
+provide the tool of iron or bronze.
+
+The Greeks claimed that the discovery of iron was theirs, and was made
+at the burning of a forest on the mountains of Ida in Crete, about 1500
+B. C., when the ore contained in the rocks or soil on which the forest
+stood was melted, cleansed of its impurities, and then collected and
+hammered. Archeologists have deprived the Greeks of this gift, and
+carried back its origin to remoter ages and localities.
+
+Man first discovered by observation or accident that certain stones were
+melted or softened by fire, and that the product could be hammered and
+shaped. They learned by experience that the melting could be done more
+effectually when the fuel and the ore were mixed and enclosed by a wall
+of stone; that the fire and heat could be alone started and maintained
+by blowing air into the fuel--and they constructed a rude bellows for
+this purpose. Finding that the melted metal sank through the mass of
+consumed fuel, they constructed a stone hearth on which to receive it.
+Thus were the first crude furnace and hearth invented.
+
+As to gold, silver and lead, they doubtless were found first in their
+native state and mixed with other ores and were hammered into the
+desired shapes with the hardest stone implements.
+
+That copper and tin combined would make bronze was a more complex
+proceeding and probably followed instead of preceding, as has sometimes
+been alleged, the making of iron tools. That bronze relics were found
+apparently of anterior manufacture to any made of iron, was doubtless
+due to the destruction of the iron by that great consumer--oxygen.
+
+What was very anciently called “brass” was no doubt gold-coloured
+copper; for what is modernly known as brass was not made until after the
+discovery of zinc in the 16th century and its combination with copper.
+
+Among the “lost arts” re-discovered in later ages are those which
+supplied the earliest cities with ornamented vessels of gold and copper,
+swords of steel that bent and sprung like whalebones, castings that had
+known no tool to shape their contour and embellishments, and monuments
+and tablets of steel and brass which excite the wonder and admiration of
+the best “artificers in brass and iron” of the present day.
+
+To understand and appreciate the advancements that have been made in
+metallurgy in the nineteenth century, it is necessary to know, in
+outline at least, what before had been developed.
+
+The earliest form of a smelting furnace of historic days, such as used
+by the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and probably by the Hindoos and other
+ancient peoples, and still used in Asia, is thus described by Dr. Ure:
+
+“The furnace or bloomary in which the ore is smelted is from 4 to 5 feet
+high; it is somewhat pear-shaped, being about 5 feet wide at bottom and
+1 at top. It is built entirely of clay. There is an opening in front
+about a foot or more in height which is filled with clay at the
+commencement, and broken down at the end of each smelting operation. The
+bellows are usually made of two goatskins with bamboo nozzles, which are
+inserted into tubes of clay that pass into the furnace. The furnace is
+filled with charcoal, and a lighted coal being introduced before the
+nozzle, the mass in the interior is soon kindled. As soon as this is
+accomplished, a small portion of the ore previously moistened with water
+to prevent it from running through the charcoal, but without any flux
+whatever, is laid on top of the coals, and covered with charcoal to fill
+up the furnace. In this manner ore and fuel are supplied and the bellows
+urged for three or four hours. When the process is stopped and the
+temporary wall in front broken down the bloom is removed with a pair of
+tongs from the bottom of the furnace.”
+
+This smelting was then followed by hammering to further separate the
+slag, and probably after a reheating to increase the malleability.
+
+It will be noticed that in this earliest process pure carbon was used as
+a fuel, and a blast of air to keep the fire at a great heat was
+employed. To what extent this carbon and air blast, and the mixing and
+remixing with other ingredients, and reheating and rehammering, may have
+been employed in various instances to modify the conditions and render
+the metal malleable and more or less like modern steel, is not known,
+but that an excellent quality of iron resembling modern steel was often
+produced by this simple mode of manufacture by different peoples, is
+undoubtedly the fact. Steel after all is iron with a little more carbon
+in it than in the usual iron in the smelting furnace, to render it
+harder, and a little less carbon than in cast or moulded iron to render
+it malleable, and in both conditions was produced from time immemorial,
+either by accident or design.
+
+It was with such a furnace probably that India produced her keen-edged
+weapons that would cut a web of gossamer, and Damascus its flashing
+blades--the synonym of elastic strength.
+
+Africa, when its most barbarous tribes were first discovered, was making
+various useful articles of iron. Its earliest modes of manufacture were
+doubtless still followed when Dr. Livingstone explored the interior, as
+they now also are. He thus describes their furnaces and iron: “At every
+third or fourth village (in the regions near Lake Nyassa) we saw a
+kiln-looking structure, about 6 feet high and 2½ feet in diameter. It
+is a clay fire-hardened furnace for smelting iron. No flux is used,
+whether with specular iron, the yellow hematite, or magnetic ore, and
+yet capital metal is produced. Native manufactured iron is so good that
+the natives declare English iron “rotten” in comparison, and specimens
+of African hoes were pronounced at Birmingham nearly equal to the best
+Swedish iron.” The natives of India, the Hottentots, the early Britons,
+the Chinese, the savages of North and South America, as discovery or
+research brought their labours to light, or uncovered the monuments of
+their earliest life, were shown to be acquainted with similar simple
+forms of smelting furnaces.
+
+Early Spain produced a furnace which was adopted by the whole of Europe
+as fast as it became known. It was the Catalan furnace, so named from
+the province of Catalonia, where it probably first originated, and it is
+still so known and extensively used. “It consists of a four-sided cavity
+or hearth, which is always placed within a building and separated from
+the main wall thereof by a thinner interior wall, which in part
+constitutes one side of the furnace. The blast pipe comes through the
+wall, and enters the fire through a flue which slants downward. The
+bottom is formed of a refractory stone, which is renewable. The furnace
+has no chimneys. The blast is produced by means of a fall of water
+usually from 22 to 27 feet high, through a rectangular tube, into a
+rectangular cistern below, to whose upper part the blast pipe is
+connected, the water escaping through a pipe below. This apparatus is
+exterior to the building, and is said to afford a continuous blast of
+great regularity; the air, when it passes into the furnace, is, however,
+saturated with moisture.”--_Knight._
+
+No doubt in such a heat was formed the metal from which was shaped the
+armour of Don Quixote and his prototypes.
+
+Bell in his history of Metallurgy tells us that the manufacture of
+malleable iron must have fallen into decadence in England, especially
+before the reign of Elizabeth and Charles I., as no furnaces equal even
+to the Catalan had for a long time been in use; and the architectural
+iron column found in ancient Delhi, 16 inches in diameter, about 48 feet
+long and calculated to weigh about 17 tons, could not have been formed
+by any means known in England in the sixteenth century. This decadence
+was in part due to the severe laws enacted against the destruction of
+forests, and most of the iron was then brought to England from Germany
+and other countries.
+
+From time immemorial the manufacture of iron and steel has been followed
+in Germany, and that country yet retains pre-eminence in this art both
+as to mechanical and chemical processes. It was in the eighteenth
+century that the celebrated Freiberg Mining Academy was founded, the
+oldest of all existing mining schools; and based on developing mining
+and metallurgy on scientific lines, it has stood always on the battle
+line in the fight of progress.
+
+The early smelting furnaces of Germany resembled the Catalan, and were
+called the “Stückofen,” and in Sweden were known as the “Osmund.” In
+these very pure iron was made.
+
+The art of making cast iron, which differs from the ordinary smelted
+iron in the fact that it is _melted_ and then run into moulds, although
+known among the ancients more than forty centuries ago, as shown by the
+castings of bronze and brass described by their writers and recovered
+from their ruins, appears to have been forgotten long before the
+darkness of the middle ages gathered. There is no record of its practice
+from the time the elder Pliny described its former use (40-79 A. D.), to
+the sixteenth century. It is stated that then the lost art was
+re-invented by Ralph Page and Peter Baude of England in 1543--who in
+that year made cast-iron in Sussex.
+
+The “Stückofen” furnace above referred to was succeeded in Germany by
+higher ones called the “Flossofen,” and these were followed by still
+higher and larger ones called “Blauofen,” so that by the middle of the
+eighteenth century the furnaces were very capacious, the blast was good,
+and it had been learned how to supply the furnaces with ore, coal and
+lime-stone broken into small fragments. The lime was added as a flux,
+and acted to unite with itself the sand, clay and other impurities to
+form a slag or scoria. The melted purified iron falling to the bottom
+was drawn off through a hole tapped in the furnace, and the molten metal
+ran into channels in a bed of sand called the “Sow and pigs.” Hence the
+name, “pig iron.”
+
+The smelting of ore by charcoal in those places where carried on
+extensively required the use of a vast amount of wood, and denuded the
+surrounding lands of forests. So great was this loss felt that it gave
+rise to the prohibitory laws and the decadence in England of the
+manufacture of iron, already alluded to. This turned the attention of
+iron smelters to coal as a substitute. Patents were granted in England
+for its use to several unsuccessful inventors. Finally in 1619 Dud
+Dudley, a graduate of Oxford University, and to whom succeeded his
+father’s iron furnaces in Worcestershire, obtained a patent and
+succeeded in producing several tons of iron per week by the use of the
+pitcoal in a small blast furnace.
+
+This success inflamed the wood owners and the charcoal burners and they
+destroyed Dudley’s works. He met with other disasters common to worthy
+inventors and discontinued his efforts to improve the art.
+
+It is said that in 1664 Sir John Winter of England made coke by burning
+sea coal in closed pots. But this was not followed up, and the use of
+charcoal and the destruction of the forests went on until 1735, when
+Abraham Darby of the Coalbrookdale Iron Works at Shropshire, England,
+commenced to treat the soft pit coal in the same way as wood is treated
+in producing charcoal. He proposed to burn the coal in a smouldering
+fire, to expel the sulphur and other impurities existing in the form of
+phosphorus, hydrogen and oxygen, etc. while saving the carbon. The
+attempt was successful, and thus _coke_ was made. It was found cheaper
+and superior to either coal or charcoal, and produced a quicker fire and
+a greater heat. This was a wonderful discovery, and was preserved as a
+trade secret for a long time. It was referred to as a curiosity in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ in 1747. In fact it was not introduced in
+America until a century later, when in 1841 the soft coal abounding
+around Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and in the neighbouring regions of
+Ohio was thus treated. Even its use then was experimental, and did not
+become a practical art in the United States until about 1860.
+
+With the invention of coke came also the revival of cast iron.
+
+The process of making cast steel was reinvented in England by Benjamin
+Huntsman of Attercliff, near Sheffield, about 1740. Between that time
+and 1770 he practised melting small pieces of “blistered” steel (iron
+bars which had been carbonised by smelting in charcoal) in closed clay
+crucibles.
+
+In 1784 Henry Cort of England introduced the puddling process and
+grooved rolls. Puddling had been invented, but not successfully used
+before. The term “puddling” originated in the covering of the hearth of
+stones at the bottom of the furnace with clay, which was made plastic by
+mixing the clay in a puddle of water; and on which hearth the ore when
+melted is received. When in this melted condition Cort and others found
+that the metal was greatly improved by stirring it with a long iron bar
+called a “rabble,” and which was introduced through an opening in the
+furnace. This stirring admitted air to the mass and the oxygen consumed
+and expelled the carbon, silicon, and other impurities. The process was
+subsequently aided by the introduction of pig iron broken into pieces
+and mixed with hammer-slag, cinder, and ore. The mass is stirred from
+side to side of the furnace until it comes to a boiling point, when the
+stirring is increased in quickness and violence until a pasty round mass
+is collected by the puddler. As showing the value of Cort’s discovery
+and the hard experience inventors sometimes have, Fairbairn states that
+Cort “expended a fortune of upward of £20,000 in perfecting his
+invention for puddling iron and rolling it into bars and plates; that he
+was robbed of the fruits of his discoveries by the villainy of officials
+in a high department of the government; and that he was ultimately left
+to starve by the apathy and selfishness of an ungrateful country. His
+inventions conferred an amount of wealth on the country equivalent to
+£600,000,000, and have given employment to 600,000 of the working
+population of our land for the last three or four generations.” This
+process of puddling lasted for about an hour and a half and entailed
+extremely severe labour on the workman.
+
+The invention of mechanical puddlers, hereinafter referred to,
+consisting chiefly of rotating furnaces, were among the beneficent
+developments of the nineteenth century.
+
+Prior to Cort’s time the plastic lump or ball of metal taken from the
+furnace was generally beaten by hammers, but Cort’s grooved rollers
+pressed out the mass into sheets.
+
+The improvements of the steam engine by Watt greatly extended the
+manufacture of iron toward the close of the 18th century, as powerful
+air blasts were obtained by the use of such engines in place of the
+blowers worked by man, the horse, or the ox.
+
+So far as the art of refining the precious metals is concerned, as well
+as copper, tin and iron, it had not, previous to this century, proceeded
+much beyond the methods described in the most ancient writings; and
+these included the refining in furnaces, pots, and covered crucibles,
+and alloying, or the mixture and fusion with other metals. Furnaces to
+hold the crucibles, and made of iron cylinders lined with fire brick,
+whereby the crucibles were subjected to greater heat, were also known.
+
+The amalgamating process was also known to the ancients, and Vitruvius
+(B. C. 27) and Pliny (A. D. 79), describe how mercury was used for
+separating gold from its impurities. Its use at gold and silver mines
+was renewed extensively in the sixteenth century.
+
+Thus we find that the eighteenth century closed with the knowledge of
+the smelting furnaces of various kinds, of coke as a fuel in place of
+charcoal, of furious air blasts driven by steam and other power, of cast
+iron and cast steel, and of refining, amalgamating, and compounding
+processes.
+
+Looking back, now, from the threshold of the nineteenth century over the
+path we have thus traced, it will be seen that what had been
+accomplished in metallurgy was the result of the use of ready means
+tested by prolonged trials, of experiments more or less lucky in fields
+in which men were groping, of inventions without the knowledge of the
+real properties of the materials with which inventors were working or of
+the unvarying laws which govern their operations. They had accomplished
+much, but it was the work mainly of empirics. The art preceding the
+nineteenth century compared with what followed is the difference between
+experience simply, and experience when combined with hard thinking,
+which is thus stated by Herschel: “Art is the application of knowledge
+to a practical end. If the knowledge be merely accumulated experience
+the art is empirical; but if it is experience reasoned upon and brought
+under general principles it assumes a higher character and becomes a
+scientific art.”
+
+With the developments, discoveries and inventions in the lines of steam,
+chemistry and electricity, as elsewhere told, the impetus they gave to
+the exercise of brain force in every field of nature at the outset of
+the century, and with their practical aid, the art of metallurgy soon
+began to expand to greater usefulness, and finally to its present
+wonderful domain.
+
+The subject of metallurgy in this century soon became scientifically
+treated and its operations classified.
+
+Thus the physical character and metallic constituents of ores received
+the first consideration; then the proper treatment to which the ores
+were to be subjected for the purpose of extracting the metal--which are
+either mechanical or chemical. The mechanical processes designed to
+separate the ore from its enclosing rock or other superfluous earthy
+matter called _gangue_ became known as _ore dressing_ and _ore
+concentrating_. These included mills with rollers, and stamps operated
+by gravity, or steam, for breaking up the ore rocks; abrasion apparatus
+for comminuting the ore by rubbing the pieces of ore under pressure; and
+smelting, or an equivalent process, for melting the ore and driving off
+the impurities by heat, etc. The chemical processes are those by which
+the metal, whatever it may be, is either dissolved or separated from
+other constituents by either the application to the ore of certain
+metallic solutions of certain acids, or by the fusion of different ores
+or metals in substantially the old styles of furnaces; or its
+precipitation by amalgamating, or by electrolysis--the art of
+decomposing metals by electricity.
+
+In the early decades of the century, by the help of chemistry and
+physics, the nature of heat, carbon, and oxygen, and the great affinity
+iron has for oxygen, became better known; and particularly how in the
+making of iron its behaviour is influenced by the presence of carbon and
+other foreign constituents; also how necessary to its perfect separation
+was the proper elimination of the oxygen and carbon. The use of
+manganese and other highly oxidisable metals for this purpose was
+discovered.
+
+Among the earliest most notable inventions in the century, in the
+manufacture of iron, was that of Samuel B. Rogers of Glamorganshire,
+Wales, who invented the iron floor for furnaces with a refractory
+lining--a great improvement on Cort’s sand floor, which gave too much
+silicon to the iron; and the _hot air blast_ by Neilson of Glasgow,
+Scotland, patented in 1828. The latter consisted in the use of heated
+air as the blast instead of cold air--whereby ignition of the fuel was
+quickened, intensity of the heat and the expulsion of oxygen and carbon
+from the iron increased, and the operation shortened and improved in
+every way. The patent was infringed and assailed, but finally sustained
+by the highest courts of England. It produced an immense forward stride
+in the amount and quality of iron manufactured.
+
+By the introduction of the hot air blast it became practicable to use
+the hard anthracite coal as a fuel where such coal abounded; and to use
+pig iron, scrap iron, and refractory ore and metals with the fuel to
+produce particular results. Furnaces were enlarged to colossal
+dimensions, some being a hundred feet high and capable of yielding 80 or
+100 tons of metal per day.
+
+The forms of furnaces and means for lining and cooling the hearth and
+adjacent parts have received great attention.
+
+The discovery that the flame escaping from the throat of the blast
+furnace was nothing else than burning carbon led Faber du Faur at
+Wasseralfugen in 1837 to invent the successful and highly valuable
+method of utilising the unburnt gas from the blast furnace for heating
+purposes, and to heat the blast itself, and drive the steam engine that
+blew the blast into the furnace, without the consumption of additional
+fuel. This also led to the invention of separate gas producers. Bunsen
+in 1838 made his first experiments at Hesse in collecting the gases from
+various parts of the furnace, revealing their composition and showing
+their adaptability for various purposes. Thus, from a scientific
+knowledge of the constituents of ores and of furnace gases, calculations
+could be made in advance as to the materials required to make pig iron,
+cast iron, and steel of particular qualities.
+
+In the process of puddling difficulty had been experienced in handling
+the bloom or ball after it was formed in the furnace. A sort of
+squeezing apparatus, or tongs, called the alligator, had been employed.
+
+In 1840 Henry Burden of America invented and patented a method and means
+for treating these balls, whereby the same were taken directly from the
+furnace and passed between two plain converging metal surfaces, by which
+the balls were gradually but quickly pressed and squeezed into a
+cylindrical form, while a large portion of the cinders and other foreign
+impurities were pressed out.
+
+We have described how by Cort’s puddling process tremendous labour was
+imposed on the workmen in stirring the molten metal by hand with
+“rabbles.” A number of mechanical puddlers were invented to take the
+place of these hand means, but the most important invention in this
+direction was the revolving puddlers of Beadlestone, patented in 1857 in
+England, and of Heaton, Allen and Yates, in 1867-68. The most
+successful, however, was that of Danks of the United States in 1868-69.
+The Danks rotary puddler is a barrel-shaped, refractory lined vessel,
+having a chamber and fire grate and rotated by steam, into which pig
+iron formed by the ordinary blast furnaces, and then pulverised, is
+placed, with the fuel. Molten metal from the furnace is then run in,
+which together with the fuel is then subjected to a strong blast.
+Successive charges may be made, and at the proper time the puddler is
+rotated, slowly at some stages and faster at others, until the operation
+is completed. A much more thorough and satisfactory result in the
+production of a pure malleable iron is thus obtained than is possible by
+hand puddling.
+
+But the greatest improvements in puddling, and in the production of
+steel from iron, and which have produced greater commercial results than
+any other inventions of the century relating to metallurgy, were the
+inventions of Henry Bessemer of Hertfordshire, England, from 1855 to
+1860. In place of the puddling “rabbles” to stir the molten metal, or
+_matte_, as it is called, while the air blast enters to oxidise it, he
+first introduced the molten metal from the furnace into an immense
+egg-shaped vessel lined with quartzose, and hung in an inclined position
+on trunnions, or melted the metal in such vessel, and then dividing the
+air blast into streams forced with great pressure each separate stream
+through an opening in the bottom of the vessel into the molten mass,
+thus making each stream of driven air a rabble; and they together blew
+and lifted the white mass into a huge, surging, sun-bright fountain. The
+effect of this was to burn out the impurities, silicon, carbon, sulphur,
+and phosphorus, leaving the mass a pure soft iron. If steel was wanted a
+small amount of carbon, usually in the form of spiegeleisen, was
+introduced into the converter before the process was complete.
+
+A. L. Holley of the United States improved the Bessemer apparatus by
+enabling a greater number of charges to be converted into steel within a
+given time.
+
+Sir Henry Bessemer has lived to gain great fortunes by his inventions,
+to see them afford new fields of labour for armies of men, and to
+increase the riches of nations, from whom he has received deserved
+honours.
+
+The Bessemer process led to renewed investigations and discoveries as to
+heat and its utilisation, the constituents of different metals and their
+decomposition, and as to the parts played by carbon, silicon, and
+phosphorus. The carbon introduced by the charge of pig iron in the
+Bessemer process was at first supposed to be necessary to produce the
+greatest heat, but this was found to be a mistake; and phosphorus, which
+had been regarded as a great enemy of iron, to be eliminated in every
+way, was found to be a valuable constituent, and was retained or added
+to make phosphorus steel.
+
+The Bessemer process has been modified in various ways: by changing the
+mode of introducing the blast from the bottom of the converter to the
+sides thereof, and admitting the blast more slowly at certain stages; by
+changing the character of the pig iron and fuel to be treated; and by
+changing the shape and operation of the converters, making them
+cylindrical and rotary, for instance.
+
+The Bessemer process is now largely used in treating copper. By this
+method the blowing through the molten metal of a blast of air largely
+removes sulphur and other impurities.
+
+The principles of reduction by the old style furnaces and methods we
+have described have been revived and combined with improvements. For
+instance, the old Catalan style of furnace has been retained to smelt
+the iron, but in one method the iron is withdrawn before it is reduced
+completely and introduced into another furnace, where, mixed with
+further reducing ingredients, a better result by far is produced with
+less labour.
+
+It would be a long list that would name the modern discoverers and
+inventors of the century in the manufacture of iron and steel. But
+eminent in the list, in addition to Davy and Bessemer, and others
+already mentioned, are Mushet, Sir L. Bell, Percy, Blomfield, Beasley,
+Giers and Snellus of England; Martin, Chennot, Du Motay, Pernot and
+Gruner of France; Lohage, Dr. C. L. Siemens and Höpfer of Germany; Prof
+Sarnstrom and Akerman of Sweden; Turner of Austria; and Holley, Slade,
+Blair, Jones, Sellers, Clapp, Griffiths and Eames of the United States.
+
+Some of the new metals discovered in the last century have in this
+century been combined with iron to make harder steel. Thus we have
+nickel, chromium, and tungsten steel. Processes for hardening steel, as
+the “Harveyized” steel, have given rise to a contest between
+“irresistible” projectiles and “impenetrable” armour plate.
+
+If there are some who regard modern discoveries and inventions in iron
+and steel as lessening the number of workmen and cheapening the product
+too much, thus causing trouble due to labour-saving machinery, let them
+glance, among other great works in the world, at Krupp’s at Essen, where
+on January 1st, 1899, 41,750 persons were employed, and at which works
+during the previous year 1,199,610 tons of coal and coke were consumed,
+or about 4000 tons daily. Workers in iron will not be out of employment
+in the United States, where 16,000,000 tons of coke are produced
+annually, 196,405,953 tons of coal mined, 11,000,000 tons of pig iron
+and about 9,000,000 tons of steel made. The increase of population
+within the last hundred years bears no comparison with this enormous
+increase in iron and fuel. It shows that as inventions multiply, so does
+the demand for their better and cheaper products increase.
+
+As the other metals, gold, silver, copper and lead often occur together,
+and in the same deposits with iron, the same general modes of treatment
+to extract them are often applied. These are known as the dry and the
+wet methods, and electro-reduction.
+
+Ever since Mammon bowed his head in search for gold, every means that
+the mind of man could suggest to obtain it have been tried, but the
+devices of this century have been more numerous and more successful than
+any before. The ancient methods of simply melting and “skimming the
+bullion dross” have been superseded. Modern methods may be divided into
+two general classes, the mechanical and the chemical. Of the former
+methods, when gold was found loose in sand or gravel, washing was the
+earliest and most universally practised, and was called panning. In this
+method mercury is often used to take up and secure the fine gold.
+Rockers like a child’s cradle, into which the dirt is shovelled and
+washed over retaining riffles, were used; coarse-haired blankets and
+hides; sluices and separators, with or without quicksilver linings to
+catch the gold; and powerful streams of water worked by compressed air
+to tear down the banks. Where water could not be obtained the ore and
+soil were pulverised and dried, and then thrown against the wind or a
+blast of air, and the heavier gold, falling before the lighter dust, was
+caught on hides or blankets. For the crushing of the quartz in which
+gold was found, innumerable inventions in stamp mills, rollers,
+crushers, abraders, pulverisers and amalgamators have been invented; and
+so with roasters, and furnaces, and crucibles to melt the precious
+metal, separate the remaining impurities and convert it to use.
+
+As to chemical methods for the precious metals, the process of
+_lixiviation_, or _leaching_, by which the ore is washed out by a
+solution of potash, or with dilute sulphuric acid, or boiling with
+concentrated sulphuric acid, is quite modern. About 1889 came out the
+great cyanide process, also known as the MacArthur-Forrest process (they
+being the first to obtain patents and introduce the invention),
+consisting of the use of cyanide potassium in solution, which dissolves
+the gold, and which is then precipitated by the employment of zinc. This
+process is best adapted to what are known as free milling or porous
+ores, where the gold is free and very fine and is attracted readily by
+mercury.
+
+In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the metal potassium by subjecting
+moistened potash to the action of a powerful voltaic battery; the
+positive pole gave off oxygen and the metallic globules of pure
+potassium appeared at the negative pole. It is never found uncombined in
+nature. Now if potassium is heated in cyanogen gas (a gas procured by
+heating mercury) or obtained on a large scale by the decomposition of
+yellow prussiate of potash, a white crystalline body very soluble in
+water, and exceedingly poisonous, is obtained. When gold, for instance,
+obtained by pulverising the ore, or found free in sand, is treated to
+such a solution it is dissolved from its surrounding constituents and
+precipitated by the zinc, as before stated.
+
+Chlorine is another metal discovered by Scheele in 1774, but not known
+as an elementary element until so established by Davy’s investigations
+in 1810, when he gave it the name it now bears, from the Greek
+_chloras_, yellowish green. It is found abundantly in the mineral world
+in combination with common salt. Now it was found that chlorine is one
+of the most energetic of bodies, surpassing even oxygen under some
+circumstances, and that a chlorine solution will readily dissolve gold.
+
+These, the cyanide and chlorination processes, have almost entirely
+superseded the old washing and amalgamating methods of treating free
+gold--and the cyanide seems to be now taking the lead.
+
+_Alloys._--The art of fusing different metals to make new compounds,
+although always practised, has been greatly advanced by the discoverers
+and inventors of the century. As we have seen, amalgamating to extract
+gold and silver, and the making of bronze from tin and copper were very
+early followed. One of the most notable and useful of modern inventions
+or improvements of the kind was that of Isaac Babbitt of Boston in 1839,
+who in that year obtained patents for what ever since has been known as
+“babbitting.” The great and undesirable friction produced by the rubbing
+of the ends of journals and shafts in their bearings of the same metal,
+cast or wrought iron, amounting to one-fifth of the amount of power
+exerted to turn them, had long been experienced. Lubricants of all kinds
+had been and are used; but Babbitt’s invention was an anti-friction
+metal. It is composed of tin, antimony, and copper, and although the
+proportions and ingredients have since been varied, the whole art is
+still known as babbitting.
+
+Other successful alloys have been made for gun metal, sheathing of
+ships, horseshoes, organ pipes, plough shares, roofing, eyelets,
+projectiles, faucets, and many and various articles of hardware,
+ornamental ware, and jewelry.
+
+Valuable metals, such as were not always rare or scarce, but very hard
+to reduce, have been rendered far less in cost of production and more
+extensive in use by modern processes. Thus, aluminium, an abundant
+element in rocks and clay, discovered by the German chemist Wöhler, in
+1827, a precious metal, so light, bright, and tough, non-oxidizing,
+harder than zinc, more sonorous than silver, malleable and ductile as
+iron, and more tenacious, has been brought to the front from an
+expensive and mere laboratory production to common and useful purposes
+in all the arts by the processes commencing in 1854 with that of St.
+Clair Deoville, of France, followed by those of H. Rose, Morin, Castner,
+Tissier, Hall, and others.
+
+_Electro-metallurgy_, so far, has chiefly to do with the decomposition
+of metals by the electric current, and the production of very high
+temperatures for furnaces, by which the most refractory ores, metals,
+and other substances may be melted, and results produced not obtainable
+in any other way. By placing certain mixtures of carbon and sand, or of
+carbon and clay, between the terminals of a powerful current, a material
+resembling diamonds, but harder, has been produced. It has been named
+carbonundrum. The production of diamonds themselves is looked for. Steel
+wire is now tempered and annealed by electricity, as well as welding
+done, of which mention further on will be made.
+
+Thus we have seen how the birth of ideas of former generations has given
+rise in the present age to children of a larger growth. Arts have grown
+only as machinery for the accomplishment of their objects has developed,
+and machinery has waited on the development of the metals composing it.
+The civilisation of to-day would not have been possible if the
+successors of Tubal Cain had not been like him, instructors “of every
+artificer in brass and iron.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+METAL WORKING.
+
+
+We referred in the last chapter to the fact that metal when it came from
+the melting and puddling furnace was formerly rolled into sheets; but,
+when the manufacturers and consumers got these sheets then came the
+severe, laborious work by hand of cutting, hammering, boring, shaping
+and fitting the parts for use and securing them in place.
+
+It is one of the glories of this century that metal-working tools and
+machinery have been invented that take the metal from its inception,
+mould and adapt it to man’s will in every situation with an infinite
+saving of time and labour, and with a perfection and uniformity of
+operation entirely impossible by hand.
+
+Although the tools for boring holes in wood, such as the gimlet, auger,
+and the lathe to hold, turn and guide the article to be operated on by
+the tool, are common in some respects with those for drilling and
+turning metal, yet, the adaptation to use with metal constitutes a class
+of metal-working appliances distinct in themselves, and with some
+exceptions not interchangeable with wood-working utensils. The
+metal-working tools and machines forming the subject of this chapter are
+not those which from time immemorial have been used to pierce, hammer,
+cut, and shape metals, directed by the eye and hand of man, but rather
+those invented to take the place of the hand and eye and be operated by
+other powers.
+
+It needs other than manual power to subdue the metals to the present
+wants of man, and until those modern motor powers, such as steam,
+compressed air, gas and electricity, and modern hydraulic machinery,
+were developed, automatic machine tools to any extent were not invented.
+So, too, the tools that are designed to operate on hard metal should
+themselves be of the best metal, and until modern inventors rediscovered
+the art of making cast steel such tools were not obtainable. The
+monuments and records of ancient and departed races show that it was
+known by them how to bore holes in wood, stone and glass by some sharp
+instruments turned by hand, or it may be by leather cords, as a top is
+turned.
+
+_The lathe_, a machine to hold an object, and at the same time revolve
+it while it is formed by the hand, or cut by a tool, is as old as the
+art of pottery, and is illustrated in the oldest Egyptian monuments, in
+which the god Ptah is shown in the act of moulding man upon the throwing
+wheel. It is a device as necessary to the industrial growth of man as
+the axe or the spade. Its use by the Egyptians appears to have been
+confined to pottery, but the ancient Greeks, Chinese, Africans, and
+Hindoos used lathes, for wood working in which the work was suspended on
+horizontal supports, and adapted to be rotated by means of a rope and
+treadle and a spring bar, impelled by the operator as he held the
+cutting tool on the object. Joseph Holtzapffel in his learned work on
+_Turning and Mechanical Manipulation_, gives a list of old publications
+describing lathes for turning both wood and metal. Among these is
+Hartman Schapper’s book published at Frankfort, in 1548. A lathe on
+which was formed wood screws is described in a work of Jacques Besson,
+published at Lyons, France, in 1582.
+
+It is stated that there is on exhibition in the Abbott museum of the
+Historical Society, New York, a bronze drinking vessel, five inches in
+diameter, that was exhumed from an ancient tomb in Thebes, and which
+bears evidence of having been turned on a lathe. It is thought by those
+skilled in the art that it was not possible to have constructed the
+works of metal in Solomon’s Temple without a turning lathe. One of the
+earliest published descriptions of a metal turning lathe in its leading
+features is that found in a book published in London, in 1677-83, by
+Joseph Moxon, “hydographer” to King Charles II., entitled, _Mechanical
+Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handy Works_. He therein also described a
+machine for planing metal. Although there is some evidence that these
+inventions of the learned gentleman were made and put to some use, yet
+they were soon forgotten and were not revived until a century later,
+when, as before intimated, the steam engine had been invented and
+furnished the power for working them.
+
+Wood-working implements in which the cutting tool was carried by a
+sliding block were described in the English patents of General Sir
+Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah, in 1793-94. But until this century,
+and fairly within its borders, man was content generally to use the
+metal lathe simply as a holding and turning support, while he with such
+skill and strength as he could command, and with an expenditure of time,
+labour and patience truly marvellous, held and guided with his hands the
+cutting tool with which the required form was made upon or from the
+slowly turning object before him. The contrivance which was to take the
+place of the hand and eye of man in holding, applying, directing and
+impelling a cutting tool to the surface of the metal work was the
+_slide-rest_. In its modern successful automatic form Henry Maudsley, an
+engineer in London, is claimed to be the first inventor, in the early
+part of the century. The leading feature of his form of this device
+consists of an iron block which constitutes the rest, cut with grooves
+so as to adapt it to slide upon its iron supports, means to secure the
+cutting tool solidly to this block, and two screw handles, one to adjust
+the tool towards and against the object to be cut in the lathe, and the
+other to slide the rest and tool lengthwise as the work progresses,
+which latter motion may be given by the hand, or effected automatically
+by a connection of the screw handle of the slide and the rotating object
+on the lathe.
+
+A vast variety of inventions and operations have been effected by
+changes in these main features. Of the value of this invention, Nasmyth,
+a devoted pupil of Maudsley and himself an eminent engineer and
+inventor, thus writes:--“It was this holding of a tool by means of an
+iron hand, and constraining it to move along the surface of the work in
+so certain a manner, and with such definite and precise motion, which
+formed the great era in the history of mechanics, inasmuch as we
+thenceforward became possessed, by its means, of the power of operating
+alike on the most ponderous or delicate pieces of machinery with a
+degree of minute precision, of which language cannot convey an adequate
+idea; and in many cases we have, through its agency, equal facility in
+carrying on the most perfect workmanship in the interior parts of
+certain machines where neither the hand nor the eye can reach, and
+nevertheless we can give to these parts their required form with a
+degree of accuracy as if we had the power of transforming our-selves
+into pigmy workmen, and so apply our labour to the innermost holes and
+corners of our machinery.”
+
+The scope of the lathe, slide-rest and operating tool, by its adaptation
+to cut out from a vast roll of steel a ponderous gun, or by a change in
+the size of parts to operate in cutting or drilling the most delicate
+portions of that most delicate of all mechanisms, a watch, reminds one
+of that other marvel of mechanical adaptation, the steam hammer, which
+makes the earth tremble with its mighty blows upon a heated mass of
+iron, or lightly taps and cracks the soft-shelled nut without the
+slightest touch of violence upon its enclosed and fragile fruit.
+
+The adaptation of the lathe and slide to wood-working tools will be
+referred to in the chapter relating to wood-working.
+
+Following the invention of the lathe and the slide-rest, came the
+_metal-planing_ machines. It is stated in Buchanan’s _Practical Essays_,
+published in 1841, that a French engineer in 1751, in constructing the
+Marly Water Works on the Seine in France, employed a machine for planing
+out the wrought iron pump-barrels used in that work, and this is thought
+to be the first instance in which iron was reduced to a plane surface
+without chipping or filing. But it needed the invention of the
+slide-rest and its application to metal-turning lathes to suggest and
+render successful metal-planing machines. These were supplied in England
+from 1811 to 1840 by the genius of Bramah, Clement, Fox, Roberts,
+Rennie, Whitworth, Fletcher, and a few others. When it is considered how
+many different forms are essential to the completion of metal machines
+of every description, the usefulness of machinery that will produce them
+with the greatest accuracy and despatch can be imagined. The many
+modifications of the planing machine have names that indicate to the
+workman the purpose for which they are adapted--as the _jack_, a small
+portable machine, quick and handy; the _jim crow_, a machine for planing
+both ways by reversal of the movement of the bed, and it gets its name
+because it can “wheel about and turn about and do just so”; the key
+groove machine, the milling machine with a serrated-faced cutter bar,
+shaping machine and shaping bar, slotting machine, crank planer, screw
+cutting, car-wheel turning, bolt and nut screwing, etc.
+
+As to the mutual evolution and important results of these combined
+inventions, the slide-rest and the planer, we again quote Nasmyth:--
+
+“The first planing machine enabled us to produce the second still
+better, and that a better still, and then slide rests of the most
+perfect kind came streaming forth from them, and they again assisted in
+making better still, so that in a very short time a most important
+branch of engineering business, namely, tool-making, arose, which had
+its existence not merely owing to the pre-existing demand for such
+tools, but in fact raised a demand of its own creating. One has only to
+go into any of these vast establishments which have sprung up in the
+last thirty years to find that nine-tenths of all the fine mechanisms in
+use and in process of production are through the agency, more or less
+direct, of the _slide rest and planing machine_.”
+
+Springing out of these inventions, as from a fruitful soil, came the
+metal-boring machines, one class for turning the outside of cylinders to
+make them true, and another class for boring and drilling holes through
+solid metal plates. The principle of the lathe was applied to those
+machines in which the shaft carrying the cutting or boring tool was held
+either in a vertical or in a horizontal position.
+
+Now flowed forth, as from some Vulcan’s titanic workshop, machines for
+making bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, chains, staples, car wheels, shafts,
+etc., and other machines for applying them to the objects with which
+they were to be used.
+
+The progress of screw-making had been such that in 1840, by the machines
+then in use for cutting, slotting, shaving, threading, and heading,
+twenty men and boys were enabled to manufacture 20,000 screws in a day.
+Thirty-five years later two girls tending two machines were enabled to
+manufacture 240,000 screws a day. Since then the process has proceeded
+at even a greater rate. So great is the consumption of screws that it
+would be utterly impossible to supply the demand by the processes in
+vogue sixty years ago.
+
+In England’s first great International Fair, in 1851, a new world of
+metallurgical products, implements, processes, and metal-working tools,
+were among the grand results of the half century’s inventions which were
+exhibited to the assembled nations. The leading exhibitor in the line of
+self-acting lathes, planing, slotting, drilling and boring machines was
+J. Whitworth & Co., of Manchester, England. Here were for the first time
+revealed in a compact form those machines which shaped metal as wood
+alone had been previously shaped. But another quarter of a century
+brought still grander results, which were displayed at the Centennial
+Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876.
+
+As J. Whitworth & Co. were the leading exhibitors at London in 1851, so
+were William Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, the leading exhibitors in
+the 1876 exhibition. As showing the progress of the century, the
+official report, made in this class by citizens of other countries than
+America, set forth that this exhibit of the latter company, “in extent
+and value, in extraordinary variety and originality, was probably
+without parallel in the past history of international exhibitions.”
+Language seemed to be inadequate to enable the committee to describe
+satisfactorily the extreme refinement in every detail, the superior
+quality of material and workmanship, the mathematical accuracy, the
+beautiful outlines, the perfection in strength and form, and the
+scientific skill displayed in the remarkable assemblage of this class of
+machinery at that exhibition.
+
+An exhibit on that occasion made by Messrs. Hoopes & Townsend of
+Philadelphia attracted great attention by the fact that the doctrine of
+the flow of solid metal, so well expounded by that eminent French
+scientist, M. Tresca, was therein well illustrated. It consisted of a
+large collection of bolts and screws which had been _cold-punched_, as
+well as of elevator and carrier chains, the links of which had been so
+punched. This punching of the cold metal without cutting, boring,
+drilling, hammering, or otherwise shaping the metal, was indeed a
+revelation.
+
+So also at this Exhibition was a finer collection of machine-made
+horseshoes than had ever previously been presented to the world. A
+better and more intelligent and refined treatment of that noble animal,
+the horse, and especially in the care of his feet, had sprung up during
+the last half century, conspicuously advocated by Mr. Fleming in
+England, and followed promptly in America and elsewhere. Within the last
+forty years nearly two hundred patents have been taken out in the United
+States alone for machines for making horseshoes. Prejudices, jealousies
+and objections of all kinds were raised at first against the
+machine-made horseshoe, as well as the horseshoe nail, but the horses
+have won, and the blacksmiths have been benefited despite their early
+objections. The smiths make larger incomes in buying and applying the
+machine-made shoes. The shoes are not only hammered into shape on the
+machine, but there are machines for stamping them out from metal at a
+single blow; for compressing several thicknesses of raw hide and
+moulding them in a steel mould, producing a light, elastic shoe, and
+without calks; furnishing shoes for defective hoofs, flexible shoes for
+the relief and cure of contracted or flat feet, shoes formed with a
+joint at the toe, and light, hard shoes made of aluminium.
+
+_Tube Making._--Instead of heating strips of metal and welding the edges
+together, tubes may now be made seamless by rolling the heated metal
+around a solid heated rod; or by placing a hot ingot in a die and
+forcing a mandrel through the ingot. And as to tube and metal bending,
+there are wonderful machines which bend sheets of metal into great
+tubes, funnels, ship masts and cylinders.
+
+_Welding._--As to welding--the seams, instead of being hammered, are now
+formed by melting and condensing the edges, or adjoining parts, by the
+electric current.
+
+_Annealing and Tempering._--Steel wire and plates are now tempered and
+annealed by electricity. It is found that they can be heated to a high
+temperature more quickly and evenly by the electric current passed
+through them than by combustion, and the process is much used in making
+clock and watch springs.
+
+One way of hardening plates, especially armour plates, by what is called
+the Harveyized process, is by embedding the face of the plate in carbon,
+protecting the back and sides with sand, heating to about the melting
+point of cast iron, and then hardening the face by chilling, or
+otherwise.
+
+_Coating with Metal._--Although covering metal with metal has been
+practised from the earliest times, accomplished by heating and
+hammering, it was not until this century that electro-plating, and
+plating by chemical processes, as by dipping the metal into certain
+chemical solutions, and by the use of automatic machinery, were adopted.
+It was in the early part of the century that Volta discovered that in
+the voltaic battery certain metallic salts were reduced to their
+elements and deposited at the negative pole; and that Wollaston
+demonstrated how a silver plate in bath of sulphate of copper through
+which a current was passed became covered with copper. Then in 1838,
+Spencer applied these principles in making casts, and Jacobi in Russia
+shortly after electro-gilded a dome of a cathedral in St. Petersburg.
+Space will not permit the enumeration of the vast variety of processes
+and machines for coating and gilding that have since followed.
+
+_Metal Founding._--The treatment of metal after it flows from the
+furnaces, or is poured from the crucibles into moulds, by the operations
+of facing, drying, covering, casting and stripping, has given rise to a
+multitude of machines and methods for casting a great variety of
+objects. The most interesting inventions in this class have for their
+object the chilling, or chill hardening, of the outer surfaces of
+articles which are subject to the most and hardest wear, as axle boxes,
+hammers, anvils, etc., which is effected by exposing the red-hot metal
+to a blast of cold air, or by introducing a piece of iron into a mould
+containing the molten metal.
+
+In casting steel ingots, in order to produce a uniform compact
+structure, Giers of England invented “soaking pits of sand” into which
+the ingot from the mould is placed and then covered, so that the heat
+radiating outward re-heats the exterior, and the ingot is then rolled
+without re-heating.
+
+_Sheet Metal Ware._--Important improvements have been made in this line.
+Wonderful machines have been made which, receiving within them a piece
+of flat metal, will, by a single blow of a plunger in a die, stamp out a
+metal can or box with tightly closed seams, and all ready for the cover,
+which is made in another similar machine; or by which an endless chain
+of cans are carried into a machine and there automatically soldered at
+their seams; and another which solders the heads on filled cans as fast
+as they can be fed into the machine.
+
+_Metal Personal Ware._--Buckles, clasps, hooks and eyelets, shanked
+buttons, and similar objects are now stamped up and out, without more
+manual labour than is necessary to supply the machines with the metal,
+and to take care of the completed articles.
+
+_Wire Working._--Not only unsightly but useful barbed wire fences, and
+the most ornamental wire work and netting for many purposes, such as
+fences, screens, cages, etc., are now made by ingenious machines, and
+not by hand tools.
+
+In stepping into some one of the great modern works where varied
+industries are carried on under one general management, one cannot help
+realising the vast difference between old systems and the new. In one
+portion of the establishment the crude ores are received and smelted and
+treated, with a small force and with ease, until the polished metal is
+complete and ready for manipulation in the manufacture of a hundred
+different objects. In another part ponderous or smaller lathes and
+planing machines are turning forth many varied forms; in quiet corners
+the boring, drilling, and riveting machines are doing their work without
+the clang of hammers; in another, an apparently young student is
+conducting the scientific operation of coating or gilding metals; in
+another, girls may be seen with light machines, stamping, or burnishing,
+or assembling the different parts of finished metal ware; and the motive
+power of all this is the silent but all-powerful electric current
+received from the smooth-running dynamo giant who works with vast but
+unseen energy in a den by himself, not a smoky or a dingy den, but
+light, clean, polished, and beautiful as the workshop of a god.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ORDNANCE, ARMS AND EXPLOSIVES.
+
+
+Although the progress in the invention of fire-arms of all descriptions
+seems slow during the ages preceding the 19th century, yet it will be
+found on investigation that no art progressed faster. No other art was
+spurred to activity by such strong incentives, and none received the
+same encouragement and reward for its development. The art of war was
+the trade of kings and princes, and princely was the reward to the
+subject who was the first to invent the most destructive weapon. Under
+such high patronage most of the ideas and principles of ordnance now
+prevailing were discovered or suggested, but were embodied for the most
+part in rude and inefficient contrivances.
+
+The art waited for its success on the development of other arts, and on
+the mental expansion and freedom giving rise to scientific investigation
+and results.
+
+The cannon and musket themselves became the greatest instruments for the
+advancement of the new civilisation, however much it was intended
+otherwise by their kingly proprietors, and the new civilisation returned
+the compliment through its trained intellects by giving to war its
+present destructive efficiency.
+
+To this efficiency, great as the paradox may seem, Peace holds what
+quiet fields it has, or will have, until most men learn to love peace
+and hate the arts of war.
+
+As to the Chinese is given the credit for the invention of gunpowder, so
+they must also be regarded as the first to throw projectiles by its
+means. But their inventions in these directions may be classed as
+fireworks, and have no material bearing on the modern art of Ordnance.
+It is supposed that the word “cannon,” is derived from the same root as
+“cane,” originally signifying a hollow reed; and that these hollow reeds
+or similar tubes closed at one end were used to fire rockets by powder.
+
+It is also stated that the practice existed among the Chinese as early
+as 969 A. D. of tying rockets to their arrows to propel them to greater
+distances, as well as for incendiary purposes.
+
+This basic idea had percolated from China through India to the Moors and
+Arabs, and in the course of a few centuries had developed into a crude
+artillery used by the Moors in the siege of Cordova in 1280. The
+Spaniards, thus learning the use of the cannon, turned the lesson upon
+their instructors, when under Ferdinand IV. they took Gibraltar from the
+Moors in 1309. Then the knowledge of artillery soon spread throughout
+Europe. The French used it at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and
+the English had three small guns at Crecy in 1346. These antique guns
+were made by welding longitudinal bars of iron together and binding them
+by iron rings shrunk on while hot. Being shaped internally and
+externally like an apothecary’s mortar, they were called mortars or
+bombards. Some were breech-loaders, having a removable chamber at the
+breech into which the charge of powder was inserted behind the ball. The
+balls were stone. These early cannon, bombards, and mortars were mounted
+on heavy solid wooden frames and moved with great difficulty from place
+to place. Then in the fifteenth century they commenced to make
+wrought-iron cannon, and hollow projectiles, containing a bursting
+charge of powder to be exploded by a fuse lit before the shell was
+fired. In the next century cannon were cast.
+
+The Hindoos, when their acquaintance was made by the Europeans, were as
+far advanced as the latter in cannon and fire-arms. One cannon was found
+at Bejapoor, in India, cast of bronze, bearing date 1548, and called the
+“Master of the Field,” which weighed 89,600 pounds, and others of
+similar size of later dates. Great cast bronze guns of about the same
+weight as the Hindoo guns were also produced at St. Petersburg, Russia,
+in the sixteenth century.
+
+Many and strange were the names given by Europeans to their cannon in
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to denote their size and the
+weight of the ball they carried: such as the Assick, the Bombard, the
+Basilisk, the cannon Royal, or Carthoun, the Culverin, Demi-culverin,
+Falcon, Siren, Serpentine, etc.
+
+The bombards in the fifteenth century were made so large and heavy,
+especially in France, that they could not be moved without being taken
+apart.
+
+When the heavy, unwieldy bombards with stone balls were used, artillery
+was mostly confined to castles, towns, forts, and ships. When used in
+the field they were dragged about by many yokes of oxen. But in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century, when France under Louis XI. had
+learned to cast lighter brass cannon, to mount them on carriages that
+could be drawn by four or six horses, and which carriages had trunnions
+in which the cannon were swung so as to be elevated or depressed, and
+cast-iron projectiles were used instead of stones, field artillery took
+its rise, and by its use the maps of the world were changed. Thus with
+their artillery the French under Charles VIII., the successor of Louis
+XI., conquered Italy.
+
+In the sixteenth century Europe was busy in adopting these and other
+changes. Cannon were made of all sizes and calibres, but were not
+arranged in battle with much precision. Case shot were invented in
+Germany but not brought into general use. Shells were invented by the
+Italians and fired from mortars, but their mode of construction was
+preserved in great secrecy. The early breech-loaders had been discarded,
+as it was not known how to make the breech gas-tight, and the explosions
+rendered the guns more dangerous to their users than to the enemy.
+
+In the seventeenth century Holland began to make useful mortar shells
+and hand grenades. Maurice and Henry Frederick of Nassau, and Gustave
+Adolphus, made many improvements in the sizes and construction of
+cannon. In 1674, Coehorn, an officer in the service of the Prince of
+Orange, invented the celebrated mortar which bears his name, and the use
+of which has continued to the present time. The Dutch also invented the
+howitzer, a short gun in which the projectiles could be introduced by
+hand. About the same time Comminges of France invented mortars which
+threw projectiles weighing 550 pounds. In this part of that century also
+great improvements were made under Louis XIV. Limbers, by which the
+front part of the gun carriage was made separable from the cannon part
+and provided with the ammunition chest; the prolonge, a cord and hook by
+which the gun part could be moved around by hand; and the elevating
+screw, by which the muzzle of the gun could be raised or
+depressed,--were invented.
+
+In the early part of the eighteenth century it was thought by
+artillerists in England that the longer the gun the farther it would
+carry. One, called “Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece” still preserved at Dover,
+is twenty-five feet long and carries a ball only twenty-five pounds in
+weight. It was only after repeated experiments that it was learned that
+the shorter guns carried the projectile the greatest distance.
+
+The greatest improvements in the eighteenth century were made by
+Gribeauval, the celebrated French artillerist, about 1765. He had guns
+made of such material and of such size as to adapt them to the different
+services to which they were to be put, as field, siege, garrison, and
+sea coast. He gave greater mobility to the system by introducing
+six-pound howitzers, and making gun carriages lighter; he introduced the
+system of fixed ammunition, separate compartments in the gun carriages
+for the projectiles, and the charges of powder in paper or cloth bags or
+cylinders; improved the construction of the elevating screw, adapted the
+tangent scale, formed the artillery into horse batteries, and devised
+new equipments and a new system of tactics.
+
+It was with Gribeauval’s improved system that “Citizen Bonaparte, young
+artillery officer,” took Toulon; with which the same young “bronze
+artillery officer” let go his great guns in the Cul-de-Sac Dauphin
+against the church of St. Roch; on the Port Royal; at the Theatre de la
+Republique; “and the thing we specifically call French Revolution is
+blown into space by it, and became a thing that was.”
+
+It was with this system that this same young officer won his first
+brilliant victories in Italy. When the fruit of these victories had been
+lost during his absence he reappeared with his favorite artillery, and
+on the threshold of the century, in May 1800, as “First Consul of the
+Republic” re-achieved at Marengo the supremacy of France over Austria.
+
+As to _small arms_, as before suggested, they doubtless had their origin
+in the practice of the Chinese in throwing fire balls from bamboo
+barrels by the explosion of light charges of powder, as illustrated to
+this day in what are known as “Roman Candles.” Fire-crackers and
+grenades were also known to the Chinese and the Greeks.
+
+Among ancient fire-arms the principal ones were the arquebus, also
+bombardelle, and the blunderbuss. They were invented in the fourteenth
+century but were not much used until the fifteenth century. These guns
+for the most part were so heavy that they had to be rested on some
+object to be fired. The soldiers carried a sort of tripod for this
+purpose. The gun was fired by a slow-burning cord, a live coal, a lit
+stick, or a long rod heated at one end, and called a match. The
+blunderbuss was invented in Holland. It was a large, short,
+funnel-shaped muzzle-loader, and loaded with nails, slugs, etc. The
+injuries and hardships suffered by the men who used it, rather than by
+the enemy, rendered its name significant. Among the earliest fire-arms
+of this period one was invented which was a breech-loader and revolver.
+The breech had four chambers and was rotated by hand on an arbour
+parallel to the barrel. The extent of its use is not learned. To ignite
+the powder the “wheel-lock” and “snap-haunce” were invented by the
+Germans in the sixteenth century. The wheel lock consisted of a furrowed
+wheel and was turned by the trigger and chain against a fixed piece of
+iron on the stock to excite sparks which fell on to the priming. The
+snap-haunce, a straight piece of furrowed steel, superseded the
+wheel-lock. The sixteenth century had got well started before the
+English could be induced to give up the cross-bow and arrow, and adopt
+the musket. After they had introduced the musket with the snap-haunce
+and wooden ramrod, it became known, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, as
+the “Brown Bess.”
+
+The “old flint-lock” was quite a modern invention, not appearing until
+the seventeenth century. It was a bright idea to fix a piece of flint
+into the cock and arrange it to strike a steel cap on the priming pan
+when the trigger was fired; and it superseded the old match, wheel-lock,
+and snap-haunce. The flint-lock was used by armies well into the
+nineteenth century, and is still in private use in remote localities. As
+the arquebus succeeded the bow and arrow, so the musket, a smooth and
+single-barrel muzzle-loader with a flint-lock and a wooden ramrod,
+succeeded the arquebus. Rifles, which were the old flint-lock muskets
+with their barrels provided with spiral grooves to give the bullet a
+rotary motion and cause it to keep one point constantly in front during
+its flight, is claimed as the invention of Augustin Kutler of Germany in
+1520, and also of Koster of Birmingham, England, about 1620. Muskets
+with straight grooves are said to have been used in the fifteenth
+century.
+
+The rifle with a long barrel and its flint-lock was a favourite weapon
+of the American settler. It was made in America, and he fought the
+Indian wars and the war of the Revolution with it.
+
+It would not do to conclude this sketch of antique cannon and fire-arms
+without referring to Puckle’s celebrated English patent No. 418, of May
+15, 1718, for “A Defence.” The patent starts out with the motto:
+
+  “Defending King George, your Country, and Lawes,
+  Is defending Yourselves and Protestant Cause.”
+
+It proceeds to describe a “Portable Gun or Machine” having a single
+barrel, with a set of removable chambers which are charged with bullets
+before they are placed in the gun, a handle to turn the chambers to
+bring each chamber in line with the barrel, a tripod on which the gun is
+mounted and on which it is to be turned, a screw for elevating and
+turning the gun in different directions, a set of square chambers “for
+shooting square bullets against Turks,” a set of round chambers “for
+shooting round bullets against the Christians;” and separate drawings
+show the square bullets for the Turks and the round bullets for the
+Christians. History is silent as to whether Mr. Puckle’s patent was put
+in practice, but it contained the germs of some modern inventions.
+
+Among the first inventions of the century was a very important one made
+by a clergyman, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth, a Scotchman, who in 1803 invented
+the percussion principle in fire-arms. In 1807 he patented in England
+detonating powder and pellets which were used for artillery. About 1808
+General Shrapnel of the English army invented the celebrated shell known
+by his name. It then consisted of a comparatively thin shell filled with
+bullets, having a fuse lit by the firing of the gun, and adapted to
+explode the shell in front of the object fired at. This fuse was
+superseded by one invented by General Bormann of Belgium, which greatly
+added to the value of case shot.
+
+In 1814 Joshua Shaw of England invented the percussion cap. Thus, by the
+invention of the percussion principle by Forsyth, and that little copper
+cylinder of Shaw, having a flake of fulminating powder inside and
+adapted to fit the nipple of a gun and be exploded by the fall of the
+hammer, was sounded the death knell of the old flint-locks with which
+the greatest battles of the world had been and were at that time being
+fought. The advantages gained by the cap were the certain and
+instantaneous fire, the saving in time, power, and powder obtained by
+making smaller the orifice through which the ignition was introduced,
+and the protection from moisture given by the covering cap. And yet so
+slow is the growth of inventions sometimes that all Europe continued to
+make the flint-locks for many years after the percussion cap was
+invented; and General Scott, in the war between the United States and
+Mexico in 1847, declined to give the army the percussion cap musket. The
+cap suggested the necessity and invention of machines for making them
+quickly and in great quantities.
+
+The celebrated “Colt’s” revolver was invented by Colonel Samuel Colt of
+the United States, in 1835. He continued to improve it, and in 1851
+exhibited it at the World’s Fair, London, where it excited great
+surprise and attention. Since then the revolver has become a great
+weapon in both private and public warfare. The next great inventions in
+small arms were the readoption and improvement of the breech-loader, the
+making of metallic cartridges, the magazine gun, smokeless powder and
+other explosives, to which further reference will be made.
+
+To return to cannons:--In 1812 Colonel Bomford, an American officer,
+invented what is called the “Columbiad,” a kind of cannon best adapted
+for sea-coast purposes. They are long-chambered pieces, combining
+certain qualities of the gun, howitzer and mortar, and capable of
+projecting shells and solid shot with heavy charges of powder at high
+angles of elevation, and peculiarly adapted to defend narrow channels
+and sea-coast defences. A similar gun was invented by General Paixhans
+of the French army in 1822. The adoption of the Paixhans long-chambered
+guns, designed to throw heavy shells horizontally as well as at a slight
+elevation and as easily as solid shot, was attended with great results.
+Used by the French in 1832, in the quick victorious siege of Antwerp, by
+the allies at Sebastopol, where the whole Russian fleet was destroyed in
+about an hour, and in the fight of the Kearsarge and the doomed Alabama
+off Cherbourg in the American civil war, it forced inventors in the
+different countries to devise new and better armour for the defence of
+ships. This was followed by guns of still greater penetrative power.
+Then as another result effected by these greater guns came the passing
+away of the old-fashioned brick and stone forts as a means of defence.
+
+In an interesting address by Major Clarence E. Dutton of the Ordnance
+Department, U.S.A., at the Centennial Patent Congress at Washington in
+1891, he thus stated what the fundamental improvements were that have
+characterised the modern ordnance during the century:
+
+1. The regulation and control of the action of gunpowder in such a
+manner as to exert less strain upon the gun, and to impart more energy
+to the projectile.
+
+2. To so construct the gun as to transfer a portion of the strain from
+the interior parts of the walls which had borne too much of it, to the
+exterior parts which had borne too little, thus nearly equalising the
+strain throughout the entire thickness of the walls.
+
+3. To provide a metal which should be at once stronger and safer than
+any which had been used before.
+
+In the United States General Rodman, “one of the pioneers of armed
+science,” commenced about 1847 a series of investigations and
+experiments on the power and action of gunpowder and the strains
+received by every part of the gun by the exploding gases, of very great
+importance; and in this matter he was assisted greatly by Dr. W. E.
+Woodbridge, who invented an ingenious apparatus termed a “piezometer,”
+or a pressure measurer, by which the pressure of the gases at the
+various parts of the gun was determined with mathematical certainty.
+
+Dr. Woodbridge also added greatly to the success of rifled cannon. The
+success in rifling small arms, by which an elongated ball is made to
+retain the same end foremost during its flight, led again to the
+attempts of rifling cannon for the same purpose, which were finally
+successful. But this success was due not to the spiral grooves in the
+cannon bore, but in attachments to the ball compelling it to follow the
+course of the grooves and giving it the proper initial movement. The
+trouble with these attachments was that they were either stripped off,
+or stripped away, by the gun spirals. Woodbridge in 1850 overcame the
+difficulty by inventing an improved _sabot_, consisting of a ring
+composed of metal softer than the projectile or cannon, fixed on the
+inner end of the projectile and grooved at its rear end, so that when
+the gun is fired and the ball driven forward these grooves expand,
+acting valvularly to fill the grooves in the gun, thus preventing the
+escape of the gases, while the ring at the same time is forced forward
+on to the shell so tightly and forcibly that the projectile is
+invariably given a rotary motion and made to advance strictly in the
+line of axis of the bore, and in the same line during the course of its
+flight. This invention in principle has been followed ever since,
+although other forms have been given the sabot, and it is due to this
+invention that modern rifled cannon have been so wonderfully accurate in
+range and efficient in the penetrating and destructive power both on sea
+and land.
+
+Woodbridge also invented the _wire-wound cannon_, and a machine for
+winding the wire upon the gun, thus giving the breach part, especially,
+immense strength.
+
+In England, among the first notable and greater inventors in ordnance
+during the latter half of the century, a period which embraces the
+reduction to practice of the most wonderful and successful inventions in
+weapons of war which the world had up to that time seen, are Lancaster,
+who invented the elliptical bore; Sir William Armstrong, who, commencing
+in 1885, constructed a gun built of wrought-iron bars twisted into coils
+and applied over a steel core and bound by one or more wrought-iron
+rings, all applied at white heat and shrunk on by contraction due to
+cooling, by which method smooth-bore, muzzle-loading cannon of immense
+calibre, one weighing one hundred tons, were made. They were followed by
+Armstrong, inventor of breech-loaders; Blakely, inventor of cannon made
+of steel tubes and an outer jacket of cast iron; and Sir Joseph
+Whitworth, inventor of most powerful steel cannon and compressed steel
+projectiles.
+
+In Germany, Friedrich Krupp at Essen, Prussia, invented and introduced
+such improvements in breech-loading cannon as revolutionised the
+manufacture of that species of ordnance, and established the foundation
+of the greatest ordnance works in the world. The first of his great
+breech-loading steel guns was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867.
+A Krupp gun finished at Essen in the 70’s was then the largest steel gun
+the world had ever seen. It weighed seventy-two tons, and was thirty-two
+feet long. The charge consisted of 385 pounds of powder, the shell
+weighed 1,660 pounds, having a bursting charge of powder of 22 pounds,
+and a velocity of 1,640 feet per second. It was estimated that if the
+gun were fired at an angle of 43° the shell would be carried a distance
+of fifteen miles. It was in the Krupp guns, and also in the Armstrong
+breech-loaders, that a simple feature was for the first time introduced
+which proved of immense importance in giving great additional expansive
+force to the explosion of the powder. This was an increase in the size
+of the powder chamber so as to allow a vacant space in it unfilled with
+powder.
+
+In the United States, Rodman, commencing in 1847, and Dahlgren in 1850,
+and Parrott in 1860, invented and introduced some noticeable
+improvements in cast-iron, smooth-bore, and rifled cannon.
+
+In France General Paixhans and Colonel Treuille de Beaulieu improved the
+shells and ordnance.
+
+The latest improvements in cannon indicate that the old smooth-bore
+muzzle-loader guns are to be entirely superseded by breech-loaders, just
+as in small arms the muzzle-loading musket has given way to the
+breech-loading rifle.
+
+A single lever is now employed, a single turn of which will close or
+open the breech, and when opened expel the shell by the same movement.
+Formerly breech-loaders were confined to the heaviest ordnance; now they
+are a part of the lightest field pieces.
+
+As to the operation of those immense guns above referred to, which
+constitute principally sea-coast defences and the heavy armament for
+forts, gun carriages have been invented whereby the huge guns are
+quickly raised from behind immense embrasures by pneumatic or hydraulic
+cylinders, quickly fired (the range having been before accurately
+ascertained) and then as quickly lowered out of sight, the latter
+movement being aided by the recoil action of the gun.
+
+It is essential that the full force of the gases of explosion shall be
+exerted against the base of the projectile, and therefore all escape of
+such gases be prevented. To this end valuable improvements in _gas
+checks_ have been made,--one kind consisting of an annular canvas sack
+containing asbestos and tallow placed between the front face of the
+breech block and a mushroom-shaped piece, against which the explosion
+impinges.
+
+As among projectiles and shells for cannon those have been invented
+which are loaded with dynamite or other high explosive, a new class of
+_Compressed air ordnance_ has been started, in which air or gas is used
+for the propelling power in place of powder, whereby the chances of
+exploding such shells in the bore of the gun are greatly lessened.
+
+The construction of metals, both for cannon to resist most intense
+explosives and for plates to resist the penetration of the best
+projectiles, have received great attention. They are matters pertaining
+to metallurgy, and are treated of under that head. The strife still
+continues between impenetrable armour plate and irresistible
+projectiles. Within the last decade or so shells have been invented with
+the design simply to shatter or fracture the plate by which the way is
+broken for subsequent shots. Other shells have been invented carrying a
+high explosive and capable of penetrating armour plates of great
+thickness, and exploding after such penetration has taken place.
+
+A great accompaniment to artillery is “The Range Finder,” a telescopic
+apparatus for ascertaining accurately the location and distance of
+objects to be fired at.
+
+Returning to _small arms_,--at the time percussion caps were invented in
+England, 1803-1814, John H. Hall of the United States invented a
+breech-loading rifle. It was in substance an ordinary musket cut in two
+at the breech, with the rear piece connected by a hinge and trunnion to
+the front piece, the bore of the two pieces being in line when clamped,
+and the ball and cartridge inserted when the chamber was thrown up. A
+large number were at once manufactured and used in the U.S. Army. A
+smaller size, called _carbines_, were used by the mounted troops. After
+about twenty years’ use these guns began to be regarded as dangerous in
+some respects, and their manufacture and use stopped, although the
+carbines continued in use to some extent in the cavalry. A
+breech-loading rifle was also invented by Colonel Pauly of France in
+1812, and improved by Dreyse in 1835; also in Norway in 1838, and in a
+few years adopted by Sweden as superior to all muzzle-loading arms.
+About 1841 the celebrated “Needle Gun” was invented in Prussia, and its
+superiority over all muzzle-loaders was demonstrated in 1848 in the
+first Schleswig-Holstein war.
+
+_Cartridges_, in which the ball and powder were secured together in one
+package, were old in artillery, as has been shown, but their use for
+small arms is a later invention. _Metallic_ cartridges, made of sheet
+metal with a fulminate cap in one end and a rim on the end of the shell
+by which it could be extracted after the explosion, were invented by
+numerous persons in Europe and America during the evolution of the
+breech-loader. Combined metal case and paper patented in England in
+1816, and numerous wholly metallic cartridge shells were patented in
+England, France, and United States between 1840 and 1860. M. Lefaucheux
+of France, in the later period, devised a metal _gas check_ cartridge
+which was a great advance.
+
+A number of inventors in the United States besides Hall had produced
+breech-loading small arms before the Civil War of 1861, but with the
+exception of Colt’s revolver and Sharp’s carbine, the latter used by the
+cavalry to a small extent, none were first adopted in that great
+conflict. Later, the Henry or Winchester breech-loading rifle and the
+Spencer magazine gun were introduced and did good service. But the whole
+known system of breech-loading small arms was officially condemned by
+the U.S. Military authorities previous to that war. The absence of
+machines to make a suitable cartridge in large quantities and vast
+immediate necessities compelled the authorities to ignore the tested
+Prussian and Swedish breech-loaders and those of their own countrymen
+and to ransack Europe for muskets of ancient pattern. These were worked
+by the soldiers under the ancient tactics, of load, ram, charge and
+fire, until a stray bullet struck the ramrod, or the discharge of a few
+rammed cartridges so over-heated the musket as to thereby dispense with
+the soldier and his gun for further service in that field. However,
+private individuals and companies continued to invent and improve, and
+the civil war in America revolutionised the systems of warfare and its
+weapons. The wooden walls of the navies disappeared as a defence after
+the conflict between the Monitor and the Merrimac, and muzzle-loading
+muskets became things of the past.
+
+Torpedoes, both stationary and movable, then became a successful weapon
+of warfare. Soon after that war, and when the United States had adopted
+the Springfield breech-loading rifle, the works at Springfield were
+equipped with nearly forty different machines, each for making a
+separate part of a gun in great quantities. Many of these had been
+invented by Thomas Blanchard forty years before. That great inventor of
+labour-saving machinery had then designed machines for the shaping and
+making of gun stocks and for forming the accompanying parts. Blanchard
+was a contemporary of Hall, and Hall, to perfect his breech-loader, was
+the first to invent machines for making its various parts. His was the
+first interchangeable system in the making of small arms.
+
+Army officers had come to regard “the gun as only the casket while the
+cartridge is the jewel;” and to this end J. G. Gill at the U.S. Arsenal
+at Frankford, Philadelphia, devised a series of cartridge-making
+machines which ranked among the highest triumphs of American invention.
+
+The single breech-loader is now being succeeded by the magazine gun, by
+which a supply of cartridges in a chamber is automatically fed into the
+barrel. The Springfield, has been remodelled as a magazine loader. Among
+later types of repeating rifles, known from the names of their
+inventors, are the “Krag-Jorgensen,” and the “Mauser,” and the crack of
+these is heard around the world. Modern rifles are rendered more deadly
+by the fact that they can be loaded and fired in a recumbent position,
+and with smokeless powder, by which the soldier and his location remain
+concealed from his foe.
+
+The recoil of the gun in both large and small arms is now utilised to
+expel the fired cartridge shell, and to withdraw a fresh one from its
+magazine and place it in position in the chamber. _Compressed air and
+explosive gases_ have been used for the same purpose. A small _electric
+battery_ has been placed in the stock to explode the cartridge when the
+trigger is pulled.
+
+Sporting guns have kept pace with other small arms in improvements, and
+among modern forms are those which discharge in alternative succession
+the two barrels by a single trigger. Revolvers have been improved and
+the Smith and Wesson is known throughout the world.
+
+The idea of _Machine Guns_, or _Mitrailleuses_, was not a new one, as we
+have seen from Puckle’s celebrated patent of 1718. Also history mentions
+a gun composed of four breech-loading tubes of small calibre, placed on
+a two-wheeled cart used in Flanders as early as 1347, and of four-tubed
+guns used by the Scotch during the civil war in 1644. The machine gun
+invented by Dr. Gatling of the United States during the Civil War and
+subsequently perfected, has become a part of the armament of every
+civilised nation. The object of the gun is to combine in one piece the
+destructive effect of a great many, and to throw a continuous hail of
+projectiles. The gun is mounted on a tripod; the cartridges are
+contained in a hopper mounted on the breech of the gun and are fed from
+locks into the barrels (which are usually five or ten in number) as the
+locks and barrels are revolved by a hand crank. As the handle is turned
+the cartridges are first given a forward motion, which thrusts them into
+the barrels, closes the breech and fires the cartridges in succession,
+and then a backward motion which extracts the empty shells. The gun
+weighs one hundred pounds and firing may be kept up with a ten-barreled
+gun at one thousand shots a minute.
+
+The _Hotchkiss_ revolving cannon is another celebrated American
+production named from its inventor, and constructed to throw heavier
+projectiles than the Gatling. It also has revolving barrels and great
+solidity in the breech mechanism. It has been found to be of great
+service in resisting the attacks of torpedo boats. It is adapted to fire
+long-range shells with great rapidity and powerful effect, and is
+exceedingly efficient in defence of ditches and entrenchments.
+
+_Explosives._--The desire to make the most effective explosives for
+gunnery led to their invention not only for that purpose but for the
+more peaceful pursuit of blasting. _Gun Cotton_, that mixture of nitric
+acid and cotton, made by Schönbein in 1846, and experimented with for a
+long time as a substitute for gunpowder in cannon and small arms and
+finally discarded for that purpose, is now being again revived, but used
+chiefly for blasting. This was followed by the discovery of
+nitro-glycerine, a still more powerful explosive agent--too powerful and
+uncontrollable for guns as originally made. They did not supersede
+gunpowder, but smokeless powders have come, containing nitro-cellulose,
+or nitro-glycerine rendered plastic, coherent and homogeneous, and
+converted into rods or grains of free running powder, to aid the
+breech-loaders and magazine guns, while the high explosives, gun-cotton,
+nitro-glycerine, dynamite, dualine, etc., have become the favorite
+agencies for those fearful offensive and defensive weapons, the
+_Torpedoes_. From about the time of the discovery of gunpowder,
+stationary and floating chambers and mines of powder, to be discharged
+in early times by fuses (later by percussion or electricity), have
+existed, but modern inventions have rendered them of more fearful
+importance than was ever dreamed of before this century. The latest
+invention in this class is the _submarine torpedo boat_, which, moving
+rapidly towards an enemy’s vessel, suddenly disappears from sight
+beneath the water, and strikes the vessel at its lowest or most
+vulnerable point.
+
+To the inquiry as to whether all this vast array of modern implements of
+destruction is to lessen the destruction of human life, shorten war,
+mitigate its horrors and tend toward peace, there can be but one answer.
+All these desirable results have been accomplished whenever the new
+inventions of importance have been used. “Warlike Tribes” have been put
+to flight so easily by civilised armies in modern times that such tribes
+have been doubted as possessing their boasted or even natural courage.
+Nations with a glorious past as to bravery but with a poor armament have
+gone down suddenly before smaller forces armed with modern ordnance. The
+results would have been reversed, and the derision would have proceeded
+from the other side, if the conditions had been reversed, and those
+tribes and brave peoples been armed with the best weapons and the
+knowledge of their use. The courage of the majority of men on the
+battle-field is begot of confidence and enthusiasm, but this confidence
+and enthusiasm, however great the cause, soon fail, and discretion
+becomes the better part of valour, if men find that their weapons are
+weak and useless against vastly superior arms of the enemy. The
+slaughter and destruction in a few hours with modern weapons may not be
+more terrible than could be inflicted with the old arms by far greater
+forces at close quarters in a greater length of time in the past, but
+the end comes sooner; and the prolongation of the struggle with renewed
+sacrifices of life, and the long continued and exhausting campaigns,
+giving rise to diseases more destructive than shot or shell, are thereby
+greatly lessened, if not altogether avoided.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PAPER AND PRINTING.
+
+
+_Paper-making._--“The art preservative of all arts”--itself must have
+means of preservation, and hence the art of paper-making precedes the
+art of printing.
+
+It was Pliny who wrote, at the beginning of the Christian era, that “All
+the usages of civilised life depend in a remarkable degree upon the
+employment of paper. At all events the remembrance of past events.”
+
+Naturally to the Chinese, the Hindoo, and the Egyptian, we go with
+inquiries as to origin, and find that as to both arts they were making
+the most delicate paper from wood and vegetable fibres and printing with
+great nicety, long before Europeans had even learned to use papyrus or
+parchment, or had conceived the idea of type.
+
+So far as we know the wasp alone preceded the ancient Orientals in the
+making of paper. Its gray shingled house made in layers, worked up into
+paper by a master hand from decayed wood, pulped, and glutinised,
+waterproofed, with internal tiers of chambers, a fortress, a home, and
+an airy habitation, is still beyond the power of human invention to
+reproduce.
+
+Papyrus--the paper of the Egyptians: Not only their paper, but its pith
+one of their articles of food, and its outer portions material for
+paper, boxes, baskets, boats, mats, medicines, cloths and other articles
+of merchandise.
+
+Once one of the fruits of the Nile, now no longer growing there. On its
+fragile leaves were recorded and preserved the ancient literatures--the
+records of dynasties--the songs of the Hebrew prophets--the early annals
+of Greece and Rome--the vast, lost tomes of Alexandria. Those which were
+fortunately preserved and transferred to more enduring forms now
+constitute the greater part of all we have of the writings of those
+departed ages.
+
+In making paper from papyrus, the inner portion next to the pith was
+separated into thin leaves; these were laid in two or more layers,
+moistened and pressed together to form a leaf; two or more leaves united
+at their edges if desired, or end to end, beaten smooth with a mallet,
+polished with a piece of iron or shell, the ends, or sides, or both, of
+the sheet sometimes neatly ornamented, and then rolled on a wooden
+cylinder. The Romans and other ancient nations imported most of their
+papyrus from Egypt, although raising it to considerable extent in their
+own swamps.
+
+In the seventh century, the Saracens conquered Egypt and carried back
+therefrom, papyrus, and the knowledge of how to make paper from it to
+Europe.
+
+Parchment manufactured from the skins of young calves, kids, lambs,
+sheep, and goats, was an early rival of papyrus, and was known and used
+in Europe before papyrus was there introduced.
+
+The softening of vegetable and woody fibre of various kinds, flax and
+raw cotton and rags, and reducing it into pulp, drying, beating, and
+rolling it into paper, seem to have been suggested to Europe by the
+introduction of papyrus, for we learn of the first appearance of such
+paper by the Arabians, Saracens, Spaniards and the French along through
+the eighth, ninth, and tenth and eleventh centuries. Papyrus does not,
+however, appear to have been superseded until the twelfth century.
+
+Public documents are still extant written in the twelfth century on
+paper made from flax and rags; and paper mills began to put in an
+appearance in Germany in the fourteenth century, in which the fibre was
+reduced to pulp by stampers. England began to make paper in the next
+century. Pulping the fibre by softening it in water and beating the same
+had then been practised for four centuries. Rollers in the mills for
+rolling the pulp into sheets were introduced in the fifteenth century,
+and paper makers began to distinguish their goods from those made by
+others by water marks impressed in the pulp sheets. The jug and the pot
+was one favourite water mark in that century, succeeded by a fool’s cap,
+which name has since adhered to paper of a certain size, with or without
+the cap. So far was the making of paper advanced in Europe that about
+1640 wall paper began to be made as a substitute for tapestry; although
+as to this fashion the Chinese were still ahead some indefinite number
+of centuries.
+
+Holland was far advanced in paper-making in the seventeenth century. The
+revolution of 1688 having seriously interrupted the art in England, that
+country imported paper from Holland during that period amounting to
+£100,000. It was a native of Holland, Rittenhouse, who introduced
+paper-making in America and erected a mill near Philadelphia in the
+early years of the eighteenth century, and there made paper from linen
+rags.
+
+The Dutch also had substituted cylinders armed with blades in place of
+stampers and used their windmills to run them. The Germans and French
+experimented with wood and straw.
+
+In the latter part of the eighteenth century some manufacturers in
+Europe had learned to make white paper from white rags, and as good in
+quality, and some think better, than is made at the present day. The
+essentials of paper making by hand from rags and raw vegetable fibres,
+the soaking of fibres in water and boiling them in lyes, the beating,
+rolling, smoothing, sizing and polishing of the paper, were then known
+and practised. But the best paper was then a dear commodity. The art of
+bleaching coloured stock was unknown, and white paper was made alone
+from stock that came white into the mill. The processes were nearly all
+hand operations. “Beating” was pounding in a mortar. The pulp was laid
+by hand upon moulds made of parallel strands of coarse brass wire; and
+the making of the pulp by grinding wood and treating it chemically to
+soften it was experimental.
+
+The nineteenth century produced a revolution. It introduced the use of
+modern machinery, and modern chemical processes, by which all known
+varieties and sizes of paper, of all colours, as well as paper vessels,
+are made daily in immense quantities in all civilised countries, from
+all sorts of fibrous materials.
+
+Knight, in his _Mechanical Dictionary_, gives a list of nearly 400
+different materials for paper making that had been used or suggested,
+for the most part within the century and up to twenty years ago, and the
+number has since increased.
+
+The modern revolution commenced in 1799, when Louis Robert, an employee
+of François Didot of Essones, France, invented and patented the first
+machine for making paper in a long, wide, continuous web. The French
+government in 1800 granted him a reward of 8,000 francs. The machine was
+then exhibited in England and there tested with success. It was there
+that Messrs. Fourdrinier, a wealthy stationery firm, purchased the
+patents, expended £60,000 for improvements on the machine, and first
+gave to the world its practical benefits. This expenditure bankrupted
+them, as the machines were not at once remunerative, and parliament
+refused to grant them pecuniary assistance. Gamble, Donkin, Koops, the
+Fourdriniers, Dickenson, and Wilkes, were the first inventors to improve
+the Robert machine, and to give it that form which in many essential
+features remains to-day. They, together with later inventors, gave to
+the world a new system of paper making.
+
+By 1872 two hundred and ninety-nine Fourdrinier machines were running in
+the United States alone. In the improved Fourdrinier machine or system,
+rags, or wood, or straw are ground or otherwise reduced to pulp, and
+then the pulp, when properly soaked and drained, is dumped into a
+regulating box, passing under a copper gate to regulate the amount and
+depth of feed, then carried along through strainers, screeners or
+dressers, to free the mass from clots and reduce it to the proper
+fineness, over an endless wire apron, spread evenly over this apron by a
+shaking motion, subjected to the action of a suction box by which the
+water is drawn off by air-suction pumps, carried between cloth-covered
+rollers which press and cohere it, carried on to a moving long felt
+blanket to further free it from moisture, and which continues to hold
+the sheet of pulp in form; then with the blanket through press rolls
+adjustable to a desired pressure and provided with means to remove
+therefrom adhering pulp and to arrest the progress of the paper if
+necessary; then through another set of compression rollers, when the
+condensed and matted pulp, now paper, is carried on to a second blanket,
+passed through a series of steam cylinders, where the web is partially
+dried, and again compressed, thence through another series of rollers
+and drying cylinders, which still further dry and stretch it, and now,
+finally completed, the sheet is wound on a receiving cylinder. The
+number of rollers and cylinders and the position and the length of the
+process to fully dry, compact, stretch and finish the sheet, may be, and
+are, varied greatly. If it is desired to impress on or into the paper
+water marks, letters, words, or ornamental matter, the paper in its
+moist stage, after it passes through the suction boxes, is passed under
+a “dandy” or fancy scrolled roll provided on its surface with the
+desired design. When it is desired to give it a smooth, glossy surface,
+the paper, after its completion, is passed through animal sizing
+material, and then between drying and smoothing rollers. Or this sizing
+may be applied to the pulp at the outset of the operation. Colouring
+material, when desired, is applied to the pulp, before pressing. By the
+use of machines under this system, a vast amount of material, cast-off
+rags, etc., before regarded as waste, was utilised for paper making.
+
+The modern discoveries of the chemists of the century as to the nature
+of fibres, best modes and materials for reducing them to pulp, and
+bleaching processes, have brought the art of paper making from wood and
+other fibrous materials to its present high and prosperous condition.
+
+What are known as the soda-pulp and the sulphite processes are examples
+of this. The latter and other acid processes were not successful until
+cement-lined digesters were invented to withstand their corroding
+action. But now it is only necessary to have a convenient forest of
+almost any kind of wood to justify the establishment of a paper mill.
+
+It was the scarcity of rags, especially of linen rags, that forced
+inventors to find other paper-producing materials.
+
+It would be impossible and uninteresting in a work of this character to
+enumerate the mechanical details constituting the improvements of the
+century in paper-making machinery of all kinds. Thousands of patents
+have been granted for such inventions. With one modern Fourdrinier
+machine, and a few beating engines, a small paper mill will now turn out
+daily as much paper as could be made by twelve mills a hundred years
+ago.
+
+In moulding pulp into articles of manufacture, satisfactory machines
+have been invented, not only for the mere forming them into shape, but
+for water-proofing and indurating the same. From the making of a
+ponderous paper car wheel to a lady’s delicate work basket, success has
+been attained.
+
+_Paper bag machines_, machines for making _paper boxes_, applying and
+staying corners of such boxes, for making _cell cases_ used in packing
+eggs and fruit, and for wrapping fruit; machines for affixing various
+forms of labels and addresses, are among the wonders of modern
+inventions relating to paper. It is wonderful how art and ingenuity
+united about thirty years ago to produce attractive _wall papers_.
+Previous to that time they were dull and conventional in appearance. Now
+beautiful designs are rolled out from machines.
+
+_Printing._--We have already seen how paper making and printing grew up
+together an indefinite number of centuries ago in the Far East. Both
+block printing and movable types were the production of the Chinese,
+with which on their little pages of many-coloured paper they printed
+myriads of volumes of their strange literature in stranger characters
+during centuries when Europeans were painfully inscribing their thoughts
+with the stylus and crude pens upon papyrus and the dried skins of
+animals.
+
+But the European and his descendants delight to honour most the early
+inventors of their own countries. Italy refers with pride to the
+printing from blocks practised by the Venetians, and at Ravenna, from
+1280 to 1300; from type at Subiaco in the Roman territory in 1465, and
+to the first Roman book printed in 1470; the Dutch to Laurens Coster,
+whom they allege invented movable type in 1423. Some of the Dutch have
+doubted this, and pin their faith on Jacob Bellaert, as the first
+printer, and Gerard Leeu, his workman, who made the types at Haarlem, in
+1483. The Germans rely with confidence on John Guttenberg, who at
+Strasburg, as early as 1436, had wooden blocks, and wooden movable
+types, and who, two or three years after, printed several works; on the
+partnership of Faust and Guttenberg in 1450 at Mentz, and their Bible in
+Latin printed in 1456 on vellum with types imitating manuscript in form,
+and illustrated by hand; and, finally, on Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim,
+who then made matrices in which were cast the letters singly, and who
+thereby so pleased his master, Faust, that the latter gave him his
+daughter, Christina, in marriage.
+
+From Germany the art spread to Paris and thence to England. About 1474
+Caxton was printing his black-letter books in England. Spain followed,
+and it is stated that in 1500 there were two hundred printing offices in
+Europe. The religious and political turmoils in Germany in the sixteenth
+century gave an immense impetus to printing there. The printing press
+was the handmaid of the Reformation. In America the first printing press
+was set up in Mexico in 1536, and in Lima, Brazil, in 1586. In 1639,
+nineteen years after the landing of the Pilgrims on the bleak rock at
+Plymouth, they set up a printing press at Cambridge, Mass.
+
+The art of printing soon resolved itself into two classes: first,
+_composition_, the arranging of the type in the proper order into words
+and pages; and second, _press work_; the taking of impressions from the
+types, or from casts of types in plates--being a _facsimile_ of a type
+bed. This was _stereotyping_--the invention of William Ged, of
+Edinburgh, in 1731.
+
+Types soon came to be made everywhere of uniform height; that of England
+and America being 92-100 of an inch, and became universally classified
+by names according to their sizes, as pica, small pica, long primer,
+minion, nonpareil, etc.
+
+After movable types came the invention of _Presses_. The earliest were
+composed of a wooden frame on which were placed the simple screw and a
+lever to force a plate down upon a sheet of paper placed on the bed of
+type which had been set in the press, with a spring to automatically
+raise the screw and plate after the delivery of the impression. This was
+invented by Blaew of Amsterdam in 1620. Such, also, was the Ramage
+press, and on such a one Benjamin Franklin worked at his trade as a
+printer, both in America and in London. His London press, on which he
+worked in 1725, was carried to the United States, and is now on
+exhibition in Washington. This was substantially the state of the art at
+the beginning of the century.
+
+Then Earl Stanhope in England invented a press entirely of iron, and the
+power consisted of the combination of a toggle joint and lever. The
+first American improvement was invented by George Clymer, of
+Philadelphia, in 1817, the power being an improved lever consisting of
+three simple levers of the second order. This was superseded by the
+“Washington” press invented by Samuel Rust in 1829. It has as essential
+parts the toggle joint and lever, and in the frame work, as in the
+Stanhope, type bed, rails on which the bed was moved in and out, means
+to move the bed, the platen, the tympan on which the sheet is placed,
+the frisket, a perforated sheet of paper, to preserve the printed sheet,
+an inking roller and frame. In this was subsequently introduced an
+automatic device for inking the roller, as it was moved back from over
+the bed of type on to an inking table. This, substantially, has been the
+hand press ever since.
+
+With one of these hand-presses and the aid of two men about two hundred
+and fifty sheets an hour could be printed on one side. The increase in
+the circulation of newspapers before the opening of the 19th century
+demanded greater rapidity of production and turned the attention of
+inventors to the construction of power or machine presses. Like the
+paper-making machine, the power press was conceived in the last decade
+of the eighteenth century, and like that art was also not developed
+until the nineteenth century. William Nicholson of England is believed
+to have been the first inventor of a machine printing press. He obtained
+an English patent for it in 1720. The type were to be placed on the face
+of one cylinder, which was designed to be in gear, revolved with, and
+press upon another cylinder covered with soft leather, the type cylinder
+to be inked by a third cylinder to which the inking apparatus, was
+applied, and the paper to be printed by being passed between the type
+and the impression cylinder. These ideas were incorporated into the best
+printing machines that have since been made. But the first successful
+machine printing press was the invention of two Saxons, König and Bauer,
+in 1813, who introduced their ideas from Germany, constructed the
+machine in London, and on which on the 28th of November, 1814, an issue
+of the _London Times_ was printed. The _Times_ announced to its readers
+that day that they were for the first time perusing a paper printed upon
+a machine driven by steam power. What a union of mighty forces was
+heralded in this simple announcement! The union of the steam engine, the
+printing press, and a great and powerful journal! An Archimedean lever
+had been found at last with which to move the world.
+
+The production of printed sheets per hour over the hand-press was at
+once quadrupled, and very shortly 1800 sheets per hour were printed.
+This machine was of that class known as cylinder presses. In this
+machine ordinary type was used, and the type-form was flat and passed
+beneath a large impression cylinder on which the paper was held by
+tapes. The type-form was reciprocated beneath an inking apparatus and
+the paper cylinder alternately. The inking apparatus consisted of a
+series of rollers, to the first of which the ink was ejected from a
+trough and distributed to the others. In 1815 Cowper patented in England
+electrotype plates to be affixed to a cylinder. Applegath and Cowper
+improved the König machine in the matter of the ink distributing
+rollers, and in the adaptation of four printing cylinders to the
+reciprocating type bed, whereby, with some other minor changes, 5000
+impressions on one side were produced per hour. Again Applegath greatly
+changed the arrangement of cylinders and multiplied their number, and
+the number of the other parts, so that in 1848 the sheets printed on one
+side were first 8000 and then 12,000 an hour.
+
+In the United States, Daniel Treadwell of Boston invented the first
+power printing machine in 1822. Two of these machines were at that time
+set up in New York city. It was a flat bed press and was long used in
+Washington in printing for the government. David Bruce of New York, in
+1838, invented the first successful type-casting machine, which, when
+shortly afterward it was perfected, became the model for type-casting
+machines for Europe and America. Previous to that time type were
+generally made by casting them in hand-moulds--the metal being poured in
+with a spoon.
+
+Robert Hoe, an English inventor, went to New York in 1803, and turned
+his attention to the making of printing presses. His son, Richard March
+Hoe, inherited his father’s inventive genius. While in England in
+1837-1840, obtaining a patent on and introducing a circular saw, he
+became interested in the printing presses of the London Times. Returning
+home, he invented and perfected a rotary machine which received the name
+of the “Lightning Press.” It first had four and then ten cylinders
+arranged in a circle. As finally completed, it printed from a continuous
+roll of paper several miles in length, and on both sides at the same
+time, cutting off and folding ready for delivery, 15,000 to 20,000
+newspapers an hour, the paper being drawn through the press at the rate
+of 1,000 feet in a minute. Before it was in this final, completed shape,
+it was adopted by the _London Times_. John Walter of London in the
+meantime invented a machine of a similar class. He also used a sheet of
+paper miles long. It was first damped, passed through blotting rolls,
+and then to the printing cylinders. It gave out 11,000 perfected sheets,
+or 22,000 impressions an hour, and as each sheet was printed, it was cut
+by a knife on the cylinder, and the sheets piled on the paper boards. It
+was adopted by the London _Times_ and the New York _Times_.
+
+A German press at Augsburg, and the Campbell presses of the United
+States, have also become celebrated as web perfecting presses, in which
+the web is printed, the sheets cut, associated, folded, and delivered at
+high speed. One of the latest quadruple stereotype perfecting presses
+made by Hoe & Co. of New York has a running capacity of 48,000 papers
+per hour. On another, a New York paper has turned off nearly six hundred
+thousand copies in a single day, requiring for their printing
+ninety-four tons of paper. Among other celebrated inventors of printing
+presses in the United States were Isaac Adams, Taylor, Gordon, Potter,
+Hawkins, Bullock, Cottrell, Campbell, Babcock, and Firm.
+
+_Mail-marking Machines_, in which provision is made for holding the
+printing mechanism out of operative position in case a letter is not in
+position to be stamped; address-printing machines, including machines
+for printing addresses by means of a stencil; machines for automatically
+setting and distributing the type, including those in which the
+individual types are caused to enter the proper receptacle by means of
+nicks in the type, which engage corresponding projections on a
+stationary guard plate, and automatic type justifying machines. All such
+have been invented, developed, and perfected in the last half century.
+
+Another invention which has added wonderfully to push the century along,
+is the _Typewriter_. It has long been said that “The pen is mightier
+than the sword,” but from present indications, it is proper to add that
+the typewriter is mightier than the pen.
+
+A machine in which movable types are caused to yield impressions on
+paper to form letters by means of key levers operated by hand, has been
+one of slow growth from its conception to its present practical and
+successful form.
+
+Some one suggested the idea in England in a patent in 1714. The idea
+rested until 1840, when a French inventor revived it in a patent. At the
+same time patents began to come out in England and the United States;
+and about forty patents in each of these two countries were granted from
+that time until 1875. Since that date about 1400 patents more have been
+issued in the United States, and a large number in other countries. It
+was, however, only that year and before 1880, that the first popular
+commercially successful machines were made and introduced.
+
+The leading generic idea of all subsequent successful devices of this
+kind was clearly set forth in the patent of S. W. Francis of the United
+States in 1857. This feature is the arranging of a row of hammers in a
+circle so that when put in motion they will all strike the same place,
+which is the centre of that circle. The arrangement of a row of pivoted
+hammers or type levers, each operated by a separate key lever to strike
+an inked ribbon in front of a sheet of paper, means to automatically
+move the carriage carrying the paper roll from right to left as the
+letters are successfully printed, leaving a space between each letter
+and word, and sounding a signal when the end of a line is reached, so
+that the carriage may be returned to its former position--all these and
+some other minor but necessary operations may seem simple enough when
+stated, but their accomplishment required the careful study of many
+inventors for years.
+
+One of the most modern of typewriters has a single electro-magnet to
+actuate all the type bars of a set, and to throw each type from its
+normal position to the printing centre. By an extremely light touch
+given to each key lever the circuit is closed and causes the lever to
+strike without the necessity of pressing the key down its whole extent
+and releasing it before the next key strikes. By this device, the
+operator is relieved of fatigue, as his fingers may glide quickly from
+one key to another, the printing is made uniform, and far greater speed
+attained by reason of the quick and delicate action. Mr. Thaddeus Cahill
+of Washington appears to be the first to have invented the most
+successful of this type of machines.
+
+_Book-binding Machinery_ is another new production of the century. It
+may be that the old hand methods would give to a book a stronger binding
+than is found on most books to-day, but the modern public demands and
+has obtained machinery that will take the loose sheets and bind them
+ready for delivery, at the rate of ten or fifteen thousand volumes a
+day.
+
+The “quaint and curious volumes of forgotten lore,” the Latin folios in
+oak or ivory boards with brass clasps, or bound in velvet, or in crimson
+satin, ornamented with finest needlework or precious stones, or the more
+humble beech boards, and calf and sheep skins with metal edges and iron
+clasps, in all of which the sheets were stoutly sewed together and
+glued, when glue was known, to the covers, are now but relics of the
+past. Machinery came to the front quite rapidly after 1825, at which
+time cloth had been introduced as cheaper than leather, and as cheap and
+a more enduring binder than paper. The processes in book-binding are
+enumerated as follows; and for each process a machine has been invented
+within the last sixty years to do the work:
+
+  Folding the sheets;
+  Gathering the consecutive sheets;
+  Rolling the backs of folded sheets;
+  Saw cutting the backs for the combs;
+  Sewing;
+  Rounding the back of the sewed sheets.
+  Edge cutting;
+  Binding, securing the books to the sides, covering with muslin,
+    leather or paper. Tooling and lettering.
+  Edge gilting.
+
+One of the best modern illustrations of human thought and complicated
+manual operations contained in automatic machinery is the _Linotype_.
+
+It is a great step from the humble invention of Schoeffer five hundred
+and fifty years ago of cast movable type to that of another German,
+Mergenthaler, in 1890-92.
+
+The Linotype (a line of type) was pronounced by the _London Engineering_
+“as the most remarkable machine of this century.” It was the outcome of
+twelve years of continuous experiment and invention, and the expenditure
+of more than a million dollars. A brief description of this invention is
+given in the report of the United States commissioner of patents for
+1895 as follows: “In the present Mergenthaler construction there is a
+magazine containing a series of tubes for the letter or character
+moulds, each of which moulds is provided with a single character. There
+are a number of duplicates of each character, and the moulds containing
+the same character are all arranged in one tube. The machine is provided
+with a series of finger keys, which, when pressed like the keys of a
+typewriter, cause the letter moulds to assemble in a line in their
+proper order for print. A line mould and a melting pot are then brought
+into proper relation to the assembled line of letter moulds and a cast
+is taken, called the linotype, which represents the entire line, a
+column wide, of the matter to be printed. The letter moulds are then
+automatically returned to their proper magazine tube. The Mergenthaler
+machine is largely in use in the principal newspaper offices, with the
+result that a single operator does at least the work of four average
+compositors.”
+
+Mr Rogers obtained a United States patent, September 23, 1890, for a
+machine for casting lines of type, the principal feature of which is
+that the letter moulds are strung on wires secured on a hinged frame.
+“When the frame is in one position, the letter moulds are released by
+the keys, slide down the wires by gravity and are assembled in line at
+the casting point. After the cast is taken, the lower ends of the guide
+wires are elevated, which causes the letter moulds to slide back on the
+wires to their original position, when the operation is repeated for the
+next line.” Operated by a single person, the Mergenthaler produces and
+assembles linotypes ready for the press or stereotyping table at the
+rate of from 3,600 to 7,000 ems (type characters) per hour. It permits
+the face or style of type to be changed at will and it permits the
+operator to read and correct his matter as he proceeds.
+
+To the aid of the ordinary printing press came _electrotyping_,
+stenographic colour printing, engraving, and smaller job and card
+presses, all entirely new creations within the century, and of infinite
+variety, each in itself forming a new class in typographic art, and a
+valuable addition to the marvellous transformation.
+
+The introduction of the linotype and other modern machines into printing
+offices has without doubt many times reduced and displaced manual
+labour, and caused at those times at least temporary suffering among
+employees. But statistics do not show that as a whole there are fewer
+printers in the land. On the contrary, the force seems to increase, just
+as the number of printing establishments increase, with the
+multiplication of new inventions. As in other arts, the distress caused
+by the displacement of hand-labour by machinery is local and temporary.
+The whole art rests for its development on the demand for reading
+matter, and the demand never seems to let up. It increases as fast as
+the means of the consumers increase for procuring it. One hundred years
+ago a decent private library, consisting of a hundred or so volumes, one
+or two weekly newspapers, and an occasional periodical, was the badge
+and possession alone of the wealthy few. Now nearly every reading
+citizen of every village has piled up in some corner of his house a
+better supply than that, of bound or unbound literature, and of a far
+superior quality. Besides the tons of reading matter of all kinds turned
+out daily by the city presses, every village wants its own paper and its
+town library, and every one of its business men has recourse to the
+typewriter and the printer for his letters, his cards, and his
+advertisements.
+
+To supply the present demand for printed matter with the implements of a
+hundred years ago, it would be necessary to draw upon and exhaust the
+supply of labourers in nearly every other occupation. Printing would
+become the one universal profession.
+
+The roar of the guns at Waterloo and the click of the first power
+printing press in London were nearly simultaneous. The military Colossus
+then tumbled, and the Press began to lead mankind. Wars still continue,
+and will, until men are civilised; but the vanguard of civilisation are
+the printers, and not the warriors. The marvellous glory of the
+nineteenth century has proceeded from the intelligence of the people,
+awakened, stimulated, and guided by the press. But the press itself, and
+its servitors and messengers, speeding on the wings of electricity, are
+the children of the inventors.
+
+These inventions have made the book and the newspaper the poor man’s
+University. They are mirrors which throw into his humble home
+reflections of the scenes of busy life everywhere. By them knowledge is
+spread, thought aroused, and universal education established.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+TEXTILES.
+
+
+_Spinning_:--A bunch of combed fibre fixed in the forked end of a stick
+called a distaff, held under the left arm, while with the right
+forefinger and thumb the housewife or maiden deftly drew out and twisted
+a thread of yarn of the fibre and wound it upon a stick called a
+spindle, was the art of spinning that came down to Europe from Ancient
+Egypt or India without a change through all the centuries to at least
+the middle of the fourteenth century, and in England to the time of
+Henry VIII. Then the spinning wheel was introduced, which is said to
+have also been long in use in India. By the use of the wheel the spindle
+was no longer held in the hand, but, set upon a frame and connected by a
+cord or belt to the wheel, was made to whirl by turning the wheel by
+hand, or by a treadle. The spindle was connected to the bunch of cotton
+by a cord, or by a single roving of cotton or wool attached to the
+spindle, which was held between the finger and thumb, and as the spindle
+revolved the thread was drawn out and twisted and wound by the spindle
+upon itself.
+
+In the cloth of the ancient East the warp and weft were both of cotton.
+In England the warp was linen and the weft was cotton. The warp was made
+by the cloth and linen manufacturers, and the weft yarns furnished by
+the woman spinsters throughout the country. By both these methods only a
+single thread at a time was spun. The principle of the spinning
+operation, the drawing out and twisting a thread or cord from a bunch or
+roll of fibre, has remained the same through all time.
+
+The light and delicate work, the pure and soft material, and the beauty
+and usefulness of raiments produced, have all through time made woman
+the natural goddess, the priestess, the patroness, and the votary of
+this art. The object of all modern machinery, however complicated or
+wonderful, has simply been to increase the speed and efficiency of the
+ancient mode of operation and to multiply its results. The loom, that
+antique frame on which the threads were laid in one direction to form
+the warp, and crossed by the yarns in the opposite direction, carried
+through the warp by the shuttle thrown by hand, to form the woof, or
+weft, comprised a device as old as, if not older than, the distaff and
+spindle.
+
+The ancient and isolated races of Mexico had also learned the art of
+spinning and weaving. When the Spaniards first entered that country they
+found the natives clothed in cotton, woven plain, or in many colours.
+
+After forty centuries of unchanged life, it occurred to John Kay of
+Bury, England, that the weaving process might be improved. In 1733 he
+had succeeded in inventing the picker motion, “picker peg,” or “fly.”
+This consisted of mechanical means for throwing the shuttle across the
+web by a sudden jerk of a bar--one at each side--operated by pulling a
+cord. He could thus throw the shuttle farther and quicker than by
+hand--make wider cloth, and do as much work in the same time as two men
+had done before. This improvement put weaving ahead of spinning, and the
+weavers were continually calling on the spindlers for more weft yarns.
+This set the wits of inventors at work to better the spinning means.
+
+At the same time that Kay was struggling with his invention of the
+flying shuttle, another poor man, but with less success, had conceived
+another idea, as to spinning. John Wyatt of Lichfield thought it would
+be a good thing to draw out the sliver of cotton or wool between two
+sets of rollers, one end of the sliver being held and fed by one set of
+rollers, while the opposite end was being drawn by the other set of
+rollers moving at a greater speed. His invention, although not then
+used, was patented in 1738 by Lewis Paul, who in time won a fortune by
+it, while Wyatt died poor, and it was claimed that Paul and not Wyatt
+was the true inventor.
+
+About 1764 a little accident occurring in the home of James Hargreaves,
+an English weaver of Blackburn, suggested to that observant person an
+invention that was as important as that of Kay. He was studying hard how
+to get up a machine to meet the weavers’ demands for cotton yarns. One
+day while Hargreaves was spinning, surrounded by his children, one of
+them upset the spinning wheel, probably in a children’s frolic, and
+after it fell and while lying in a horizontal position, with the spindle
+in a vertical position, and the wheel and the spindle still running, the
+idea flashed into Hargreaves’ mind that a number of spindles might be
+placed upright and run from the same power. Thus prompted he commenced
+work, working in secret and at odd hours, and finally, after two or
+three years, completed a crude machine, which he called the spinning
+jenny, some say after his wife, and others that the name came from
+“gin,” the common abbreviated name of an engine. This machine had eight
+or ten spindles driven by cords or belts from the same wheel, and
+operated by hand or foot. The rovings at one end were attached to the
+spindles and their opposite portions held together and drawn out by a
+clasp held in the hand. When the thread yarn was drawn out sufficiently
+it was wound upon the spindles by a reverse movement of the wheel. Thus
+finally were means provided to supply the demand for the weft yarns. One
+person with one of Hargreaves’ machines could in the same time spin as
+much as twenty or thirty persons with their wheels. But those who were
+to be most benefited by the invention were the most alarmed, for fear of
+the destruction of their business, and they arose in their wrath, and
+demolished Hargreaves’ labours. It was a hard time for inventors. The
+law of England then was that patents were invalid if the invention was
+made known before the patent was applied for, and part of the public
+insisted on demolishing the invention if it was so made known, so that
+to avoid the law and the lawless the harassed inventors kept and worked
+their inventions in secret as long as they could. Hargreaves fled to
+Nottingham, where works were soon started with his spinning jennys. The
+ideas of Kay, Wyatt and Hargreaves are said to have been anticipated in
+Italy. There were makers of cloths at Florence, and also in Spain and
+the Netherlands, who were far in advance of the English and French in
+this art, but the descriptions of machinery employed by them are too
+vague and scanty to sustain the allegation.
+
+And now the long ice age of hand working was breaking up, and the age of
+machine production was fast setting in. Hargreaves was in the midst of
+his troubles and his early triumphs, in 1765-1769, when Richard
+Arkwright entered the field. Arkwright, first a barber, and then a
+travelling buyer of hair, and finally a knight, learned, as he travelled
+through Lancashire, Lichfield, Blackburn and Nottingham, of the
+inventions and labours of Wyatt, Kay and Hargreaves. Possessed as he was
+of some mechanical skill and inventive genius, and realising that the
+harvest was ripe and the labourers few, entered the field of inventions,
+and with the help of Kay, revived the old ideas of John Wyatt and Lewis
+Paul of spinning by rollers, which had now slumbered for thirty years.
+Kay and Arkwright constructed a working model, and on this Arkwright by
+hard pushing and hard work obtained capital, and improved, completed and
+patented his machine. The machine was first used by him in a mill
+erected at Nottingham and worked by horses; then at Cromford, and in
+this mill the power used to drive the spinning machine was a water
+wheel. His invention was therefore given the name of the _water_ frame,
+which it retained long after steam had been substituted for water as the
+driving power. It was also named the _throstle_, from the fact that it
+gave a humming or singing sound while at work; but it is commonly known
+as the _drawing_ frame. Arkwright patented useful improvements. He had
+to contend with mobs and with the courts, which combined to destroy his
+machines and his patent, but he finally succeeded in establishing mills,
+and in earning from the Government, manufacturers, and the public a
+great and well-merited munificence.
+
+It is a remarkable coincidence that Watt’s steam engine patent and
+Arkwright’s first patent for his spinning machine were issued in the
+same year--1769. The new era of invention was dawning fast.
+
+Then, in 1776, came Samuel Crompton of Bolton, who invented a
+combination of the jenny of Hargreaves and the roller water frame of
+Arkwright, and to distinguish his invention from the others he named it
+the “mule.” The mule was a carriage on wheels to which the spindles were
+attached. When the mule was drawn out one way on its frame the rovings
+were drawn from bobbins through rollers on a stationary frame, stretched
+and twisted into threads, and then as the mule was run back the spun
+threads were wound on spools on the spindles. The mule entirely
+superseded the use of the jenny. Notwithstanding the advantage in names
+the mule did more delicate work than the jenny. It avoided the
+continuous stretch on the thread of the jenny by first completing the
+thread and then winding it. Crompton’s mule was moved back and forth by
+hand. Roberts subsequently made it self-acting. Next, followed in
+England the Rev. Edward Cartwright, who, turning his attention to
+_looms_, invented the first loom run by machinery, the _first power
+loom_, 1784-85. Then the rioters turned on him, and he experienced the
+same attentions received by Hargreaves and Arkwright. The ignorance of
+ages died in this branch of human progress, as it often dies in others,
+with a violent wrench. But the age of steam had at last come, and with
+it the spinning machine, the power loom, the printing press, and the
+discovery among men of the powers of the mind, their freedom to exercise
+such powers, and their right to possess the fruits of their labours.
+
+The completed inventions of Arkwright and others, combined with Watt’s
+steam engine, revolutionised trade, and resulted in the establishment of
+mills and factories. A thousand spindles whirled where one hummed
+before. The factory life which drew the women and girls from their
+country homes to heated, and closely occupied, ill ventilated buildings
+within town limits, was, however, not regarded as an improvement in the
+matter of health; and it was a long time before mills were constructed
+and operated with the view to the correction of this evil.
+
+The great increase in demand for cotton produced by these machine
+inventions could not have been met had it not been for Eli Whitney’s
+invention of the saw gin in America in 1793. The cleaning of the seed
+from the cotton accomplished by this machine produced as great a
+revolution in the culture of cotton in America as the inventions of
+Arkwright and others accomplished in spinning and weaving in England.
+America had also learned of Arkwright’s machinery. Samuel Slater, a
+former employee of Arkwright, introduced it to Rhode Island in 1789, and
+built a great cotton mill there in 1793. Others followed in
+Massachusetts. Within twenty years after the introduction of Arkwright’s
+machines in the United States there were a hundred mills there with a
+hundred thousand spindles.
+
+As has been said, it was customary for weavers to make the warp on their
+looms at one place, and the spinners to furnish the yarns for the weft
+from their homes, and even after the spinning machines were invented the
+spinning and weaving were done at separate places. It remained for
+Francis C. Lowell of Boston, who had been studying the art of spinning
+and weaving in England and Scotland and the inventions of Arkwright and
+Crompton, to establish in 1813 at Waltham, Mass., with the aid of Paul
+Moody, machinist, the first factory in the world wherein were combined
+under one roof all the processes for converting cotton into cloth.
+
+The task of the century in this art has been to greatly extend the
+dominion of machinery in the treatment of cotton and wool in all stages,
+from the reception of the raw material at the door of the factory to its
+final completion in the form of the choicest cloth, and to increase the
+capacity of machines sufficiently to meet an ever-increasing and
+enormous consumption. There are from twenty to forty separate and
+distinct operations performed both in spinning and weaving and the
+completion of a piece of cloth from cotton or wool, and nearly all of
+these operations are accomplished by machinery.
+
+The century’s improvements and inventions in machines for treating and
+spinning cotton comprise machines for first opening and tearing the
+matted mass apart as it is taken from the bales, then cleaning, carding,
+drawing, roving, stretching, spinning, winding, doubling, dressing,
+warping, weaving, etc. Formerly, the opening machines were simply
+cylinders armed with spikes, to which the cotton was led through nipping
+rollers, and then delivered in a loose, fluffy condition. When such a
+machine was associated with a blowing machine to blow out the dust and
+cleanse the fibre, the loose and scattered condition in which the cotton
+was left gave rise to a great danger from fire, and destructive fires
+often occurred. The object of the later opening machinery is to confine
+the cotton within a casing in its passage through the machine, during
+which passage it is thoroughly stretched, beaten and blown and then
+rolled into a continuous sheet or lap. At the same time, by nice
+devices, it is evened, that is, freed from all knots, and made of
+uniform thickness, while a certain quantity only of cotton of known
+weight is allowed to pass through to constitute the required lap.
+Finally the lap is wound upon a roller, which when filled is removed to
+the carder. Although the cotton is now a white, soft, clean, downy
+sheet, still the fibres cross each other in every direction, and they
+require to be straightened and laid parallel before the spinning. This
+is done by carding. Paul, Hargreaves, Robert Peel, and Arkwright had
+worked in constructing a machine to take the place of hand carding, and
+it was finally reduced by Arkwright, towards the close of the 18th
+century, to its present form and principle.
+
+But to make those narrow, ribbon-like, clean, long lines of rolled
+cotton, known as slivers, by machinery with greater precision and
+uniformity than is possible by hand, and with a thousand times greater
+rapidity, has been the work of many inventors at different times and in
+different countries. The machine cards are cylinders clothed with
+leather and provided with separate sets of slender, sharp, bent fingers.
+The different cards are arranged to move past each other in opposite
+directions, so as to catch and disentangle the fibres. Flat, overhead
+stationary cards are also used through which the cotton is carried. As
+one operation of carding is not sufficient for most purposes the cotton
+is subjected to one or more successive cardings. So ingenious is the
+structure in some of its parts that as the stream of cotton passes on,
+any existing knots do not fail to excite the attention of the machine,
+which at once arrests them and holds them until disentangled. In
+connection with the cards, combers and strippers are used to assist in
+further cleaning and straightening the fibre, which is finally removed
+from the cards and the combs by the doffer. The cotton is stripped from
+the doffer by the doffer knife and in the form of delicate, flat narrow
+ribbons, which are drawn through a small funnel to consolidate them, and
+finally delivered in a coiled form into a tall tin can. The material is
+then carried to a drawing frame, which takes the spongy slivers, and,
+carrying them through successive sets of rollers moving at increased
+speed, elongates, equalises, straightens and “doubles” them, and finally
+condenses them into two or more rolls by passing the same through a
+trumpet-shaped funnel. As the yarns still need to be twisted, they are
+passed through a roving frame similar to a drawing frame. An ingenious
+device connected with the winding of the roving yarns upon bobbins may
+be here noted. Formerly the bobbins on which the yarns were wound
+increased in speed as they were filled, thus endangering and often
+breaking the thread, and at all times increasing the tension. In 1823
+Asa Arnold of Rhode Island invented “a differential motion” by which the
+velocity of the bobbin is kept uniform. The roving having been reduced
+to proper size for the intended number of yarns, now goes to the
+spinning machine, to still further draw out the threads and give to them
+a more uniform twist and tenuity. The spinning machine is simply an
+improved form of Crompton’s mule, already described.
+
+Great as have been the improvements in many matters in spindle
+structure, the drawing, the stretching and the twisting still remain
+fundamentally the same in principle as in the singing throstle of
+Arkwright and the steady mule of Crompton. And yet so great and rapid
+has been the advancement of inventions as to details and to meet the
+great demand, that the machinery of half a century ago has been almost
+entirely discarded and supplanted by different types. A great
+improvement on the spinning frame of the 18th century is the ring frame
+invented by Jenks. In this the spindles, arranged vertically in the
+frame, are driven by bands from a central cylinder, and project through
+apertures in a horizontal bar. A flanged ridge around each aperture
+forms a ring and affords a track for a little steel hoop called a
+traveller, which is sprung over the ring. The traveller guides the
+thread on to the spool. As the spindles revolve, the thread passing
+through the traveller revolves it rapidly, and the horizontal bar rising
+and falling has the effect of winding the yarn alternately and regularly
+upon the spools.
+
+The bobbins of the spindle frame were found not large enough to contain
+a sufficient amount of yarn to permit of a long continuous operation
+when the warp came to be applied, and besides there were occasional
+defects in the thread which could not be detected until it broke, if the
+yarn was used directly from the bobbins. So to save much time and
+trouble spooling machines were invented which wind the yarn from the
+bobbins holding 1200 to 1800 yards, to large spools, each holding 18,000
+to 20,000 yards; and then by passing the yarn through fine slots in
+guides which lead to the spool, lumps or weak places, which would break
+the yarns at the guide, could at once be discovered and the yarn retied
+firmly, so that there would be no further breaking in the warper. After
+the yarn is finally spooled it is found that its surface is still rough
+and covered with fuzz. It is desirable, therefore, that it shall be
+smoothed out and be given somewhat of a lustre before weaving. These
+final operations are performed by the warping and dressing machines. In
+the warping machine the threads are drawn between rollers, the tension
+of which can be regulated, and then through a “reed,” a comb-shaped
+device which separates the threads, and then finally wound upon a large
+cylinder. In this machine a device is also arranged which operates to
+stop the machine at once if any thread is broken. When the cylinder is
+filled it is then taken to the dresser, which in its modern and useful
+form is known as the “slusher,” by which the yarns are drawn through hot
+starch, the superfluous starch squeezed out, and the yarns, kept
+separated all the time, dried by passing them around large drying
+cylinders, or through a closed box heated by steam pipes, and then wound
+upon the loom beam or cylinder.
+
+In weaving, as in spinning, however advanced, complicated and improved
+the means may be beyond the hand methods and simple looms of past ages,
+the general principles in the process are still the same. These means,
+generally and broadly speaking, consist of a frame for two sets of
+threads, a roller, called the warp beam, for receiving and holding the
+threads which form the warp, a cloth beam upon which the cloth is wound
+as it is woven, the warp threads, being first laid parallel, carried
+from the warp beam and attached to the cloth beam; means called heddles,
+which with their moving frames constitute “a harness,” consisting of a
+set of vertical strings or rods having central loops through which the
+threads are passed, two or more sets of which receive alternate threads,
+and by the reciprocation of which the threads are separated into sets,
+_decussated_, forming between them what is called a shed through which
+the shuttle is thrown; means for throwing the shuttle; and means, called
+the batten, lay or lathe, for forcing or packing the weft tight into the
+angle formed by the opened warp and so rendering the fabric tight and
+compact, and then the motive power for turning the cloth beam and
+winding the cloth as fast as completed. It is along these lines that the
+inventors have wrought their marvellous changes from hand to power
+looms.
+
+Prior to 1800, in the weaving of figures into cloths, it was customary
+to employ boys to pull the cords in the loom harness in order to arrange
+the coloured threads in their relative positions. In that year appeared
+at the front Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French mechanician and native of
+Lyons, whose parents were weavers, a prolific inventor in his youth, a
+wayward wanderer after fortune and a wife, a soldier in the Revolution,
+losing a son fighting by his side, eking out a poor living with his
+wife’s help at straw weaving, finally employed by a silk manufacturer,
+and while thus engaged, producing that loom which has ever since been
+known by his name. This loom was personally inspected by Napoleon, who
+rewarded the inventor with honours and a pension. It was then demolished
+by a mob and its inventor reviled, but it afterward became the pride of
+Lyons and the means of its renown and wealth in the weaving of silks of
+rich designs.
+
+The leading feature of the Jacquard loom consists of a chain of
+perforated pattern cards made to pass over a drum, through which cards
+certain needles pass, causing certain threads of the warp to rise and
+fall, according to the holes in the cards, and thus admitting at certain
+places in the warp coloured weft threads thrown by the shuttle, and
+reproducing the pattern which is perforated in the cards. The Jacquard
+device could be applied to any loom, and it worked a revolution in the
+manufacture of figured goods. The complexity and expensiveness of
+Jacquard’s loom were greatly reduced by subsequent improvements. In 1854
+M. Bonelli constructed an electric loom in which the cards of the
+Jacquard apparatus are superseded by an endless band of tin-foiled
+paper, which serves as an electrical conductor to operate the warp
+thread needles, which before had each been actuated by a spiral spring.
+The Jacquard loom was also greatly improved by the English inventors,
+Barlow, Taylor, Martain and others.
+
+Radcliffe and Johnson, also of England, had invented and introduced the
+machines for dressing the yarns in one operation before the weaving;
+Horrocks and Marsland of Stockport greatly improved the adaptation of
+steam to the driving of looms, and Roberts of Manchester made striking
+advances in their mechanical parts and in bringing them to their present
+state of wonderful efficiency.
+
+In America, in 1836, George Crompton of Taunton, Massachusetts,
+commenced a series of inventions in power looms for the manufacture of
+fancy woollen goods, and in the details of such looms generally,
+particularly in increasing the speed of the shuttle, which vastly
+increased the production of such goods and gave to his looms a
+world-wide reputation.
+
+E. B. Bigelow of Massachusetts in 1848 invented a power loom, which was
+exhibited at the Exhibition at London in 1851, and astonished the world
+by his exhibition of carpets superior to any woven by hand. By the later
+improvements, and the aid of steam power, a single American Bigelow
+carpet loom can turn out now one hundred yards of Brussels carpet in a
+day, far superior in quality to any carpet which could possibly be made
+by hand, when a man toiled painfully to produce five yards a day. Mr.
+Bigelow was also a pioneer inventor of power machines for weaving coach
+lace, and cotton checks and ginghams. James Lyall of New York invented a
+power loom applicable either to the weaving of very wide and heavy
+fabrics, such as jute canvas for the foundation of floor oil cloth, or
+to fabrics made of the finest and most delicate yarns.
+
+It would be interesting, if space permitted, to describe the great
+variety of machines that have been invented for dressing, finishing and
+treating cloths after they are woven: The _teasling_ machine, by which
+the nap of woollen cloth is raised; the cloth _drying_ machine, with
+heated rollers, over which the cloth is passed to drive off the moisture
+acquired in dyeing, washing, etc., the cloth _printing_, _figuring_,
+_colouring_ and _embossing_ machines, with engraved cylinders; cloth
+pressing and _creasing_ machines, and the _cloth_ cutting machines for
+cutting the cloth into strips of all lengths, or for cutting piles of
+cloth in a single operation into parts of garments corresponding to the
+prearranged pattern; machines for making _felt_ cloth, and stamping or
+moulding different articles of apparel from felt, etc., etc.
+
+For the making of ribbons and other kind of narrow ware, the needle
+power loom has been invented, in which the fine weft thread is carried
+through the web by a needle instead of a shuttle. This adaptation of the
+needle to looms has placed ribbons within the reach of the poor as well
+as the rich girl.
+
+What a comparison between the work of the virtuous Penelopes and the
+weavers of a century ago and to-day! Then with her wheel, and by walking
+to and from it as the yarn was drawn out, and wound up, a maiden could
+spin twelve skeins of thread in ten hours, producing a thread a little
+more than three miles in length, while the length of her walk to and fro
+was about five miles. Now one Penelope can attend to six or eight
+hundred spindles, each of which spins five thousand yards of thread a
+day, or, with the eight hundred spindles, four million yards, or nearly
+twenty-one hundred miles of thread in a day, while she need not walk at
+all.
+
+It was when the weaver threw the shuttle through the warp by hand that
+Job’s exclamation, “My days are like a weaver’s shuttle” was an
+appropriate text on the brevity of human life. It may be just as
+appropriate now, but far more striking, when it is realised that
+machines now throw the shuttle one hundred and eighty times a minute, or
+three times a second. Flying as fast as it does, when the shuttle
+becomes exhausted of yarn a late invention presents a new bobbin and a
+new supply of yarn to the shuttle without stopping the machine.
+
+As to _knitting_, the century has seen the day pass when all hosiery was
+knit by hand. First, machines were invented for knitting the leg or the
+foot of the stocking, which were then joined by hand, and then came
+machines that made the stocking complete. The social industry so quietly
+but slowly followed by the good women in their chimney corners with
+their knitting needles, by which a woman might possibly knit a pair a
+day, was succeeded a quarter of a century ago by machines, twelve of
+which could be attended to by a boy, which would knit and complete five
+thousand pairs a week. Such a machine commences with the stocking at the
+top, knits down, widening and narrowing, changes the stitch as it goes
+on to the heel, shapes the heel, and finishes at the end of the toe, all
+one thread, and then it recommences the operation and goes on with
+another and another. Fancy stockings, with numerous colours blended, are
+so knit, and if the yarn holds out a mile of stockings may be thus knit,
+without a break and without an attendant. By these machines the
+astounding result was reached of making the stockings at the cost of
+one-sixth of a mill per pair.
+
+The wonderful reduction in the cost of all kinds of textile fabrics due
+to the perfection of spinning and loom mechanisms, and its power to meet
+the resulting enormous increase in demand, has enabled the poor of
+to-day to be clad better and with a far greater variety of apparel than
+it was possible for the rich a hundred years ago; and the increased
+consumption and demand have brought into these fields of labour, and
+into other fields of labour created by these, great armies of men and
+women, notwithstanding the labour-saving devices.
+
+The wants of the world can no longer be supplied by skilled hand labour.
+And it is better that machines do the skilled labour, if the product is
+increased while made better and cheaper, and the number of labourers in
+the end increased by the development and demands of the art.
+
+Among the recent devices is one which dispenses with the expensive and
+skilful work by hand of drawing the warp threads into the eyes of the
+heddles and through the reed of the loom.
+
+Cane-backed and bottomed chairs and lounges only a few years ago were a
+luxury of the rich and made slowly by hand. Now the open mesh cane
+fabric, having diagonal strands, and other varieties, are made rapidly
+by machinery. Turkish carpets are woven, and floors the world over are
+carpeted with those rich materials the sight of which would have
+astonished the ordinary beholder a half century ago. Matting is woven;
+wire, cane, straw, spun glass; in fact, everything that can be woven by
+hand into useful articles now finds its especially constructed machine
+for weaving it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GARMENTS.
+
+
+“Man is a tool-using animal. Weak in himself, and of small stature, he
+stands on a basis, at most for the flattest-soled, of some half square
+foot, insecurely enough; has to straddle out his legs lest the very wind
+supplant him. Feeblest of bipeds! Three quintals are a crushing load for
+him; the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft, like a waste rag.
+Nevertheless he can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite
+mountain melts into light dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if
+it were paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his
+unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him without tools; without tools
+he is nothing, with tools he is all.... Man is a tool-using animal, of
+which truth, clothes are but one example.”--_Sartor Resartus._
+
+In looking through the records of man’s achievements to find the
+beginnings of inventions, we discover the glimmering of a change in the
+form of the immemorial needle, in an English patent granted to Charles
+F. Weisenthal, June 24, 1775. It was a needle with a centrally located
+eye, and with both ends pointed, designed for embroidery work by hand,
+and the object of the two points was to prevent the turning of the
+needle end for end after its passage through the cloth. But it was not
+until the 19th century that the idea was reduced to practice in sewing
+machines.
+
+To Thomas Saint, a cabinet maker by trade, of Greenhills Rents, in the
+Parish of St. Sepulchre, Middlesex County, England, the world is
+indebted for the first clear conception of a sewing machine. Saint’s
+attention was attracted to the slow way of sewing boots and shoes and
+other leather work, so he determined to improve the method. He took out
+a patent September 17, 1790, and although the germs of some of the
+leading parts of the modern sewing machine are there described, it does
+not appear that his patent was applied to practice. In fact, it
+slumbered in the archives of the British patent office for two
+generations, and after the leading sewing machines of the century had
+been invented and introduced, before it was rediscovered, and its
+contents appreciated in the light of more recent developments. Probably
+Saint’s machine, if constructed in accordance with his plans, would not
+have done much good work, certainly not with woven cloth, as he proposed
+to employ a hooked needle to carry a loop through the material, which
+would have been snarled by the cloth threads; but from his drawings and
+description it is clearly established that he was first to conceive of a
+vertically reciprocating needle for forming a seam from a continuous
+thread drawn from a spool; a seam in which each loop is locked, or
+enchained with a subsequent loop, to form what is known as the chain, or
+single thread stitch; and a horizontal sliding plate, to support the
+material to be sewed, and by which the material was also moved sideways
+after each stitch.
+
+May 30, 1804, John Duncan received an English patent for “tamboring on
+cloth.” He proposed to employ a series of hooked needles attached in a
+straight line to a horizontal bar, which, when threaded, were first
+thrust forward and their hooked ends carried through the cloth, where
+each needle hook was supplied with a thread by a thread carrier. Then
+the motion of the bar was reversed, which drew the thread back through
+the cloth in the form of loops, and through the loops first formed, thus
+producing a chain stitch. The cloth was automatically shifted to
+correspond to the pattern to be produced, and thus was chain stitch
+embroidery first manufactured. From this point of time successful
+embroidery machines were made.
+
+In 1807 another Englishman patented a machine for making a sort of rope
+matting, in which he describes two eye-pointed, thread-carrying,
+perforating needles, each held in a reciprocating needle bar, and
+designed to unite several small ropes laid parallel, by a reciprocating
+movement.
+
+A German publication, the _Kunst_ and _Generbe Blatt_, for 1817, and
+_Karmarsch’s History of Technology_, made mention of a sewing machine
+invented by one Mr. Joseph Madersperger of Vienna, formerly from
+Kuefstein in the Tyrol, and for which he received royal letters patent
+in 1814. From these descriptions it appears Madersperger used a needle
+pointed at both ends, and the eye in the centre, invented many years
+before by Weisenthal, as above stated, which was moved vertically up and
+down, piercing alternately the top and bottom of the stuff, and which
+carried a short thread, enough to make about one hundred and thirty
+stitches, which machine was driven by a crank and handle, on which
+sewing was made of many different shaped forms, by slight changes, and
+which sewed with far greater accuracy and rapidity than hand work. The
+inventor was striving to simplify the machine, but to what extent it had
+been used or had been improved, or what finally became of it, does not
+appear. Yet it is a bit of evidence showing that Germany came next to
+England in the earlier ideas, conceptions of, and struggles after a
+sewing machine.
+
+France then entered the list, and it was in 1830 that Barthelmy
+Thimonnier there produced and patented a sewing machine, which he
+continued to improve and to further patent in 1848 and in 1850 in
+France, England, and the United States. The Thimonnier resembled in some
+prominent respects the machine that had been described in the Saint
+patent, but unlike Saint’s, it was reduced to successful practice, and
+possessed some points in common with more modern machines. These were
+the flat cloth plate, vertical post, overhung arm, vertically
+reciprocating needle, and continuous thread. The crochet or barbed
+needle was worked by a treadle, and upon pushing the needle down through
+the cloth, it there caught a thread from a carrier, carried the loop to
+and laid it upon the upper surface of the cloth. Again descending, it
+brought up another loop, enchained it with the one last made, making a
+chain stitch, consisting of a series of loops on the upper side.
+
+Thimonnier made quite a large number of machines, constructed mostly of
+wood, and which were used to make army clothing at Paris. They were best
+adapted to work on leather and in embroidering. They were so far
+successful as to arouse the jealousy and fear of the workmen and working
+women, and, as in the case of Hargreaves, Jacquard, and others, a mob
+broke into his shop, destroyed his machines, ruined his business, and he
+died penniless in 1857.
+
+In the meantime an English patent, No. 8948, of May 4, 1841, had been
+issued to Newton and Archbold for a machine for embroidering the backs
+of gloves, having an eye-pointed needle, worked by a vibrating lever,
+and adapted to carry a thread through the back of the glove, held on a
+frame--the frame and glove moving together after each stitch.
+
+The germs of inventions often develop and fructify simultaneously in
+distant places, without, so far as any one can ascertain, the slightest
+mutual knowledge or co-operation on the part of the separate inventors.
+Between 1832 and 1834, while Thimonnier was in the midst of his early
+struggles in Paris, Walter Hunt was inventing a sewing machine in New
+York, which he completed at that time and on which he sewed one or two
+garments. But as it was experimental in form, and Hunt was full of other
+inventions and schemes, he put it aside, and it probably would never
+have been heard of had not Elias Howe of Massachusetts, ten years after
+Hunt had abandoned his invention, but without knowledge of Hunt’s
+efforts, made the first practical successful sewing machine for
+commercial purposes the world had ever seen, obtained his patent, and
+made claims therein which covered not only his special form of
+improvements, but Hunt’s old device as well.
+
+Howe’s patent was issued September 10, 1846. In that he claimed to be
+the first and original inventor of “A sewing machine, constructed and
+operated to form a seam, substantially as described.”
+
+Also “The combination of a needle and a shuttle, or equivalent, and
+holding surfaces, constructed and operating substantially as described.”
+
+Also “The combination of holding surfaces with a baster plate or
+equivalent, constructed and operating substantially as described.”
+
+Also “A grooved and eye-pointed needle, constructed and adapted for
+rapid machine sewing substantially as described.”
+
+When the machine commenced to be a practical success this patent was
+infringed, and when Howe sued upon it a few years after its issue, it
+woke up Hunt and all other alleged prior inventors; and all prior
+patents and publications the world over, relating to sewing machines,
+were raked up to defeat Howe’s claims.
+
+But the courts, after long deliberation, held that although, so far as
+Hunt was concerned he had without doubt made a machine in many respects
+like Howe’s machine, that it had a curved, eye-pointed needle similar to
+Howe’s operated by a vibrating arm and going through the cloth, a
+shuttle carrying the thread that passed through the loop made by the
+needle thread, thus making a lock stitch by drawing it up to one side of
+the cloth, and that this machine did, to a certain extent, sew, yet that
+it ended in an experiment, was laid aside, destroyed, and never
+perfected nor used so as to give to the public the knowledge and benefit
+of a completed invention, and was not therefore an anticipation in the
+eye of the law of Howe’s completed, more successful and patented
+machine.
+
+Public successful use is the fact in many cases which alone establishes
+the title of an inventor, when all other tests fail. And this is right
+in one sense, as the laws of all countries in respect to protection by
+patents for inventions are based upon the primary condition of benefit
+to society. This benefit is not derived from the inventor who hides his
+completed invention for years in his closet, or throws it on a dust
+heap. As to previous patents and publications, some were not published
+before Howe’s inventions were made, and others were insufficient in
+showing substantially the same machine and mode of operation. And as to
+prior use abroad, it was not regarded under the law of his country as
+competent evidence.
+
+Seldom have the lives of great inventors presented a more striking
+example of the vicissitudes, the despair, and the final triumphs of
+fortune, which are commonly their lot, than is shown in the case of
+Howe. A machinist with a wife and children to support, his health too
+feeble to earn hardly a scanty living, he watches his faithful wife ply
+her constant needle, and wonders why a machine cannot be made to do the
+work. The idea cannot be put aside, and with such poor aids as he can
+command he commences his task.
+
+At last, amid the trials of bitter poverty, he brings his invention to
+that stage in which he induces a friend to advance some money, by the
+promise of a share in the future patent, and thereby gains a temporary
+home for his family and a garret for his workshop. Day after day and
+night after night he labours, and finally, in April, 1845, the rather
+crude machine is completed, and two woollen suits of clothing are sewed
+thereon, one for a friend, and one for himself.
+
+Then came the effort to make more machines and place them on the market.
+People admired the machines as a curiosity, but none were induced to buy
+them or help him pecuniarily. Finally, in September, 1846, he obtained
+his patent, but by that time his best friends had become discouraged,
+and he was compelled to return with his family to his father’s house in
+Cambridge, Mass. To earn his bread he sought and found employment on a
+railway locomotive. By some means his brother sold one of his machines
+to Mr. William Thomas, a corset maker of London, and Howe was induced to
+go there to make stays, and his machines. He took his wife and children
+with him. The arrangement made with his employer was not such as to
+enable him to keep his family there, and he soon sent them home.
+
+Unable to sell his machines, he was soon reduced to want. He pawned his
+patent and his last machine, and procured money to return to New York,
+where he arrived penniless in 1849. He then learned that his wife was
+dying of consumption at Cambridge. He was compelled to wait until money
+could be sent him to pay his passage home, and reached there just before
+his wife’s death.
+
+He then learned that during his absence his patent and machine had
+attracted attention, that others had taken the matter up, added their
+improvements to his machines, and that many in various places were being
+made and sold which were infringements of his patent. A great demand for
+sewing machines had sprung up. He induced friends to again help him.
+Suits were commenced which, although bitterly fought for six years, were
+finally successful.
+
+Now fortune turned her smiling face upon him. Medals and diplomas, the
+Cross of the Legion of Honour, and millions of money became his. When
+the great civil war broke out in 1861, he entered the army as a private
+soldier, and advanced the money to pay the regiment to which he
+belonged, when the Government paymaster had been long delayed. His life
+was saddened by the fact that his wife had not lived to share his
+fortune. He died in Brooklyn, New York, October 3, 1867, in the midst of
+life, riches, and honour, at the comparatively early age of forty-eight.
+
+In referring to the early inventors of sewing machines in America who
+entered the field about the same time with Howe, mention should be made
+of J. J. Greenough and George Corliss, who had machines patented
+respectively in 1842 and 1843, for sewing leather, with double pointed
+needles; and the running stitch sewing machine used for basting, made
+and patented by B. W. Bean in 1843. About this time, both in England and
+America, machines had been devised for sewing lengths of calico and
+other cloths together, previous to bleaching, dyeing or printing. The
+edges of the cloths were first crimped or fluted and then sewed by a
+running stitch.
+
+The decade of 1849-1859, immediately following the development of the
+Howe machine, was the greatest in the century for producing those
+successful sewing machines which were the foundation of the art,
+established a new industrial epoch, and converted Hood’s “Song of the
+Shirt” into a lament commemorative of the miseries of a slavish but
+dying industry.
+
+It was during that decade that, in the United States, Batcheller
+invented the perpetual feed for moving the cloth horizontally under and
+past the needle. In Howe’s the cloth could be sewed but a certain
+distance at a time, and then the machine must be readjusted for a new
+length. Then Blodgett and Lerow imparted to the eye-pointed needle what
+is called the “dip motion,”--the needle being made to descend completely
+through the material, then to rise a little to form a loop; the shuttle
+then entered the loop, the needle descended again a short distance,
+while the shuttle passed through the loop of the needle thread, and then
+the needle was raised above the cloth.
+
+It was then that Allen B. Wilson invented the still more famous
+“four-motion feed” for feeding the cloth forward. He employed a bar
+having saw like teeth on one edge which projected up through a slotted
+plate and engaged the cloth. He then first moved the bar forward
+carrying the cloth; second, dropped the bar; third, moved it back under
+the plate; and fourth, raised it to its first position to again engage
+the cloth. These motions were so timed with the movement of the needle
+and so quickly done that the cloth was carried forward while the needle
+was raised, the passage and quick action of the needle was not
+interfered with, and the feeding and the sewing seem to be simultaneous.
+The intermittent grasp and feed of the cloth were hardly perceptible,
+and yet it permitted the cloth to be turned to make a curved seam.
+Wilson also invented the rotating hook which catches the loop of the
+upper thread, and drops a disk bobbin through it to form the stitch. The
+shuttle was thus dispensed with, and an entirely new departure was made
+in the art. These with other improvements made up the celebrated
+“Wheeler and Wilson” machine.
+
+Now also appeared “the Singer,” consisting chiefly of the invention of
+T. M. Singer. He improved the operation of the needle bar, devised a
+roughened feed wheel, as a substitute for Wilson’s serrated bar,
+introduced a spring presser foot, alongside the needle, to hold the work
+down in proper position while permitting it to be moved forward or in
+any other direction. A “friction pad” was also placed between the cloth
+seam and the spool, to prevent the thread from kinking or twisting under
+the point of the descending needle. He was the first to give the shuttle
+an additional forward movement after it had once stopped, to draw the
+stitch tight,--such operation being taken while the feed moved the cloth
+in the reverse direction, and while, the needle completed its upward
+motion, so that the two threads were simultaneously drawn, and finally a
+spring guide upon the shuttle to control the slack of the thread, and
+prevent its catching by the needle.
+
+By reason of these improvements it is thought by many that Singer was
+the first to furnish the people with a successful operating and
+practical sewing machine. At any rate, the world at last so highly
+appreciated his machines, that it lifted him from poverty to an estate
+which was valued at between eight and ten millions of dollars at the
+time of his death in 1875. Singer was also the first to invent the
+“ruffler,” a machine for ruffling or gathering cloth, and a device which
+laid an embroidering thread upon the surface of the cloth under the
+needle thread.
+
+The “Grover and Baker” another celebrated American machine, was invented
+by William O. Grover and William E. Baker in 1851. By certain changes
+they made in the thread carrier and connections, they were enabled to
+make a double looped stitch. This required more thread, but the stitch
+made was unexcelled in strength.
+
+And so the work went on, from step to step, and from the completion of
+one machine after another, until when the Centennial Exhibition came to
+be held in Philadelphia in 1876, a fine array of excellent sewing
+machines was had, from the United States, principally, but also those of
+inventors and manufacturers in Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany,
+Belgium, Sweden and Denmark.
+
+Up to that time about twenty-two hundred patents had been granted in the
+United States, all of which, with the exception of a very few, were for
+inventions made within the preceding quarter of a century. And during
+the last quarter of the century about five thousand more United States
+patents have been issued for devices in this art. This number includes
+many, of course, to inventors of other countries. When it is remembered
+that these patents were issued only after an examination in each case as
+to its novelty, and although slight as may have been the changes or
+additions, yet substantially different they must have been in nearly all
+respects, it may to some extent be realized how great and incessant has
+been the exercise of invention in this useful class of machines.
+
+On this point of the exercise of invention in sewing machines, as well
+as on some others growing out of the subject, Knight, writing in his
+_Mechanical Dictionary_, about twenty years ago, remarks: “If required
+to name the three subjects on which the most extraordinary versatility
+of invention has been expended, the answer would be without hesitation,
+the _sewing machine_, _reaping machine_ and _breech-loading firearm_.
+Each of these has thousands of patents, and although each is the growth
+of the last forty years, it is only during the last twenty-five years
+that they have filled any notable place in the world. It was then only
+by a combination of talents that any of these three important inventions
+was enabled to achieve remarkable success. The sewing machine previous
+to 1851, made without the admirable division of labour which is a
+feature in all well conducted factories, was hard to make, and
+comparatively hard to run. The system of _assembling_, first introduced
+in the artillery service of France by General Gribeauval in 1765 and
+brought to proximate perfection by Colonel Colt in the manufacture of
+the revolver at Hartford, Connecticut, has economised material and time,
+improved the quality as well as cheapened the product. There is to-day,
+and in fact has been for some years, more actual invention in the
+special machines for _making_ sewing machines than in the machines
+themselves. The assembling system, that is, making the component parts
+of an article in distinct pieces of pattern, so as to be
+interchangeable, and the putting them together, is the only system of
+order. How else should the Providence Tool Company execute their order
+for 600,000 rifles for the Turkish Government? How otherwise could the
+Champion Harvesting Machine Company of Springfield, Ohio, turn out an
+equipped machine every four minutes each working day of ten hours? Or,
+to draw the illustration from the subject in hand, how by any other than
+the nicest arrangement of detail can the Singer Sewing Machine Company
+make 6,000 machines per week at Elizabethport, New Jersey?”
+
+When sewing machines were so far completed as to be easily run by a hand
+crank, or treadle, the application of power to run them singly, or in
+series, and to run machines of a larger and more powerful description,
+soon naturally followed--so that garment-making factories of all kinds,
+whether of cloth or leather, have been established in many countries--in
+which steam or electric power is utilised as the motor, and thus human
+strain and labour saved, while the amount of production is increased.
+
+No radical changes in the principle or mode of operation of sewing
+machines have been made in the last twenty-five years; but the efforts
+of inventors have been directed to improve the previously established
+types, and to devise attachments of all kinds, by the aid of which
+anything that can be sewed, can be sewed upon a machine. Tucking,
+ruffling, braiding, cording, hemming, turning, plaiting, gaging, and
+other attachment devices are numerous. Inventors have rivalled one
+another in originating new forms of stitches. About seventy-five
+distinct stitches have been devised, each of which must of course be
+produced by a change in mechanism.
+
+When sewing machines were in their infancy, and confined to sewing
+straight seams and other plain sewing, it was predicted that it was not
+possible to take from the hands of women the making of fine embroidery
+from intricate patterns, or the working of button-holes, and the
+destruction of the quilting party was not apprehended. Nor was it
+expected that human hands could be dispensed with in the cutting out of
+garments. And yet these things have followed. Machines, by a beautiful
+but complex system of needles, working to some extent on the Jacquard
+system of perforated card boards, and by the help of pneumatic or
+electrical power, will work out on most delicate cloths embroidery of
+exquisite patterns.
+
+The button-hole machines will take the garment, cut the button-hole at
+the desired point, and either, as in one class of machines, by moving
+the fabric about the stitch-forming mechanism, or, as in another class,
+moving the stitch-forming mechanism about the button-hole, complete the
+delicate task in the nicest and most effective manner.
+
+Quilting machines have their own bees, consisting of a guide which
+regulates the spaces between the seams, and adjusts them to any width,
+and a single needle, or gang of needles, the latter under the control of
+cams which force the needles to quilt certain desired patterns.
+
+And as to cutting, it is only necessary to place the number of pieces of
+fabric desired to be cut in cutting dies, or upon a table, and over them
+an “over-board” cutter, which comprises a reciprocating band-saw, or a
+rotary knife, all quick, keen and delicate, in an apparatus guided by
+hand, in order to produce in the operation a great pile of the parts
+formerly so slowly produced, one at a time, by scissors or shears.
+
+If men were contented with that single useful garment of some savages, a
+blanket with a slit cut in it for the passage of the head and neck, not
+only would a vast portion of the joys and sorrows of social philosophy
+have been avoided, but an immense strain and trouble on the part of
+inventors of the century would have been obviated.
+
+But man’s propensity for wearing clothes has led to the invention of
+every variety of tools for making them faster, cheaper, and better.
+
+No machine has yet been invented that will take the place of the deft
+fingers of women in certain lines of ornamentation, as in final
+completion and trimming of their hats. The airy and erratic demands of
+fashion are too nimble to be supplied by the slow processes of
+machinery, although the crude ground-work, the frame, has been shaped,
+moulded and sewed by machines; and women themselves have invented and
+patented _bonnet frames_ and _patterns_.
+
+But no such difficulty in invention has occurred in _hat-making_ for
+men. From the treating and cutting of the raw material, from the outer
+bound edge, and the band about the body, to the tip of the crown, a
+machine may be found for performing each separate step. Especially is
+this the case with the hard felt and the high silk hats.
+
+Seventy-five years ago the making of hats was by hand processes. Now in
+all hat factories machines are employed, and the ingenuity displayed in
+the construction of some of them is marvellous. It is exceedingly
+difficult to find many of the old hand implements existing even as
+relics.
+
+Wool and fur each has its special machines for turning it into a hat.
+The operations of cleaning and preparing the material, felting the fur,
+when fur is used, shaping the hat body, and then the brim, washing,
+dying, hardening and stiffening it, stretching, smoothing, finishing,
+sizing, lining, trimming, all are now done by machines devised for each
+special purpose. A description of these processes would be interesting,
+but even in an abbreviated form would fill a book.
+
+The wonderful things done in the manufacture of boots and shoes and
+rubber goods will be referred to in subsequent chapters.
+
+Although it was old from time immemorial to colour cotton goods, and the
+calico power printing cylinder was invented and introduced into England
+in the latter part of the 18th century and began to turn out at once
+immense quantities of decorated calicoes and chintz, yet _figured_ woven
+goods were a novelty sixty years ago.
+
+In 1834, Mr. Bonjeau, a prominent wool manufacturer in Sedan, France,
+and an _élève_ of the Polytechnic School, conceived the idea of
+modifying the plain cloths, universally made, by the union of different
+tints and patterns. This he was enabled to do by the Jacquard loom. The
+manufacture of fancy woven cloths, cassimeres, worsted coatings, etc.,
+of great beauty, combined with strength of fabrication, followed in all
+civilised countries, but their universal adoption as wearing apparel was
+due in part to the lessening of the expense in the making them into
+garments by the sewing machine.
+
+As to the effect of modern inventions on wearing apparel, it is not
+apparent that they were necessary to supply the wardrobes of the rich.
+The Solomons and the Queen of Sheba of ancient days, and all their small
+and great successors in the halls of Fortune, have had their rich robes,
+their purple and their fine linen, whether made in one way or another;
+but modern inventions have banished the day when the poor man’s hard
+labour of a long day will not suffice to bring his wife a yard of
+cheapest cloth. Toil, then, as hard as he and his poor wife and children
+might, their united labours would hardly suffice to clothe them in more
+than the poorly-dressed skins of animals and the coarsest of homespun
+wool.
+
+Now, cottons and calicoes are made and sold at a profit for three cents
+a yard; and the poorest woman in the land may appear in neat,
+comfortable and tasteful dress, the entire cost of material and labor of
+which need not exceed fifty cents. The comfort, respectability and
+dignity of a large family, which depend so much on clothes, may be
+ensured at the cost of a few dollars.
+
+And as to the condition of the sewing woman, trying and poor as it is in
+many instances, yet she can earn more money with less physical
+exhaustion than under the old system.
+
+The epoch of good clothes for the people, with all that it means in the
+fight upward from degradation, began in this century, and it was due to
+the inventions which have been above outlined.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.
+
+
+One invention engenders another, or co-operates with another. None
+lives, or stands, or dies, alone.
+
+So, in the humble but extensive art of _broom-making_, men and women
+worked along through ages binding with their hands the supple twigs of
+trees or bushes, or of corn, by thongs, or cords, or wire, upon the
+rudely-formed collar of a hand-smoothed stick, until the modern lathe
+and hollow mandrel armed with cutters, the power-driven shuttle, and the
+sewing machine, were invented.
+
+The lathe and mandrel to hold the stick while it was cut was used
+before, but it was long within the century that a hollow mandrel was
+first invented, which was provided internally with cutting bevelled
+knives, and into which the stick was placed, carried through
+longitudinally, and during its passage cut smooth and finished. As broom
+corn became the chief product from which brooms are made, it became
+desirable to have a machine, after the corn had been scraped of its
+seed, to size and prepare the stems in regular lengths for the various
+sizes of brooms, and accordingly such a machine was invented. Then a
+machine was needed and invented to wind the corn-brush with the cord or
+wire and tie it in a round bunch, preparatory to flattening and sewing
+it.
+
+Then followed different forms of broom-sewing machines. Among the
+pioneers was one which received the round bunch between two compressing
+jaws, and pressed it flat. While so held a needle with its coarse thread
+was forced through the broom above the binding and the cord twined
+around it. Then a shuttle, also carrying a stout thread, was thrown over
+the cord, the needle receded and was then forced through the broom again
+_under_ the binding cord. Thus in conjunction with the shuttle the
+stitches were formed alternately above and below the binding twine, the
+holding jaws being raised intermittently for that purpose. As each
+stitch was formed the machine fed the broom along laterally and
+intermittently. By another ingenious device the cord was tied and cut,
+when the sewing was completed.
+
+It is only by such machines which treat the entire article from the
+first to the last step, that the immense number of brooms now necessary
+to supply the market are made. True it is that at first labour was
+displaced. At one time seventeen skilled workmen would manufacture five
+hundred dozen brooms per week.
+
+They had reduced the force of earlier times by making larger quantities
+by better processes. Then when the broom-sewing machines and other
+inventions got fairly to work, nine men would turn out twelve hundred
+dozen brooms per week. Thus, while the force was reduced nearly
+one-half, the quantity of product was more than doubled. But as the cost
+of labour decreased and the product increased, the product became more
+plentiful and cheaper, the demand and use became greater, more
+broom-corn was raised, more broom-factories started, and soon the
+temporary displacement of labour was succeeded by a permanent increase
+in manufacture and in labourers, an increase in their wages, and an
+improvement in their condition.
+
+Useful and extensive as is its use, the broom does not compare in
+variety and wide application to the _brush_. The human body, cloth,
+leather, metals, wood and grains, everything that needs rubbing,
+cleaning, painting and polishing, meets the acquaintance of the brush.
+Nearly a hundred species of brushes might be enumerated, each having an
+especial construction for a particular use.
+
+Although the majority of brushes are still made by hand, yet a few most
+ingenious machines have been made which greatly facilitate and speed the
+operation, and many mechanical appliances have been invented in aid of
+hand-work. These machines and appliances, together with those which cut,
+turn, bore, smooth, and polish the handles and backs, to which the brush
+part is secured, have greatly changed and improved the art of
+brush-making during the last fifty years.
+
+The first machine which attracted general attention was invented by
+Oscar D. and E. C. Woodbury of New York, and patented in 1870. As in
+hand-making and before subjected to the action of the machine, the
+bristles are sorted as to length and color. A brush-back, bored with
+holes by a gang of bits, which holes do not extend, however, all the way
+through the back, is placed in the machine under a cone-jointed plunger,
+adapted to enter the hole in the brush-back. A comb-shaped slitted plate
+in the machine has then each slit filled with bristles, sufficient in
+number to form a single tuft. When the machine is started, the bristles
+in a slit are forced out therefrom through a twisted guideway, which
+forms them into a round tuft, and which is laid horizontally beneath a
+plunger, which, descending, first doubles the tuft, and as the plunger
+continues to descend, forces the double end down into the hole. The
+plunger is supplied with a wire from a reel, turns as it descends, and
+twists the wire around the lower end of the tuft, the wire being
+directed in that way by a spiral groove within the plunger. The
+continuing action of the plunger is such as to screw the wire into the
+back. The wire is cut when the rotary plunger commences its descent, and
+when the tuft is thus secured the plunger ascends, the block is moved
+for another hole, and another set of bristles is presented for
+manipulation. Brushes with 70 holes can be turned out by this machine at
+the rate of one a minute.
+
+Another most ingenious machine for this purpose is that of Kennedy,
+Diss, and Cannan, patented in the United States in 1892. In this, brush
+blocks of varying sizes, but of the same pattern, are bored by the same
+machine which receives the bristles, and the tufts are inserted as fast
+as the holes are bored. Both machines are automatic in operation.
+
+_Street-sweeping machines_ began to appear about 1831 in England,
+shortly after in France, and then in cities in other countries.
+
+The simplest form and most effective sweeper comprises a large cylinder
+armed with spiral rows of splints and hung diagonally on the under side
+and across a frame having two or four wheels. This cylinder is connected
+by bevelled gearing with the wheels, and in revolving throws the dirt
+from the street into a ridge on one side thereof, where it is swept into
+heaps by hand sweepers, and is then carted off. King of the United
+States was the inventor.
+
+A more recent improvement consists in the use of pneumatic means for
+removing the dust that is caused by the use of revolving brooms or
+brushes, such removal being effected by means of a hood that covers the
+area of the street beneath the body of the machine, and incloses an air
+exhaust, the sweepings being drawn through the exhaust mechanism and
+deposited in a receptacle for the purpose, or in some instances
+deposited in a furnace carried by the machine and there burned.
+
+In cities having hard, smooth, paved streets and sufficient municipal
+funds, the most effective, but most expensive way, has been found to
+keep a large force of men constantly at work with hoes, shovels, brooms,
+bags and carts, removing the dirt as fast as it accumulates.
+
+
+_Abrading Machines._
+
+One of the most striking inventions of the century is the application of
+the sand-blast to industrial and artistic purposes.
+
+For ages the sands of the desert and wild mountain plains, lifted and
+driven by the whirling winds, had sheared and polished the edges and
+faces of rocks, and cut them into fantastic shapes, and the sands of the
+shore, tossed by the winds of the sea, had long scratched and bleared
+the windows of the fisherman’s hut, before it occurred to the mind of
+man that here were a force and an agent which could be harnessed into
+his service.
+
+It was due finally to the inventive genius of B. F. Tilghman of
+Philadelphia, Pa., who, in 1870, patented a process by which common
+sand, powdered quartz, emery, or other comminuted sharp cutting
+material, may be blown or driven with such force upon the surface of the
+hardest materials, as to cut, clean, engrave, and otherwise abrade them,
+in the most wonderful and satisfactory manner.
+
+Diamonds are abraded; glass depolished, or engraved, or bored; metal
+castings cleaned; lithographic zinc plates grained; silverware frosted;
+stone and glass for jewelry shaped and figured; the inscriptions and
+ornaments of monuments and tombstones cut thereon; engravings and
+photographs copied; steel files cleaned and sharpened, and stones and
+marble carved into forms of beauty with more exactness and in far less
+time than by the chisel of the artisan.
+
+The gist of the process is the employment of a jet of sand or other hard
+abrading material, driven at a high velocity by a blast of air or steam,
+under a certain pressure, in accordance with the character of the work
+to be done. The sand is placed in a box-like receptacle into which the
+air or steam is forced, and the sand flowing into the same chamber is
+driven through a narrow slit or slits in the form of a thin sheet,
+directly on to the object to be abraded.
+
+By one method the surface of the object is first coated with tinfoil on
+which the artist traces his design, and this is then coated with melted
+transparent wax. Then when the wax is hardened it is cut away along the
+lines already indicated, and seen through the wax. The object now is
+subjected to the blast, and as the sand will not penetrate a softened
+material sufficient to abrade a surface beneath, the exposed portions
+alone will be cut away. The sand after it strikes is carried off by a
+blast to some receptacle, from which it is returned to its former place
+for further use. Other means may be used in the place of a slitted box,
+as a small or larger blow-pipe; but the driving of the sand, or similar
+abrading material, with great force by the steam or air blast, is the
+essential feature of the process.
+
+_Emery_, that variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of crystalline
+alumina, resembling in appearance dark, fine-grained iron ore, ranking
+next to the diamond in hardness, and a sister of the sapphire and the
+ruby, has long been used as an abradant. The Eastern nations have used
+corundum for this purpose for ages. Turkey and Greece once had a
+monopoly of it. Knight says: “The corundum stone used by the Hindoos and
+Chinese is composed of corundum powdered, two parts; lac resin, one
+part. The two are intimately mixed in an earthen vessel, kneaded and
+flattened, shaped and polished. A hole in the stone for the axis is made
+by a heated copper rod.”
+
+However ancient the use of artificial stones for grinding and polishing,
+nevertheless it is true that the solid emery wheel in the form that has
+made it generally useful, in machines known as _emery grinders_, is a
+modern invention, and of American origin.
+
+In the manufacture of such machines great attention and the highest
+scientific skill has been paid, first, to the material composing the
+wheel, and to the cementing substances by which the emery is compacted
+and bound in the strongest manner, to prevent bursting when driven at
+great speed; secondly, to the construction of machines and wheels of a
+composition varying from the finest to the coarsest; and thirdly, to the
+proper balancing of the wheels in the machines, an operation of great
+nicety, in order that the wheel may be used on delicate tools, when
+driven at high speed, without producing uneven work, marking the
+objects, or endangering the breaking, or bursting of the wheel.
+
+Such machines, when properly constructed, although not adapted to take
+the place of the file, other steel-cutting tools, and the grindstone for
+many purposes, yet have very extensively displaced those tools for
+cutting edges, and the grinding and polishing of hardened metals, by
+reason chiefly of their greater convenience, speed, and general
+adaptability. Not only tools of all sizes are ground and polished, but
+ploughshares, stove and wrought-iron plates, iron castings, the inner
+surfaces of hollow ironware, the bearings of spindles, arbours, and the
+surfaces of steel, chilled or cast-iron rolls, etc.
+
+In the great class of Industrial Mechanics, no machines of the century
+have contributed more to the comfort and cleanliness of mankind than
+those by which wearing apparel in its vast quantities is washed and
+ironed more thoroughly, speedily, and satisfactorily in every way than
+is possible by the old hand systems. When it is remembered how under the
+old system such a large part of humanity, and this the weaker part,
+devoted such immense time and labour to the universal washing and
+ironing days, the invention of these machines and appliances must be
+regarded as among the great labour-saving blessings of the century.
+
+True, the individual washerwoman and washerman, and ironers, have by no
+means disappeared, and are still in evidence everywhere, yet the
+universal and general devotion of one-half the human race to the
+wash-tub and ironing-table for two or more days in the week is no longer
+necessary. And even for the individual worker, the convenient appliances
+and helps that have been invented have greatly relieved the occupation
+of pain and drudgery.
+
+Among modern devices in the laundry, worked by hand, is, first, the
+_washing-machine_, in which the principle is adapted of rolling over or
+kneading the clothes. By moving a lever by hand up and down, the clothes
+are thoroughly rubbed, squeezed and lifted at each stroke. Then comes
+the _wringer_, a common form of which consists of two parallel rolls of
+vulcanized and otherwise specially treated rubber, fitted to shafts
+which, by an arrangement of cog-wheels, gearing and springs in the
+framework at the ends of rolls, and a crank handle, are made to roll on
+each other. The clothes are passed between the rollers, the springs
+permit the rollers to yield and part more or less, according to the
+thickness of the clothes.
+
+Then the old-fashioned, or the new-fashioned mangle is brought into
+play. The old-style mangle had a box, weighted with stone, which was
+reciprocated on rollers, and was run back and forth upon the clothes
+spread upon a polished table beneath. One of the more modern styles is
+on the principle of the wringer above described, or a series of rollers
+arranged around a central drum, and each having a rubber spring
+attached, by which means the clothes are not subjected to undue pressure
+at one or two points, as in the first mentioned kind.
+
+Starch is also applied by a similar machine. The cloth is dipped into a
+body of starch, or the same is applied by hand, and then the superfluous
+starch squeezed out as the clothes are passed through the rollers.
+
+But for hotels and other large institutions washing is now done by
+steam-power machinery.
+
+It is an attractive sight to step into a modern laundry, operated with
+the latest machinery on the largest scale. The first thing necessary in
+many localities is to clarify the water. This is done by attaching to
+the service pipe tanks filled with filtering material, through which the
+water flows before reaching the boiler. The driving engine and shafting
+are compactly placed at one end or side of the room, with boilers and
+kettles conveniently adjacent. The water and clothes are supplied to the
+washing-machine, and operated by the engine. Steam may be used in
+addition to the engine to keep it boiling hot, or steam may be
+substituted entirely for the water.
+
+The machine may be one of several types selected especially for the
+particular class of goods to be washed. There is the dash-wheel,
+constructed on the principle of the cylinder churn; the outer case being
+stationary and the revolving dash-wheel water-tight, or perforated,
+which is the preferred form for collars and cuffs. In place of the
+dash-wheel cylinders are sometimes used, having from sixty to seventy
+revolutions a minute. Another form has vibrating arms or beaters, giving
+between four hundred and five hundred strokes a minute, and by which the
+clothes are squeezed between rubbing corrugated boards. The rubbing
+boards also roll the clothes over and over until they are thoroughly
+washed. In another form a rotating cylinder for the clothes is provided
+with an arrangement of pipes by which either steam, water or blueing can
+be introduced as desired, into the cylinder, through its hollow
+journals, so that the clothes can be washed, rinsed, and blued without
+removal from the machine.
+
+Another type has perforated, reciprocating pistons, between which the
+clothes are alternately squeezed and released, a supply of fresh water
+being constantly introduced through one of the hollow cylinder journals,
+while the used water is discharged through the opposite journal; and in
+still another the clothes are placed in a perforated cylinder within an
+outer casing, and propeller blades, assisted by other spiral blades,
+force a continuous current of water through the clothes.
+
+In ironing, hollow polishing rolls of various sizes are used, heated
+either by steam or gas. The articles to be ironed are placed in proper
+position upon a table and carried under and in contact with the rolls.
+Or the goods are ironed between a heated cylinder and a revolving drum
+covered with felting, and the polishing effected by the cylinder
+revolving faster than the drum. Ingenious forms of hand-operated ironing
+machines for turning over and ironing the edges of collars, and other
+articles, are in successful use.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+WOOD-WORKING.
+
+
+In surveying the wonderful road along which have travelled the toiling
+inventors, until the splendid fields of the present century have been
+reached, the mind indulges in contrasts and reverts to the far gone
+period of man’s deprivations, when man, the animal, was fighting for
+food and shelter.
+
+  “Poor naked wretches, wheresoe’er you are,
+  That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,
+  How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,
+  Your loop’d and window’d raggedness, defend you
+  From seasons such as these?”
+                                      --_King Lear III, IV._
+
+When the implements of labour and the weapons of war were chiefly made
+of stone, or bronze, or iron, such periods became the “age” of stone, or
+bronze, or iron; and we sometimes hear of the ages of steam, steel and
+electricity. But the age of wood has always existed, wherever forests
+abounded. It was, doubtless, the earliest “age” in the industries of
+man, but is not likely to be the latest, as the class of inventions we
+are about to consider, although giving complete dominion to man over the
+forests, are hastening their destruction.
+
+As in every other class of inventions, there had been inventions in the
+class of wood-working through the ages preceding this century, in tools,
+implements and machines; but not until near the close of the eighteenth
+century had there been much of a break in the universal toil by hand.
+The implements produced were, for the most part, the result of the slow
+growth of experience and mechanical skill, rather than the product of
+inventive genius.
+
+True, the turning-lathe, the axe, the hammer, the chisel, the saw, the
+auger, the plane, the screw, and cutting and other wood-shaping
+instruments in simple forms existed in abundance. The Egyptians used
+their saws of bronze. The Greeks deified their supposed inventor of the
+saw, Talus, or Perdix, and they claimed Theodore of Lamos as the
+inventor of the turning-lathe; although the main idea of pivoting an
+object between two supports, so that it could be turned while the hands
+were free to apply a tool to its shaping, was old in the potter’s wheel
+of the Egyptians, which was turned while the vessel resting upon it was
+shaped and ornamented by the hand and tools. It appears also to have
+been known by the Hindoos and the Africans.
+
+Pliny refers to the curled chips raised by the plane, and Ansonius
+refers to mills driven by the waters of the Moselle for sawing marble
+into slabs. Early records mention saw-mills run by water-power in the
+thirteenth century in France, Germany and Norway; and Sweden had them in
+the next century. Holland had them one hundred years at least before
+they were introduced into England.
+
+Fearful of the entire destruction of the forests by the wood used in the
+manufacture of iron, and incited by the opposition and jealousy of hand
+sawyers, England passed some rigid laws on the subject in the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries, which, although preserving the forests, gave
+for a long time the almost exclusive manufacture of iron and lumber to
+Germany and Holland. Even as late as 1768, a saw-mill, built at
+Limehouse, under the encouragement of the Society of Arts, by James
+Stansfield, was destroyed by a mob. Saw-mills designed to be run by
+water-power had been introduced into the American colonies by the Dutch
+more than a century before they made their appearance in England.
+William Penn found that they had long been at work on the Delaware when
+he reached its shores in 1682.
+
+It was nothing indigenous to the climate or race that rendered the
+Americans inventors. The early colonists, drawn from the most civilised
+countries of Europe, carried to the new world knowledge of the latest
+and best appliances known to their respective countries in the various
+arts. With three thousand miles of water between them and the source of
+such appliances, and between them and the source of arbitrary power and
+laws to hamper efforts and enterprise, with stern necessity on every
+hand prompting them to avail themselves of every means to meet their
+daily wants, all known inventions were put to use, and brains were
+constantly exercised in devising new means to aid, or take the place of,
+manual labour, which was scarce. Surrounded, too, by vast forests, from
+which their houses, their churches and their schools must be
+constructed, these pioneers naturally turned their thoughts toward
+wood-working machinery. The attention to this art necessarily created
+interest in and developed other arts. Thus constant devotion to pursuits
+strenuously demanding labour-saving devices evolved a race of keen
+inventors and mechanics. So that when Watt had developed his wonderful
+application of steam to industrial purposes, America was ready to
+substitute steam for water-power in the running of saw-mills.
+
+Steam saw-mills commenced to buzz with the opening of the century.
+
+As to the relation of that humble machine, the saw-mill, to the progress
+of civilisation, it was once said: “The axe produces the log hut, but
+not until the saw-mill is introduced do framed dwellings and villages
+arise; it is civilisation’s pioneer machine; the precursor of the
+carpenter, wheelwright and turner, the painter, the joiner, and legions
+of other professions. Progress is unknown where it is not. Its
+comparative absence in the Southern American continent was not the least
+cause of the trifling advancement made there during three centuries and
+a half. Surrounded by forests of the most valuable and variegated
+timber, with water-power in mountain streams, equally neglected, the
+masses of the people lived in shanties and mud hovels, not more
+commodious than those of the aborigines, nor more durable than the
+annual structures of birds. Wherever man has not fixed and comfortable
+homes, he is, as regards civilisation, stationary; improvement under
+such circumstances has never taken place, nor can it.”
+
+Miller, in England, in 1777, had described in his patent a circular saw,
+and Hatton, in 1776, had vaguely described a planing machine; but the
+inception of the marvellous growth in wood-working machinery in the
+nineteenth century occurred in England during the last decade of the
+eighteenth. It was due to the splendid efforts of General Samuel
+Bentham, and of Bramah and Branch, both as to metal-working and
+wood-working machinery.
+
+General Bentham, a brother of the celebrated jurist, Jeremy Bentham, had
+his attention drawn to the slow, laborious, and crude methods of working
+in wood, while making a tour of Europe, and especially in Russia, and
+engaged in inspecting the art of ship-building in those countries, in
+behalf of the British Admiralty. On his return, 1791-1792, he converted
+his home into a shop for making wood-working machines. These included
+“Planing, moulding, rabbeting, grooving, mortising, and sawing, both in
+coarse and fine work, in curved, winding, and transverse directions, and
+shaping wood in complicated forms.”
+
+Of the amount of bills presented to and paid for by the Admiralty for
+these machines, General Bentham received about £20,000.
+
+These machines were developed and in use just as the new century
+approached. Thus, with the exception of the saw-mill, it may be again
+said that prior to this century the means mankind had to aid them in
+their work in metals and in wood were confined to hand tools, and these
+were for the most part of a simple and crude description.
+
+The ground-work now being laid, the century advanced into a region of
+invention in tools and machinery for wood-working of every description,
+far beyond the wildest dreams of all former carpenters and joiners. Not
+only were the machines themselves invented, but they gave rise in turn
+to a host of inventions in metal-working for making them.
+
+In the same line of inventions there appeared in the first decade of the
+century one of the most ingenious of men, and a most fitting type of
+that great class of Yankee inventors who have carved their way to renown
+with all implements, from the jack-knife to the electrically-driven
+universal shaping machine.
+
+Thomas Blanchard, born in Massachusetts in 1788, while a boy, was
+accustomed to astonish his companions by the miniature wind-wheels and
+water-wheels that he whittled out with his knife. While attending the
+parties of young people who gathered on winter evenings at different
+homes in the country to pare apples, the idea of a paring machine
+occurred to him, and when only thirteen years of age, he invented and
+made the first apple-paring machine, with which more apples could be
+pared in a given time than any twelve of his girl acquaintances could
+pare with a knife.
+
+At eighteen, while working in a shop, driving the heads down on tacks,
+on an anvil, with a hammer, he invented the first tack-forming machine,
+which, when perfected by him, made five hundred tacks a minute, and
+which has never since been improved in principle. He improved the steam
+engine, and invented one of the first envelope machines. He made the
+first metal lathe for cutting out the butts of gun-barrels. But his
+greatest triumphs were in wood-working machinery.
+
+Challenged to make a machine that would make a gun stock, always before
+that time regarded an impossible task, its every part being so irregular
+in form, he secluded himself in his workshop for six months, and after
+constant labour and experiments he at the end of that time had produced
+a machine that more than astonished the entire world, and which worked a
+revolution in the making of all irregular forms from wood. This was in
+1819. This machine would not only make a perfect gun-stock, but shoe
+lasts, and ships’ tackle-blocks, axe-handles, and a multitude of
+irregular-shaped blocks which before had always required the most expert
+hand operatives to produce. This machine became the subject of
+parliamentary inquiry on the part of England, and so great were the
+doubts concerning it, that successive commissions were appointed to
+examine and report upon it. Finally the English government ordered eight
+or ten of such machines for the making of gun-stocks for its army, and
+paid Blanchard about $40,000 for them. He was once jestingly asked at
+the navy department at Washington if he could turn a seventy-four? He at
+once replied, “Yes, if you will furnish me the block.” Of course
+infringers appeared, but he maintained his rights and title as first and
+original inventor after the most searching trials in court.
+
+The generic idea of Blanchard’s lathe for turning irregular forms
+consists in the use of a pattern of the device which is to be shaped
+from the rough material, placing such pattern in a lathe, alongside of
+the rough block, and having a guide wheel which has an arm having
+cutters, and which guide follows all the lines of the pattern, and which
+cutters, extending to the rough material, chip it away to the depth and
+in the direction imparted by the pattern lines to the guide, thus
+producing from the rough block a perfect representation of the pattern.
+
+In the midst of his studies in the construction of his inventions
+Blanchard’s attention was drawn to the operations of a boring worm upon
+an old oak log. Closely examining and watching the same by the aid of a
+microscope, he gained valuable ideas from the work of his humble
+teacher, which he incorporated into his new cutting and boring machines.
+
+His series of machines in gun-making were designed to make and shape
+automatically every part of the gun, whether of wood or metal. His
+machines, and subsequent improvements by others, for boring, mortising
+and turning, display wonderful ingenuity. A modern mortising machine,
+for instance, is adapted to quickly and accurately cut a square or
+oblong hole to any desired depth, width, and length by cutting blades;
+to automatically reciprocate the cutters both vertically and
+horizontally in order to cut the mortise, both as to length and depth,
+at one time, and to automatically withdraw the cutters when they have
+finished cutting the mortise. They are provided with simple means for
+setting and feeding the cutters to do this work, and while giving the
+cutters a positive action, ample clearance is provided for the removal
+of the chips as fast as they are cut.
+
+From what such inventions will produce in the way of complicated and
+ornamental workmanship we may conclude that it is a law of invention
+that whatever can be made by hand may be made by a machine, and made
+better.
+
+_Carving Machines_ made their appearance early in the century. In 1800 a
+Mr. Watt of London produced one, on which he carved medallions and
+figures in ivory and ebony. Also subsequently, John Hawkins of the same
+city, and a Mr. Cheverton, invented machines for the same purpose.
+Another Englishman, Braithwaite, in 1840, invented a most attractive
+carving process in which, instead of cutting tools, he employed
+_burning_ as his agent. Heated casts of previously carved models were
+pressed into or on to wet wood, and the charcoal surfaces then brushed
+off with hard brushes.
+
+After Blanchard’s turning-lathes and boring apparatus, appeared machines
+in which a series of cutters were employed, guided by a tracing lever
+attached to a carved model, and actuating the cutter to reproduce on
+material placed upon an adjusting table a copy of the model.
+
+Machines have been invented which consist of hard iron or steel rollers
+on the surface of which are cut beautiful patterns, and between which
+wood previously softened by steam is passed, and designs thus impressed
+thereon. A similar process of embossing, was devised in Paris and called
+Xyloplasty, by which steam-softened wood is compressed in carved moulds,
+which give it bas-relief impressions.
+
+But in the carving of wood by hand, a beautiful art, which has been
+revived within the past generation, there are touches of sentiment,
+taste and human toil, which, like the touches of the painter and the
+master of music, appeal to cultivated minds in a higher than mechanical
+sense. The mills of the modern gods, the inventors, grind with exceeding
+and exact fineness, but the work of a human hand upon a manufactured
+article still appeals to human sympathy.
+
+The bending of wood when heated by fire or steam had been known and
+practised to a limited extent, but Blanchard invented a _clamping
+machine_, to which improvements have been added, and by which ship
+timbers, furniture, ploughs, piano frames, carriage bows, stair and
+house banisters and balusters, wheel rims, staves, etc., etc., are bent
+to the desired forms, and without breaking. Bending to a certain extent
+does not weaken wood, but stretching the same has been found to impair
+and destroy its strength.
+
+The principal problems which the inventors of the century have solved in
+the class of wood-working have been the adaptation to rapid-working
+machinery of the saw and other blades, to sever; the plane to smooth,
+the auger, the bit and the gimlet to bore, the hammer to drive, and a
+combination of all or a part of these to shape and finish the completed
+article.
+
+It was a great step from the reciprocating hand saw, worked painfully by
+one or two men, to the band saw, invented by a London mechanic, William
+Newbury, in 1808. This was an endless steel belt serrated on one edge,
+mounted on pulleys, and driven continuously by the power of steam
+through the hardest and the heaviest work. Pliable, to conform to the
+faces of the wheels over which it is carried, it will bend with all the
+sinuosities of long timber, no time is lost in its operation, and no
+labour of human hands is necessary to guide it or the object on which it
+works.
+
+At the Vienna Exposition in 1873, the first mammoth saw of this
+description was exhibited. The saw itself was made by the celebrated
+firm of Perin & Co., of Paris, upon machinery the drawings of which were
+made by Mr. Van Pelt of New York, and constructed by Richards, Loudon
+and Kelly of Philadelphia. The saw was fifty-five feet long, and sawed
+planks from a pine log three feet thick, at the rate of sixty
+superficial feet per minute. The difficulty of securing a perfectly
+reliable weld in the endless steel band was overcome by M. Perin, who
+received at the Paris Exhibition in 1867 the Grand Cross of the Legion
+of Honour. Now gangs of such saws may be found in America and elsewhere,
+and circular saws have also been added. Saws that both cut, form, and
+_plane_ the boards at the same time are now known.
+
+_Boring tools_, both for hand and machinery, demanded improvement.
+Formerly augers and similar boring tools had merely a curved sharpened
+end and a concavity to hold the chips, and the whole tool had to be
+withdrawn to empty the chips. It was known as a _pod_ auger. In 1809,
+L’Hommedieu, a Frenchman, invented an auger with two pods and cutting
+lips, a central screw and a twisted shank. About the same time Lilley of
+Connecticut made a twisted auger, and these screw-form, twisted, cutting
+tools of various kinds, with their cutting lips, and by which the
+shavings or chips were withdrawn continuously from the hole as the
+cutting proceeded, became so improved in the United States that they
+were known as the American augers and bits. The planing machines of
+General Bentham were improved by Bramah, and he and Maudsley also
+greatly improved other wood-working machines and tools in
+England--1802-1810.
+
+We have before, in the chapter on metal-working, shown the importance of
+the _slide-rest_, _planer_ and _lathe_, _when combined_, and which also
+are extensively adapted to wood-working. In Bramah’s machine, a vertical
+spindle carried at its lower extremity a horizontal wheel having
+twenty-eight cutter blades, followed by a plane also attached to a
+wheel. A board was by these means perfectly trimmed and smoothed from
+end to end, as it was carried against the cutters by suitable moving
+means. William Woodworth of New York, in 1828, patented a celebrated
+planing machine which became so popular and its use was regarded so
+necessary in the wood-working trades, that the patent was looked upon as
+an odious monopoly. It consisted of a combination of rollers armed with
+cutters, attached to a horizontal shaft revolving at a great speed, and
+of means for feeding the boards to the cutters. With Bentham’s,
+Bramah’s, Blanchard’s, and Woodworth’s ideas for a basis, those
+innumerable improvements have been made in machinery, by which wood is
+converted with almost lightning rapidity into all the forms in which we
+see it, whether ornamental or useful, in modern homes and other
+structures.
+
+Some machines are known as “Universal Wood Workers.” In these a single
+machine is provided with various tools, and adapted to perform a great
+variety of work by shifting the position of the material and the tools.
+The following operations can be performed on such a machine:--Planing,
+bevelling, tapering, tenoning, tongueing and grooving (grooves straight,
+circular or angular), making of joints, twisting and a number of other
+operations.
+
+The later invention by Stow of Philadelphia of a _flexible_ shaft, made
+up of a series of coils of steel wire, given a leather covering, and to
+which can be attached augers, bits, or metal drills, the tool applied to
+its work from any direction, and its direction varied while at work, has
+excited great attention.
+
+_Shingles_ are as old in the art as the framework of buildings. Rome was
+roofed with shingles for centuries, made of oak or pine.
+
+Tiles, plain and fancy, and slates, have to a certain extent superseded
+wood shingling, but the wood will always be used where it can be found
+in plenty, as machines will now turn them out complete faster than they
+can be hauled away. A shingle is a thin piece of wood, thicker at one
+end than at the other, having parallel sides, about three times as long
+as it is wide, having generally smooth surfaces and edges. All these
+features are now given to the shingle by modern machines.
+
+A great log is rolled into a mill at one end and soon comes out at the
+other in bundles of shingles; the logs sawed into blocks, the blocks
+split or sawed again into shingle sizes, tapered, planed in the
+direction of the grain of the wood, the complete shingles collected and
+bound in bundles, each operation by a special machine, or by a series of
+mechanisms.
+
+_Veneering_, that art of covering cheap or ordinary wood with a thin
+covering of more ornamental and valuable wood, known from the days of
+the Egyptians, has been vastly extended by modern machinery. The
+practice, however, so emphatically denounced centuries ago by Pliny, as
+“the monstrous invention of paint and dyes applied to the woods or
+veneers, to imitate other woods,” has yet its practitioners and
+admirers.
+
+T. M. Brunel, in 1805-1808, devised a set of circular saws run by a
+steam engine, which cut sheets of rosewood and mahogany, one-fourteenth
+of an inch thick, with great speed and accuracy. Since that day the
+veneer planing machine, for delicately smoothing the sheets, the
+straightening machine, for straightening scrolls that have been cut from
+logs, the polishing machines for giving the sheets their bright and
+glossy appearance, the pressing machine for applying them to the
+surfaces to which they are to be attached, the hammering machine for
+forcing out superfluous glue from between a veneer and the piece to
+which it is applied; all of these and numerous modifications of the same
+have been invented, and resulted in placing in the homes everywhere many
+beautiful ornamental articles of furniture, which before the very rich
+only could afford to have.
+
+Special forms of machinery for making various articles of wood are about
+as numerous as the articles themselves.
+
+We appear before the house and know before entering that its doors and
+sills, clapboards and window frames, its sashes and blinds, its
+cornices, its embrasures and pillars, and shingles, each or all have had
+a special machine invented for its manufacture. We enter the house and
+find it is so with objects within--the flooring may be adorned with the
+beautiful art of marquetry and parquetry, wood mosaic work, the
+wainscoting and the frescoes and ceilings, the stairs and staircases,
+its carved and ornamental supporting frames and balusters, the charming
+mantel frames around the hospitable fireplaces, and every article of
+furniture we see in which wood is a part. So, too, it is with every
+useful wooden implement and article within and without the house,--the
+trays, the buckets, the barrels, the tubs, the clothes-pins, the
+broom-handles, the mops, the ironing and bread boards; and outside the
+house, the fences, railings and posts--many of these objects entirely
+unknown to the poor of former generations, uncommon with the rich, and
+the machinery for making them unknown to all.
+
+It was a noble array of woodwork and machinery with which the nations
+surprised and greeted the world, at each of its notable international
+Expositions during the century. Each occasion surpassed its predecessor
+in the beauty of construction of the machines displayed and efficiency
+of their work. The names of the members of this array were hard and
+uncouth, such as the axe, the adze, and the bit, the auger, bark-cutting
+and grinding machines, blind-slat boring, and tenoning, dovetail,
+mortising, matching and planing, wood splitting, turning, wheeling and
+planing, wood-bending, rim-boring dowelling, felly-jointing, etc., etc.
+These names and the clamour of the machines were painful to the ear, but
+to the thoughtful, they were converted into sweeter music, when
+reflection brought to mind the hard toil of human hands they had saved,
+the before unknown comforts and blessings of civilisation they had
+brought and were bringing to the human race, and the enduring forms of
+beauty they had produced.
+
+To the invention of wood-working machinery we are also indebted for the
+awakening of interest in the qualities of wood for a vast number of
+artistic purposes. It was a revelation, at the great Philadelphia
+Exposition of 1876, to behold the specimens of different woods from all
+the forests of the earth, selected and assembled to display their
+wonderful grain and other qualities, and showing how well nature was
+storing up for us in its silent shades those growths which were waiting
+the genius of invention to convert into forms of use and beauty for
+every home.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+
+So far as machinery is concerned for converting wood into furniture, the
+same has been anticipated in the previous chapter, but much remains to
+be said about the articles of furniture themselves.
+
+Although from ancient days the most ancient countries provided by hand
+elaborate and beautiful articles of furniture of many descriptions, yet
+it has been left for modern advances in machinery and kindred arts to
+yield that universal supply of convenient and ornamental furniture which
+now prevails.
+
+The Egyptians used chairs and tables of a more modern form than the
+Greeks or Romans, who lolled about on couches even at their meals; but
+the Egyptians did not have the convenient section tables built in
+sliding sections, which permit the table to be enlarged to accommodate
+an increased number of guests. And now recently this modern form of
+table has been improved, by arranging the sections and leaves so that
+when the sections are slid out the leaves are automatically raised and
+placed in position, which is done either by lazy-tongs mechanism, or by
+a series of parallel links: Tables constructed with folding detachable
+and adjustable legs, tables constructed for special purposes as sewing
+machines, and typewriting machine tables, by which the machine head may
+be dropped beneath the table top when not in use; tables combined with
+desks wherein the table part may be slid into the desk part when not in
+use and the sliding cover pulled down to cover and lock from sight both
+the table and desk; surgical tables, adapted to be raised or lowered at
+either end or at either side and to be extended; “knock down” tables,
+adapted to be taken all apart for shipment or storage; tables combined
+with chairs to be folded down by the side of the chair when not in use;
+and many other useful forms have been added to the list.
+
+Much ingenuity has been displayed in the construction of desks, to save
+and economise space. Mention has been made of a combined folding desk
+and extensible table. Another form is an arrangement of desk drawers,
+whereby when one drawer is locked or unlocked all the rest are locked or
+unlocked automatically. Whatever shape or function anyone desires in a
+desk may be met, except, perhaps, the performance of the actual work of
+the occupant.
+
+In the matter of _beds_, the principal developments have been due to the
+advancement of wood-working machinery, and the manufacture of iron,
+steel, and brass. The old-fashioned ponderous bedsteads, put together by
+heavy screws, have given way to those mortised and tenoned, joined and
+matched, and by which they can easily be put up and taken down; and to
+iron and brass bedsteads, which are both ornamental and more healthful.
+No bed may be without an inexpensive steel spring frame or mattress for
+the support of the bedding. Folding beds made to economise space, and
+when folded upright become an ornamental bureau; and invalid bedsteads,
+designed for shifting the position of the invalid, are among the many
+modern improvements.
+
+_Kitchen Utensils._--A vast amount of drudgery in the kitchen has been
+relieved by the convenient inventions in labor-saving appliances: coffee
+and spice mills, can-openers, stationary washtubs, stopper extractors,
+superseding the old style of hand-corkscrews where large numbers of
+bottles are to be uncorked; refrigerators and provision safes, attaching
+and lifting devices and convenient culinary dishes and utensils of great
+variety.
+
+_Curtains_, _shades_ and _screens_ have been wonderfully improved and
+their use made widely possible by modern inventions and new adaptation
+of old methods. Wood, cotton, silk, paper, combined or uncombined with
+other materials, in many novel ways unknown to our ancestors, have
+rendered these articles available in thousands of homes where their use
+was unknown and impossible a century ago. Among the most convenient
+attachments to shades is the spring roller, invented by Hartshorn of
+America, in 1864, whereby the shade is automatically rolled upon its
+stick to raise or lower it.
+
+Window screens for the purpose of excluding flies, mosquitoes, and other
+insects, while freely admitting the air, are now made extensible and
+adjustable in different ways to fit different sizes of windows. Curtains
+and shades are provided with neat and most attractive supporting rods,
+to which they are attached by brass or wooden rings, and provided with
+easily manipulated devices to raise and securely hold them in any
+desired position.
+
+The art of steaming wood and bending it, by iron pattern forms
+adjustable to the forms desired, as particularly devised in principle by
+Blanchard in America in 1828-1840, referred to in Wood-working, has
+produced great changes in the art of furniture making, especially in
+chairs. A particularly interesting illustration of the results of this
+art occurred in Austria. About forty years ago the manufacture in
+Germany and Austria of furniture by machinery, especially of bent
+wood-ware, became well established there; and by the time of the Vienna
+Exposition in 1873, factories on a most extensive scale for the
+construction of bed furniture were in operation among the vast mountain
+beech forests of Moravia and Hungary. The greatest of these works were
+located in Great Urgroez, Hungary, and Bisritz, Moravia, with twenty or
+more auxiliary establishments. Between five and six thousand work people
+were employed, the greater part of whom were females, and it was
+necessary to use steam and water motors, to the extent of many hundred
+horse power.
+
+The forests were felled, and the tree-tops removed and made into
+charcoal for use in the glass works of Bohemia. The trunks were hauled
+to the mills and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws.
+The planks in turn were cut with circular saws into square pieces for
+turning, and then the pieces turned and cut on lathes, to give them the
+size required and the rounded shape; the pieces then steamed while in
+their green state for twenty-four hours in suitable boilers, then taken
+out and bent to the desired shape on a cast-iron frame by hand, then
+subjected, with the desired pattern, to the pattern-turning table, and
+cut; then kept locked in the pattern’s iron embrace until the pieces
+were dried and permanently set in shape, then clamped to a bench, filed,
+rasped, stained, and French polished by the deft hands of the women;
+then assembled in proper position in frames of the form of the chair or
+other article to be made, their contact surface sawed to fit at the
+joints, and then finally the parts glued together and further secured by
+the addition of a few screws or balls.
+
+Chairs, lounges and lighter furniture were thus made from bent pieces of
+wood with very few joints, having a neat and attractive appearance, and
+possessing great strength. The art has spread to other forests and other
+countries, and the turned, bent, highly polished and beautiful furniture
+of this generation would have been but a dream of beauty to the
+householder of a century ago.
+
+Children’s chairs are made so that the seat may be raised or lowered, or
+the chair converted into a perambulator. Dentist’s chairs have been
+developed until it is only necessary for the operator to turn a valve
+governing a fluid, generally oil, under pressure to raise or lower the
+chair and the patient. In the more agreeable situation at the theatre or
+concert one may hang his hat on the bottom of the chair, upturned to
+afford access to it through a crowded row, and turning down the chair,
+sit with pleasure, as the curtain is rolled up by compressed air, or
+electricity, at the touch of a button.
+
+To the unthinking and unobserving, the subject of _bottle stoppers_ is
+not entrancing, but those acquainted with the art know with what long,
+continuous, earnest efforts, thousands of inventors have sought for the
+best and cheapest bottle stopper to take the place of corks--the
+enormous demand for which was exhausting the supply and rendering their
+price almost prohibitive.
+
+One of the most successful types is a stopper of rubber combined with a
+metal disk, and hung by a wire on the neck of the bottle, so that the
+stopper can be used over and over again; another form composed of glass,
+or porcelain, and cork; another is a thin disk of cork placed in a thin
+metal cap which is crimped over a shoulder on the neck of the bottle,
+and still another is a thin disk of pasteboard adapted for milk bottles
+and pressed tightly within a rim on the inside of the neck of the
+bottle.
+
+In this connection should be mentioned that self-sealing fruit jar,
+known from its inventor as “Mason’s fruit jar,” which came into such
+universal use--that combination of screw cap, screw-threaded jar-neck
+and the rubber ring, or gasket, on which the cap was screwed so tightly
+as to seal the jar hermetically.
+
+In lamplighting, what a wonderful change from the old oil lamps of
+former ages! The modern lamp may be said to be an improved means of
+grace, as it will hold out much longer, and shed a far more attractive
+light for the sinner, whose return, by its genial light, is, even to the
+end, so greatly desired.
+
+The discovery of petroleum and its introduction as a light produced a
+revolution in the construction of lamps. Wicks were not discarded, but
+changed in shape from round to flat, and owing to the coarseness and
+disagreeable odour of coal oil, especially in its early unrefined days,
+devices first had for their object the easy feeding of the wick, and
+perfect combustion. To this end the burner portion through which the
+wick passed was perforated at its base to create a proper draft, and
+later the cap over the base was also perforated. But with refined oil
+the disagreeable odour continued. It was found that this was mainly due
+to the fact that both in lamps and stoves the oil would ooze out of the
+wick on to the adjacent parts of the lamps or stove, and when the wick
+was lit the heat would burn or heat the oil and thus produce the odour.
+Inventors therefore contrived to separate the oil reservoir and wick
+part when the lamp or stove were not in use; and finally, in stoves, to
+dispense with the wick altogether. As wickless oil stoves are now in
+successful use the wickless lamp may be expected to follow.
+
+The lamp, however, that throws all others into the shade is that
+odourless, heatless, magic, mellow, tempered light of electricity, that
+springs out from the little filament, in its hermetically sealed glass
+cage, and shines with unsurpassed loveliness on all those fortunate
+enough to possess it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+LEATHER.
+
+
+It is interesting to speculate how prehistoric man came to use the skin
+of the beasts of the field for warmth and shelter. Originally no doubt,
+and for untold centuries, the use was confined to the hairy, undressed,
+fresh, or dried skins, known as pelts. Then came the use of better
+tools. The garments have perished, but the tools of stone and of bronze
+survived, which, when compared with those employed among the earliest
+historic tribes of men, were found to be adapted to cut and strip the
+hairy covering from the bodies of animals, and clean, pound, scrape and
+otherwise adapt them to use.
+
+And ever since the story of man began to be preserved in lasting records
+from farthest Oriental to the northernmost limits of Europe and America,
+memorials of the early implements of labour in the preparation of hides
+for human wear have been found. The aborigines knew how to sharpen bones
+of the animals they killed to scrape, clean, soften or roughen their
+skins. They knew how to sweat, dry, and smoke the skins, and this crude
+seasoning process was the forerunner of modern tanning. But leather as
+we know it now, that soft, flexible, insoluble combination of the
+gelatine and fibrine of the skin with tannic acid, producing a durable
+and imputrescible article, that will withstand decay from the joint
+attack of moisture, warmth and air, was unknown to the earlier races of
+men, for its production was due to thorough tanning, and thorough
+tanning was a later art.
+
+When men were skin-dressed animals they knew little or nothing of
+tanning. Tannic acid is found in nearly every plant that grows, and its
+combination with the fresh skins spread or thrown thereon, may have
+given rise to the observation of the beneficial result and subsequent
+practice. But whether discovered by chance, accident or experience, or
+invented from necessity, the art of tanning should have rendered the
+name of the discoverer immortal. The earliest records, however, describe
+the art, but not the inventor.
+
+From the time the Hebrews covered the altars of their tabernacles with
+rams’ skins dyed red, as recorded in Exodus; when they and the Egyptians
+worked their leather, currying and stretching it with their knives,
+awls, stones, and other implements, making leather water buckets,
+resembling very much those now made by machinery, covering their harps
+and shields with leather, ornamental and embossed; from the days of the
+early Africans, famous for their yellow, red and black morocco; from the
+days of the old national dress of the Persians with their leather
+trousers, aprons, helmets, belts and shirts; from the time that the
+ancient Scythians utilised the skins of their enemies, and Herodotus
+described the beauty and other good qualities of the human hide; from
+the early days of that peculiar fine and agreeable leather of the
+Russians, fragrant with the oil of the birch; from the days of the white
+leather of the Hungarians, the olive-tanned leather of the Saracens;
+from the time of the celebrated Cordovan leather of the Spaniards; from
+the ancient cold periods of the Esquimaux and the Scandinavians, who,
+clad in the warm skins of the Arctic bears, stretched tough-tanned
+sealskin over the frame work of their boats; from the time of the
+introduction of the art of the leather worker to the naked Briton, down
+to almost the nineteenth century, substantially the same hand tools,
+hard hand labour, and the old elbow lubricant were known and practised.
+
+Hand tools have improved, of course, as other arts in wood and iron
+making have developed, but the operations are about the same. There were
+and must be fleshing knives to scrape from off the hide the adherent
+flesh and lime,--for this the hide is placed over the convex edge of an
+inclined beam and the work is called beaming; the curriers’ knife for
+removing the hair; skiving, or the cutting off the rough edges and
+fleshy parts on the border of the hide; shaving and flattening; the
+cutting away of the inequalities left after skiving; _stoning_, the
+rubbing of the leather by a scouring stone to render it smooth;
+_slicking_, to remove the water and grease; or to smooth and polish, by
+a rectangular sharpened stone, steel or glass tool; _whitening_, to
+shave off thin strips of the flesh, leaving the leather thinner, whiter
+and more pliable; _stuffing_, to soften the scraped and pounded hides
+and make them porous; _graining_, the giving to the hair or grain side a
+granular appearance by rubbing with a grooved or roughened piece of
+wood; _bruising_ or boarding to make the leather supple and pliable by
+bringing the two flesh sides together and rubbing with a graining board;
+_scouring_, by aid of a stream of water to whiten the leather by rubbing
+with a slicking stone or steel.
+
+The inventions of the century consist in labour-saving machinery for
+these purposes, new tanning and dressing processes, and innumerable
+machines for making special articles of leather.
+
+As before stated, the epoch of modern machinery commenced with the
+practical application of water power to other than grinding mills, and
+of steam in place of water, contemporaneously with the invention of
+spinning and weaving machinery in the last half of the eighteenth
+century. These got fairly to work at the beginning of the century, and
+the uses of machinery spread to the treatment of leather. John Bull was
+the appropriate name of the man who first patented a scraping machine in
+England, about 1780, and Joseph Weeks the next one, some years later.
+
+One of the earliest machines of the century was the hide mill, which,
+after the hand tools had scraped and stoned, shaved and hardened the
+hides, was used to rub and dub them, and soften and swell them for
+tanning. Pegged rollers were the earliest form for this purpose, and
+later corrugated rollers and power-worked hammers were employed.
+Hundreds of hides could be softened daily by these means.
+
+Then came ingenious machines to take the place of the previous
+operations of the hand tools,--the fleshing machine, in one form of
+which the hides are placed on a curved bed, and the fleshy parts scraped
+off or removed by revolving glass blades, or by curved teeth of steel
+and wood in a roller under which a table is given a to-and-fro movement;
+tanning apparatus of a great variety, by which hides, after they are
+thoroughly washed and softened, and the pores opened by swelling, are
+subjected to movements in the tanning liquor vats, such as rocking or
+oscillating, rotary, or vertical; or treated by an air exhaust, known as
+the vacuum process; in all of which the object is to thoroughly
+impregnate in the shortest time all the interstices and pores of the
+skin with the tannic acid, by which the fibrous and gelatinous matter is
+made to combine to form leather, and by which process, also, the hide is
+greatly increased in weight.
+
+Reel machines are then employed to transfer the hides from one vat to
+another, thus subjecting them to liquors of increasing strength. Soaking
+in vats formerly occupied twelve or eighteen months, but under the new
+methods the time has been greatly reduced. And now since 1880, the
+chemists are pushing aside the vegetable processes, and substituting
+mineral processes, by which tanning is still further shortened and
+cheapened. The new processes depend chiefly on the use of chromium
+compounds.
+
+Then came scouring machines, in which a rapidly revolving stiff brush is
+used to scour the grain or hair side, removing the superfluous colouring
+matter, called the bloom, and softening and cleansing the hide; the
+slicking or polishing machines to clean, stretch and smooth the leather
+by glass, stone, or copper blades on a rapidly-moving belt carried over
+pulleys; whitening, buffing, skiving, fleshing and shaving machines, all
+for cutting off certain portions and inequalities of the leather, and
+reducing its thickness.
+
+In one form of this class of machines an oscillating pendulum lever is
+employed, carrying at its end a revolving cylinder having thirty or more
+spiral blades. The pendulum swings to and fro at the rate of ninety
+movements a minute, while the cylinder rolls over the leather at the
+rate of 2780 revolutions per minute. Scarfing, skiving, chamfering,
+bevelling, feather-edging, appear to be synonymous terms for a variety
+of machines for cutting the edges of leather obliquely, for the purpose
+chiefly of making lap seams, scarf-joints, and reducing the thickness
+and stiffness of leather at those and certain other points.
+
+Then there are leather-splitting machines, consisting of one or more
+rollers and a pressure bar, which draw and press the leather against a
+horizontally arranged and adjustable knife, which nicely splits the
+leather in two parts, and thus doubles the quantity. This thin split
+leather is much used in making a cheap quality of boots and shoes and
+other articles.
+
+There are also corrugating, creasing, fluting, pebbling, piercing and
+punching machines; machines for grinding the bark and also for grinding
+the leather; machines for gluing sections of leather together, and
+machines for sewing them; machines for rounding flat strips of leather,
+for the making of whips and tubes; machines for scalloping the edges;
+and a very ingenious machine for assorting leather strips or strings
+according to their size or thickness.
+
+The most important improvements of the century in leather working relate
+to the manufacture of boots and shoes. It could well be said of boots
+and shoes, especially those made for the great mass of humanity, before
+the modern improvements in means and processes had been invented: “Their
+feet through faithless leather met the dirt.”
+
+It is true that in the eighteenth century, both in Europe and America,
+the art of leather and boot and shoe making had so far advanced that
+good durable foot wear was produced by long and tedious processes of
+tanning, and by careful making up of the leather into boots and shoes by
+hand; the knife, the awl, the waxed thread, the nails and hammer and
+other hand tools of the character above referred to being employed. But
+the process was a tedious and costly one and the articles produced were
+beyond the limits of the poor man’s purse. Hence the wooden shoes, and
+those made of coarse hide and dressed and undressed skins, and of coarse
+cloth, mixed or unmixed with leather.
+
+In 1809, David Mead Randolph of England patented machinery for riveting
+soles and heels to the uppers instead of sewing them together.
+
+The celebrated civil engineer, Isambard M. Brunel, shortly thereafter
+added several machines of his own invention to Randolph’s method, and he
+established a large manufactory for the making chiefly of army shoes.
+The various separate processes performed by his machines involved the
+cutting out of the leather, hardening it by rolling, securing the welt
+on to the inner sole by small nails, and studding the outer sole with
+larger nails. Divisions of men were employed to work each separate step,
+and the shoes were passed from one process to another until complete.
+
+Large quantities of shoes were made at reduced prices, but complaints
+were made as to the nails penetrating into the shoe and hurting the
+feet. The demand for army shoes fell off, and the system was abandoned;
+but it had incited invention in the direction of machine-made shoes and
+the day of exclusive hand labour was doomed.
+
+About 1818 Joseph Walker of Hopkinston, Massachusetts invented the
+wooden peg. Making and applying pegs by hand was too slow work, and
+machines were at once contrived for making them. As one invention
+necessitates and begets others, so special forms of machines for sawing
+and working up wood into pegs were devised.
+
+Such machinery was for first sawing the selected log of wood into slices
+across the grain a little thicker than the length of a peg and cutting
+out knots in the wood; then planing the head of the block smooth;
+grooving the block with a V-shaped cutting tool; splitting the pegs
+apart, and then bleaching, drying, polishing and winnowing them.
+
+It took forty or fifty years to perfect these and kindred machines, but
+at the end of that time there was a factory at Burlington, Vermont,
+which from four cords of wood, made every day four hundred bushels of
+shoe pegs.
+
+About 1858 B. F. Sturtevant of Massachusetts made a great improvement in
+this line. He was a very poor man, getting a living by pegging on the
+soles of a few pair of shoes each day. He devised a pegging machine, and
+out of his scanty earnings and at odd hours, with much pain and labour,
+and by borrowing money, he finally completed it. The machine made what
+was called “peg wood,” a long ribbon strip of seasoned wood, sharpened
+on one edge and designed to be fed into the machine for pegging shoes.
+The shoes were punctured by awls driven by machinery, and then as the
+peg strip was carried to it the machine severed the strip into
+chisel-edged pegs, and peg-driving mechanism drove them into the holes.
+Nine hundred pegs a minute were driven. It soon almost supplanted all
+other peg-driving machines, and after the machines were quite generally
+introduced, there were made in one year alone in New England fifty-five
+million pairs of boots and shoes pegged by the Sturtevant machines.
+
+Other forms of pegs followed, such as the metal screw pegs, and machines
+to cut them off from a continuous spiral wire from which they were made.
+Lasts on which the shoes were made had been manufactured by the hundred
+thousand on the wood-turning lathes invented by Blanchard, described in
+the chapter on Wood-Working.
+
+In 1858 also, about the same time the Sturtevant pegging machine was
+introduced, the shoe-sewing machine was developed. The McKay Shoe-Sewing
+Machine Co. of Massachusetts after an expenditure of $130,000, and three
+years’ time in experiments, were enabled to put their machines in
+practical operation. The pegging machines and sewing machines worked a
+revolution in shoemaking.
+
+A revolution in the art of shoemaking thus started was followed up by
+wondrous machines invented to meet every part of the manufacture.
+Lasting machines for drawing and fitting the leather over lasts, in
+which the outer edges of the leather are drawn over the bottom of the
+last and tacked thereto by the hands and fingers of the machine instead
+of those of the human hand, were invented.
+
+_Indenting machines_:--The welt is known as that strip of leather around
+the shoe between the upper and the sole, and machines were invented for
+cutting and placing this, indenting it for the purpose of rendering it
+flexible and separating the stitches, all a work until recently entirely
+done by hand. Machines for twining the seams in the uppers, and forming
+the scallops; machines especially adapted to the making of the heel, as
+heel trimming and compressing, rounding and polishing, and for nailing
+the finished heel to the boot or shoe; machines for treating the sole in
+every way, rolling it, in place of the good old way of pounding it on a
+lap stone; trimming, rounding, smoothing, and polishing it; machines for
+cutting out gores; machines for marking the uppers so that at one
+operation every shoe will be stamped by its size, number, name of
+manufacture, number of case, and any other convenient symbols; machines
+for setting the buttons and eyelets; all these are simply members in the
+long line of inventions in this art.
+
+The old style of boot has given way to the modern shoe and gaiter, but
+for the benefit of those who still wear them, special machines for
+shaping the leg, called boot trees, have been contrived.
+
+So far had the art advanced that twenty years ago one workingman with
+much of this improved machinery combined in one machine called the
+“bootmaker,” could make three hundred pairs of boots or shoes a day.
+Upward of three thousand such machines were then at work throughout the
+world; and one hundred and fifty million pairs of boots were then being
+made annually thereon. Now the number of machines and pairs of boots and
+shoes has been quadrupled.
+
+And the world is having its feet clothed far more extensively, better
+and at less cost than was ever possible by the hand system. The number
+of workers in the art, both men and women, has vastly increased instead
+of being diminished, while their wages have greatly advanced over the
+old rates.
+
+As an illustration of how rapidly modern enterprise and invention
+proceeds in Yankeeland, it has been related that some years ago in
+Massachusetts, after many of these shoe-making machines had got into
+use, a factory which was turning out 2400 pairs of shoes every day was
+completely destroyed by fire on a Wednesday night. On Thursday the
+manufacturer hired a neighbouring building and set carpenters at work
+fitting it up. On Friday he ordered a new and complete outfit of
+machinery from Boston; on Saturday the machinery arrived and the men set
+it up; on Monday work was started, and on Tuesday the manufacturer was
+filling his orders to the full number of 2400 pairs a day.
+
+There are very many people in the world who still prefer the hand-made
+shoe, and there is nothing to prevent the world generally from going
+back to that system if they choose; but St. Crispin’s gentle art has
+blossomed into a vaster field of blessings for mankind under the
+fruitful impetus of invention than if left to vegetate under the simple
+processes of primitive man.
+
+Horses, no less than man, have shared in the improvement in leather
+manufacture. The harnesses of the farmer’s and labouring man’s horses a
+century ago, when they were fortunate enough to own horses, were of the
+crudest description. Ropes, cords, coarse bands of leather were the
+common provisions. Now the strength and cheapness of harnesses enable
+the poor man to equip his horse with a working suit impossible to have
+been produced a hundred years ago.
+
+To the beautiful effects produced by the use of modern embossing
+machines on paper and wood have been added many charming patterns in
+_embossed_ leather. Books and leather cases, saddlery and household
+ornamentation of various descriptions have been either moulded into
+forms of beauty, or stamped or rolled by cameo and intaglio designs cut
+into the surface of fast-moving cylinders.
+
+The leather manufactures have become so vastly important and valuable in
+some countries, especially in the United States--second, almost to
+agricultural products--that it would be very interesting to extend the
+description to many processes and machines, and to facts displaying the
+enormous traffic in leather, now necessarily omitted for want of space.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+MINERALS--WELLS.
+
+    Dost thou hear the hammer of Thor,
+    Wielded in his gloves of iron?
+
+
+As with leather, so with stone, the hand tools and hard labour have not
+changed in principle since the ancient days. The hammer for breaking,
+the lever for lifting, the saw for cutting, rubbing-stones and irons for
+smoothing and polishing, sand and water for the same purpose, the mallet
+and chisel, and other implements for ornamenting, the square, the level,
+and the plumb for their respective purposes, all are as old as the art
+of building.
+
+And as for buildings and sculpture of stone and marble made by hand
+tools, we have yet to excel the pyramids, the Parthenon of Athens, which
+“Earth proudly wears as the best gem upon her zone,” the palaces,
+coliseums, and aqueducts of Rome, the grand and polished tombs of India,
+the exquisite halls of the Alhambra, and the Gothic cathedrals.
+
+But the time came when human blood and toil became too dear to be the
+possession solely of the rulers and the wealthy, and to be used alone to
+perpetuate and commemorate riches, power and glory.
+
+Close on the expansion of men’s minds came the expansion of steam and
+the development of modern inventions. The first application of the steam
+engine in fields of human labour was the drawing of water from the coal
+mines of England; then in drawing the coal itself.
+
+It was only a step for the steam engine into a new field of labour when
+General Bentham introduced his system of wood-sawing machinery in 1800;
+and from sawing wood to sawing stone was only one more step. We find
+that taken in 1803 in Pennsylvania, when Oliver Evans of Philadelphia
+drove with a high-pressure steam engine, “twelve saws in heavy frames,
+sawing at the rate of one hundred feet of marble in twelve hours.” How
+long would it have taken hand sawyers of marble at ancient Paros and
+Naxos to have done the same?
+
+_Stone-cutting_ machines of other forms than sawing then followed.
+
+It was desired to divide large blocks generally at the quarries to
+facilitate transportation. Machines for this purpose are called
+stone-channelling machines. They consist of a gang of chisels bound
+together and set on a framework which travels on a track adjacent to the
+stone to be cut, and so arranged that the cutters may be set to the
+stone at desired angles, moved automatically forward and back in the
+grooves they are cutting, be fed in or out, raised or lowered, detached,
+and otherwise manipulated in the operation.
+
+Other stone-cutting machines had for their objects the cutting and
+moulding the edges of tables, mantels and slabs; and the cutting of
+circular and other curved work. In the later style of machine the cutter
+fixed on the end of a spindle is guided in the desired directions on the
+surface of the stone by a pointer, which, attached to the cutter
+spindle, moves in the grooves of a pattern also connected to the
+rotating support carrying the cutter.
+
+Other forms of most ingenious stone-dressing and carving machines have
+been devised for cutting mouldings, and ornamental figures and devices,
+in accordance with a model or pattern fixed to the under side of the
+table which carries the stone or marble to be dressed; and in which, by
+means of a guide moving in the pattern, the diamond cutter or cutters,
+carried in a circular frame above the work and adjusted to its surface,
+are moved in the varying directions determined by the pattern. A stream
+of water is directed on the stone to clear it of the dust during the
+operations. The carving of stone by machinery is now a sister branch of
+wood carving. Monuments, ornamentation, and intricate forms of figures
+and characters are wrought with great accuracy by cutting and dressing
+tools guided by the patterns, or directed by the hand of the operator.
+
+For the dressing of the faces of grindstones, special forms of cutting
+machines have been devised.
+
+It was a slow and tedious task to drill holes through stone by hand
+tools; and it was indeed a revolution in this branch of the art when
+steam engines were employed to rotate a rod armed at its end with
+diamond or other cutters against the hardest stone. This mode of
+drilling also effected a revolution in the art of blasting. Then,
+neither height, nor depth, nor thickness of the stone could prevent the
+progress of the drill rod. Tunnels through mountain walls, and wells
+through solid quartz are cut to the depth of thousands of feet.
+
+One instance is related of the wonderful efficiency on a smaller scale
+of such a machine: The immense columns of the State Capitol at Columbus,
+Ohio, were considered too heavy for the foundation on which they rested.
+The American Diamond Rock Boring Company of Providence, Rhode Island,
+bored out a twenty-four inch core from each of the great pillars, and
+thus relieved the danger.
+
+In the most economical and successful stone drills _compressed air_ is
+employed as the motive power to drive the drills, which may be used
+singly or in gangs, and which may be adjusted against the rock or quarry
+in any direction. When in position and ready for work a few moments will
+suffice to bore the holes, apply the explosive and blast the ledge. The
+cleaning away of submarine ledges in harbours, such as the great work at
+Hell Gate in the harbour of New York, has thus been effected.
+
+_Crushing_:--Among the most useful inventions relating to stone working
+are machines for crushing stones and ores, and assorting them. The old
+way of hammering by hand was first succeeded by powerful stamp hammers
+worked by steam. Both methods of course are still followed, but they
+demand too great an expenditure of force and time.
+
+About a third of a century ago, Eli Whitney Blake of New Haven,
+Connecticut, was a pioneer inventor of a new and most successful type of
+stone breaking machine, which ever since has been known as the “Blake
+Crusher.” This crusher consists of two ponderous upright jaws, one fixed
+and the other movable, between which the stones or ores to be crushed
+are fed. Each of the jaws is lined with the hardest kind of chilled
+steel. The movable jaw is inclined from its lower end from the fixed jaw
+and at its upper end is pivoted to swing on a heavy round iron bar. The
+movable jaw is forced toward the fixed jaw by two opposite toggle levers
+set, in one form of the crusher, at their inner ends in steel bearings
+of a vertical vibrating, rocking lever, one of the toggles bearing at
+its outer end against the movable jaw and the outer toggle against a
+solid frame-work. The rocking lever is operated through a crank by a
+steam engine, and as it is vibrated, the toggle joint forces the lever
+end of the movable jaw towards the fixed jaw with immense force,
+breaking the hardest stone like an eggshell.
+
+The setting of the movable jaw at an incline enables the large stone to
+be first cracked, the movable jaw then opens, and as the stone falls
+lower between the more contracted jaws, it is broken finer, until it is
+finally crushed or pulverized and falls through at the bottom. The
+movable jaw is adjustable and can be set to crush stones to a certain
+size.
+
+As the rock drill made a revolution in blasting and tunnelling, so the
+Blake crusher revolutionised the art of road making. “Road metal,” as
+the supply of broken stones for roads is now called, is the fruit of the
+crusher. Hundreds of tons of stone per day can be crushed to just the
+size desired, and the machine may be moved from place to place where
+most convenient to use.
+
+Other crushers have been invented, formed on the principle of abrasion.
+The stones, or ore, fall between two great revolving disks, having
+corrugated steel faces, which are set the desired distance apart, and
+between which the stones are crushed by the rubbing action. In this
+style of machine the principle of a gradual breaking from a coarse to a
+finer grade, is maintained by setting the disks farther apart at the
+centre where the stone enters, and nearer together at their peripheries
+where the broken stone is discharged. Large smooth or corrugated
+rollers, conical disks, concentric rollers armed with teeth of varying
+sizes, and yet so arranged as to preserve the feature of the narrowing
+throat at the bottom or place of discharge, have also been devised and
+extensively used.
+
+A long line of inventions has appeared especially adapted to break up
+and separate coal into different sizes. To view the various monstrous
+heaps of assorted coals at the mouth of a coal mine creates an
+impression that some great witch had imposed on a poor victim the
+gigantic and seemingly impossible task of breaking and assorting a vast
+heap of coal into these separate piles within a certain time--a task
+which also seems to have been miraculously and successfully performed
+within such an exceedingly short time as to either satisfy or confuse
+the presiding evil genius.
+
+Modern civilisation has been developed mostly from steam and coal, and
+they have been to each other as strong brothers, growing more and more
+mutually dependent to meet the demands made upon them.
+
+The mining of coal, and its subsequent treatment for burning, before the
+invention of the steam engine, were long, painful, and laborious tasks,
+and the steam engine could never have had its modern wants supplied if
+its power had not been used to supplement, with a hundredfold increased
+effect, the labour of human hands.
+
+It being impracticable to carry steam or the steam engine to the bottom
+of the mine for work there, compressed air is there employed, which is
+compressed by a steam engine up at the mouth. By this compressed air
+operated in a cylinder to drive a piston, and a connecting rod and a
+pick, a massive steel pick attached to the rod may be driven in any
+direction against the wall of coal at the rate of from ninety to one
+hundred and twenty blows per minute; and at the same time the discharged
+compressed, cold, pure, fresh air flows into and through the mine,
+affording ventilation when and where most needed.
+
+In addition to these great drills, more recent inventors have brought
+out small machines for single operators, worked by the electric motor.
+
+After the coal is lifted out, broken and assorted, it needs to be washed
+free of the adhering dust and dirt; and for this purpose machines are
+provided, as well as for screening, loading and weighing. The operations
+of breaking, assorting and washing are often combined in one machine,
+while an intermediate hand process for separating the pieces of slate
+from the coal may be employed; but additional automatic means for
+separating the coal and slate are provided, consisting in forcing with
+great power water through the coal as it falls into a chamber, which
+carries the lighter slate to the top of the chamber, where it is at once
+drawn off.
+
+The chief of machines with _ores_ is the _ore mill_, which not only
+breaks up the ore but grinds or pulverises it.
+
+Some chemical and other processes for reducing ores have been referred
+to in the Chapter on Metallurgy.
+
+Other mechanical processes consist of _separators_ of various
+descriptions--a prominent one of which acts on the principal of
+centrifugal force. The crushed material from a spout being led to the
+centre of a rapidly rotating disk is thrown off by centrifugal force;
+and as the lighter portions are thrown farther from the disk, and the
+heavier portions nearer to the same, the material is automatically
+assorted as to size and weight. As the disk revolves these assorted
+portions fall through properly graded apertures into separate channels
+of a circular trough, from whence they are swept out by brushes secured
+to a support revolving with the disk.
+
+Many forms of ore washing machines have been invented to treat the ore
+after it has been reduced to powder. These are known by various names,
+as jiggers, rifflers, concentrators, washing frames, etc. A stream of
+water is directed on, into, and through the mass of pulverised ore and
+dirt, the dirt and kindred materials, lighter than the ore, are raised
+and floated towards the top of the receptacle and carried away, while
+the ore settles.
+
+This operation is frequently carried on in connection with amalgamated
+surfaces over which the metal is passed to still further attract and
+concentrate the ore. An endless apron travelling over cylinders is
+sometimes employed, composed of slats the surface of each of which is
+coated with an amalgam, and on this belt the powdered ore is spread
+thinly and carried forward. The vibrations of the belt tend to shake and
+distribute the ore particles, the amalgam attracts them, the refuse is
+thrown off as the belt passes down over the cylinder, while the ore
+particles are retained and brushed off into a proper receptacle.
+_Amalgamators_ themselves form a large class of inventions. They are
+known as electric, lead, mercury, plate, vacuum, vapour, etc.
+
+By the help of these and a vast number of other kindred inventions, the
+business of mining in all its branches has been revolutionised and
+transformed, even within the last half century. With the vast increase
+in the output of coal, and of ores, and the incalculable saving of hand
+labour, the number of operators has been increased in the same
+proportion, their wages increased, their hours of labour shortened, and
+their comforts multiplied in variety and quantity, with a diminished
+cost. The whole business of mining has been raised from ceaseless
+darkness and drudgery to light and dignity. Opportunity has been created
+for miners to become men of standing in the community in which they
+live; and means provided for educating their children and for obtaining
+comfortable homes adorned with the refinements of civilisation.
+
+_Well boring_ is an ancient art--known to the Egyptians and the Chinese.
+Wells were coeval with Abraham when his servant had the celebrated
+interview with Rebecca. “Jacob’s well at Sychar--the ancient
+Shechim--has been visited by travellers in all ages and has been
+minutely described. It is nine feet in diameter and one hundred and five
+feet deep, made entirely through rock. When visited by Maundrel it
+contained fifteen feet of water.”--_Knight._ Some kind of a drill must
+have been used to have cut so great a depth through rock. The Chinese
+method of boring wells from time immemorial has been by the use of a
+sharp chisel-like piece of hard iron on the end of a heavy iron and wood
+frame weighing four or five hundred pounds, lifted by a lever and turned
+by a rattan cord operated by hand, and by which wells from fifteen
+hundred to eighteen hundred feet in depth and five or six inches in
+diameter have been bored.
+
+This method has lately been improved by attaching the chisel part, which
+is made very heavy, to a rope of peculiar manufacture, which gives the
+chisel a turn as it strikes, combined with an air pump to suck up from
+the hole the accumulating dirt and water.
+
+Artesian wells appear to have first been known in Europe in the province
+of Artois, France, in the thirteenth century. Hence their name. The
+previous state of the art in Egypt, China and elsewhere was not then
+known.
+
+Other modern inventions in well-making machinery have consisted in
+innumerable devices to supplant manual labour and to meet new
+conditions.
+
+_Coal Oil_:--Reichenbach, the German chemist, discovered paraffine.
+Young, soon after, in 1850, patented paraffine oil made from coal. These
+discoveries, added to the long observed fact of coal oil floating on
+streams in Pennsylvania and elsewhere, led to the search for its natural
+source. The discovery of the reservoirs of petroleum in Pennsylvania in
+1855-1860, and subsequently of gas, which nature had concealed for so
+long a time, gave a great impetus to inventions to obtain and control
+these riches. With earth-augurs, drills, and drill cleaning and clearing
+and “fishing” apparatus, and devices for creating a new flow of oil, and
+tubing, new forms of packing, etc., inventors created a new industry.
+
+Colonel E. Drake sank the first oil well in Pennsylvania in 1859. Since
+then, 125,000 oil wells have been drilled in that and neighbouring
+localities. The world has seldom seen such excitement, except in
+California on the discovery of gold, as attended the coal oil discovery.
+The first wells sunk gushed thousands of barrels a day. Farmers and
+other labouring men went to bed poor and woke up rich. Rocky
+wildernesses and barren fields suddenly became Eldorados. The burning
+rivers of oil were a reflection of the golden treasures which flowed
+into the hands and pockets of thousands as from a perpetual fountain
+touched by some great magician’s wand.
+
+Old methods of boring wells were too slow, and although the underlying
+principle was the same, the new methods and means invented enabled wells
+to be bored with one-tenth the labour, in one-tenth the time, and at
+one-tenth the cost. Many great cities and plains and deserts have been
+provided with these wells owing to the ease with which they can now be
+sunk.
+
+Another ingenious method of sinking wells was invented by Colonel N. W.
+Greene at Cortland, New York, in 1862. It became known as the “driven
+well,” and consisted of a pointed tube provided with holes above the
+pointed end, and an inclosed tube to prevent the passage of sand or
+gravel through the holes in the outer tube. When the pointed tube was
+driven until water was reached the inner tube was withdrawn and a pump
+mechanism inserted. This well, so simple, so cheap and effective, has
+been used in all countries by thousands of farmers on dry plains and by
+soldiers in many desert lands. With these and modern forms of artesian
+wells the deserts have literally been made to blossom as the rose.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.
+
+    “Time measures all things, but I measure it.”
+
+
+So far as we at present know there were four forms of time-measuring
+instruments known to antiquity--the sun-dial, the clepsydra or water
+clock, the hour-glass, and the graduated candle.
+
+The sun-dial, by which time was measured by the shadow cast from a pin,
+rod or pillar upon a graduated horizontal plate--the graduations
+consisting of twelve equal parts, in which the hours of the day were
+divided, were, both as to the instrument and the division of the day
+into hours, invented by the Babylonians or other Oriental race, set up
+on the plains of Chaldea, constructed by the Chinese and Hindoos--put
+into various forms by these nations, and adapted, but unimproved, by the
+learned Greeks and conquering Romans. It appears to have been unknown to
+the Assyrians and Egyptians, or if known, its knowledge confined to
+their wise men, as it does not appear in any of their monuments.
+
+The clepsydra, an instrument by which in its earliest form a portion of
+time was measured by the escape of water from a small orifice in the
+bottom of a shell or vase, or by which the empty vase, placed in another
+vessel filled with water, was gradually filled through the orifice and
+which sank within a certain time, is supposed by many to have preceded
+the invention of the sun-dial. At any rate they were used
+contemporaneously by the same peoples.
+
+In its later form, when the day and night were each divided into twelve
+hours, the vessel was correspondingly graduated, and a float raised by
+the inflowing water impelled a pointer attached to the float against the
+graduations.
+
+Plato, it is said, contrived a bell so connected with the pointer that
+it was struck at each hour of the night. But the best of ancient
+clepsydras was invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria about the middle of
+the third century B. C. He was the pupil of Archimedes, and adopting his
+master’s idea of geared wheels, he mounted a toothed wheel on a shaft
+extending through the vessel and carrying at one end outside of the
+vessel a pointer adapted to move around the face of a dial graduated
+with the 24 hours. The vertical toothed rod or rack, adapted to be
+raised or lowered by a float in a vessel gradually filled with water,
+engaged a pinion fixed on another horizontal shaft, which pinion in turn
+engaged the larger wheel. It was not difficult to proportion the parts
+and control the supply of water to make the point complete its circuit
+regularly. Then the same inventor dispensed with the wheel, rack, and
+pinion, and substituted a cord to which a float was attached, passing
+the cord over a grooved pulley and securing a weight at its other end.
+The pulley was fixed on the shaft which carried the hour hand. The float
+was a counterbalance to the weight, and as it was lifted by the water
+the weight stretched the cord and turned the pulley, which caused the
+pointer to move on the dial and indicate the hour. The water thus acted
+as an escapement to control the motive power. In one form the water
+dropped on wheels which had their motion communicated to a small statue
+that gradually rose and pointed with a rod to the hour upon the dial.
+
+Thus the essential parts of a clock--an escapement, which is a device to
+control the power in a clock or watch so that it shall act
+intermittently on the time index, a motive power, which was then water
+or a weight, a dial to display the hours, and an index to point them
+out--were invented at this early age. But the art advanced practically
+no further for many centuries.
+
+The hour-glass is too familiar to need description.
+
+The incense sticks of the Chinese, the combustion of which proceeded so
+slowly and regularly as to render them available for time measures, were
+the precursors of the graduated candles.
+
+With the ungraduated sun-dial the Greeks fixed their times for bathing
+and eating. When the shadow was six feet long it was time to bathe, when
+twice that length it was time to sup. The clepsydra became in Greece a
+useful instrument to enforce the law in restricting loquacious orators
+and lawyers to reasonable limits in their addresses. And in Rome the
+sun-dials, the clepsydras and the hour-glass were used for the same
+purpose, and more generally than in Greece, to regulate the hours of
+business and pleasure.
+
+The graduated candles are chiefly notable as to their use, if not
+invention, by Alfred the Great in about 883. They were 12 inches long,
+divided into 12 parts, of which three would burn in one hour. In use
+they were shielded from the wind by thin pieces of horn, and thus the
+“horn lantern” originated. With them he divided the day into three equal
+parts, one for religion, one for public affairs, and one for rest and
+recreation.
+
+Useful clocks of wondrous make were described in the annals of the
+middle ages, especially in Germany, made by monks and others for Kings,
+monasteries and churches. The old Saxon and Teutonic words _cligga_, and
+_glocke_, signifying the striking of a bell, and from which the name
+clock is derived, indicates the early combination of striking and
+time-keeping mechanism. The records are scant as to the particulars of
+inventions in horology during the middle ages and down to the sixteenth
+century, but we know that weights, and trains of wheels and springs, and
+some say pendulums, were used in clockwork, and that the tones of hourly
+bells floated forth from the dim religious light of old cathedrals. They
+all appear to have involved in different forms the principle of the old
+clepsydra, using either weights or water as the motive power to drive a
+set of wheels and to move a pointer over the face of a dial.
+
+Henry de Vick of France about 1370 constructed a celebrated clock for
+Charles V., the first nearest approach to modern weight clocks. The
+weight was used to unwind a cord from a barrel. The barrel was connected
+to a ratchet and there were combined therewith a train of toothed wheels
+and pinions, an escapement consisting of a crown wheel controlled by two
+pallets, which in turn were operated alternately by two weights on a
+balanced rod. An hour hand was carried by a shaft of the great wheel,
+and a dial plate divided into hours. This was a great advance, as a more
+accurate division of time was had by improving the isochronous
+properties of the vibrating escapement. But the world was still wanting
+a time-keeper to record smaller portions of the day than the hour and a
+more accurate machine than Vick’s.
+
+Two hundred years, nearly, elapsed before the next important advance in
+horology. By this time great astronomers like Tycho Brahe and Valherius
+had divided the time-recording dials into minutes and seconds.
+
+About 1525 Jacob Zech of Prague invented the fusee, which was
+re-invented and improved by the celebrated Dr. Hooke, 125 years later.
+
+Small portable clocks, the progenitors of the modern watch, commenced to
+appear about 1500. It was then that Peter Hele of Nuremberg substituted
+for weights as the motive power a ribbon of steel, which he wound around
+a central spindle, connecting one end to a train of wheels to which it
+gave motion as it unwound.
+
+Then followed the famous observation of the swinging lamp by the then
+young Galileo, about 1582, while lounging in the cathedral of Pisa. The
+isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum inferred from this
+observation was not published or put to practical application in clocks
+for nearly sixty years afterward. In 1639 Galileo, then old and blind,
+dictated to his son one of his books in which he discussed the
+isochronal properties of oscillating bodies, and their adaptation as
+time measures. He and others had used the pendulum for dividing time,
+but moved it by hand and counted its vibrations. But Huygens, the great
+Dutch scientist, about 1556 was the first to explain the principles and
+properties of the pendulum as a time measurer and to apply it most
+successfully to clocks. His application of it was to the old clock of
+Vick’s.
+
+The seventeenth century thus opened up a new era in clock and watch
+making. The investigations, discoveries, and inventions of Huygens and
+other Dutch clock-makers, of Dr. Hooke and David Ramsey of England,
+Hautefeuille of France, and a few others placed the art of clock and
+watch making on the scientific basis on which it has ever since rested.
+
+The pendulum and watch-springs needed to have their movements controlled
+and balanced by better escapements. Huygens thought that the pendulum
+should be long and swing in a cycloidal course, but Dr. Hooke found the
+better way to produce perfect isochronous movements was to cause the
+pendulum to swing in short arcs, which he accomplished by his invention
+of the anchor escapement.
+
+The fusee which Dr. Hooke re-invented consists of a conical
+spirally-grooved pulley, around which a chain is wound, and which is
+connected at one end to a barrel, in which the main actuating spring is
+tightly coiled. The fusee is thus interposed between the wheel train and
+the spring to equalise the power of the latter.
+
+To Dr. Hooke must also be credited the invention of that delicate but
+efficient device, the hair-spring balance for watches. His inventions in
+this line were directed to the best means of utilising and controlling
+the force of springs, his motto being “_ut tensio sic vis_,” (as the
+tension is so is the force.) Repeating watches to strike the hours,
+half-hours and quarters, made their appearance in the seventeenth
+century. In the next century Arnold made one for George III., as small
+as an English sixpence. This repeated the hours, halves and quarters,
+and in it for the first time in the art a jewel was used as a bearing
+for the arbors, and this particular one was a ruby made into a minute
+cylinder.
+
+After the discovery and practical application of weights, springs,
+wheels, levers and escapements to time mechanisms, subsequent
+inventions, numerous as they have been, have consisted chiefly, not in
+the discovery of new principles, but in new methods in the application
+of old ones. Prior to the eighteenth century, however, clocks were
+cumbrous and expensive, and the watches rightly regarded as costly toys;
+and as to their accuracy in time-measuring, the cheaper ones were hardly
+as satisfactory as the ancient sun-dials.
+
+With the coming of the machine inventions and the new industrial and
+social ideas of the eighteenth century came an almost sudden new
+appreciation of the value of time. Hours, minutes and seconds began to
+be carefully prized, both by the trades and professions, and the demand
+from the common people for accurate time records became great. This
+demand it has been the office of the nineteenth century to supply, and
+to place clocks and watches within the reach of the poor as well as the
+rich. While thus lessening the cost of time-keepers their value has been
+enhanced by increasing their accuracy and durability.
+
+Among the other ideas for which the eighteenth century was famous in
+watch-making was that of dispensing with the key for winding, thus
+saving the losing of keys and preventing access of dust, an idea which,
+however, was perfected only in the last half of the nineteenth century.
+
+The eighteenth century was chiefly distinguished by its scientific
+improvements in time-keepers, to adapt them for astronomical
+observations and for use at sea, in not only accurately determining the
+time, but the degrees of longitude. Chronometers were invented,
+distinguished from watches and clocks, by means by which the fluctuation
+of the parts caused by the variations in temperature are obviated or
+compensated. In clocks what are known as the mercurial and gridiron
+pendulums were invented respectively toward the close of the eighteenth
+century by Graham and Harrison, and the latter also subsequently
+invented the expanding and contracting balance wheel for watches. The
+principle in these appliances is the employment of two different metals
+which expand unequally, and thus maintain an uniformity of operation.
+
+The Dutch, with Huygens in the lead, were long among the leading
+clock-makers. Germany ranked next. It was in the seventeenth century
+that a wonderful industry in clock-making there commenced, which lasted
+for two centuries. The Black Forest region of South Germany became a
+famous locality for the manufacture of cheap wooden clocks. The system
+adopted was a minute division of labour. From fourteen to twenty
+thousand hands twenty years ago were employed in the Schwarzwald
+district. Labour-saving machines were ignored almost entirely. The
+annual production finally reached nearly two million clocks, of the
+value of about five million dollars.
+
+Switzerland in watch-making followed precisely the example of Germany in
+clock-making. It commenced there in the seventeenth and culminated in
+the nineteenth century. Many thousands of its population were engaged in
+the business and it flourished under the fostering care of the
+government--by the establishment of astronomical observations for
+testing the adjustment of the best watches, the giving of prizes, and
+the establishment and encouragement of schools of horology conducted on
+thorough scientific methods. A quarter of a century ago it was estimated
+that in Switzerland 40,000 persons out of a population of 150,000 were
+engaged in watch-making, and that the annual production sometimes
+reached 1,600,000 completed movements. The whole world was their market.
+The United States alone was in 1875 importing 134,000 watches annually
+from that country.
+
+As in Germany, so one characteristic of the Swiss system was a minute
+sub-division of the labour. Individuals and entire families had certain
+parts only to make. It is said that the Swiss watch passed through the
+hands of one hundred and thirty different workmen before it was put upon
+the market. The use of machines was also, as in Germany, ignored. By
+this national devotion to a single trade and its sub-division of labour,
+the successful production of complicated watches became great and their
+prices comparatively low.
+
+The United States in the commencement of its career and at the opening
+of the century had no clocks or watches of its own manufacture. But it
+soon followed the example of Germany and Switzerland and established
+cheap clock manufactories, first of wood, and then of metal, which
+became famous and of world-wide use. But it could make no headway
+against the cheap labour of Europe in watch-making, and the country was
+flooded with watches of all qualities, principally from Switzerland and
+England. Finally, at the half-way mark in the century, the inquiry arose
+among Americans, why could not the system of the minute sub-division of
+human labour followed in watch-making countries so cheaply and
+profitably, be accomplished by machinery? The field was open, the prize
+was great, and the government stood ready to grant exclusive patents to
+every inventor who would devise a new and useful machine. The problem
+was great, as the fields abroad had been filled for generations by
+skilled artisans who had reduced the complicated mechanism of
+watch-making to a fine art. Fortunately the habit had been established
+in America in several of the leading industries, principally in that of
+fire-arms, of fabricating separate machinery for the independent making
+of numerous parts of the same implement, whereby uniformity and
+interchangeability were established. Under such a practice, which was
+known as the American system, a duplicate of the smallest part of a
+complicated machine, lost or worn out thousands of miles from the
+factory, could soon be furnished by simply sending the number or name of
+such required part to the manufacturer, or to the nearest dealer in such
+machines.
+
+With such encouragement and example the scheme of watch-making was
+commenced. Soon large factories were built, and by the time of the
+Centennial Exhibition in 1876, the American Watch Company of Waltham,
+Massachusetts, were enabled to present an exhibit of watch movements
+made by machinery, which astonished the world. Other great companies in
+different parts of the country soon followed with the same general
+system. Machines, working with the apparent intelligence and facility of
+human minds and hands, and with greater mathematical accuracy than was
+possible with the hands, appeared:--for cutting out the finest teeth
+from blank wheels stamped out from steel or brass; for making and
+cutting the smallest, finest threaded screws by the thousands per hour
+and with greatest uniformity and accuracy; for jewel-making; for cutting
+and polishing by diamonds, or sapphire-armed tools, the rough,
+unpolished diamond and ruby, crysolite, garnet, or aqua-marine, and for
+boring, finishing and setting the same; for the formation of the most
+delicate pins or arbors; for the making of the escapements, including
+forks, pallets, rollers, and scape wheels; for making springs and
+balances, including the main-springs and hair-springs; for making and
+setting the stem-winding parts; for making the cases, and engraving the
+same, etc. The list would be too long to simply name all the ingenious
+machines there exhibited and subsequently invented for every important
+operation.
+
+It was the aim of these manufacturers to locate every great factory in
+some quiet and attractive spot, free from the dust of town, and city,
+and divide it into many departments, from the blacksmithing to the
+packing and transportation of the completed article; and to conduct
+every department with the best mechanical and mathematical skill that
+money and brains could provide.
+
+The same system was followed with equal success in producing the
+first-class pocket-chronometer for the nicest work to which chronometers
+can be put.
+
+Thus with every watch and its every part made the exact duplicate of its
+fellow, uniformity in time-keeping has been established; and the simile
+of Pope is no longer so correct, “’Tis with our judgments as our
+watches, none go just alike, yet each believes his own.” A simple
+statement of this system illustrates with greater force than an entire
+volume the revolution the nineteenth century has produced in the useful
+art of horology. And yet the story should not omit reference to the
+application of the electric system to clocks, whereby clocks at distant
+points of a city or country are connected, automatically corrected and
+set to standard time from a central observatory or other time station.
+
+Great as were the advances in horology during the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, the number of inventions that have been made in
+the nineteenth century is evidenced by the fact that in the United
+States alone about 4,000 patents have been granted since 1800, which,
+however, represent not only American inventors but very many of other
+countries.
+
+_Registering Devices._--Devices for recording fares and money have
+employed the keenest wits of many inventors and is an art of quite
+recent origin. Attention was first directed to fare registers in public
+vehicles, the object of which is to accurately report to the proper
+office of the company at the end of a trip, or of the day, the number of
+passengers carried and the fares received. Portable registers, to be
+carried by the conductor and operated in front of the passenger have
+been almost universally succeeded by stationary ones set up at one end
+of the vehicle in open view of all the passengers and operated by a
+strap and lever by the conductor. These fare registers have been called
+“A mechanical conscience for street car conductors.”
+
+_Cash Registers_, intended to compel honesty on the part of retail
+salesmen, are required to be operated by them, and when the proper
+lever, or levers, or it may be a crank handle, is or are touched, the
+machine automatically records the amount of the sale, the amount of
+change given, and the total amount of all the sales and money received
+and paid out.
+
+_Voting Machines_--designed to overcome the difficulties, expenditure of
+time, and the commission of errors and frauds experienced in the reading
+and counting of votes--have received great attention from inventors, and
+are not yet in a satisfactory condition. The problem involves the
+dispensing of printing the ballots, the prevention of fraudulent
+deposition of ballots, the automatic correct counting of the same, and a
+display of the result as soon as the balloting is closed.
+
+Successful electrical devices have been made for recording the votes of
+a great number of persons in a large assembly by the touch of an “aye”
+or “nay” button at the seat of the voter and the recording of the same
+on paper at a central desk.
+
+The invention and extensive use of bicycles, automobiles, etc., have
+given rise to the invention of _cyclometers_, which are small devices
+connected to some part of the vehicle to indicate to the rider or driver
+the rate at which he is riding, and the number of miles ridden.
+
+_Speed Indicators._--Many municipalities having adopted ordinances
+limiting the rate of speed for street and steam cars, bicycles,
+automobiles, and other vehicles, a want was created, which has been met,
+for devices to indicate to the passengers, drivers or conductors the
+rate at which the vehicle is travelling, and to sound an alarm in case
+of excess of speed, so that brakes can be applied and the speed reduced.
+Or to relieve persons of anxiety and trouble in this respect, ingenious
+devices have been contrived which automatically reduce the speed when
+the prescribed limit has been exceeded.
+
+_Weighing Scales and Machines._--“Just balances and just weights” have
+been required from the day of the declaration, “a false weight is an
+abomination unto the Lord.” And therefore strict accuracy must always be
+the measure of merit of a weighing machine. To this standard the
+inventions of the century in weighing scales have come. Until this
+century the ordinary balance with equal even arms suspended from a
+central point, and each carrying means for suspending articles to be
+weighed, or compared in weights, and the later steelyard with its
+unequal arms, with its graduated long arms and a sliding weight and
+holding pan, were the principal forms of weighing machines. Platform
+scales were described in an English patent to one Salman in 1796, but
+their use is not recorded. The compound lever scale on the principle of
+the steelyard, but arranged to be used with a platform, was invented and
+came into use in the United States about 1831. Thaddeus and Erastus
+Fairbanks of St. Johnsbury, Vermont, were the inventors, and it was
+found to meet the want of farmers in weighing hemp, hay, etc., by more
+convenient means than the ordinary steelyard. They converted the
+steelyard into platform scales. The leading characteristics of such
+machines are, first, a convenient platform nicely balanced on knife
+edges of steel levers, and second, a graduated horizontal beam, a
+sliding weight thereon connected by an upright rod at one end to the
+beam, and at its opposite end to the balance frame beneath the platform.
+
+The modification in size and adaptation of this machine for the weighing
+of different commodities amounted to some 400 different
+varieties--running from the delicately-constructed apparatus for
+weighing the fraction of a grain, to the ponderous machines for weighing
+and recording the loaded freight car of fifty or sixty tons, or the
+canal-boat or other vessel with its load of five or six hundred tons.
+The adaptation of a balance platform on which to place a light load, or
+to drive thereon with heavy loads, whether of horses, steam, or water
+vehicles, was a great blessing to mankind. No wonder that they were soon
+sold all over the world, and that monarchs and people hastened to heap
+honors on the inventors.
+
+Spring weighing scales have recently been invented, which will
+accurately and automatically show not only the weight but the total
+price of the goods weighed, the price per unit being known and fixed.
+
+In the weighing of large masses of coarse material, such as grain, coal,
+cotton seed, and the like, machines have been constructed which
+automatically weigh such materials and at the same time register the
+weight.
+
+Previous to this century no method was known, except the exercise of
+good judgment in the light of experience, of accurately testing the
+strength of materials. Wood and metals were used in unnecessarily
+cumbrous forms for the purpose to which they were put, in order to
+ensure safety, or else the strength of the parts failed where it was
+most needed.
+
+The idea of testing the tensile, transverse, and cubical resisting
+strength of materials has been applied to many other objects than beams
+and bars of wood and metals; to belts, cloths, cables, wires, fibres,
+paper, twine, yarn, cement, and to liquids. Kiraldy, Kennedy, and others
+of England, Thomasset of France, Riehle of Germany, and Fairbanks,
+Thurston and Emery of the United States, are among the noted inventors
+of such machines.
+
+In the Emery system of machines, consisting of scales, gages, and
+dynamometers, the power exerted on the material tested is transmitted
+from the load to an indicating device by means of liquid acting on
+diaphragms. The same principle is employed in his weighing machines.
+
+By one of these hydraulic testing machines the tensile strength of
+forged links has been ascertained by the exertion of a power amounting
+to over 700,000 pounds before breaking a link, the chain breaking with a
+loud report.
+
+The most delicate materials are tested by the same machine--the tensile
+strength of a horsehair, some of which are found to stand the strain of
+one and two pounds. Eggs and nuts are cracked without being crushed, and
+the power exerted and the strain endured automatically recorded. Steel
+beams and rods have been subjected to a strain of a million pounds
+before breaking.
+
+Governments, municipalities, and the people generally are thus provided
+with means by which they can proceed with the greatest confidence in the
+safe and economical construction and completion of their buildings and
+public works.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, FINE ARTS.
+
+
+Neither the historic nor prehistoric records find man without musical
+instruments of some sort. They are as old as religion, and have been
+found wherever evidence of religious rites of any description have been
+found, as they constituted part of the instrumentalities of such rites.
+They are found as relics of worship and the dance, ages after the
+worshippers and the dancers have become part of the earth’s strata. They
+have been found wherever the earliest civilisations have been
+discovered; and they appear to have been regarded as desirable and
+necessary as the weapons and the labour implements of those
+civilisations. They abounded in China, in India, and in Egypt before the
+lyre of Apollo was invented, or the charming harp of Orpheus was
+conceived.
+
+There was little melody according to modern standards, but the musical
+instruments, like all other inventions, the fruit of the brain of man,
+were slowly evolved as he wanted them, and to meet the conditions
+surrounding him.
+
+There were the conch shell trumpet, the stone, bone, wood and metal
+dance rattles, the beaks of birds, and the horns and teeth of beasts,
+for the same rattling purpose. The simple reed pipes, the hollow wooden
+drums, the skin drum-heads, the stretched strings of fibre and of
+tendons, the flutes, the harps, the guitars, the psalteries, and
+hundreds of other forms of musical instruments, varied as the skill and
+fancy of man varied, and in accordance with their taste and wants, along
+the entire gamut of noises and rude melodies. The ancient races had the
+instruments, but their voices, except as they existed in the traditions
+of their gods, were not harmonious.
+
+As modern wants and tastes developed and music became a science the
+demands of the nineteenth century were met by a Helmholtz, who
+discovered and explained the laws of harmony, and by many ingenious
+manufacturers, who so revolutionised the pianoforte action, and the
+action of musical instruments constructed on these principles, that
+their predecessors would hardly be recognised as prototypes.
+
+The story of the piano, that queen of musical instruments, involves the
+whole history of the art of music. Its evolution from the ancient harp,
+gleaned by man from the wind, “that grand old harper, who smote his
+thunder harp of pines,” is too long a story to here recite in detail. It
+must suffice to say, it started with the harp, in its simplest form,
+composed of a frame with animal tendons stretched tight thereon and
+twanged by the fingers. Then followed strings of varied length, size,
+and tension, to obtain different tones, soon accompanied by an
+instrument called the plectrum--a bone or ivory stick with which to
+vibrate the strings, to save the fingers. This was the harp of the
+Egyptians, and of Jubal, “the father of all such as handle the harp and
+the organ,” and half-brother of Tubal Cain, the great teacher “of every
+artificer in brass and iron.” Then the harp was laid prostrate, its
+strings stretched over a sounding board, and each held and adapted to be
+tightened by pegs, and played upon by little hammers having soft pellets
+or corks at their ends. This was the psaltery and the dulcimer of the
+Assyrians and the Hebrews.
+
+The Greeks derived their musical instruments from the Egyptians, and the
+Romans borrowed theirs from the Greeks, but neither the Greeks nor the
+Romans invented any.
+
+Then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find the harp, both in a
+horizontal and an upright position, with its strings played upon by
+keys. This was the _clavicitherium_. In the sixteenth century came the
+virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments favoured by
+Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary, and which, recently brought from
+obscurity, have been made to revive the ancient Elizabethan melodies, to
+the delight of modern hearers. These were followed in the seventeenth
+century by the clavichord, the favourite instrument of Bach. Then
+appeared the harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, having a
+hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which Mozart and Handel and Haydn
+brought out their grand productions. The ancient Italian cembello was
+another spinet.
+
+Thus, through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown. By 1711
+in Italy, under the inventive genius of Bartolommeo Cristofori of
+Florence, they had culminated in the modern piano. The piano as devised
+by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this, that
+in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them
+by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys, whereas, in
+the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills.
+
+In the 1876 exhibition at Philadelphia, a piano was displayed which had
+been made by Johannes Christian Schreiber of Germany in 1741.
+
+Then in the latter part of the eighteenth century Broadwood and Clementi
+of London and Erard of Strasburg and Petzold of Paris commenced the
+manufacture of their fine instruments. Erard particularly made many
+improvements in that and in the nineteenth century in the piano, its
+hammers and keys, and Southwell of Dublin in the dampers.
+
+By them and the Collards of London, Bechstein of Berlin, and Chickering,
+Steinway, Weber, Schomacher, Decker and Knabe of America, was the piano
+“ripened after the lapse of more than 2,000 years into the perfectness
+of the magnificent instruments of modern times, with their better
+materials, more exact appliances, finer adjustments, greater strength of
+parts, increase of compass and power, elastic responsiveness of touch,
+enlarged sonority, satisfying delicacy, and singing character in tone.”
+
+A piano comprises five principal parts: first, the framing; second, the
+sounding board; third, the stringing; fourth, the key mechanism, or
+action, and fifth, the ornamental case. To supply these several parts
+separate classes of skilled artisans have arisen, the forests have been
+ransacked for their choicest woods, the mines have been made to yield
+their choicest stores, and the forge to weld its finest work. Science
+has given to music the ardent devotion of a lover, and resolved a
+confused mass of more or less pleasant noises into liquid harmonies. In
+1862 appeared Helmholtz’s great work on the “Law and Tones and the
+Theory of Music.” He it was who invented the method of analysing sound.
+By the use of hollow bodies called _resonators_ he found that every
+sound as it generally occurs in nature and as it is produced by most of
+our musical instruments, or the human voice, is not a single simple
+sound, but a compound of several tones of different intensity and pitch;
+all of which different tones combined are heard as one; and that the
+difference of quality or _timbre_ of the sounds of different musical
+instruments resides in the different composition of these sounds; that
+different compound sounds contain the same fundamental tone but
+differently mixed with other tones. He explained how these fundamental
+and compound tones might be fully developed to produce either harmonious
+or dissonant sensations. His researches were carried farther and added
+to by Prof. Mayer of New Jersey. These theories were practically applied
+in the pianos produced by the celebrated firm of Steinway and Sons of
+New York; and their inventions and improvements in the iron framing, in
+laying of strings in relation to the centre of the sounding-board, in
+“resonators” in upright frames, and in other features, from 1866 to
+1876, produced a revolution in the art of piano making.
+
+If the piano is properly the queen of musical instruments, the organ may
+be rightly regarded, as it has been named, “King in the realm of music.”
+It is an instrument, the notes of which are produced by the rush of air
+through pipes of different lengths, the air being supplied by bellows or
+other means, and controlled by valves which are operated by keys, and by
+which the supply of air is admitted or cut off.
+
+The earliest description appears to be that in the “Spiritalia” of Hero
+of Alexandria (150-200 B. C.) and Ctesibius of Alexandria was the
+inventor. A series of pipes of varying lengths were filled by an
+air-pump which was operated by a wind-mill. Organs were again originated
+in the early Christian centuries; and a Greek epigram of the fourth
+century refers to one as provided with “reeds of a new species agitated
+by blasts of wind that rush from a leathern cavern beneath their roots,
+while a robust mortal, running with swift fingers over the concordant
+keys, makes them smoothly dance and emit harmonious sounds.”
+
+The same in principle to-day, but more complicated in structure, “yet of
+easy control under the hands of experts, fertile in varied symphonious
+effects, giving with equal and satisfying success the gentlest and most
+sympathetic tones as well as complete and sublimely full utterances of
+musical inspiration.”
+
+The improvements of the century have consisted in adding a great variety
+of stops; in connections and couplers of the great keyboard and pipes;
+in the pedal part; in the construction of the pipes and wind chests; and
+principally in the adaptation of steam, water, air, and electricity, in
+place of the muscles of men, as powers in furnishing the supply of air.
+Some of the great organs of the century, having three or four thousand
+pipes, with all the modern improvements, and combining great power with
+the utmost brilliancy and delicacy of utterance, and with a blended
+effect which is grand, solemn and most impressive, render indeed this
+noble instrument the “king” in the realm of music.
+
+In the report of 1895 of the United States Commissioner of patents it is
+stated that “the _autoharp_ has been developed within the past few
+years, having bars arranged transversely across the strings and provided
+with dampers which, when depressed, silence all the strings except those
+producing the desired chords.
+
+“An ingenious musical instrument of the class having keyboards like the
+piano or organ has been recently invented. All keyboard instruments in
+ordinary use produce tones that are only approximately correct in pitch,
+because these must be limited in number to twelve, to the octave, while
+the tones of the violin are absolute or untempered. The improved
+instrument produces untempered tones without requiring extraordinary
+variations from the usual arrangement of the keys.”
+
+Self-playing musical instruments have been known for more than forty
+years, but it is within the past twenty-five years that devices have
+been invented for controlling tones by pneumatic or electrical
+appliances to produce expressions. Examples of the later of these three
+kinds of musical instruments may be found in the United States patents
+of Zimmermann in 1882, Tanaka, 1890, and Gally, 1879.
+
+The science of _acoustics_ and its practical applications have greatly
+advanced, chiefly due to the researches of Helmholtz, referred to above.
+
+When the nature and laws of the waves of sound became fully known a
+great field of inventions was opened. Then came the telephone,
+phonograph, graphophone and gramophone.
+
+The telephone depends upon a combination of electricity and the waves of
+the human voice. The phonograph and its modifications depend alone on
+sound waves--the recording of the waves from one vibrating membrane and
+their exact reproduction on another vibrating membrane.
+
+The acoustic properties of churches and other buildings were improved by
+the adaptation of banks of fine wires to prevent the re-echoing of
+sounds. _Auricular tubes_ adapted to be applied to the ears and
+concealed by the hair, and other forms of aural instruments, were
+devised.
+
+The _Megaphone_ of Edison appeared, consisting of two large funnels
+having elastic conducting tubes from their apices to the aural orifice.
+Conversation in moderate tones has been heard and understood by their
+use at a distance of one and a half miles. The megaphone has been found
+very useful in speaking to large outdoor crowds.
+
+But let us go back a little: In 1845, Chas. Bourseuil of France
+published the idea that the vibrations of speech uttered against a
+diaphragm might break or make an electric contact, and the electric
+pulsations thereby produced might set another diaphragm vibrating which
+should produce the transmitted sound waves. In 1857, another Frenchman,
+Leon Scott, patented in France his _Phonautograph_--an instrument
+consisting of a large barrel-like mouth-piece into which words were
+spoken, a membrane therein against which the voice vibrations were
+received, a stylus attached to this vibrating membrane, and a rotating
+cylinder covered with blackened paper, against which the stylus bore and
+on which it recorded the sound waves in exact form received on the
+vibrating diaphragm. Then came the researches and publications of
+Helmholtz and König on acoustic science, 1862-1866. Then young Philip
+Reis of Frankfort, Germany, attempted to put all these theories into an
+apparatus to reproduce speech, but did not quite succeed. Then in
+1874-1875, Bell took up the matter, and at the Philadelphia exhibition,
+1876, astonished the world by the revelations of the telephone. In
+April, 1877, Charles Cros, a Frenchman, in a communication to the
+Academy of Sciences in Paris, after describing an apparatus like the
+Scott phonautograph, set forth how traced undulating lines of voice
+vibrations might be reproduced in intaglio or in relief, and reproduced
+upon a vibrating membrane by a pointed stylus attached thereto and
+following the line of the original pulsations. The communication seems
+to have been pigeon-holed, and not read in open session until December,
+1877, and until after Thomas A. Edison had actually completed and used
+his phonograph in the United States. Cros rested on the suggestion.
+Edison, without knowing of Cros’ suggestion, was first to make and
+actually use the same invention. Edison’s cylinder, on which the sounds
+were recorded and from which they were reproduced, was covered by tin
+foil. A great advance was made by Dr. Chichester A. Bell and Mr. C. S.
+Tainter, who in 1886 patented in the United States means of cutting or
+engraving the sound waves in a solid body. The solid body they employed
+was a thin pasteboard cylinder covered with wax. This apparatus they
+called the _graphophone_. Two years thereafter, Mr. Emile Berliner of
+Washington had invented the _gramophone_, which consists in etching on a
+metallic plate the record of voice waves. He has termed his invention,
+“the art of etching the human voice.” He prepares a polished metal
+plate, generally zinc, with an extremely thin coating of film or fatty
+milk, which dries upon and adheres to the plate. The stylus penetrates
+this film, meeting from it the slightest possible resistance, and traces
+thereon the message. The record plate is then subjected to a
+particularly constituted acid bath, which, entering the groove or
+grooves formed by the stylus, cuts or etches the same into the plate.
+The groove thus formed may be deepened by another acid solution. When
+thus produced, as many copies of the record as desired may be made by
+the electrotyper or print plater.
+
+The public is now familiar with the different forms of this wonderful
+instrument, and like the telephone, they no longer seem marvellous. Yet
+it is only within the age of a youth or a maiden when the allegations or
+predictions that the human voice would soon be carried over the land,
+and reproduced across a continent, or be preserved or engraven on
+tablets and reproduced at pleasure anywhere, in this or any subsequent
+generation, were themselves regarded as strange messages of dreamers and
+madmen.
+
+_Optical Instruments._--There were practical inventions in optical
+instruments long before this century. Achromatic and other lenses were
+known, and the microscope, the telescope and spectacles.
+
+The inventive genius of this century in the field of optics has not
+eclipsed the telescope and microscope of former ages. They were the
+fruits of the efforts of many ages and of many minds, although Hans
+Lippersheim of Holland in 1608 appears to have made the first successful
+instrument “for seeing things at a distance.” Galileo soon thereafter
+greatly improved and increased its capacity, and was the first to direct
+it towards the heavens. And as to the microscope, Dr. Lieberkulm, of
+Berlin, in 1740, made the first successful solar microscope. As well
+known, it consisted essentially of two lenses and a mirror, by which the
+sun’s rays are reflected on the first lens, concentrated on the object
+and further magnified by the second lens.
+
+The depths of the stars and the minutest mote that floats in the sun
+beam reflect the glory of those inventions.
+
+The invention of John Dolland of London, about 1758, of the achromatic
+lens should be borne in mind in connection with telescopes, microscopes,
+etc. He it was who invented the combination of two lenses, one concave
+and the other convex, one of flint glass and the other of crown glass,
+which, refracting in contrary ways, neutralised the dispersion of colour
+rays and produced a clear, colourless light.
+
+Many improvements and discoveries in optics and optical instruments have
+been made during the century, due to the researches of such scientists
+as Arago, Brewster, Young, Fresnel, Airy, Hamilton, Lloyd, Cauchy and
+others, and of the labours of the army of skilled experts and
+mechanicians who have followed their lead.
+
+Sir David Brewster, born in Scotland in 1781, made (1810-1840) many
+improvements in the construction of the microscope and telescope,
+invented the kaleidoscope, introduced in the stereoscope the principles
+and leading features which those beautiful instruments still embody, and
+rendered it popular among scientists and artists.
+
+It is said that Prof. Eliot of Edinburgh in 1834 was the first to
+conceive of the idea of a stereoscope, by which two different pictures
+of the same object, taken by photography, to correspond to the two
+different positions of an object as viewed by the two eyes, are combined
+into one view by two reflecting mirrors set at an angle of about 45°,
+and conveying to the eyes a single reflection of the object as a solid
+body. But Sir Charles Wheaton in 1838 constructed the first instrument,
+and in 1849 Brewster introduced the present form of lenticular lenses.
+
+Brewster also demonstrated the utility of dioptric lenses, and zones in
+lighthouse illumination; and in which field Faraday and Tyndall also
+subsequently worked with the addition of electrical appliances. The
+labours of these three men have illuminated the wildest waters of the
+sea and preserved a thousand fleets of commerce and of war from awful
+shipwreck.
+
+As illustrating the difficulties sometimes encountered in introducing an
+invention into use, the American Journal of Chemistry some years ago
+related that the Abbé Moigno, in introducing the stereoscope to the
+savants of France, first took it to Arago, but Arago had a defect of
+vision which made him see double, and he could only see in it a medley
+of four pictures; then the Abbé went to Savart, but unfortunately Savart
+had but one eye and was quite incapable of appreciating the thing. Then
+Becquerel was next visited, but he was nearly blind and could see
+nothing in the new optical toy. Not discouraged, the Abbé then called
+upon Puillet of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. Puillet was much
+interested, but he was troubled with a squint which presented to his
+anxious gaze but a blurred mixture of images. Lastly Brot was tried.
+Brot believed in the corpuscular theory of light, and was opposed to the
+undulatory theory, and the good Abbé not being able to assure him that
+the instrument did not contradict his theory, Brot refused to have
+anything to do with it. In spite, however, of the physical disabilities
+of scientists, the stereoscope finally made its way in France.
+
+Besides increasing the power of the eye to discover the secrets and
+beauties of nature, modern invention has turned upon the eye itself and
+displayed the wonders existing there, behind its dark glass doors. It
+was Helmholtz who in 1851 described his _Ophthalmoscope_. He arranged a
+candle so that its rays of light, falling on an inclined reflector, were
+thrown through the pupil of the patient’s eye, whose retina reflected
+the image received on the retina back to the mirror where it could be
+viewed by the observer. This image was the background of the eye, and
+its delicate blood vessels and tissues could thus be observed. This
+instrument was improved and it gave rise to the contrivance of many
+delicate surgical instruments for operating on the eye.
+
+The _Spectroscope_ is an instrument by which the colours of the solar
+rays are separated and viewed, as well as those of other incandescent
+bodies. By it, not only the elements of the heavenly bodies have been
+determined, but remarkable results have been had in analysing well-known
+metals and discovering new ones. Its powers and its principles have been
+so developed during the century by the discoveries, inventions and
+investigations of Herschel, Wollaston, Fraunhofer, Bronsen and Kirchoff,
+Steinheil, Tyndall, Huggins, Draper and others, that spectrum analysis
+has grown from the separation of light into its colours by the prism of
+Newton, to what Dr. Huggins has aptly termed “a new sense.”
+
+We have further referred to this wonderful discovery in the Chapter on
+Chemistry.
+
+The inventions and improvements in optical instruments gave rise to
+great advances in the making of lenses, based on scientific principles,
+and not resting alone on hard work and experience. Alvan Clark a son of
+America, and Prof. Ernst Abbe of Germany, have within the last third of
+the century produced a revolution in the manufacture of lenses, and
+thereby extended the realms of knowledge to new worlds of matter in the
+heavens and on earth.
+
+_Solarmeter._--In 1895 a United States patent was granted to Mr. Bechler
+for an instrument called a solarmeter. It is designed for taking
+observations of heavenly bodies and recording mechanically the parts of
+the astronomical triangle used in navigation and like work. Its chief
+purpose is to determine the position of the compass error of a ship at
+sea independently of the visibility of the sea horizon. If the horizon
+is clouded, and the sun or a known star is visible, a ship’s position
+can still be determined by the solarmeter.
+
+_Instruments for Measuring the Position and Distances of Unseen
+Objects._--Some of the latest of such instruments will enable one to see
+and shoot at an object around a corner, or at least out of sight. Thus a
+United States patent was granted to Fiske in 1889, wherein it is set
+forth that by stationing observers at points distant from a gun, which
+points are at the extremities of a known base line, and which command a
+view of the area within the range of the gun, the observers discover the
+position and range of the object by triangulation and set certain
+pointers. By means of electrical connection between those pointers and
+pointers at the gun station based on the system of the Wheatstone
+bridge, the latter pointers, or the guns themselves serving as pointers,
+may be placed in position to indicate the line of fire. By a nice
+arrangement of mirror and lenses attached to a firearm the same object
+may be accomplished. Similar apparatuses in which the reflectory
+surfaces of mirrors mounted on an elevated frame-work, and known as
+_Polemoscopes_ and _Altiscopes_ and _Range-Finders_, have also been
+invented, and used with artillery. But such devices may be profitably
+used for more peaceful and amusing purposes.
+
+Born with the ear attuned to music and the eye to observe beauty, the
+hand of Art was to trace and make permanent the fleeting forms which
+melody and the eye impressed upon the soul of man.
+
+In fact modern science has demonstrated that tones and colours are
+inseparable. Bell and Tainter with their _photophone_ have converted the
+undulatory waves of light into the sweetest music. Reversing the
+process, beautiful flashes of light have been produced from musical
+vibrations by the _phonophote_ of M. Coulon and the _phonoscope_ of
+Henry Edmunds.
+
+Entrancing as the story is, we can only here allude to a few of those
+discoveries and inventions that have become the handmaidens of the art
+which guided the chisel of Phidias and inspired the brush of Raphael.
+
+_Photography._--The art of producing permanent images of the “human face
+divine,” natural scenes, and other objects, by the agency of light, is
+due more to the discoveries of the chemist than to the inventions of the
+mechanic; and to the chemists of this century. At the same time a
+mechanical invention of old times became a necessary appliance in the
+reduction of the theories of the chemists to practice:--The _Camera
+Obscura_, that dark box in which a mirror is placed, provided also with
+a piece of ground glass or white cardboard paper, and having a
+projecting part at one end in which a lens is placed, whereby when the
+lens part is directed to an object an image of the same is thrown by the
+rays of light focused by the lens upon the mirror, and reflected by the
+mirror to the glass or paper board, was invented by Roger Bacon about
+1297, or by Alberta in 1437, described by Leonardo da Vinci in 1500 as
+an imitation of the structure of the eye, again by Baptista Porta in
+1589, and remodelled by Sir Isaac Newton in 1700. Until the 19th century
+it was used only in the taking of sketches and scenes on or from the
+card or glass on which the reflection was thrown.
+
+Celebrated chemists such as Sheele of the 18th century, and Ritter,
+Wollaston, Sir Humphry Davy, Young, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and others in
+the early part of the 19th century, began to turn their attention to the
+chemical and molecular changes which the sunlight and its separate rays
+effected in certain substances, and especially upon certain compounds of
+silver. In sensitising the receiving paper, glass, or metal with such a
+compound it must necessarily be protected from exposure to sunlight, and
+this fact, together with the desire to sensitise the image produced by
+the camera, not only suggested but seemed to render that instrument
+indispensable to photography. Nevertheless the experiments of chemists
+fell short of the high mark, and it was reserved for an artist to unite
+the efforts of the sun and the chemists in a successful instrument.
+
+It was Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, born at Corneilles, France, in
+1789, and who died in 1851, who was the first to reduce to practice the
+invention called after his name. He was a brilliant scene painter, and
+especially successful in painting panoramas. In 1822, assisted by
+Bouton, he had invented the _diorama_, by which coloured lights
+representing the various changes of the day and season were thrown upon
+the canvasses in his beautiful panoramas of Rome, London, Naples and
+other great cities. Several years previous to 1839 he and Joseph N.
+Niepce, learning of the efforts of chemists in that line, began
+independently, and then together, to develop the art of obtaining
+permanent copies of objects produced by the chemical action of the sun.
+Niepce died while they were thus engaged. Daguerre prosecuted his
+researches alone, and toward the close of 1838 his success was such that
+he made known his invention to Arago, and Arago announced it in an
+eloquent and enthusiastic address to the French Academy of Sciences in
+January 1839. It at once excited great attention, which was heightened
+by the pictures produced by the new process. The French Government, in
+consideration of the details of the invention and its improvements being
+made public and on request of Daguerre, granted him an annuity and one
+also to Niepce’s son.
+
+At first only pictures of natural objects were taken; but in learning of
+Daguerre’s process Dr. John William Draper of New York, a native of
+England and adopted son of America, the brilliant author of _The
+Intellectual Development of Europe_, and other great works, in the same
+year, 1839, took portraits of persons by photography, and he was the
+first to do this. Draper was also the first in America to reveal the
+wonders of the spectroscope; and he was first to show that each colour
+of the spectrum had its own peculiar chemical effect. This was in 1847.
+
+The sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of man in the new great
+art of Photography. Natural philosophers, chemists, inventors,
+mechanics, all now pressed forward, and still press forward to improve
+the art, to establish new growths from the old art, and extend its
+domains. Those domains have the generic term of _Photo-Processes_.
+Daguerreotypy, while the father of them all, is now hardly practised as
+Daguerre practised it, and has become a small subordinate sub-division
+of the great class. Yet more faithful likenesses are not yet produced
+than by this now old process. Among the children of the Photo-Process
+family are the _Calotype_, _Ambrotype_, _Ferreotype_, _Collodion_ and
+_Silver Printing_, _Carbon Printing_, _Heliotype_, _Heliogravure_,
+_Photoengraving_ (relief intaglio-Woodburytype), _Photolithography_;
+_Alberttype_; _Photozincograph_, _Photogelatine-printing_;
+_Photomicrography_ (to depict microscopic objects), _Kinetographs_, and
+_Photosculpture_. A world of mechanical contrivances have been
+invented:--_Octnometers_, _Baths_, _Burnishing tools_, _Cameras and
+Camera stands_, _Magazine and Roll holders_; _Dark rooms_ and _Focussing
+devices_, _Heaters_ and _Driers_; _Exposure Meters_, etc. etc.
+
+The _Kinetograph_, for taking a series of pictures of rapidly moving
+objects, and by which the living object, person or persons, are made to
+appear moving before us as they moved when the picture was taken, is a
+marvellous invention; and yet simple when the process is understood.
+Photography and printing have combined to revolutionise the art of
+illustration. Exact copies of an original, whether of a painting or a
+photograph, are now produced on paper with all the original shades and
+colours. The long-sought-for problem of photographing in colours has in
+a measure been solved. The “three _colour processes_” is the name given
+to the new offspring of the inventors which reproduces by the camera the
+natural colours of objects.
+
+The scientists Maxwell Young and Helmholtz established the theory that
+the three colours, red, green, and blue, were the primary colours, and
+from a mixture of these, secondary colours are produced. Henry Collen in
+1865 laid down the lines on which the practical reduction should take
+place; and within the last decade F. E. Ives of Philadelphia has
+invented the _Photochromoscope_ for producing pictures in their natural
+colours. The process consists in blending in one picture the separate
+photographic views taken on separate negative plates, each sensitised to
+receive one of the primary colours, which are then exposed and blended
+simultaneously in a triple camera.
+
+Plates and films and many other articles and processes have helped to
+establish the Art of Photography on its new basis.
+
+Among the minor inventions relating to Art, mention may be made of that
+very useful article the lead _pencil_, which all have employed so much
+time in sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands. Within a
+decade, pencils in which the lead or crayon is covered instead of with
+wood, with slitted, perforated or creased paper, spirally rolled
+thereon, and on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new point is
+exposed; or that other style in which a number of short, sharpened
+marking leads, or crayons, are arranged in series and adapted to be
+projected one after the other as fast as worn away.
+
+_In Painting_ modern inventions and discoveries have simply added to the
+instrumentalities of genius but have created no royal road to the art
+made glorious by Titian and Raphael. It has given to the artists,
+through its chemists, a world of new colours, and through its mechanics
+new and convenient appliances.
+
+_Air Brushes_ have proved a great help by which the paint or other
+colouring matter is sprayed in heavy, light, or almost invisible showers
+to produce backgrounds by the force of air blown upon the pigments held
+in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube. Made of larger proportions,
+this brush has been used for fresco painting, and for painting large
+objects, such as buildings, which it admits of doing with great
+rapidity.
+
+A description of modern methods of applying colours to porcelain and
+pottery is given in the chapter treating of those subjects.
+
+_Telegraphic pictures_:--Perhaps it is appropriate in closing this
+chapter that reference be made to that process by which the likeness of
+the distant reader may be taken telegraphically. A picture in relief is
+first made by the swelled gelatine or other process; a tracing point is
+then moved in the lines across the undulating surface of the pictures,
+and the movements of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical
+apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the opposite end of the line
+and there reproduced upon a suitable substance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+SAFES AND LOCKS.
+
+
+Prior to the century safes were not constructed to withstand the test of
+intense heat. Efforts were numerous, however, to render them safe
+against the entrance of thieves, but the ingenuity of the thieves
+advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers. And the race
+between these two classes of inventors still continues. For with the
+exercise of a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks, aided by all
+the advancement of science as to the nature of metals, their tough
+manufacture and their resistance to explosives, thieves still manage to
+break in and steal. The only sure protection against burglars at the
+close of the nineteenth century appears to consist of what it was at the
+close of any previous century--the preponderance of physical force and
+the best weapons. Among the latest inventions are electrical connections
+with the safe, whereby tampering therewith alarms one or more watchmen
+at a near station.
+
+A classification of safes embraces, _Fire-proof_, _Burglar-proof_, _Safe
+Bolt Works_, _Express and Deposit Safes and Boxes_, _Circular Doors_,
+_Pressure Mechanism_, and _Water and Air Protective Devices_.
+
+The attention of the earliest inventors of the century were directed
+toward making safes fire-proof. In England the first patent granted for
+a fire-proof safe was to Richard Scott in 1801. It had two casings, an
+inner and outer one, including the door, and the interspace was filled
+in with charcoal, or wood, and treated with a solution of alkaline salt.
+
+This idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible material has
+been generally followed ever since. The particular inventions in that
+line consist in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials,
+variations in the form of the interspacing, and new methods in the
+construction of the casings, and the selection of the best metals for
+such construction.
+
+In 1834 William Marr of England patented a lining for a double metallic
+chest, filled with non-combustible materials such as mica, or talc clay,
+lime, and graphite. Asbestos commenced to be used about the same time.
+
+The great fire in New York City in 1835, destroying hundreds of millions
+of dollars’ worth of property of every description, gave a great impetus
+to the invention of fire-proof safes in America.
+
+B. G. Wilder there patented in 1843 his celebrated safe, now extensively
+used throughout the world. It consisted of a double box of wrought-iron
+plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron, with a bar across the
+middle; and as a filling for the interspaces he used hydrated gypsum,
+hydraulic cement, plaster of paris, steatite, alum, and the dried
+residuum of soda water.
+
+Herring was another American who invented celebrated safes, made with a
+boiler-iron exterior, a hardened steel inner safe, with the interior
+filled with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft steel. Thus the
+earth, air and water were ransacked for lining materials, in some cases
+more for the purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish any real
+advance in the art. Water itself was introduced as a lining, made to
+flow through the safes, sometimes from the city mains, and so retained
+that when the temperature in case of fire reached 212° F. it became
+steam; and an arrangement for introducing steam in place of water was
+contrived. Among other lining materials found suitable were soapstone,
+alumina, ammonia, copperas, starch, Epsom salts, and gypsum, paper,
+pulp, and alum, and a mixture of various other materials.
+
+After safes were produced that would come out of fiery furnaces where
+they had been buried for days without even the smell of fire or smoke
+upon their contents, inventors commenced to direct their attention to
+burglar-proof safes.
+
+Chubb, in 1835, patented a process of rendering wooden safes burglar
+proof by lining them with steel, or case-hardened iron plate. Newton in
+1853 produced one made of an outer shell of cast iron, an interior
+network of wrought iron rods, and fluid iron poured between these, so
+that a compound mass was formed of different degrees of resistance to
+turn aside the burglar’s tools. Chubb again, in 1857, and in subsequent
+years, and Chartwood, Glocker, and Thompson and Tann and others in
+England invented new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the
+drilling by tools. Hall and Marvin of the United States also invented
+safes for the same purpose. Hall had thick steel plates dovetailed
+together; and angle irons tenoned at the corners. Marvin’s safe was
+globeshaped, to present no salient points for the action of tools, made
+of chrome steel, mounted in this shape on a platform, or enclosed in a
+fire-proof safe. Herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and
+grooved the doors with double casings, and which he hung with a
+lever-hinge, provided the doors with separate locks and packed all the
+joints with rubber to prevent the operation of the air pump--which had
+become a dangerous device of burglars with which to introduce explosives
+to blow open the doors.
+
+Still later and more elaborate means have been used to frustrate the
+burglars. Electricity has been converted into an automatic warder to
+guard the castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient
+stations when the locks or doors are meddled with and the proper
+manipulation not used. Express safes for railroad cars have been made of
+parts telescoped or crowded together by hydraulic power, requiring heavy
+machinery for locking and unlocking, and this machinery is located in
+machine shops along the route and not accessible to burglars.
+
+About 1815 inventors commenced to produce devices to show with certainty
+if a lock had been tampered with. The keyhole was closed by a revolving
+metallic curtain, and paper was secured over the keyhole. As a further
+means of detection photographs of some irregular object are made, one of
+which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained. This
+prevents the substitution of one piece of paper for another piece
+without detection. A large number of patents have been taken out on
+glass coverings for locks which have to be broken before the lock can be
+turned. These are called seal locks.
+
+Locks of various kinds, consisting at least of the two general features
+of a bolt and a key to move the bolt, have existed from very ancient
+days. The Egyptians, the Hebrews and the Chinese, and Oriental nations
+generally had locks and keys of ponderous size. Isaiah speaks of the key
+of the house of David; and Homer writes sonorously of the lock in the
+house of Penelope with its brazen key, the respondent wards, the flying
+bars and valves which,
+
+  “Loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring,
+  So roared the lock when it released the spring.”
+
+The castles, churches and convents of the middle ages had their often
+highly ornamental locks and their warders to guard and open them. Later,
+locks were invented with complex wards. These are carved pieces of metal
+in the lock which fit into clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the
+lock from being opened except by its own proper key.
+
+As early as 1650 the Dutch had invented the Letter lock, the progenitor
+of the modern permutation lock, consisting of a lock the bolt of which
+is surrounded by several rings on which were cut the letters of the
+alphabet, which by a prearrangement on the part of the owner were made
+to spell a certain word or number of words before the lock could be
+opened. Carew, in verses written in 1621, refers to one of these locks
+as follows:--
+
+  “As doth a lock that goes with letters; for, till every one be known,
+  The lock’s as fast as though you had found none.”
+
+The art had also advanced in the eighteenth century to the use of
+_tumblers_ in locks, the lever or latch or plate which falls into a
+notch of the bolt and prevents it from being shot until it has been
+raised or released by the action of the key. Barron in England in 1778
+obtained a patent for such a lock.
+
+Joseph Bramah, who has before been referred to in connection with the
+hydraulic press he invented, also in 1784 invented and patented in
+England a lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a century’s
+extensive use. It was the first, or among the first of locks which
+troubled modern burglars’ picks. Its leading features were a key with
+longitudinal slots, a barrel enclosing a spring, plates, called sliders,
+notched unequally and resting against the spring, a plate with a central
+perforation and slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the
+slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be turned by the key so as
+to actuate the bolt. Chubb and Hobbs of England made important
+improvements in tumbler locks, which for a long time were regarded as
+unpickable.
+
+Most important advances have been made during the century in
+_Combination_ or _Permutation Locks_ and _Time Locks_. For a long time
+permutation or combination locks consisted of modifications of one
+general principle, and that was the Dutch letter lock already referred
+to, or the wheel lock, composed of a series of disks with letters around
+their edges. The interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt
+being shot until a series of letters were in line, forming a combination
+known only to the operator. Time locks are constructed on the principle
+of clockwork, so that they cannot be opened even with the proper key
+until a regulated interval of time has elapsed.
+
+Among the most celebrated combination and time locks of the century are
+those known as the Yale locks, chiefly the inventions of Louis Yale,
+Jr., of Philadelphia. The Yale double dial lock is a double combination
+bank or safe lock having two dials, each operating its own set of
+tumblers and bolts, so that two persons, each in possession of his own
+combination, must be present at a certain time in order to unlock it. If
+this double security is not desired, one person alone may be possessed
+of both combinations, or the combinations may be set as one. In their
+time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render it impossible to
+unlock except at a predetermined time each day, but the arrangement is
+such that on intervening Sundays the time mechanism will entirely
+prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of the door on that
+day.
+
+Another feature of the lock is the thin, flat keys with bevel-edged
+notchings, or with longitudinal sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow
+slit of a cylinder lock. To make locks for use with the corrugated keys
+machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised. In such a lock
+the keyhole, which is a little very narrow slit, is formed sinuously to
+correspond to the sinuosities of the key. No other key will fit it, nor
+can it be picked by a tool, as the tool must be an exact duplicate of
+the key in order to enter and move in the keyhole.
+
+Of late years numerous locks have been invented for the special uses to
+which they are to be applied. Thus, one type of lock is that for safety
+deposit vaults and boxes, in which a primary key in the keeping of a
+janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard mechanism to set the lock,
+while the box owner may use a secondary key to completely unlock the box
+or vault.
+
+Master, or secondary key locks, are now in common use in hotels and
+apartment-houses, by which the key of the door held by a guest will
+unlock only his door, but the master key held by the manager or janitor
+will unlock all the doors. This saves the duplication and multiplicity
+of a vast number of extra keys.
+
+The value of a simple, cheap, safe, effective lock in a place where its
+advantages are appreciated by all classes of people everywhere is
+illustrated in the application of the modern rotary registering lock to
+the single article of mail bags. Formerly it was not unusual that losses
+by theft of mail matter were due in part to the extraction of a portion
+of the mail matter by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring
+it in place.
+
+The United States, with its 76,000,000 of people, found it necessary to
+use in its mail service hundreds of thousands of mail pouches, having
+locks for securing packages of valuable matter. But these locks are of
+such character that it is impossible for anyone to break into the bag
+and conceal the evidence of his crime. The unfortunate thief is reduced
+to the necessity of stealing the whole pouch. Losses under this system
+have grown so small “as to be almost incapable of mathematical
+calculation.”
+
+Safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes are now so common,
+even to prevent the unauthorised use of an umbrella, or the unfriendly
+taking away of a bicycle or other vehicle, that notwithstanding the
+nineteenth century dynamite with which burglars still continue to blow
+open the best constructed safes and vaults, still a universal sense of
+greater security in such matters is beginning to manifest itself; and
+not only the loss of valuables by fire and theft is becoming the
+exception, but the temptation to steal is being gradually removed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+CARRYING MACHINES.
+
+
+The reflecting observer delights occasionally to shift the scenes of the
+present stage and bring to the front the processions of the past. That
+famous triumphal one, for instance, of Ptolemy of Philadelphus, at
+Alexandria, about 270 B. C., then in the midst of his power and glory,
+in which there were chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants and
+goats, antelopes, oryxes, buffaloes, ostriches, gnus and zebras; then a
+tribe of the Scythians, when with many scores of oxen they were shifting
+their light, big round houses, made of felt cloth and mounted on road
+carts, to a new camping place; next a wild, mad dash of the Roman
+charioteers around the amphitheatre, or a triumphal march with chariots
+of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory; and now an army of
+the ancient Britons driving through these same charioteers of Cæsar with
+their own rude chariots, having sharp hooks and crooked iron blades
+extending from their axles; now a “Lady’s Chair” of the fourteenth
+century--the state carriage of the time--with a long, wooden-roofed and
+windowed body, having a door at each end, resting on a cumbrous frame
+without springs, and the axles united rigidly to a long reach; next
+comes a line of imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century,
+with bodies provided with pillars to support the roof, and adorned with
+curtains of cloth and leather, but still destitute of springs; and here
+in stately approach comes a line of more curious and more comfortable
+“royal coaches” of the seventeenth century, when springs were for the
+first time introduced; and now rumbles forward a line of those famous
+old English stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century, which
+were two days flying from Oxford to London, a distance of fifty-five
+miles; but a scene in the next century shows these ponderous vehicles
+greatly improved, and the modern English stage mail-coaches of Palmer in
+line. Referring to Palmer’s coaches, Knight says: “Palmer, according to
+De Quincey, was twice as great a man as Galileo, because he not only
+invented mail-coaches (of more general practical utility than Jupiter’s
+satellites), but married the daughter of a duke, and succeeded in
+getting the post-office to use them. This revolutionised the whole
+business.” The coaches were built with steel springs, windows of great
+strength and lightness combined, boots for the baggage, seats for a few
+outside passengers, and a guard with a grand uniform, to protect the
+mail and stand for the dignity of his majesty’s government.
+
+By the system of changing horses frequently great speed was attained,
+and the distance from Edinburgh to London, 400 miles, was made in 40
+hours. Other lines of coaches, arranged to carry double the number of
+passengers outside than in, fourteen to six, were made heavier, and took
+the road more leisurely.
+
+The carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous, heavy contrivances,
+without springs, mostly two-wheel, heavy carts.
+
+The middle classes at that time were not seen riding in coaches of their
+own, but generally on horseback, as the coaches of the rich were too
+expensive, and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in
+construction, and too painful in operation.
+
+Let the observer now pass to the largest and most varied exhibition of
+the best types of modern vehicles of every description that the world
+had ever seen, the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, and
+behold what wonderful changes art, science, invention, and mechanical
+skill had wrought in this domain. Here were the carriages of the rich,
+constructed of the finest and most appropriate woods that science and
+experience had found best adapted for the various parts, requiring the
+combination of strength and lightness, the best steel for the springs,
+embodying in themselves a world of invention and discovery, and splendid
+finish and polish in all parts unknown to former generations.
+
+Here, too, were found vehicles of a great variety for the comfort and
+convenience of every family, from the smallest to the largest means.
+
+The farmer and the truckman were especially provided for. One
+establishment making an exhibition at that time, employed some six
+hundred or seven hundred hands, four hundred horse-power of steam,
+turning out sixty wagons a day, or one in every ten minutes of each
+working day in the year.
+
+Here England showed her victoria, her broughams, landaus, phætons,
+sporting-carts, wagonettes, drays and dog-carts; Canada her splendid
+sleighs; France her superb barouches, carriages, double-top sociables,
+the celebrated Collinge patent axle-trees and springs; Germany the best
+carriage axles, springs and gears; Russia its famous low-wheeled
+fast-running carriages; Norway its carryalls, or sulkies, and sleighs
+strongly built, and made of wood from those vast forests that ever
+abound in strength and beauty. One ancient sleigh there was, demurely
+standing by its modern companions, said to have been built in 1625, and
+it was still good. America stood foremost in carriage wheels of best
+materials and beautiful workmanship, bent rims, turned and finished
+spokes, mortised hubs, steel tires, business and farm wagons, carts and
+baby carriages. Each trade and field of labour had its own especially
+adapted complete and finished vehicle. There were hay wagons and
+hearses; beer wagons and ice carts; doctors’ buggies, express wagons,
+drays, package delivery wagons; peddlers’ wagons with all the shelves
+and compartments of a miniature store, skeleton wagons, and sportsmen’s,
+and light and graceful two and four “wheelers.” Beautiful displays of
+bent and polished woods, a splendid array of artistic, elegant, and
+useful harnesses, and all the traps that go to make modern means of
+conveyance by animal power so cheap, convenient, strong and attractive
+that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in principles of
+construction of vehicles and in their materials, and since contents
+itself in improving details.
+
+To this century is due the development of that class of carriages, the
+generic term for which is _Velocipedes_--a word which would imply a
+vehicle propelled by the feet, although it has been applied to vehicles
+propelled by the hands and steered by the feet. This name originated
+with the French, and several Frenchmen patented velocipedes from 1800 to
+1821.
+
+Tricycles having three wheels, propelled by the hands and steered with
+the feet, were also invented in the early part of the century.
+
+The term _Bicycle_ does not appear to have been used until about 1869.
+
+Although such structures had been referred to in publications before,
+yet the modern bicycle appears to have been first practically
+constructed in Germany. In 1816 Baron von Drais of Manheim made a
+vehicle consisting of two wheels arranged one before the other, and
+connected by a bar, the forward wheel axled in a fork which was swiveled
+to the front end of the bar and had handles to guide the machine, with a
+seat on the bar midway between the two wheels, and arranged so that the
+driver should bestride the bar. But there was no support for the rider’s
+feet, and the vehicle was propelled by thrusting his feet alternately
+against the ground. This machine was called the “Draisine” and
+undoubtedly was the progenitor of the modern bicycle. Denis Johnson
+patented in England in 1818 a similar vehicle which he named the
+“Pedestrian Curricle.” Another style was called the “Dandy Horse.”
+Another form was that of Gompertz in England in 1821, who contrived a
+segmental rack connected with a frame over the front wheel and engaging
+a pinion on the wheel axle. With some improvements added by others, the
+vehicle came into quite extensive and popular use in some of the cities
+in Europe and America. It was also named the “Dandy” and the “Hobby
+Horse.” Treadles were subsequently applied, but after a time the machine
+fell into disuse and was apparently forgotten. In 1863, however, the
+idea was revived by a Frenchman, Michaux, who added the crank to the
+front wheel axle of the “Draisine” (also called the “célérifèré.”) In
+1866 Pierre Lallement of France, having adapted the idea of the crank
+and pedal movement and obtained a patent, went to America, where after
+two years of public indifference the machine suddenly sprung into
+favour. In 1869 a popular wave in its favour also spread over part of
+Europe, and all classes of people were riding it.
+
+But the wheels had hard tires, the roads and many of the streets were
+not smooth, the vehicle got the name of the “bone-breaker” and its use
+ceased. During the few years following some new styles of frames were
+invented. Thus some very high wheels, with a small wheel in front, or
+one behind, wheels with levers in addition to the crank, etc., and then
+for a time the art rested again.
+
+Some one then recalled the fact that McMillan, a Scotchman, about
+1838-1841, had used two low wheels like the “Draisine” with a driving
+gear, and that Dalzell, also of Scotland, had in 1845 made a similar
+machine. Parts of these old machines were found and the wheel
+reconstructed. Then in the seventies the entire field was thrown open to
+women by the invention in England of the “drop frame,” which removed
+completely the difficulty as to arrangement of the skirts and thus
+doubled the interest in and desire for a comfortable riding machine. But
+they were still, to a great degree, “bone-breakers.”
+
+Then J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of Belfast, Ireland, in order to
+meet the complaints of his son that the wheel was too hard, thought of
+the _pneumatic rubber tire_, and applied it with great success. This was
+a very notable and original re-invention. A re-invention, because a man
+“born before his time” had invented and patented the pneumatic tire more
+than forty years before. It was not wanted then and everybody had
+forgotten it. This man was Robert William Thomson, a civil engineer of
+Adelphi, Middlesex county, England. In 1845 he obtained a patent in
+England, and shortly after in the United States. In both patents he
+describes how he proposed to make a tire for all kinds of vehicles
+consisting of a hollow rubber tube, with an inner mixed canvas and
+rubber lining, a tube and a screw cup by which to inflate it, and
+several ways for preventing punctures. To obviate the bad results of
+punctures he proposed also to make his tire in sectional compartments,
+so that if one compartment was punctured the others would still hold
+good. He also proposed to use vulcanised rubber, thus utilising the then
+very recent discovery of Goodyear of mixing sulphur with soft rubber,
+and to apply the same to the canvas lining.
+
+And, now, when the last decade of the century had been reached, and
+after a century’s hard work by the inventors, the present wonderful
+vehicle, known as the “safety bicycle,” had obtained a successful and
+permanent foothold among the vehicles of mankind. Proper proportions,
+low wheels, chain-gearing, treadles, pedals and cranks, cushion and
+pneumatic tires, drop frames, steel spokes like a spider’s web,
+ball-bearings for the crank and axle parts, a spring-supported cushioned
+seat which could be raised or lowered, adjustable handles, and the
+clearest-brained scientific mechanics to construct all parts from the
+best materials and with mathematical exactness--all this has been done.
+To these accomplishments have been added a great variety of tires to
+prevent wear and puncturing, among which are _self-healing_ tires,
+having a lining of viscous or plastic rubber to close up automatically
+the air holes. Many ways of clamping the tire to the rim have been
+contrived. So have brakes of various descriptions, some consisting of
+disks on the driving shaft, brought into frictional contact by a touch
+of the toe on the pedal, as a substitute for those applied to the
+surface of the tire, known as “spoon brakes”; saddles, speed-gearings,
+men’s machines in which by the removal of the upper bar the machine is
+converted into one for the use of women; the substitution of the direct
+action, consisting of beveled gearing for the sprocket chain, etc., etc.
+
+The ideas of William Thomson as to pneumatic and cushioned tires are
+now, after a lapse of fifty years, generally adopted. Even sportsmen
+were glad to seize upon them, and wheels of sulkies, provided with the
+pneumatic tires, have enabled them to lower the record of trotting
+horses. Their use on many other vehicles has accomplished his objects,
+“of lessening the power required to draw carriages, rendering the motion
+easier, and diminishing the noise.”
+
+It is impossible to overlook the fact in connection with this subject
+that the processes and machinery especially invented to make the various
+parts of a bicycle are as wonderful as the wheel itself. Counting the
+spokes there are, it is estimated, more than 300 different parts in such
+a wheel. The best and latest inventions and discoveries in the making of
+metals, wood, rubber and leather have been drawn upon in supplying these
+useful carriers. And what a revolution they have produced in the making
+of good roads, the saving of time, the dispatch of business, and more
+than all else, in the increase of the pleasure, the health and the
+amusement of mankind!
+
+It was quite natural that when the rubber cushion and pneumatic tires
+rounded the pleasure of easy and noiseless riding in vehicles that
+_Motor vehicles_ should be revived and improved. So we have the
+_Automobiles_ in great variety. Invention has been and is still being
+greatly exercised as to the best motive power, in the adaption of
+electric motors, oil and gasoline or vapour engines, springs and air
+pumps, in attempts to reduce the number of complicated parts, and to
+render less strenuous the mental and muscular strain of the operator.
+
+_Traction Engines._--The old road engines that antedated the locomotives
+are being revived, and new ideas springing from other arts are being
+incorporated in these useful machines to render them more available than
+in former generations. Many of the principles and features of motor
+vehicles, but on a heavier scale, are being introduced to adapt them to
+the drawing of far heavier loads. Late devices comprise a spring link
+between the power and the traction wheel to prevent too sudden a start,
+and permit a yielding motion; steering devices by which the power of the
+engine is used to steer the machine; and application of convenient and
+easily-worked brakes.
+
+An example of a modern traction engine may be found attached to one or
+more heavy cars adapted for street work, and on which may be found
+apparatus for making the mixed materials of which the roadbed is to be
+constructed, and all of which is moved along as the road or street
+surface is completed. When these fine roads become the possession of a
+country light traction engines for passenger traffic will be found
+largely supplanting the horse and the steam railroad engines.
+
+_Brakes_, railway and electric, have already been referred to in the
+proper chapters. In the latest system of railroading greater attention
+has been paid to the lives and limbs of those employed as workmen on the
+trains, especially to those of brakemen. And if corporations have been
+slow to adopt such merciful devices, legislatures have stepped in to
+help the matter. One great source of accidents in this respect has been
+due to the necessity of the brakemen entering between the cars while
+they are in motion to couple them by hand. This is now being abolished
+by _automatic couplers_, by which, when the locking means have been
+withdrawn from connection or thrown up, they will be so held until the
+cars meet again, when the locking parts on the respective cars will be
+automatically thrown and locked, as easily and on the same principle as
+the hand of one man may clasp the hand of another.
+
+The comfort of passengers and the safety of freight have also been
+greatly increased by the invention of _Buffers_ on railroad cars and
+trains to prevent sudden and violent concussion. Fluid pressure car
+buffers, in which a constant supply of fluid under pressure is provided
+by a pump or train pipe connected to the engine is one of a great
+variety.
+
+Another notable improvement in this line is the splendid vestibule
+trains, in which the cars are connected to one another by enclosed
+passages and which at their meeting ends are provided with yieldingly
+supported door-like frames engaging one another by frictional contact,
+usually, whereby the shock and rocking of cars are prevented in starting
+and stopping, and their oscillation reduced to a minimum.
+
+As collisions and accidents cannot always be prevented, car frames are
+now built in which the frames are trussed, and made of rolled steel
+plates, angles, and channels, whereby a car body of great resistance to
+telescoping or crushing is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING.
+
+    “Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam,
+    Survey our empire, and behold our home.”
+
+
+“Ships are but boards,” soliloquised the crafty Shylock, and were this
+still true, yet this present period has seen wonderful changes in
+construction.
+
+The high castellated bows and sterns and long prows of _The Great
+Harry_, of the seventeenth century, and its successors in the
+eighteenth, with some moderation of cumbersome matter, gave way to
+lighter, speedier forms, first appearing in the quick-gliding Yankee
+clippers, during the first decade of the nineteenth century.
+
+Eminent naval architects have regarded the proportions of Noah’s ark,
+300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad and 30 cubits high, in which the length
+was six times the breadth, and the depth three-fifths of the breadth, as
+the best combination of the elements of strength, capacity and
+stability.
+
+Even that most modern mercantile vessel known as the “whale-back” with
+its nearly flat bottom, vertical sides, arched top or deck, skegged or
+spoon-shaped at bow and stern, straight deck lines, the upper deck
+cabins and steering gear raised on hollow turrets, with machinery and
+cargo in the main hull, has not departed much from the safe rule of
+proportions of its ancient prototype.
+
+But in other respects the ideas of Noah and of the Phœnicians, the
+best of ancient ship-builders, as well as the Northmen, the Dutch, the
+French, and the English, the best ship-builders of later centuries, were
+decidedly improved upon by the Americans, who, as above intimated, were
+revolutionizing the art and building the finest vessels in the early
+part of the century, and these rivalled in speed the steam vessels for
+some years after steamships were ploughing the rivers and the ocean.
+
+Discarding the lofty decks fore and aft and ponderous topsides, the
+principal characteristics of the American “clippers” were their fine
+sharp lines, built long and low, broad of beam before the centre, sharp
+above the water, and deep aft. A typical vessel of this sort was the
+clipper ship _Great Republic_, built by Donald McKay of Boston during
+the first half of the century. She was 325 feet long, 53 feet wide, 37
+feet deep, with a capacity of about 4000 tons. She had four masts, each
+provided with a lightning rod. A single suit of her sails consisted of
+15,563 yards of canvas. Her keel rose for 60 feet forward, gradually
+curved into the arc of a circle as it blended with the stern. Vessels of
+her type ran seventeen and eighteen miles an hour at a time when steam
+vessels were making only twelve or fourteen miles an hour, the latter
+speed being one which it was predicted by naval engineers could not with
+safety be exceeded with ocean steamships.
+
+These vessels directed the attention of ship-builders to two prominent
+features, the shape of the bow and the length of the vessel. For the old
+convex form of bow and stern, the principal of an elongated wedge was
+substituted, the wedge slightly hollowed on its face, by which the
+waters were more easily parted and thrown aside.
+
+A departure was early made in the matter of strengthening the “ribs of
+oak” to better meet the strains from the rough seas. In 1810 Sir Robert
+Seppings, surveyor of the English navy, devised and introduced the
+system of diagonal bracing. This was an arrangement of timbers crossing
+the ribs on the inside of the ship at angles of about 45°, and braced by
+diagonals and struts.
+
+Of course the great and leading event of the nineteenth century in the
+matter of inventions relating to ships was the introduction of steam as
+the motive power. Of this we have treated in the chapter on steam
+engineering. The giant, steam, demanded and received the obeisance of
+every art before devoting his inexhaustible strength to their service.
+Systems of wood-working and metal manufacture must be revolutionised to
+give him room to work, and to withstand the strokes of his mighty arm.
+Lord Dundas at the beginning of the century had an iron boat built for
+the Forth and Clyde Canal, which was propelled by steam.
+
+But the departure from the adage that “ships are but boards” did not
+take place, however, until about 1829-30, when the substitution of iron
+for wood in the construction of vessels had passed beyond the
+experimental stage. In those years the firm of John Laird of Birkenhead
+began the building of practical iron vessels, and he was followed soon
+by Sir William Fairbairn at Manchester, and Randolph, Elder & Co., and
+the Fairfield Works on the Clyde.
+
+The advantage of iron over wood in strength, and in power to withstand
+tremendous shocks, was early illustrated in the _Great Britain_ built
+about 1844, the first large, successful, seagoing vessel constructed.
+Not long thereafter this same vessel lay helpless upon the coast of
+Ireland, driven there by a great storm, and beaten by the tremendous
+waves of the Atlantic with a force that would have in a few hours or
+days broken up and pulverised a “ship of boards,” and yet the _Great
+Britain_ lay there several weeks, was finally brought off, and again
+restored to successful service.
+
+Wood and iron both have their peculiar advantages and disadvantages.
+Wood is not only lighter, but easily procured and worked, and cheaper,
+in many small and private ship-yards where an iron frame and parts would
+be difficult and expensive to produce. It is thought that as to the
+fouling of ships’ bottoms a wooden hull covered with copper fouls less,
+and consequently impedes the speed less; that the damage done by shocks
+or the penetration of shot is not so great or difficult to repair, and
+that the danger of variation of the compass by reason of local
+attraction of the metal is less.
+
+But the advantages of iron and steel far outnumber those of wood. Its
+strength, its adaptability for all sizes and forms and lines, its
+increased cheapness, its resistance to shot penetration, its durability,
+and now its easy procurement, constitute qualities which have
+established iron ship-building as a great new and modern art. In this
+modern revolution in iron-clad ships, their adaptation to naval warfare
+was due to the genius of John Ericsson, and dates practically from the
+celebrated battle between the iron-clads the _Merrimac_ and the
+_Monitor_ in Hampton Roads on the Virginia coast in the Civil war in
+America in April, 1862.
+
+Although the tendency at first in building iron and steel vessels,
+especially for the navy, was towards an entire metal structure, later
+experience resulted in a more composite style, using wood in some parts,
+where found best adapted by its capacity of lightness, non-absorption of
+heat and less electrical conductivity, etc., and at the same time
+protecting such interior portions by an iron shell or frame-work.
+
+One great improvement in ship-building, whether in wood or metal,
+thought of and practised to some extent in former times, but after all a
+child of this century, is the building of the hull and hold in
+compartments, water-tight, and sometimes fire-proof, so that in case of
+a leakage or a fire in one or more compartments, the fire or water may
+be confined there and the extension of the danger to the entire ship
+prevented.
+
+In the matter of _Marine Propulsion_, when the steam engine was made a
+practical and useful servant by Watt, and men began to think of driving
+boats and ships with it, the problem was how to adapt it to use with
+propelling means already known. Paddle-wheels and other wheels to move
+boats in place of oars had been suggested, and to some extent used from
+time to time, since the days of the Romans; and they were among the
+first devices used in steam vessels. Their whirl may still be heard on
+many waters. Learned men saw no reason why the screw of Archimedes
+should not be used for the same purpose, and the idea was occasionally
+advocated by French and English philosophers from at least 1680, by
+Franklin and Watt less than a century later, and finally, in 1794,
+Lyttleton of England obtained a patent for his “aquatic propeller,”
+consisting of threads formed on a cylinder and revolving in a frame at
+the head, stern, or side of a vessel.
+
+Other means had been also suggested prior to 1800, and by the same set
+of philosophers, and experimentally used by practical builders, such as
+steam-pumps for receiving the water forward, or amidships, and forcing
+it out astern, thus creating a propulsive movement. The latter part of
+the eighteenth century teemed with these suggestions and experiments,
+but it remained for the nineteenth to see their embodiment and
+adaptation to successful commercial use.
+
+The earliest, most successful demonstrations of screw propellers and
+paddle wheels in steam vessels in the century were the construction and
+use of a boat with twin screws by Col. John Stevens of Hoboken, N. J.,
+in 1804 and the paddle-wheel steamboat trial of Fulton on the Hudson in
+1807.
+
+But it was left to John Ericsson, that great Swedish inventor, going to
+England in 1826 with his brain full of ideas as to steam and solar
+engines, to first perfect the screw-propeller. He there patented in 1836
+his celebrated propeller, consisting of several blades or segments of a
+screw, and based on such correct principles of twist that they were at
+once adopted and applied to steam vessels.
+
+In 1837-1839 the knowledge of his inventions had preceded him to
+America, where his propeller was at once introduced and used in the
+vessels _Frances B. Ogden_ and the _Robert E. Stockton_ (the latter
+built by the Lairds of Birkenhead and launched in 1837). In 1839 or 1840
+Ericsson went to America, and in 1841 he was engaged in the construction
+of the U.S. ship of war _Princeton_, the first naval screw warship built
+having propelling machinery under the water line and out of reach of
+shot.
+
+The idea that steamships could not be safely run at a greater speed than
+ten or twelve miles an hour was now abandoned.
+
+Twice Ericsson revolutionised the naval construction of the world by his
+inventions in America: first by the introduction of his screw-propeller
+in the _Princeton_; and second, by building the iron-clad _Monitor_.
+
+Since Ericsson’s day other inventors have made themselves also famous by
+giving new twists to the tail of this famous fish and new forms to its
+iron-ribbed body.
+
+_Pneumatic Propellers_ operated by the expulsion of air or gas against
+the surrounding body of water, and chain-propellers, consisting of a
+revolving chain provided with paddles or floats, have also been invented
+and tested, with more or less successful results.
+
+A great warship as she lies in some one of the vast modern ship-yards of
+the world, resting securely on her long steel backbone, from which great
+ribs of steel rise and curve on either side and far overhead, like a
+monstrous skeleton of some huge animal that the sea alone can produce,
+clothed with a skin, also of steel; her huge interior, lined at bottom
+with an armoured deck that stretches across the entire breadth of the
+vessel, and built upon this deck, capacious steel compartments enclosing
+the engines and boilers, the coal, the magazines, the electric plant for
+supplying power to various motors for lighting the ship and for
+furnishing the current to powerful search-lights; having compartments
+for the sick, the apothecary shop, and the surgeon’s hospital, the men’s
+and the officers’ quarters; above these the conning tower and the
+armoured pilot-house, then the great guns interspersed among these
+various parts, looking like the sunken eyes, or protruding like the bony
+prominences of some awful sea monster, is a structure that gives one an
+idea of the immense departure which has occurred during the last half
+century, not only from the wooden walls of the navies of all the past,
+but from all its mechanical arts.
+
+What a great ocean liner contains and what the contributions are to
+modern ship-building from other modern arts is set forth in the
+following extract from _McClure’s Magazine_ for September, 1900, in
+describing the _Deutschland_. “The _Deutschland_, for instance has a
+complete refrigerating plant, four hospitals, a safety deposit vault for
+the immense quantities of gold and silver which pass between the banks
+of Europe and America, eight kitchens, a complete post-office with
+German and American clerks, thirty electrical motors, thirty-six pumps,
+most of them of American and English make, no fewer than seventy-two
+steam engines, a complete drug store, a complete fire department, with
+pumps, hose and other fire-fighting machinery, a library, 2600 electric
+lights, two barber shops, room for an orchestra and brass band, a
+telegraph system, a telephone system, a complete printing establishment,
+a photographic dark room, a cigar store, an electric fire-alarm system,
+and a special refrigerator for flowers.”
+
+We have seen, in treating of safes and locks, how burglars keep pace
+with the latest inventions to protect property by the use of dynamite
+and nitro-glycerine explosions. The reverse of this practice prevails
+when those policemen of the seas, the _torpedo boats_, guard the
+treasures of the shore. It is there the defenders are armed with the
+irresistible explosives. These explosives are either planted in harbours
+and discharged by electricity from the shore, or carried by very swift
+armoured boats, or by boats capable of being submerged, directed, and
+propelled by mechanisms contained there and controlled from the shore,
+or from another vessel; or by boats containing all instrumentalities,
+crew, and commander, and capable of submerging and raising itself, and
+of attacking and exploding the torpedo when and where desired. The
+latter are now considered as the most formidable and efficient class of
+destroyers.
+
+No matter how staunch, sound and grand in dimensions man may build his
+ships, old Neptune can still toss them. But Franklin, a century and a
+half ago, called attention to his experiments of oiling his locks when
+in a tempestuous mood, and thus rendering the temper of the Old Man of
+the Sea as placid as a summer pond. Ships that had become unmanageable
+were thus enabled, by spreading oil on the waves from the windward side,
+to be brought under control, and dangerous surfs subdued, so that boats
+could land. Franklin’s idea of pouring oil on the troubled waters has
+been revived during the last quarter of the century and various means
+for doing it vigorously patented. The means have varied in many
+instances, but chiefly consist of bags and other receptacles to hold and
+distribute the oil upon the surrounding water with economy and
+uniformity.
+
+At the close of the century the world was still waiting for the
+successful _Air-ship_.
+
+A few successful experiments in balloon navigation by the aid of small
+engines of different forms have been made since 1855. Some believe that
+Count Zeppelin, an officer of the German army has solved the great
+problem, especially since the ascent of his ship made on July 2, 1900,
+at Lake Constance.
+
+It has been asserted that no vessel has yet been made to successfully
+fly unless made on the balloon principle, and Count Zeppelin’s boat is
+on that principle. According to the description of Eugen Wolf, an
+aeronaut who took part in the ascent referred to and who published an
+account of the same in the November number of _McClure’s_, 1900, it is
+not composed of one balloon, but of a row of them, and these are not
+exposed when inflated to every breeze that blows, but enclosed and
+combined in an enormous cylindrical shell, 420 feet in length, about 38
+feet in diameter, with a volume of 14,780 cubic yards and with ends
+pointed like a cigar. This shell is a framework made up of aluminium
+trellis work, and divided into seventeen compartments, each having its
+own gas bag. The frame is further strengthened and the balloons stayed
+by a network of aluminium wire, and the entire frame covered with a soft
+ramie fibre. Over this is placed a water-tight covering of pegamoid, and
+the lower part covered with light silk. An air space of two feet is left
+between the cover and the balloons. Beneath the balloons extends a
+walking bridge 226 feet long, and from this bridge is suspended two
+aluminium cars, at front and rear of the centre, adapted to hold all the
+operative machinery and the operator and other passengers.
+
+The balloons, provided with proper valves, served to lift the structure;
+large four-winged screws, one on each side of the ship, their shafts
+mounted on a light framework extending from the body of the ship, and
+driven backward and forward by two light benzine engines, one on each
+car, constituted the propelling force. Dirigibility (steering) was
+provided for by an apparatus consisting of a double pair of rudders, one
+pair forward and one aft, reaching out like great fins, and controlled
+by light metal cords from the cars. A ballast of water was carried in a
+compartment under each car. To give the ship an upward or a downward
+movement the plane on which the ship rests was provided with a weight
+adapted to slip back and forth on a cable underneath the balloon shell.
+When the weight was far aft the tip of the ship was upward and the
+movement was upward, when at the forward end the movement was downward,
+and when at the centre the ship was poised and travelled in a horizontal
+plane. The trip was made over the lake on a quiet evening. A distance of
+three and three-quarter miles, at a height of 1300 feet, was made in
+seventeen minutes. Evolutions from a straight course were accomplished.
+The ship was lowered to the lake, on which it settled easily and rode
+smoothly.
+
+The other great plan of air navigation receiving the attention of
+scientists and aeronauts is the aeroplane system. Although the cohesive
+force of the air is so exceedingly small that it cannot be relied upon
+as a sufficient resisting medium through which propulsion may be
+accomplished alone by a counter-resisting agent like propeller blades,
+yet it is known what weight the air has and it has been ascertained what
+expanse of a thin plane is necessary without other means to support the
+weight of a man in the air.
+
+To this idea must be added the means of flight, of starting and
+maintaining a stable flight and of directing its course. Careful
+observation of the manner of the flight of large heavy birds, especially
+in starting, has led to some successful experiments. They do not rise at
+once, but require an initiative force for soaring which they obtain by
+running on the ground before spreading their wings. The action of the
+wings in folding and unfolding for maintaining the flight and
+controlling its direction, is then to be noted.
+
+It is along these lines that inventions in this system are now working.
+An initiative mechanism to start the ship along the earth or water, to
+raise it at an angle, to spread planes of sufficient extent to support
+the weight of the machine and its operators on the body of the air
+column, light engines to give the wing-planes an opening and closing
+action, rudders to steer by, means for maintaining equilibrium, and
+means when landing to float upon the water or roll upon the land, these
+are the principal problems that navigators of the great seas above us
+are now at work upon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+ILLUMINATING GAS.
+
+  “How wonderful that sunbeams absorbed by vegetation in the primordial
+  ages of the earth and buried in its depths as vegetable fossils
+  through immeasurable eras of time, until system upon system of slowly
+  formed rocks have been piled above, should come forth at last, at the
+  disenchanting touch of science, and turn the light of civilised man
+  into day.”--_Prof. E. L. Youmans._
+
+  “The invention of artificial light has extended the available term
+  of human life, by giving the night to man’s use; it has, by the
+  social intercourse it encourages, polished his manners and refined
+  his tastes, and perhaps as much as anything else, has aided his
+  intellectual progress.”--_Draper._
+
+
+If one desires to know what the condition of cities, towns and peoples
+was before the nineteenth century had lightened and enlightened them,
+let him step into some poor country town in some out-of-the-way region
+(and such may yet be found) at night, pick his way along rough
+pavements, and no pavements, by the light of a smoky lamp placed here
+and there at corners, and of weeping lamps and limp candles in the
+windows of shops and houses, and meet people armed with tin lanterns
+throwing a dubious light across the pathways. Let him be prepared to be
+assailed by the odours of undrained gutters, ditches, and roads called
+streets, and escape, if he can, stumbling and falling into them. Let him
+take care also that he avoid in the darkness the drippings from the
+overhanging eaves or windows, and falling upon the slippery steps of the
+dim doorway he may be about to enter. Within, let him overlook, if he
+can, in the hospitable reception, the dim and smoky atmosphere, and
+observe that the brightest and best as well as the most cheerful
+illuminant flashes from the wide open fireplace. Occasionally a glowing
+grate might be met. The eighteenth century did have its glowing grates,
+and its still more glowing furnaces of coal in which the ore was melted
+and by the light of which the castings were made.
+
+It is very strange that year after year for successive generations men
+saw the hard black coal break under the influence of heat and burst into
+flames which lit up every corner, without learning, beyond sundry
+accidents and experiments, that this _gast_, or _geest_, or _spirit_, or
+_vapour_, or _gas_, as it was variously called, could be led away from
+its source, ignited at a distance, and made to give light and heat at
+other places than just where it was generated.
+
+Thus Dr. Clayton, Dean of Kildare, Ireland, in 1688 distilled gas from
+coal and lit and burned it, and told his learned friend, the Hon. Robert
+Boyle, about it, who announced it with interest to the Royal Society,
+and again it finds mention in the _Philosophical Transactions_ fifty
+years later. Then, in 1726, Dr. Hales told how many cubic inches of gas
+a certain number of grains of coal would produce. Then Bishop Watson in
+1750 passed some gas through water and carried it in pipes from one
+place to another; and then Lord Dundonald in 1786 built some ovens,
+distilled coal and tar, burned the gas, and got a patent. In the same
+year, Dr. Rickel of Würzburg lighted his laboratory with gas made by the
+dry distillation of bones; but all these were experiments. Finally,
+William Murdock, the owner of large workshops at Redruth, in Cornwall, a
+practical man and mechanic, and a keen observer, using soft coal to a
+large extent in his shops, tried with success in 1792 to collect the
+escaping gas and with it lit up the shops. Whether he continued steadily
+to so use the gas or only at intervals, at any rate it seems to have
+been experimental and failed to attract attention. It appears that he
+repeated the experiment at the celebrated steam engine works of Boulton
+and Watt at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1798, and again illuminated the
+works in 1802, on occasion of a peace jubilee.
+
+In the meantime, in 1801, Le Bon, a Frenchman at Paris, had succeeded in
+making illuminating gas from wood, lit his house therewith, and proposed
+to light the whole city of Paris.
+
+Thus it may be said that illuminating gas and the new century were born
+together--the former preceding the latter a little and lighting the way.
+
+Then in 1803 the English periodicals began to take the matter up and
+discuss the whole subject. One magazine objected to its use in houses on
+the ground that the curtains and furniture would be ruined by the
+saturation produced by the oxygen and hydrogen, and that the curtains
+would have to be wrung out the next morning after the illumination.
+There doubtless was good cause for objection to the smoky, unpleasant
+smelling light then produced.
+
+In America in 1806 David Melville of Newport, Rhode Island, lighted with
+gas his own house and the street in front of it. In 1813 he took out a
+patent and lighted several factories. In 1817 his process was applied to
+Beaver Tail Lighthouse on the Atlantic coast--the first use of
+illuminating gas in lighthouses. Coal oil and electricity have since
+been found better illuminants for this purpose.
+
+Murdoch, Winser, Clegg and others continued to illuminate the public
+works and buildings of England. Westminster Bridge and the Houses of
+Parliament were lighted in 1813, and the streets of London in 1815.
+Paris was lighted in 1820, and the largest American cities from 1816 to
+1825. But it required the work of the chemists as well as the mechanics
+to produce the best gas. The rod of Science had touched the rock again
+and from the earth had sprung another servant with power to serve
+mankind, and waited the skilled brain and hand to direct its course.
+
+Produced almost entirely from bituminous coal, it was found to be
+composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen; but various other gases
+were mixed therewith. To determine the proper proportions of these
+gases, to know which should be increased or wholly or partly eliminated,
+required the careful labours of patient chemists. They taught also how
+the gas should be distilled, condensed, cleaned, scrubbed, confined in
+retorts, and its flow measured and controlled.
+
+Fortunately the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part
+of the nineteenth had produced chemists whose investigations and
+discoveries paved the way for success in this revolution in the world of
+light. Priestley had discovered oxygen. Dalton had divided matter into
+atoms, and shown that in its every form, whether solid, liquid, or
+gaseous, these atoms had their own independent, characteristic,
+unalterable weight, and that gases diffused themselves in certain
+proportions.
+
+Berthollet, Graham, and a host of others in England, France, and
+Germany, advanced the art. The highest skilled mechanics, like Clegg of
+England, supplied the apparatus. He it was who invented a gas purifier,
+liquid gas meter, and other useful contrivances.
+
+As the character of the gas as an illuminator depends on the quantity of
+hydro-carbon, or olefiant elements it contains, great efforts were made
+to invent processes and means of carbureting it.
+
+The manufacture of gas was revolutionised by the invention of water gas.
+The main principle of this process is the mixture of hydrogen with the
+vapour of some hydro-carbon: Hydrogen burns with very little light and
+the purpose of the hydro-carbon is to increase the brilliancy of the
+flame. The hydrogen gas is so obtained by the decomposition of water,
+effected by passing steam through highly heated coals.
+
+Patents began to be taken out in this line in England in 1823-24; by
+Donovan in 1830; Geo. Lowe in 1832, and White in 1847. But in England
+water gas could not compete with coal gas in cheapness. On the contrary,
+in America, especially after the petroleum wells were opened up, and
+nature supplied the hydro-carbon in roaring wells and fountains, water
+gas came to the front.
+
+The leading invention there in this line was that of T. S. C. Lowe of
+Morristown, Pennsylvania, in 1873. In Lowe’s process anthracite coal
+might be used, which was raised in a suitable retort to a great heat,
+then superheated steam admitted over this hot bed and decomposed into
+hydrogen and carbonic oxide; then a small stream of naphtha or crude
+petroleum was thrown upon the surface of the burning coal, and from
+these decompositions and mixtures a rich olefiant product and other
+light-giving gases were produced.
+
+The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1886 awarded Lowe, or his
+representatives, a grand medal of honour, his being the invention
+exhibited that year which in their opinion contributed most to the
+welfare of mankind.
+
+A number of inventors have followed in the direction set by Lowe. The
+largest part of gas manufacture, which has become so extensive, embodies
+the basic idea of the Lowe process.
+
+The competition set up by the electricians, especially in the production
+of the beautiful incandescent light for indoor illumination, has spurred
+inventors of gas processes to renewed efforts--much to the benefit of
+that great multitude who sit in darkness until corporations furnish them
+with light.
+
+It was found by Siemens, the great German inventor of modern gas
+regenerative furnace systems, that the quality of the gas was much
+improved, and a greater intensity of light obtained, by heating the
+gases and air before combustion--a plan particularly adapted in lighting
+large spaces.
+
+To describe in detail the large number of inventions relating to the
+manufacture of gas would require a huge volume--the generators,
+carburetors, retorts, mixers, purifiers, metres, scrubbers, holders,
+condensers, governors, indicators, registers, chargers, pressure
+regulators, etc., etc.
+
+It was a great convenience outside of towns and cities, where gas mains
+could not be laid, to have domestic plants and portable gas apparatus,
+worked on the same principles, but in miniature form, adapted to a
+single house, but the exercise of great ingenuity was required to render
+such adaptation successful.
+
+In the use of liquid illuminants, which need a wick to feed them, the
+_Argand burner_--that arrangement of concentric tubes between which the
+wick is confined--although invented by Argand in 1784, yet has occupied
+a vast field of usefulness in connection with the lamps of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+A dangerous but very extensively used illuminating liquid before coal
+oil was discovered was camphene, distilled from turpentine. It gave a
+good light but was not a safe domestic companion.
+
+Great attention has recently been paid to the production of _acetylene_
+gas, produced by the reaction between _calcium carbide_ and water. The
+making of the calcium carbide by the decomposition of mixed pulverised
+lime and coal by the use of a powerful electric battery, is a
+preliminary step in the production of this gas, and was a subsequent
+discovery.
+
+The electric light, acetylene, magnesium, and other modern sources of
+light, although they may be more brilliant and intense than coal gas,
+cannot compete in cheapness of production with the latter. Thus far
+illuminating coal gas is still the queen of artificial lights.
+
+After gas was fairly started in lighting streets and buildings its
+adaptation to lamps followed; and among the most noted of gas lamps is
+that of Von Welsbach, who combined a bunsen gas flame and a glass
+chimney with a “_mantle_” located therein. This mantle is a gauze-like
+structure made of refractory quartz, or of certain oxides, which when
+heated by the gas flame produce an incandescent glow of intense
+brilliancy, with a reduced consumption of gas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+BRICK, POTTERY, GLASS, PLASTICS.
+
+
+When the nineteenth century dawned, men were making brick in the same
+way for the most part that they were fifty centuries before. It is
+recorded in the eleventh chapter of Genesis that when “the whole earth
+was of one language and one speech, it came to pass as they journeyed
+from the east that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they
+dwelt there, and they said to one another, Go to, let us make brick and
+burn them thoroughly, And they had brick for stone, and slime had they
+for mortar.” Then commenced the building of Babel. Who taught the trade
+to the brick-makers of Shinar?
+
+The journey from the east continued, and with it went brick making to
+Greece and Rome, across the continent of Europe, across the English
+channel, until the brick work of Cæsar, stamped by the trade mark of his
+legions, was found on the banks of the Thames, and through the fields of
+Caerleon and York.
+
+Alfred the Great encouraged the trade, and the manufacture flourished
+finely under Henry VIII., Elizabeth and Charles I.
+
+As to Pottery:--Could we only know who among the peoples of the earth
+first discovered, used, or invented fire, we might know who were the
+first makers of baked earthenware. Doubtless the art of pottery arose
+before men learned to bake the plastic clay, in that groping time when
+men, kneading the soft clay with their fingers, or imprinting their
+footsteps in the yielding surface and learning that the sun’s heat
+stiffened and dried those forms into durability, applied the discovery
+to the making of crude vessels, as children unto this day make dishes
+from the tenacious mud. But the artificial burning of the vessels was no
+doubt a later imitation of Nature.
+
+Alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone implements have been
+found the hollow clay dish for holding fire, or food, or water. “As the
+fragment of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision, the dream
+of a vanished hand, a draught of water from a familiar spring, the
+almost perished fragrance of a pressed flower call back the singer, the
+loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood, or the parting
+hour, so in the same manner there linger in this crowning decade of the
+crowning century bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole
+people the fragrance and beauty of its past.” _Prof. O. T. Mason._ The
+same gifted writer, adds: “Who has not read, with almost breaking heart,
+the story of Palissy, the Huguenot potter? But what have our witnesses
+to say of that long line of humble creatures that conjured out of
+prophetic clay, without wheels or furnace, forms and decorations of
+imperishable beauty, which are now being copied in glorified material in
+the best factories of the world? In ceramic as well as textile art the
+first inventors were women. They quarried the clay, manipulated it,
+constructed and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace and wore
+it out in a hundred uses.”
+
+From the early dawn of human history to its present noonday civilisation
+the progress of man may be traced in his pottery. Before printing was an
+art, he inscribed on it his literature. Poets and painters have adorned
+it; and in its manufacture have been embodied through all ages the
+choicest discoveries of the chemist, the inventor and the mechanic.
+
+It would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery from at least the
+time of Homer, who draws a metaphor from the potter seated before his
+wheel and twirling it with both hands, as he shapes the plastic clay
+upon it; to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured vases, covered
+with Egyptian scenes and history; to re-excite wonder over the arts of
+China, in her porcelain, the production of its delicacy and bright
+colours wrapped in such mystery, and stagnant for so many ages, but
+revived and rejuvenated in Japan; to recall to mind the styles and
+composition of the Phœnician vases with mythological legends burned
+immortally therein; the splendid work of the Greek potteries; to lift
+the Samian enwreathed bowl, “filled with Samian wine”; to look upon the
+Roman pottery, statues and statuettes of Rome’s earlier and better days;
+the celebrated _Faience_ (enamelled pottery) at its home in Faenza,
+Italy, and from the hands of its master, Luca della Robia; to trace the
+history of the rare Italian majolica; to tread with light steps the
+bright tiles of the Saracens; to rehearse the story of Bernard Palissy,
+the father of the beautiful French enamelled ware; to bring to view the
+splendid old ware of Nuremberg, the raised white figures on the deep
+blue plaques of Florence, the honest Delft ware of Holland; and finally
+to relate the revolution in the production of pottery throughout all
+Europe caused by the discoveries and inventions of Wedgwood of England
+in the eighteenth century. All this would be interesting, but we must
+hasten on to the equally splendid and more practical works of the busy
+nineteenth century, in which many toilsome methods of the past have been
+superseded by labour-saving contrivances.
+
+The application of machinery to the manufacture of brick began to
+receive attention during the latter part of the eighteenth century,
+after Watt had harnessed steam, and a few patents were issued in England
+and America at that time for such machinery of that character, but
+little was practically done.
+
+The operations in _brickmaking_, to the accomplishment of which by
+machines the inventors of the nineteenth century have devoted great
+talent, relate:
+
+First, to the preparation of the clay.--In ancient Egypt, in places
+where water abounded, it appears that the clay was lifted from the
+bottoms of ponds and lakes on the end of poles, was formed into bricks,
+then sun-dried, modernly called _adobes_. The clay for making these
+required a stiffening material. For this straw was used, mixed with the
+clay; and stubble was also used in the different courses. Hence the old
+metaphor of worthlessness of “bricks without straw,” but of course in
+burning, and in modern processes of pressing unburnt bricks, straw is no
+longer used. Sand should abound in the clay in a certain proportion, or
+be mixed therewith, otherwise the clay, whether burned or unburned, will
+crumble. Stones, gravel and sticks must be removed, otherwise the
+contraction of the clay and expansion of the stones on burning, produce
+a weak and crumbling structure.
+
+Brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of iron, and in proportion
+as this abounds the burned brick is of a lighter or a deeper red. It may
+be desired to add colouring matter or mix different forms of clay, or
+add sand or other ingredients. Clay treated by hand was for ages kneaded
+as dough is kneaded, by the hand or feet, and the clay was often long
+subjected, sometimes for years, to exposure to the air, frost and sun to
+disintegrate and ripen it. As the clay must be first disintegrated,
+ground or pulverised, as grain is first ground to flour to make and
+mould the bread, so the use of a grinding mill was long ago suggested.
+The first machine used to do all this work goes by the humble name of
+_pug mill_.
+
+Many ages ago the Chilians of South America hung two ponderous solid
+wood or stone wheels on an axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated
+by animal power; the wheels were made to run round on a deep basin in
+which ores, or stones, or grain were placed to be crushed. This Chilian
+mill, in principle, was adopted a century or so ago in Europe to the
+grinding of clay. The pug mill has assumed many different forms in this
+age; and separate preliminary mills, consisting of rollers of different
+forms for grinding, alone are often used before the mixing operation. In
+one modern form the pug mill consists of an inverted conical-shaped
+cylinder provided with a set of interior revolving blades arranged
+horizontally, and below this a spiral arrangement of blades on a
+vertical axis, by which the clay is thoroughly cut up and crushed
+against the surrounding walls of the mill, in the meantime softened with
+water or steam if desired, and mixed with sand if necessary, and when
+thus ground and tempered is finally pressed down through the lower
+opening of the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds beneath.
+
+Second.--The next operation is for moulding and pressing the brick. To
+take the place of that ancient and still used mode of filling a mould of
+a certain size by the hands with a lump of soft clay, scraping off the
+surplus, and then dumping the mould upon a drying floor, a great variety
+of machines have been invented.
+
+In some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to feed out the clay in
+the form of a long horizontal slab, which is cut up into proper lengths
+to form the bricks. Some machines are in the form of a large horizontal
+revolving wheel, having the moulds arranged in its top face, each mould
+charged with clay as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout
+of the grinding mill, and then the clay is pressed by pistons or
+plungers worked by a rocking beam, and adapted to descend and fit into
+the mould at stated intervals; or the moulds, carried in a circular
+direction, may have movable bottom plates, which may be pressed upwards
+successively by pistons attached to them and raised by inclines on which
+they travel, forcing the clay against a large circular top plate, and in
+the last part of the movement carrying the pressed brick through an
+aperture to the top of the plate, where it is met by and carried away on
+an endless apron.
+
+In some machines two great wheels mesh together, one carrying the moulds
+in its face, and the other the presser plate plungers, working in the
+former, the bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by the
+action of cam followers, or by other means.
+
+In others the moulds are passed, each beneath a gravity-descending or
+cam-forced plunger, the clay being thus stamped by impact into form; or
+in other forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to successive
+pressure from the cam-operated pistons arranged horizontally and on a
+line with the discharging belt.
+
+Third, the drying and burning of the brick.--The old methods were
+painfully slow and tedious. A long time was occupied in seasoning the
+clay, and then after the bricks were moulded, another long time was
+necessary to dry them, and a final lengthy period was employed to burn
+them in crude kilns. These old methods were too slow for modern wants.
+But they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions, as in all
+ages the use of old arts and implements have continued along by the side
+of later inventions and discoveries.
+
+No useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently ever entirely
+supplanted. The implements of the stone age are still found in use by
+some whose environment has deprived them of the knowledge of or desire
+to use better tools. The single ox pulling the crooked stick plough, or
+other similar ancient earth stirrer, and Ruth with her sickle and
+sheaves, may be found not far from the steam plough and the automatic
+binder.
+
+But the use of antiquated machinery is not followed by those who lead
+the procession in this industrial age. Consequently other means than the
+slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics, and the crude
+kilns are giving way to modern heat distributing structures.
+
+Air and heat are driven by fans through chambers, in which the brick are
+openly piled on cars, the surplus heat and steam from an engine-room
+being often used for this purpose, and the cars so laden are slowly
+pushed on the tracks through heated chambers. Passages and pipes and
+chimneys for heat and air controlled by valves are provided, and the
+waste moisture drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys, the draft
+of which is increased by a hot blast, or blasts of heated air are driven
+in one direction through a chamber while the brick are moved through in
+the opposite direction, or a series of drying chambers are separated
+from each other by iron folding-doors, the temperature increasing as
+cars are moved on tracks from one chamber to another.
+
+Dr. Hoffmann of Berlin invented different forms of drying and burning
+chambers which attracted great attention. In his kiln the bricks are
+stacked in an _annular_ chamber, and the fire made to progress from one
+section of the chamber to another, burning the brick as the heat
+advances; and as fast as one section of green brick is dried, or burned,
+it is withdrawn, and a green section presented. Austria introduced most
+successful and thorough systems of drying brick about 1870. In some
+great kilns fires are never allowed to cease. One kiln had been kept
+thus heated for fifteen years. Thus great quantities of green brick can
+at any time be pushed into the kiln on tracks, and when burned pushed
+out, and thus the process may go on continuously day and night.
+
+To return to pottery: As before stated, Wedgwood of England
+revolutionised the art of pottery in the eighteenth century. He was
+aided by Flaxman. Before their time all earthenware pottery was what is
+now called “soft pottery.” That is, it was unglazed, simply baked clay;
+_lustrous_ or _semi-glazed_ and _enamelled_ having a harder surface.
+Wedgwood invented the hard porcelain surface, and very many beautiful
+designs. To improve such earthenware and to best decorate it, are the
+objects around which modern inventions have mostly clustered.
+
+The “_regenerative_” principle of heating above referred to employed in
+some kilns, and so successfully incorporated in the regenerators
+invented since 1850 by Siemens, Frank, Boetius, Bicheroux, Pousard and
+others, consisting in using the intensely hot wasted gases from
+laboratories or combustion chambers to heat the incoming air, and
+carrying the mingled products of combustion into chambers and passages
+to heat, dry or burn materials placed therein, has been of great service
+in the production of modern pottery; not only in a great saving in the
+amount of fuel, but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware spoiled in
+the firing.
+
+The old method of burning wood, or soft coal, or charcoal at the bottom
+of a small old-fashioned cylindrical fire brick kiln attended to by
+hand, and heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves in the
+chamber above, is done away with to a great extent in large
+manufactories for the making of stone and earthenware--although still
+followed in many porcelain kilns.
+
+Inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received the aid of woman.
+Susan Frackelton of the United States invented a portable kiln for
+firing pottery and porcelain, for which she obtained a patent in 1886.
+
+As in drying clay for brick, so in drying clay for porcelain and pottery
+generally, great improvements have been made in the drying of the clay,
+and other materials to be mixed therewith. A great step was taken to aid
+drying by the invention of the _filter press_, in which the materials,
+after they are mixed and while still wet, are subjected to such pressure
+that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed out, by which the
+inclosure of air bubbles in the clay is prevented.
+
+Despairing of excelling the China porcelain, although French
+investigators having alleged their discovery of such methods, modern
+inventors have contented themselves in inventing new methods and
+compositions. Charles Aoisseau, the potter of Tours, born in 1796,
+rediscovered and revived the art of Palissy. About 1842, Thomas Battam
+of England invented the method of imitating marble and other statuary by
+a composition of silica, alumina, soda, and traces of lime, magnesia,
+and iron, reducing it to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds,
+forming the figure or group. His plaster casts soon became famous. In
+the use of materials the aid of chemists was had in finding the proper
+ingredients to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common and
+fine _Faience_.
+
+_Porcelain Moulding_, and its accompanying ornamentation and the use of
+apparatus for moulding by compression and by exhaustion of the air has
+become since that time a great industry.
+
+_Porcelain Colours._--Chemists also aided in discovering what metallic
+ingredients could best be used when mixed with the clay and sand to
+produce the desired colours. As soon as a new metal was discovered, it
+was tested to find, among other things, what vitrifiable colour it would
+produce. In the production of metallic glazes, the oxides generally are
+employed. The colours are usually applied to ware when it is in its
+unglazed or _biscuit_ form. In the _biscuit_ or _bisque_ form pottery is
+bibulous, the prepared glaze sinks into its pores and when burned forms
+a vitreous coating.
+
+The application of oil colours and designs to ware before baking by the
+“bat” system of printing originated in the eighteenth and was perfected
+in the nineteenth century. It consists of impressing oil pictures on a
+bat of glue and then pressing the bat on to the porous unbaked clay or
+porcelain which transferred the colours. This was another revolution in
+the art.
+
+One manner for ages of applying colours to ware is first to reduce the
+mixture to a liquid form, called “slip,” and then, if the Chinese method
+is followed, to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow bamboo rod,
+which end is covered with wire gauze, then by blowing through the rod
+the colour was sprayed or deposited on the ware. Another method is the
+use of a brush and comb. The brush being dipped into the coloured
+matter, the comb is passed over the brush in such manner as to cause the
+paint to spatter the object with fine drops or particles. A very recent
+method, by which the beautiful background and blended colours of the
+celebrated Rookwood pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio, have become
+distinguished, consists in laying the colour upon the ware in a cloud or
+sheet of almost imperceptible mist by the use of an air atomiser blown
+by the operator. By the use of this simple instrument, the laying on a
+single colour, or the delicate blending and shadings of two or more
+colours in very beautiful effects is easily produced.
+
+This use of the atomiser commenced in 1884, and was claimed as the
+invention of a lady, Miss Laura Fry, who obtained a patent for thus
+blowing the atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in 1889; but it
+was held by the courts that she was anticipated by experiments of
+others, and by descriptions in previous patents of the spraying of paint
+on other objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air brush.
+However, this introduction of the use of the atomiser caused quite a
+revolution in the art of applying colours to pottery in the forming of
+backgrounds.
+
+Enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery. About 1878 Niedringhaus
+in the United States began to enamel sheet iron by the application of
+glaze and iron oxide, giving such articles a granite appearance; and
+since then metallic cooking vessels, bath tubs, etc., have been
+converted in appearance into the finest earthenware and porcelain, and
+far more durable, beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone for
+such purposes.
+
+When we remember that for many centuries, wood and pewter, and to some
+extent crude earthenware, were the materials from which the dishes of
+the great bulk of the human family were made, as well as their table and
+mantel ornaments, and compare them in character and plenteousness with
+the table and other ware of even the poorest character of to-day, we can
+appreciate how much has been done in this direction to help the human
+family by modern inventions.
+
+_Artificial Stone._--The world as yet has not so far exhausted its
+supply of stone and marble as to compel a resort to artificial
+productions on a great scale, and yet to meet the demands of those
+localities wherein the natural supplies of good building stones and
+marble are very scarce, necessitating when used a long and expensive
+transportation, methods have been adopted by which, at comparatively
+small cost, fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have been
+produced, having all the durable and artistic qualities of the
+originals, as for the most part, they are composed of the same materials
+as the stone and marbles themselves.
+
+The characteristic backgrounds, the veins and shadowings, and the soft
+colours of various marbles have been quite successfully imitated by
+treating dehydrated gypsum with various colouring solutions. Sand stones
+have been moulded or pressed from the same ingredients, and with either
+smooth or undressed faces. When necessary the mixture is coloured, to
+resemble precisely the original stones.
+
+One of the improvements in the manufacture and use of modern _cements_
+and artificial stones consists in their application to the making of
+streets and sidewalks. Neat, smooth, hard, beautiful pavements are now
+taking the place everywhere of the unsatisfactory gravel, wood, and
+brick pavements of former days. We know that the Romans and other
+ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements, and the plaster on some of
+their walls stands to-day to attest its good quality. Modern inventors
+have turned their attention in recent years to the production of
+machines to grind, crush, mix and set the materials, and to apply them
+to large wall surfaces, in place of hand labour. _Ready-made plaster_ of
+a fine quality is now manufactured in great quantities. It needs only
+the addition of a little water to reduce it to a condition for use; and
+a machine operated by compressed air may be had for spreading it quickly
+over the lath work of wood or sheet metal, slats, or over rough cement
+ceilings and walls.
+
+_Glass._--The Sister of Pottery is Glass. It may have been an accidental
+discovery, occurring when men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach,
+that fire could melt and fuse sand and ashes, or sand and lime, or sand
+and soda or some other alkali, and with which may also have been mixed
+some particles of iron, or lead, or manganese, or alumina to produce
+that hard, lustrous, vitreous, brittle article that we call _glass_.
+
+But who invented the method of blowing the viscid mass into form on the
+end of a hollow tube? Who invented the scissors and shears for cutting
+and trimming it when soft? Or the use of the diamond, or its dust, for
+polishing it when hard? History is silent on these points. The tablets
+of the most ancient days of Egypt, yet recovered, show glass blowers at
+work at their trade--and the names of the first and original inventors
+are buried in oblivion. Each age has handed down to us from many
+countries specimens of glass ware which will compare favourably in
+beauty and finish with any that can be made to-day.
+
+Yet with the knowledge of making glass of the finest description
+existing for centuries, it is strange that its manufacture was not
+extended to supply the wants of mankind, to which its use now seems so
+indispensable. And yet as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries glass windows were found only in the houses of the wealthy, in
+the churches and palaces, and glass mirrors were unknown except to the
+rich, as curiosities, and as aids to the scientists in the early days of
+telescopy. Poor people used oiled paper, isinglass, thinly shaved
+leather, resembling parchment, and thin sheets of soft pale crystalised
+stone known as talc, and soapstone.
+
+The nineteenth century has been characterised as the scientific century
+of glass, and the term commercial, may well be added to that
+designation.
+
+Its commercial importance and the advancement in its manufacture during
+the first half of the century is illustrated in the fact that the
+Crystal Palace of the London Industrial Exhibition of 1851, although
+containing nearly 900,000 square feet of glass, was furnished by a
+single firm, Messrs. Chance & Co. of London, without materially delaying
+their other orders. In addition to scientific discoveries, the
+manufacture of glass in England received a great impetus by the removal
+of onerous excise duties which had been imposed on its manufacture.
+
+The principal improvements in the art of glass-making effected during
+the nineteenth century may be summarised as follows:
+
+First, Materials.--By the investigations of chemists and practical
+trials it was learned what particular effect was produced by the old
+ingredients employed, and it was found that the colours and qualities of
+glass, such as clearness, strength, tenacity, purity, etc., could be
+greatly modified and improved by the addition to the sand of certain new
+ingredients. By analysis it was learned what different metallic oxides
+should be employed to produce different colours. This knowledge before
+was either preserved in secrecy, or accidentally or empirically
+practised, or unknown. Thus it was learned and established that lime
+hardens the glass and adds to its lustre; that the use of ordinary
+ingredients, the silicates of lime, magnesia, iron, soda and potash, in
+their impure form, will produce the coarser kinds of glass, such as that
+of which green bottles are made; that silicates of soda and lime give
+the common window glass and French plate; that the beautiful varieties
+of Bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate of potash and lime; that
+crystal or flint glass, so called because formerly pulverised flints
+were used in making it, can be made of a suitable combination of
+potassia plumbic silicate; that the plumbic oxide greatly increases its
+transparency, brilliancy, and refractive power; that _paste_--that form
+of glass from which imitations of diamonds are cut, may be produced by
+adding a large proportion of the oxide of lead; that by the addition of
+a trace of ferric oxide or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had; that
+by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire is produced;
+that cuperic oxide will give the emerald, gold oxide the ruby, manganic
+oxide the royal purple, and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic oxides
+the rich black onyx.
+
+Professor Faraday as early as 1824 had noticed a change in colour
+gradually produced in glass containing oxide of manganese by exposure to
+the rays of the sun. This observation induced an American gentleman, Mr.
+Thomas Gaffield, a merchant of Boston, to further experiment in this
+direction. His experiments commenced in 1863, and he subjected eighty
+different kinds of glass, coloured and uncoloured, and manufactured in
+many different countries, to this exposure of the sun’s rays. He found
+that not only glass having manganese as an element, but nearly every
+species of glass, was so affected, some in shorter and some in longer
+times; that this discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun,
+but to its actinic rays; and that the original colour of the glass could
+be reproduced by reheating the same.
+
+Mr. Gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain the power of
+different coloured glasses to transmit the actinic or chemical rays, and
+found that blue would transmit the most and red and orange the least.
+
+Others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining the best
+materials to be employed in glass-making in producing the clearest and
+most permanent uncoloured light; the best coloured lights for desired
+purposes; glasses having the best effects on the growth of plants; and
+the best class for refracting, dispersing and transmitting both natural
+lights and those great modern artificial lights, gas and electricity.
+
+Another illustration of modern scientific investigation and success in
+glass-making materials is seen at the celebrated German glass works at
+Jena under the management of Professors Ernst Abbe and Dr. Schott,
+commenced in 1881. They, too, found that many substances had each its
+own peculiar effect in the refraction and dispersion of light, and
+introduced no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass making.
+Their special work was the production of glass for the finest scientific
+and optical purposes, and the highest grades of commercial glass. They
+have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass. Their lenses for
+telescopes and microscopes and photographic cameras, and glass and
+prisms, and for all chemical and other scientific work, have a worldwide
+reputation.
+
+So that in materials of composition the old days in which there were
+substantially but two varieties of glass--the old-fashioned standard
+crown, and flint glass--have passed away.
+
+_Methods._--The revolution in the production of glass has been greatly
+aided also by new methods of treatment of the old as well as the new
+materials. For instance, the application of the Siemens regenerative
+furnace, already alluded to in referring to pottery, in place of
+old-fashioned kilns, and by which the amount of smoke is greatly
+diminished, fuel saved, and the colour of the glass improved. Pots are
+used containing the materials to be melted and not heated in the
+presence of the burning fuel, but by the heated gases in separate
+compartments.
+
+Another process is that of M. de la Bastie, added to by others, of
+toughening glass by plunging it while hot and pasty and after it has
+been shaped, annealed, and reheated, into a bath of grease, whereby the
+rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular condition so that it
+is less dense, resists breaking to a greater degree, and presents no
+sharp edges when broken.
+
+Another process is that of making plate glass by the cylinder
+process--rolling it into large sheets.
+
+Other processes are those for producing hollow ware by pressing in
+moulds; for decorating; for surface enamelling of sheet glass whereby
+beautiful lace patterns are transferred from the woven or netted fabric
+itself by using it as a stencil to distribute upon the surface the
+pulverised enamel, which is afterwards burned on; of producing
+_iridescent_ glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of
+delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against the surface of
+hydrochloric acid under pressure, or the fumes of other materials
+volatilised in a reheating furnace.
+
+Then there is Dode’s process for platinising glass, by which a
+reflecting mirror is produced without silvering or otherwise coating its
+back, by first applying a thin coating of platinic choride mixed with an
+oil to the surface of the glass and heating the same, by which the
+mirror reflects from its front face. The platinum film is so thin that
+the pencil and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it, the object
+to be copied being seen by reflection.
+
+Again there is the process of making _glass wool or silk_--which is
+glass drawn out into such extremely fine threads that it may be used for
+all purposes of silk threads in the making of fabrics for decorative
+purposes and in some more useful purposes, such as the filtration of
+water and other liquids.
+
+We have already had occasion to refer to Tilghman’s sand blast in
+describing pneumatic apparatus. In glass manufacture the process is used
+in etching on glass designs of every kind, both simple and intricate.
+The sand forced by steam, or by compressed air on the exposed portions
+of the glass on which the design rests, will cut the same deeply, or
+most delicately, as the hand and eye of the operator may direct.
+
+_Machines._--In addition to the new styles of furnaces, moulds and
+melting, and rolling mills to which we have alluded, mention may be made
+of annealing and cooling ovens, by which latter the glass is greatly
+improved by being allowed to gradually cool. A large number of
+instruments have been invented for special purposes, such as for making
+the beautiful expensive cut glass, which is flint glass ground by wheels
+of iron, stone, and emery into the desired designs, while water is being
+applied, and then polished by wheels of wood, and pumice, or
+rottenstone; for grinding and polishing glass for lenses; and for
+polishing and finishing plate glass; for applying glass lining to metal
+pipes, tubes, etc.; for the delicate engraving of glass by small
+revolving copper disks, varying in size from the diameter of a cent down
+to one-fifteenth of an inch, cutting the finest blade of grass, a tiny
+bud, the downy wing of an insect, or the faint shadow of an exquisite
+eyebrow.
+
+_Cameo_ cutting and incrustation; porcelain electroplating and moulding
+apparatus, and apparatus for making porcelain plates before drying and
+burning, may be added to the list.
+
+It would be a much longer list to enumerate the various objects made of
+glass unknown or not in common use in former generations. The reader
+must call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks desirable to be
+made from or covered with this lustrous indestructible material, or any
+practicable form of instrument for the transmission of light, and it is
+quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops or instruments in
+factories ready for its making.
+
+
+_Rubber--Goodyear._
+
+The rubber tree, whether in India with its immense trunk towering above
+all its fellows and wearing a lofty crown, hundreds of feet in
+circumference, of mixed green and yellow blossoms; or in South America,
+more slender and shorter but still beautiful in clustered leaves and
+flowers on its long, loosely pendent branches; or in Africa, still more
+slender and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees along the
+water courses, hiding its struggling support and festooning the whole
+forest with its glossy dark green leaves, sweetly scented, pure white,
+star-like flowers, and its orange-like fruit--yields from its veins a
+milk which man has converted into one of the most useful articles of the
+century.
+
+The modes of treating this milky juice varies among the natives of the
+several countries where the trees abound. In Africa they cut or strip
+the bark, and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and smear it
+thickly over their limbs and bodies, and when it dries pull it off and
+cut it into blocks for transportation. In Brazil the juice is collected
+in clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering fire of palm nuts,
+which gives the material its dark brown appearance. They mould the
+softened rubber over clay patterns in the form of shoes, jars, vases,
+tubes, etc., and as they are sticky they carry them separated on poles
+to the large towns and sea ports and sell them in this condition. It was
+some such articles that first attracted the attention of Europeans, who
+during the eighteenth century called the attention of their countrymen
+to them.
+
+It was in 1736 that La Condamine described rubber to the French Academy.
+He afterward resided in the valley of the Amazon ten years, and then he
+and MM. Herissent, Macquer, and Grossat, again by their writings and
+experiments interested the scientific and commercial world in the
+matter.
+
+In 1770 Dr. Priestley published the fact that this rubber had become
+notable for rubbing out pencil marks, bits of it being sold for a high
+price for that purpose. About 1797, some Englishman began to make
+water-proof varnish from it, and to take out patents for the same. This
+was as far as the art had advanced in caoutchouc, or rubber, in the
+eighteenth century.
+
+In 1819 Mr. Mackintosh, of Glasgow, began experimenting with the oil of
+naphtha obtained from gas works as a solvent for India rubber; and so
+successfully that he made a water-proof varnish which was applied to
+fabrics, took out his patent in England in 1823, and thus was started
+the celebrated “Mackintoshes.”
+
+In 1825 Thomas C. Wales, a merchant of Boston, conceived the idea of
+sending American boot and shoe lasts to Brazil for use in place of their
+clay models. This soon resulted in sending great quantities of rubber
+overshoes to Europe and America.
+
+The importation of rubber and the manufacture of water-proof garments
+and articles therefrom now rapidly increased in those countries. But
+nothing that could be done would prevent the rubber from getting soft in
+summer and hard and brittle in the winter. Something was needed to
+render the rubber insensible to the changes of temperature.
+
+For fifty years, ever since the manufacturers and inventors of Europe
+and America had learned of the water-proof character of rubber, they had
+been striving to find something to overcome this difficulty. Finally it
+became the lot of one man to supply the want. His name was Charles
+Goodyear.
+
+Born with the century, in New Haven, Connecticut, and receiving but a
+public school education, he engaged with his father in the hardware
+business in Philadelphia. This proving a failure, he, in 1830, turned
+his attention to the improvement of rubber goods. He became almost a
+fanatic on the subject--going from place to place clad in rubber
+fabrics, talking about it to merchants, mechanics, scientists, chemists,
+anybody that would listen, making his experiments constantly; deeply in
+debt on account of his own and his father’s business failures, thrown
+into jail for debt for months, continuing his experiments there with
+philosophical, good-natured persistence; out of jail steeped to his lips
+in poverty; his family suffering for the necessaries of life; selling
+the school books of his children for material to continue his work, and
+taking a patent in 1835 for a rubber cement, which did not help him
+much. Finding that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber by
+removing its adhesiveness, he introduced this process, which met with
+great favour, was applied generally to the manufacture of overshoes, and
+helped his condition. But his trials and troubles continued. Finally one
+Nathaniel Haywood suggested the use of sulphurous acid gas, and this was
+found an improvement; but still the rubber would get hard in winter, and
+although not so soft in summer, yet the odour was offensive. Yet by the
+use of this improvement he was enabled to raise more money to get
+Haywood a patent for it, while he became its owner. In the midst of his
+further troubles, and while experimenting with the sulphur mixed with
+rubber he found by accidental burning or partly melting of the two
+together on a stove, that the part in which the sulphur was embedded was
+hard and inelastic, and that the part least impregnated with the sulphur
+was proportionately softer and more elastic. At last the great secret
+was discovered!
+
+And now at this later day, when $50,000,000 worth of rubber goods are
+made annually in the United States alone, the whole immense business is
+still divided into but two classes--hard and soft--hard or vulcanized
+like that called “ebonite,” or soft, it may be, as a delicate wafer. And
+these qualities depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of
+sulphur is used, as described in the patents of Goodyear, commencing
+with his French patent of 1844.
+
+Then of course the pirates began their attacks, and he was kept poor in
+defending his patents, and died comparatively so in 1860; but happy in
+his great discovery. He had received, however, the whole world’s
+honours--the great council medal at the Nations Fair in London in 1851
+the Cross of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III., and lesser tributes
+from other nations.
+
+It can be imagined the riches that flowed into the laps of Goodyear’s
+successors; the wide field opened for new inventions in machines and
+processes; and the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from
+Goodyear’s introduction of a new and useful material to man.--A material
+which, takes its place and stands in line with wood, and leather, and
+glass, and iron, and steel!
+
+But rubber and steel as we now know them are not the only new fabrics
+given to mankind by the inventors of the Nineteenth Century.
+
+The work of the silk worm has been rivalled; and a _wool_ as white and
+soft as that clipped from the cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands
+of these magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts from a
+blast furnace.
+
+The silk referred to is made from a solution of that inflammable
+material of tremendous force known as gun-cotton, or pyroxylin. Dr.
+Chardonnet was the inventor of the leading form of the article, which he
+introduced and patented about 1888. The solution made is of a viscous
+character, allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices in
+fine streams; and as the solvent part evaporates rapidly these fine
+streams become hard, flexible fibres, which glisten with a beautiful
+lustre and can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the fine
+threads spun by that mysterious master of his craft--the silk worm.
+
+The gusts of wind that drove against the molten lava thrown from the
+crater of Kilauea, producing as it did, a fall of white, metallic,
+hairy-like material resembling wool, suggested to man an industrial
+application of the same method. And at the great works of Krupp at
+Essen, Prussia, for instance, may be witnessed a fine stream of molten
+slag flowing from an iron furnace, and as it falls is met by a strong
+blast of cold air which transforms it into a silky mass as white and
+fine as cotton.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abbe, Prof. Ernst, 412, 473.
+
+  Abbott Museum, N.Y., 242.
+
+  Abrading machines, 332.
+
+  Acetylene, 70, 456.
+
+  Accumulators, 177.
+
+  Achromatic lens, 410.
+
+  Acoustics, 406.
+
+  Addressing machines, 285.
+
+  Aeolipile, 74.
+
+  Affixers, 285.
+
+  African inventions, 340, 476.
+
+  Agriculture, Chap. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
+
+  Agricultural chemistry, 64.
+
+  Agricultural societies, 16.
+
+  Aeronautics. (See Air Ships and Balloons, 169, 445, 448.)
+
+  Air Atomizers, 467.
+
+  Air brakes, 89, 108, 193.
+
+  Air Brushes, 195, 418.
+
+  Air Compressors and propellers, 195.
+
+  Air Drills, 194.
+
+  Air Engines, 89, 193, 194.
+
+  Air propellers. (See Pneumatics.)
+
+  Air Pumps, 55, 113, 194, 195, 196, 197, 404.
+
+  Air Ships, 446, 449.
+
+  Airy, 410.
+
+  “Alabama,” The, 261.
+
+  Alarm Locks. (See Locks.)
+
+  Alchemistry and alchemists. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Alcohol, 65.
+
+  Alfred the Great, 386, 457.
+
+  Alembert, D., 167.
+
+  Alhambra, 373.
+
+  Allen, Horatio, 83.
+
+  Allen, Dr. John, 168.
+
+  Allotropic phosphorus. (See Matches.)
+
+  Allen and Yates. (See Puddling.)
+
+  Alloys, 237, 238.
+
+  Altiscope, 413.
+
+  Aluminium, 238.
+
+  Amalgamators, 380.
+
+  American Inventions, 341.
+
+  Ammonia, 191, 215.
+
+  Ammoniacal gas engines, 191.
+
+  Ampère, 122, 130.
+
+  Amontons air engines, 193.
+
+  Ancient smelting. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Anæsthetics, 2, 71.
+
+  Aniline dyes, 69.
+
+  Annealing and tempering, 248.
+
+  Antiseptics, 2, 72.
+
+  Antwerp, Siege of, 261. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Aoisseau, Chas., 466.
+
+  Apollo, 400.
+
+  Applegath, 283, 284.
+
+  Aqueducts, 93, 166, 167.
+
+  Arabs, 253, 274.
+
+  Arabic notation, 2.
+
+  Arago, 122, 410, 411, 416.
+
+  Arc Lamps, 137.
+
+  Archimedes, 9, 165, 185, 442.
+
+  Aristotle, 58.
+
+  Argand burner, 456.
+
+  Arkwright, Richard, 42, 296, 298, 301.
+
+  Arlberg tunnel, 107.
+
+  Armor, plate, 262, 264, 265, 266.
+
+  Arnold, Asa, 301.
+
+  Arnold, watchmaker, 389.
+
+  Armstrong, Sir William G., 176, 263, 264.
+
+  Arquebus. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Artesian Wells, 38.
+
+  Artificial Stone. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Artificial Silk. (See Glass.)
+
+  Arts, Fine, 197, 347, 353, 371, 400, 414, 418.
+
+  Art, Scientific, 228.
+
+  Artificial Teeth. (See Dentistry.)
+
+  Artillery. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Asbestos, 421.
+
+  Assembling machines and system.
+      (See Sewing machines, Watch, and Ordnance.)
+
+  Assyrians, 24.
+
+  Astronomical inventions, 390. (See Horology and Optics.)
+
+  Athens. (See Greece.)
+
+  Athanor, Alchemist’s stone. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Atmospheric and Gas pressure, 194.
+
+  Atoms--atomic theory, 59, 60, 453.
+
+  Atomizer, 197, 467.
+
+  Attraction of Gravitation, 2.
+
+  Augurs, 348, 349.
+
+  Auricular instruments, 406.
+
+  Australia, 40.
+
+  Austria, 24, 50, 358.
+
+  Autoharps, 405.
+
+  Automobiles, 89, 435.
+
+  Axes, 340.
+
+
+  B.
+
+  Babbitt, Isaac, metal, 237.
+
+  Babylonians, 384.
+
+  Bach. (See Pianos.)
+
+  Bacon, Roger, 214.
+
+  Bacteria, 213.
+
+  Bailey, 1822; 37.
+
+  Bain, Alex., 147.
+
+  Baling and Bale ties, 51, 52, 53.
+
+  Balloons, 169, 446.
+
+  Band Saw, 348.
+
+  Barber, John, 185.
+
+  Barker’s Mill, 171.
+
+  Barlow looms, 305.
+
+  Barlow, Prof., 123.
+
+  Barrel making. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Bartholdi, 105.
+
+  Bastie, 473.
+
+  Batcheller, 318.
+
+  Baths--closets, 178.
+
+  Bath system, Porcelain, 466.
+
+  Battam, Thomas, artificial marble, 466.
+
+  Baude, Peter, 224.
+
+  Beadlestone, metallurgist, 231.
+
+  Bean, B. W., 318.
+
+  Beaulieu, Col. (Ordnance), 264.
+
+  Beating engines. (See Paper.)
+
+  Becher, 58.
+
+  Bechler, 413.
+
+  Becquerel, 44.
+
+  Beds, 355.
+
+  Bed--printing, 282.
+
+  Beer. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Bellaert, Jacob, 280.
+
+  Bell, Alex. Graham, 140, 141, 142, 407, 414.
+
+  Bell, C. A., 408.
+
+  Bell, Sir L., metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Bell’s history of metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Bell, Rev. Patrick, 36, 38.
+
+  Bells and Bell making--Metallurgy.
+
+  Bending wood, 349, 357. (See Woodworking.)
+
+  Bennett, Richard, 46.
+
+  Bentham, Sir Sam’l, 242, 342, 349, 374.
+
+  Bergman, 61.
+
+  Berliner, Emile, 408.
+
+  Bernoulli, D., 167.
+
+  Berthollet, 64, 454.
+
+  Berzelius, 60.
+
+  Bessemer, Henry, and process, 176, 232, 233.
+
+  Besson, Prof. J., 75, 242.
+
+  Bicheroux, potter, 465.
+
+  Bicycles, 431.
+
+  Bigelow, E. B., 305.
+
+  Billings, Dr., 210.
+
+  Binding books. (See Printing.)
+
+  Binders, grain and twine, 39.
+
+  Bicycles, 431 to 435.
+
+  Bischof, Simon, 191.
+
+  Blacksmithing. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Blaew of Amsterdam, 281.
+
+  Black, chemist, 58.
+
+  Blair, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Blakely Gun. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Blake, Eli. W., Blake crusher, 376, 377.
+
+  Blanchard, Thos., 268, 343, 344, 350, 356, 369.
+
+  Blasting, 107.
+
+  Blast, steel. (See Bessemer.)
+
+  Blauofen furnace. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Bleaching and Dyeing, 69.
+
+  Blenkinsop, 82.
+
+  Blithe, Walter, 14.
+
+  Block Printing. (See Printing.)
+
+  Blodgett & Lerow, sewing machines, 318.
+
+  Bloomaries. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Blunderbuss, 257.
+
+  Bobbins--spinning, 302.
+
+  Boerhaave, 58.
+
+  Boetius, 365.
+
+  Bohemia, 357.
+
+  Boilers. (See Steam Engineering.)
+
+  “Boke of Husbandry,” 1523, 14.
+
+  Bollman bridge, 103.
+
+  Bolting. (See Milling.)
+
+  Bolt making. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Bombards, 254.
+
+  Bombs. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Bomford, Col., 260.
+
+  Bonaparte, 89, 90, 256.
+
+  Bonnets and ladies’ hats, 324.
+
+  Bonjeau, M., 325.
+
+  Bonelli, M., 305.
+
+  Book making and binding, 287, 288.
+
+  Boots and shoes, 366 to 371.
+
+  Boring machines, 345, 348.
+
+  Boring square holes, 346.
+
+  Bormann, Genl., 259.
+
+  Bottle stoppers, 358.
+
+  Boulton and Watt, 84, 452.
+
+  Bouton, 415.
+
+  Bourseuil, Chas., 407.
+
+  Boyce, 1799, 35.
+
+  Boyle, Robert, 58, 184, 193, 194.
+
+  Box making. (See Woodworking Machinery.)
+
+  Braiding. (See Sewing Machines.)
+
+  Braithwaite, 83.
+
+  Brakes, bicycle, 433-436.
+
+  Brakes, steam, Railway and Electric, 87, 436.
+
+  Brakes and gins, 297.
+
+  Bramah, Jos., 82, 154, 170, 242, 244, 342, 349, 424.
+
+  Branch, 342.
+
+  Branco, 75.
+
+  Brahe, Tycho, 183, 388.
+
+  Brass, 219.
+
+  Brayton, G. H., 190.
+
+  Brazil, 281, 476, 477.
+
+  Breech-loaders, 257, 263, 264, 265, 269.(See Ordnance.)
+
+  Brewster, Sir David, 410.
+
+  Brickmaking machines, kilns and processes, 457, 464.
+
+  Bridges and Bridge Building, 93 to 104, 197.
+
+  Bright, John, 138.
+
+  Broadwood piano, 403.
+
+  Bronsen, 412.
+
+  Broom-making, 328, 329.
+
+  Brot, 411.
+
+  Brothers of the Bridge, 94.
+
+  Bronze, 218, 219.
+
+  Brooklyn bridge, 98, 99.
+
+  Brown, Sir Saml., 95, 187, 188.
+
+  “Brown Bess,” 258.
+
+  Bruce, David, 284.
+
+  Brunel, I. K., 97.
+
+  Brunel, I. M., 351, 367.
+
+  Brunton, 82.
+
+  Brush--Brush light, 137.
+
+  Brushes and Brush making, 330.
+
+  Buchanan’s Practical Essays, 244.
+
+  Buckingham, C. L., 148.
+
+  Buffing machines, 365.
+
+  Builders’ hardware, 250.
+
+  Buildings, tall, 152, 153.
+
+  Buffers, 437. (See Railways, Elevator, etc., 160, 161.)
+
+  Bunsen, Robt. W., 119, 120, 230.
+
+  Bunsen light, 456.
+
+  Burden, Henry, 95.
+
+  Burdett, Wm., 188.
+
+  Burke, Edmund, 182.
+
+  Burns, Robert, 31.
+
+  Butter, 54, 55.
+
+  Button-hole machines, 323.
+
+  Bunsen. (See Chemistry.)
+
+
+  C.
+
+  Cable transportation, 109.
+
+  Cæsar, 457.
+
+  Cahill, Thaddeus, 287.
+
+  Caissons, 100.
+
+  Calcium-carbide, 70, 456.
+
+  Calico making and printing, 325, 326.
+
+  California, 382.
+
+  Cameo cutting, 475.
+
+  _Camera obscura_, 414.
+
+  Campbell printing press, 285.
+
+  Canada, 40, 430.
+
+  Canals, and boats for, 84, 106, 107, 109, 110, 440.
+
+  Canal locks, 110.
+
+  Cane woven goods, 308.
+
+  Cannons and firearms, 252-272.
+
+  Cantilever bridges, 103, 104.
+
+  Caoutchouc. (See Rubber, 476.)
+
+  Caps,--gun, 259.
+
+  Car heating, 211.
+
+  Cars, sleeping, 431. (See Railways.)
+
+  Car tracks, 108.
+
+  Car rails, 108.
+
+  Car wheels, 108.
+
+  Carbines, 266. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Carbon--chemistry.
+
+  Carbonating, 68.
+
+  Carborundum, 70.
+
+  Cardan, 183.
+
+  Carding, 298, 300.
+
+  Cardova. (See Leather.)
+
+  Carlyle, 310.
+
+  Carnot. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Carpentry, 339, 352.
+
+  Carpets and Looms, 305.
+
+  Carré Brothers, 214.
+
+  Carriages and carrying machines, 82, 428-437.
+
+  Carthagenians, 164.
+
+  Carts. (See Coaches and Waggons.)
+
+  Cartridges, 267.
+
+  Cartwright, Rev. Edwd., 297.
+
+  Carving machinery, 346.
+
+  Case-shot. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Cash registers, 395.
+
+  Cast iron, 223.
+
+  Catalan furnace, 222. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Cauchy, 410.
+
+  Caus, Salomon de, 75.
+
+  Cavendish, 58.
+
+  Caxton, 280.
+
+  Centennial Exhibition. 1876; 38, 39, 40, 140, 246, 320,
+      352, 353, 393, 402, 430.
+
+  Centrifugal machines (pumps), 172, 173.
+
+  Charcoal. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Chairs. (See Furniture.)
+
+  Chaff separator. (See Milling.)
+
+  Chain wheels--hydraulics, 156.
+
+  Chairs, tables, desks, etc. (See Furniture, 351, 358.)
+
+  Challey, M., 97.
+
+  “Champion harvesters”--Harvesters.
+
+  Chance & Co., Glass makers, 470.
+
+  Channelling shoes. (See Leather.)
+
+  Chanute, Octave, 110.
+
+  Chappe, M., 125.
+
+  Charles I. (See Ordnance;
+    Charles II., 242;
+    Charles V., 387;
+    Charles VIII., 265.)
+
+  Chemistry, 58, 70.
+
+  Chemical Telegraph. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Chester-dial telegraph, 146.
+
+  Chili, 461.
+
+  Chill hardening, 250.
+
+  Chickering pianos, 403.
+
+  Chimes, 196.
+
+  China and Chinese inventions, 24, 52, 165, 222, 241, 253,
+      257, 273, 275, 280, 384, 386, 400, 423, 465.
+
+  Chlorates, 70.
+
+  Chlorine, 237.
+
+  Chlorination, 237.
+
+  Chromium, 70.
+
+  Chronometers, 390, 394.
+
+  Chubb-safes, 422, 425.
+
+  Cigar and cigarette machines, 56, 57.
+
+  Cincinnati Bridge. (See Engineering.)
+
+  Cincinnatus, 17, 31.
+
+  Circulation of blood, 2.
+
+  Civil Engineering, 93-110.
+
+  Clark, Alvan, 412.
+
+  Clavichord, 402.
+
+  Clayton, Dr., 1688, 451.
+
+  Clay, Treatment of. (See Brick and Pottery making.)
+
+  Cleaning grain, etc. (See Mills.)
+
+  Clement, metal worker, 244.
+
+  Clementi, pianist, 403.
+
+  Clepsydra, 384, 385, 386.
+
+  “Clermont.” (See Steam Ships.)
+
+  Clippers, Ships, 439.
+
+  Clocks, 384. (See Horology.)
+
+  Clocks, Essential parts of, 386.
+
+  Closets. (See Baths.)
+
+  Cloth, Making, Finishing, 306;
+    Drying, 306;
+    Printing, 306;
+    Creasing and pressing, 306;
+    Cutting, 306-324;
+    Fancy woven, 205-306.
+
+  Clothes. (See Garments.)
+
+  Clover Header, 32.
+
+  Clutches, 161-162.
+
+  Clymer, of Philadelphia, press, 282.
+
+  Coaches, stages, mail, etc., 428-431.
+
+  Coach lace, 306.
+
+  Coal, 225, 378, 380;
+    Coal breakers and cleaners, 378-380.
+
+  Coal gas, 450;
+    Coal tar colors. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Coal mining. (See Ores.)
+
+  Coaling Ships, 110.
+
+  Coehorn, shell, 255.
+
+  Coffin, journalist, 25.
+
+  Coke. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Cold metal punching, working and rolling, 246-247.
+
+  Colding of Denmark, 63.
+
+  Collards, pianos, 403.
+
+  Collen, Henry, 417.
+
+  Collins line. (See Steam Ships.)
+
+  Collinge, 430.
+
+  Coloring cloth, 325.
+
+  Colors and coloring, 464-467.
+
+  Color process. (See Photography, 417, Printing, 290.)
+
+  Colt, revolvers, 260, 267, 322.
+
+  Columbiad, 261.
+
+  Colossus of Rhodes, 34.
+
+  Comminges of France, 255.
+
+  Comminuting machines. (See Grinding.)
+
+  Compartment vessels, 442.
+
+  Compass, 2.
+
+  Compensating devices, 391.
+
+  Compound engines, 87-89.
+
+  Compressed air drills, 376.
+
+  Compressed air and steam, 193, 194, 378.
+
+  Compressed air ordnance, 265, 269.
+
+  Condensers, 87.
+
+  Condamine, 477.
+
+  Conservation of forces, 2.
+
+  Constitution, U.S., 8.
+
+  Convertibility of forces, 2.
+
+  Containers, 175.
+
+  Conveyors, transportation, 152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160.
+
+  Cook, Telegraphy, 127, 146.
+
+  Cooke, Prof. J. P., 59.
+
+  Cooke, James, 25.
+
+  Cooking. (See Stoves.)
+
+  Cooper, Peter, 84.
+
+  Coopering. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Copernicus, 183.
+
+  Copper, 218, 219, etc.
+
+  Corliss, 88.
+
+  Corn: Cultivators, 29-30;
+    Mills, 46;
+    Planters, 28.
+
+  Correlation of forces, 2.
+
+  Cort, Henry, 226-231.
+
+  Corundum, 70, 334.
+
+  Coster, 280.
+
+  Cotton, 42, 43;
+    Gin, 42, 43, 297;
+    Harvester, 40.
+
+  Cotton seed oil, 69.
+
+  Cotton and wool machinery, 298. (See Textiles.)
+
+  “Counterblast to Tobacco,” 155.
+
+  Couplers, 437.
+
+  Cowper, 31.
+
+  Cowper, printer, 283.
+
+  Cowley, 77.
+
+  Cradle, grain, 33.
+
+  Cranes and derricks, 110, 152, 153, 171.
+
+  Crecy, (1346). (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Cristofori, pianist, 402.
+
+  Crompton, Saml., 42, 297, 298, 301.
+
+  Crompton, George, 305.
+
+  Crookes, Prof. Wm., 149.
+
+  Crooke tubes, 149.
+
+  Cros, Charles, 407.
+
+  Crushers, stone and ore, 376.
+
+  Crystal Palace, 470.
+
+  Ctesibius, 74, 165, 168, 385.
+
+  Cultivators, 29, 30.
+
+  Curtet, 121.
+
+  Cugnot, 1769, 81.
+
+  Culverin. (See Cannon.)
+
+  Cunard line, 86.
+
+  Cuneus, 115.
+
+  Curtains Shades and Screens, 356.
+
+  Cyanide. Cyanide process, 236.
+
+  Cyclometers, 396.
+
+
+  D.
+
+  Daguerre, 415-416.
+
+  Daguerreotype, 415.
+
+  Dahlgren, Cannon, 264.
+
+  Danks, Rotary puddler, 231.
+
+  Dalton, John, 59-60, 186, 194, 453.
+
+  Damascus Steel, 221. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Dana, Prof., 126.
+
+  Daniell’s battery, 119, 126.
+
+  Darby, Abraham, 1777, 95, 225.
+
+  Darwin, Dr., 18th cent., 73.
+
+  Davy, Humphry, Sir, 16, 63, 64, 70, 118, 122, 125,
+      188, 209, 236, 415.
+
+  David’s harp, 6.
+
+  Decker, piano, 403.
+
+  Delinter, 43.
+
+  Dentistry, 72.
+
+  Dental Chairs, 72, 358;
+    Drills, 72;
+    Engines, 72;
+    Hammers, 72;
+    Pluggers, 72.
+
+  Deoville, St. Clair, 238.
+
+  Derricks, 110.
+
+  “Deutschland,” The, 445.
+
+  Desks, 355.
+
+  De Susine, 192.
+
+  Dewar, Prof., 216.
+
+  Dial Telegraphs. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Diamonds. (See Milling; Polishing; Artificial, 70.)
+
+  Diamond Drill, 375.
+
+  Diana, Temple of, 34.
+
+  Diastase, 54.
+
+  Didot, Francois, 1800, 276.
+
+  Dickenson, 277.
+
+  Digesters. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Differential motion, 301.
+
+  Dioptric Lens, 410.
+
+  Diorama, 415.
+
+  Direct Acting Engines, 88.
+
+  Direct Feed Engines, 88.
+
+  Discoveries, distinct from inventions, 1, 2.
+
+  Disk Plows, 21, 30.
+
+  Distaff and Spindle. (See Textiles, 292.)
+
+  Dodge, James M., 159.
+
+  Doffers, 301.
+
+  Dog Carts. (See Carriages.)
+
+  Dollond, John, 410.
+
+  Donkin, 277.
+
+  Donovan, 454.
+
+  Don Quixote, 222.
+
+  Douglass, Nicholas, 105.
+
+  Draining, 105, 106, 107.
+
+  Drags and Drays. (See Waggons, 430-431.)
+
+  Drais, Baron Von, 432.
+
+  Drake, E. S., Col., 382.
+
+  Draper, J. W., Prof., 412, 416, 450.
+
+  Drawing Machines, Spinning, 296, 298, 301.
+
+  Dredging, 105, 106, 107.
+
+  Dressing; of thread and cloths, 299, 302;
+    of skins. (See Leather.)
+
+  Drills, seeders, 20, 27.
+
+  Drills, stone ore and iron, 375, 378.
+
+  Drying apparatus. (See Kilns.)
+
+  Dreyse, 266.
+
+  Dualine, 270.
+
+  Duboscq, 137.
+
+  Dudley, Dud, 224.
+
+  Duncan, John, 311.
+
+  Dundas, Charlotte, 84.
+
+  Dundonald, Lord, 451.
+
+  Dundas, Lord, 83, 440.
+
+  Dunlop, J. B., Bicycles, 433.
+
+  Duplex Engines, 88.
+
+  Dulcimer. (See Music.)
+
+  Dust Explosions and Collectors, 50.
+
+  Dutch Paper, 277;
+    Printing, 280.
+
+  Dutch Canals, 107.
+
+  Dutch Clocks, 388, 391.
+
+  Dutch Furnaces and Stoves, 203.
+
+  Dutch Locks, 424.
+
+  Dutch Ships, 439.
+
+  Dutch Ware, 459.
+
+  Dutton, Maj. C. E., 261.
+
+  Dynamometer, 187, 398.
+
+  Dynamite, 270.
+
+  Dynamo Electric Machines, 130, 134, 251.
+
+
+  E.
+
+  Eads, James B., 102.
+
+  Eames of U. S., 234.
+
+  East River Bridge, 98, 99.
+
+  Eddystone Lighthouse, 105.
+
+  Edison, 137, 144, 145, 148, 407, 408.
+
+  Egyptian agriculture, arts and inventions, 5, 13, 42, 45, 58,
+      164, 184, 220, 241, 273, 292, 340, 354, 400, 402, 423,
+      457, 460, 470.
+
+  Eiffel, M., 105.
+
+  Electricity, 5, 111-151.
+
+  Electric Alarms. (See Locks.)
+
+  Electric Batteries, 117-132.
+
+  Electric Cable, 138.
+
+  Electric Heating, 213.
+
+  Electric Lighting, 108, 119, 121 to 137, 360, 456.
+
+  Electro-Chemistry, 70.
+
+  Electro-magnets, 120-133.
+
+  Electro Metallurgy, 70, 238, 249.
+
+  Electrodes, 113, 135.
+
+  Electrolysis, 129, 131.
+
+  Electrometer, 113, 122.
+
+  Electrical Music, 148.
+
+  Electro Plating, 249.
+
+  Electric Railway, 143, 144.
+
+  Electric Signals and Stops, 160, 162.
+
+  Electric Telegraphy, 2, 114, 122, 123, 145, 146, 147.
+
+  Electrotyping, 283, 290.
+
+  Electric Type Printing, 147, 148.
+
+  Electric Type Writer, 287.
+
+  Electric Voters, 396.
+
+  Elevators, 6, 148, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157.
+
+  Eliot, Prof., 410.
+
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 402.
+
+  Elton, John, 46.
+
+  Elvean, Louis T. van, 155.
+
+  Embossing, 346, 347.
+
+  Embossing, weaving, 306.
+
+  Embroidery, 310, 313.
+
+  Emery, abrading, 70, 334.
+
+  Emery, testing machines, 398.
+
+  England, 8, 17, 25, 50, 188.
+
+  Engraving Machines, 290.
+
+  Enamelling. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Enamelled Ware, 459, 468.
+
+  Engineering. (See Civil.)
+    Electric, 143;
+    Hydraulic, 168;
+    Marine, 442;
+    Mining, 373;
+    Steam, 2.
+
+  Eolipile. (See Hero.)
+
+  Erard, pianist, 403.
+
+  Erasmus, 183.
+
+  Ericsson, John, 83, 86, 441, 443, 444.
+
+  Euclid, 9.
+
+  Euler, 167, 173.
+
+  Evans, Oliver, 1755-1819; 46, 47, 48, 81, 83, 87, 154, 374.
+
+  Evaporating, 52.
+
+  Evelyn, John, 1699; 25.
+
+  Evolution of modern inventions, 153.
+
+  Excavating, 105, 106.
+
+  Explosives, 270.
+
+  Eylewein, 167.
+
+
+  F.
+
+  Fabroni, 66, 118.
+
+  Faience, 459, 466.
+
+  Fairbairn, Sir Wm., 100, 176, 226, 440.
+
+  Fairbanks, scales and testing, 397.
+
+  Fahrenheit, 183.
+
+  Fanning Mills, 45.
+
+  Faraday, Michael, 63, 118, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 138,
+      188, 209, 411, 472.
+
+  Fan mills, 41.
+
+  Fare registers, 395.
+
+  Farmer, Moses G., 133, 135, 145.
+
+  Factory life, 298.
+
+  Faure, M. Camille, 120.
+
+  Faur, Faber du, 230.
+
+  Faust, 280.
+
+  Felt making, 325.
+
+  Fermentation, 65, 66, 67.
+
+  Fertilizers--machines and compositions. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Field, Cyrus W., 138.
+
+  Filament-carbon, 360.
+    (See Electric Lighting.)
+
+  Filters, filtering, 167, 180, 181.
+
+  Filter Press, 465.
+
+  Fink bridge, 103.
+
+  Fire-arms, 252-272.
+
+  Fire crackers, 252.
+
+  Fire engines, 76.
+
+  Fire place, 205.
+
+  Fiske, range finder, 266.
+
+  Fiske, 148, 413.
+
+  Fitch, John, 1784, 81.
+
+  Fitzherbert, Sir A., 1523, 14.
+
+  Fireproof safes. (See Locks.)
+
+  Flax machines, 42.
+
+  Flax brakes, 42.
+
+  Flaxman, 464.
+
+  Flax-threshers, 41, 42.
+
+  Fleming, 247.
+
+  Fleshing machines, 364.
+
+  Fletcher, 244.
+
+  Flexible shafts, 350.
+
+  Florence, 459.
+
+  Flour. (See Mills.)
+
+  Fly Shuttle. (See Spinning and Weaving.)
+
+  Foods, preparation of, 53, 54.
+
+  Force feed-seeders, 26.
+
+  Forneyron, 171, 172.
+
+  Forsythe, Rev. Mr., 259, 260.
+
+  Foucault, 137.
+
+  Fourcroy, 64.
+
+  Fourdrinier, 277. (See Paper making.)
+
+  Frackelton, Susan, portable kiln, 465.
+
+  France, 63, 203, 253, 274, 275, 313.
+
+  Francis, S. W., 286.
+
+  Frank, pottery, 463.
+
+  Franklin, Benj., 5, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117, 121, 125,
+      168, 203, 281, 446.
+
+  Franklin Institute, 455.
+
+  Fraunhofer, von, Jos., 61, 412.
+
+  Frederick, Henry, 255.
+
+  Freiberg Mining Academy, Metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Fresnel, 410.
+
+  Frictional Electricity, 111.
+
+  Frieburg Bridge. (See Bridges.)
+
+  Frogs, R. R., 108.
+
+  Flintlock, firearms, 258.
+
+  Froment, 146.
+
+  Frontinus, on Roman aqueducts, 166.
+
+  Fruits, Preparation of, 51, 53.
+
+  Fruit jars, 359.
+
+  Fry, Laura, 467.
+
+  Fulton, Robt., 84-85.
+
+  Furnaces, hot air; hot water, 206, 207.
+
+  Furniture, 351, 354, 359.
+
+  Furniture machinery, 351, 352.
+
+  Fuses, 259.
+
+
+  G.
+
+  Gaffield, Thos., glass, 472.
+
+  Gale, Prof., 126.
+
+  Galileo, 1, 166, 183, 388, 409.
+
+  Gally, self-playing pianos, 406.
+
+  Galton, Capt. Douglas, 205.
+
+  Galvani, 5, 117, 118, 125.
+
+  Galvanism, 112,121.
+
+  Galvanic batteries, 121, 122.
+
+  Galvanic music, 148, 406.
+
+  Galvanometer, 122, 139.
+
+  Gamble, 277.
+
+  Garay, Blasco de, 75.
+
+  Garments, 310-327.
+
+  Gas, 450;
+    illuminating, 69, 185, 450-456.
+
+  Gases, motors, 188, 190.
+
+  Gas checks, 266.
+
+  Gas engines, 76, 18, 184-194.
+
+  Gasoline and stoves, 213.
+
+  Gas pumps, 190.
+
+  Gatling, Dr., gun, 269.
+
+  Gaul, 32, 33.
+
+  Gauss, 126.
+
+  Gay-Lussac, 60, 185, 194, 209.
+
+  Ged, Wm., 281.
+
+  Geissler tubes, 135, 149.
+
+  Generator, Electric, 113.
+
+  Gentleman Farmer, 1768, 20.
+
+  George III., 389.
+
+  German inventions, 50, 203, 255, 313, 387, 391, 430, 473.
+
+  Germ theory, 67.
+
+  German clock and watch making, 387.
+
+  Gibraltar, 253.
+
+  Giffard-injector, 173.
+
+  Gilbert, Dr., 1600, 5, 113.
+
+  Gill, J. G., 268.
+
+  Giers, 234, 250.
+
+  Gin-cotton, 297.
+
+  Gladstone, inventor, 1806, 35.
+
+  Glass, 469, 474.
+
+  Glass, wool, and silk, 474, 480.
+
+  Glazes, 475. (See Porcelain.)
+
+  Glauber, 58.
+
+  Glycerine, 69.
+
+  Gold. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Goodyear, Chas., 434, 476, 478, 479, 480.
+
+  Googe, Barnaby, 14.
+
+  Gompertz, 432.
+
+  Gordon, 82.
+
+  Gothic architecture, 373.
+
+  Governors, 87.
+
+  Graham (chemist), 391.
+
+  Graham. (See Horology.)
+
+  Grain Binder. (See Harvesters.)
+
+  Grain cradles, drills, and seeders. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Grain elevator, 110.
+
+  Grain Separators, 49.
+
+  Gramme, Z., 134, 136, 137.
+
+  Gramophone, 406, 408.
+
+  Graphophone, 406, 408.
+
+  Grass burning stoves, 211.
+
+  Gray, Elisha. (See Electricity.)
+
+  Gray, S., 1729, 114, 125.
+
+  “Great Britain,” The, 440.
+
+  “Great Republic,” The, 439.
+
+  Great Urgroez, 357.
+
+  Greece and Greek antiquities and inventions, 9, 13, 18, 45,
+      74, 113, 164, 182, 218, 257, 340, 386, 457, 459.
+
+  Grenades, 255.
+
+  Green, N. W., driven well, 383.
+
+  Greenough, J. J., 318.
+
+  Gribeauval, 256.
+
+  Griffith, Julius, 82.
+
+  Griffiths of U. S., 234.
+
+  Grinding by stones, 45 to 49.
+
+  Grinding glass, 475.
+
+  Grindstones, 375.
+
+  Grossat, 477.
+
+  Grover and Baker sewing mach., 320.
+
+  Grooving, 245.
+
+  Grove, Sir Wm. Robert, 119.
+
+  Gruner, 234.
+
+  Gun carriages. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Gun cotton, 270.
+
+  Gun making, 345.
+
+  Gunpowder, 253, 262, 263, 270.
+
+  Gunpowder eng., 192.
+
+  Gun-stock, 345.
+
+  Guericke, Otto von, 113, 183, 193.
+
+  Guillaume, Puy, 253.
+
+  Gurney, 82.
+
+  Guttenberg, John, 280.
+
+
+  H.
+
+  Hales, Dr., 451.
+
+  Hall, John H., 267.
+
+  Hall safes, 422.
+
+  Hamberg, 58.
+
+  Hamblet, 146.
+
+  Hamilton (stove inventor), 212.
+
+  Hammers, steam and air, 88, 244.
+
+  Hanckwitz, Godfrey, 1680, 199.
+
+  Hancock, Walter, 82.
+
+  Handel, 402.
+
+  Hanging Gardens, 34.
+
+  Hardening metals, 249.
+
+  Hardware. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Hargreaves, Jas., 42, 294, 297.
+
+  Harnesses, 431.
+
+  Harp, The, and the Harpsichord, 6, 402.
+
+  Harvesters, 32, 33, 35, 39, 40, 41, 322.
+
+  Hartshorn, spring roller shades, 356.
+
+  Harveyized steel, 234, 249.
+
+  Harrows, 22, 28.
+
+  Hautefeuille, 77.
+
+  Hauteville, Abbé, 185, 389.
+
+  Hat making, 325.
+
+  Haydn, 402.
+
+  Hay, rakes and tedders, 15, 40.
+
+  Headers, 32.
+
+  Heat as power, 186, 187.
+
+  Heating, 86, 199, 210.
+
+  Hebrews, 45, 362, 423.
+
+  Hele, P., 388.
+
+  Helmont, J. van, 58, 184.
+
+  Hell Gate, 107.
+
+  Helmholtz, 66, 131, 141, 403, 406, 407, 411, 417.
+
+  Hendley, Wm., 82.
+
+  Henry, Joseph, 63, 123, 124, 126, 131, 146, 210.
+
+  Henry, rifle, 267.
+
+  Henry, Wm., 78.
+
+  Herissent, M., 477.
+
+  Hermetical sealing, 359.
+
+  Herodotus, 362.
+
+  Hero of Alexander, 5, 9, 74, 76, 87, 89, 165, 171, 404.
+
+  Herring, safes, 421.
+
+  Herschel, 228, 412.
+
+  Hides, treatment of. (See Leather.)
+
+  Hide mills, 364.
+
+  High and low pressure engines, 87, 88.
+
+  Hindoos, 220, 241, 254, 273, 292, 340, 384.
+
+  Hodges, James, of Montreal, 101.
+
+  Hoe, Robert, and son, R. M., 284.
+
+  Hoe drill-seeders, 27.
+
+  Hoes, 29, 30.
+
+  Hoffman, Dr., 464.
+
+  Hoisting, conveying, and storing, 152-163.
+
+  Holland, 18, 255, 257, 275.
+
+  Holley, A. L., 232.
+
+  Holtzapffel, J., 241.
+
+  Homer, 459.
+
+  Hooke, Dr., 388, 389.
+
+  Hoopes and Townsend, 247.
+
+  Hoppers. (See Mills.)
+
+  Hopper boy. (See Mills.)
+
+  Hoosac tunnel, 107.
+
+  Hornblower, 1781, 87.
+
+  Horrocks, 305.
+
+  Horse power, 187.
+
+  Horseshoes, 248.
+
+  Horology, 384-395.
+
+  Hot air engines, 185.
+
+  Hot air blast, 231.
+
+  Hot furnaces. (See Heating.)
+
+  Hot water circulation. (See Heating.)
+
+  Hotchkiss gun, 270.
+
+  Houdin regulator, 137.
+
+  Houses, their construction, 351, 352.
+
+  Houston. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Howe, Elias, 314-318.
+
+  Howe bridge, 103.
+
+  Howitzer. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Hunt, Walter, 314, 315.
+
+  Hungary, 357.
+
+  Huggins, Dr., 63, 412.
+
+  Hughes, D. E., 147.
+
+  Hugon, 189.
+
+  Hulls, Jonathan, 78.
+
+  Huntsman, Benj., 225.
+
+  “Husbandry, The whole art of.” (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Huskisson, 83.
+
+  Hussey, 1833, 37, 38.
+
+  Huxley, 65.
+
+  Huygens, 61, 77, 183, 184, 192, 388, 391.
+
+  Hydraulicising, 174.
+
+  Hydraulic elevators, 156, 157, 164, 165, 166.
+
+  Hydraulic jacks, 174.
+
+  Hydraulic motors, 164-181;
+    pumps, rams, 166, 168;
+    press, 52, 53, 154, 155, 168, 171, 175;
+    testing, 398, 399.
+
+  Hydrogen gas, 454.
+
+  Hydrostatic engines and presses, 166, 190, 194.
+
+
+  I.
+
+  Ida, mountains of, iron, 218.
+
+  Illuminating gas. (See Gas.)
+
+  Impulse pump. (See Ram.)
+
+  Incandescent light, 135, 456.
+
+  Incubators, 207.
+
+  India, 373, 400.
+
+  Industrial mechanics, 328-338.
+
+  Injectors, 173.
+
+  Intensifiers, 174.
+
+  International Exposition, London, 246, 352.
+
+  Invention, what it is, how induced, distinctions, growth,
+      protection of, 1-8.
+
+  Iron, 218.
+
+  Iron Ships. (See Ships.)
+
+  Iridescent glass, 474.
+
+  Ironing machines, 338.
+
+  Italy, 255, 280.
+
+  Ives. F. E. (three-color process), 417.
+
+
+  J.
+
+  Jablochoff, M. Paul, 136.
+
+  Jacks, 245.
+
+  Jacobi, of Russia, 249.
+
+  Jackson, C. T., Dr., 71.
+
+  Jacquard Loom, The, 304, 323, 326.
+
+  Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 304, 305.
+
+  Jenk’s ring frame, 302.
+
+  Jenkins, Prof. F., 192.
+
+  Jefferson, Thos., 16,18.
+
+  Jenkin, Prof. Fleeming, 144.
+
+  Jewelry, 333.
+
+  “Jimcrow,” 245.
+
+  Johnson, Denis. (See Bicycle.)
+
+  Jones, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Jonval, 172.
+
+  Joule, 2.
+
+  Jupiter, statue of, 34.
+
+
+  K.
+
+  Kaleidoscope, 410.
+
+  Karnes, Lord, 1768, 20.
+
+  Kaolin. (See Lighting.)
+
+  Kay, John, 293, 295.
+
+  “Kearsarge,” The, 261.
+
+  Kepler, 183.
+
+  Kennedy, Diss and Cannan, 331.
+
+  Kilns, 463, 464, 465.
+
+  Kinetic energy, Age of, 86.
+
+  Kinetograph, 417.
+
+  Kirchoff, G. R., 62, 412.
+
+  Kitchen and table utensils, 356.
+
+  Knabe piano, 403.
+
+  Knight, Edward, 36, 51, 170, 202, 232, 276, 321, 429.
+
+  Knitting, 307, 308.
+
+  König and Bauer, 283.
+
+  König, acoustics, 407.
+
+  Koops, 277.
+
+  Koster, 1620, rifle, 258.
+
+  Krag-Jorgensen rifle, 268.
+
+  Kramer, 146.
+
+  Krupp, steel, 234.
+
+  Krupp, Fredk., guns, 264.
+
+  Krupp, glass, 480.
+
+  Kutler, Augustin, 258.
+
+
+  L.
+
+  La Condamine, 477.
+
+  Labor organizations, 11.
+
+  Labor, how affected by inventions; reducing, and increasing,
+      152, 153, 162, 163, 293, 308, 380, 381, 460.
+
+  Lace making, 306.
+
+  Laconium, 202.
+
+  Ladd electric machine, 133.
+
+  La Hire, 167, 170.
+
+  Laird, John, 440, 443.
+
+  Lallement, P. (See Bicycle.)
+
+  Lamps and lamp lighting, 359, 450.
+
+  Lancaster, cannon, 263.
+
+  Land reclamation, 107.
+
+  Lane, 1828, 37.
+
+  Lane-Fox light, 137.
+
+  Langen and Otto. (See Gas Engine.)
+
+  Langley, Prof., 4.
+
+  L’Hommedieu, 348.
+
+  Lapping-cotton, 299, 300.
+
+  Lasts, making of, 344, 345.
+
+  Lathes, 241-243, 340, 345, 349;
+    for turning irregular forms of wood, 344.
+
+  Lattice work bridges, 103.
+
+  Laundry, 335.
+
+  Lavoisier, 58, 60, 63.
+
+  Lawn mowers, 40.
+
+  Lazy tongs mechanism, 160.
+
+  Le Bon, 1801, 185, 452.
+
+  Leaching, 236.
+
+  Lead, 219. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Leather, 361-372.
+
+  Leeuwenhoek of Holland, 65.
+
+  Leeu, 280.
+
+  Leckie, 41.
+
+  Le Conte, 63.
+
+  Lefaucheux, M., 267.
+
+  Leibnitz, 183.
+
+  Lenoir, 189.
+
+  Lesage, 121.
+
+  Lescatello, 1662, 24.
+
+  Leyden jar, 114.
+
+  Libavius, 58.
+
+  Liebig, 64.
+
+  Lieberkulm, Dr., 409.
+
+  Light, 2.
+
+  Lighting. (See Lamps and Gas.)
+
+  Light Houses, illumination, 105, 410.
+
+  Linotype, 288, 289, 290.
+
+  Linville bridge, 103.
+
+  Lippersheim, 409.
+
+  Liquid air, 216, 217.
+
+  Livingstone, Dr., 221.
+
+  Livingston, Robt., 84, 85.
+
+  Lixiviation, 236.
+
+  Locks, 420-427.
+
+  Locomotives, 82, 83, 84, 88.
+
+  Looms, 293, 297, 302. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Loomis, Mahlen, 150.
+
+  “London Engineering,” 288.
+
+  London exhibition, 1851, 470.
+
+  London Times, 283, 285.
+
+  Lontin regulator, 137.
+
+  Lost arts, 219.
+
+  Louis XI., XIV., 254, 255.
+
+  Lowell, Francis C., 298.
+
+  Lowe, T. S. C., gas, 454, 455.
+
+  Lubricants, 237.
+
+  Lyall, James, 306.
+
+  Lyttleton, 442.
+
+
+  M.
+
+  MacArthur-Forrest, cyanide process, 236.
+
+  Macaulay, Lord, 10.
+
+  Mackintosh, of Glasgow, 477.
+
+  Machine guns, 269.
+
+  Madersperger, Jos., 312.
+
+  Magdeburg, 193.
+
+  Magic lantern. (See Optics.)
+
+  Magnets and Magnetic Electricity, 112, 122, 123, 124, 130, 133.
+
+  Mail bags and locks, 427.
+
+  Mail service, 427.
+
+  Mail marking, 285.
+
+  Majolica. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Malt, 65, 66.
+
+  Man a tool-using animal, 310.
+
+  Manning, 1831, 37.
+
+  Marble, artificial, 468, 469.
+
+  Marine propulsion, 442.
+
+  Marconi, 151.
+
+  Mariotte’s law of gases, 184, 194.
+
+  Markers and cutters, 324.
+
+  Markham, 30.
+
+  Marsland, looms, 301.
+
+  Marr, Wm., 421.
+
+  Martin, Prof., 63.
+
+  Marvin’s safes, 421.
+
+  McClure’s Magazine, 445, 447.
+
+  McCormick reaper, 37, 38.
+
+  McCallum bridge, 103.
+
+  McKay, ships, 439.
+
+  McKay, shoe machines, 369.
+
+  McMillan bicycle, 433.
+
+  Mary, Queen, 402.
+
+  Mason, Prof. O. T., 458.
+
+  Massachusetts, mills, 298, 369.
+
+  Massachusetts, shoe making, 370.
+
+  Master locks, 423, 426.
+
+  Matches, 199, 200, 201.
+
+  Matting, 309, 312.
+
+  Maudsley, Henry, 243, 349.
+
+  Maurice of Nassau, 255.
+
+  Maurice, Peter, 167.
+
+  Mauser rifle, 269.
+
+  Mausoleum, 34.
+
+  Maxim electric light, 137.
+
+  Maxwell, 417.
+
+  Mayer, Prof., 404.
+
+  Meares, 1800, 35.
+
+  Meat, Preparation of, 55.
+
+  Mechanical powers, 4.
+
+  Medicine and surgery, 70, 71, 72.
+
+  Meigs, General M. C., 102.
+
+  Meikle, 1786, 41.
+
+  Megaphone, 407.
+
+  Melville, David, 452.
+
+  Menai Straits bridges, 96.
+
+  Mendeljeff, 2.
+
+  Menzies of Scotland, 41.
+
+  Mergenthaler, 288.
+
+  Merrimac and Monitor, 268, 441.
+
+  Metals and Metallurgy, 218-239.
+
+  Metal founding, 249.
+
+  Metal working and turning, 240;
+    boring, planing, 251;
+    hammering, shaping, 240;
+    modern metal
+    working plant, 250.
+
+  Metal, personal ware, buckles, clasps, hooks, buttons, etc.,
+      250.
+
+  Meters, gas and water, 178.
+
+  Mexico, 281, 292.
+
+  Microphone, 148.
+
+  Microscope, 409.
+
+  Middlings purifier, 49, 50.
+
+  Milk, milkers, 54, 55.
+
+  Millet, 30.
+
+  Mills, 45 to 51.
+
+  Milling, high, low, 49.
+
+  Miller, wood working, 342.
+
+  Miller and Taylor, 81.
+
+  Millwright, The Young, 47.
+
+  Milton, 105, 218.
+
+  Mineral wool, minerals and mining, 373-383.
+
+  Minneapolis mills, 50.
+
+  Mitrailleuses, 269.
+
+  Modern machinery, its commencement, 364.
+
+  Mohl, von, Hugo, 67.
+
+  Moigno, Abbé, 411.
+
+  Mold, aging. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Moulding. (See Wood-working and Glass making.)
+
+  Monks, 387.
+
+  “Monitor,” The, 268, 441.
+
+  Montgolfier, 169.
+
+  Moody, Paul, 298.
+
+  Moors, 253.
+
+  Morin, Genl., 209, 238.
+
+  Morland, Sir Sam’l, 77.
+
+  Morrison, Chas., 115.
+
+  Morse, S. B. F., 126, 127, 128, 129.
+
+  Mortars, 253.
+
+  Mortise making, 345.
+
+  Morton, Dr. W. T. G., 71.
+
+  Motor vehicles, 435.
+
+  Mont Cenis Tunnel, 107.
+
+  Mowers, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
+
+  Moxon, Jos., 242.
+
+  Mozart, 402.
+
+  Murdock, Wm., 185, 452.
+
+  Music, 400-406.
+
+  Musical instruments, 6, 400.
+
+  Musical electrical apparatus, 406.
+
+  Muschenbroeck, Prof., 1745, 114, 115.
+
+  Mushet, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Muskets. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Muzzle loaders, 263, 264.
+
+
+  N.
+
+  National Assembly, France, 9.
+
+  Napoleon. (See Bonaparte.)
+
+  Naphtha, 454.
+
+  Nasmyth, 243, 245.
+
+  Needle, 310, 313.
+
+  Needle gun, 266.
+
+  Niedringhaus, 468.
+
+  Netting. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Newcomen, 5, 77, 78, 79, 167, 187.
+
+  Newbold, Chas., 19.
+
+  Newbury, Wm., 348.
+
+  Newton, Sir Isaac, 9, 11, 61, 114, 167, 183, 414.
+
+  Niagara bridges, 97, 98, 104.
+
+  Niagara power, 171, 172.
+
+  Nicholson and Carlisle, 118.
+
+  Nicholson, Wm., of England, 282.
+
+  Nickel. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Niepce, Jas. N., 415.
+
+  Nitro-glycerine, 270.
+
+  Noah’s Ark, 438.
+
+  Nobel, A., 192.
+
+  Nollet, Prof., 132.
+
+  Noria, The, 165.
+
+  Norway, 266, 430, 439.
+
+  Nozzles, flexible, 174;
+    water, 179.
+
+
+  O.
+
+  Oersted, 121, 130.
+
+  Ogle, 1822, 36.
+
+  Ohm, G. S., 125.
+
+  Oils and fats, 69.
+
+  Oil cloth, 306.
+
+  Oil lamps, 359.
+
+  Oil stoves and furnaces, 190, 212.
+
+  Oiling waves, 446.
+
+  Oil wells, 190, 382.
+
+  Omnibus. (See Stages and Carriers.)
+
+  Opening and blowing machines, cotton, 299.
+
+  Opthalmoscope, 411.
+
+  Optical instruments, 409-412.
+
+  Ordnance, arms, explosives, 252 to 272.
+
+  Ores, treatment of, 229, 250, 251, 373 to 380.
+
+  Ore separators, 379. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Organs, 404.
+
+  Ornamental iron work. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Ornamental wood work. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Oscillating engines. (See Steam.)
+
+  Osmund furnaces. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Otis elevators, 155.
+
+  Otto, Nicolaus A., Otto engine, 190, 191.
+
+  Oxygen, 58, 453. (See Priestley.)
+
+
+  P.
+
+  Paddle wheels and vessels, 443.
+
+  Paints, 466.
+
+  Painting, 418, 419, 459.
+
+  Painting machines, 193, 418, 467.
+
+  Paixhans, Genl., 261, 264.
+
+  Page, Prof. C. G., 132, 141.
+
+  Page, Ralph, 224.
+
+  Palissy, Bernard, 458.
+
+  Palmer, stage-coaches, 429.
+
+  Palladius, 32.
+
+  Panoramas, 415.
+
+  Paper and printing, 273-291.
+
+  Paper bag machinery, 279.
+
+  Papin, 5, 77, 184, 192, 193.
+
+  Papyrus, 273, 274.
+
+  Paraffine. (See Oils.)
+
+  Parchment, 274.
+
+  Parkinson, Thos., 194.
+
+  Parliament, House of, 209.
+
+  Parquetry. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Parrott, gun, 264.
+
+  Parthenon, 373.
+
+  Partridge, Reuben, matches, 200.
+
+  Pascal, 166, 168, 170, 183.
+
+  Pasteur, 68.
+
+  Patents, their origin and purpose, 8, 21.
+
+  Pattern making. (See Wood, Metal, and Textiles.)
+
+  Pauley, Col., 266.
+
+  Pegs, 367, 368.
+
+  Pencils, 418.
+
+  Pendulum. (See Horology.)
+
+  Pendulum machines, 365.
+
+  Penelope, 306.
+
+  Pennsylvania fireplace, 203.
+
+  Percussion caps, 259, 260.
+
+  Percy. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Permutation locks, 425.
+
+  Pernot, 234.
+
+  Perin & Co., saws, 348.
+
+  Persians, 362.
+
+  Petroleum, 359, 382.
+
+  Petzold, 403.
+
+  Pfaff, 121.
+
+  Pharos of Alexandria, 34.
+
+  Phelps, G. M., 147.
+
+  Phœnicians, 439, 459.
+
+  “Phœnix,” The. (See Ships.)
+
+  Phonautograph, 141, 407.
+
+  Phonograph, 2, 406.
+
+  Phonophone, 414.
+
+  Phonoscope, 414.
+
+  Photophone, 414.
+
+  Phosphorus matches, 200.
+
+  Photochromoscope, 417.
+
+  Photography, 410, 414, 416, 418.
+
+  Photo-processes, 417.
+
+  Piano, 6, 401-404.
+
+  Picking machine, 298, 299.
+
+  Picker-motion, looms, 297.
+
+  Piezometer, 262.
+
+  Pigments, 70.
+
+  Pitt, inventor, 1786, 33.
+
+  Pixii, 131.
+
+  Planes, 340, 350. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Planing machines, 245, 349, 350. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Planté, G., 120.
+
+  Planters. (See Chap. III.)
+
+  Plaster, 469.
+
+  Plato, 385.
+
+  Platt, Sir Hugh, 14.
+
+  Platt, Senator, 35.
+
+  Pliny, 32, 164, 223, 227, 273, 340.
+
+  Ploughs, 5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27,
+      28, 29, 30.
+
+  Plucknett, 1808, 35.
+
+  Pneumatics, 165, 182 to 198.
+
+  Pneumatic machines, 195, 197, 198.
+
+  Pneumatic propellers, 444.
+
+  Pneumatic tires, 433.
+
+  Pneumatic tubes and transmission, 159, 196.
+
+  Polemoscope, 413.
+
+  Polishing glass, 475.
+
+  Pope, Alexander, 394.
+
+  Porcelain, 465, 466.
+
+  Poririer (match machine), 201.
+
+  Porta Baptista, 414.
+
+  Porta G. della, 75.
+
+  Portable engines, 88.
+
+  Potato planters, 28.
+
+  Potassium, 236.
+
+  Potter, Humphrey, 78.
+
+  Pottery, 457-469.
+
+  Pousard, 465.
+
+  Powder, 253.
+
+  Power, measure of, 187.
+
+  Prehistoric inventions. (See beginning of each Chapter.)
+
+  Pressing machines, 51, 52, 53.
+
+  Priestley, 58, 453, 477.
+
+  “Princeton,” The, 443.
+
+  Printing press, 2, 6, 273-291.
+
+  Prince of Orange, 255.
+
+  Projectiles, 253-270.
+
+  Prometheus, 199, 200.
+
+  Protoplasm, 67.
+
+  Prussia, 266.
+
+  Providence, R. I., Tool Co., 322.
+
+  Psalteries, 401.
+
+  Ptah, 241.
+
+  Puckle’s patent breech loader, 258, 259.
+
+  Puddling, 226, 227, 231.
+
+  Pug mills, 461.
+
+  Pullman car, 107.
+
+  Pulp, 275-279.
+
+  Pumps, 187.
+
+  Ptolemy, 428.
+
+  Puillet, 411.
+
+  Puy Guillaume, battle of, 1338, 253.
+
+  Pyramids, 34, 93.
+
+
+  Q.
+
+  Quadruplex telegraphy. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  “Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece,” 256.
+
+  Queen of Sheba, 326.
+
+  Quern, 45.
+
+  Quilting machine, 324.
+
+
+  R.
+
+  Radcliffe, 305.
+
+  Radiation and radiators, 205, 206.
+
+  Railways, rails and tracks, 106, 108;
+    cars, 108, 109;
+    frogs, 108.
+
+  Railway cars, 436, 437.
+
+  Rakes. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Ramage Press, 281.
+
+  Ramseye, David, 1630, 76.
+
+  Ramelli, Cardan, 75.
+
+  Ramsey, David, 1738, 168, 389.
+
+  Ram, water. (See Pumps.)
+
+  Randolph, David M., 367.
+
+  Randolph, Elder and Co., 440.
+
+  Ranges. (See Stoves.)
+
+  Range finder, 413.
+
+  Raphael, 418.
+
+  Rawhides. (See Leather.)
+
+  Read, Nathan, 1791, 87.
+
+  Reapers. (See Harvesters, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38.)
+
+  Reichenbach, 382.
+
+  Reis, Prof., 141, 407.
+
+  Refining metals, 227.
+
+  Refrigeration, 213, 214, 216.
+
+  Regenerators, 465.
+
+  Regenerative furnace. (See Metallurgy, also, 464.)
+
+  Registers, 395.
+
+  Regulators, Electric, 137;
+    time, 137.
+
+  Rennie, 244.
+
+  Repeating watches, 389.
+
+  Reservoirs, 166, 180.
+
+  Resonators, 404.
+
+  Revault, 1605, 75.
+
+  Revolvers. (See Fire Arms.)
+
+  Rhode Island, 298.
+
+  Ribbon making, 306.
+
+  Rickel, Dr., 451.
+
+  Rider bridge, 103.
+
+  Riehle, testing mach., 398.
+
+  Rifles, 258, 259, 260.
+
+  Rifled cannon, 262, 263.
+
+  Ring frame-spinning, 302.
+
+  Ritter, 118, 121.
+
+  Riveting, 176.
+
+  Road carriage, steam, 83.
+
+  Roads, 106, 107.
+
+  Road making, 106.
+
+  Robia, Luca della, 459.
+
+  Robert, Louis, 276.
+
+  Roberts, 244.
+
+  Rock drilling, 107.
+
+  Rockers, ore, 235.
+
+  Rockets, 253.
+
+  Rodman, General, gun, 264.
+
+  Roebling, John A., engineer, 98, 99.
+
+  Roebling, Washington, 98, 100.
+
+  Roentgen, X rays, 149.
+
+  Rohes, M. Beau de, 189.
+
+  Rogers, Saml. B., metallurgist, 229, 230.
+
+  Rogers, type maker, 289.
+
+  Roller press, 283, 284.
+
+  Roman arts, inventions, etc., 10, 13, 14, 45, 93, 164, 166,
+      178, 202, 274, 457, 459.
+
+  Rookwood pottery, 467.
+
+  Romagnosi, G. D., 121.
+
+  Roscoe, Prof. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Rose, H., 238.
+
+  Rotary engines. (See Steam.)
+
+  Rotary printing press, 284. (See Printing.)
+
+  Rotary pumps. (See Water and Steam Eng.)
+
+  Roving, spinning, 298, 299.
+
+  Rubber, 69, 434.
+
+  Ruhmkorff coil, 132.
+
+  Rumford, Count, 63.
+
+  Rumsey, James, 81, 168.
+
+  Russia, 40, 254, 430.
+
+  Russian leather, 362.
+
+  Rust, Saml., 282.
+
+  Ruth, 16.
+
+
+  S.
+
+  Sabot, projectiles, 262, 263.
+
+  Safes and locks, 420-427.
+
+  Safety valves, 87.
+
+  Saint, Thomas, sewing machine, 311.
+
+  Salman, scales maker, 396.
+
+  Salonen, 1807, mower, 36.
+
+  Samians and Samos, 459.
+
+  Sand blast, 332, 334, 475.
+
+  Sand filters. (See Filters.)
+
+  Sandwich, Earl, 1699, 25.
+
+  Saracens, 274.
+
+  Sarnstrom, Prof., 234.
+
+  Savery, Thos., 5, 77.
+
+  Saws, 340, 341, 342, 348, 351.
+
+  Saw mills, 341, 342.
+
+  Saxton, Jos., 131.
+
+  Scales, 395.
+
+  Scaliger, 183.
+
+  Scandinavians, 363.
+
+  Scarborough, 85.
+
+  Schilling, Baron, 126.
+
+  Schönbein, 270.
+
+  Schapper, Hartman, 241.
+
+  Schoeffer, Peter, 270.
+
+  Schreiber, 403.
+
+  Schrotter (matches), 200.
+
+  Schweigger, S. C., 126.
+
+  Scoops, 178.
+
+  Scotland, 19, 20, 33.
+
+  Scott, phonautograph, 141, 407.
+
+  Scott, Sir Walter, 45, 80.
+
+  Scott, Gen. W., 260.
+
+  Scott, Rich’d, 420.
+
+  Scouring machines. (See Leather and Cloth, and Grain.)
+
+  Screw, Archimedean. (See Ships and Propeller.)
+
+  Screw, press, 52.
+
+  Screw propeller, 85, 443.
+
+  Screw making, 245, 246.
+
+  Scythians, 362, 428.
+
+  Scythes, 32, 33, 35.
+
+  Seed drills, 24, 25, 26, 27.
+
+  Seely, F. A., 3.
+
+  Self-playing Instruments, 406.
+
+  Seguin, 83.
+
+  Sellers, Wm., 234, 247.
+
+  Separators, Grain, 48, 49;
+    milk, 54;
+    ore, 379. (See Mills.)
+
+  Seppings, Sir Robert, 440.
+
+  Serrin, 137.
+
+  Serviere, 166.
+
+  Seward, Wm. H., 3.
+
+  Seven Wonders, The, 34, 35.
+
+  Sewing machines, 311-323.
+
+  Sewer construction, 107.
+
+  Shades and screens, 356.
+
+  Shaping machines, 245.
+
+  Sharp’s carbine, 267.
+
+  Shaw, Joshua, 260.
+
+  Sheele, 415.
+
+  Sheet metal ware, 250.
+
+  Shells, 264.
+
+  Shingle making, 350.
+
+  Shinar, Brick making in, 457.
+
+  Ships, war, and others, 261, 343, 438-449.
+
+  Shoes and machinery, 365-371.
+
+  Sholes, inventor, type writing, 286.
+
+  Shrapnel, 259.
+
+  Shuttles, 293. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Sickle, 32, 33.
+
+  Side wheel steamboats, 85.
+
+  Siemens, Dr. Werner, 133.
+
+  Siemens, Wm., Sir., 144, 171.
+
+  Siemens and Halske, 144, 146.
+
+  Siemens, C. L., 147, 234, 465.
+
+  Silk making. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Silk, artificial. (See Glass.)
+
+  Silver, 219.
+
+  Singer, sewing machine, 319, 320.
+
+  Sinking shafts, Mode of, 106, 107.
+
+  Skiving. (See Leather.)
+
+  Slade, J. T., 155.
+
+  Slater, Thomas, 298.
+
+  Slaughtering, 55.
+
+  Sleighs, 430, 431.
+
+  Slide, rest, 243, 349.
+
+  Slotting machines, 245.
+
+  Small arms, 266. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Small, Jas., 1784, 18.
+
+  Smeaton, 87, 105.
+
+  Smelting, 220. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Smiles, Self Help, 95.
+
+  Smith & Wesson, revolvers, 269.
+
+  Snellus, 234.
+
+  Snow ploughs, 109.
+
+  Soda, pulp, 278.
+
+  Solarmeter, 413.
+
+  Solomon’s temple, 242.
+
+  Somerset, Marquis of Worcester. (See Steam.)
+
+  Sound, 406. (See Acoustics.)
+
+  Sowing, 23.
+
+  Spanish inventions, 25, 75, 253, 274, 280, 292.
+
+  Spectacles. (See Optics.)
+
+  Spectrum, analysis, 60, 61, 62, 63, 412.
+
+  Spectroscope, 2, 412.
+
+  Speed Indicators, 396.
+
+  Spencer, gun, 267.
+
+  Spencer, metal coating, 249.
+
+  Spinet, 402.
+
+  Spinning, 6, 292, 296, 300. (See Textiles.)
+
+  “Spinning Jenny,” 297.
+
+  Spinning Mule, 297, 300.
+
+  “Spiritalia,” 404.
+
+  Splitting, leather, 366.
+
+  Spooling, 302.
+
+  Springfield musket, 268.
+
+  Spun glass. (See Spinning and 474.)
+
+  Stamp mills and metal working, 236, 250.
+
+  Standard time, 394.
+
+  Stanhope, Earl, 282.
+
+  St. Gothard tunnel, 107.
+
+  St. Louis bridge, 102.
+
+  Steam engines, 2, 5, 73 to 95;
+    boilers, 86;
+    heating, 207;
+    pumps, 79, 81, 88.
+
+  Steam ships, 2, 84, 85, 440.
+
+  Stearns, 145.
+
+  Steel, manufacture of. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Steinheil, 126, 412.
+
+  Steinway, pianos, 403.
+
+  Stenographing, 290.
+
+  Stereoscope, 410, 411.
+
+  Stereotyping, 281.
+
+  Sterilisation, 54, 213.
+
+  Stephenson, Geo., 82, 83, 84, 85, 98.
+
+  Stephenson, Robert, 98, 100, 101, 155.
+
+  Stevens, John C., 84, 85, 86, 443.
+
+  Stevinus, 166.
+
+  Stitching machines. (See Sewing.)
+
+  Stocking making, 307.
+
+  Stone cutting, carving and dressing, 374, 375.
+
+  Stone crushing, 376.
+
+  Stone, artificial, 468.
+
+  Storage battery, 120.
+
+  Storm, W. M. (Gunpowder Engine,) 192.
+
+  Store service, 152, 153, 158, 159.
+
+  Stoves, 200-206.
+
+  Street, Robert, 185.
+
+  Street sweeping, 331.
+
+  Stow, 350.
+
+  Stückofen, metallurgy, 224.
+
+  Sturgeon, inventor, 122, 123, 124.
+
+  Sturtevant, B. F. (shoes), 368.
+
+  Submarine blasting, etc., 107.
+
+  Suez canal, 107.
+
+  Sugar, 69.
+
+  Sun-dial, 384.
+
+  Subdivision of labor, 392. (See Ordnance and Sewing Machines.)
+
+  Surgery and instruments, 70.
+
+  Suspension bridges, 95, 96-100.
+
+  Swan, light, 137.
+
+  Sweden, 266.
+
+  Sweeping machines, 331.
+
+  Swiss manufactures, (See Watches, etc.)
+
+  Switzerland, 16, 46, 391.
+
+  Symington, 81, 83, 85.
+
+  Syphon recorder, 139.
+
+
+  T.
+
+  T-rail, 108.
+
+  Tables, 354. (See Furniture.)
+
+  Tachenius, 58.
+
+  Tack making, 344.
+
+  Tainter, C. S., 408, 414.
+
+  Takamine, 68.
+
+  Talus, or Perdix, saw inventor, 340.
+
+  Tanning. (See Leather.)
+
+  Tapestry, 275.
+
+  Teasling, 306.
+
+  Tedders, 40.
+
+  Telegraph, 124-128, 139, 140.
+
+  Telegraphic pictures, 419.
+
+  Telephone, 2, 140, 141, 142, 406.
+
+  Telescope, 2, 409.
+
+  Telpherage, 144.
+
+  Telford, 95, 96.
+
+  Tennyson, 67.
+
+  Tesla, 145.
+
+  Testing machines, 398.
+
+  Textiles, 292-309.
+
+  Thermo-electricity, 112, 120.
+
+  Theodore of Samos, 340.
+
+  Thimonnier, 313.
+
+  Thomson, Sir Wm., 63, 139.
+
+  Thompson, Robt. Wm., 433, 435.
+
+  Thompson & Houston, 137.
+
+  “Three color process,” 417.
+
+  Thread making. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Threshing machines, 40, 41.
+
+  Throstle, 296.
+
+  Thurston, Prof. R. H., 86.
+
+  Tiles, 350.
+
+  Tilghman, B. F., sand blast, 332, 475.
+
+  Time locks, 425.
+
+  Time measuring of the ancients, 384.
+
+  Tissier, 238.
+
+  Tobacco and machinery, 55, 56, 57.
+
+  Tools, primitive, 310, 328, 339.
+
+  Torpedo vessels, 271, 445.
+
+  Torpedoes, 271.
+
+  Torricelli, 166, 183.
+
+  Tour, Cagniard de la, 65.
+
+  Towne’s lattice bridge, 103.
+
+  Traction railways and engines, 436.
+
+  Transplanters, 29.
+
+  Transportation, 107, 109.
+
+  Treadwell, Daniel, 284.
+
+  Tresca, M., 247.
+
+  Trevithick, Richard, 81, 82.
+
+  Tripler, C. E., liquid air, 216.
+
+  Trolley lines. (See Electric, etc.)
+
+  Trough batteries. (See Electricity.)
+
+  Truss bridges, 102, 103.
+
+  Tubal Cain, 218, 239.
+
+  Tubes and tubing, making, 248.
+
+  Tubular bridges, 100, 102.
+
+  Tull, Jethro, 1680-1740, 14, 25.
+
+  Tungsten. (See Metals.)
+
+  Tunnels, 106, 107.
+
+  Turbines, 89, 168, 171, 172.
+
+  Turning, Art of, 242, 339, 344.
+
+  Tusser, Thomas, 14.
+
+  Tweddle, 176.
+
+  Twine binders. (See Harvesters.)
+
+  Twinings (inventor, refrigerator), 215.
+
+  Tympanum, 164.
+
+  Tyndall, John, 411, 412.
+
+  Type, 280, 281.
+
+  Type Distributor, 279.
+
+  Type setter, 278, 279.
+
+  Type writers, 6, 286.
+
+
+  V.
+
+  Vail, Alfred, 126.
+
+  Valerius, 388.
+
+  Valves, valve gear, 87, 89.
+
+  Vapor engines, 190-192.
+
+  Vapor stoves, 200-206, 212.
+
+  Varley, Alfred, 133.
+
+  Varro, 32.
+
+  Vegetable cutters, 51.
+
+  Velocipedes, 431.
+
+  Venetians, 280.
+
+  Ventilation, 209.
+
+  Veneering, 351.
+
+  Vestibule cars, 437.
+
+  Vick, Henry de, clockmaker, 387.
+
+  Victoria bridge. (See Bridges.)
+
+  Vienna, 38.
+
+  Vienna exposition, 348.
+
+  Vince, Leonardo de, 75.
+
+  Virgil, 32.
+
+  Virginal, 6, 402.
+
+  Vitruvius, 227.
+
+  Volta, voltaic electricity, 112, 117, 118, 112 to 120, 125, 133, 134,
+      249.
+
+  Von Alteneck, H., 138.
+
+  Von Drais, 432.
+
+  Vortex theory, 2;
+    Vortex wheel, 171.
+
+  Voting machines, 395.
+
+  Vulcan, 246.
+
+  Vulcanisation. (See Rubber.)
+
+
+  W.
+
+  Waggons, 431.
+
+  Walker, John (matches), 200.
+
+  Walker, Joseph, 367.
+
+  Wales, Thos. C., 477.
+
+  Wallace and Maxim, 137.
+
+  Wall paper, 275, 279.
+
+  Walter, John, 285.
+
+  Watches, 391. (See Clocks.)
+
+  Waltham watches, 393.
+
+  War, effect on by inventions, 271, 272.
+
+  Washington, 15, 16.
+
+  Washing and ironing machines, 335-338.
+
+  Wasp, first paper maker, 273.
+
+  Watches. (See Horology.)
+
+  Water. (See Hydraulics.)
+
+  Water clocks, 385, 386.
+
+  Water closets, 178.
+
+  Water distribution, 167, 178;
+    gas, 454.
+
+  Water wheels, 165;
+    mills, 167;
+    engines, 178.
+
+  Water frame. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Water metres, 178;
+    scoops, 178.
+
+  Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry, 59.
+
+  Watt, James, 5, 8, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 154, 167, 170, 176,
+      182, 203, 206, 296, 341, 460.
+
+  Watson, Bishop, 451.
+
+  Weaving, 6, 292, 304. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Weaver’s shuttle, 307.
+
+  Weber piano, 403.
+
+  Webster, Daniel, 91.
+
+  Wedgwood, 459, 460, 464.
+
+  Weeks, Jos., 364.
+
+  Weighing, scales, etc., 396, 397, 398.
+
+  Weisenthal, C. F., 310, 312.
+
+  Welding, 248.
+
+  Wellington, Duke of, 83.
+
+  Wells, making and boring of, 373, 379-383;
+    driven, 382;
+    Artesian, 381.
+
+  Welsbach lamp, 456.
+
+  Westinghouse, electric light, 137, 138.
+
+  Weston, Sir Richard, 14.
+
+  Weston, electrician, 137.
+
+  West (destroyer of bacteria), 213.
+
+  Whaleback ships, 438.
+
+  Wheat, its cultivation, 25, 26.
+
+  Wheatstone, Chas., 127, 133, 146, 147, 410.
+
+  Wheeler and Wilson, 319.
+
+  Wheelbarrow, seeder, 24.
+
+  Whewell, 166.
+
+  Whitehurst, Geo., 168.
+
+  Whitney, Eli, cotton gin, 42, 43, 297.
+
+  Whitworth, Sir J., 244, 246, 263.
+
+  Wilde, electric magnet, 133.
+
+  Wilder, safes, 421.
+
+  Wilkes, 277.
+
+  William of Malmesbury, 75.
+
+  Wilson, A. B., sewing machinery,  319.
+
+  Wilson, Genl. John M., 180.
+
+  Winchester rifle, 267.
+
+  Wind mills, wheels, etc., 404. (See Mills.)
+
+  Window glass, window screens, 359.
+
+  Wine making. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Winter, Sir John, 225.
+
+  Wire working, 250.
+
+  Wire wound gun, 263.
+
+  Wireless telegraphy, 150, 151.
+
+  Wolf, aeronaut, 447.
+
+  Wöhler, chemist, 238.
+
+  Wollaston, 60, 249, 412.
+
+  Woodbridge, Dr. W. E., 262, 263.
+
+  Woodbury, Oscar D. and E. C., 330.
+
+  Woodworth, Wm., planing machinery, 349.
+
+  Wood, lathe turning, 344.
+
+  Wood, bending and trenting of, 347, 352, 356.
+
+  Wood working machinery, 242, 339, 352, 369.
+
+  Woods, variety and beauty, 352.
+
+  Wood carving, 346.
+
+  Wool. (See Spinning, Weaving, Textiles.)
+
+  Wool, mineral, 474, 480.
+
+  Wooden shoes, making of, 367.
+
+  Worcester, Marquis of, 5, 75, 77, 81.
+
+  Work shop, a modern, 251.
+
+  World’s fair, 1851, 36, 38.
+
+  Woven goods, variety of, 308, 309.
+
+  Wright (gas engine), 188.
+
+  Wren, architect, 209.
+
+  Wyatt of Lichfield, 294, 295.
+
+
+  X.
+
+  X rays, 149, 150.
+
+  Xyloplasty, 347.
+
+
+  Y.
+
+  Yale, Linus, Jr., locks, 425.
+
+  Yankee clippers, 438.
+
+  Yarn. (See Weaving, etc.)
+
+  Yeast, 65.
+
+  York, Duke of, 124, 125.
+
+  Young of America, 63, 417.
+
+  Young, Arthur, 1741-1800, 14, 15.
+
+  Youmans, Prof., 450.
+
+
+  Z.
+
+  Zanon, 1764, 24.
+
+  Zech, Jacob, 388.
+
+  Zeppelin, Count, 446.
+
+  Zimmermann, self-playing pianos, 406.
+
+  Zinc, 236.
+
+  Zinc batteries. (See Electricity.)
+
+
+
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES.
+
+_Price 5s. each net._
+
+
+  Religious Progress in the Century.
+      By W. H. Withrow, M. A., D. D., F. R. S. C.
+
+  Literature of the Century.
+      By Professor A. B. de Mille, M. A.
+
+  Progress of South Africa in the Century.
+      By George McCall Theal, D. Lit., LL. D.
+
+  Medicine, Surgery, and Hygiene in the Century.
+      By Ezra Hurlburt Stafford, M. D.
+
+  Progress of India, Japan, and China in the Century.
+      By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., LL. D., &c.
+
+  Progress of the United States of America in the Century.
+      By Prof. Wm. Peterfield Trent, M. A., LL. D.
+
+  Continental Rulers in the Century.
+      By Percy M. Thornton, LL. B., M. P.
+
+  British Sovereigns in the Century.
+      By T. H. S. Escott, M. A.
+
+  Progress of British Empire in the Century.
+      By James Stanley Little.
+
+  Progress of Canada in the Century.
+      By J. Castell Hopkins, F. S. S.
+
+  Progress of Australasia in the Century.
+      By T. A. Coghlan, F. S. S., and Thomas T. Ewing.
+
+  Progress of New Zealand in the Century.
+      By R. F. Irvine, M. A., and O. T. J. Alpers, M. A.
+
+  Political Progress of the Century.
+      By Thomas Macknight.
+
+  Discoveries and Explorations of the Century.
+      By Professor C. G. D. Roberts, M. A.
+
+  Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century.
+      By H. de Beltgens Gibbins, D. Lit., M. A., F. R. G. S.
+
+  Inventions of the Century.
+      By William H. Doolittle.
+
+  Wars of the Century, and the Development of Military Science.
+      By Professor Oscar Browning, M. A.
+
+  Naval Battles of the Century.
+      By Rear-Admiral Francis John Higginson.
+
+  Naval Development of the Century.
+      By Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, K. C. B.
+
+  Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Jefferson to
+  Fillmore).
+      By Francis Bellamy.
+
+  Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Pierce to
+  McKinley).
+      Francis Knowles.
+
+  The Fine Arts in the Century.
+      By William Sharp.
+
+  Progress of Education in the Century.
+      By James Laughlin Hughes and Louis R. Klemm, Ph. D.
+
+  Temperance and Social Progress of the Century.
+      By the Hon. John G. Woolley, M. A.
+
+  Progress of Science in the Century.
+      By Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M. A.
+
+
+
+
+Edinburgh:
+
+Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited.
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY ***
+
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+<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Inventions in the Century, by William Henry Doolittle</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Inventions in the Century</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Henry Doolittlen</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 18, 2011 [EBook #36776]<br>
+[Most recently updated: September 3, 2023]</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Chris Curnow, Stephanie Kovalchik and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive)</div>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY ***</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="notebox">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></p>
+
+<p>Misspellings in the source text have been corrected.</p>
+
+<p>Missing page entries for “Wooden shoes” was assigned a page number by the transcriber.</p>
+
+<p>Index entry for “Stamfield, Jas.” was removed since this name does not
+occur in the main text.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+<h3>THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES</h3>
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr><td class="tdl">EDITOR:</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">JUSTIN McCARTHY.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">ASSOCIATE EDITORS:</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">
+R<span class="small">EV</span>. W. H. WITHROW, M.A., D.D., F.R.S.C.<br>
+CHARLES G. D. ROBERTS, M.A., F.R.C.I.<br>
+J. CASTELL HOPKINS, F.R.S.L.<br>
+T. G. MARQUIS, B.A.<br>
+R<span class="small">EV</span>. T. S. LINSCOTT, F.R.C.I.
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+
+<h1>INVENTIONS<br>
+IN THE CENTURY</h1>
+<p class="center p2">BY<br><span class="big">
+WILLIAM H. DOOLITTLE</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Expert and Patent Solicitor, Ex-Examiner in the Patent Office and Assistant<br>
+Commissioner of Patents at Washington, Writer of Inventions, etc.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE LINSCOTT PUBLISHING COMPANY<br>
+<span class="small">TORONTO AND PHILADELPHIA</span><br>
+<br>
+W. &amp; R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED<br>
+<span class="small">LONDON AND EDINBURGH</span><br>
+<br>
+1903</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand Nine
+Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited, in the Office
+of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Year One
+Thousand Nine Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited,
+in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc"><br><i>All Rights Reserved.</i>
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;">
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdr"><span class="small">PAGE</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br><br>
+INTRODUCTORY.<br>
+INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Inventions and Discoveries.&mdash;Distinctions and Contrast.&mdash;The
+ One, Useful Contrivances of Man; the Other, New Things Found
+ in Nature.&mdash;Galileo and the Telescope.&mdash;Newton and the Law of
+ Gravitation.&mdash;Often United as Soul and Body.&mdash;Inventions and
+ Discoveries do not Precede or Succeed in Order.&mdash;Inventions&mdash;Alphabetical
+ Writing; Arabic Notation; The Mariner’s Compass;
+ The Telescope; The Steam Engine.&mdash;Discoveries;&mdash;Attraction of
+ Gravitation; Planetary Motions; Circulation of Blood; Velocity
+ of Light.&mdash;Nineteenth Century Inventions and Discoveries.&mdash;Further
+ Definitions.&mdash;Law of Development.&mdash;Contrivances, not Creations.&mdash;Man
+ Always an Inventor.&mdash;Prof. Langley on Slow Growth of
+ Inventions.&mdash;Inventions of this Century Outgrowth of Past Ones.&mdash;Egyptian
+ Crooked Stick, Precursor of Modern Plough.&mdash;Hero of
+ Alexandria and James Watt.&mdash;David’s Harp and the Grand Piano.&mdash;Electrical
+ Science in 1600 and the Present Day.&mdash;Evolution
+ and Interrelation of the Arts.&mdash;Age of Machine Inventions.&mdash;Its
+ Beginning.&mdash;The Inducements to Invention.&mdash;Necessity not Always
+ the Mother.&mdash;Wants of Various Kinds.&mdash;Accident.&mdash;Governmental
+ Protection the Greatest Incentive.&mdash;Origin and Growth of Patent
+ Laws.&mdash;Influence of Personal, Political and Intellectual Freedom
+ and Education.&mdash;Arts of Civilization Due to the Inventor.&mdash;Macaulay’s
+ Estimate.&mdash;Will Inventions Continue to Increase or Decrease.&mdash;Effect
+ of Economic, Industrial and Social Life upon Inventions.&mdash;What
+ Inventions have Done for Humanity.&mdash;Thread of the Centuries.&mdash;The
+ Roll of Inventions too Vast for Enumeration.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+The Egyptians the Earliest and Greatest Agriculturists.&mdash;Rome
+ and Farming.&mdash;Cato, Varro, Virgil.&mdash;Columella.&mdash;Pliny.&mdash;Palladius.&mdash;The
+ Decline of Agriculture.&mdash;Northern Barbarism.&mdash;Lowest Ebb
+ in the Middle Ages.&mdash;Revival in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth
+ Centuries.&mdash;With Invention of Printing.&mdash;Publications then,
+ Concerning.&mdash;Growth in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.&mdash;Jethro
+ Tull.&mdash;Arthur Young.&mdash;Washington.&mdash;Jefferson.&mdash;The
+ Art Scientifically Commenced with Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures
+ on Soils and Plants, 1802-1812.&mdash;Societies.&mdash;“Book Farming” and
+ Prejudice of Farmers.&mdash;A Revisit of Ruth and Cincinnatus at
+ Beginning of Nineteenth Century.&mdash;Their Implements still the
+ Common Ones in Use.&mdash;The Plough and its History.&mdash;Its Essential
+ Parts and their Evolution to Modern Forms.&mdash;Originated in Holland.&mdash;Growth
+ in England and America.&mdash;Small, Jefferson, Newbold.&mdash;Lord
+ Kames’ Complaint.&mdash;The American Plough.&mdash;Cutting Disks.&mdash;Steam
+ Ploughs: Implements for Preparing the Soil for Planting.&mdash;Various Forms of Harrows.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+The Sowing of Grain.&mdash;The Sower of the Parables.&mdash;His Art and
+ its Defects Lasted until Nineteenth Century.&mdash;The Problems to be
+ Solved.&mdash;Assyrian and Chinese Seeding Implements.&mdash;India.&mdash;Italy
+ First to Introduce a Grain Sowing Machine, Seventeenth
+ Century.&mdash;Zanon’s Work on Agriculture, 1764.&mdash;Austria and
+ England.&mdash;A Spaniard’s Invention.&mdash;Don Lescatello.&mdash;The Drill
+ of Jethro Tull.&mdash;A Clergyman, Cooke’s Machine.&mdash;Washington
+ and Others.&mdash;Modern Improvements in Seeders and their Operation
+ and Functions.&mdash;Force Feed and Gravity Feed.&mdash;Graduated
+ Flow.&mdash;Divided Feeds for Separate Grains and Fertilizing
+ Material.&mdash;Garden Ploughs and Seeders.&mdash;Gangs of Heavy
+ Ones.&mdash;Operated by Steam.&mdash;Corn Planters.&mdash;Walking and
+ Riding.&mdash;Objects of Proper Planting.&mdash;How Accomplished by
+ Machinery.&mdash;Variety of Machines.&mdash;Potatoes and the Finest
+ Seeds.&mdash;Transplanters.&mdash;Cultivators.&mdash;Their Purposes and
+ Varieties.&mdash;Primitive and Modern Toilers.&mdash;Millet.&mdash;Tillers
+ of the Soil no Longer “Brothers of the Ox.”
+</td><td class="tdr vb">23</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Harvesting in Ancient Times.&mdash;The Sickle.&mdash;Pliny’s Machine.&mdash;Now
+ the Clover Header.&mdash;Palladius’ Description.&mdash;Improved in
+ 1786.&mdash;Scotchman’s Grain Cradle in 1794.&mdash;The Seven Ancient Wonders
+ and the Seven Modern Wonders.&mdash;The Modern Harvester and the Cotton
+ Gin.&mdash;Requirements of the Harvester.&mdash;Boyce.&mdash;Meares.&mdash;Plucknett.&mdash;Gladstone
+ and the First Front Draft Machine, 1806.&mdash;Salonen
+ introduced Vibrating Knives over Stationary Blades, 1807.&mdash;Ogle
+ and Reciprocating Knife Bar, 1822.&mdash;Rev. Patrick Bell, 1823,
+ Cuts an Acre of Grain in an Hour.&mdash;Mowers and Reapers in America
+ in 1820.&mdash;Reaper and Thresher combined by Lane, of Maine, 1828.&mdash;Manning’s
+ Harvester, 1831.&mdash;Schnebly.&mdash;Hussey.&mdash;McCormick,
+ 1833-34.&mdash;Harvesters and Mowers at World’s Fair, London, 1851.&mdash;Automatic
+ Binders.&mdash;Wire and Twine.&mdash;Advances Shown at Centennial
+ Exhibition, 1876.&mdash;Inventions Beyond the Wildest Dreams of Former
+ Farmers.&mdash;One Invention Generates Another.&mdash;Lawn Mowers.&mdash;Hay
+ Forks and Stackers.&mdash;Corn, Cotton, Potato, Flax Harvesters.&mdash;Threshing.&mdash;The
+ Old Flail.&mdash;Egyptian and Roman Methods.&mdash;The
+ First Modern Threshing Machine.&mdash;Menzies, Leckie, Meikle.&mdash;Combined
+ Harvesters and Threshers.&mdash;Flax Threshers and
+ Brakes.&mdash;Cotton Gins.&mdash;Eli Whitney.&mdash;Enormous Importance of
+ this Machine in Cotton Products.&mdash;Displacement of Labour.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (<i>continued</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Harvest Ended, Comes the Preparation of Grain and Fruits for
+ Food.&mdash;Cleaning.&mdash;Separating.&mdash;Grinding.&mdash;Fanning Mills and Sir
+ Walter Scott.&mdash;The Rudimentary Mills.&mdash;Egyptian.&mdash;Hebrew, Grecian,
+ and Roman Methods, Prevailed until Middle of Eighteenth Century.&mdash;The
+ Upper and Nether Mill Stone in Modern Dress.&mdash;Modern
+ Mills Invented at Close of Eighteenth Century.&mdash;Oliver Evans of
+ America, 1755-1819.&mdash;Evans’ System Prevailed for Three Quarters
+ of a Century.&mdash;New System.&mdash;Middlings.&mdash;Low Milling.&mdash;High
+ Milling.&mdash;Roller Mills.&mdash;Middlings Separators.&mdash;Dust Explosions
+ and Prevention.&mdash;Vegetable Cutters.&mdash;Choppers.&mdash;Fruit Parers and
+ Slicers.&mdash;Great Range of Mechanisms to Treat the Tenderest Pods
+ and Smallest Seeds.&mdash;Crushing Sugar Cane.&mdash;Pressing and Baling.&mdash;Every
+ Product has its own Proper Machine for Picking, Pressing,
+ Packing, or Baling.&mdash;Cotton Compress.&mdash;Extensive and Enormous
+ Cotton Crops of the World.&mdash;Cotton Presses of Various Kinds.&mdash;Hay
+ and its Baling.&mdash;Bale Ties.&mdash;Fruits and Foods.&mdash;Machines for
+ Gathering, Packing, Preserving, etc., all Modern.&mdash;Drying and
+ Evaporating.&mdash;Sealing.&mdash;Transporting.&mdash;Tobacco.&mdash;Its Enormous
+ Production.&mdash;The Interdict of James I., and of Popes, Kings,
+ Sultans, etc.&mdash;Variety of Machines for its Treatment.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br><br>CHEMISTRY, MEDICINES, SURGERY, DENTISTRY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Chemistry among the Ancients.&mdash;Egyptians.&mdash;Ph&#339;nicians.&mdash;Israelites.&mdash;Greeks
+and Romans.&mdash;Chinese.&mdash;Became a Science
+ in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.&mdash;Libavius.&mdash;Van
+ Helmont.&mdash;Glauber&mdash;Tachenius.&mdash;Boyle.&mdash;L&eacute;mery.&mdash;Becher.&mdash;Stahl.&mdash;Boerhaave.&mdash;Black.&mdash;Cavendish.&mdash;Lavoisier.&mdash;Priestley.&mdash;Chemistry
+ of Nineteenth Century a New World.&mdash;Atomic and Molecular Theories.&mdash;Light,
+ Heat, and Electricity.&mdash;Correlation and Conservation of
+ Forces.&mdash;Spectrum Analysis.&mdash;Laws of Chemical Changes.&mdash;John
+ Dalton.&mdash;Wollaston.&mdash;Gay.&mdash;Lussac.&mdash;Berzelius.&mdash;Huygens’ and Newton’s
+ Discoveries in Light in Seventeenth Century.&mdash;Unfolded and Developed
+ by Fraunhofer, Kirchoff.&mdash;Bunsen in the Nineteenth.&mdash;Young of
+ America.&mdash;Combination of Spectroscope and Telescope.&mdash;Huggins of
+ England, Spectrum Analysis of the Stars.&mdash;Heat and other Forces.&mdash;Count
+ Rumford.&mdash;Davy.&mdash;Mayer.&mdash;Helmholtz.&mdash;Colding.&mdash;Joule.&mdash;Grove.&mdash;Faraday.&mdash;Sir
+ William Thomson.&mdash;Le Conte and Martin.&mdash;French
+ Revolution and Agricultural Chemistry.&mdash;Lavoisier, Berthollet.&mdash;Guyton.&mdash;Fourcroy.&mdash;Napoleon.&mdash;Sir
+ Humphry Davy.&mdash;Liebig.&mdash;Fermentation.&mdash;Alcohol.&mdash;Yeast.&mdash;Malt.&mdash;Wines.&mdash;Beer.&mdash;Huxley’s
+ Lecture on Yeast, 1871.&mdash;Protein.&mdash;Protoplasm.&mdash;Evolution from one all-pervading
+ Force.&mdash;Alcohol and Pasteur.&mdash;Manufacture of Liquors.&mdash;Carbonating.&mdash;Soils
+ and Fertilisers.&mdash;Liquids, Oils, Sugar and Fats.&mdash;Bleaching
+ and Dyeing.&mdash;Aniline Colours.&mdash;Perfumes.&mdash;Electro-Chemical
+ Methods.&mdash;Applied to the Production of Artificial
+ Light.&mdash;Abradants.&mdash;Disinfectants.&mdash;Pigments.&mdash;Mineral Analysis.&mdash;Purification of
+ Water and Sewage.&mdash;Electroplating Metals.&mdash;Chemicals and the Fine
+ Arts.&mdash;Redemption of Waste Materials.&mdash;Medicines and Surgery.&mdash;Their
+ Growth from Empiricism.&mdash;Anæsthetics.&mdash;Davy.&mdash;Morton.&mdash;Jackson.&mdash;Innumerable
+ Medical Compounds.&mdash;Antiseptic Treatment
+ of Wounds.&mdash;Vast Variety of Surgical Instruments Invented.&mdash;Four
+ Thousand Patents in United States Alone.&mdash;Dentistry.&mdash;Its Ancient
+ Origin.&mdash;Account of Herodotus.&mdash;Revolution in, during Nineteenth
+ Century.&mdash;Instruments.&mdash;Artificial Teeth.&mdash;Vast Relief
+ from Pain.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">58</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br><br>STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Prophecy of Dr. Darwin in Eighteenth Century.&mdash;Review of the Art
+ from Hero to James Watt.&mdash;Pumping Engines.&mdash;Road
+ Carriages.&mdash;Watt.&mdash;Cugnot.&mdash;Rumsey.&mdash;Fitch.&mdash;Oliver
+ Evans.&mdash;Read.&mdash;Symington.&mdash;Trevithick.&mdash;Locomotives.&mdash;Blenkinsop.&mdash;Griffith.&mdash;Bramah.&mdash;Horse Engine.&mdash;Hancock.&mdash;Blackett.&mdash;George Stephenson.&mdash;Hackworth.&mdash;Braithwaite.&mdash;Ericsson.&mdash;Huskisson
+ First Victim of Railroad
+ Accident.&mdash;Seguin.&mdash;John C. Stevens.&mdash;Horatio Allen.&mdash;Peter
+ Cooper.&mdash;Symington.&mdash;Lord Dundas.&mdash;Fulton and Livingston.&mdash;The
+ First Successful Steamboat.&mdash;Transatlantic Steam
+ Navigation.&mdash;Scarborough of Georgia.&mdash;Bell of Scotland.&mdash;Cunard
+ Line; Paddle Wheels.&mdash;Screw Propellers.&mdash;The Age of Kinetic
+ Energy.&mdash;Professor Thurston.&mdash;Variety of Engines and
+ Boilers.&mdash;Corliss.&mdash;Bicycle and Automobile Engines.&mdash;Napoleon’s
+ Stage Trip and Present Locomotion.&mdash;Daniel
+ Webster’s Survey of the Art.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">73</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br><br>ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+The Duties of a Civil Engineer.&mdash;Great Engineering of the
+ Past.&mdash;The Divisions.&mdash;Steam.&mdash;Mining.&mdash;Hydraulic.&mdash;Electrical.&mdash;Marine.&mdash;Bridge
+ Making, Its Development.&mdash;First Arched
+ Iron Bridge.&mdash;Darby.&mdash;Telford.&mdash;Leading Bridges of the
+ Century.&mdash;Suspension.&mdash;Tubular.&mdash;Tubular
+ Arch.&mdash;Truss.&mdash;Cantilever.&mdash;Spider’s Web and Suspension.&mdash;Sir
+ Samuel Brown.&mdash;The Tweed.&mdash;Menai Straits and Telford.&mdash;M. Chaley
+ and Fribourg.&mdash;J. K. Brunel and Isle of Bourbon.&mdash;British
+ America and the United States united in 1855&mdash;Niagara.&mdash;John A.
+ Roebling.&mdash;The Brooklyn Bridge.&mdash;Caissons and the Caisson
+ Disease.&mdash;Tubular Bridge at Menai.&mdash;“The Grandest Lift in
+ Engineering.”&mdash;Robert Stephenson.&mdash;The Tubular Arch at
+ Washington.&mdash;Captain Meigs and Captain Eads.&mdash;St. Louis
+ Bridge.&mdash;Truss System and Vast Modern Bridges.&mdash;Cantilever
+ Succeeded the Suspension.&mdash;New Niagara and River
+ Forth.&mdash;Schneider.&mdash;Hayes.&mdash;Fowler and Baker.&mdash;Milton’s
+ Description.&mdash;Lighthouses.&mdash;Smeaton.&mdash;Douglass.&mdash;Bartholdi.&mdash;Eiffel.&mdash;Excavating,
+ Dredging, Draining.&mdash;Road-making.&mdash;Railroads.&mdash;Canals.&mdash;Tunnels.&mdash;Excavating.&mdash;Desert
+ Lands Reclaimed.&mdash;Holland and Florida Swamps.&mdash;The Tunnels of the
+ Alps.&mdash;Suez Canal.&mdash;Engineering, as seen from a Pullman
+ Car.&mdash;Cable Transportation.&mdash;Pneumatic Lock System.&mdash;Grain
+ Elevators&mdash;Progress in Civilisation.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br><br>ELECTRICITY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Theories and Definitions.&mdash;Franklin’s and a Modern One.&mdash;Varieties
+ of the Force.&mdash;Generation.&mdash;Dynamic Energy.&mdash;Discoveries
+ before the Nineteenth Century.&mdash;Magnetism and
+ Electricity.&mdash;Fathers of the Science.&mdash;Doctor Gilbert.&mdash;Otto
+ von Guericke.&mdash;Sir Isaac Newton.&mdash;Gray.&mdash;Dufay.&mdash;Professor
+ Muschenbroeck.&mdash;Cuneus.&mdash;Charles Morrison.&mdash;Franklin and
+ Galvani.&mdash;Volta.&mdash;The Door to Nineteenth Century Inventions
+ then Opened.&mdash;Fabroni.&mdash;Sir Humphry Davy, Wollaston, Nicholson,
+ and Carlisle.&mdash;Ritter Followed&mdash;Electrolysis.&mdash;Faraday and its
+ Laws.&mdash;Davy and the Electric Light.&mdash;Batteries.&mdash;Daniell.&mdash;Grove.&mdash;Bunsen.&mdash;Brilliant
+ Discoveries from 1800 to 1820.&mdash;Oersted,
+ Schweigger.&mdash;Magnetising Helix.&mdash;Indicators.&mdash;Arago and
+ Davy.&mdash;Amp&egrave;re’s Discoveries.&mdash;Sturgeon and the first Electro-Magnet,
+ 1825.&mdash;Telegraphy.&mdash;Gauss, Weber, Schilling.&mdash;Professor
+ Barlow’s Demonstration that Telegraphy was Impracticable.&mdash;Joseph
+ Henry.&mdash;Powerful Magnets.&mdash;Modern and Ancient Telegraphy of
+ Various Kinds.&mdash;The Third Decade.&mdash;George Simon Ohm.&mdash;Steinheil.&mdash;Telegraph
+ of Morse, Vail, Dana, Gale.&mdash;Wheatstone.&mdash;U.S. Supreme
+ Court on Morse System.&mdash;His Alphabet and Submarine Telegraph.&mdash;Michael
+ Faraday and Science of Magnets.&mdash;Steam and Magneto-Dynamo
+ Machines.&mdash;Chemical Affinity and Electricity.&mdash;Helmholtz, Faraday,
+ Henry, and Pixii.&mdash;Ruhmkorff Coil.&mdash;Page.&mdash;Electrical
+ Light.&mdash;Decomposition of Water.&mdash;Professor Nollet.&mdash;First
+ Practical Electric Light Shone on the Sea, 1858.&mdash;Faraday and
+ Holmes.&mdash;Lighthouse Illumination.&mdash;Dr. W. Siemens.&mdash;Wilde’s
+ Machine.&mdash;Other Powerful Magnetic Machines.&mdash;Field Magnets.&mdash;Z.
+ Gramme.&mdash;The Various Ways and Means of Developing Electric
+ Light.&mdash;Geissler Tubes.&mdash;First House Lighted in America.&mdash;Moses
+ G. Farmer.&mdash;Jablochoff’s Candle.&mdash;French Regulators.&mdash;Outdoor and
+ Indoor Illumination.&mdash;Siemens, Farmer, Brush, Maxim, Westinghouse,
+ Edison, Swan, Lane&mdash;Fox and Others.&mdash;Arc Lamps of Heffner
+ von Alteneck.&mdash;Ocean Cables.&mdash;Cyrus W. Field.&mdash;John Bright’s
+ Expression.&mdash;Weak Currents.&mdash;Thomson’s Remedy.&mdash;Mirror
+ Galvanometer.&mdash;Centennial Exhibition and the Telephone.&mdash;Alexander
+ Graham Bell, 1875.&mdash;The Telephone and Helmholtz’ Theory of
+ Tone.&mdash;Scott’s Phonautograph.&mdash;Page’s Production of Galvanic
+ Music and Researches of Reis.&mdash;Its Slow Growth.&mdash;The Ideas of
+ Faraday and Henry still the Basis of the Great Machines.&mdash;“Lines
+ of Force.”&mdash;Electric Railway.&mdash;Storage Batteries.&mdash;Dynamos.&mdash;First
+ Railway at Berlin, 1879.&mdash;Then Saxony, Paris, London, New
+ York.&mdash;Telpherage by Professor Jenkin.&mdash;Problems Solved.&mdash;Electrical
+ Magicians.&mdash;Edison and Tesla.&mdash;Recent Improvements in
+ Telegraphy.&mdash;The Talks Both Ways at Same Time and Multiplied.&mdash;Printing
+ Systems by Types and Otherwise.&mdash;Electrical Elevators.&mdash;Microphone.&mdash;Ticks
+ of a Watch and the Tread of a Fly Recorded.&mdash;Musical
+ Sounds from Minerals and Other Substances.&mdash;Signalling
+ and Other Appliances.&mdash;The X Rays.&mdash;Wireless Telegraphy.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">111</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a><br><br>HOISTING, CONVEYING, AND STORING.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Drudgery of Ancient Times Relieved by Modern Inventions.&mdash;The
+ Labour of Men and Beasts now Done by Steam Giants.&mdash;Labour-Saving
+ Appliances for Transportation.&mdash;Tall Buildings and Elevators.&mdash;Evolution
+ Slow until 19th Century.&mdash;Carrying of Weights.&mdash;The Pyramids.&mdash;Modern
+ Methods.&mdash;Ship-Loading.&mdash;The Six Ordinary Powers Alone Used
+ until the Time of Watt.&mdash;Elevator Mills of Oliver Evans.&mdash;The
+ Hydraulic Press of Bramah.&mdash;The Lifting of Tubular Bridge by
+ Robt. Stephenson.&mdash;Compressed Air Elevator of Slade.&mdash;Counterbalance
+ Lifts of Van Elvean.&mdash;Modern Elevator of Otis,
+ 1859.&mdash;Steam-Water.&mdash;Compressed Air.&mdash;Electricity: Elevators, how
+ Controlled.&mdash;Store Service Conveyors.&mdash;Pneumatic Transmission:
+ Dodge’s Air Blast Conveyor.&mdash;Mode of Switching Conveyors.&mdash;“Lazy
+ Tongs” Conveyors.&mdash;Buffers.&mdash;Endless Cables.&mdash;Clutches,
+ Safety.&mdash;Labour-Saving Devices and Derangement of Labour.&mdash;In
+ One Sense, Inventions Labour-Increasing Devices.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">152</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a><br><br>HYDRAULICS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Old as the Thirst of Man.&mdash;Prehistoric Inventions.&mdash;China.&mdash;Pliny’s
+ Record.&mdash;Egyptian, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman Water
+ Works.&mdash;“Pneumatics of Hero.”&mdash;Overshot, Undershot, and Breast
+ Wheels, Ancient.&mdash;Screw of Archimedes.&mdash;Frontinus, a Roman
+ Inspector.&mdash;1593, Servi&egrave;re Invents the Rotary Pump.&mdash;1586,
+ Stevinus of Holland, Father of the Elementary Science.&mdash;Galileo,
+ Torricelli, Pascal, and Sir Isaac Newton in the Seventeenth
+ Century.&mdash;Bernoulli, D’Alembert, Euler, Abb&eacute; Bossut, Venturi,
+ and Eylewein in the Eighteenth.&mdash;Water Distribution then
+ Originated.&mdash;Peter Maurice and the London Bridge Pumps.&mdash;La
+ Hire’s Double Acting Pump.&mdash;Dr. John Allen and David Ramsey of
+ England.&mdash;Franklin’s Force Pump.&mdash;Water Ram of Whitehurst and
+ Montgolfier.&mdash;Nineteenth Century Opens with Bramah’s Pumps.&mdash;Water
+ and Steam.&mdash;Pumps the Strong Hands of Hydraulics.&mdash;Review of
+ Past Inventions: Pascal’s Paradox.&mdash;Turbines of Forneyron.&mdash;Power
+ of Niagara and Turbines there.&mdash;Jonval’s.&mdash;Euler’s Old Centrifugal
+ Pumps Revived.&mdash;Massachusetts and Appold Systems.&mdash;Lowlands of
+ Holland, Marshes of Italy, Swamps of Florida, Drained.&mdash;Injectors.&mdash;Giffard.&mdash;Intensifiers.&mdash;Hydraulicising.&mdash;Hydraulic
+ Jack and Cleopatra’s Needle.&mdash;Flow of Cold Metal.&mdash;Lead Pipe Made, and
+ Cold Steel Stretched by Water Pressure.&mdash;Cotton Presses, Sir
+ Wm. Armstrong’s Inventions.&mdash;Tweddle and Sir Wm. Fairbairn.&mdash;Water
+ Motors.&mdash;Baths and Closets.&mdash;Results of Modern
+ Improvements.&mdash;Germ Theory and Filters.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">164</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a><br><br>PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+The Slow March of the Human Mind.&mdash;Burke.&mdash;The Age of Mechanical
+ Inventions not until nearly Watt’s Steam Engine.&mdash;Review of
+ “Learning” until that Time.&mdash;Motor Engines not Produced until
+ Seventeenth Century.&mdash;Suggested by the Bellows and the
+ Cannon.&mdash;Huygens and Papin.&mdash;Van Helmont the Author of the
+ Term “Gas,” 1577-1644.&mdash;Robert Boyle and the Air Pump.&mdash;Law
+ of Gases.&mdash;Mariotte.&mdash;Abb&eacute; Hauteville, 1682.&mdash;The Heart and
+ a Motor.&mdash;Sun Burner.&mdash;Murdock, 1798, Uses Coal Gas for
+ Illumination.&mdash;John Barber and Carburetted Hydrogen.&mdash;Street’s
+ Heated Gas.&mdash;1801, Lebon Proposes Coal Gas Motor.&mdash;Investigations
+ of Dalton and Gay-Lussac, 1810.&mdash;Heat engines: Air, Gas,
+ Steam, Vapor, Solar.&mdash;Explosive.&mdash;Temperature the Tie that Binds
+ them as One Family.&mdash;1823-26, Sir Samuel Brown.&mdash;Gunpowder and
+ Gas Engine.&mdash;Davy and Faraday.&mdash;Gas to a Liquid State.&mdash;Wright,
+ 1833.&mdash;Burdett’s Compressed Air Engine, 1838.&mdash;Lenoir’s.&mdash;Hugon’s.&mdash;Beau
+ de Rohes’ Investigations.&mdash;Oil Wells of United States,
+ 1860.&mdash;Petroleum Engines.&mdash;Brayton, Spiel.&mdash;Otto’s Gas Engine
+ and Improvements.&mdash;Ammoniacal Gas Engines.&mdash;Nobels’
+ Inventions.&mdash;Storm’s Gunpowder Engine.&mdash;Gas and Vapour Compared
+ with Steam.&mdash;Prof. Jenkins’ Prediction.&mdash;Gas to Supplant
+ Steam.&mdash;Compressed Air Engines.&mdash;Innumerable Applications
+ of Pneumatic Machines.&mdash;A Number Mentioned.&mdash;Their Universal
+ Application to the Useful and Fine Arts.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">182</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br><br>ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATING AND LIGHTING.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Prometheus and the Modern Match.&mdash;1680, Godfrey Hanckwitz
+ Invented First Phosphorous Match.&mdash;Other Forms of
+ Matches.&mdash;Promethean Matches in 1820.&mdash;John Walker.&mdash;Lucifer.&mdash;Tons
+ of Chemicals, Hundreds of Pine Trees Yearly Made into
+ Matches.&mdash;Splints and Machines.&mdash;Reuben
+ Partridge.&mdash;Poririer.&mdash;Pasteboard Box.&mdash;Machines for Assorting and
+ Dipping, Drying and Boxing.&mdash;Cooking and Heating Stoves.&mdash;History
+ of, from Rome to Ben Franklin.&mdash;The Old-Fashioned
+ Fireplace.&mdash;Varieties of Coal Stoves.&mdash;Stove
+ Fireplace.&mdash;Ventilation.&mdash;Hot Air Furnaces.&mdash;How Heat is
+ Distributed, Retained, and Moistened.&mdash;Hot Water
+ Circulation.&mdash;Incubators.&mdash;Baking Ovens, the Dutch and the
+ Modern.&mdash;Vast Number of Stove and Furnace Foundries in United
+ States.&mdash;Ventilation.&mdash;Parliament Buildings and U. S.
+ Capitol.&mdash;Eminent Scientific Men who have Made Ventilation a
+ Study.&mdash;Best Modes.&mdash;Its Great Importance.&mdash;Car Heaters.&mdash;Grass
+ and Refuse Burning Stoves.&mdash;Oil, Vapour, and Gas Stoves, their
+ Construction and Operation.&mdash;Sterilising.&mdash;Electric Heating
+ and Cooking.&mdash;Refrigeration.&mdash;Messrs. Carr&eacute; of France, 1870.&mdash;Artificial
+ Ice.&mdash;Sulphuric Acid and Ammonia Processes.&mdash;Absorption
+ and Compression Methods Described.&mdash;Refrigerating
+ Cars.&mdash;Liquid Air.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">199</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br><br>METALLURGY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+The Antiquity of the Art.&mdash;The “Lost Arts” Rediscovered.&mdash;The
+ Earliest Forms of Smelting Furnaces.&mdash;Ancient Iron and
+ Steel.&mdash;India and Africa.&mdash;Early Spain and the Catalan
+ Furnace.&mdash;The Armour of Don Quixote.&mdash;Bell’s History of the
+ Art.&mdash;Germany.&mdash;Cast Iron Made by Ancients, Disused for 15
+ Centuries.&mdash;Reinvented by Page and Baude in England, 1543.&mdash;German
+ Furnaces.&mdash;Dud Dudley, the Oxford Graduate and his Furnace,
+ 1619.&mdash;Origin of Coke in England.&mdash;Use in United States.&mdash;Revival
+ of Cast Iron.&mdash;Cast Steel in England, Huntsman, 1740.&mdash;Henry Cort
+ and Puddling, 1784, and its Subsequent Wonderful Value.&mdash;Steam
+ Engine of Watt and Iron.&mdash;Refining of Precious Metals.&mdash;Amalgamating
+ Process.&mdash;Review of the 18th Century.&mdash;Herschel’s Distinction
+ of Empirical and Scientific Art.&mdash;The Nineteenth Century, Scientific
+ Metallurgy.&mdash;Steam, Chemistry, Electricity.&mdash;Rogers’ Iron
+ Floor.&mdash;Neilson’s Hot Air Blast, 1828, Patent Sustained.&mdash;Anthracite
+ Coal.&mdash;Colossal Furnaces.&mdash;Gas Producers.&mdash;Bunsen’s
+ Experiments.&mdash;Constituents of Ores.&mdash;Squeezing Process.&mdash;Burden’s
+ Method.&mdash;Mechanical Puddlers.&mdash;Rotary.&mdash;Henry Bessemer’s Great
+ Process&mdash;1855-1860.&mdash;Steel from Iron.&mdash;Holley’s Apparatus.&mdash;Effects
+ of and Changes in Bessemer Process.&mdash;Old Methods and Means Revived
+ and Improved.&mdash;Eminent Inventors.&mdash;New Metals and New Processes
+ Discovered.&mdash;Harveyised Steel.&mdash;Irresistible Projectiles and
+ Impenetrable Armour Plate.&mdash;Krupp’s Works.&mdash;Immense Manufactures
+ in United States.&mdash;Treatment of Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, etc.;
+ Mining Operations, Separation, Reduction.&mdash;Chemical Methods:
+ Lixiviation or Leaching.&mdash;MacArthur.&mdash;Forrest.&mdash;Sir Humphry
+ Davy.&mdash;Scheele.&mdash;Chlorine and Cyanide
+ Processes.&mdash;Alloys.&mdash;Babbitting.&mdash;Metallic Lubricants.&mdash;Various
+ Alloys and Uses.&mdash;Reduction of Aluminium and other
+ Metals.&mdash;Electro-Metallurgy.&mdash;Diamonds to be Made.&mdash;All
+ Arts have Waited on Development of this Art.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">218</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a><br><br>METAL WORKING PROCESSES AND MACHINES.&mdash;TUBE
+MAKING.&mdash;WELDING.&mdash;ANNEALING AND TEMPERING.&mdash;COATING
+AND METAL FOUNDING.&mdash;METAL WARE.&mdash; WIRE WORKING.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Metal Working Tools One of the Glories of 19th Century.&mdash;Wood
+ Working and Metal Working.&mdash;Ancient and Modern Lathe.&mdash;Turning
+ Metal Lathe.&mdash;A Lost Art in Use in Egypt and in Solomon’s
+ Time.&mdash;Revived in Sixteenth Century.&mdash;Forgotten and Revived
+ again in Eighteenth.&mdash;Sir Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah
+ Laid Foundation of Nineteenth Century Tools.&mdash;The Slide Rest
+ and Henry Maudsley.&mdash;Nasmyth’s Description.&mdash;Vast Rolls, and
+ Most Delicate Watch Mechanisms, cut by the Lathe and its
+ Tools.&mdash;Metal Planing.&mdash;Eminent Inventors, 1811-1840.&mdash;Many
+ Inventions and Modifications Resulting in a Wonderful
+ Evolution.&mdash;Metal-Boring Machines.&mdash;Modern Vulcan’s Titanic
+ Work-Shop.&mdash;Screw Making.&mdash;Demand Impossible to Supply under
+ Old Method.&mdash;Great Display at London Exhibition, 1851, and
+ Centennial, Philadelphia, 1876.&mdash;J. Whitworth &amp; Co., of England,
+ Sellers &amp; Co., of America, and Others.&mdash;The Great
+ Revelation.&mdash;Hoopes and Townsend and the Flow of Cold, Solid
+ Metal.&mdash;Cold Punching, etc.&mdash;Machine-Made Horse-Shoes.&mdash;The
+ Blacksmith and Modern Inventions.&mdash;Making of Great Tubes.&mdash;Welding
+ by Electricity, and Tempering and Annealing.&mdash;How Armour Plate
+ is Hardened.&mdash;Metals Coated.&mdash;Electro-Plating and Casting.&mdash;Great
+ Domes Gilded.&mdash;Moulds for Metal Founding.&mdash;Machines and
+ Methods.&mdash;Steel Ingots.&mdash;Sheet Metal and Personal Ware.&mdash;Great
+ Variety of Machines for Making.&mdash;Wire Made Articles.&mdash;Description
+ of Great Modern Work-Shop.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">240</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a><br><br>ORDNANCE, ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND EXPLOSIVES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+This Art Slow in Growth, but no Art Progressed Faster.&mdash;The
+ Incentives to its Development.&mdash;The Greatest Instruments in
+ the New Civilisation.&mdash;Peace and its Fruits Established by
+ them.&mdash;Its History.&mdash;Chinese Cannon.&mdash;India.&mdash;The
+ Moors.&mdash;Arabs.&mdash;Cannon at Cordova in 1280.&mdash;The Spaniards and
+ Gibraltar, 1309.&mdash;The Spread of Artillery through Europe.&mdash;Description
+ of Ancient Guns.&mdash;Breech Loaders and Stone Cannon Balls.&mdash;Wrought
+ Iron Cannon and Shells in 15th Century.&mdash;Big Cannon of the
+ Hindoos and Russians.&mdash;Strange Names.&mdash;France under Louis
+ XI.&mdash;Improvements of the Sixteenth Century.&mdash;Holland’s Mortar
+ Shells and Grenades in the Seventeenth.&mdash;Coehorn Mortars
+ and Dutch Howitzers.&mdash;Louis XIV.&mdash;French Artillery Conquers
+ Italy.&mdash;Eighteenth Century.&mdash;“Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece.”&mdash;Gribeauval
+ the Inventor of the Greatest Improvements in the Eighteenth.&mdash;His
+ System Used by Bonaparte at Toulon, the French Revolution,
+ and in Italy.&mdash;Marengo, 1800.&mdash;Small Arms, their History.&mdash;From
+ the Arquebus to the Modern Rifle.&mdash;Rifle, the Weapon of the American
+ Settler, and the Revolution.&mdash;Puckle’s Celebrated Breech-Loading
+ Cannon Patent, and Christian and Turk Bullets.&mdash;1803, Percussion
+ Principle in Fire-arms, Invented by a Clergyman, Forsyth.&mdash;1808,
+ Genl. Shrapnel.&mdash;Bormann of Belgium.&mdash;1814, Shaw and the
+ Cap.&mdash;Flint Locks Still in Use, 1847.&mdash;Colt’s Revolvers,
+ 1835-1851.&mdash;History of Cannon again Reverted to.&mdash;Columbiads of
+ Bomford.&mdash;Paixhan in 1822.&mdash;Shells of the Crimea.&mdash;Kearsarge and
+ Alabama.&mdash;Requirements of Modern Ordnance.&mdash;Rodman One of
+ the Pioneers.&mdash;Woodbridge’s Wire Wound Guns, Piezometer, and
+ Shell Sabot.&mdash;Sir William Armstrong and Sir Jos. Whitworth.&mdash;Krupp’s
+ Cannon and Works.&mdash;The Latest Improvements.&mdash;Compressed Air
+ Ordnance.&mdash;Constructions of Metals and Explosives.&mdash;The “Range
+ Finder.”&mdash;Small Arms again Considered.&mdash;History of the Breech
+ Loader and Metallic Cartridges.&mdash;Wooden Walls and Stone Forts
+ disappeared.&mdash;Monitor and Merrimac.&mdash;Blanchard and
+ Hall.&mdash;Gill.&mdash;Springfield Rifle.&mdash;Machine Guns.&mdash;Electric
+ Battery.&mdash;Gatling’s, Hotchkiss’.&mdash;Explosives.&mdash;Torpedoes.&mdash;Effect
+ of Modern Weapons.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">252</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a><br><br>PAPER AND PRINTING, TYPEWRITING AND THE LINOTYPE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Paper-making Preceded the Art of Printing.&mdash;The Wasp Preceded
+ Man.&mdash;The Chinese, the Hindoos, Egyptians, and other Orientals
+ had Invented Both Arts.&mdash;History of Papyrus.&mdash;Parchment.&mdash;Twelfth
+ Century Documents Written on Linen Paper still Extant.&mdash;Water
+ Marks.&mdash;Wall Paper, Substitute for Tapestry, 1640.&mdash;Holland
+ in Advance, Seventeenth Century.&mdash;Rittenhouse of Holland
+ Introduces Paper-Making in America, Eighteenth Century.&mdash;Paper
+ a Dear Commodity.&mdash;The Revolution of the Nineteenth Century.&mdash;400
+ Different Materials now Used.&mdash;Nineteenth Century Opens with
+ Robert’s Paper-Making Machine.&mdash;Messrs. Fourdrinier.&mdash;Immense
+ Growth of their System.&mdash;Modern Discoveries of Chemists.&mdash;Soda
+ Pulp and Sulphite Processes.&mdash;Paper Mills.&mdash;Paper Bag Machines,
+ etc.&mdash;Printing.&mdash;Chinese Invented Both Block and Movable
+ Types.&mdash;European Inventors.&mdash;The Claims of Different
+ Nations.&mdash;From Southern Italy to Sweden.&mdash;Spread of the
+ Art.&mdash;Printing Press and the Reformation.&mdash;First Printing
+ Press in New World Set up in Mexico, 1536.&mdash;Then in
+ Brazil.&mdash;Then in 1639 in Massachusetts.&mdash;Types and
+ Presses.&mdash;English and American.&mdash;Ramage and Franklin.&mdash;Blaew
+ of Amsterdam.&mdash;Nineteenth Century Opens with Earl of Stanhope’s
+ Hand Press.&mdash;Clymer of Philadelphia, 1817.&mdash;The First Machine
+ Presses.&mdash;Nicholson in Eighteenth.&mdash;Konig and Bauer in
+ Nineteenth Century, 1813.&mdash;London Times, 1814.&mdash;1815,
+ Cowper’s Electrotype plates.&mdash;1822, First Power Press in United
+ States.&mdash;Treadwell.&mdash;Bruce’s Type Casting Machines.&mdash;Hoe’s
+ Presses.&mdash;John Walter’s.&mdash;German and American Presses.&mdash;Capacities
+ of Modern Presses.&mdash;Mail Marking.&mdash;Typewriting.&mdash;Suggested in
+ Eighteenth Century.&mdash;Revived by French in 1840.&mdash;Leading Features
+ Invented in U. S., 1857.&mdash;Electro-Magnet
+ Typewriters.&mdash;Cahill.&mdash;Book-binding.&mdash;Review of the Art.&mdash;Linotype
+ “Most Remarkable Machine of Century.”&mdash;Merganthaler.&mdash;Rogers.&mdash;Progress
+ and Triumphs of the Art.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">273</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br><br>TEXTILES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+The Distaff and the Spindle, without a Change from Ancient
+ Days to Middle of Fourteenth Century.&mdash;Ancient and Modern
+ Cloth Making.&mdash;Woman the Natural Goddess of the Art.&mdash;The
+ Ancient and Isolated Weavers of Mexico.&mdash;After 40 Centuries
+ of Hand-Weaving Comes John Kay, of England, 1733.&mdash;The
+ Spinning Machines of Wyatt and Hargreaves.&mdash;1738-1769,
+ Richard Arkwright.&mdash;The “Spinning Jenny” and the
+ “Throstle.”&mdash;The Steam Engine and Weaving.&mdash;1776, Crompton
+ and the “Mule.”&mdash;1785, Cartwright and Power Looms.&mdash;1793,
+ Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin.&mdash;1793-1813, Samuel Slater,
+ Lowell, and Cotton Factories of America.&mdash;The Dominion of
+ the Nineteenth Century.&mdash;What it Comprises in the Art of
+ Spinning and Weaving.&mdash;Description of Operations.&mdash;Bobbins
+ of Asa Arnold and the Ring Frame of Jenks.&mdash;Spooling
+ Machines.&mdash;Warping and Dressing and other Finishing
+ Operations.&mdash;Embroidery.&mdash;Cloth Finishing.&mdash;The Celebrated
+ Jacquard Loom.&mdash;Jacquard and Napoleon.&mdash;Bonelli’s Electric
+ Loom.&mdash;Fancy Woollen Looms of George Crompton.&mdash;Bigelow’s
+ Carpet Looms.&mdash;Figuring, Colouring, Embossing.&mdash;Cloth
+ Pressing and Creasing.&mdash;Felting.&mdash;Ribbons.&mdash;Comparison
+ of Penelopes of Past and Present.&mdash;Knitting Days of our
+ Grandmothers and Knitting Machines.&mdash;A Mile of Stockings.&mdash;Fancy
+ Stocking and Embroidery Machines.&mdash;Netting and Turkish
+ Carpets.&mdash;Matting.&mdash;Spun Glass, etc.&mdash;Hand, and the Skilled
+ Labour of Machinery.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">292</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a><br><br>GARMENTS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+“Man is a Tool-using Animal, of which Truth, Clothes are but
+ one Example.”&mdash;Form of Needle not Changed until
+ 1775.&mdash;Weisenthal.&mdash;Embroidery Needle.&mdash;Saint’s Sewing Machine,
+ 1790.&mdash;John Duncan’s Tamboring Machine, 1804.&mdash;Eye Pointed
+ Needles for Rope Matting, 1807.&mdash;Madersperger’s Sewing Machine,
+ 1814.&mdash;France and the Thimonnier Machine, 1830-1848-50, Made of
+ Wood.&mdash;Destroyed by Mob.&mdash;English Embroidering Machine,
+ 1841.&mdash;Concurrent Inventions in Widely Separated
+ Countries.&mdash;Thimonnier in France, Hunt in America, 1832,
+ 1834.&mdash;Elias Howe, 1846.&mdash;Description of Howe’s Inventions.&mdash;Recital
+ of his Struggles and final Triumphs.&mdash;The Test of
+ Priority.&mdash;Leather Sewing Machines of Greenough and Corliss, 1842-43.&mdash;Bean’s
+ Running Stitch, 1843.&mdash;The Decade of 1849-1859, Greatest
+ in Century in Sewing Machine Inventions.&mdash;Hood’s “Song of the
+ Shirt,” a Dying Drudgery.&mdash;Improvements after Howe.&mdash;Blodgett
+ and Lerow’s Dip Motion.&mdash;Wilson’s Four-Motion Feed.&mdash;Singer’s
+ Inventions, their Importance, his Rise from Poverty to Great
+ Wealth.&mdash;The Grover and Baker.&mdash;The Display in 1876 at the
+ Centennial.&mdash;Vast Growth of the Industry.&mdash;Extraordinary
+ Versatility of Invention in Sewing and Reaping Machines, and
+ Breech-Loading Fire-arms.&mdash;Commercial Success due to Division of
+ Labour and Assembling of Parts.&mdash;Innumerable Additions to the
+ Art.&mdash;Seventy-five Different Stitches.&mdash;Passing of the Quilting
+ Party.&mdash;Embroidery and Button-hole Machines.&mdash;Garment-cutting
+ Machines.&mdash;Bonnets and Inventions of Women.&mdash;Hat Making.&mdash;Its
+ History.&mdash;Bonjeau’s Improvements in Plain Cloths, 1834.&mdash;Effect
+ of Modern Inventions on Wearing Apparel and Condition of the
+ Poor.&mdash;The Epoch of Good Clothes.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">310</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a><br><br>INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Inventions Engender Others.&mdash;Co-operative Growth.&mdash;Broom
+ Making.&mdash;Crude Condition until the Modern Lathe, Mandrel,
+ Shuttle and Sewing Machine.&mdash;Broom Sewing Machines.&mdash;Effect
+ on Labour.&mdash;The Brush and Brush Machines.&mdash;A Hundred Species
+ of Brushes, each Made by a Special Machine.&mdash;First Successful
+ Brush Machine, Woodbury’s, 1870.&mdash;Wonderful Operations.&mdash;Street-Sweeping
+ Machines, 1831.&mdash;Most Effective Form.&mdash;Abrading
+ Machines.&mdash;Application of Sand Blast.&mdash;Nature’s Machine Patented
+ by Tilghman in 1870.&mdash;Things Done by the Sand Blast and
+ How.&mdash;Emery and Corundum Machines.&mdash;Vast Application in Cutting,
+ Grinding, Polishing.&mdash;Washing and Ironing Machines.&mdash;Their
+ Contribution to Cleanliness and Comfort.&mdash;Laundry Appliances.&mdash;Old
+ and the New Mangle.&mdash;Starch Applying.&mdash;Steam Laundry
+ Machinery.&mdash;Description of Work done in a Modern Laundry.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">328</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.</a><br><br>WOOD-WORKING.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Contrast of Prehistoric Labour and Implements and Modern
+ Tools.&mdash;The Ages of Stone, Bronze, Iron, and the Age of
+ Wood.&mdash;The Slow Growth of Wood-working Inventions.&mdash;Tools of
+ the Egyptians.&mdash;Saw of the Greeks.&mdash;Known to Hindoos and
+ Africans.&mdash;Accounts of Pliny and Ansonius as to Planes and
+ Marble Sawing.&mdash;Saw-mills of France, Germany, Norway,
+ Sweden.&mdash;Holland 100 Years ahead of England, and Why.&mdash;William
+ Penn Found Saw-mills in America in 1682.&mdash;What made Americans
+ Inventors.&mdash;Progress Unknown where Saw-mills are not.&mdash;Steam
+ and Saw Mills.&mdash;Splendid System and Inventions of Samuel Bentham,
+ Bramah and Branch at Close of Eighteenth Century.&mdash;First Decade
+ of Nineteenth Century Produces Wonderful Inventor, Thomas
+ Blanchard.&mdash;His Life and Inventions.&mdash;Machines for Turning
+ Irregular Forms in Wood and Metal.&mdash;The Boring Worm and Boring
+ Machine.&mdash;Gun-making and Mortising Machines.&mdash;Complicated
+ Ornamental Wood-cutting and Carving Machines.&mdash;Whatever Made by
+ Hand can be Better Made by Machinery.&mdash;Pattern-Cutting
+ Machines.&mdash;Xyloplasty.&mdash;Art of Hand Carving Revived.&mdash;Bending
+ of Wood by Fire and Steam.&mdash;The Problems Solved by Wood-working
+ Inventors.&mdash;Great Saws at the Vienna Exposition, 1873.&mdash;Boring
+ Tools, Augers, Planes, Lathes, etc. How Improved and by
+ Whom.&mdash;“The Universal Wood Workers.”&mdash;Flexible Shafting.&mdash;Shingles
+ and Tiles.&mdash;A Great Log, how Turned into Bundles of
+ Shingles.&mdash;Veneering.&mdash;What Pliny Thought of It.&mdash;Brunel’s
+ Machines, 1805-1808.&mdash;Homes Made Beautiful by Modern
+ Wood-working.&mdash;Objects without and Within a House, Made by Such
+ Machinery.&mdash;Array of Wood-working Machinery at International
+ Expositions.&mdash;The Art of Forestry.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">339</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br><br>FURNITURE.&mdash;BOTTLING, PRESERVING, AND LAMPLIGHTING.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Universal Supply of Convenient and Ornamental Furniture Due
+ to Modern Inventions and Machinery.&mdash;The Furniture of the
+ Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.&mdash;Tables.&mdash;Modern Improvements.&mdash;Combined
+ Tables, Desks, and Chairs.&mdash;Special Forms of Each.&mdash;Beds:
+ Advance from the Ponderous Bedsteads of Former Times.&mdash;Modern,
+ Ornamental, Healthful Styles.&mdash;Iron, Brass, Springs, Surgical
+ and Invalid Chairs and Beds.&mdash;Kitchen Utensils.&mdash;Vast Amount of
+ Drudgery Relieved.&mdash;Curtains, Shades, and Screens.&mdash;Great Changes
+ Produced by Steaming and Bending Wood.&mdash;The Bentwood Ware Factories
+ of Austria, Hungary, Moravia (1870-73), in Vast Beech Forests
+ Followed in other Countries.&mdash;Modern Chairs of Various Kinds.&mdash;The
+ Dentist and the Theatre.&mdash;Bottle Stoppers.&mdash;Enormous Demand for
+ Cork Exhausting the Supply.&mdash;Modern Substitutes.&mdash;Fruit Jars,
+ etc.&mdash;Lamplighting, Ancient and Modern.&mdash;Revolution Produced by
+ Petroleum.&mdash;Wickless and Electric Lamps.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">354</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</a><br><br>LEATHER.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Leather and Prehistoric Man.&mdash;Earliest Implements and
+ Processes Forerunners of Modern Inventions.&mdash;Modern Leather
+ Unknown to the Earliest Races.&mdash;Tanning.&mdash;Leathers of Different
+ Nations.&mdash;Hand Tools and Variety of Operations.&mdash;Inventions
+ of Nineteenth Century&mdash;Labour-Saving Machinery and New
+ Processes.&mdash;Epoch of Modern Machinery.&mdash;1780, John Bull and
+ his Scraping Machine, Hide-mill, Pioneer Machine of
+ Century.&mdash;Fleshing Machines.&mdash;Tanning Apparatus.&mdash;Reel
+ Machines.&mdash;Tanning Processes and the Chemists.&mdash;Machines for
+ Different Operations.&mdash;Pendulum Lever Machine.&mdash;Leather
+ Splitting, and other Remarkable Machines.&mdash;Boots and
+ Shoes, their Character before Modern Inventions.&mdash;Randolph’s
+ Riveting Machine of 1809.&mdash;Great Civil Engineer, J. M. Brunel’s
+ Machines.&mdash;1818, Walker Invents the Wooden Peg.&mdash;Peg-making
+ Machines.&mdash;1858, Sturtevant’s Great Improvement.&mdash;Fifty-five
+ Million Pairs of Boots and Shoes then Annually Pegged.&mdash;Metal
+ Wire, and Screw Pegs.&mdash;Last-turning Machines of Blanchard.&mdash;McKay’s
+ Shoe Sewing Machine.&mdash;Revolution in Shoe Making.&mdash;Special
+ Machines for Making Every Part.&mdash;One Machine Makes 300 Pairs
+ a Day.&mdash;Many Millions made Daily.&mdash;Vast Increase of Labourers
+ as the Art Advances.&mdash;Illustrations of Yankee Enterprise.&mdash;Modern
+ and Ancient Harnesses.&mdash;Embossed Leather.&mdash;Book Covers
+ and the many Useful and Beautiful Leather Articles.&mdash;The
+ Vast and Important Leather Manufactures.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">361</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</a><br><br>MINERALS.&mdash;WELLS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Ancient Tools and the Art of Building.&mdash;The Parthenon.&mdash;Aqueducts
+ of Rome.&mdash;Tombs of India.&mdash;Halls of Alhambra.&mdash;Gothic
+ Cathedrals.&mdash;Steam First Drew Coal, then Sawed Wood and then
+ Stone.&mdash;Stone-cutting Machinery.&mdash;Carving.&mdash;Dressing.&mdash;Drilling.&mdash;Tunnels.&mdash;Wonderful
+ Work of Stone-Boring Machine on
+ Pillars of Ohio State Capitol.&mdash;Stone Drills and Compressed Air.&mdash;Hell
+ Gate.&mdash;Crushing Stones and Ores.&mdash;Blake’s Crusher.&mdash;“Road
+ Metal.”&mdash;Different Form of Crushers.&mdash;Assorting Coal.&mdash;Steam
+ and Coal, strong Brothers.&mdash;Compressed Air for Mining
+ Machinery.&mdash;Mighty Picks Driven by Air.&mdash;Electric Motor.&mdash;Machines
+ for Screening, Loading, and Weighing.&mdash;Ore Mills.&mdash;Separators.&mdash;Centrifugal
+ Action.&mdash;Ore Washing.&mdash;Amalgamators: Electric, Lead,
+ Mercury, Plate, Vacuum, Vapour, etc.&mdash;The Revolution in
+ Mining.&mdash;Well Boring an Ancient Art.&mdash;Artesian Wells.&mdash;Coal
+ Oil and Coal Wells.&mdash;Preceded by Discovery of Paraffine and its
+ Uses.&mdash;Reichenbach, Young.&mdash;Petroleum Discovery.&mdash;New
+ Industry.&mdash;Col. Drake and First Oil Well.&mdash;Sudden Riches of
+ Farmers.&mdash;Boring Water Wells.&mdash;Green’s Driven Wells.&mdash;The
+ Deserts Made to Bloom as the Rose.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">373</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.</a><br><br>HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Time Measuring Instruments of Antiquity.&mdash;Sun-dial.&mdash;Clepsydra,
+ Hour-glass, Graduated Candle.&mdash;Plato’s Bell.&mdash;The Clepsydra
+ of Ctesibius.&mdash;Incense Sticks of Chinese.&mdash;Sun-dials of Greeks
+ and Romans.&mdash;Candles of Alfred the Great.&mdash;Wonderful Clocks
+ of the Middle Ages.&mdash;Henry de Vick of France, 1370.&mdash;Two
+ Hundred Years without Advance.&mdash;Astronomers, Brache and
+ Valherius.&mdash;1525, Zech’s Fusee.&mdash;Progenitors of Modern Watch,
+ 1500.&mdash;1582, Swinging Lamp of Galileo.&mdash;1639, Galileo’s
+ Book.&mdash;Huygens and the Pendulum.&mdash;Dr. Hooke’s and David Ramsey’s
+ Inventions.&mdash;Hair-Spring Balances.&mdash;George the Third’s Small
+ Time-Piece.&mdash;Eighteenth Century Division of Time Pieces into
+ Hours, Minutes and Seconds.&mdash;Stem Winders.&mdash;Astronomical
+ Discoveries and Chronometers.&mdash;Dutch, Leading Clockmakers;
+ Germany, Switzerland.&mdash;Systems Followed in these Countries.&mdash;Minute
+ Sub-divisions of Labour.&mdash;Watch and Clock Making in the United
+ States.&mdash;American System.&mdash;Wonderful Machines for every Part.&mdash;Watch
+ factories.&mdash;Pope’s Simile.&mdash;Revolution in Nineteenth
+ Century.&mdash;Electric System.&mdash;4000 Patents in U.S. since
+ 1800.&mdash;Registering Devices.&mdash;“A Mechanical Conscience.”&mdash;Cash
+ Registers.&mdash;Voting Machines.&mdash;Electrical Recorders.&mdash;Cyclometers.&mdash;Speed
+ Indicators.&mdash;Weighing Scales and Machines, History of.&mdash;The
+ Fairbanks of Vermont, 1831.&mdash;Platform and other Scales.&mdash;Spring
+ Weighing.&mdash;Automatic Recorders of Weight and Prices.&mdash;Testing
+ Machines, English, German, American.&mdash;The Emery Scales.&mdash;Gages,
+ Dynamometers.&mdash;Hydraulic Testing.&mdash;Delicate Operations.&mdash;Strength
+ of a Horse-hair and Great Steel Beam, Tested by Same
+ Machine.&mdash;Effect on Public Works.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">384</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</a><br><br>MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, PHOTOGRAPHY, FINE ARTS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Musical Instruments Old as Religion.&mdash;Abounded before the Lyre
+ of Apollo or the Harp of Orpheus.&mdash;Their Evolution.&mdash;To Meet
+ Wants and Growing Tastes.&mdash;Nineteenth Century and the Laws
+ of Helmholtz.&mdash;The Story of the Piano, the Queen, Involves
+ whole History of the Art of Music.&mdash;Ancient Harp and
+ Growth.&mdash;Psaltery and Dulcimer of Assyrians and Hebrews.&mdash;No
+ Inventions by Greeks and Romans in this Art.&mdash;Fifteenth
+ Century and the Clavicitherium.&mdash;Sixteenth Century, the Virginal
+ and the Spinet.&mdash;Seventeenth Century, the Clavichord and
+ Harpsichord.&mdash;Italian Cembello.&mdash;Bach, Mozart, Handel,
+ Haydn.&mdash;Cristofori of Florence, Schreiber of Germany and Modern
+ Piano.&mdash;Eighteenth Century, Pianos of Broadwood and Clementi
+ of London, Erard of Strasburg, Petzold of Paris and Others.&mdash;Two
+ Thousand Years Taken to Ripen the Modern Piano.&mdash;Description of
+ Piano Parts.&mdash;Helmholtz’s Great Work, 1862.&mdash;Effect on System of
+ Music and Musical Instruments.&mdash;The Organ, King in the Realm of
+ Music.&mdash;History of, from Earliest Times.&mdash;Improvements of the
+ Nineteenth Century.&mdash;The Auto-harp.&mdash;Self-playing Instruments.&mdash;The
+ Science of Acoustics and Practical Applications.&mdash;Auricular
+ Tubes.&mdash;Telephone, Phonograph, Graphophone, Gramophone.&mdash;Their
+ Evolution and their Inventors.&mdash;Optical Instruments.&mdash;Their
+ Growth.&mdash;Lippersheim, Galileo, Lieberkulm, John Dolland.&mdash;The
+ Improvements and Inventors of the Nineteenth Century.&mdash;Brewster
+ and the Kaleidoscope, Stereoscope.&mdash;Lenticular Lenses.&mdash;Lighthouse
+ Illumination.&mdash;Faraday and Tyndall.&mdash;Abb&eacute; Moigno’s
+ Troubles.&mdash;Ophthalmoscope.&mdash;Spectroscope.&mdash;Making of Great
+ Lenses.&mdash;Solarmeter.&mdash;Measuring the Position and Distances of Unseen
+ Objects.&mdash;Light Converted into Music.&mdash;Daguerre and
+ Photography.&mdash;History and Development.&mdash;Colour
+ Reproduction.&mdash;Pencils.&mdash;Painting.&mdash;Air Brushes.&mdash;Telegraphic Photographs.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">400</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</a><br><br>SAFES AND LOCKS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Safes, how Constructed before this Century.&mdash;Classification.&mdash;Century
+ Starts out to Make Safes Fireproof.&mdash;Scott in 1801.&mdash;Marr,
+ 1834.&mdash;Result of Great Fire in New York, 1835.&mdash;Wilder’s and
+ Herring’s Safes.&mdash;Burglar-proof Safes, 1835.&mdash;Chubb, Newton,
+ Thompson, Hall, Marvin and Others.&mdash;Electricity.&mdash;Seal Locks
+ from 1815.&mdash;Locks of Various Kinds in Ancient Days.&mdash;Of
+ Ponderous Size.&mdash;Key of the House of David.&mdash;Lock of Penelope’s
+ House.&mdash;Locks of the Middle Ages.&mdash;Letter Locks of the Dutch,
+ 1650.&mdash;Carew’s Verse.&mdash;Eighteenth Century Locks.&mdash;Tumblers.&mdash;Joseph
+ Bramah’s Locks.&mdash;Combination, Permutation and Time Locks.&mdash;Yale
+ Locks.&mdash;Modern Locks Invented for Special Uses.&mdash;Master or
+ Secondary Key Locks.&mdash;Value of Simple, Cheap, Effective
+ Locks.&mdash;Mail Locks and Others.&mdash;Greater General Security for
+ Property of all Kinds now Obtained.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">420</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.</a><br><br>CARRIAGES AND CARRYING MACHINES GENERALLY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Review of Conveyances from Time of Ptolemy’s Great Procession,
+ 270 B. C., until Nineteenth Century.&mdash;The Old Stage Coaches.&mdash;Coaches
+ of the Rich, the Middle Classes and the Poor.&mdash;The Past Art
+ Compared with the Art as Exhibited at Centennial Exhibition
+ in 1876 at Philadelphia.&mdash;The Varieties of Different Vehicles
+ there Displayed by Different Nations.&mdash;Velocipedes and
+ Bicycles.&mdash;1800 to 1869.&mdash;French, German, English, Scotch.&mdash;The
+ “Draisine” of Von Drais, 1816.&mdash;Johnson’s “Curricle,”
+ 1818.&mdash;Gompertz’s “Dandy” and “Hobby Horse,” 1821.&mdash;Michaux’s,
+ 1863.&mdash;Lallement’s of France, 1866, Crank and Pedal.&mdash;America
+ and Europe Adopts it, 1866, 1869.&mdash;Pneumatic Rubber Tire
+ Invented by Thomson, 1845.&mdash;Sleeps Forty Years.&mdash;Improvements
+ since 1869.&mdash;Motor Vehicles and Automobiles.&mdash;Traction
+ Engines.&mdash;Brakes, Railway, Air and Electric.&mdash;Automatic Couplers,
+ Buffers, and Vestibule Trains.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">428</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX.</a><br><br>SHIPS AND SHIP BUILDING.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+“Ships are but Boards.”&mdash;“The Great Harry.”&mdash;Noah’s Ark the
+ Prototype of the Modern “Whale-back.”&mdash;Ph&#339;nicians.&mdash;Northmen.&mdash;Dutch,
+ French, English, and American Types.&mdash;Nineteenth Century,
+ the Yankee Clippers.&mdash;Donald McKay.&mdash;“Great Republic.”&mdash;Steam as
+ Motive Power in Ships the Leading Event in the Art.&mdash;Lord
+ Dundas and Steam Canal Boats.&mdash;Iron Ships in Place of Wood,
+ 1829-30.&mdash;John Laird of Birkenhead.&mdash;Sir William Fairbairn.&mdash;Clyde
+ Works.&mdash;Comparison of Wood and Iron.&mdash;1844, the Great
+ Britain.&mdash;John Ericsson.&mdash;Monitor and Merrimac.&mdash;Composite Style of
+ Vessels.&mdash;Marine Propulsion.&mdash;Paddle Wheels.&mdash;Screws.&mdash;1804, John
+ Stevens.&mdash;1807, Fulton.&mdash;Screw Propeller of Ericsson.&mdash;The Ogden,
+ the Stockton and the Princeton, the First Naval Warship of its
+ Kind.&mdash;The Two Revolutions Produced by Ericsson.&mdash;Pneumatic
+ Propellers.&mdash;Description of a Warship.&mdash;The Deutschland.&mdash;Torpedo
+ Boats.&mdash;Franklin and Oil on the Waves.&mdash;Air Ships.&mdash;Count
+ Zeppelin’s Boat.&mdash;Other Plans of Air Navigation.&mdash;The
+ Problems to be Solved.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">438</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX.</a><br><br>ILLUMINATING GAS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+What Artificial Light has done for Man.&mdash;Its Condition before
+ the Nineteenth Century.&mdash;Experiments of Dr. Clayton, Hon. R.
+ Boyle, Dr. Hales, Bishop Watson, Lord Dundonald, Dr. Rickel,
+ and William Murdock in Eighteenth Century.&mdash;1801, Le Bon Makes
+ Gas, Proposes to Light Paris.&mdash;1803, English Periodicals
+ Discuss the Subject.&mdash;1806, Melville of Newport, U. S., Lights
+ House and Street.&mdash;1817, First Lighthouse Lit by Gas.&mdash;The
+ Beaver Tail on Atlantic Coast.&mdash;Parliament in 1813, London Streets
+ Lit in 1815, Paris, 1820, American Cities 1816-25.&mdash;Gas
+ Processes.&mdash;Chemistry.&mdash;Priestley and Dalton.&mdash;Berthollet,
+ Graham, and Others.&mdash;Clegg of England and his Gas Machines.&mdash;Art
+ Revolutionised by Invention of Water Gas, 1823-1847.&mdash;Donovan,
+ Lowe, White.&mdash;T. S. C. Lowe, Anthracite Process, 1873.&mdash;Competition
+ with Electricity.&mdash;Siemens’ Regenerative System.&mdash;The Generators,
+ Carburetors, Retorts, Mixers, Purifiers, Meters, Scrubbers,
+ Holders, Condensers, Governors, Indicators, Registers, Chargers,
+ Pressure Regulators, etc.&mdash;Portable Gas Apparatus.&mdash;Argand
+ Burners.&mdash;Acetylene Gas.&mdash;Calcium Carbide.&mdash;Magnesium.&mdash;Bunsen
+ Burner and Welsbach Mantle.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">450</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI.</a><br><br>POTTERY, PLASTICS, PORCELAINS, STONEWARE, GLASS, RUBBER, CELLULOID.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="spaceUnder">
+<td class="tdl">
+Brickmaking from the Earliest Ages to Nineteenth Century.&mdash;Pottery,
+ its Origin Unknown.&mdash;Its Evolution.&mdash;Women the First Inventors
+ in Ceramic and Textile Arts.&mdash;Progress of Man Traced in
+ Pottery.&mdash;Review of Pottery from Time of Homer to the Wedgwood
+ Ware of Eighteenth Century.&mdash;Labour-Saving Devices of
+ Nineteenth.&mdash;Operations in Brickmaking and Machinery.&mdash;The
+ Celebrated Pug Mill, the Pioneer.&mdash;Moulding and Pressing.&mdash;Drying
+ and Burning.&mdash;The Slow Growth of Methods.&mdash;Useful Contrivances
+ never wholly Supplanted.&mdash;Modern Heat Distributors.&mdash;Hoffman’s
+ Kilns.&mdash;Wedgwood’s Pottery in Eighteenth.&mdash;Siemens’ Regenerators
+ in Nineteenth, and other Kilns.&mdash;Susan Frackelton’s.&mdash;The
+ Filter Press.&mdash;Chinese and French Porcelains&mdash;Battam’s Imitations
+ of Marbles and Plaster Moulds.&mdash;Faience.&mdash;Porcelain Moulding
+ and Colours.&mdash;Atomisers and Backgrounds.&mdash;Rookwood Pottery and
+ Miss Fry.&mdash;Enamelled Ware.&mdash;Artificial Stone.&mdash;Modern
+ Cements.&mdash;Glass the Sister of Pottery.&mdash;The Inventors of
+ Blowing, Cutting, Trimming by Shears and Diamond Cutting, Ancient
+ and Unknown.&mdash;Glass Windows and Mirrors Unknown to the Poor Prior
+ to Eighteenth Century.&mdash;The Nineteenth Century the Scientific
+ Age of Glass.&mdash;Its Commercial Development.&mdash;Crystal Palace of
+ 1851.&mdash;Description of Modern Discoveries.&mdash;Materials.&mdash;Colours
+ and Faraday’s Discovery in 1824.&mdash;Gaffield’s Extensive
+ Experiments in Producing Colours.&mdash;The German Glass Works at
+ Jena of Abbe and Schott.&mdash;Methods Followed for Different
+ Varieties.&mdash;Machines for Different Purposes.&mdash;Cut Glass and
+ other Beautiful Ware.&mdash;Cameo Cutting.&mdash;Porcelain
+ Electroplating.&mdash;Rubber, History of, in Seventeenth, Eighteenth
+ and Nineteenth Centuries.&mdash;Sketch of Goodyear.&mdash;His Inventions
+ and Present State of the Art.&mdash;Glass Wool of Volcano of
+ Kilauea and Krupp’s Blast Furnaces.
+</td><td class="tdr vb">457</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p class="center xbig">INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_1" id="PAGE_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br><br>
+<span class="sub">
+INTRODUCTORY&mdash;INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES&mdash;THEIR
+DEVELOPMENT.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In treating of the subject of Inventions it is proper
+to distinguish them from their scientific kindred&mdash;Discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>The history of inventions is the history of new
+and useful contrivances made by man for practical
+purposes. The history of scientific discoveries is the
+record of new things found in Nature, its laws,
+forces, or materials, and brought to light, as they
+exist, either singly, or in relation, or in combination.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Galileo invented the telescope, and Newton
+discovered the law of gravitation. The practical
+use of the invention when turned to the heavenly
+bodies served to confirm the truth of the discovery.</p>
+
+<p>Discovery and invention may be, and often are,
+united as the soul is to the body. The union of the
+two produces one or more inventions. Thus the invented
+electro-telegraph consists of the combination
+of discoveries of certain laws of electricity with
+an apparatus, by which signs are communicated to
+distances by electrical influence.</p>
+
+<p>Inventions and discoveries do not precede or follow
+each other in order. The instrument may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_2" id="PAGE_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+made before the laws which govern its operation are
+discovered. The discovery may long precede its
+adaptation in physical form, and both the discovery
+and adaptation may occur together.</p>
+
+<p>Among the great <i>inventions</i> of the past are alphabetical
+writing, Arabic notation, the mariner’s compass,
+the telescope, the printing-press, and the steam-engine.
+Among the great <i>discoveries</i> of the past
+are the attraction of gravitation, the laws of planetary
+motion, the circulation of the blood, and velocity
+of light. Among the great inventions of the nineteenth
+century are the spectroscope, the electric
+telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, the railways,
+and the steam-ships. Among the great discoveries
+of this century are the correlation and conservation
+of forces, anæsthetics, laws of electrical
+energy, the germ theory of disease, the molecular
+theory of gases, the periodic law of Mendeljeff in
+chemistry, antiseptic surgery, and the vortex theory
+of matter. This short enumeration will serve to indicate
+the different roads along which inventions and
+the discoveries of science progress.</p>
+
+<p>By many it is thought that the inventions and discoveries
+of the nineteenth century exceed in number
+and importance all the achievements of the kind in all
+the ages of the past.</p>
+
+<p>So marvellous have been these developments of
+this century that, not content with sober definitions,
+men have defined <i>invent</i>, even when speaking
+only of mechanical productions, as “creating what
+had not before existed;” and this period has
+been described as an age of new creations. The
+far-off cry of the Royal Preacher, “There is no
+new thing under the sun: Is there anything whereof
+it may be said, see this is new, it hath been already<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_3" id="PAGE_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+of old time which was before us,” is regarded as a cry
+of satiety and despair, finding no responsive echo in
+the array of inventions of this bright age.</p>
+
+<p>But in one sense the Preacher’s words are ever profoundly
+true. The forces and materials of Nature
+always exist, awaiting man’s discovery, and at best
+he can but vary their relations, re-direct their course,
+or change their forms. In a still narrower sense the
+truth of the Preacher’s declaration is apparent:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>In an address before the Anthropological Society
+of Washington in 1885, the late Prof. F. A. Seely, of
+the United States Patent Office, set forth that it was
+one of the established laws of Invention, that,</p>
+
+<p>“Every human invention has sprung from some
+prior invention, or from some prior known expedient.”</p>
+
+<p>Inventions, he said, do not, like their protectress,
+Pallas Athene, spring forth full grown from the
+heads of their authors; that both as to modern inventions
+and as to those whose history is unrecorded,
+each exhibits in itself the evidence of a similar sub-structure;
+and that, “in the process of elimination
+we go back and back and find no resting place till we
+reach the rude set of expedients, the original endowment
+of men and brutes alike.”</p>
+
+<p>Inventions, then, are not creations, but the evolution
+of man-made contrivances.</p>
+
+<p>It may be remarked, however, as was once said
+by William H. Seward: “The exercise of the inventive
+faculty is the nearest akin to that of the
+Creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind;
+for while it does not create in the same sense that the
+Creator did, yet it is the nearest approach to it of
+anything known to man.”</p>
+
+<p>There is no history, rock-record, or other evidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_4" id="PAGE_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+of his existence as man, which discloses a period when
+he was not an inventor.</p>
+
+<p>Invention is that divine spark which drove, and
+still drives him to the production of means to meet
+his wants, while it illuminates his way. From that
+inward spark must have soon followed the invention
+of that outer fire to warm and cheer him, and to melt
+and mould the earth to his desires. Formed for society,
+the necessity of communication with his fellows
+developed the power of speech. Speech developed
+written characters and alphabets. Common
+communication developed concert of action, and from
+concert of action sprung the arts of society.</p>
+
+<p>But the evolution of invention has not been uniform.
+Long periods of slowness and stagnation have
+alternated with shorter or longer periods of prolific
+growth, and these with seasons of slumber and repression.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, Prof. Langley has said that man was thousands
+of years, and possibly millions, in evolving a
+cutting edge by rubbing one stone on another; but
+only a few thousand years to next develop bronze
+tools, and a still shorter period tools of iron.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot say how long the period was from the
+age of iron tools to the building of the pyramids, but
+we know that before those stupendous structures
+arose, the six elementary mechanical powers, the
+lever, the wheel, the pulley, the inclined plane, the
+wedge and the screw, were invented. And without
+those powers, what mechanical tool or machine has
+since been developed? The age of inventions in the
+times of the ancients rested mainly upon simple applications
+of these mechanical powers. The middle ages
+slumbered, but on the coming of the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries, the inventions of the ancients were<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_5" id="PAGE_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+revived, new ones added, and their growth and development
+extended with ever-increasing speed to the
+present time.</p>
+
+<p>The inventions of the nineteenth century, wonderful
+and innumerable as they are, and marvellous
+in results produced, are but the fruit of the seed sown
+in the past, and the blossom of the buds grown upon
+the stalks of former generations. The early crude
+stone hatchet has become the keen finished metal implement
+of to-day, and the latter involves in itself the
+culmination of a long series of processes for converting
+the rough ore into the hard and glistening
+steel.</p>
+
+<p>The crooked and pointed stick with which the
+Egyptian turned the sands of the Nile has slowly
+grown to be the finished plough that is now driven
+through the sod by steam.</p>
+
+<p>The steam-operated toys of Hero of Alexandria
+were revived in principle and incorporated in the
+engines of Papin and the Marquis of Worcester in
+the seventeenth century; and the better engines of
+Savery, Newcomen, and more especially of James
+Watt in the eighteenth century, left the improvements
+in steam-engines of the nineteenth century&mdash;great
+as they are&mdash;inventions only in matter of detail.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that electrical science began with
+the labours of Dr. Gilbert, published in 1600. These,
+with the electrical discoveries and inventions of Gray,
+Franklin, Galvani, and others in the next century,
+terminating with the invention of his battery by
+Volta in 1800, constituted the framework on which
+was built that world of flashing light and earth-circling
+messages in which we now live.</p>
+
+<p>The study of inventions in any one or all eras can<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_6" id="PAGE_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>not
+proceed intelligently unless account is taken not
+only of their mode of construction, and of their evolution
+one from another, but of the evolution of distinct
+arts, their relation, their interdependence in
+growth, and their mutual progress.</p>
+
+<p>The principles adopted by the ancients in weaving
+and spinning by hand are those still in force; but
+so great was the advance of inventions from hand-operated
+mechanisms to machines in these and other
+arts, and especially in steam, in the last half of the
+eighteenth century, that it has been claimed that the
+age of machine production or invention then for the
+first time really began.</p>
+
+<p>When the humble lift became the completed elevator
+of to-day, the “sky-scraper” buildings appeared;
+but these buildings waited upon the invention
+of their steel skeletons, and the steel was the
+child of the Bessemer process.</p>
+
+<p>The harp with which David stirred the dead soul
+of Saul was the prototype of the sweet clavichord,
+the romantic virginal, the tinkling harpsichord, and
+the grand piano. The thrumming of the chords by
+the fingers was succeeded by the striking keys; and
+the more perfect rendition of tones awaited the application
+of new discoveries in the realm of musical
+sounds. The keys and the levers in the art of musical
+instruments were transferred to the art of printing,
+and are found to-day striking a more homely
+music on the type-writer and on those other and more
+wonderful printing instruments that mould, and set,
+and distribute the type. But these results of later
+days did not reach their perfected operations and
+forms until many other arts had been discovered and
+developed, by which to treat and improve the wood, and
+the wire, and all the other materials of which those<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_7" id="PAGE_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+early instruments were composed, and by which the
+underlying principles of their operations became
+known.</p>
+
+<p>Admitting that man possesses the faculty of invention,
+what are the motives that induce its exercise?
+Why so prolific in inventions now? And will they
+continue to increase in number and importance, or
+decrease?</p>
+
+<p>An interesting treatise of bulky dimensions might
+be written in answer to these queries, and the answers
+might not then be wholly satisfactory. Space permits
+the submission of but a few observations and
+suggestions on these points:&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Necessity</i> is still the mother of inventions, but not
+of all of them. The pressing needs of man in fighting
+nakedness and hunger, wild beasts and storms,
+may have driven him to the production of most of his
+early contrivances; but as time went on and his
+wants of every kind multiplied, other factors than
+mere necessity entered into the problem, and now it
+is required to account for the multiplicity of inventions
+under the general head of <i>Wants</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To-day it is the want of the luxuries, as well as of
+the necessities of life, the want of riches, distinction,
+power, and place, the wants of philanthropy and the
+wants of selfishness, and that restless, inherent, unsatisfied,
+indescribable want which is ever pushing
+man onward on the road of progress, that must be regarded
+as the springs of invention.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accident</i> is thought to be the fruitful source of
+great inventions. It is a factor that cannot be ignored.
+But accidents are only occasional helps,
+rarely occurring,&mdash;flashes of light suddenly revealing
+the end of the path along which the inventor has
+been painfully toiling, and unnoticed except by him<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_8" id="PAGE_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+alone. They are sudden discoveries which for the
+most part simply shorten his journey. The rare complete
+contrivance revealed by accident is not an invention
+at all, but a discovery.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest incentive in modern times to the production
+of inventions is governmental protection.</p>
+
+<p>When governments began to recognize the right of
+property in inventions, and to devise and enforce
+means by which their author should hold and enjoy
+the same, as he holds his land, his house, or his horse,
+then inventions sprung forth as from a great unsealed
+fountain.</p>
+
+<p>This principle first found recognition in England
+in 1623, when parliament, stung by the abuse of the
+royal prerogative in the grant of exclusive personal
+privileges that served to crush the growth of inventions
+and not to multiply them, by its celebrated
+Statute of Monopolies, abolished all such privileges,
+but excepted from its provisions the grant of patents
+“for the sole working or making of any manner of
+new manufactures within this realm to the true and
+first inventor” thereof.</p>
+
+<p>This statute had little force, however, in encouraging
+and protecting inventors until the next century,
+and until after the great inventions of Arkwright in
+spinning and James Watt in steam-engines had been
+invaded, and the attention of the courts called more
+seriously thereby to the property rights of inventors,
+and to the necessity of a liberal exposition of the law
+and its proper enforcement.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed in 1789 the incorporation of that
+famous provision in the Constitution of the United
+States, declaring that Congress shall have the power
+“To promote the progress of science and useful arts
+by securing for limited times to authors and inventors<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_9" id="PAGE_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+the exclusive right to their respective writings
+and discoveries.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1791 followed the law of the National Assembly
+of France for the protection of new inventions,
+setting forth in the preamble, among other
+things, “that not to regard an industrial invention
+as the property of its author would be to attack the
+essential rights of man.”</p>
+
+<p>These fundamental principles have since been
+adopted and incorporated in their laws by all the nations
+of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Inventions in their nature being for the good of all
+men and for all time, it has been deemed wise by
+all nations in their legislation not to permit the inventor
+to lock up his property in secret, or confine it
+to his own use; and hence the universal practice is
+to enact laws giving him, his heirs, and assigns, exclusive
+ownership to this species of his property for
+a limited time only, adjudged sufficient to reward
+him for his efforts in its production, and to encourage
+others in like productions; while he, in consideration
+for this protection, is to fully make known his
+invention, so that the public may be enabled to freely
+make and use it after its exclusive ownership shall
+have expired.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the motives and incentives mentioned
+inducing this modern mighty outflow of inventions,
+regard must be had to the conditions of personal,
+political and intellectual freedom, and of education.
+There is no class of inventors where the
+mass of men are slaves; and when dense ignorance
+abounds, invention sleeps.</p>
+
+<p>In the days of the greatest intellectual freedom of
+Greece, Archimedes, Euclid, and Hero, its great
+inventors, flourished; but when its political <i>status</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_10" id="PAGE_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+had reduced the mass of citizens to slaves, when the
+work of the artisan and the inventor was not appreciated
+beyond the gift of an occasional crown of laurel,
+when manual labour and the labourer were scorned,
+inventions were not born, or, if born, found no
+nourishment to prolong their lives.</p>
+
+<p>In Rome, the labourer found little respect beyond
+the beasts of burden whose burdens he shared, and the
+inventor found no provision of fostering care or protection
+in her mighty jurisprudence. The middle
+ages carefully repressed the minds of men, and hid
+away in dark recesses the instruments of learning.
+When men at length awoke to claim their birthright
+of freedom, they invented the printing-press and rediscovered
+gunpowder, with which to destroy the
+tyranny of both priests and kings. Then arose
+the modern inventor, and with him came the freedom
+and the arts of civilisation which we now enjoy.</p>
+
+<p>What the exercise of free and protected invention
+has brought to this century is thus summarised by
+Macaulay:</p>
+
+<p>“It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain;
+has extinguished diseases; has increased the fertility
+of the soil; given new security to the mariner; furnished
+new arms to the warrior; spanned great
+rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown
+to our fathers; it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously
+from heaven to earth; it has lighted up the
+night with splendour of the day; it has extended the
+range of human vision; it has multiplied the power
+of the human muscles; it has accelerated motion;
+it has annihilated distance; it has facilitated intercourse,
+correspondence, all friendly offices, all despatch
+of business; it has enabled man to descend to
+the depths of the sea, to soar into the air, to penetrate<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_11" id="PAGE_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+securely into the noxious recesses of the earth; to
+traverse the land in carts which whirl along without
+horses; to cross the ocean in ships which run many
+knots an hour against the wind. Those are but a part
+of its fruits, and of its first fruits, for it is a philosophy
+which never rests, which is never perfect.
+Its law is progress. A point which yesterday was invisible
+is its goal to-day, and will be its starting
+point to-morrow.”</p>
+
+<p>The onward flow of inventions may be interrupted,
+if not materially stayed, by the cessation of some of
+the causes and incentives which now give them life.
+When comfort for all and rest for all, and a suitable
+division of labour, and an equal distribution of its
+fruits are reached, in that state of society which is
+pictured in the visions of the social philosopher, or
+as fast as such conditions are reached, so soon will
+cease the pricking of those spurs of invention,&mdash;individual
+rewards, the glorious strife of competition,
+the harrowing necessities, and the ambitions for
+place and power. If all are to co-operate and share
+alike, what need of exclusive protection and fierce
+and individual struggle? Why not sit down now and
+break the loaf and share it, and pour the wine, and
+enjoy things as they are, without a thought for the
+morrow?</p>
+
+<p>The same results as to inventions may be reached
+in different but less pleasant ways: When all the industries
+are absorbed by huge combinations of capital
+the strife of competition among individuals, and the
+making of individual inventions to meet such competition,
+will greatly disappear. Or, the same
+results may be effected by stringent laws of labour
+organisations, in restricting or repressing all individual
+independent effort, prescribing what shall be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_12" id="PAGE_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+done or what shall not be done along certain lines of
+manufacture or employment. So that the progress
+of future inventions depends on the outcome of the
+great economic, industrial, and social battles which
+are now looming on the pathway of the future.</p>
+
+<p>But what the inventions of the nineteenth century
+were and what they have done for Humanity,
+is a chapter that must be read by all those now living
+or to come who wish to learn the history of their
+race. It is a story which gathers up all the threads
+of previous centuries and weaves them into a fabric
+which must be used in all the coming ages in the attainment
+of their comforts, their adornments, and
+their civilisations.</p>
+
+<p>To enumerate all the inventions of the century
+would be like calling up a vast army of men and proclaiming
+the name of each. The best that can be
+done is to divide the wide field into chapters, and in
+these chapters give as best one may an idea of the
+leading inventions that have produced the greatest
+industries of the World.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_13" id="PAGE_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br><br>
+<span class="sub">AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The Egyptians were the earliest and greatest agriculturists,
+and from them the art was learned by the
+Greeks. Greece in the days of her glory greatly improved
+the art, and some of her ablest men wrote valuable
+treatises on its different topics. Its farmers
+thoroughly ploughed and fertilised the soil, used various
+implements for its cultivation, paid great attention
+to the raising of fruits,&mdash;the apple, pear, cherry,
+plum, quince, peach, lemon, fig and many other
+varieties suitable to their climate, and improved the
+breeds of cattle, horse and sheep. When, however,
+social pride and luxurious city life became the dominant
+passions, agriculture was left to menials, and
+the art gradually faded with the State. Rome in her
+best days placed farming in high regard. Her best
+writers wrote voluminously on agricultural subjects,
+a tract of land was allotted to every citizen, which was
+carefully cultivated, and these citizen farmers were
+her worthiest and most honoured sons. The condition
+and needs of the soil were studied, its strength replenished
+by careful fertilisation, and it was worked
+with care. There were ploughs which were made
+heavy or light as the different soils required, and
+there were a variety of farm implements, such as
+spades, hoes, harrows and rakes. Grains, such as
+wheat, barley, rye and oats, were raised, a variety of
+fruits and vegetables, and great attention paid to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_14" id="PAGE_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>the breeding of stock. Cato and Varro, Virgil and
+Columella, Pliny and Palladius delighted to instruct
+the farmer and praise his occupation.</p>
+
+<p>But as the Roman Empire grew, its armies absorbed
+its intelligent farmers, the tilling of the soil
+was left to the menial and the slave, and the Empire
+and agriculture declined together.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the hordes of northern barbarians pouring
+in waves over the southern countries and burying
+from sight their arts and civilisation. The gloom of
+the middle ages then closed down upon the European
+world. Whatever good may have been accomplished
+in other directions by the crusades, agriculture
+reached its lowest ebb, save in those instances where
+the culture of the soil received attention from monastic
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p>The sixteenth century has been fixed upon as the
+time when Europe awoke from its long slumber.
+Then it was after the invention of the printing press
+had become well established that publications on agriculture
+began to appear. The <i>Boke of Husbandrie</i>,
+in 1523, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert;
+Thomas Tusser’s <i>Five Hundred Points of Good
+Husbandry</i>; Barnaby Googe’s <i>The Whole Art of
+Husbandry</i>; <i>The Jewel House of Art and Nature</i>,
+by Sir Hugh Platt; the <i>English Improver</i> of
+Walter Blithe, and the writings of Sir Richard
+Weston on the husbandry of Brabant and Flanders,
+were the principal torches by which the light on this
+subject was handed down through the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries. Further awakening was had
+in the eighteenth century, the chief part of which
+was given by Jethro Tull, an English agriculturist,
+who lived, and wrote, and laboured in the cause between
+1680 and 1740. Tull’s leading idea was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_15" id="PAGE_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+thorough pulverisation of the soil, his doctrines being
+that plants derived their nourishment from
+minute particles of soil, hence the need of its pulverisation.
+He invented and introduced a horse hoe,
+a grain drill, and a threshing machine.</p>
+
+<p>Next appeared Arthur Young, of England, born in
+1741, whose life was extended into the 19th century,
+and to whom the world was greatly indebted
+for the spread of agricultural knowledge. He devoted
+frequent and long journeys to obtaining information
+on agricultural subjects, and his writings attracted
+the attention and assistance of the learned
+everywhere. His chief work was the making known
+widely of the beneficial effects of ammonia and ammoniacal
+compounds on vegetation. Many other useful
+branches of the subject, clearly treated by him,
+are found in his <i>Annals of Agriculture</i>. It was
+this same Arthur Young with whom Washington
+corresponded from his quiet retreat at Mount Vernon.
+After the close of the War of Independence in 1783
+and before the adoption of the Constitution in 1789
+and his elevation to the Presidency in that year,
+Washington devoted very much of his time to the
+cultivation of his large estate in Virginia. He took
+great interest in every improvement in agriculture
+and its implements. He invented a plough and a
+rotary seed drill, improved his harrows and mills,
+and made many inquiries relative to the efficacy
+of ploughs and threshing machines made
+in England and other parts of Europe. It was
+during this period that he opened an interesting
+correspondence with Young on improvements
+in agriculture, which was carried on even while
+he was President, and he availed himself of the
+proffer of Young’s services to fill an order for seeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_16" id="PAGE_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+and two ploughs from a London merchant. He
+also wrote to Robert Cary &amp; Co., merchants in
+London, concerning an engine he had heard of as
+being constructed in Switzerland, for pulling up
+trees and their stumps by the roots, and ordered one
+to be sent him if the machine were efficient.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson, Washington’s great contemporaneous
+statesman and Virginia planter, and to whom has
+been ascribed the chief glory of the American patent
+system, himself also an inventor, enriched his
+country by the full scientific knowledge he had
+gained from all Europe of agricultural pursuits and
+improvements.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of the art, in a fundamental sense,
+that is in a knowledge of the constituents, properties,
+and needs of the soil, commenced with the investigations
+of Sir Humphry Davy at the close of the 18th
+century, resulting in his celebrated lectures before
+the Board of Agriculture from 1802 to 1812, and
+his practical experiments in the growth of plants and
+the nature of fertilisers. Agricultural societies and
+boards were a characteristic product of the eighteenth
+century in Europe and America. But this birth, or
+revival of agricultural studies, the enthusiastic interest
+taken therein by its great and learned men,
+and all its valuable publications and discoveries, bore
+comparatively little fruit in that century. The ignorance
+and prejudice of the great mass of farmers
+led to a determined, and in many instances violent resistance
+to the introduction of labour-saving machinery
+and the practical application of what they called
+“book-farming.” A fear of driving people out of
+employment led them to make war upon new agricultural
+machines and their inventors, as they had
+upon weaving and spinning inventions. This war<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_17" id="PAGE_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+was more marked in England than elsewhere, because
+there more of the new machines were first introduced,
+and the number of labourers in those fields
+was the greatest. In America the ignorance took the
+milder shape of contempt and prejudice. Farmers
+refused, for instance, to use cast-iron ploughs as it
+was feared they would poison the soil.</p>
+
+<p>So slow was the invention and introduction of new
+devices, that if Ruth had revisited the earth at the beginning
+of the nineteenth century, she might have
+seen again in the fields of the husbandmen everywhere
+the sickle of the reapers behind whom she gleaned in
+the fields of Boaz, heard again the beating on the
+threshing floor, and felt the old familiar rush of the
+winnowing wind. Cincinnatus returning then would
+have recognised the plough in common use as about the
+same in form as that which he once abandoned on his
+farm beyond the Tiber.</p>
+
+<p>But with the spread of publications, the extension
+of learning, the protection now at last obtained and
+enforced for inventions, and with the foundations
+laid and the guide-posts erected in nearly every art
+and science by previous discoverers, inventors and
+writers, the century was now ready to start on that
+career of inventions which has rendered it so glorious.</p>
+
+<p>As the turning over and loosening of the sod and
+the soil for the reception of seed was, and still is the
+first step in the art of agriculture, the plough is the
+first implement to be considered in this review.</p>
+
+<p>A plough possesses five essential features,&mdash;a frame
+or beam to which the horses are attached and which is
+provided with handles by which the operator guides
+the plough, a share to sever the bottom of a slice
+of land&mdash;the furrow&mdash;from the land beneath, a mould
+board following the share to turn the furrow over<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_18" id="PAGE_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+to one side, and a landside, the side opposite the
+mould board and which presses against the unploughed
+ground and steadies the plough. To
+these have been commonly added a device called
+the coulter, which is a knife or sharp disk
+fastened to the frame in advance of the share
+and adapted to cut the sod or soil so that the
+furrow may be more easily turned, an adjustable
+gauge wheel secured to the beam in advance of the
+coulter, and which runs upon the surface of the soil
+to determine by the distance between the perimeter of
+the wheel at the bottom and the bottom of the plough
+share the depth of the furrow, and a clevis, which is
+an adjustable metal strap attached to the end of the
+beam to which the draught is secured, and by which
+the pitch of the beam and the depth and width of the
+furrow are regulated. The general features, the
+beam, handles, and share, have existed in ploughs
+from the earliest ages in history. A plough with a
+metal share was referred to by the prophecy of Isaiah
+seven centuries before Christ, “They shall beat their
+swords into plough-shares;” and such a plough with
+the coulter and gauge wheel added is found in the
+Caylus collection of Greek antiquities. The inventions
+of centuries in ploughs have proceeded along the
+lines of the elements above enumerated.</p>
+
+<p>The leading features of the modern plough with a
+share and mould board constructed to run in a certain
+track and turn its furrows one over against the other,
+appear to have originated in Holland in the 18th century,
+and from there were made known to England.
+James Small of Scotland wrote of and made ploughs
+having a cast-iron mould board and cast and wrought
+iron shares in 1784-85.</p>
+
+<p>In America, about the same time, Thos. Jefferson<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_19" id="PAGE_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+studied and wrote upon the proper shape to be given
+to the mould board.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Newbold in 1797 took out the first patent
+in the United States for a plough&mdash;all parts cast in
+one piece of solid iron except the beam and handles.</p>
+
+<p>It is a favourite idea with some writers and with
+more talkers, that when the necessity really arises for
+an invention the natural inventive genius of man will
+at once supply it. Nothing was more needed and
+sought after for thirty centuries among tillers of the
+soil than a good plough, and what finally supplied it
+was not necessity alone, but improved brains. Long
+were the continued efforts, stimulated no doubt in
+part by necessity, but stimulated also by other motives,
+to which allusion has already been made, and
+among which are the love of progress, the hope of
+gain, and legislative protection in the possession of
+inventive property.</p>
+
+<p>The best plans of writers and inventors of the
+eighteenth century were not fully developed until
+the nineteenth, and it can be safely said that within
+the last one hundred years a better plough has been
+produced than in all of the thousands of years before.
+The defects which the nineteenth century’s improvements
+in ploughs were designed to remedy can best be
+understood by first realising what was the condition
+of ploughs in common use when the century opened.</p>
+
+<p>Different parts of the plough, such as the share and
+coulter, were constructed of iron, but the general
+practice among farmers was to make the beam and
+frame, handles and mould board of strong and heavy
+timber. The beam was straight, long, and heavy,
+and that and the mould generally hewed from a tree.
+The mould board on both sides to prevent its wearing
+out too rapidly was covered with more or less thick<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_20" id="PAGE_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+plates of iron. The handles were made from crooked
+branches of trees. “The beam,” it is said, “was set
+at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the
+handles fastened on almost at right angles with it,
+thus leaving the ploughman little control over his implement
+which did its work in a very slow and imperfect
+manner.” It was some such plough that Lord
+Kames complained about in the <i>Gentleman Farmer</i>
+in 1768, as being used in Scotland&mdash;two horses
+and two oxen were necessary to pull it, “the ridges
+in the fields were high and broad, in fact enormous
+masses of accumulated earth, that could not admit
+of cross ploughing or cultivation; shallow ploughing
+universal; ribbing, by which half the land was left
+untilled, a general practice over the greater part of
+Scotland; a continual struggle between the corn and
+weeds for superiority.” As late as 1820 an American
+writer was making the same complaint. “Your
+furrows,” he said, “stand up like the ribs of a lean
+horse in the month of March. A lazy ploughman
+may sit on the beam and count every bout of his day’s
+work; besides the greatest objection to all these
+ploughs is that they do not perform the work well
+and the expense is enormous for blacksmith work.”
+It was complained by another that it took eight or ten
+oxen to draw it, a man to ride upon the beam to keep
+it on the ground, and a man followed the plough with
+a heavy iron hoe to dig up the “baulks.”</p>
+
+<p>The improvements made in the plough during the
+century have had for their object to lessen the great
+friction between the wide, heavy, ill-formed share
+and mould board, and the ground, which has been accomplished
+by giving to the share a sharp clean tapering
+form, and to the mould board a shape best calculated
+to turn the furrow slice; to improve the line<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_21" id="PAGE_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+of draught so that the pull of the team may be most
+advantageously employed, which has been effected
+after long trials, study and experiment in the arrangement
+of beam, clevis and draft rod, setting the
+coulter at a proper angle and giving the landside a
+plane and parallel surface; to increase the wear and
+lessen the weight of the parts, which has been accomplished
+by ingenious processes in treating the
+metal of which the parts are composed, and lessening
+the number of parts; to render the plough easily
+repairable by casting the parts in sets and numbering
+them, by which any part may be replaced by the
+manufacturer without resort to the blacksmith. In
+short there is no part of the plough but what has received
+the most careful attention of the inventor.
+This has been evidenced by the fact that in the
+United States alone nearly eleven thousand patents
+on ploughs were issued during the nineteenth century.
+When it is considered that all the applications for
+these patents were examined as to their novelty, before
+the grant of the patent, the enormous amount of
+study and invention expended on this article can be
+appreciated. Among the century’s improvements in
+this line is the use of disks in place of the old shovel
+blades to penetrate the earth and revolve in contact
+therewith. Cutting disks are harnessed to steam
+motors and are adapted to break up at one operation
+a wide strip of ground. The long-studied problem
+of employing a gang of ploughs to plough back and
+forth and successfully operated by steam has been
+solved, and electricity is now being introduced as a
+motor in place of steam. Thus millions of broad
+acres which never would have been otherwise turned
+are now cultivated. The tired muscle-strained
+ploughman who homeward plodded his weary way at<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_22" id="PAGE_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+night may now comfortably ride at his ease upon the
+plough, while at the same time the beasts that pull it
+have a lighter load than ever before.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the plough among the implements for breaking,
+clearing and otherwise preparing the soil for the
+reception of seed, comes the <i>harrow</i>. From time immemorial
+it has been customary to arm some sort of
+a frame with wooden or iron spikes to scratch the
+earth after the ploughing. But this century has
+greatly improved the old constructions. Harrows
+are now found everywhere made in sections to give
+flexibility to the frame; collected in gangs to increase
+the extent of operation; made with disks instead of
+spikes, with which to cut the roots of weeds and separate
+the soil, instead of merely scratching them. A
+still later invention, curved spring teeth, has been
+found far superior to spikes or disks in throwing up,
+separating and pulverising the soil. A harrow comprising
+two ranks of oppositely curved trailing teeth
+is especially popular in some countries. These three
+distinct classes of harrows, the disk type, the curved
+spring tooth type, and gangs of sections of concavo-convex
+disks, particularly distinguish this class of implements
+from the old forms of previous ages.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_23" id="PAGE_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>It is wonderful for how many generations men
+were contented to throw grain into the air as the Parable
+relates:</p>
+
+<p>“Behold, a sower went forth to sow, and when he
+sowed some seeds fell by the way side, and the fowls
+came and devoured them up: some fell on stony
+places where they had not much earth, and forthwith
+they sprung up, because they had no deepness of
+earth; and when the sun was up they were scorched;
+and because they had no root they withered away.
+And some fell among thorns and the thorns sprung
+up and choked them. But others fell into good
+ground and brought forth fruit, some a hundredfold,
+some sixtyfold, and some thirtyfold.”</p>
+
+<p>Here are indicated the defects in depositing the
+seed that only the inventions of the century have
+fully corrected. The equal distribution of the seed
+and not its wide scattering, its sowing in regular
+drills or planting at intervals, at certain and uniform
+depths, the adaptation of devices to meet the
+variations in the land to be planted, and in short the
+substitution of quick, certain, positive mechanisms
+for the slow, uncertain, variable hand of man. Not
+only has the increase an hundredfold been obtained,
+but with the machines of to-day the sowing and planting
+of a hundredfold more land has been made possible,
+the employment of armies of men where idleness
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_24" id="PAGE_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>would have reigned, and the feeding of millions
+of people among whom hunger would otherwise have
+prevailed. Not only did this machinery not exist
+at the beginning of the century, but the agricultural
+machines and devices in this line of the character
+existing fifty years ago are now discarded as useless
+and worthless.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that, as in the case of the ploughs, attempts
+had been made through the centuries to invent
+and improve seeding implements. The Assyrians 500
+years B. C. had in use a rude plough in which behind
+the sharp wooden plough point was fixed a bowl-shaped
+hopper through which seed was dropped into
+the furrow, and was covered by the falling back of
+the furrow upon it. The Chinese, probably before
+that time, had a wheelbarrow arrangement with a
+seed hopper and separate seed spouts. In India a
+drilling hopper had been attached to a plough. Italy
+claims the honour among European nations of first
+introducing a machine for sowing grain. It was invented
+about the beginning of the seventeenth century
+and is described by Zanon in his <i>Work on
+Agriculture</i> printed at Venice in 1764. It was a
+machine mounted on two wheels, that had a seed box
+in the bottom of which was a series of holes opening
+into a corresponding number of metal tubes or funnels.
+At their front these tubes at their lower ends
+were sharpened to make small furrows into which
+the seed dropped.</p>
+
+<p>Similar single machines were in the course of the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries devised in Austria
+and England. The one in Austria was invented
+by a Spaniard, one Don Joseph de Lescatello,
+tested in Luxembourg in 1662. The inventor was
+rewarded by the Emperor, recommended to the King<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_25" id="PAGE_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+of Spain, and in 1663 and 1664 his machines were
+made and sold at Madrid. The knowledge of this
+Spaniard’s invention was made known in England in
+1699 by the Earl of Sandwich and John Evelyn.
+Jethro Tull in England shortly after invented and
+introduced a combined system of drilling, ploughing
+and cultivating. He sowed different seeds from the
+same machine, and arranged that they might be covered
+at different depths. Tull’s machines were much
+improved by James Cooke, a clergyman of Lancashire,
+England; and also in the last decade of the
+eighteenth century by Baldwin and Wells of Norfolk,
+England.</p>
+
+<p>Washington and others in America had also commenced
+to invent and experiment with seeding machines.
+But as before intimated, the nineteenth
+century found the great mass of farmers everywhere
+sowing their wheat and other grains by throwing
+them into the air by hand, to be met by the gusts of
+wind and blown into hollows and on ridges, on stones
+and thorny places,&mdash;requiring often a second and
+third repetition of the same tedious process.</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 Mr. Coffin, a distinguished journalist of
+Boston, in an address before the Patent Committee
+of the U. S. Senate, set forth the advantages obtained
+by the modern improvements in seeders as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“The seeder covers the soil to a uniform depth.
+It sows evenly, and sows a specific quantity. You
+may graduate it so that, after a little experience, you
+can determine the amount per acre even to a quart
+of wheat. They sow all kinds of grain,&mdash;wheat,
+clover, and superphosphate, if need be, at once.
+They harrow at the same time. They make the crop
+more certain. It is the united testimony of manufacturers
+and farmers alike that the crop is increased<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_26" id="PAGE_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+from one-eighth to one-fourth, especially in the winter
+wheat. Winter wheat, you are aware, in the
+freezing and thawing season, is apt to heave out. It
+is desirable to bury the seed a uniform and proper
+depth and to throw over the young plant such an
+amount of soil that it shall not heave with the freezing
+and thawing. Of the 360,000,000 bushels of
+wheat raised last year I suppose more than 300,000,000
+was winter wheat. One-eighth of this is 37,700,000
+bushels.”</p>
+
+<p>It would seem to many that after the adoption
+of a seed hopper, and spouts with sharpened ends
+that cut the drill rows in the furrows and deposited
+the seed therein, that little was left to be done in this
+class of inventions; but a great many improvements
+were necessary. Gravity alone could not be depended
+upon for feeding the seed. Means had to be
+devised for a continuous and regular discharge from
+each grain tube; for varying the quantity of the seed
+fed by varying the escape openings, or by positive
+mechanical movements variable in speed; for fixing
+accurately the quantity of seed discharged; for
+changing the apparatus to feed coarse or fine seed;
+and for rendering the apparatus efficient on different
+surfaces&mdash;steep hillsides, level plains, irregular
+lands.</p>
+
+<p>An important step was the substitution of what is
+called the “force feed” for the gravity feed. There
+is a variety of devices for this purpose, the principle
+of one of them being a revolving feed wheel located
+beneath the hopper, and above each spout, the two
+casings between which the feed wheel revolves forming
+the outer walls of a complete measuring channel,
+or throat, through which the grain is carried by the
+rotary motion of the wheel, thus providing the means<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_27" id="PAGE_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+of measuring the seed with as much accuracy as could
+be done by a small measure. The quantity sown per
+acre is governed by simply increasing or diminishing
+the speed of the feed wheel. In one form of device
+this change of speed is altered by a system of
+cone gearing. A graduated flow of the seed has also
+been effected by the employment of a cylinder having
+a smooth and fluted part working in a cup beneath
+the hopper with provision for adjustment of
+the smooth part towards and from the fluted part to
+cut off or increase the flow.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid the use of a separate apparatus for separate
+sizes of grain and other seed, the seed holder
+has been divided into parts&mdash;one part for containing
+wheat, barley and other medium-sized grains,
+and another for corn, peas and the larger seeds.
+And as these parts are used on separate occasions,
+the respective apertures are opened or closed by a
+sliding bottom and by a single movement of the hand.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber tubes for conducting the seed through the
+hollow holes were introduced in place of the metal
+spouts that answered both as a spout and a hoe.</p>
+
+<p>In place of the common hoe drill of a form used
+in the early part of the century, the hoes being
+forced into the soil by the use of levers and weights,
+what are known as “shoe drills” have largely succeeded.
+A series of shoes are pivoted to the frame,
+extend beneath the seed box, and are provided with
+springs for depressing or raising them.</p>
+
+<p>All kinds of seeds and fertilisers, separately
+or together, may be now sown, and the broadcast sowing
+of a larger area than that covered by the throw
+of the hand can now be given by machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Corn and cotton seed are thus also planted, mixed
+or unmixed with the fertilising material.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_28" id="PAGE_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Not only have light ploughs been combined with
+small seed boxes and one or more seed tubes, for easy
+work in gardens, but the arrangements varied and
+graded for different uses until is reached that
+great machine run by steam power, in which is
+assembled a gang of heavy harrows in front to loosen
+and pulverise the soil, then the seed and fertilising
+drill of capacious width for sowing the grain in rows,
+followed by a lighter broad harrow to cover the seed,
+and all so arranged that the steam lifts the heavy
+frames on turning, and all controlled easily by the
+man who rides upon the machine.</p>
+
+<p>In planting at intervals or in hills, as corn and
+potatoes, and other like larger seeds, no longer is the
+farmer required to trudge across the wide field carrying
+a heavy load in bag or box, or compel his
+boys or women folk to drop the seed while he
+follows on laboriously with the hoe. He may now
+ride, if he so choose, and the machine which carries
+him furnishes the motive power for operating the
+supply and cut-off of the grain at intervals.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the farmer in planting corn is to
+plant it in straight lines about four feet apart each
+way, putting from three to five grains into each spot
+in a scattered and not huddled condition. These objects
+are together nicely accomplished by a variety
+of modern machines.</p>
+
+<p>The planting of great fields of potatoes has been
+greatly facilitated by machinery that first slices
+them and then sows the slices continuously in a row,
+or drops them in separate spots or hills, as may be desired.
+The finest seeds, such as grass and clover,
+onion and turnip seed, and delicate seed like rice,
+are handled and sown by machines without crushing
+or bruising, and with the utmost exactness. Just<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_29" id="PAGE_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+what seed is necessary to be supplied to the machine
+for a given area is decided upon, and the machine
+distributes the same with the same nicety that a
+doctor distributes the proper dose of pellets upon
+the palm of his patient.</p>
+
+<p>Transplanters as well as planters have been devised.
+These transplanters will dig the plant trench,
+distribute the fertiliser, set the plant, pack the earth
+and water the plant, automatically.</p>
+
+<p>The class of machines known as cultivators are
+those only, properly speaking, which are employed to
+cultivate the plant after the crop is above the ground.
+The duties which they perform are to loosen the
+earth, destroy the weeds, and throw the loosened
+earth around the growing plant.</p>
+
+<p>Here again the laborious hoe has been succeeded
+by the labour-saving machine.</p>
+
+<p>Cultivators have names which indicate their construction
+and the crop with which they are adapted
+to be used. Thus there are “corn cultivators,”
+“cotton cultivators,” “sugar-cane cultivators,” etc.
+Riding cultivators are known as “sulky cultivators”
+where they are provided with two wheels and a seat
+for the driver.</p>
+
+<p>If worked between two rows they are termed
+single, and when between three rows, double cultivators.
+A riding cultivator adapted to work three
+rows has an arched axle to pass over the rows of
+the growing plants and cultivate both sides of the
+plants in each row. Double cultivators are constructed
+so that their outside teeth may be adjusted
+in and out from the centre of the machine to meet
+the width of the rows between which they operate. A
+“walking cultivator” is when the operator walks and
+guides the machine with the hands as with ploughs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_30" id="PAGE_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+Ordinary ploughs are converted into cultivators by
+supplying them with double adjustable mould boards.
+Ingenious arrangements generally exist for widening
+or narrowing the cultivator and for throwing the soil
+from the centre of the furrow to opposite sides and
+against the plant. The depth to which the shares or
+cultivator blades work in the ground may be adjusted
+by a gauge wheel upon the draught beam, or a
+roller on the back of the frame.</p>
+
+<p>Disk cultivators are those in which disk blades instead
+of ploughs are used with which to disturb the
+soil already broken. As with ploughs, so with cultivators,
+steam-engines are employed to draw a gang
+of cultivating teeth or blades, their framework, and
+the operator seated thereon, to and fro across the
+field between two or more rows, turning and running
+the machine at the end of the rows.</p>
+
+<p>Millet’s recent celebrated painting represents a
+brutal, primitive type of a man leaning heavily on a
+hoe as ancient and woful in character as the man
+himself. It is a picture of hopeless drudgery and
+blank ignorance. Markham, the poet, has seized upon
+this picture, dwelt eloquently on its horrors, and
+apostrophised it as if it were a condition now existing.
+He exclaims,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“O masters, lords and rulers in all lands</span>
+<span class="line">How will the future reckon with this man?”</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>The present has already reckoned with him, and
+he and his awkward implement of drudgery nowhere
+exist, except as left-over specimens of ancient and
+pre-historic misery occasionally found in some benighted
+region of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The plough and the hoe are the chief implements
+with which man has subdued the earth. Their use<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_31" id="PAGE_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+has not been confined to the drudge and the slave, but
+men, the leaders and ornaments of their race, have
+stood behind them adding to themselves graces, and
+crowning labor with dignity. Cincinnatus is only
+one of a long line of public men in ancient and modern
+times who have served their country in the ploughfield
+as well as on the field of battle and in the halls
+of Legislation. We hear the song of the poet rising
+with that of the lark as he turns the sod. Burns,
+lamenting that his share uptears the bed of the “wee
+modest crimson-tipped flower” and sorrowing that
+he has turned the “Mousie” from its “bit o’ leaves
+and stibble” by the cruel coulter. The finest natures,
+tuned too fine to meet the rude blasts of the
+world, have shrunk like Cowper to rural scenes, and
+sought with the hoe among flowers and plants for
+that balm and strength unfound in crowded marts.</p>
+
+<p>But the dignity imparted to the profession of Agriculture
+by a few has now by the genius of invention
+become the heritage of all.</p>
+
+<p>While prophets have lamented, and artists have
+painted, and poets sorrowed over the drudgeries of the
+tillers of the soil, the tillers have steadily and quietly
+and with infinite patience and toil worked out their
+own salvation. They no longer find themselves
+“plundered and profaned and disinherited,” but
+they have yoked the forces of nature to their
+service, and the cultivation of the earth, the sowing
+of the seed, the nourishment of the plant, have become
+to them things of pleasurable labour.</p>
+
+<p>With the aid of these inventions which have been
+turned into their hands by the prolific developments
+of the century they are, so far as the soil is concerned,
+no longer “brothers of the ox,” but king of
+kings and lord of lords.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_32" id="PAGE_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>If the farmer, toward the close of the 18th century,
+tired with the sickle and the scythe for cutting
+his grass and grain, had looked about for more expeditious
+means, he would have found nothing better
+for cutting his grass; and for harvesting his grain
+he would have been referred to a machine that had
+existed since the beginning of the Christian era. This
+machine was described by Pliny, writing about A. D.
+60, who says that it was used on the plains of
+Rhætia. The same machine was described by Palladius
+in the fourth century. That machine is substantially
+the machine that is used to-day for cutting
+and gathering clover heads to obtain the seed. It
+is now called a header.</p>
+
+<p>A machine that has been in use for eighteen centuries
+deserves to be described, and its inventor remembered;
+but the name of the inventor has been lost
+in oblivion. The description of Palladius is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“In the plains of Gaul, they use this quick way
+of reaping, and without reapers cut large fields with
+an ox in one day. For this purpose a machine is
+made carried upon two wheels; the square surface
+has boards erected at the side, which, sloping outward,
+make a wider space above. The board on the
+fore part is lower than the others. Upon it there
+are a great many small teeth, wide set in a row, answering
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_33" id="PAGE_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>to the height of the ears of corn (wheat),
+and turned upward at the ends. On the back part of
+the machine two short shafts are fixed like the poles
+of a litter; to these an ox is yoked, with his head to
+the machine, and the yoke and traces likewise
+turned the contrary way. When the machine is
+pushed through the standing corn all the ears are
+comprehended by the teeth and cut off by them from
+the straw and drop into the machine. The driver
+sets it higher or lower as he finds it necessary. By
+a few goings and returnings the whole field is reaped.
+This machine does very well in plain and smooth
+fields.”</p>
+
+<p>As late as 1786 improvements were being attempted
+in England on this old Gallic machine. At
+that time Pitt, in that country, arranged a cylinder
+with combs or ripples which tore off the heads of
+the grain-stalks and discharged them into a box on
+the machine. From that date until 1800 followed attempts
+to make a cutting apparatus consisting of
+blades on a revolving cylinder rotated by the rotary
+motion of the wheels on which the machine was carried.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794, a Scotchman invented the grain cradle.
+Above the blade of a scythe were arranged a set of
+fingers projecting from a post in the scythe snath.
+This was considered a wonderful implement. A report
+of a Scottish Highland Agricultural Society
+about that time said of this new machine:</p>
+
+<p>“With a common sickle, seven men in ten hours
+reaped one and one-half acres of wheat,&mdash;about one-quarter
+of an acre each. With the new machine a
+man can cut one and one-half acres in ten hours, to
+be raked, bound, and stacked by two others.”</p>
+
+<p>It was with such crude and imperfect inventions<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_34" id="PAGE_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+that the farmers faced the grain and grass fields of
+the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The Seven Wonders of the ancient world have
+often been compared with the wonders of invention
+of this present day.</p>
+
+<p>Senator Platt in an address at the Patent Centennial
+Celebration in Washington, in 1891, made
+such a contrast:</p>
+
+<p>“The old wonders of the world were the Pyramids,
+the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Phidian
+statue of Jupiter, the Mausoleum, the Temple of
+Diana at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the
+Pharos of Alexandria. Two were tombs of kings,
+one was the playground of a petted queen, one was
+the habitat of the world’s darkest superstition, one
+the shrine of a heathen god, another was a crude attempt
+to produce a work of art solely to excite wonder,
+and one only, the lighthouse at Alexandria, was
+of the slightest benefit to mankind. They were created
+mainly by tyrants; most of them by the unrequited
+toil of degraded and enslaved labourers. In
+them was neither improvement nor advancement for
+the people.” With some excess of patriotic pride, he
+contrasts these with what he calls “the seven wonders
+of American invention.” They were the cotton-gin;
+the adaptation of steam to methods of transportation;
+the application of electricity to business pursuits;
+the harvester; the modern printing-press; the
+ocean cable; and the sewing machine. “How wonderful,”
+he adds, “in conception, in construction, in
+purpose, these great inventions are; how they dwarf
+the Pyramids and all the wonders of antiquity; what
+a train of blessings each brought with its entrance
+into social life; how wide, direct and far-reaching
+their benefits. Each was the herald of a social rev<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_35" id="PAGE_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>olution;
+each was a human benefactor; each was a
+new Goddess of Liberty; each was a great Emancipator
+of man from the bondage of labour; each was a
+new teacher come upon earth; each was a moral
+force.”</p>
+
+<p>Of these seven wonders, the harvester and the
+cotton-gin will only be described in this chapter.
+“Harvester” has sometimes been used as a broad
+term to cover both mowers and reapers. In a recent
+and more restricted sense, it is applied to a machine
+that cuts grain, separates it into gavels, and
+binds it.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty that confronted the invention of
+mowers was the construction, location and operation
+of the cutting part. To convert the scythe or the
+sickle, or some other sharp blade into a fast reciprocating
+cutter, to hang such cutter low so that it would
+cut near the ground, to protect it from contact with
+stones by a proper guard, to actuate it by the wheels
+of the vehicle, to hinge the cutter-bar to the frame so
+that its outer end might be raised, and to arrange
+a seat on the machine so that the driver could control
+the operating parts by means of a lever, or
+handles, were the main problems to be solved.</p>
+
+<p>In 1799, Boyce, of England, had a vertical shaft
+with six rotating scythes beneath the frame of the
+implement. This died with the century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1800, Meares, his countryman, tried to adapt
+shears. He was followed there, in 1805, by Plucknett,
+who introduced a horizontal, rotating, circular
+blade. Others, subsequently, adopted this idea,
+both in England and America. It had been customary,
+as in olden times, to push the apparatus forward
+by a horse or horses hitched behind. But, in
+1806, Gladstone had patented a front draft machine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_36" id="PAGE_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+with a revolving wheel armed with knife-blades cutting
+at one side of the machine and a segment-bar
+with fingers which gathered the grain and held the
+straw while the knife cut it.</p>
+
+<p>Then, in 1807, Salonen introduced vibrating
+knifes over stationary blades, fingers to gather grain
+to the cutters, and a rake to carry the grain off to one
+side.</p>
+
+<p>In 1822, Ogle, also of England, was the first to
+invent the <i>reciprocating</i> knife-bar. This is the
+movement that has been given in all the successful
+machines since. Ogle’s was a crude machine, but it
+furnished the ideas of projecting the cutter-bar at
+the side of a reel to gather the grain to the cutter and
+of a grain platform which was tilted to drop the
+sheaf.</p>
+
+<p>The world is indebted also to the Rev. Patrick
+Bell, of Scotland, who had invented and built as
+early as 1823-26, a machine which would cut an acre
+of grain in an hour, and is thus described by Knight:</p>
+
+<p>“The machine had a square frame on two wheels
+which ran loose on the axle, except when clutched
+thereto to give motion to the cutters. The cutter-bar
+had fixed triangular cutters between each of
+which was a movable vibrating cutter, which made a
+shear cut against the edge of the stationary cutter,
+on each side. It had a reel with twelve vanes to
+press the grain toward the cutters, and cause it to
+fall upon a travelling apron which carried away cut
+grain and deposited it at the side of the machine.
+The reel was driven by bevel-gearing.”</p>
+
+<p>It was used but a few years and then revived again
+at the World’s Fair in London, in 1851.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, inventions in mowers and
+reapers began to make their appearance about 1820.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_37" id="PAGE_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+In 1822, Bailey was the first to patent a mowing machine.
+It was a circular revolving scythe on a vertical
+axis, rotated by gearing from the main axle, and
+so that the scythe was self-sharpened by passing under
+a whet-stone fixed on an axis and revolving with
+the scythe and was pulled by a horse in front. In
+1828, Lane, of Maine, combined the reaper and
+thresher. In 1831, Manning had a row of fingers
+and a reciprocating knife, and in 1833, Schnebly introduced
+the idea of a horizontal endless apron on
+which the grain fell, constructed to travel intermittently
+so as to divide the grain into separate parts or
+gavels, and deliver the gavels at one side. Hussey,
+of Maryland, in 1833, produced the most useful harvester
+up to that time. It had open guard fingers,
+a knife made of triangular sections, reciprocating
+in the guard, and a cutter-bar on a hinged frame.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the celebrated reaper of McCormick,
+of Virginia, in 1834, and his improvements of
+1845-1847, and by 1850 he had built hundreds of
+his machines. Other inventors, too numerous to
+mention, from that time pushed forward with their
+improvements. Then came many public trials and
+contests between rival manufacturers and inventors.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest and most notable was the contest
+at the World’s Fair, in London, in 1851. This
+exhibition, the first of the kind the world had seen,
+giving to the nations taking part such an astonishing
+revelation of each other’s productions, and stimulating
+in each such a surprising growth in all the
+industrial and fine arts, revealed nothing more gratifying
+to the lover of his kind than those inventions
+of the preceding half-century that had so greatly
+lifted the farm labourer from his furrow of drudgery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_38" id="PAGE_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among the most conspicuous of such inventions
+were the harvesters. Bell’s machine, previously described,
+and Hussey’s and McCormick’s were the
+principal contesting machines. They were set to
+work in fields of grain, and to McCormick was finally
+awarded the medal of honour.</p>
+
+<p>This contest also opened the eyes of the world to
+the fact that vast tracts of idle land, exceeding in
+extent the areas of many states and countries, could
+now be sown and reaped&mdash;a fact impossible with
+the scythe and the sickle. It was the herald of the
+admission into the family of nations of new territories
+and states, which, without these machines,
+would unto this day be still wild wildernesses and
+trackless deserts.</p>
+
+<p>This great trial also was followed by many others,
+State and International. In 1852, there was in the
+United States a general trial of reapers and mowers
+at Geneva, New York; in 1855, at the French Exposition,
+at Paris, where again McCormick met
+with a triumph; in 1857, at Syracuse, New York,
+and subsequently at all the great State and International
+Expositions. These contests served to bring
+out the failures, and the still-existing wants in this
+line of machinery. The earlier machines were
+clumsy. They were generally one-wheeled machines,
+lacked flexibility of parts and were costly. They cut,
+indeed, vast tracts of grain and grass, but the machines
+had to be followed by an army of men to bind
+and gather the fallen grain. This army demanded
+high wages and materially increased the cost of reaping
+the crop, and sadly diminished the profits.</p>
+
+<p>When the Vienna Exposition, in 1873, was held, a
+great advance was shown in this and all other classes
+of agricultural machinery. Reapers and mowers<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_39" id="PAGE_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+were lighter in construction, and far less in cost, and
+stronger and more effective in every way. The old
+original machines of McCormick on which he had
+worked for twenty years prior to the 1851 triumph,
+had been succeeded by another of his machines, on
+which an additional twenty years of study, experiment
+and improvement had been expended. An
+endless number of inventors had in the meantime
+entered the lists. The frame, the motive gearing,
+the hinged cutter-bar and knives, the driver’s seat,
+the reel, the divider, for separating the swath of
+grain to be cut from the uncut, the raising and depressing
+lever, the self-raker, and the material of
+which all the parts were composed had all received
+the greatest attention, and now was awaiting the
+coming of a perfect mechanical binder that would
+roll the grain on the machine into a bundle, automatically
+bind it, and drop the bound bundles on the
+ground. The latter addition came in an incomplete
+shape to Vienna. The best form was a crude wire
+binder. In 1876 at the Centennial Exhibition at
+Philadelphia, the mowers and reapers blossomed still
+more fully, but not into full fruition; for it was not
+until two or three years thereafter that the celebrated
+<i>twine</i> binders, which superseded the wire,
+were fully developed.</p>
+
+<p>Think of the almost miraculous exercise of invention
+in making a machine to automatically cut
+the grain, elevate it to a platform, separate and roll
+it into sheaves, seize a stout cord from a reel, wrap
+it about the sheaf, tie a knot that no sailor could untie,
+cut the cord, and throw the bound sheaf to one
+side upon the ground!</p>
+
+<p>So great became the demand for this binders’
+twine that great corporations engaged in its manufacture,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_40" id="PAGE_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>and they in turn formed a great trust to control
+the world’s supply. This one item of twine,
+alone, amounted to millions of dollars every year,
+and from its manufacture arose economic questions
+considered by legislators, and serious litigation requiring
+the attention of the courts.</p>
+
+<p>At this Centennial Exhibition, besides twenty or
+more great manufacturing firms of the United
+States who exhibited reapers and mowers, Canada,
+far-away Australia, and Russia brought each a fine
+machine of this wonderful class. And not only these
+countries, but nearly all of Europe sent agricultural
+machines and implements in such numbers and superior
+construction that they surpassed the wildest
+dreams of the farmer of a quarter of a century before.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time, about eleven thousand patents
+have been granted in the United States, all presumably
+on separate improvements in mowers and
+reapers alone. This number includes, of course,
+many patents issued to inventors of other countries.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this branch of the subject the lawn-mower
+should not be overlooked, with its spiral
+blades on a revolving cylinder, a hand lever by which
+it can be pushed over a lawn and the grass cut as
+smooth as the green rug upon a lady’s chamber.</p>
+
+<p>It is the law of inventions that one invention
+necessitates and generates another. Thus the vastly
+increased facilities for cutting grass necessitated
+new means for taking care of it when cut. And
+these new means were the hay tedder to stir it, the
+horse hay-rake, the great hay-forks to load, and the
+hay-stackers. Harvesters for grass and grain have
+been supplemented by Corn, Cotton, Potato and
+Flax Harvesters.</p>
+
+<p>The threshing-floor still resounds to the flail as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_41" id="PAGE_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+grain is beaten from the heads of the stalks. Men
+and horses still tread it out, the wooden drag and
+the heavy wain with its gang of wheels, and all the
+old methods of threshing familiar to the Egyptians
+and later among the Romans may still be found in
+use in different portions of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Menzies of Scotland, about the middle of the eighteenth
+century, was the first to invent a threshing machine.
+It was unsuccessful. Then came Leckie, of
+Stirlingshire, who improved it. But the type of the
+modern threshing machine was the invention of a
+Scotchman, one Meikle, of Tyningham, East Lothian,
+in 1786. Meikle threw the grain on to an inclined
+board, from whence it was fed between two
+fluted rollers to a cylinder armed with blades which
+beat it, thence to a second beating cylinder operating
+over a concave grating through which the loosened
+grain fell to a receptacle beneath; thence the straw
+was carried over a third beating cylinder which
+loosened the straw and shook out the remaining grain
+to the same receptacle, and the beaten straw was then
+carried out of the machine. Meikle added many improvements,
+among which was a fan-mill by which
+the grain was separated and cleaned from both straw
+and chaff. This machine, completed and perfected
+about the year 1800, has seen no departure in
+principle in England, and in the United States the
+principal change has been the substitution of a
+spiked drum running at a higher speed for Meikle’s
+beater drum armed with blades.</p>
+
+<p>In countries like California, says the U.S. Commissioner
+of Patents in his report for 1895, “Where
+the climate is dry and the grain is ready for threshing
+as soon as it is cut, there is in general use a type
+of machine known as a combined harvester and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_42" id="PAGE_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+thresher in which a thresher and a harvester machine
+of the header type are mounted on a single
+platform, and the heads of grain are carried directly
+from the harvester by elevators into the threshing
+machine, from which the threshed grain is delivered
+into bags and is then ready for shipment. Some of
+these machines are drawn by horses and some have a
+portable engine mounted on the same truck with the
+harvester propelling the machine, while furnishing
+power to drive the mechanism at the same time.
+Combined harvesters and threshers have been known
+since 1836, but they have been much improved and
+are now built on a much larger scale.”</p>
+
+<p>Flax-threshers for beating the grain from the bolls
+of the cured flax plant, removing the bolls, releasing
+and cleaning the seed, are also a modern invention.</p>
+
+<p>Flax and Hemp Brakes, machines by which the
+woody and cellular portion of the flax is separated
+from the fibrous portion, produced in practical shape
+in the century, and flanked by the improved pullers,
+cutters, threshers, scutchers, hackles, carders, and
+rovers, have supplanted Egyptian methods of 3,000
+years’ standing, for preparing the flax for spinning,
+as well as the crude improvements of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>After the foundation of cotton manufacture had
+been laid “as one of the greatest of the world’s
+industries,” in the 18th century by those five great
+English inventors, Kay, who invented the fly-shuttle,
+Hargreaves, the “Spinning Jenny,” Arkwright, the
+water-frame, Crompton, the spinning-mule, and
+Cartwright, the power-loom, came Eli Whitney in
+1793, a young school teacher from Massachusetts located
+in Georgia, who invented the <i>cotton-gin</i>. His crude
+machine, worked by a single person, could clean more<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_43" id="PAGE_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+cotton in a single day than could be done by a man
+in several months, by hand.</p>
+
+<p>The enormous importance of such a machine began
+to be appreciated at the beginning of the century,
+and it set cotton up as a King whose dominion
+has extended across the seas.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1871, inventions in this art were mainly
+directed to perfecting the structure of this primary
+gin. By that machine only the long staple fibre was
+secured, leaving the cotton seed covered with a short
+fibre, which with the seed was regarded as a waste
+product. To reclaim this short fibre and secure the
+seed in condition for use, have been the endeavours
+of many inventors during the last twenty years.
+These objects have been attained by a machine known
+as the <i>delinter</i>, one of the first practical forms of
+which appeared about 1883.</p>
+
+<p>In a bulletin published by the U.S. Department
+of Agriculture in 1895, entitled, “Production and
+Price of Cotton for One Hundred Years,” the period
+commences with the introduction of Whitney’s saw
+gin, and ends with the year mentioned and with the
+production in that year of the largest crop the world
+had ever seen. No other agricultural crop commands
+such universal attention. Millions of people are employed
+in its production and manufacture. How insignificant
+compared with the wonder wrought by this
+one machine seems indeed any of the old seven wonders
+of the world! Although the displacement of labour
+occasioned by the introduction of the cotton-gin
+was not severely felt, as it was slave labour, yet that
+invention affords a good illustration of the fact that
+labour-saving machines increase the supply of the
+article, the increased supply lowers its price, the
+lower price increases the demand, the increased demand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_44" id="PAGE_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>gives rise to more machines and develops
+other inventions and arts, all of which results in the
+employment of ten thousand people to every one
+thousand at work on the product originally.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_45" id="PAGE_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (<i>continued</i>).</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>When the harvest is ended and the golden stores
+of grains and fruits are gathered, then the question
+arises what shall be next done to prepare them for
+food and for shipment to the distant consumer.</p>
+
+<p>If the cleaning of the grain and separating it
+from the chaff and dirt are not had in the threshing
+process, separate machines are employed for
+fanning and screening.</p>
+
+<p>It was only during the 18th century that fanning
+mills were introduced; and it is related by Sir Walter
+Scott in one of his novels that some of his countrymen
+considered it their religious duty to wait for
+a natural wind to separate the chaff from the wheat;
+that they were greatly shocked by an invention which
+would raise a whirlwind in calm weather, and that
+they looked upon the use of such a machine as rebellion
+against God.</p>
+
+<p>As to the grinding of the grain, the rudimentary
+means still exist, and are still used by rudimentary
+peoples, and to meet exceptional necessities; these
+are the primeval hollowed stone and mortar and
+pestle, and they too were “the mills of the Gods”
+in Egyptian, Hebrew and Early Greek days: the
+<i>quern</i>&mdash;that is, the upper running stone and the
+lower stationary grooved one&mdash;was a later Roman invention
+and can be found described only a century
+or two before the Christian era.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_46" id="PAGE_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Crude as these means were they were the chief
+ones used in milling until within a century and a
+quarter ago.</p>
+
+<p>In a very recent bright work published in London,
+by Richard Bennett and John Elton, on Corn Mills,
+etc., they say on this point: “The mill of the last
+century, that, by which, despite its imperfections,
+the production of flour rose from one of the smallest
+to one of the greatest and most valuable industries
+of the world, was essentially a structure of few parts,
+whether driven by water or wind, and its processes
+were exceedingly simple. The wheat was cleaned
+by a rude machine consisting of a couple of cylinders
+and screens, and an air blast passed through a pair
+of mill-stones, running very close together, in order
+that the greatest amount of flour might be produced
+at one grinding. The meal was then bolted, and the
+tailings, consisting of bran, middlings and adherent
+flour, again sifted and re-ground. It seems probable
+that the miller of the time had a fair notion of the
+high grade of flour ground from middlings, but no
+systematic method of procedure for its production
+was adopted.”</p>
+
+<p>The upper and the nether mill-stone is still a most
+useful device. The “dress,” which consists of the
+grooves which are formed in the meeting faces of
+the stones, has been changed in many ways to meet
+the requirements in producing flour in varying degrees
+of fineness. Machines have been invented to
+make such grooves. A Swiss machine for this purpose
+consists of two disks carrying diamonds in
+their peripheries, which, being put in rapid revolution,
+cut parallel grooves in the face of the stone.</p>
+
+<p>A great advance in milling was made both in
+America and Europe by the inventions of Oliver<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_47" id="PAGE_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+Evans. Evans was born in the State of Delaware,
+U.S., in 1755, and died in 1819. He was a poor
+boy and an apprentice to a wheelwright, and while
+thus engaged his inventive powers were developed.
+He had an idea of a land carriage propelled without
+animal power. At the age of 22 he invented a machine
+for making card teeth, which superseded the
+old method of making them by hand. Later he invented
+steam-engines and steam-boats, to which attention
+will hereafter be called. Entering into business
+with his brothers within the period extending
+from 1785 to 1800, he produced those inventions in
+milling which by the opening of the 19th century
+had revolutionised the art. A description of the
+most important of these inventions was published by
+him in 1795 in a book entitled <i>The Young Millwright
+and Miller’s Grist</i>. Patents were granted
+Evans by the States of Delaware, Maryland and
+Pennsylvania in 1787, and by the U.S. Government
+in 1790 and 1808.</p>
+
+<p>As these inventions formed the basis of the most
+important subsequent devices of the century, a brief
+statement of his system is proper:</p>
+
+<p>From the time the grain was emptied from the
+waggon to the final production of the finest flour at
+the close of the process, all manual labour was dispensed
+with. The grain was first emptied into a
+box hung on a scale beam where it was weighed, then
+run into an elevator which raised it to a chamber
+over cleaning machines through which it was passed,
+and reclaimed by the same means if desired; then it
+was run down into a chamber over the hoppers of the
+mill-stones; when ground it fell from the mill-stones
+into conveyors and as carried along subjected to the
+heated air of a kiln drier; then carried into a meal<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_48" id="PAGE_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+elevator to be raised and dropped on to a cooling
+floor where it was met by what is called a hopper boy,
+consisting of a central round upright shaft revolving
+on a pivot, and provided with horizontal arms and
+sweeps adapted to be raised and lowered and turned,
+by which means the meal was continually stirred
+around, lifted and turned on the floor and then gathered
+on to the bolting hoppers, the bolts being cylindrical
+sieves of varying degrees of fineness to separate
+the flour from its coarser impurities, and when
+not bolted sufficiently, carried by a conveyor called a
+drill to an elevator to be dumped again into the bolting
+hoppers and be re-bolted. When not sufficiently
+ground the same drill was used to carry the meal
+to the grind stones. It was the design of the process
+to keep the meal in constant motion from first to
+last so as to thoroughly dry and cool it, to heat it
+further in the meantime, and to run the machines
+so slowly as to prevent the rise and waste of the flour
+in the form of dust.</p>
+
+<p>The Evans system, with minor modifications and
+improvements, was the prevailing one for three-quarters
+of a century. New mills, when erected, were
+provided with this system, and many mills in their
+quiet retreats everywhere awoke from their drowsy
+methods and were equipped with the new one.</p>
+
+<p>But the whole system of milling has undergone
+another great change within the last thirty years:</p>
+
+<p>During that time it has been learned that the
+coarser portion or kernel of wheat which lies next to
+the skin of the berry and between the skin and
+the heart is the most valuable and nutritious part,
+as it consists largely of gluten, while the interior
+consists of starch, which when dry becomes a pearly
+powder. Under the old systems this coarser part,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_49" id="PAGE_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+known as middlings, was eliminated, and ground
+for feed for cattle, or into what was regarded as an
+inferior grade of flour from which to make coarse
+bread. It was customary, therefore, under the old
+method to set the grinding surfaces very close with
+keen sharp burrs, so that this coarser part was cut
+off and mixed with the small particles of bran, fine
+fuzz and other foreign substances, which was separated
+from the finer part of the kernel by the bolting.</p>
+
+<p>The new process consists of removing the outer
+skin and adherent impurities from the middlings,
+then separating the middlings from the central
+finer part and then regrinding the middlings into
+flour.</p>
+
+<p>This middlings flour being superior, as stated, to
+what was called straight grade, it became desirable
+to obtain as much middlings as possible, and to this
+end it was necessary to set the grinding surfaces further
+apart so as to grind <i>high</i>, hence the <i>high</i> milling
+process as distinguished from <i>low</i> milling. For the
+better performance of the high rolling process, roller
+mills were invented. It was found that the cracking
+process by which the kernel could be cracked and the
+gluten middlings separated from the starchy heart
+could best be had by the employment of rollers or cylinders
+in place of face stones, and at the same time
+the heating of the product, which injures it, be
+avoided.</p>
+
+<p>The rollers operate in sets, and successive crackings
+are obtained by passing and repassing, if necessary,
+the grain through these rollers, set at different
+distances apart. The operation on grains of different
+qualities, whether hard or soft, or containing
+more or less of the gluten middlings, or starchy parts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_50" id="PAGE_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+and their minute and graded separation, thus are obtained
+with the greatest nicety.</p>
+
+<p>The Hungarians, the Germans, the Austrians, the
+Swiss, the English and the Americans have all invented
+useful forms of these rollers.</p>
+
+<p>This process was accompanied by the invention of
+new forms of middlings separators and purifiers, in
+which upward drafts of air are made to pass up
+through flat, graded shaking bolts, in an enclosed
+case, by which the bran specks and fuzz are lifted
+and conveyed away from the shaken material. In
+some countries, such as the great wheat state of Minnesota,
+U.S., where the wheat had before been of inferior
+market value owing to the poorer grade of
+flour obtained by the old processes, that same wheat
+was made to produce the most superior flour under
+the new processes, thus increasing the yearly value
+of the crops by many millions of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Disastrous flour dust explosions in some of the
+great mills at Minneapolis, in 1877-78, developed
+the invention of dust collectors, by which the suspended
+particles of flour dust are withdrawn from the
+machinery and the mill, and the air is cleared for respiration
+and for the production of the finest flour,
+while the mill is kept closed and comfortable in cold
+seasons. One of the latest forms of such a collector
+has for its essential principle the vertical or rotatory
+air current, which it is claimed moves and precipitates
+the finest particles.</p>
+
+<p>The inventions in the class of mills have so multiplied
+in these latter days, that nearly every known
+article that needs to be cleaned and hulled, or ground,
+or cracked or pulverized, has its own specially designed
+machine. Wind and water as motive powers
+have been supplanted by steam and electricity. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_51" id="PAGE_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+would be impossible in one volume to describe this
+great variety. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary,
+gives a list under “Mills,” of more than a hundred
+distinct machines and processes relating to
+grinding, hulling, crushing, pulverising and mixing
+products.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Cutters.</i>&mdash;Modern ingenuity has not
+neglected those more humble devices which save the
+drudgery of hand work in the preparation of vegetables
+and roots for food for man and beasts, and for
+use especially when large quantities are to be prepared.
+Thus, we find machines armed with blades
+and worked by springs and a lever, for chopping,
+others for cutting stalks, other machines for paring
+and slicing, such as apple and potato parers and
+slicers, others for grating and pulping, others for
+seeding fruits, such as cherries and raisins, and an
+entire range of mechanisms, from those which handle
+delicately the tenderest pod and smallest seed, to the
+ponderous machines for cutting and crushing the
+cane in sugar making.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pressing and Baling.</i>&mdash;The want of pressing loose
+materials and packing bulky ones, like hay, wool,
+cotton, hops, etc, and other coarser products, into
+small, compact bales and bodies, to facilitate their
+transportation, was immediately felt on the great increase
+of such products in the century.</p>
+
+<p>From this arose pressing and baling machines of a
+great variety, until nearly every agricultural product
+that can be pressed, packed or baled has its special
+machine for that operation. Besides those above
+indicated relating to agricultural products, we have
+cane presses, cheese presses, butter presses, cigar and
+tobacco presses, cork presses, and flour packers, fruit
+and lard presses, peat presses, sugar presses and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_52" id="PAGE_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+others. Leading mechanical principles in presses
+are also indicated by name, as screw presses, toggle
+presses, beater press, revolving press, hydraulic
+press, rack and pinion press, and rolling pressure
+press and so on.</p>
+
+<p>There are the presses also that are used in compressing
+cotton. When it is remembered that cotton
+is raised in about twenty different countries,
+and that the cotton crop of the United States of
+1897-98 was 10,897,857 bales, of about 500 lbs.
+each; of India, (estimated) for the same period,
+2,844,000, of 400 lbs each; of China about 1,320,000,
+of 500 lbs each, and between two and three million
+bales in the other countries, it is interesting to
+consider how the world’s production of this enormous
+mass of elastic fibre, amounting to seventeen or eighteen
+million bales, of four and five hundred pounds
+each, is compressed and bound.</p>
+
+<p>The screw press was the earliest form of machine
+used, and then came the hydraulic press. Later it
+has been customary to press the cotton by screw
+presses or small hydraulic presses at the plantation,
+bind it with ropes or metal bands and then transport
+it to some central or seaboard station where an immense
+establishment exists, provided with a great
+steam-operated press, in which the bale from the
+country is placed and reduced to one-fourth or one-third
+its size, and while under pressure new metallic
+bands applied, when the bale is ready for shipment.
+This was a gain of a remarkable amount of room on
+shipboard and on cars, and solved a commercial
+problem. But now this process, and the commercial
+rectangular bale, seem destined to be supplanted by
+roller presses set up near the plantations themselves,
+into which the cotton is fed directly from the gin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_53" id="PAGE_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+rolled upon itself between the rollers and compressed
+into round bales of greater density than the square
+bale, thus saving a great amount of cost in dispensing
+with the steam and hydraulic plants, with
+great additional advantages in convenience of handling
+and cost of transportation.</p>
+
+<p>It is so arranged also that the cotton may be rolled
+into clean, uniform dense layers, so that the same
+may be unwound at the mill and directly applied to
+the machines for its manufacture into fabrics, without
+the usual tedious and expensive preliminary
+operations of combing and re-rolling.</p>
+
+<p>It has also remained for the developed machine of
+the century to convert hay into an export commodity
+to distant countries by the baling process. Bale
+ties themselves have received great attention from inventors,
+and the most successful have won fortunes
+for their owners.</p>
+
+<p>Most ingenious machines have been devised for
+picking cotton in the fields, but none have yet reached
+that stage of perfection sufficient to supplant the
+human fingers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruits and Foods.</i>&mdash;To prepare and transport
+fruits in their natural state to far distant points,
+while preserving them from decay for long times, is,
+in the large way demanded by the world’s great
+appetites, altogether a success of modern invention.</p>
+
+<p>To gather the fruit without bruising by mechanical
+pickers, and then to place the fruit, oranges for
+instance, in the hands of an intelligent machine
+which will automatically, but delicately and effectually,
+wrap the same in a paper covering, and discharge
+them without harm, are among the recent inventive
+wonders. In the United States alone 67<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_54" id="PAGE_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+patents had been granted up to 1895 for fruit wrapping
+machines.</p>
+
+<p>Inventions relating to drying and evaporating
+fruit, and having for their main object to preserve
+as much as possible the natural taste and colour of
+the fruit, have been numerous. Spreading the fruit
+in the air and letting the sun and air do the rest is
+now a crude process.</p>
+
+<p>These are the general types of drying and evaporating
+machines:</p>
+
+<p>First, those in which trays of fruit are placed
+upon stationary ledges within a heated chamber;
+second, those in which the trays are raised and lowered
+by mechanical means toward or farther from
+the source of heat as the drying progresses; third,
+those in which the fruit is placed in imperforate
+steam jacketed pans. Many improvements, of
+course, have been made in detail of form, in ventilation,
+the supplying and regulating of heat and the
+moving of trays.</p>
+
+<p>The hermetically sealed glass or earthenware fruit
+jar, the lids of which can be screwed or locked down
+upon a rubber band, after the jar is filled and the
+small remainder of air drawn out by a convenient
+steam heater, now used by the million, is an illustration
+of the many useful modern contrivances in
+this line.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sterilisation.</i>&mdash;In preserving, the desirability of
+preventing disease and keeping foods in a pure state
+has developed in the last quarter of a century many
+devices by which the food is subjected to a steam heat
+in chambers, and, by devices operated from the outside,
+the cans or bottles are opened and shut while
+still within the steam-filled chamber.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diastase.</i>&mdash;By heating starchy matters with substances
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_55" id="PAGE_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>containing diastase, a partial transformation
+is effected, which will materially shorten and aid its
+digestion, and this fact has been largely made use
+of in the preparation of soluble foods, especially
+those designed for infants and invalids, such as
+malted milk and lactated food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Milkers.</i>&mdash;Invention has not only been exercised in
+the preservation and transportation of milk, but in
+the task of milking itself. Since 1860 inventors
+have been seeking patents for milkers, some having
+tubes operated by air-pumps, others on the same
+principle in which the vacuum is made to increase
+and decrease or pulsate, and others for machines in
+which the tubes are mechanically contracted by
+pressure plates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Slaughtering.</i>&mdash;Great improvements have been
+made in the slaughtering of animals, by which a
+great amount of its repulsiveness and the unhealthfulness
+of its surroundings have been removed.
+These improvements relate to the construction of
+proper buildings and appliances for the handling of
+the animals, the means for slaughtering, and modes
+of taking care of the meat and transporting the same.
+Villages, towns, and even many cities, are now relieved
+of the formerly unsavoury slaughter-houses,
+and the work is done from great centres of supply,
+where meats in every shape are prepared for food
+and shipment.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible in a bulky volume, much
+less in a single chapter, to satisfactorily enumerate
+those thousands of inventions which, taking hold of
+the food products of the earth, have spread them as
+a feast before the tribes of men.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tobacco.</i>&mdash;Some of the best inventive genius of
+the century has been exercised in providing for man’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_56" id="PAGE_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+comfort, not a food, but what he believes to be a
+solace.</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Sublime Tobacco! which from East to West<br></span>
+<span class="line">Cheers the tar’s labour or the Turkman’s rest.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In the United States alone, in the year 1885, there
+were 752,520 acres of land devoted to the production
+of tobacco, the amount in pounds grown being
+562,736,000, and the value of which was estimated
+as $43,265,598. These amounts have been somewhat
+less in years since then, but the appetite continues,
+and any deficiency in the supply is made up
+by enormous importation. Thus, in 1896, there
+were imported into the United States, 32,924,966
+pounds of tobacco, of various kinds, valued at $16,503,130.
+There are no reliable statistics showing
+that, man for man, the people of that country are
+greater lovers of the weed than the people of other
+countries, but the annual value of tobacco raised and
+imported by them being thus about $60,000,000, it
+indicates the strength of the habit and the interest
+in the nurture of the plant throughout the world.
+Neither the “Counterblaste to Tobacco” of King
+James I., and the condemnations of kings, popes,
+priests and sultans, that followed its early introduction
+into Europe, served to choke the weed in its
+infancy or check its after growth. Now it is attended
+from the day of its planting until it reaches
+the lips of the consumer by contrivances of consummate
+skill to fit it for its destined purpose. Besides
+the ploughs, the cultivators and the weeders of
+especial forms used to cultivate the plant, there are,
+after the grown plant is cut in the field, houses of
+various designs for drying it, machines for rolling
+the leaves out smoothly in sheets; machines for removing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_57" id="PAGE_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>the stems from the leaves and for crushing
+the stem; machines for pressing it into shape, and
+for pressing it, whether solid or in granular form,
+into boxes, tubs and bags; machines for granulating
+it and for grinding it into snuff; machines for twisting
+it into cords; machines for flavouring the leaf
+with saccharine and other matters; machines for
+making cigars, and machines of a great variety and of
+the most ingenious construction for making cigarettes
+and putting them in packages.</p>
+
+<p>Samples of pipes made by different ages and by
+different peoples would form a collection of wonderful
+art and ingenuity, second only to an exhibition
+of the means and methods of making them.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_58" id="PAGE_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+CHEMISTRY.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Chemistry, having for its field the properties and
+changes of matter, has excited more or less attention
+ever since men had the power to observe, to
+think, and to experiment.</p>
+
+<p>Some knowledge of chemistry must have existed
+among the ancients to have enabled the Egyptians to
+smelt ores and work metals, to dye their cloths, to
+make glass, and to preserve their dead from decomposition;
+so, too, to this extent among the Ph&#339;nicians,
+the Israelites, the Greeks and the Romans;
+and perhaps to a greater extent among the Chinese,
+who added powder to the above named and other
+chemical products. Aristotle speculated, and the
+alchemists of the middle ages busied themselves in
+magic and guess-work. It reached the dignity of a
+science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+by the labours of such men, in the former century, as
+Libavius, Van Helmont, Glauber, Tachenius, Boyle,
+L&eacute;mery and Becher; Stahl, Boerhaave and Hamberg
+in both; and of Black, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Priestley
+and others in the eighteenth.</p>
+
+<p>But so great have been the discoveries and inventions
+in this science during the nineteenth century
+that any chemist of any previous age, if permitted to
+look forward upon them, would have felt</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Like some watcher of the skies<br></span>
+<span class="line">When a new planet swims into his ken.”<br></span>
+</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_59" id="PAGE_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Indeed, the chemistry of this century is a new
+world, of which all the previous discoveries in that
+line were but floating nebulæ.</p>
+
+<p>So vast and astonishingly fast has been the
+growth and development of this science that before
+the century was two-thirds through its course Watts
+published his <i>Dictionary of Chemistry</i> in five
+volumes, averaging a thousand closely printed pages,
+followed soon by a thousand-page supplement; and
+it would have required such a volume every year
+since to adequately report the progress of the science.
+Nomenclatures, formulas, apparatuses and processes
+have all changed. It was deemed necessary to publish
+works on <i>The New Chemistry</i>, and Professor
+J. P. Cooke is the author of an admirable volume under
+that title.</p>
+
+<p>We can, therefore, in this chapter only step from
+one to another of some of the peaks that rise above
+the vast surrounding country, and note some of the
+lesser objects as they appear in the vales below.</p>
+
+<p>The leading discoveries of the century which have
+done so much to aid Chemistry in its giant strides
+are the atomic and molecular theories, the mechanics
+of light, heat, and electricity, the correlation and
+conservation of forces, their invariable quantity, and
+their indestructibility, spectrum analysis and the laws
+of chemical changes.</p>
+
+<p>John Dalton, that humble child of English north-country
+Quaker stock, self-taught and a teacher all
+his life, in 1803 gave to the world his atomic theory
+of chemistry, whereby the existence of matter in ultimate
+atoms was removed from the region of the
+speculation of certain ancient philosophers, and established
+on a sure foundation.</p>
+
+<p>The question asked and answered by Dalton was,
+what is the relative weight of the atoms composing
+the elementary bodies?<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_60" id="PAGE_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He discovered that one chemical element or compound
+can combine with another chemical element,
+to form a new compound, in two different proportions
+by weight, which stand to each other in the
+simple ratio of one to two; and at the same time he
+published a table of the <i>Relative weight of the ultimate
+particles of Gaseous and other Bodies</i>. Although
+the details of this table have since been
+changed, the principles of his discovery remain unchanged.
+Says Professor Roscoe:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>“Chemistry could hardly be said to exist as a
+science before the establishment of the laws of combination
+in multiple proportions, and the subsequent
+progress of chemical science materially depended
+upon the determination of these combined proportions
+or atomic weights of the elements first set up
+by Dalton. So that among the founders of our science,
+next to the name of the great French Philosopher,
+Lavoisier, will stand in future ages the name of
+John Dalton, of Manchester.”</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Less conspicuous but still eminently useful were
+his discoveries and labours in other directions, in the
+expansion of gases, evaporation, steam, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Wollaston and Gay-Lussac, both great chemists,
+applied Dalton’s discovery to wide and most important
+fields in the chemical arts.</p>
+
+<p>Also contemporaneous with Dalton was the great
+German chemist, Berzelius, who confirmed and extended
+the discoveries of Dalton. More than this,
+it has been said of Berzelius:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>“In him were united all the different impulses
+which have advanced the science since the beginning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_61" id="PAGE_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>of the present epoch. The fruit of his labors is
+scattered throughout the entire domain of the science.
+Hardly a substance exists to the knowledge of which
+he has not in some way contributed. A direct descendant
+of the school of his countryman, Bergman,
+he was especially renowned as an analyst. No chemist
+has determined by direct experiment the composition
+of a greater number of substances. No one has
+exerted a greater influence in extending the field of
+analytical chemistry.”</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<p>As to light, the great Huygens, the astronomer
+and mathematician, the improver of differential calculus
+and of telescopes, the inventor of the pendulum
+clock, chronometers, and the balance wheel to the
+watch, and discoverer of the laws of the double refraction
+of light and of polarisation, had in the 17th
+century clearly advanced the idea that light was propagated
+from luminous bodies, not as a stream of particles
+through the air but in waves or vibrations of
+ether, which is a universal medium extending
+through all space and into all bodies. This fundamental
+principle now enters into the explanation of
+all the phenomena of light.</p>
+
+<p>Newton in the next century, with the prism, decomposed
+light, and in a darkened chamber reproduced
+all the colours and tints of the rainbow. But
+there were dark lines in that beam of broken sunlight
+which Newton did not notice.</p>
+
+<p>It was left to Joseph von Fraunhofer, a German
+optician, and to the 19th century, and nearly one
+hundred years after Newton’s experiments with the
+prism, to discover, with finer prisms that he had
+made, some 590 of these black lines crossing the solar
+spectrum. What they were he did not know, but conjectured
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_62" id="PAGE_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>that they were caused by something which
+existed in the sun and stars and not in our air. But
+from that time they were called Fraunhofer’s dark
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>From the vantage ground of these developments
+we are now enabled to step to that mountain peak of
+discovery from which the sun and stars were looked
+into, their elements portrayed, their very motions
+determined, and their brotherhood with the earth,
+in substance, ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>The great discovery of the cause of Fraunhofer’s
+dark bands in the broken sunlight was made by Gustave
+Robert Kirchoff, a German physician, in his
+laboratory in Heidelberg, in 1860, in conjunction
+with his fellow worker, Robert Bunsen.</p>
+
+<p>Kirchoff happened to let a solar ray pass through
+a flame coloured with sodium, and through a prism,
+so that the spectrum of the sun and the flame fell one
+upon another. It was expected that the well known
+yellow line of sodium would come out in the solar
+spectrum, but it was just the opposite that took
+place. Where the bright yellow line should have
+fallen appeared a dark line.</p>
+
+<p>With this observation was coupled the reflection
+that heat passes from a body of a higher temperature
+to one of a lower, and not inversely. Experiments
+followed: iron, sodium, copper, etc., were
+heated to incandescence and their colours prismatically
+separated. These were transversed with the
+same colours of other heated bodies, and the latter
+were absorbed and rendered black. Kirchoff then
+announced his law that all bodies absorb chiefly
+those colours which they themselves emit. Therefore
+these vapours of the sun which were rendered in
+black lines were so produced by crossing terrestrial
+vapors of the same nature.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_63" id="PAGE_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus by the prism and the blowpipe were the same
+substances found in the sun, the stars, and the earth.
+The elements of every substance submitted to the
+process were analysed, and many secrets in the universe
+of matter were revealed.</p>
+
+<p>Young, of America, invented a splendid combination
+of spectroscope and telescope, and Huggins of
+England was the first to establish by spectrum analysis
+the approach and retreat of the stars.</p>
+
+<p>It was prior to this time that those wonderful
+discoveries and labours were made which developed
+the true nature of heat, which demonstrated the kinship
+and correlation of the forces of Nature, their
+conservation, or property of being converted one into
+another, and the indestructibility of matter, of which
+force is but another name.</p>
+
+<p>The first demonstrations as to the nature of heat
+were given by the American Count Rumford, and
+then by Sir Humphry Davy, just at the close of the
+18th century, and then followed in this the brilliant
+labours and discoveries of Mayer and Helmholtz of
+Germany, Colding of Denmark, and Joule, Grove,
+Faraday, Sir William Thomson of England, of
+Henry, Le Conte and Martin of America, as to the
+correlation and convertibility of all the forces.</p>
+
+<p>The French revolution, and the Napoleonic wars,
+isolating France and exhausting its resources, its
+chemists were appealed to devote their genius and
+researches to practical things; to the munitions of
+war, the rejuvenation of the soil, the growing of
+new crops, like the sugar beet, and new manufacturing
+products.</p>
+
+<p>Lavoisier had laid deep and broad in France the
+foundations of chemistry, and given the science nomenclature
+that lasted a century. So that the suc<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_64" id="PAGE_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>ceeding
+great teachers, Berthollet, Guyton, Fourcroy
+and their associates, and the institutions of instruction
+in the sciences fostered by them, and inspired
+in that direction by Napoleon, bent their energies
+in material directions, and a tremendous impulse
+was thus given to the practical application of
+chemistry to the arts and manufactures of the century.</p>
+
+<p>The same spirit, to a less extent, however, manifested
+itself in England, and as early as 1802 we
+find Sir Humphry Davy beginning his celebrated
+lectures on the <i>Elements of Agricultural Chemistry</i>
+before a board of agriculture, a work that has
+passed through many editions in almost every
+modern language.</p>
+
+<p>When the fact is recalled that agricultural chemistry
+embraces the entire natural science of vegetable
+and animal production, and includes, besides,
+much of physics, meteorology and geology, the extent
+and importance of the subject may be appreciated;
+and yet such appreciation was not manifested in a
+practical manner until the 19th century. It was only
+toward the end of the 18th century that the vague and
+ancient notions that air, water, oil and salt formed
+the nutrition of plants, began to be modified. Davy
+recognized and explained the beneficial fertilizing
+effects of ammonia, and analysed and explained numerous
+fertilizers, including guano. It is due to
+his discoveries and publications, combined with those
+of the eminent men on the continent, above referred
+to, that agricultural chemistry arose to the dignity
+of a science. The most brilliant, eloquent and devoted
+apostle of that science who followed Davy was
+Justus von Liebig of Germany, who was born in
+Darmstadt in 1803, the year after Davy commenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_65" id="PAGE_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+his lectures in England. It was in response to the
+British Association for the Advancement of Science
+that he gave to the world his great publications on
+<i>Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, Commerce,
+Physiology, and Pathology</i>, from which great
+practical good resulted the world over. One of his
+favorite subjects was that of fermentation, and this
+calls up the exceedingly interesting discoveries in
+the nature of alcohol, yeast, mould&mdash;aging malt,
+wines and beer&mdash;and their accompanying beneficial
+results.</p>
+
+<p>In one of Huxley’s charming lectures&mdash;such as he
+delighted to give before a popular audience&mdash;delivered
+in 1871, at Manchester, on the subject of
+“Yeast,” he tells how any liquid containing sugar,
+such as a mixture of honey and water, if left to itself
+undergoes the peculiar change we know as fermentation,
+and in the process the scum, or thicker
+muddy part that forms on top, becomes yeast, carbonic
+acid gas escapes in bubbles from the liquid,
+and the liquid itself becomes spirits of wine or alcohol.
+“Alcohol” was a term used until the 17th
+century to designate a very fine subtle powder, and
+then became the name of the subtle spirit arising
+from fermentation. It was Leeuwenhoek of Holland
+who, two hundred years ago, by the use of a
+fine microscope he invented, first discovered that
+the muddy scum was a substance made up of an
+enormous multitude of very minute grains floating
+separately, and in lumps and in heaps, in the liquid.
+Then, in the next century the Frenchman, Cagniard
+de la Tour, discovered that these bodies grew to a
+certain size and then budded, and from the buds the
+plant multiplied; and thus that this yeast was a mass
+of living plants, which received in science the name<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_66" id="PAGE_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+of “torula,” that the yeast plant was a kind of fungus
+or mould, growing and multiplying. Then came
+Fabroni, the French chemist, at the end of the 18th
+century, who discovered that the yeast plant was of
+bag-like form, or a cell of woody matter, and that
+the cell contained a substance composed of carbon,
+hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. This was a vegeto-animal
+substance, having peculiarities of “animal
+products.”</p>
+
+<p>Then came the great chemists of the 19th century,
+with their delicate methods of analysis, and decided
+that this plant in its chief part was identical with
+that element which forms the chief part of our own
+blood. That it was protein, a substance which forms
+the foundation of every animal organism. All
+agreed that it was the yeast plant that fermented or
+broke up the sugar element, and produced the alcohol.
+Helmholtz demonstrated that it was the minute
+particles of the solid part of the plant that produced
+the fermentation, and that such particles must be
+growing or alive, to produce it. From whence
+sprang this wonderful plant&mdash;part vegetable, part
+animal? By a long series of experiments it was
+found that if substances which could be fermented
+were kept entirely closed to the outer air, no plant
+would form and no fermentation take place. It was
+concluded then, and so ascertained, that the torulae
+in the plant proceeded from the torulae in the atmosphere,
+from “gay motes that people the sunbeams.”
+Concerning just how the torulae broke up
+or fermented the sugar, great chemists have differed.</p>
+
+<p>After the discovery that the yeast was a plant
+having cells formed of the pure matter of wood, and
+containing a semi-fluid mass identical with the composition
+which constitutes the flesh of animals, came<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_67" id="PAGE_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+the further discovery that all plants, high and low,
+are made up of the same kind of cells, and their contents.
+Then this remarkable result came out, that
+however much a plant may otherwise differ from an
+animal, yet, in essential constituents the cellular constructure
+of animal and plant is the same. To this
+substance of energy and life, common in the minute
+plant cell and the animal cell, the German botanist,
+Hugo von Mohl, about fifty years ago gave the name
+“protoplasm.” Then came this astounding conclusion,
+that this <i>protoplasm</i> being common to both
+plant and animal life, the essential difference consisted
+only in the manner in which the cells are built
+up and are modified in the building.</p>
+
+<p>And from that part of these great discoveries
+which revealed the fact that the sugary element was
+infected, as it were, from the germs of the air, producing
+fermentation and its results, arose that remarkable
+theory of many diseases known as the
+“germ theory.” And, as it was found in the yeast
+plant that only the solid part or particle of the plant
+germinated fermentation and reaction, so, too, it has
+been found by the germ theory that only the solid
+particle of the contagious matter can germinate or
+grow the disease.</p>
+
+<p>In this unfolding of the wonders of chemistry in
+the nineteenth century, the old empirical walls between
+forces and organisms, and organic and inorganic
+chemistry, are breaking down, and celestial
+and terrestrial bodies and vapours, living beings, and
+growing plants are discovered to be the evolution of
+one all-pervading essence and force. One is reminded
+of the lines of Tennyson:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Large elements in order brought<br></span>
+<span class="line">And tracts of calm from tempest made,<br></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_68" id="PAGE_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+<span class="line">And world fluctuation swayed<br></span>
+<span class="line">In vassal tides that followed thought.<br></span>
+<span class="line"><br></span>
+<span class="line">One God, one law, one element,<br></span>
+<span class="line">And one far-off divine event<br></span>
+<span class="line">To which the whole creation moves.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In the class of alcohol and in the field of yeast, the
+work of Pasteur, begun in France, has been followed
+by improvements in methods for selecting proper
+ferments and excluding improper ones, and in improved
+processes for aging and preserving alcoholic
+liquors by destroying deleterious ferments. Takamine,
+in using as ferment, koji, motu and moyashi,
+different forms of mould, and proposing to do entirely
+away with malt in the manufacture of beer
+and whiskey, has made a noteworthy departure.
+Manufacturing of malt by the pneumatic process,
+and stirring malt during germination, are among the
+improvements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbonating.</i>&mdash;The injecting of carbonic acid gas
+into various waters to render them wholesome, and
+also into beers and wines during fermentation, and to
+save delay and prevent impurities, are decided improvements.</p>
+
+<p>The immense improvements and discoveries in the
+character of soils and fertilisers have already been
+alluded to. Hundreds of instruments have been invented
+for measuring, analysing, weighing, separating,
+volatilising and otherwise applying chemical
+processes to practical purposes.</p>
+
+<p>To the chemistry of the century the world is indebted
+for those devices and processes for the utilisation
+and manufacture of many useful products from
+the liquids and oils, sugar from cane and beets,
+revivifying bone-black, centrifugal machinery for
+refining sugar, in defecating it by chemicals and heat,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_69" id="PAGE_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+in evaporating it in pans, in separating starch and
+converting it into glucose, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oils and Fats.</i>&mdash;Up to within this century the vast
+amount of cotton seed produced with that crop was
+a waste. Then by the process, first of steaming the
+seed and expressing the oil, now by the process of
+extraction by the aid of volatile solvents, and casting
+off the solvents by distillation, an immensely valuable
+product has been obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The utilising of oils in the manufacture of oilcloth
+and linoleum and rubber, has become of great
+commercial value. Formerly sulphur was the vulcanising
+agent, now chloride of sulphur has been substituted
+for pure sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>Steam and the distillation processes have been applied
+with great success to the making of glycerine
+from fat and from soap underlye and in extracting
+fat from various waste products.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bleaching and Dyeing.</i>&mdash;Of course these arts are
+very old, but the old methods would not be recognised
+in the modern processes; and those who lived
+before the century knew nothing of the magnificent
+colours, and certain essences, and sweet savours that
+can be obtained from the black, hand-soiling pieces
+of coal. In the making of illuminating gas, itself a
+finished chemical product of the century, a vast
+amount of once wasted products, especially coal
+tar, are now extensively used; and from coal tar and
+the residuum of petroleum oils, now come those
+splendid aniline dyes which have produced such a
+revolution in the world of colours. The saturation
+of sand by a dye and its application to fabrics by
+an air blast; the circulation of the fluid colors, or of
+fluids for bleaching or drying, or oxidising, through
+perforated cylinders or cops on which the cloths are<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_70" id="PAGE_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+wound; devices for the running of skeins through
+dyes, the great improvements in carbon dyes and
+kindred colours, the processes of making the colours
+on the fibre, and the perfumes made by the synthetic
+processes, are among the inventions in this field.</p>
+
+<p>The space that a list of the new chemical products
+of this age and their description would fill, has already
+been indicated by reference to the great dictionary
+of Watts. Some of the electro-chemical
+products will be hereinafter referred to in the Chapter
+on Electricity, and the chemistry of Metallurgy
+will be treated under the latter topic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electro-chemical Methods.</i>&mdash;Space will only permit
+it to be said that these methods are now employed
+in the production of a large number of elements, by
+means of which very many of them which were before
+mere laboratory specimens, have now become
+cheap and useful servants of mankind in a hundred
+different ways; such as aluminium, that light and
+non-corrosive metal, reduced from many dollars an
+ounce a generation ago, to 30 and 40 cents a pound
+now; carborundum, largely superseding emery and
+diamond dust as an abradant; artificial diamonds;
+calcium carbide, from which the new illuminating
+acetylene gas is made; disinfectants of many kinds;
+pigments, chromium, manganese, and chlorates by
+the thousand tons. The most useful new chemical
+processes are those used in purifying water sewage
+and milk, in electroplating metals and other substances,
+in the application of chemicals to the fine
+arts, in extracting grease from wool, and the making
+of many useful products from the waste materials of
+the dumps and garbage banks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medicines and Surgery.</i>&mdash;One hundred years ago,
+the practice of medicine was, in the main, empirical.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_71" id="PAGE_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+Certain effects were known to usually follow the giving
+of certain drugs, or the application of certain
+measures, but why or how these effects were produced,
+was unknown. The great steps forward have
+been made upon the true scientific foundation established
+by the discoveries and inventions in the fields
+of physics, chemistry and biology. The discovery of
+anaesthetics and their application in surgery and the
+practice of medicine, no doubt constitutes the leading
+invention of the century in this field.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Humphry Davy suggested it in 1800, and Dr.
+W. T. Morton was the first to apply an anaesthetic to
+relieve pain in a surgical operation, which he did in
+a hospital in Boston in 1846. Both its original suggestion
+and application were also claimed by others.</p>
+
+<p>Not only relief from intense pain to the patient
+during the operation, but immense advantages
+are gained by the long and careful examination
+afforded of injured or diseased parts, otherwise difficult
+or impossible in a conscious patient.</p>
+
+<p>The exquisite pain and suffering endured previous
+to the use of anaesthetics often caused death by
+exhaustion. Many delicate operations can now be
+performed for the relief of long-continued diseases
+which before would have been hazardous or impossible.
+How many before suffered unto death long-drawn-out
+pain and disease rather than submit to the
+torture of the knife! How many lives have been
+saved, and how far advanced has become the knowledge
+of the human body and its painful diseases, by
+this beneficent remedy!</p>
+
+<p>Inventions in the field of medicine consist chiefly
+in those innumerable compositions and compounds
+which have resulted from chemical discoveries. Gelatine
+capsules used to conceal unpalatable remedies<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_72" id="PAGE_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+may be mentioned as a most acceptable modern invention
+in this class. Inventions and discoveries in
+the field of surgery relate not only to instrumentalities
+but processes. The antiseptic treatment of
+wounds, by which the long and exhausting suppuration
+is avoided, is among the most notable of the latter.
+In instruments vast improvements have been
+made; special forms adapted for operation in every
+form of injury; in syringes, especially hypodermic,
+those used for subcutaneous injections of liquid
+remedies; inhalers for applying medicated vapours
+and devices for applying volatile anaesthetics, and
+devices for atomising and spraying liquids. In the
+United States alone about four thousand patents have
+been granted for inventions in surgical instruments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dentistry.</i>&mdash;This art has been revolutionised during
+the century. Even in the time of Herodotus, one
+special set of physicians had the treatment of teeth;
+and artificial teeth have been known and used for
+many ages, but all seems crude and barbarous until
+these later days. In addition to the use of anaesthetics,
+improvements have been made in nearly
+every form of dental instruments, such as forceps,
+dental engines, pluggers, drills, hammers, etc., and in
+the means and materials for making teeth. Later
+leading inventions have reference to utilising the
+roots of destroyed teeth as supports on which to form
+bridges to which artificial teeth are secured, and to
+crowns for decayed teeth that still have a solid
+base.</p>
+
+<p>There exists no longer the dread of the dentist’s
+chair unless the patient has neglected too long the
+visit. Pain cannot be all avoided, but it is ameliorated;
+and the new results in workmanship in the
+saving and in the making of teeth are vast improvements
+over the former methods.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_73" id="PAGE_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="i30">“Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar<br></span>
+<span class="i30">Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car;<br></span>
+<span class="i30">Or in wide waving wings expanded bear<br></span>
+<span class="i30">The flying chariot through the field of air.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>Thus sang the poet prophet, the good Dr. Darwin
+of Lichfield, in the eighteenth century. Newcomen
+and Watt had not then demonstrated that steam
+was not unconquerable, but the hitching it to the
+slow barge and the rapid car was yet to come. It
+has come, and although the prophecy is yet to be
+rounded into fulfilment by the driving of the “flying
+chariot through the field of air,” that too is to come.</p>
+
+<p>The prophecy of the doctor poet was as suggestive
+of the practical means of carrying it into
+effect as were all the means proposed during the
+first seventeen centuries of the Christian Era for
+conquering steam and harnessing it as a useful servant
+to man.</p>
+
+<p>Toys, speculations, dreams, observations, startling
+experiments, these often constitute the framework
+on which is hung the title of Inventor; but the nineteenth
+century has demanded a better support for
+that proud title. He alone who first transforms his
+ideas into actual work and useful service in some
+field of man’s labor, or clearly teaches others to do
+so, is now recognised as the true inventor. Tested
+by this rule there was scarcely an inventor in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_74" id="PAGE_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+field of steam in all the long stretches of time preceding
+the seventeenth century. And if there were,
+they had no recording scribes to embalm their efforts
+in history.</p>
+
+<p>We shall never know how early man learned the
+wonderful power of the spirit that springs from
+heated water. It was doubtless from some sad experience
+in ignorantly attempting to put fetters on it.</p>
+
+<p>The history of steam as a motor generally commences
+with reference to that toy called the aeolipile,
+described by Hero of Alexandria in a treatise
+on pneumatics about two centuries before Christ,
+and which was the invention of either himself or
+Ctesibius, his teacher.</p>
+
+<p>This toy consisted of a globe pivoted on two supports,
+one of which was a communicating pipe leading
+into a heated cauldron of water beneath. The
+globe was provided with two escape pipes on diametrically
+opposite sides and bent so as to discharge in
+opposite directions. Steam admitted into the globe
+from the cauldron escaped through the side pipes, and
+its pressure on these pipes caused the globe to rotate.</p>
+
+<p>Hero thus demonstrated that water can be converted
+into steam and steam into work.</p>
+
+<p>Since that ancient day Hero’s apparatus has been
+frequently reinvented by men ignorant of the early
+effort, and the principle of the invention as well as
+substantially the same form have been put into many
+practical uses. Hero in his celebrated treatise
+described other devices, curious siphons and pumps.
+Many of them are supposed to have been used in the
+performance of some of the startling religious rites
+at the altars of the Greek priests.</p>
+
+<p>From Hero’s day the record drops down to the
+middle ages, and still it finds progress in this art<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_75" id="PAGE_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+confined to a few observations and speculations.
+William of Malmesbury in 1150 wrote something on
+the subject and called attention to some crude experiments
+he had heard of in Germany. Passing from
+the slumber of the middle ages, we are assured by
+some Spanish historians that one Blasco de Garay,
+in 1543, propelled a ship having paddle wheels by
+steam at Barcelona. But the publication was long
+after the alleged event, and is regarded as apocryphal.</p>
+
+<p>Observations became more acute in the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries, experiments more frequent,
+and publications more full and numerous.</p>
+
+<p>Cardan Ramelli and Leonardo da Vinci, learned
+Italians, and the accomplished Prof. Jacob Besson
+of Orleans, France, all did much by their writings
+to make known theoretically the wonderful powers
+of steam, and to suggest modes of its practical operation,
+in the latter part of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Giambattista della Porta, a gentleman of Naples,
+possessing high and varied accomplishments in all
+the sciences as they were known at that day, 1601,
+and who invented the magic-lantern and <i>camera
+obscura</i>, in a work called <i>Spiritalia</i>, described how
+steam pressure could be employed to raise a column
+of water, how a vacuum was produced by the condensation
+of steam in a closed vessel, and how the
+condensing vessel should be separated from the
+boiler. Revault in France showed in 1605 how a
+bombshell might be exploded by steam.</p>
+
+<p>Salomon de Caus, engineer and architect to Louis
+XIII, in 1615 described how water might be raised
+by the expansion of steam.</p>
+
+<p>In 1629 the Italian, Branco, published at Rome an
+account of the application of a steam jet upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_76" id="PAGE_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+vanes of a small wheel to run it, and told how in
+other ways Hero’s engine might be employed for
+useful purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The first English publication describing a way of
+applying steam appeared in 1630 in a patent granted
+to David Ramseye, for a mode of raising water thereby.
+This was followed by patents to Grant in 1632
+and to one Ford in 1640. During that century
+these crude machines were called “fire engines.”
+It seems to have been common in some parts of
+Europe during the seventeenth century to use a blast
+of steam to improve the draft of chimneys and of
+blast furnaces. This application of steam to smoke
+and smelting has been frequently revived by modern
+inventors with much flourish of originality.</p>
+
+<p>It is with a certain feeling of delight and relief,
+after a prolonged search through the centuries for
+some evidence of harnessing this mighty agent to
+man’s use, that we come to the efforts of the good
+Marquis of Worcester&mdash;Edward Somerset. He it was
+who in 1655 wrote of the <i>Inventions of the Sixteenth
+Century</i>. He afterwards amplified this title by calling
+his book <i>A Century of Names and Scantlings
+of such Inventions as at present I call to mind to
+have tried and perfected</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>There are about one hundred of these “Scantlings,”
+and his descriptions of them are very brief
+but interesting. Some, if revived now and put to
+use, would throw proposed flying machines into the
+background, as they involved perpetual motion.</p>
+
+<p>But to his honor be it said that he was the first
+steam-engine builder. A patent was issued to him in
+1663. It was about 1668 that he built and put in
+successful operation at Raglan Castle at Vauxhall,
+near London, a steam engine to force water upward.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_77" id="PAGE_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+He made separate boilers, which he worked alternately,
+and conveyed the steam from them to a vessel
+in which its pressure operated to force the water up.
+Unfortunately he did not leave a description of his
+inventions sufficiently full to enable later mechanics
+to make and use them. He strove in vain to get capital
+interested and a company formed to manufacture
+his engines. The age of fear and speculation as
+to steam ceased when the Marquis set his engine to
+pumping water, and from that time inventors went
+on to put the arm of steam to work.</p>
+
+<p>In 1683 Sir Samuel Morland commenced the construction
+of the Worcester engines for use and sale;
+Hautefeuille of France taught the use of gas,
+described how gas as well as steam engines might be
+constructed, and was the first to propose the use of
+the piston. The learned writings of the great Dutch
+scientist and inventor, Huygens, on heat and light
+steam and gas, also then came forth, and his assistant,
+the French physicist and doctor, Denis Papin,
+in 1690, proposed steam as a universal motive power,
+invented a steam engine having a piston and a safety
+valve, and even a crude paddle steamer, which it is
+said was tried in 1707 on the river Fulda. Then in
+1698 came Thomas Savery, who patented a steam
+engine that was used in draining mines.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century thus commenced with a
+practical knowledge of the power of steam and of
+means for controlling and working it.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed the combined invention of Newcomen,
+Cawley and Savery, in 1705, of the most successful
+pumping engine up to that time. In this
+engine a cylinder was employed for receiving the
+steam from a separate boiler. There was a piston in
+the cylinder driven up by the steam admitted below<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_78" id="PAGE_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+it, aided by a counterpoise at one end of an engine
+beam. The steam was then cut off from the boiler
+and condensed by the introduction beneath the piston
+of a jet of water, and the condensed steam and water
+drawn off by a pipe. Atmospheric pressure forced
+the piston down. The piston and pump rods were
+connected to the opposite ends of a working beam of
+a pumping engine, as in some modern engines.
+Gauge cocks to indicate the height of water, and a
+safety valve to regulate the pressure of steam, were
+employed. Then came the ingenious improvement
+of the boy Humphrey Potter, connecting the valve
+gear with the engine beam by cords, so as to do automatically
+what he was set to do by hand, and the improvement
+on that of the Beighton plug rod. Still
+further improved by others, the Newcomen engine
+came into use through out Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Jonathan Hulls patented in England in 1736 a
+marine steam engine, and in 1737 published a description
+of a Newcomen engine applied to his system
+for towing ships. William Henry, of Pennsylvania,
+tried a model steamboat on the Conestoga
+river in 1763.</p>
+
+<p>This was practically the state of the art, in 1763,
+when James Watt entered the field. His brilliant
+inventions harnessed steam to more than pumping
+engines, made it a universal servant in manifold
+industries, and started it on a career which has revolutionized
+the trade and manufactures of the world.</p>
+
+<p>To understand what the nineteenth century has
+done in steam motive power we must first know what
+Watt did in the eighteenth century, as he then laid
+the foundation on which the later inventions have
+all been built.</p>
+
+<p>Taking up the crude but successful working en<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_79" id="PAGE_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>gine
+of Newcomen, a model of which had been sent
+to him for repairs, he began an exhaustive study of
+the properties of steam and of the means for producing
+and controlling it. He found it necessary to
+devise a new system.</p>
+
+<p>Watt saw that the alternate heating and cooling of
+the cylinder made the engine work slowly and caused
+an excessive consumption of steam. He concluded
+that “the cylinder should always be as hot as the
+steam that entered it.” He therefore closed the
+cylinder and provided a separate condensing vessel
+into which the steam was led after it raised the
+piston. He provided an air-tight jacket for the cylinder,
+to maintain its heat. He added a tight packing
+in the cylinder-head for the piston-rod to move
+through, and a steam-tight stuffing-box on the top of
+the cylinder. He caused the steam to alternately enter
+below and above the piston and be alternately condensed
+to drive the piston down as well as up, and
+this made the engine double-acting, increasing its
+power and speed. He converted the reciprocating
+motion of the piston into a rotary motion by the
+adoption of the crank, and introduced the well-known
+parallel motion, and many other improvements. In
+short, he demonstrated for the first time by a practical
+and efficient engine that the expansive force of
+steam could be used to drive all ordinary machinery.
+He then secured his inventions by patents against
+piracy, and sustained them successfully in many a
+hard-fought battle. It had taken him the last
+quarter of the 18th century to do all these things.</p>
+
+<p>Watt was the proper precursor of the nineteenth
+century inventions, as in him were combined the
+power and attainments of a great scientist and the
+genius of a great mechanic. The last eighteen years<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_80" id="PAGE_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+of his life were passed in the 19th century, and he was
+thus enabled to see his inventions brought within its
+threshold and applied to those arts which have made
+this age so glorious in mechanical achievements.</p>
+
+<p>Watt so fitly represents the class of modern great
+inventors in his character and attainments that the
+description of him by Sir Walter Scott is here pertinent
+as a tribute to that class, and as a delineation
+of the general character of those benefactors of his
+race of which he was so conspicuous an example:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Says Sir Walter:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>“Amidst this company stood Mr. Watt, the man
+whose genius discovered the means of multiplying
+our national resources to a degree, perhaps, even beyond
+his own stupendous powers of calculation and
+combination; bringing the treasures of the abyss to
+the summit of the earth&mdash;giving to the feeble arm of
+man the momentum of an Afrite&mdash;commanding manufactures
+to rise&mdash;affording means of dispensing with
+that time and tide which wait for no man&mdash;and of
+sailing without that wind which defied the commands
+and threats of Xerxes himself. This potent commander
+of the elements&mdash;this abridger of time and
+space&mdash;this magician, whose cloudy machinery has
+produced a change in the world, the effects of which,
+extraordinary as they are, are perhaps only beginning
+to be felt&mdash;was not only the most profound man
+of science, the most successful combiner of powers
+and calculator of numbers, as adapted to practical
+purposes, was not only one of the most generally well-informed,
+but one of the best and kindest of human
+beings.”</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The first practical application of steam as a work<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_81" id="PAGE_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>ing
+force was to pumping, as has been stated. After
+Watt’s system was devised, suggestions and experiments
+as to road locomotives and carriages were
+made, and other applications came thick and fast. A
+French officer, Cugnot, in 1769 and 1770, was the
+first to try the road carriage engine. Other prominent
+Frenchmen made encouraging experiments on
+small steamboats&mdash;followed in 1784-86 by James
+Rumsey and John Fitch in America in the same line.
+Watt patented a road engine in 1784. About the
+same time his assistant, Murdock, completed and
+tried a model locomotive driven by a “grasshopper”
+engine. Oliver Evans, the great American contemporary
+of Watt, had in 1779 devised a high-pressure
+non-condensing steam engine in a form still used.
+In 1786-7 he obtained in Pennsylvania and Maryland
+patents for applying steam to driving flour mills
+and propelling waggons. Also about this time, Symington,
+the Scotchman, constructed a working model
+of a steam carriage, which is still preserved in the
+museum at South Kensington, London. Symington
+and his fellow Scotchmen, Miller and Taylor, in
+1788-89 also constructed working steamboats. In
+1796 Richard Trevithick, a Cornish marine captain,
+was producing a road locomotive. The century thus
+opened with activity in steam motive power. The
+“scantlings” of the Marquis of Worcester were now
+being converted into complete structures. And so
+great was the activity and the number of inventors
+that he is a daring man who would now decide priority
+between them. The earliest applications in
+this century of steam power were in the line of road
+engines.</p>
+
+<p>On Christmas eve of 1801, Trevithick made the
+initial trip with the first successful steam road loco<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_82" id="PAGE_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>motive
+through the streets of Camborne in Cornwall,
+carrying passengers. In one of his trips he passed
+into the country roads and came to a tollgate through
+which a frightened keeper hastily passed him without
+toll, hailing him as the devil.</p>
+
+<p>Persistent efforts continued to be made to introduce
+a practical steam road carriage in England until
+1827. After Trevithick followed Blenkinsop, who
+made a locomotive which ran ten miles an hour.
+Then came Julius Griffith, in 1821, of Brompton,
+who patented a steam carriage which was built by
+Joseph Bramah, one of the ablest mechanics of his
+time. Gordon, Brunton and Gurney attempted a
+curious and amusing steam carriage, resembling a
+horse in action&mdash;having jointed legs and feet, but
+this animal was not successful. Walter Hancock, in
+1827, was one of the most persistent and successful
+inventors in this line; but bad roads and an unsympathetic
+public discouraged inventors in their efforts
+to introduce steam road carriages, and their
+attention was turned to the locomotive to run on
+rails or tracks especially prepared for them. Wooden
+and iron rails had been introduced a century
+before for heavy cars and wagons in pulling loads
+from mines and elsewhere, but when at the beginning
+of the century it had been found that the
+engines of Watt could be used to drag such loads, it
+was deemed necessary to make a rail having its top
+surface roughened with ridges and the wheels of the
+engine and cars provided with teeth or cogs to prevent
+anticipated slipping.</p>
+
+<p>In England, Blackett and George Stephenson discovered
+that the adhesion of smooth wheels to smooth
+rails was sufficient. Without overlooking the fact
+that William Hendley built and operated a locomotive<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_83" id="PAGE_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+called the <i>Puffing Billy</i> in 1803, and Hackworth
+one a little later, yet to the genius of Stephenson
+is due chiefly the successful introduction of
+the modern locomotive. His labours and inventions
+continued from 1812 for twenty years, and culminated
+at two great trials: the first one on the
+Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829, when he
+competed with Hackworth and Braithwaite and
+Ericsson, and with the <i>Rocket</i> won the race; and
+the second at the opening of the same road in 1830,
+when with the <i>Northumbrian</i>, at the head of seven
+other locomotives and a long train of twenty-eight
+carriages, in which were seated six hundred passengers,
+he ran the train successfully between the two
+towns.</p>
+
+<p>On this occasion Mr. Huskisson, Home Secretary
+in the British Cabinet, while the cars were stopping
+to water the engines, and he was out on the track
+talking with the Duke of Wellington, was knocked
+down by one of the engines and had one of his legs
+crushed. Placed on board of the <i>Northumbrian</i>, it
+was driven at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour by
+Stephenson to Eccles. Mr. Huskisson died there
+that night. This was its first victim, and the greatest
+speed yet attained by a locomotive.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1829 therefore can be regarded as the
+commencement of the life of the locomotive for transportation
+of passengers. The steam blast thrown into
+the smokestack by Hackworth, the tubular boiler of
+Seguin and the link motion of Stephenson were then,
+as they now are, the essential features of locomotives.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime America had not been idle. The
+James Watt of America, Oliver Evans, in 1804 completed
+a flat-bottomed boat to be used in dredging
+at the Philadelphia docks, and mounting it on wheels<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_84" id="PAGE_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+drove it by its own steam engine through the streets
+to the river bank. Launching the craft, he propelled
+it down the river by using the same engine to drive
+the paddle wheels. He gave to this engine the
+strange name of <i>Oruktor Amphibolos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>John C. Stevens of New Jersey was, in 1812, urging
+the legislature of the State of New York to build
+railways, and asserting that he could see nothing to
+hinder a steam carriage from moving with a velocity
+of one hundred miles an hour. In 1829 George
+Stephenson in England had made for American
+parties a locomotive called <i>The Stourbridge Lion</i>,
+which in that year was brought to America and used
+on the Delaware and Hudson R. R. by Horatio
+Allen. Peter Cooper in the same year constructed
+a locomotive for short curves, for the Baltimore
+and Ohio Railroad.</p>
+
+<p>Returning now to steam navigation:&mdash;Symington
+again entered the field in 1801-2 and constructed
+for Lord Dundas a steamboat, named after his wife,
+the <i>Charlotte Dundas</i>, for towing on a canal, which
+was successfully operated.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Fulton, an American artist, and subsequently
+a civil engineer, built a steamboat on the
+Seine in 1803, assisted by R. Livingston, then American
+Minister to France. Then in 1806 Fulton, having
+returned to the United States, commenced to
+build another steamboat, in which he was again assisted
+by Livingston, and in which he placed machinery
+made by Boulton and Watt in England.
+This steamboat, named the <i>Clermont</i>, was 130 ft.
+long, 18 ft. beam, 7 ft. depth and 160 tons burden.
+It made its first trip on the Hudson, from New York
+to Albany and return, in August, 1807, and subsequently
+made regular trips. It was the first com<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_85" id="PAGE_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>mercially
+successful steamboat ever made, as George
+Stephenson’s was the first commercially successful
+locomotive. In the meantime Col. John Stevens of
+New Jersey was also at work on a steamboat, and had
+in 1804 built such a boat at his shops, having a screw
+propeller and a flue boiler. Almost simultaneously
+with Fulton he brought out the <i>Ph&#339;nix</i>, a side-wheel
+steamer having hollow water lines and provided with
+feathering paddle wheels, and as Fulton and Livingston
+had a monopoly of the Hudson, Stevens took his
+boat by sea from New York around to Delaware bay
+and up the Delaware river. This was in 1808, and
+was the first sea voyage ever made by a steam vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Transatlantic steamship navigation was started
+in 1819. A Mr. Scarborough of Savannah, Ga., in
+1818 purchased a ship of about three hundred and
+fifty tons burden, which was named the <i>Savannah</i>.
+Equipped with engine and machinery it steamed out
+of New York Harbour on the 27th day of March,
+1819, and successfully reached Savannah, Georgia.
+On the 20th of May in the same year she left Savannah
+for Liverpool, making the trip in 22 days.
+From Liverpool she went to Copenhagen, Stockholm,
+St. Petersburg, Cronstadt and Arundel, and from
+the latter port returned to Savannah, making the
+passage in twenty-five days.</p>
+
+<p>But Scottish waters, and the waters around other
+coasts of the British Islands, had been traversed by
+steamboats before this celebrated trip of the <i>Savannah</i>.
+Bell’s steamboat between Glasgow and Greenock
+in 1812 was followed by five others in 1814;
+and seven steamboats plied on the Thames in 1817.</p>
+
+<p>So the locomotives and the steamboats and steamships
+continued to multiply, and when the first forty
+years of the century had been reached the Iron Horse<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_86" id="PAGE_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+was fairly installed on the fields of Europe and
+America, and the rivers and the oceans were
+ploughed by its sisters, the steam vessels.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1840 that the famous Cunard line of
+transatlantic steamers was established, soon followed
+by the Collins line and others.</p>
+
+<p>A few years before, John C. Stevens in America
+and John Ericsson in England had brought forward
+the screw propeller; and Ericsson was the first to
+couple the engine to the propeller shaft. It succeeded
+the successful paddle wheels of Fulton in
+America and Bell in England.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century is the age of kinetic
+energy: the energy of either solid, liquid, gaseous
+or electrical matter transformed into useful work.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated by that eminent specialist in
+steam engineering, Prof. R. H. Thurston, that “the
+steam engine is a machine which is especially designed
+to transform energy originally dormant or
+potential into active and useful available kinetic
+energy;” and that the great problem in this branch
+of science is “to construct a machine which shall
+in the most perfect manner possible convert the kinetic
+energy of heat into mechanical power, the heat
+being derived from the combustion of fuel, and steam
+being the receiver and conveyor of that heat.”</p>
+
+<p>Watt and his contemporaries regarded heat as a
+material substance called “Phlogiston.” The modern
+kinetic theory of heat was a subsequent discovery,
+as elsewhere explained.</p>
+
+<p>The inventors of the last part of the eighteenth
+century and of the nineteenth century have directed
+their best labours to construct an engine as above
+defined by Thurston.</p>
+
+<p>First as to the boiler: Efforts were made first to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_87" id="PAGE_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+get away from the little old spherical boiler of Hero.
+In the 18th century Smeaton devised the horizontal
+lengthened cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue.
+Oliver Evans followed with two longitudinal flues.
+Nathan Read of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1791, invented
+a tubular boiler in which the flues and gases
+are conducted through tubes passing through the
+boiler into the smokestack. Such boilers are adapted
+for portable stationary engines, locomotives, fire
+and marine engines, and the fire is built within the
+boiler frame. Then in the 19th century came the use
+of sectional boilers&mdash;a combination of small vessels
+instead of a large common one, increasing the strength
+while diminishing capacity&mdash;to obtain high pressure
+of steam. Then came improved weighted and other
+safety valves to regulate and control this pressure.
+The compound or double cylinder high-pressure engine
+of Hornblower of England, in 1781, and the high-pressure
+non-condensing steam engine devised by
+Evans in 1779, were reconstructed and improved in
+the early part of the century.</p>
+
+<p>To give perfect motion and the slightest friction
+to the piston; to regulate the supply of steam to the
+engine by proper valves; to determine such supply by
+many varieties of governors and thus control the
+speed; to devise valve gear which distributes the
+steam through its cycles of motion by which to admit
+the steam alternately to each end of the steam
+cylinder as the piston moves backward and forward,
+and exhaust valves to open and close the parts
+through which the steam escapes; to automatically
+operate such valves; to condense the escaping steam
+and to remove the water of condensation; to devise
+powerful steam brakes&mdash;these are some of the important
+details on which inventors have exercised<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_88" id="PAGE_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+their keenest wits. Then again the extensive inventions
+of the century have given rise to a great classification
+to designate their forms or their uses: condensing
+and non-condensing, high-pressure or low-pressure&mdash;the
+former term being applied to engines
+supplied with steam of 50 lbs. pressure to the square
+inch and upward, and the latter to engines working
+under 40 lbs. pressure&mdash;and the low pressure are
+nearly always the condensing and the high pressure
+the non-condensing; reciprocating and rotary&mdash;the
+latter having a piston attached to a shaft and revolving
+within a cylinder of which the axis is parallel
+with the axis of rotation of the piston.</p>
+
+<p>Direct acting, where the piston rod acts directly
+upon the connecting rod and through it upon the
+crank, without the intervention of a beam or lever;
+oscillating, in which the piston rods are attached directly
+to the crank pin and as the crank revolves the
+cylinder oscillates upon trunnions, one on each side
+of it, through which the steam enters and leaves the
+steam chest.</p>
+
+<p>Then as to their use, engines are known as stationary,
+pumping, portable, locomotive or marine.</p>
+
+<p>The best-known engine of the stationary kind is
+the Corliss, which is very extensively used in the
+United States and Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Among other later improvements is the duplex
+pumping engine, in which one engine controls the
+valve of the other; compensating devices for steam
+pumping, by which power is accumulated by making
+the first half of the stroke of the steam piston assist
+in moving the piston the other half of the stroke during
+the expansion of steam; steam or air hand hammers
+on which the piston is the hammer and strikes
+a tool projecting through the head into the cylinder;<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_89" id="PAGE_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+rock drilling, in which the movement of the valves is
+operated by the piston at any portion of its stroke;
+shaft governors, in which the eccentric for operating
+the engine valves is moved around or across the main
+or auxiliary shaft; multiple cylinders, in which several
+cylinders, either single or double, are arranged
+to co-operate with a common shaft; impact rotary,
+known as steam turbines, a revival in some respects
+of Hero’s engine. And then, finally, the delicate and
+ingenious bicycle and automobile steam engines.</p>
+
+<p>Then there are steam sanding devices for locomotives
+by which sand is automatically fed to the rails
+at the same time the air brake is applied.</p>
+
+<p>Starting valves used for starting compound locomotives
+on ascending steep grades, in which both
+low and high pressure cylinders are supplied with
+live steam, and when the steam, exhausted from
+either high or low pressure cylinders into the receivers,
+has reached a predetermined pressure, the engine
+works on the compound principle. Single acting
+compound engines, in which two or more cylinders
+are arranged tandem, the steam acting only in
+one direction, and the exhaust steam of one acting
+upon the piston in the cylinder next of the series, are
+arranged in pairs, so that while one is acting downward
+the other is acting upward.</p>
+
+<p>Throttle valves automatically closed upon the
+bursting of a pipe, or the breaking of machinery, are
+operated by electricity, automatically, or by hand at
+a distance.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon, upon his disastrous retreat from Moscow,
+anxious to reach Paris as soon as possible, left
+his army on the way, provided himself with a travelling
+and sleeping carriage, and with relays of fresh
+horses at different points managed, by extraordi<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_90" id="PAGE_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>nary
+strenuous efforts day and night, to travel from
+Smorgoni to Paris, a distance of 1000 miles, between
+the 5th and 10th of December, 1812. This was at
+the average rate of about two hundred miles a day,
+or eight or nine miles an hour. It was a most remarkable
+ride for any age by horse conveyance.</p>
+
+<p>Within the span of a man’s life after that event
+any one could take a trip of that distance in twenty-four
+hours, with great ease and comfort, eating and
+sleeping on the car, and with convenient telegraph
+and telephone stations along the route by which to
+comunicate by pen, or word of mouth, with distant
+friends at either end of the journey.</p>
+
+<p>If Napoleon had deemed it best to have continued
+his journey across the Atlantic to America he would
+have been compelled to pass several weeks on an uncomfortable
+sailing vessel. Now, a floating palace
+would await him which would carry him across in
+less than six days.</p>
+
+<p>Should mankind be seized with a sudden desire to
+replace all the locomotives in the world by horse
+power it would be utterly impossible to do it. It was
+recently estimated that there were one hundred and
+fifty thousand locomotives in use on the railroads of
+the world; and as a fair average would give them
+five hundred horse power each, it will be seen that
+they are the equivalent of seventy-five million horses.</p>
+
+<p>Space and time will not admit of minute descriptions,
+or hardly a mention, of the almost innumerable
+improvements of the century in steam. Having
+seen the principles on which these inventions have
+been constructed, enumerated the leading ones and
+glanced at the most prominent facts in their history,
+we must refer the seeker for more particulars to those
+publications of modern patent offices, in which each<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_91" id="PAGE_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+regiment and company of this vast army is embalmed
+in its own especial and ponderous volume.</p>
+
+<p>A survey of the field will call to mind, however,
+the eloquent words of Daniel Webster:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“And, last of all, with inimitable power, and with
+a 'whirlwind sound’ comes the potent agency of
+steam. In comparison with the past, what centuries
+of improvement has this single agent compressed in
+the short compass of fifty years! Everywhere practicable,
+everywhere efficient, it has an arm a thousand
+times stronger than that of Hercules, and to which
+human ingenuity is capable of fitting a thousand
+times as many hands as belonged to Briareus.
+Steam is found triumphant in operation on the seas;
+and under the influence of its strong propulsion, the
+gallant ship,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">'Against the wind, against the tide<br></span>
+<span class="line">Still steadies with an upright keel.’<br></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>It is on the rivers, and the boatman may repose upon
+his oars; it is on highways, and exerts itself along
+the courses of land conveyances; it is at the bottom of
+mines, a thousand feet below the earth’s surface; it
+is in the mills and in the workshops of the trades.
+It rows, it pumps, it excavates, it carries, it draws,
+it lifts, it hammers, it spins, it weaves, it prints. It
+seems to say to men, at least to the class of artisans:
+'Leave off your manual labour, give up your bodily
+toil; bestow but your skill and reason to the directing
+of my power and I will bear the toil, with no muscle
+to grow weary, no nerve to relax, no breast to feel
+faintness!’ What further improvement may still be
+made in the use of this astonishing power it is impossible
+to know, and it were vain to conjecture.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_92" id="PAGE_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+What we do know is that it has most essentially altered
+the face of affairs, and that no visible limit yet
+appears beyond which its progress is seen to be impossible.”</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_93" id="PAGE_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The field of service of a civil engineer has thus been
+eloquently stated by a recent writer in <i>Chambers’s
+Journal</i>:</p>
+
+<p>“His duties call upon him to devise the means for
+surmounting obstacles of the most formidable kind.
+He has to work in the water, over the water, and under
+the water; to cause streams to flow; to check
+them from overflowing; to raise water to a great
+height; to build docks and walls that will bear the
+dashing of waves; to convert dry land into harbours,
+and low water shores into dry land; to construct
+lighthouses on lonely rocks; to build lofty aqueducts
+for the conveyance of water, and viaducts, for
+the conveyance of railway trains; to burrow into the
+bowels of the earth with tunnels, shafts, pits and
+mines; to span torrents and ravines with bridges; to
+construct chimneys that rival the loftiest spires and
+pyramids in height; to climb mountains with roads
+and railways; to sink wells to vast depths in search of
+water. By untiring patience, skill, energy and invention,
+he produces in these several ways works
+which certainly rank among the marvels of human
+power.”</p>
+
+<p>The pyramids of Egypt, the roads, bridges and
+aqueducts built by the Chinese and by Rome; the
+great bridges of the Middle Ages, and especially
+those built by that strange fraternal order known<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_94" id="PAGE_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+as the “Brothers of the Bridge”; the ocean-defying
+lighthouses of a later period&mdash;these, and more than
+these, attest the fact that there were great engineers
+before the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>But the engineering of to-day is the hand-maid
+of all the Sciences; and as they each have advanced
+during the century beyond all that was imagined, or
+dreamed of as possible in former times, so have the
+labours of engineering correspondingly multiplied.
+No longer are such labours classified and grouped in
+one field, called Civil Engineering, but they have
+been necessarily divided into great additional new
+and independent fields, known as Steam Engineering,
+Mining Engineering, Hydraulic Engineering,
+Electrical Engineering and Marine Engineering.
+Within each of these fields are assembled innumerable
+appliances which are the offspring of the inventive
+genius of the century just closed.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how one discovery, or the development
+of a certain art, brings in its train and
+often necessitates other inventions and discoveries.
+The development and dedication of the steam engine
+to the transportation of goods and men called for improvements
+in the roads and rails on which the engine
+and its load were to travel, and this demand
+brought forth those modern railway bridges which
+are the finest examples in the art of bridge making
+that the world has ever seen.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest bridges of former ages were built of
+stone and solid masonry. Now iron and steel have
+been substituted, and these light but substantial
+frameworks span wide rivers and deep ravines with
+almost the same speed and gracefulness that the
+spider spins his silken web from limb to limb. These,
+too, waited for their construction on that next turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_95" id="PAGE_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+in the wheel of evolution, which brought better
+processes in the making of iron and steel, and better
+tools and appliances for working metals, and in
+handling vast and heavy bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The first arched iron bridge was over the Severn at
+Coalbrookdale, England, erected by Abraham Darby
+in 1777. In 1793 one was erected by Telford at
+Buildwas, and in the same year Burden completed
+an arch across the weir at Sunderland. The most
+prominent classes of bridges in which the highest inventive
+and constructive genius of the engineers of
+the century are illustrated are known as the <i>suspension</i>,
+the <i>tubular</i> and the <i>tubular arch</i>, the <i>truss and
+cantilever</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Suspension bridges consisting of twisted vines, of
+iron chains, or of bamboo, or cane, or of ropes, have
+been known in different parts of the world from time
+immemorial, but they bear only a primitive and suggestive
+resemblance to the great iron cable bridges
+of the nineteenth century. The first notable structure
+of this kind was constructed by Sir Samuel
+Brown, across the Tweed at Berwick, England, in
+1819. Brown was born in London in 1776 and died
+in 1852. He entered the navy at the age of 18, was
+made commander in 1811, and retired as captain in
+1842. We have alluded to the spider’s web, and
+Smiles, in his <i>Self Help</i>, relates as an example of
+intelligent observation that while Capt Brown was
+occupied in studying the character of bridges with
+the view of constructing one of a cheap description
+to be thrown across the Tweed, near which he lived,
+he was walking in his garden one dewy autumn morning
+when he saw a tiny spider’s web suspended across
+his path. The idea immediately occurred to him of
+a bridge of iron wires. In 1829 Brown also was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_96" id="PAGE_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+engineer for suspension bridges built over the Esk
+at Montrose and over the Thames at Hammersmith.
+Before that time, a span in a bridge of 100 feet was
+considered remarkably long. Suspension bridges
+are best adapted for long spans, and have been constructed
+with spans more than twice as long as any
+other form. Sir Samuel Brown’s bridge had a span
+of 449 feet. This class of bridges is usually constructed
+with chains or cables passing over towers,
+with the roadway suspended beneath. The ends of
+the chains or cables are securely anchored. The
+cables are then passed over towers, on which they are
+supported in movable saddles, so that the towers are
+not overthrown by the strain on the cables. Nice
+calculations have to be made as to the tension to
+be placed on the cables, the allowance for deflection,
+and the equal distribution of weight. The floor-way
+in the earlier bridges of this type was supported
+by means of a series of equidistant vertical rods,
+and was lacking stiffness, but this was remedied
+by trussing the road bed, using inclined stays extending
+from the towers and partially supporting
+the roadway for some distance out from the tower.</p>
+
+<p>The next finest suspension bridge was constructed
+by Thomas Telford and finished in 1826, across the
+Menai Strait to connect the island of Anglesea with
+the mainland of Wales. Telford was born in Dumfriesshire,
+Scotland, in 1757, and died in Westminster
+in 1834. Beginning life as a stone mason, he
+rose by his own industry to be a master among architects
+and a prince among builders of iron bridges,
+aqueducts, canals, tunnels, harbours and docks.</p>
+
+<p>The Menai bridge was composed of chains or wire
+ropes, each nearly a third of a mile in length, and
+which descended 60 feet into sloping pits or drifts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_97" id="PAGE_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+where they were screwed to cast-iron frames embedded
+in the rocks. The span of the suspended
+central arch was 560 feet, and the platform was 100
+feet above high water. Seven stone arches of 52&frac12;
+feet span make up the rest of the bridge.</p>
+
+<p>But a suspension bridge was completed in 1834 by
+M. Challey of Lyon over the Saane at Fribourg, Switzerland,
+which greatly surpassed the Menai bridge.
+The span is 880 feet from pier to pier, and the roadway
+is 167 feet above the river. It is supported by
+four iron wire cables, each consisting of 1056 wires.
+It was tested by placing 15 pieces of artillery, drawn
+by 50 horses and accompanied by 300 men crowded
+together as closely as possible, first at the centre,
+and then at each extreme, causing a depression of 39&frac12;
+inches, but no sensible oscillation was experienced.</p>
+
+<p>Isambard K. Brunel was another great engineer,
+who constructed a suspension bridge at the Isle of
+Bourbon in 1823, and the Charing Cross over the
+Thames at Hungerford in 1845, which was a footbridge,
+having a span of 675 feet, the longest span
+of any bridge in England. Then followed finer and
+larger suspension bridges in other parts of the world.
+It was across the Niagara in front of the great falls
+that in 1855 British America and the United States
+were joined by a magnificent suspension bridge, one
+of the finest in the world, and the two English speaking
+countries were then physically and commercially
+united. At the opening of the bridge, one portion of
+which was for a railway, the shriek of the locomotive
+and the roar of the train mingled with the roar of
+the wild torrent 250 feet below. The bridge, 800 feet
+long, is a single span, supported by four enormous
+cables of wire stretching from the Canadian cliff to
+the opposite United States cliff. The cables pass<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_98" id="PAGE_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+over the tops of lofty stone towers arising from these
+cliffs, and each cable consists of no less than 4,000
+distinct wires. The roadway hangs from these cables,
+suspended by 624 vertical rods.</p>
+
+<p>The engineer of this bridge was John A. Roebling,
+a native of Prussia, born there in 1806, and who
+died in New York in 1869. He was educated at the
+Polytechnic School in Berlin, and emigrated to
+America at the age of 25. His labors were first as
+a canal and railway engineer, then he became the
+inventor and manufacturer of a new form of wire
+rope, and then turned his attention to the construction
+of aqueducts and suspension bridges. After the
+Niagara bridge, above described, he commenced
+another bridge of greater dimensions over the same
+river, which was finished within two or three years.
+His next work was the splendid suspension bridge
+at Cincinnati, Ohio, which has a clear span of 1057
+feet. In 1869, in connection with his son, Washington
+A. Roebling, he commenced that magnificent
+suspension bridge to unite the great cities of New
+York and Brooklyn, and which, by its completion,
+resulted in the consolidation of those cities as Greater
+New York. The Roeblings, father and son, were to
+the engineering of America what George Stephenson
+and his son Robert were to the locomotive and railway
+and bridge engineering of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>The Brooklyn bridge, known also as the East
+River bridge, was formally opened to the public on
+the 24th of May 1883. Most enormous and unexpected
+technical difficulties were met and overcome in
+its construction. Its total length is nearly 6,000
+feet. The length of the suspended structure from
+anchorage to anchorage is 3,454 feet. A statement
+of the general features of this bridge indicates the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_99" id="PAGE_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+nature of the construction of such bridges as a class,
+and distinguishes them from the comparatively simple
+forms of past ages. This structure is supported
+by two enormous towers, having a height of 276 feet
+above the surface of the water, carrying at their tops
+the saddles which support the cables, and having a
+span between them of 1,595 feet. The towers are
+each pierced by two archways, 31&frac12; feet wide, and
+120&frac12; feet high, through which openings passes the
+floor of the bridge at the height of 118 feet above
+high water mark. There are four supporting cables,
+each 16 inches in diameter, and each composed of
+about 5,000 single wires. The wire is one-eighth
+size; 278 single wires are grouped into a rope, and
+19 ropes bunched to form a cable. The iron saddles
+at the top of the lofty towers, and on which the cables
+rest, are made movable to permit its expansion
+and compression&mdash;and they glide through minute
+distances on iron rollers in saddle plates embedded
+and anchored in the towers, in response to strains and
+changes of temperature. The enormous cables pass
+from the towers shoreward to their anchorages 930
+feet away, and which are solid masses of masonry,
+each 132 x 119 feet at base and top, 89 feet high, and
+weighing 60,000 tons. The bridge is divided into
+five avenues: one central one for foot passengers,
+two outer ones for vehicles, and the others for the
+street cars. The cost of the bridge was nearly
+$15,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty fatal and many disabling accidents occurred
+during the construction of the bridge. The
+great engineer Roebling was the first victim to an
+accident. He had his foot crushed while laying the
+foundation of one of the stone piers, and died of
+lockjaw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_100" id="PAGE_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was necessary to build up the great piers by the
+aid of caissons, which are water-tight casings built of
+timber and metal and sunk to the river bed and sometimes
+far below it, within which are built the foundations
+of piers or towers, and into which air is
+pumped for the workmen. A fire in one of the caissons,
+which necessitated its flooding by water, and to
+which the son, Washington Roebling, was exposed,
+resulted in prostrating him with a peculiar form of
+caisson disease, which destroyed the nerves of motion
+without impairing his intellectual faculties. But, although
+disabled from active work, Mr. Roebling continued
+to superintend the vast project through the
+constant mediation of his wife.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tubular Bridges.</i>&mdash;These are bridges formed by a
+great tube or hollow beam through the center of
+which a roadway or railway passes. The name
+would indicate that the bridge was cylindrical in
+form, and this was the first idea. But it was concluded
+after experiment that a rectangular form was
+the best, as it is more rigid than either a cylindrical
+or elliptical tube. The adoption of this form was
+due to Fairbairn, the celebrated English inventor
+and engineer of iron structures. The Menai tubular
+railway bridge, adjacent to the suspension bridge of
+Telford across the same strait, and already described,
+was the first example of this type of bridge. Robert
+Stephenson was the engineer of this great structure,
+aided by the suggestions of Fairbairn and other eminent
+engineers. This bridge was opened for railway
+traffic in March, 1850. It was built on three
+towers and shore abutments. The width of the strait
+is divided by these towers into four spans&mdash;two of
+460 feet each, and two of 230 feet. In appearance,
+the bridge looked like one huge, long, narrow iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_101" id="PAGE_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+box, but it consisted really of four bridges, each made
+of a pair of rectangular tubes, and through one set
+of tubes the trains passed in going in one direction,
+and through the other set in going the opposite direction.
+These ponderous tubes were composed of
+wrought-iron plates, from three-eighths to three-fourths
+of an inch thick, the largest 12 feet in length,
+riveted together and stiffened by angle irons. They
+varied in height&mdash;the central ones being the highest
+and those nearest the shore the lowest. The
+central ones are 30 feet high, and the inner
+ones about 22 feet. Their width was about
+14 feet. They were built upon platforms on the
+Caernarvon shore, and the great problem was
+how to lift them and put them in place, especially
+the central ones, which were 460 feet in length. Each
+tube weighed 1,800 pounds, and they were to be
+raised 192 feet. This operation has been described
+as “the grandest lift ever effected in engineering.”
+It was accomplished by means of powerful hydraulic
+presses. Another and still grander example of this
+style of bridge is the Victoria at Montreal, Canada.
+This also was designed by Robert Stephenson and
+built under his direction by James Hodges of Montreal.
+Work was commenced in 1854 and it was
+completed in December, 1859, and opened for travel
+in 1860. It consists of 24 piers, 242 feet apart, except
+the centre one, from which the span is 330 feet.
+The tube is in sections and quadrangular in form.
+Every plate and piece of iron was made and punched
+in England and brought across the Atlantic. In
+Canada little remained to be done but to put the
+parts together and in position. This, however, was
+in itself a Herculean task. The enormous structure
+was to be placed sixty feet above the swift current of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_102" id="PAGE_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+the broad St. Lawrence, and wherein huge masses of
+ice, each block from three to five feet in thickness,
+accumulated every winter. The work was accomplished
+by the erection of a vast rigid stage of timber,
+on which the tubes were built up plate by plate.
+When all was completed the great staging was removed,
+and the mighty tube rested alone and secure
+upon its massive wedge-faced piers rising from the
+bedrock of the flood below.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tubular Arch Bridge.</i>&mdash;This differs from the
+tubular bridge proper, in that the former consists of
+a bridge the body of which is supported by a tubular
+archway of iron and steel, whereas in the latter the
+body of the bridge itself is a tube. The tubular arch
+is also properly classed as a girder bridge because
+the great tube which covers the span is simply an immense
+beam or girder, which supports the superstructure
+on which the floor of the bridge is laid. A
+fine illustration of this style of bridge is seen in what
+is known as the aqueduct bridge over Rock Creek
+at Washington, D. C., in which the arch consists of
+two cast-iron jointed pipes, supporting a double carriage
+and a double street car way, and through which
+pipes all the water for the supply of the City of
+Washington passes. General M. C. Meigs was the
+engineer.</p>
+
+<p>Another far grander illustration of such a structure,
+in combination with the truss system, is that of
+the Illinois and St. Louis bridge, across the Mississippi,
+of which Captain James B. Eads was the engineer.
+There are three great spans, the central
+one of which has a length of about 520 feet, and the
+others a few feet less. Four arches form each span,
+each arch consisting of an upper and lower curved
+member or rib, extending from pier to pier, and each
+member composed of two parallel steel tubes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_103" id="PAGE_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Truss and truss arched bridges.</i>&mdash;These, for the
+most part, are those quite modern forms of iron
+or wooden bridges in which a supplementary frame
+work, consisting of iron rods placed obliquely, vertically
+or diagonally, and cemented together, and with
+the main horizontal beams either above or below the
+same, to produce a stiff and rigid structure, calculated
+to resist strain from all directions.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the 19th century, the greatest bridges
+being constructed mostly of solid masonry piers and
+arches, no demand for a bridge of this kind existed;
+but after the use of wrought iron and steel became
+extensive in bridge making, and as these apparently
+light and airy frames may be extended, piece by
+piece across the widest rivers, straits, and arms of the
+sea, a substitute for the great, expensive, and frequent
+supporting piers became a want, and was supplied
+by the system of trusses and truss arches. The
+truss system has also been applied to the construction
+of vast modern bridges in places where timber is accessible
+and cheap. Each different system invented
+bears the name of its inventor. Thus, we have the
+Rider, the Fink, the Bollman, the Whipple, the
+Howe, the Jones, the Linville, the McCallum,
+Towne’s lattice and other systems.</p>
+
+<p>What is called the cantilever system has of late
+years to a great extent superseded the suspension
+construction. This consists of beams or girders extending
+out from the opposite piers at an upward
+diagonal angle, and meeting at the centre over the
+span, and there solidly connected together, or to
+horizontal girders, in such manner that the compression
+load is thrown on to the supporting piers, upward
+strains received at the centre, and side deflections
+provided against. It is supposed that greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_104" id="PAGE_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+rigidity is obtained by this means than by the suspension,
+and, like the suspension, great widths may
+be spanned without an under supporting frame work.
+Two fine examples of this type are found, one in a
+bridge across the Niagara adjacent to the suspension
+bridge above described and one across the river Forth
+at Queens Ferry in Scotland. The Niagara Bridge
+is a combination of cast steel and iron. It was designed
+by C. C. Schneider and Edmund Hayes. It
+was built for a double-track railroad. The total
+length of the bridge is 910 feet between the centres of
+the anchorage piers. The cantilevers rest on two gigantic
+steel towers, standing on massive stone piers
+39 feet high. The clear span between the towers is
+470 feet, and the height of the bridge, from the mad
+rush of waters to the car track is 239 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs Fowler and Baker were the engineers of
+the Forth railway bridge. It was begun in 1883
+and finished in 1890. It is built nearly all of steel,
+and is one of the most stupendous works of the kind.
+It crosses two channels formed by the island of Inchgarvie,
+and each of the channel spans is 1710 feet in
+the clear and a clear headway of 150 feet under the
+bridge. Three balanced cantilevers are employed,
+poised on four gigantic steel tube legs supported on
+four huge masonry piers. The height of the bridge
+above the piers is 330 feet. The cantilever portion
+has the appearance of a vast elongated diamond.
+Steel lattice work of girders, forms the upper
+side of the cantilever, while the under side consists
+of a hollow curve approaching in form a quadrant of
+a circle drawn from the base of the legs or struts to
+the ends of the cantilever.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the growth of these great bridges with their
+tremendous spans across which man is spinning his<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_105" id="PAGE_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+iron webs, that when seen at night with a fiery engine
+pulling its thundering train across in the darkness,
+one is reminded of Milton’s description,
+“over the dark abyss whose boiling gulf tamely endured
+a bridge of wondrous length, from Hell
+continued, reaching the utmost orb of this frail
+world.”</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lighthouses</i> of the century, in masonry, do
+not greatly excel in general principles those of
+preceding ones, as at Eddystone, designed by Smeaton.
+Nicholas Douglass, however, invented a new
+system of dovetailing, and great improvements have
+been made in the system of illuminating.</p>
+
+<p>Lighthouses are also distinguished from those of
+preceding centuries by the substitution of iron and
+cast steel for masonry. The first cast-iron lighthouse
+was put up at Point Morant, Jamaica, in 1842.
+Since then they have taken the form of iron skeleton
+towers.</p>
+
+<p>One of the latest and most picturesque of lighthouses
+is that of Bartholdi’s statue of Liberty enlightening
+the world, the gift of the French government
+to the United States, framed by M. Eiffel, the
+great French engineer, and set up by the United
+States at Bedloe’s Island in New York harbor. It
+consists of copper plates on a network of iron. Although
+the statue is larger than any in the world
+of such composite construction, its success as a lighthouse
+is not as notable as many farther seaward.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>excavating</i>, <i>dredging</i> and <i>draining</i>, the inventions
+of the century have been very numerous, but,
+like numerous advances in the arts, such inventions,
+so far as great works are concerned, have developed
+from and are closely related to steam engineering.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_106" id="PAGE_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The making of roads, railroads, canals and tunnels
+has called forth thousands of ingenious
+mechanisms for their accomplishment. A half
+dozen men with a steam-power excavator or dredger
+can in one day perform a greater extent of work than
+could a thousand men and a thousand horses in a single
+day a few generations ago.</p>
+
+<p>An excavating machine consisting of steel knives
+to cut the earth, iron scoops, buckets and dippers to
+scoop it up, endless chains or cranes to lift them,
+actuated by steam, and operated by a single engineer,
+will excavate cubic yards of earth by the minute
+and at a cost of but a few dollars a day.</p>
+
+<p>Dredging machines of a great variety have been
+constructed. Drags and scoops for elevating, and
+buckets, scrapers and shovels, and rotating knives to
+first loosen the earth, suction pumps and pipes,
+which will suck great quantities of the loosened
+earth through pipes to places to be filled&mdash;these and
+kindred devices are now constantly employed to dig
+and excavate, to deepen and widen rivers, to drain
+lands, to dig canals, to make harbours, to fill up the
+waste places and to make courses for water in desert
+lands.</p>
+
+<p>Inventions for the excavating of clay, piling and
+burning it in a crude state for ballast for railways,
+are important, especially for those railways which
+traverse areas where clay is plentiful, and stones
+and gravel are lacking.</p>
+
+<p>Sinking shafts through quicksands by artificially
+freezing the sand, so as to form a firm frozen wall
+immediately around the area where the shaft is to
+be sunk, is a recent new idea.</p>
+
+<p>Modern countries especially are waking up to the
+necessity of good roads, not only as a necessary means<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_107" id="PAGE_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+of transportation, but as a pre-requisite to decent
+civilisation in all respects. And, therefore, great
+activity has been had in the last third of a century
+in invention of machines for finishing and repairing
+roads.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of sewer construction, regarded now
+so necessary in all civilised cities and thickly-settled
+communities as one of the means of proper sanitation,
+great improvements have been made in deep
+sewerage, in which the work is largely performed
+below the surface and with little obstruction to street
+traffic.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with excavating and dredging machines,
+mention should be made of those great works
+in the construction of which they bore such important
+parts, as drainage and land reclamation, such as is
+seen in the modern extensions of land reclamation in
+Holland, in the Haarlem lake district in the North
+part of England, the swamps of Florida and the
+drainage of the London district; in modern tunnels
+such as the Hoosac in America and the three great
+ones through the Alps: the Mont Cenis, St. Gothard,
+and Arlberg, the work in which developed an entirely
+new system of engineering, by the application of
+newly-discovered explosives for blasting, new rock-drilling
+machinery, new air-compressing machines
+for driving the drill machines and ventilating the
+works, and new hydraulic and pumping machinery
+for sinking shafts and pumping out the water.</p>
+
+<p>The great canals, especially the Suez, developed a
+new system of canal engineering. Thus by modern
+inventions of devices for digging and blasting, dredging
+and draining and attendant operations, some of
+the greatest works of man on earth have been produced,
+and evinced the exercise of his highest inventive
+genius.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_108" id="PAGE_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If one wishes an ocular demonstration of the wonders
+wrought in the 19th century in the several domains
+of engineering, let him take a Pullman train across
+the continent from New York to San Francisco. The
+distance is 3,000 miles and the time is four days and
+four nights. The car in which the passenger finds
+himself is a marvel of woodwork and upholstery&mdash;a
+description of the machinery and processes for producing
+which belongs to other arts. The railroad
+tracks upon which the vehicle moves are in themselves
+the results of many inventions. There is the
+width of the track, and it was only after a long and
+expensive contest that countries and corporations settled
+upon a uniform gauge. The common gauge of
+the leading countries and roads is now 4 feet 8&frac12;
+inches. A greater width is known as a broad gauge,
+a less width as a narrow gauge. Then as to the rail:
+first the wooden, then the iron and now the steel,
+and all of many shapes and weights. The T-rail invented
+by Birkensaw in 1820, having two flanges at
+the top to form a wide berth for the wheels of the
+rolling stock, the vertical portion gripped by chairs
+which are spiked to the ties, is the best known. Then
+the frogs, a V-shaped device by which the wheels
+are guided from one line of rails to another, when
+they form angles with each other; the car wheel made
+with a flange or flanges to fit the rail, and the railway
+gates, ingenious contrivances that guard railway
+crossings and are operated automatically by the passing
+trains, but more commonly by watchmen. The
+car may be lighted with electricity, and as the train
+dashes along at the rate of 30 to 80 miles an hour, it
+may be stopped in less than a minute by the touch of
+the engineer on an air brake. Is it midwinter and
+are mountains of snow encountered? They disappear
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_109" id="PAGE_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>before the railway snow-plough more quickly
+than they came. It passes over bridges, through tunnels,
+across viaducts, around the edges of mountain
+peaks, every mile revealing the wondrous work of
+man’s inventive genius for encompassing the earth
+with speed, safety and comfort. Over one-half million
+miles of these railway tracks are on the earth’s
+surface to-day!</p>
+
+<p>Not only has the railway superseded horse power
+in the matter of transportation to a vast extent, but
+other modes of transportation are taking the place of
+that useful animal. The old-fashioned stage coach,
+and then the omnibus, were successively succeeded by
+the street car drawn by horses, and then about twenty
+years ago the horse began to be withdrawn from that
+work and the cable substituted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cable transportation</i> developed from the art of
+making iron wire and steel wire ropes or cables. And
+endless cables placed underground, conveyed over
+rollers and supported on suitable yokes, and driven
+from a great central power house, came into use, and
+to which the cars were connected by ingeniously
+contrived lever grips&mdash;operated by the driver on the
+car. These great cable constructions, expensive as
+they were, were found more economical than horse
+power. In fact, there is no modernly discovered practical
+motive power but what has been found less expensive
+both as to time and money than horse power.
+But the cable for this purpose is now in turn everywhere
+yielding to electricity, the great motor next
+to steam. The overhead cable system for the transportation
+of materials of various descriptions in carriers,
+also run by a central motor, is still very extensively
+used. The cable plan has also been tried
+with some success in the propelling of canal boats.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_110" id="PAGE_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Canals</i>, themselves, although finding a most serious
+and in some localities an entirely destructive
+rival in the railroad, have grown in size and importance,
+and in appliances that have been substituted
+for the old-style locks. The latest form of this
+device is what is known as the pneumatic balance
+lock system.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said by Octave Chanute that “Progress
+in civilisation may fairly be said to be dependent
+upon the facilities for men to get about, upon their
+intercourse with other men and nations, not only in
+order to supply their mutual needs cheaply, but to
+learn from each other their wants, their discoveries
+and their inventions.” Next to the power and
+means for moving people, come the immense and
+wonderful inventions for lifting and loading, such
+as cranes and derricks, means for coaling ships and
+steamers, for handling and storing the great agricultural
+products, grain and hay, and that modern wonder,
+the <i>grain elevator</i>, that dots the coasts of rivers,
+lakes and seas, receives the vast stores of golden
+grain from thousands of steam cars that come to
+it laden from distant plains and discharges it swiftly
+in mountain loads into vessels and steamers to be
+carried to the multitudes across the seas, and to satisfy
+that ever-continuing cry, “Give us this day our
+daily bread.”</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_111" id="PAGE_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+ELECTRICITY.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In 1900 the real nature of electricity appears to be
+as unknown as it was in 1800.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin in the eighteenth century defined electricity
+as consisting of particles of matter incomparably
+more subtle than air, and which pervaded all
+bodies. At the close of the nineteenth century electricity
+defined as “simply a form of energy which
+imparts to material substances a peculiar state or
+condition, and that all such substances partake more
+or less of this condition.”</p>
+
+<p>These theories and the late discovery of Hertz
+that electrical energy manifests itself in the form of
+waves, oscillations or vibrations, similar to light,
+but not so rapid as the vibrations of light, constitute
+about all that is known about the nature of
+this force.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin believed it was a single fluid, but others
+taught that there were two kinds of electricity, positive
+and negative, that the like kinds were repulsive
+and the unlike kinds attractive, and that when
+generated it flowed in currents.</p>
+
+<p>Such terms are not now regarded as representing
+actual varieties of this force, but are retained as
+convenient modes of expression, for want of better
+ones, as expressing the conditions or states of electricity
+when produced.</p>
+
+<p>Electricity produced by friction, that is, developed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_112" id="PAGE_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+upon the surface of a body by rubbing it with a dissimilar
+body, and called frictional or static electricity,
+was the only kind produced artificially in
+the days of Franklin. What is known as galvanism,
+or animal electricity, also takes its date in the 18th
+century, to which further reference will be made.
+Since 1799 there have been discovered additional
+sources, among which are voltaic electricity, or electricity
+produced by chemical action, such as is manifested
+when two dissimilar metals are brought near
+each other or together, and electrical manifestations
+produced by a decomposing action, one upon the other
+through a suitable medium; inductive electricity, or
+electricity developed or induced in one body by its
+proximity to another body through which a current is
+flowing; magnetic electricity, the conversion of the
+power of a magnet into electric force, and the reverse
+of this, the production of magnetic force by a
+current of electricity; and thermal electricity, or
+that generated by heat. Electricity developed by
+these, or other means in contra-distinction to that
+produced by friction, has been called dynamic; but
+all electric force is now regarded as dynamic, in the
+sense that forces are always in motion and never at
+rest.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the manifestations and experiments in
+later day fields which, by reason of their production
+by different means, have been given the names of
+discovery and invention, had become known to
+Franklin and others, by means of the old methods
+in frictional electricity. They are all, however, but
+different routes leading to the same goal. In the
+midst of the brilliant discoveries of modern times
+confronting us on every side we should not forget the
+honourable efforts of the fathers of the science.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_113" id="PAGE_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We need not dwell on what the ancients produced
+in this line. It was a single fact only:&mdash;The Greeks
+discovered that amber, a resinous substance, when
+rubbed would attract lighter bodies to it.</p>
+
+<p>In 1600 appeared the father of modern electricity&mdash;Dr.
+Gilbert of Colchester, physician to Queen
+Elizabeth. He revived the one experiment of antiquity,
+and added to it the further fact that many
+substances besides amber, when rubbed, would manifest
+the same electric condition, such as sulphur,
+sapphire, wax, glass and other bodies. And thus he
+opened the field of electrodes. He was the first to
+use the terms, electricity, electric and electrode,
+which he derived from the word <i>elektron</i>, the Greek
+name for amber. He observed the actions of magnets,
+and conjectured the fundamental identity of
+magnetism and electricity. He arranged an electrometer,
+consisting of an iron needle poised on a pivot,
+by which to note the action of the magnet. This was
+about the time that Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg,
+Germany, was born. He became a “natural”
+philosopher, and for thirty-five years was burgomaster
+of his native town. He invented the air-pump,
+and he it was who illustrated the force of atmospheric
+pressure by fitting together two hollow brass hemispheres
+which, after the air within them had been exhausted,
+could not be pulled apart. He also invented
+a barometer, and as an astronomer suggested that the
+return of comets might be calculated. He invented
+and constructed the first machine for generating
+electricity. It consisted of a ball of sulphur rotated
+on an axis, and which was electrified by friction
+of the hand, the ball receiving negative electricity
+while the positive flowed through the person
+to the earth. With this machine “he heard the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_114" id="PAGE_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+sound and saw the first light in artificially excited
+electricity.” The machine was improved by Sir
+Isaac Newton and others, and before the close of that
+century was put into substantially its present form
+of a round glass plate rotated between insulated
+leather cushions coated with an amalgam of tin and
+zinc, the positive or vitreous electricity thus developed
+being accumulated on two large hollow brass
+cylinders with globular ends, supported on glass pillars.
+Gray in 1729 discovered the conductive power
+of certain substances, and that the electrical influence
+could be conveyed to a distance by means of
+an insulated wire. This was the first step towards
+the electric telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>Dufay, the French philosopher and author, who
+in 1733-1737 wrote the <i>Memoirs of the French
+Academy</i>, was, it seems, the first to observe electrical
+attractions and repulsions; that electrified
+resinous substances repelled like substances while
+they attracted bodies electrified by contact with glass;
+and he, therefore, to the latter applied the term
+<i>vitreous</i> electricity and to the former the term <i>resinous</i>
+electricity. In 1745 Prof. Muschenbroeck of
+Leyden University developed the celebrated Leyden
+jar. This is a glass jar coated both inside and outside
+with tinfoil for about four-fifths of its height.
+Its mouth is closed with a cork through which is
+passed a metallic rod, terminating above in a knob
+and connected below with the inner coating by a
+chain or a piece of tinfoil. If the inner coating be
+connected with an electrical machine and the outer
+coating with the earth, a current of electricity is established,
+and the inner coating receives what is
+called a positive and the outer coating a negative
+charge. On connecting the two surfaces by means<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_115" id="PAGE_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+of a metallic discharger having a non-conducting
+handle a spark is obtained. Thus the Leyden jar
+is both a collector and a condenser of electricity.
+On arranging a series of such jars and joining their
+outer and inner surfaces, and connecting the series
+with an electrical machine, a battery is obtained of
+greater or less power according to the number of
+jars employed and the extent of supply from the
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the Leyden jar was discovered by
+accident. Cuneus, a pupil of Muschenbroeck, was one
+day trying to charge some water in a glass bottle
+with electricity by connecting it with a chain to the
+sparking knob of an electrical machine. Holding the
+bottle in one hand he arranged the chain with the
+other, and received a violent shock. His teacher
+then tried the experiment himself, with a still livelier
+and more convincing result, whereupon he declared
+that he would not repeat the trial for the
+whole Kingdom of France.</p>
+
+<p>When the science of static electricity was thus
+far developed, with a machine for generating it and
+a collector to receive it, many experiments followed.
+Charles Morrison in 1753, in the <i>Scots Magazine</i>,
+proposed a telegraph system of insulated wires with
+a corresponding number of characters to be signalled
+between two stations. Other schemes were proposed
+at different times down to the close of the century.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin records among several other experiments
+with frictional electricity accumulated by the Leyden
+jar battery the following results, produced
+chiefly by himself: The existence of an attractive
+and a repulsive action of electricity; the restoration
+of the equilibrium of electrical force between electrified
+and non-electrified bodies, or between<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_116" id="PAGE_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+bodies differently supplied with the force; the
+electroscope, a body charged with electricity
+and used to indicate the presence and condition
+of electricity in another body; the production of
+work, as the turning of wheels, by which it was
+proposed a spit for roasting meat might be formed,
+and the ringing of chimes by a wheel, which was
+done; the firing of gunpowder, the firing of wood,
+resin and spirits; the drawing off a charge from
+electrified bodies at a near distance by pointed rods;
+the heating and melting of metals; the production of
+light; the magnetising of needles and of bars of iron,
+giving rise to the analogy of magnetism and electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin, who had gone thus far, and who also had
+drawn the lightning from the clouds, identified it as
+electricity, and taught the mode of its subjection,
+felt chagrined that more had not been done with this
+subtle agent in the service of man. He believed,
+however, that the day-spring of science was opening,
+and he seemed to have caught some reflection of its
+coming light. Observing the return to life and
+activity of some flies long imprisoned in a bottle of
+Madeira wine and which he restored by exposure to
+the sun and air, he wrote that he should like to be
+immersed at death with a few friends in a cask of
+Madeira, to be recalled to life a hundred years thence
+to observe the state of his country. It would not
+have been necessary for him to have been embalmed
+that length of time to have witnessed some great developments
+of his favorite science. He died in 1790,
+and it has been said that there was more real
+progress in this science in the first decade of the
+nineteenth century than in all previous centuries put
+together.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_117" id="PAGE_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Before opening the door of the 19th century, let us
+glance at one more experiment in the 18th:</p>
+
+<p>While the aged Franklin was dying, Dr. Luigi
+Galvani of Bologna, an Italian physician, medical
+lecturer, and learned author, was preparing for publication
+his celebrated work, <i>De viribus Electricitatis
+in Motu Musculari Commentarius</i>, in which he
+described his discovery made a few years before of
+the action of the electric current on the legs and
+spinal column of a frog hung on a copper nail.
+This discovery at once excited the attention of scientists,
+but in the absence of any immediate practical
+results the multitude dubbed him the “frog
+philosopher.” He proceeded with his experiments
+on animals and animal matter, and developed the
+doctrine and theories of what is known as animal or
+galvanic electricity. His fellow countryman and
+contemporary, Prof. Volta of Pavia, took decided
+issue with Galvani and maintained that the pretended
+animal electricity was nothing but electricity
+developed by the contact of two different metals.
+Subsequent investigations and discoveries have established
+the fact that both theories have truth for
+their basis, and that electricity is developed both by
+muscular and nervous energy as well as by chemical
+action. In 1799 Volta invented his celebrated pile,
+consisting of alternate disks of copper and zinc separated
+by a cloth moistened with a dilute acid; and
+soon after an arrangement of cups&mdash;each containing
+a dilute acid and a copper and a zinc plate placed a
+little distance apart, and thus dispensing with the
+cloth. In both instances he connected the end plate
+of one kind with the opposite end plate of the other
+kind by a wire, and in both arrangements produced
+a current of electricity. To the discoveries, experi<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_118" id="PAGE_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>ments,
+and disputes of Galvani and Volta and to
+those of their respective adherents, the way was
+opened to the splendid electrical inventions of the
+century, and the discovery of a new world of light,
+heat, speech and power. The discoveries of Galvani
+and Volta at once set leading scientists at work.
+Fabroni of Florence, and Sir Humphry Davy and
+Wollaston of England, commenced interesting experiments,
+showing that rapid oxidation and chemical
+decomposition of the metals took place in the voltaic
+pile.</p>
+
+<p>By the discoveries of Galvani the physicians and
+physiologists were greatly excited, and believed that
+by this new vital power the nature of all kinds of
+nervous diseases could be explored and the remedy
+applied. Volta’s discovery excited the chemists.
+If two dissimilar metals could be decomposed and
+power at the same time produced they contended that
+practical work might be done with the force. In
+1800 Nicholson and Carlisle decomposed water by
+passing the electric current through the same; Ritter
+decomposed copper sulphate, and Davy decomposed
+the alkalies, potash and soda. Thus the art of electrolysis&mdash;the
+decomposition of substances by the galvanic
+current, was established. Later Faraday laid
+down its laws. Naturally inventions sprung up in
+new forms of batteries. The pile and cup battery
+of Volta had been succeeded by the trough battery&mdash;a
+long box filled with separated plates set in dilute
+acid. The trough battery was used by Sir Humphry
+Davy in his series of great experiments&mdash;1806-1808&mdash;in
+which he isolated the metallic bases,
+calcium, sodium, potassium, etc. It consisted of
+2000 double plates of copper and zinc, each having
+a surface of 32 square inches. With this same<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_119" id="PAGE_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+trough battery Davy in 1812 produced the first electric
+carbon light, the bright herald of later glories.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most noted new batteries were
+Daniell’s, Grove’s and Bunsen’s. They are called
+the “two fluid batteries,” because in place of a single
+acidulated bath in which the dissimilar metals
+were before placed, two different liquid solutions
+were employed.</p>
+
+<p>John Frederick Daniell of London, noted for his
+great work, <i>Meteorological Essays</i>, and other
+scientific publications, and as Professor of Chemistry
+in King’s College, in 1836, described how a powerful
+and constant current of electricity may be continued
+for an unlimited period by a battery composed
+of zinc standing in an acid solution and
+a sheet of copper in a solution of sulphate of
+copper.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Robert Grove, first an English physician,
+then an eminent lawyer, and then a professor
+of natural philosophy, and the first to announce the
+great theory of the Correlation of Physical Forces,
+in 1839 produced his battery, much more powerful
+than any previous one, and still in general use. In
+it zinc and platinum are the metals used&mdash;the zinc
+bent into cylindrical form and placed in a glass jar
+containing a weak solution of sulphuric acid, while
+the platinum stands in a porous jar holding strong
+nitric acid and surrounded by the zinc. Among
+the electrical discoveries of Grove were the decomposition
+by electricity of water into free oxygen and
+hydrogen, the electricity of the flame of the blow-pipe,
+electrical action produced by proximity, without
+contact, of dissimilar metals, molecular movements
+induced in metals by the electric current, and
+the conversion of electricity into mechanical force.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_120" id="PAGE_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, a German chemist and
+philosopher and scientific writer, who invented some
+of the most important aids to scientific research of
+the century, who constructed the best working chemical
+laboratory on the continent and founded the
+most celebrated schools of chemistry in Europe, invented
+a battery, sometimes called the carbon battery,
+in which the expensive pole of platinum in the Grove
+battery is replaced by one of carbon. It was found
+that this combination gave a greater current than that
+of zinc and platinum.</p>
+
+<p>A great variety of useful voltaic batteries have
+since been devised by others, too numerous to be
+mentioned here. There is another form of battery
+having for its object the storing of energy by electrolysis,
+and liberating it when desired, in the form
+of an electric current, and known as an accumulator,
+or secondary, polarization, or storage battery. Prof.
+Ritter had noticed that the two plates of metal which
+furnished the electric current, when placed in the
+acid liquid and united, could in themselves furnish
+a current, and the inventing of <i>storage</i> batteries was
+thus produced. The principal ones of this class are
+Gustave Plant&eacute;’s of 1860 and M. Camille Faure’s
+of 1880. These have still further been improved.
+Still another form are the <i>thermo-electric batteries</i>,
+in which the electro-motive force is produced by the
+joining of two different metals, connecting them by
+a wire and heating their junctions. Thus, an electric
+current is obtained directly from heat, without
+going through the intermediate processes of boiling
+water to produce steam, using this steam to drive an
+engine, and using this engine to turn a dynamo machine
+to produce power.</p>
+
+<p>But let us retrace our steps:&mdash;As previously stated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_121" id="PAGE_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+Franklin had experimented with frictional electricity
+on needles, and had magnetised and polarised them
+and noticed their deflection; and Lesage had established
+an experimental telegraph at Geneva by the
+same kind of electricity more than a hundred years
+ago. But frictional electricity could not be transmitted
+with power over long distances, and was for
+practical purposes uncontrollable by reason of its
+great diffusion over surfaces, while voltaic electricity
+was found to be more intense and could be
+developed with great power along a wire for any
+distance. Fine wires had been heated and even
+melted by Franklin by frictional electricity, and now
+Ritter, Pfaff and others observed the same effect
+produced on the conducting wires by a voltaic current;
+and Curtet, on closing the passage with a piece
+of charcoal, produced a brilliant light, which was
+followed by Davy’s light already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1802 an Italian savant, Gian D. Romagnosi
+of Trent, learning of Volta’s discovery,
+observed and announced in a public print the deflection
+of the magnetic needle when placed near a
+parallel conductor of the galvanic current. In the
+years 1819 and 1820 so many brilliant discoveries
+and inventions were made by eminent men, independently
+and together, and at such near and distant
+places, that it is hard telling who and which was
+first. It was in 1819 that the celebrated Danish
+physicist, Oersted of Copenhagen, rediscovered the
+phenomena that the voltaic current would deflect a
+magnetic needle, and that the needle would turn at
+right angles to the wire. In 1820 Prof. S. C.
+Schweigger of Halle discovered that this deflecting
+force was increased when the wire was wound several
+times round the needle, and thus he invented<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_122" id="PAGE_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+the magnetising helix. He also then invented
+a galvano-magnetic indicator (a single-wire circuit)
+by giving the insulated wire a number of turns
+around an elongated frame longitudinally enclosing
+the compass needle, thus multiplying the effect of the
+current upon the sensitive needle, and converting it
+into a practical <i>measuring</i> instrument&mdash;known as
+the galvanometer, and used to observe the strength of
+currents. In the same year Arago found that iron
+filings were attracted by a voltaic charged wire; and
+Arago and Davy that a piece of soft iron surrounded
+spirally by a wire through which such a current was
+passed would become magnetic, attract to it other
+metals while in that condition, immediately drop
+them the instant the current ceased, and that
+such current would permanently magnetise a steel
+bar. The elements of the <i>electro-magnet</i> had
+thus been produced. It was in that year that Amp&egrave;re
+discovered that magnetism is the circulation of
+currents of electricity at right angles to the axis of
+the needle or bar joining the two poles of the magnet.
+He then laid down the laws of interaction
+between magnets and electrical currents, and in
+this same year he proposed an electric-magneto telegraph
+consisting of the combination of a voltaic battery,
+conducting wires, and magnetic needles, one
+needle for each letter of the alphabet.</p>
+
+<p>The discoveries of Amp&egrave;re as to the laws of electricity
+have been likened to the discovery of Newton
+of the law of gravitation.</p>
+
+<p>Still no practical result, that is, no useful machine,
+had been produced by the electro-magnet.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 Sturgeon of England bent a piece of
+wire into the shape of a horse-shoe, insulated it with
+a coating of sealing wax, wound a fine copper wire<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_123" id="PAGE_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+around it, thus making a helix, passed a galvanic
+current through the helix, and thus invented the first
+practical electro-magnet. But Sturgeon’s magnet
+was weak, and could not transmit power for more
+than fifty feet. Already, however, it had been urged
+that Sturgeon’s magnet could be used for telegraphic
+purposes, and a futile trial was made. In the field
+during this decade also labored the German professors
+Gauss and Weber, and Baron Schilling of Russia.
+In 1829 Prof. Barlow of England published
+an article in which he summarised what had been
+done, and scientifically demonstrated to his own satisfaction
+that an electro-magnetic telegraph was impracticable,
+and his conclusion was accepted by the
+scientific world as a fact. This was, however, not
+the first nor the last time that scientific men had predicted
+impracticabilities with electricity which afterwards
+blossomed into full success. But even before
+Prof. Barlow was thus arriving at his discouraging
+conclusion, Prof. Joseph Henry at the Albany Institute
+in the State of New York had commenced experiments
+which resulted in the complete and successful
+demonstration of the power of electro-magnetism for
+not only telegraph purposes but for almost every advancement
+that has since been had in this branch of
+physics. In March 1829 he exhibited at his Institute
+the magnetic “spool” or “bobbin,” that form of coil
+composed of tightly-wound, silk-covered wire which
+he had constructed, and which since has been universally
+employed for nearly every application of
+electro-magnetism, of induction, or of magneto-electrics.
+And in the same year and in 1830 he
+produced those powerful magnets through which the
+energy of a galvanic battery was used to lift hundreds
+of tons of weight.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_124" id="PAGE_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In view of all the facts now historically established,
+there can be no doubt that previous to Henry’s
+experiments the means for developing magnetism in
+soft iron were imperfectly understood, and that, as
+found by Prof. Barlow, the electro-magnet which
+then existed was inapplicable and impracticable for
+the transmission of power to a distance. Prof.
+Henry was the first to prove that a galvanic battery
+of “intensity” must be employed to project the
+current through a long conductor, and that a magnet
+of one long wire must be used to receive this current;
+the first to magnetise a piece of soft iron at a
+distance and call attention to its applicability to the
+telegraph; the first to actually sound a bell at a distance
+by means of the electro-magnet; and the first to
+show that the principles he developed were applicable
+and necessary to the practical operation of an effective
+telegraph system.</p>
+
+<p>Sturgeon, the parent of the electro-magnet, on
+learning of Henry’s discoveries and inventions,
+wrote: “Professor Henry has been enabled to produce
+a magnetic force which totally eclipses every
+other in the whole annals of magnetism; and no
+parallel is to be found since the miraculous suspension
+of the celebrated oriental impostor in his iron
+coffin.” (<i>Philosophical Magazine and Annals</i>,
+1832.)</p>
+
+<p>The third decade was now prepared for the development
+of the telegraph. As to the telegraph in
+its broadest sense, as a means for conveying intelligence
+to a distance quickly and without a messenger,
+successful experiments of that kind have existed from
+the earliest times:&mdash;from the signal fires of the ancients;
+from the flag signals between ships at sea,
+introduced in the seventeenth century by the Duke<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_125" id="PAGE_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+of York, then Admiral of the English fleet, and
+afterwards James II of England; from the semaphore
+telegraph of M. Chappe, adopted by the French
+government in 1794, consisting of bars pivoted to
+an upright stationary post, and made to swing vertically
+or horizontally to indicate certain signals;
+and from many other forms of earlier and later days.</p>
+
+<p>As to electricity as an agent for the transmission
+of signals, the idea dates, as already stated, from
+the discovery of Stephen Gray in 1729, that the
+electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance
+by the means of an insulated wire. This was followed
+by the practical suggestions of Franklin and
+others. But when, as we have seen, voltaic electricity
+entered the field, electricity became a more
+powerful and tractable servant, and distant intelligent
+signals became one of its first labors.</p>
+
+<p>The second decade was also made notable by the
+discovery and establishment by George Simon Ohm,
+a German professor of Physics, of the fundamental
+mathematical law of electricity: It has been expressed
+in the following terms: (a) the current
+strength is equal to the electro-motive force divided
+by the resistance; (b) the force is equal to the current
+strength multiplied by the resistance; (c) the
+resistance is equal to the force divided by the current
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>The historical development and evolution of the
+telegraph may be now summarized:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The discovery of galvanic electricity by Galvani&mdash;1786-1790.</p>
+
+<p>2. The galvanic or voltaic battery by Volta in
+1800.</p>
+
+<p>3. The galvanic influence on a magnetic needle
+by Romagnosi (1802) Oersted (1820).<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_126" id="PAGE_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. The galvanometer of Schweigger, 1820&mdash;the
+parent of the needle system.</p>
+
+<p>5. The electro-magnet by Arago and Sturgeon&mdash;1820-1825&mdash;the
+parent of the magnet system.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed in the third decade the important
+series of steps in the evolution, consisting of:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, and most vital, Henry’s discovery in 1829
+and 1830 of the “intensity” or spool-wound magnet,
+and its intimate relation to the “intensity” battery,
+and the subordinate use of an armature as the signalling
+device.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, Gauss’s improvement in 1833 (or probably
+Schilling’s considerably earlier) of reducing the electric
+conductors to a single circuit by the ingenious
+use of a dual sign so combined as to produce a true
+alphabet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, Weber’s discovery in 1833 that the conducting
+wires of an electric telegraph could be efficiently
+carried through the air without any insulation
+except at their points of support.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>, Daniell’s invention of a “constant” galvanic
+battery in 1836.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth</i>, Steinheil’s remarkable discovery in 1837
+that the earth may form the returning half of a
+closed galvanic circuit, so that a single conducting
+wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth</i>, Morse’s adaptation of the armature and
+electro-magnet of Henry as a recording instrument
+in 1837 in connection with his improvement in 1838
+on the Schilling, Gauss and Steinheil alphabets by
+employing the simple “dot and dash” alphabet in
+a single line. He was also assisted by the suggestions
+of Profs. Dana and Gale. To which must be added
+his adoption of Alfred Vail’s improved alphabet, and
+Vail’s practical suggestions in respect to the recording
+and other instrumentalities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_127" id="PAGE_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To these should be added the efforts in England,
+made almost simultaneously with those of Morse, of
+Wheatstone and Cook and Davy, who were reaching
+the same goal by somewhat different routes.</p>
+
+<p>Morse in 1837 commenced to put the results of his
+experiments and investigations in the form of
+caveats, applications and letters patent in the United
+States and in Europe. He struggled hard against indifference
+and poverty to introduce his invention to
+the world. It was not until 1844 that he reduced
+it to a commercial practical success. He then laid
+a telegraph from Washington to Baltimore under the
+auspices of the United States Government, which
+after long hesitation appropriated $30,000 for the
+purpose. It was on the 24th day of May, 1844, that
+the first formal message was transmitted on this line
+between the two cities and recorded by the electro-magnet
+in the dot and dash alphabet, and this was
+immediately followed by other messages on the same
+line.</p>
+
+<p>Morse gathered freely from all sources of which
+he could avail himself knowledge of what had gone
+before. He was not a scientific discoverer, but an
+inventor, who, adding a few ideas of his own to what
+had before been discovered, was the first to combine
+them in a practical useful device. What he did as
+an inventor, and what anyone may do to constitute
+himself an inventor, by giving to the world a device
+which is useful in the daily work of mankind, as
+distinguished from the scientific discoverer who stops
+short of successful industrial work, is thus stated by
+the United States Supreme Court in an opinion sustaining
+the validity of his patents, after all the previous
+art had been produced before it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“Neither can the inquiries he made nor the information<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_128" id="PAGE_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+or advice he received from men of science in
+the course of his researches impair his right to the
+character of an inventor. No invention can possibly
+be made, consisting of a combination of different elements
+of power, without a thorough knowledge of the
+properties of each of them, and the mode in which
+they operate on each other. And it can make no difference
+in this respect, whether he derives his information
+from books, or from conversation with men
+skilled in the science. If it were otherwise, no
+patent in which a combination of different elements
+is used would ever be obtained, for no man ever made
+such an invention without having first obtained this
+information, unless it was discovered by some fortunate
+accident. And it is evident that such an invention
+as the electro-magnetic telegraph could never
+have been brought into action without it; for a very
+high degree of scientific knowledge and the nicest
+skill in the mechanic arts are combined in it, and
+were both necessary to bring it into successful operation.
+The fact that Morse sought and obtained the
+necessary information and counsel from the best
+sources, and acted upon it, neither impairs his rights
+as an inventor nor detracts from his merits.”&mdash;<i>O’Reilly
+vs. Morse, 5 Howard</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The combination constituting Morse’s invention
+comprised a main wire circuit to transmit the current
+through its whole length whenever closed; a
+main galvanic battery to supply the current; operating
+keys to break and close the main circuit; office
+circuits; a circuit of conductors and batteries at each
+office to record the message there; receiving spring
+lever magnets to close an office circuit when a current
+passes through the main circuit; adjusting screws
+to vary the force of the main current; marking apparatus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_129" id="PAGE_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+consisting of pointed pieces of wire, to indent
+dots and lines upon paper; clockwork to move the
+paper indented; and magnet sounders to develop the
+power of the pointer and of the armatures to produce
+audible distinguishable sounds.</p>
+
+<p>It was soon learned by operators how to distinguish
+the signs or letters sent by the length of the “click”
+of the armature, and by thus reading by sound the
+reading of the signs on paper was dispensed with, and
+the device became an electric-magnetic acoustic telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>What is known as the Morse system has been improved,
+but its fundamental principles remain, and
+their world-wide use constitute still the daily evidence
+of the immense value of the invention to mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Before the 1844 reduction to practice, Morse had
+originated and laid the first submarine telegraph.
+This was in New York harbour in 1842. In a letter
+to the Secretary of the United States Treasury,
+August 10, 1843, he also suggested the project of an
+Atlantic telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>While Henry was busy with his great magnets and
+Morse struggling to introduce his telegraph, Michael
+Faraday was making those investigations and discoveries
+which were to result in the application of
+electricity to the service of man in still wider and
+grander fields.</p>
+
+<p>Faraday was a chemist, and Davy’s most brilliant
+pupil and efficient assistant. His earliest experiments
+were in the line of electrolysis. This was
+about 1822, but it was not until 1831 that he began
+to devote his brilliant talents as an experimentalist
+and lecturer wholly to electrical researches, and for
+a quarter of a century his patient, wonderful labours<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_130" id="PAGE_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+and discoveries continued. It has been said that
+“although Oersted was the discoverer of electro-magnetism
+and Amp&egrave;re its expounder, Faraday made the
+science of magnets electrically what it is at the present
+day.”</p>
+
+<p>Great magnetic power having been developed by
+passing a galvanic current around a bar of soft iron,
+Faraday concluded that it was reasonable to suppose
+that as mechanical action is accompanied by an equal
+amount of reaction, electricity ought to be evolved
+from magnetism.</p>
+
+<p>“It was in 1831 that Faraday demonstrated before
+the Royal Society that if a magnetized bar of
+steel be introduced into the centre of a helix of insulated
+wire, there is at the moment of introduction
+of the magnet a current of electricity set up in a
+certain direction in the insulated wire forming the
+helix, while on the withdrawal of the magnet from
+the helix a current in an opposite direction takes
+place.</p>
+
+<p>“He also discovered that the same phenomenon was
+to be observed if for the magnet was substituted a
+coil of insulated wire, through which the current
+from a voltaic element was passing; and further
+that when an insulated coil of wire was made to revolve
+before the poles of a permanent magnet, electric
+currents were induced in the wires of the coil.”&mdash;<i>Journal
+of the Society of Arts.</i></p>
+
+<p>On these discoveries were based the action of all
+magneto-dynamo electric machines&mdash;machines that
+have enabled the world to convert the energy of a
+steam engine in its stall, or a distant waterfall, into
+electric energy for the performance of the herculean
+labours of lighting a great city, or an ocean-bound
+lighthouse, or transporting quickly heavy loads of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_131" id="PAGE_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+people or freight up and down and to and fro upon
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p>As before stated, Faraday was also the first to proclaim
+the laws of electrolysis, or electro-chemical
+decomposition. He expressed conviction that the
+forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one
+and the same. Subsequently the great Helmholtz,
+having proved by experiment that in the phenomena
+of electrolysis no other force acts but the mutual attractions
+of the atomic electric charges, came to the
+conclusion, “that the very mightiest among the chemical
+forces are of electric origin.”</p>
+
+<p>Faraday having demonstrated by his experiments
+that chemical decomposition, electricity, magnetism,
+heat and light, are all inter-convertible and correlated
+forces, the inventors of the age were now ready
+to step forward and put these theories at work in machines
+in the service of man. Faraday was a leader
+in the field of discovery. He left to inventors the
+practical application of his discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. Henry in America was, contemporaneously
+with Faraday, developing electricity by means of
+magnetic induction.</p>
+
+<p>In 1832, Pixii, a philosophical instrument-maker
+of Paris, and Joseph Saxton, an American then residing
+in London, invented and constructed magneto-machines
+on Faraday’s principle of rendering magnetic
+a core of soft iron surrounded with insulated
+wire from a permanent magnet, and rapidly reversing
+its polarity, which machines were used to produce
+sparks, decompose liquids and metals, and fire combustible
+bodies. Saxton’s machine was the well-known
+electric shock machine operated by turning a
+crank. A similar device is now used for ringing
+telephone call bells.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_132" id="PAGE_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Prof. C. G. Page of Washington and Ruhmkorff
+of Paris each made a machine, well known as the
+Ruhmkorff coil, by which intense electro-magnetic
+currents by induction were produced. The production
+of electrical illumination was now talked of more
+than ever. Scientists and inventors now had two
+forms of electrical machines to produce light: the
+voltaic battery and the magneto-electric apparatus.
+But a period of comparative rest took place in this
+line until 1850, when Prof. Nollet of Brussels made
+an effort to produce a powerful magneto-electric
+machine for decomposing water into its elements of
+hydrogen and oxygen, which gases were then to be
+used in producing the lime light; and a company
+known as “The Alliance” was organized at Paris to
+make large machines for the production of light.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that Davy produced a brilliant electric
+light with two pieces of charcoal in the electric
+circuit of a voltaic battery. Greener and Staite revived
+this idea in a patent in 1845. Shortly after
+Nollet’s machine, F. H. Holmes of England improved
+it and applied the current directly to the production
+of electric light between carbon points. And
+Holmes and Faraday in 1857 prepared this machine
+for use.</p>
+
+<p>On the evening of December 8, 1858, the first practical
+electric light, the work of Faraday and Holmes,
+flashed over the troubled sea from the South Foreland
+Lighthouse. On June 6, 1862, this light was also
+introduced into the lighthouse at Dungeness, England.
+The same light was introduced in French
+lighthouses in December, 1863, and also in the work
+on the docks of Cherbourg. At this time Germany
+was also awake to the importance of this invention,
+and Dr. Werner Siemens of Berlin was at work developing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_133" id="PAGE_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>a machine for the purpose into one of less
+cost and of greater use. Inventors were not yet
+satisfied with the power developed from either the
+voltaic battery or the magneto-electric machine, and
+continued to improve the latter.</p>
+
+<p>In 1867, the same year that Faraday died, and too
+late for him to witness its glory, came out the most
+powerful magneto-electric machine that had yet been
+produced. It was invented by Wilde of London, and
+consisted of very large electro-magnets, or field magnets,
+receiving their electric power from the “lines
+of force” discovered by Faraday, radiating from the
+poles of a soft iron magnet, combined with a small
+magneto-electric machine having permanent magnets,
+and by which the current developed in the
+smaller machine was sent through the coils of the
+larger magnets. By this method the magnetic force
+was vastly multiplied, and electricity was produced
+in such abundance as to fuse thick iron wire fifteen
+inches long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter,
+and to develop a magnificent arc light. Quickly succeeding
+the Wilde machine came independent inventions
+in the same direction from Messrs. G. Farmer
+of Salem, Mass., Alfred Yarley and Prof. Charles
+Wheatstone of England, and Dr. Siemens of Berlin,
+and Ladd of America. These inventors conceived
+and put in practice the great idea of employing the
+current from an electro-magnetic machine to excite
+its own electric magnet. They were thus termed
+“self-exciting.” The idea was that the commutator
+(an instrument to change the direction, strength or
+circuit of the current) should be so connected with the
+coils of the field magnets that all or a part of the current
+developed in the armature would flow through
+these coils, so that all permanent magnets might be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_134" id="PAGE_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+dispensed with, and the machine used to excite itself
+or charge its own field magnets without the aid of
+any outside charging or feeding mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Z. Gramme, of France, a little later than
+Wilde made a great improvement. Previously,
+machines furnished only momentary currents of
+varying strength and polarity; and these intermittent
+currents were hard to control without loss in the
+strength of current and the frequent production of
+sparks. Gramme produced a machine in which, although
+as in other machines the magnetic field of
+force was created by a powerful magnet, yet the armature
+was a ring made of soft iron rods, and surrounded
+by an endless coil of wire, and made to revolve
+between the poles of the magnet with great
+rapidity, producing a constant current in one direction.
+By Faraday’s discovery, when the coil of the
+closed circuit was moved before the poles of the magnet,
+the current was carried half the time in one
+direction and half in the other, constituting what is
+called an alternating current. Gramme employed
+the commutator to make the current direct instead
+of alternating.</p>
+
+<p>Dynamo-electric machines for practical work of
+many kinds had now been born and grown to
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these and many other electrical
+machines this century has discovered several ways
+by which the electricity developed by such machines
+may be converted into light. I. By means of two
+carbon conductors between which passes a series of
+intensely brilliant sparks which form a species of
+flame known as the <i>voltaic arc</i>, and the heat of which
+is more intense than that from any other known artificial
+source. II. By means of a rod of carbon or<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_135" id="PAGE_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+kaolin, strip of platinum or iridium, a carbon filament,
+or other substance placed between two conductors,
+the resistance opposed by such rod, strip, or filament
+to the passage of the current being so great as
+to develop heat to the point of incandescence, and
+produce a steady white and pure light. Attempts
+also have been made to produce illumination by what
+is called stratified light produced by the electric discharge
+passing through tubes containing various
+gases. These tubes are known as Geissler tubes, from
+their inventor. Still another method is the production
+of a continuous light from a vibratory movement
+of carbon electrodes to and from each other,
+producing a bright flash at each separation, and
+maintaining the separations at such a rate that the
+effect of the light produced is continuous. But these
+additional methods do not appear as yet to be commercially
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be overlooked that before dynamo-magneto-electric
+machines were used practically in
+the production of the electric light for the purposes
+of illumination, the voltaic battery was used for the
+same purpose, but not economically.</p>
+
+<p>The first private dwelling house ever lighted in
+America, or doubtless anywhere else, by electricity,
+was that of Moses G. Farmer, in Salem, Massachusetts,
+in the year 1859. A voltaic battery furnished
+the current to conducting wires which led to two
+electric lamps on the mantel-piece of the drawing-room,
+and in which strips of platinum constituted
+the resisting and lighting medium. A soft, mild,
+agreeable light was produced, which was more delightful
+to read or sew by than any artificial light
+ever before known. Either or both lamps could be
+lighted by turning a button, and they were maintained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_136" id="PAGE_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>for several weeks, but were discontinued for
+the reason that the cost of maintaining them was
+much greater than of gas light.</p>
+
+<p>It was in connection with the effective dynamo-electric
+apparatus of M. Gramme above referred to
+that the electric candle invented by M. Paul Jablochoff
+became soon thereafter extensively employed
+for electric lighting in Paris, and elsewhere in
+Europe. This invention, like the great majority
+of useful inventions, is noted for its simplicity. It
+consists of two carbon pencils placed side by side and
+insulated from each other by means of a thin plate
+of some refractory material which is a non-conductor
+at ordinary temperatures, but which becomes
+a conductor, and consequently a light, when fused by
+the action of a powerful current. Plaster of Paris
+was found to be the most suitable material for this
+purpose, and the light produced was soft, mellow,
+slightly rose-coloured, and quite agreeable to the eye.</p>
+
+<p>It having been found that carbon was better
+adapted for lighting purposes than platinum or other
+metals, by reason of its greater radiating power for
+equal temperatures, and still greater infusibility at
+high temperatures, inventors turned their attention
+to the production of the best carbon lamp.</p>
+
+<p>The two pointed pieces of hard conducting carbon
+used for the separated terminals constitute the voltaic
+arc light&mdash;a light only excelled in intense brilliancy
+by the sun itself. It is necessary in order to
+make such a light successful that it should be continuous.
+But as it is found that both carbons waste
+away under the consuming action of the intense heat
+engendered by their resistance to the electric current,
+and that one electrode, the positive, wastes away
+twice as fast as the opposite negative electrode, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_137" id="PAGE_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+distance between the points soon becomes too great
+for the current longer to leap over it, and the light
+is then extinguished. Many ingenious contrivances
+have been devised for correcting this trouble, and
+maintaining a continuously uniform distance between
+the carbons by giving to them a self-adjusting automatic
+action. Such an apparatus is called a <i>regulator</i>,
+and the variety of regulators is very great.
+The French were among the first to contrive such
+regulators,&mdash;Duboscq, Foucault, Serrin, Houdin, and
+Lontin invented most useful forms of such apparatus.
+Other early inventors were Hart of Scotland, Siemens
+of Germany, Thompson and Houston of England,
+and Farmer, Brush, Wallace, Maxim, and
+Weston and Westinghouse of America. Gramme
+made his armature of iron rods to prevent its destruction
+by heat. Weston in 1882 improved this
+method by making the armature of separate and insulated
+sheets of iron around which the coil is wound.
+The arc light is adapted for streets and great buildings,
+etc.; but for indoor illumination, when a milder,
+softer light is desirable, the <i>incandescent</i> light was
+invented, and this consists of a curved filament of
+carbon about the size of a coarse horsehair, seated
+in a bulb of glass from which the air has been exhausted.
+In exhausted air carbon rods or filaments
+are not consumed, and so great ingenuity was exercised
+on that line. Among the early noted inventors
+of incandescent carbon filament lamps were Edison
+and Maxim of New York, Swan, and Lane-Fox of
+England.</p>
+
+<p>Another problem to be solved arose in the proposed
+use of arc lamps upon an extended scale, or in
+series, as in street lighting, wherein the current to
+all lamps was supplied by a single wire, and where<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_138" id="PAGE_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+it was found that owing to the unequal consumption
+of the carbons some were burning well, some poorly,
+and some going out. It was essential, therefore, to
+make each lamp independent of the resistance of the
+main circuit and of the action of the other lamps,
+and to have its regulating mechanism governed entirely
+by the resistance of its own arc. The solution
+of this difficult problem was the invention by Heffner
+von Alteneck of Germany, and his device came
+into use wherever throughout the world arc lamps
+were operated. Westinghouse also improved the
+direct alternating system of lighting by one wire by
+the introduction of two conducting wires parallel to
+each other, and passing an interrupted or alternating
+current through one, thereby inducing a similar
+and always an alternating current through the other.
+Brush adopted a three-wire system; and both obtained
+a uniform consumption of the carbons.</p>
+
+<p>In a volume like this, room exists for mention only
+of those inventions which burn as beacon lights on
+the tallest hills&mdash;and so we must now pass on to
+others.</p>
+
+<p>Just as Faraday was bringing his long series of
+experimental researches to a close in 1856-59, and
+introducing the fruits of his labours into the lighthouses
+of England, Cyrus W. Field of New York
+had commenced his trials in the great scheme of an
+ocean cable to “moor the new world alongside the
+old,” as John Bright expressed it. After crossing
+the ocean from New York to England fifty times,
+and baffled often by the ocean, which broke his cables,
+and by the incredulous public of both hemispheres,
+who laughed at him, and by electricity, which refused
+to do his bidding, he at last overcame all obstacles,
+and in 1866 the cable two thousand miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_139" id="PAGE_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+in length had been successfully stretched and communication
+perfected. To employ currents of great
+power, the cable insulation would have been disintegrated
+and finally destroyed by heat. Therefore
+only feeble currents could be used. But across that
+long distance these currents for many reasons grew
+still weaker. The inventor, Sir William Thomson,
+was at hand to provide the remedy. First, by his
+<i>mirror galvanometer</i>. A needle in the shape of a
+small magnet and connected to the current wires, is
+attached to the back of a small concave mirror having
+a hole in its centre; opposite the mirror is placed
+a graduated scale board, having slits through it, and
+a lighted lamp behind it. The light is thrown
+through the slits across to the hole at the center of
+the mirror and upon the needle. The feeblest imaginable
+current suffices to deflect the needle in one direction,
+which throws back the little beam of light upon
+it to the graduated front of the scale. When the current
+is reversed the needle and its shadow are deflected
+in the other direction, and so by a combination
+of right and left motions, and pauses, of the spots of
+light to represent letters, the message is spelled out.
+Second, a more expeditious instrument called the
+<i>syphon recorder</i>. In this the galvanometer needle is
+connected to a fine glass syphon tube conducting ink
+from a reservoir on to a strip of paper which is
+drawn under the point of the tube with a uniform
+motion. The irregular movements given the galvanometer
+needle by the varying current are clearly delineated
+on the paper. Or in writing very long cables
+the point of the syphon may not touch the paper, but
+the ink by electrical attraction from the paper is
+ejected from the syphon upon the paper in a succession
+of fine dots. The irregular lines of dots and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_140" id="PAGE_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+dashes were translated into words in accordance with
+the principles of the Morse telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>An instrument was exhibited at the Centennial
+International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876,
+which was considered by the judges “the greatest
+marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph.”
+Such was the language used both by Prof. Joseph
+Henry and Sir Wm. Thomson, and concurred in by
+the other eminent judges from America, Germany,
+France, Austria and Switzerland. This instrument
+was the <i>Telephone</i>. It embodied, for the practical
+purpose of transmitting articulate speech to distances,
+the union of the two great forces,&mdash;sound and electricity.
+It consisted of a method and an apparatus.
+The apparatus or means consisted of an electric battery
+circuit, a transmitting cone placed at one end
+of the line into which speech and other vocal sounds
+were uttered, a diaphragm against which the sounds
+were projected, an armature secured to or forming a
+part of the diaphragm, an electro-magnet loosely
+connected to the armature, a wire connecting this
+magnet with another precisely similar arrangement
+of magnet, armature, diaphragm, and cone, at the
+receiving end. When speech was uttered in the transmitter
+the sound vibrations were received on the diaphragm,
+communicated to the electricised armature,
+from thence by induction to the magnet and the connecting
+wire current, which, undulating with precisely
+the same form of sound vibrations, carried
+them in exactly the same form to the receiving magnet.
+They were then carried through the receiving
+armature and reproduced on the receiving diaphragm,
+with all the same characteristics of pitch, loudness
+and quality.</p>
+
+<p>The inventor was Alexander Graham Bell, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_141" id="PAGE_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+nativity a Scotchman, then a resident of Canada, and
+finally a citizen of the United States. His father
+was a teacher of vocal physiology at Edinburgh, and
+he himself became a teacher of deaf mutes. This occupation
+naturally led him to a thorough investigation
+of the laws of sound. He acknowledged the aid
+he received from the great work of Helmholtz on the
+<i>Theory of Tone</i>. His attention was called to sounds
+transmitted and reproduced by the electric current,
+especially by the ease with which telegraph operators
+read their messages by the duration of the “click”
+of their instruments. He knew of the old device of
+a tightly-stretched string or wire between two little
+boxes. He had read the publication of Prof. C. G.
+Page, of America, in 1837, on the <i>Production of
+Galvanic Music</i>, in which was described how musical
+notes were transmitted and reproduced by an interrupted
+magnetic circuit. He became acquainted with
+the experimental musical telephonic and acoustic researches
+of Reis, and others of Germany, and those of
+celebrated scientists in France, especially the phonautograph
+of Scott, a delicate instrument having a
+cone membrane and pointer, and used to reproduce
+on smoked glass the waves of sound. He commenced
+his experiments with magneto instruments in 1874,
+continued them in 1875, when he succeeded in reproducing
+speech, but poorly, owing to his imperfect
+instruments, and then made out his application, and
+obtained a patent in the United States in July, 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Like all the other remarkable inventions recorded
+in these pages, this “marvel” did not spring forth
+as a sudden creation, but was a slow growth of a plant
+derived from old ideas, although it blossomed out
+suddenly one day when audible sounds were accidentally
+produced upon an apparatus with which he was
+experimenting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_142" id="PAGE_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is impossible here to narrate the tremendous
+conflict that Bell now encountered to establish his
+title as first inventor, or to enumerate the multitude
+of improvements and changes made which go to make
+up the successful telephone of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The messages of the voice are carried on the wings
+of electricity wherever any messages are carried, except
+under the widest seas, and this difficulty inventors
+are now seeking to overcome.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the marvellous inventions of the century
+in electricity is a fascinating one, but in length
+and details it is also marvellous, and we must hasten
+unwillingly to a close. Numerous applications of it
+will be mentioned in chapters relating to other arts.</p>
+
+<p>In the generation of this mighty force improvements
+have been made, but those of greatest power
+still involve the principles discovered by Faraday
+and Henry seventy years ago. The ideas of Faraday
+of the “lines of force”&mdash;the magnetic power streaming
+from the poles of the magnet somewhat as the
+rays of heat issue on all sides from a hot body, forming
+the magnetic field&mdash;and that a magnet behaves like
+an electric current, producing an electric wave by its
+approach to or recession from a coil of wire, joined
+with Henry’s idea of increasing the magnetising
+effect by increasing the number of coils around the
+magnet, enter into all powerful dynamo electric
+machines of to-day. In them the lines of force must
+flow around the frame and across the path of the
+armature; and there must be a set of conductors to
+cut the lines of force twice in every revolution of the
+cylinder carrying the armature from which the current
+is taken.</p>
+
+<p>When machines had been produced for generating
+with some economy powerful currents of electricity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_143" id="PAGE_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+their use for the world’s business purposes rapidly
+increased. Among such applications, and following
+closely the electric lighting, came the <i>electric railway</i>.
+A substitute for the slow animal, horse, and for the
+dangerous, noisy steam horse and its lumbering locomotive
+and train, was hailed with delight. Inventors
+came forward with adaptations of all the old systems
+they could think of for the purpose, and with many
+new ones. One plan was to adapt the storage battery&mdash;that
+silent chemical monster which carries its
+own power and its own machine&mdash;and place one on
+each car to actuate a motor connected to the driving
+wheels. Another plan was to conduct the current
+from the dynamo machine at its station along the
+rails on one side of the track to the motor on the car
+and the return current on the opposite track; another
+was to carry the current to the car on a third
+rail between the track, using both the other rails
+for the return; another to use an overhead wire for
+the current from the dynamo, and connect it with
+the car by a rod, one end of which had a little wheel
+or trolley running on the overhead wire, to take up
+the current, the other end being connected by a wire to
+the car motor; another plan to have a trench made
+leading from the central station underneath the track
+the whole length of the line, and put into this trench
+conducting wires from the dynamo, to one of which
+the car motor should be connected by a trolley rod or
+“brush,” extending down through a central slot between
+the rails of the track to carry the electric supply
+into the motor. In all these cases a lever was
+supplied to cut off communication between the conducting
+wire and the motor, and a brake lever to
+stop the car.</p>
+
+<p>All of these plans have been tried, and some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_144" id="PAGE_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+them are still being tried with many improvements
+in detail, but not in principle.</p>
+
+<p>The first electrical railway was constructed and
+operated at Berlin in 1879, by Messrs Siemens and
+Halske. It was two thousand seven hundred feet
+long and built on the third rail system. This was
+an experiment but a successful one. It was followed
+very soon by another line near Berlin for actual
+traffic; then still another in Saxony. At the
+Paris Exposition in 1881, Sir Wm. Siemens had in
+operation a road about one thousand six hundred feet
+in length, on which it is estimated ninety-five thousand
+passengers were conveyed in seven weeks. Then
+in the next year in London; and then in the following
+year one in the United States near New York, constructed
+by Edison. And thus they spread, until
+every important town and city in the world seems to
+have its electric plant, and its electric car system, and
+of course its lighting, telephone and telegraph
+systems.</p>
+
+<p>In 1882 Prof. Fleeming Jenkin of England invented
+and has put to use a system called <i>Telpherage</i>,
+by which cars are suspended on an overhead wire
+which is both the track and electrical conductor. It
+has been found to be advantageous in the transportation
+of freight from mines and other places to central
+stations.</p>
+
+<p>With the coming of the electric railway, the slow,
+much-abused horse, the puffing steam engine blowing
+off smoke and cinders through the streets, the great
+heavy cars, rails and roadbeds, the dangerous collisions
+and accidents, have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The great problems to solve have related to generation,
+form, distribution and division of the electric
+current at the dynamos at the central stations for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_145" id="PAGE_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+purposes of running the distant motors and for
+furnishing independent supplies of light, heat, sound and
+power. These problems have received the attention
+of the keenest inventors and electrical engineers and
+have been solved.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the inventions made by such
+electrical magicians as Thomas Edison and Nikola
+Tesla would fill volumes.</p>
+
+<p>The original plan of sending but one message over
+a wire at a time has also been improved; and duplex,
+quadruplex and multiplex systems have been invented
+(by Stearns, Farmer, Edison and others)
+and applied, which have multiplied the capacity of
+the telegraphs, and by which even the alleged all-talk-at-the-same-time
+habit of certain members of the
+great human family can be carried on in opposite
+directions on the same wire at the same time between
+their gatherings in different cities and without a
+break.</p>
+
+<p>To understand the manner of multiplying messages
+or signals on the same line, and using apparently
+the same electric current to perform different
+operations, the mind must revert to the theory already
+referred to, that a current of electricity does
+not consist of a stream of matter flowing like water
+through a conductor in one direction, but of particles
+of subtle ether, vibrating or oscillating in waves from
+and around the conductor which excites them; that
+the vibration of this line of waves proceeds at the rate
+of many thousand miles per second, almost with the
+velocity of waves of light, with which they are so
+closely related; that this wave current is susceptible
+of being varied in direction and in strength, according
+to the impulse given by the initial pressure of the
+transmitting and exciting instrument; and that some<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_146" id="PAGE_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+wave currents have power by reason of their form or
+strength to penetrate or pass others coming from an
+opposite direction. So that in the multiplex process,
+for instance, each transmission having a certain direction
+or strength and its own set of transmitting and
+receiving instruments, will have power to give its own
+peculiar and independent signal or message. Apparently
+there is but one continuous current, but in
+reality each transmission is separated from the others
+by an almost inconceivably short interval of time.</p>
+
+<p>Among the inventions in the class of Telegraphy
+should also be mentioned the dial and the printing
+systems. Ever since the electric telegraph was invented,
+attempts have been made to use the electric
+influence to operate either a pointer to point out the
+letters of the message sent on a dial, or to print them
+on a moving strip of paper; and also to automatically
+reproduce on paper the handwriting of the
+sender or writer of the message. The earliest efforts
+were by Cooke and Prof. Wheatstone of London, in
+1836-37; but it was not until 1839, after Prof.
+Henry had succeeded in perfecting the electromagnet,
+that dial and printing telegraphs were successfully
+produced. Dial telegraphs consist of the
+combination with magnets, armatures and printed
+dial plate of a clock-work and a pointer, means to
+set the pointer at the communicating end (which in
+some instances has been a piano keyboard) to any
+letter, the current operating automatically to indicate
+the same letters at the receiving end. These instruments
+have been modified and improved by Brequet
+and Froment of France, Dr. Siemens and Kramer,
+and Siemens and Halske of Germany, Prof. Wheatstone
+of England, Chester and Hamblet of America,
+and others. They have been used extensively upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_147" id="PAGE_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+private and municipal lines both in Europe and the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>The type-printing telegraph was coeval with the
+dial, and originated with Morse and Vail as early as
+1837. The printing of the characters is effected in
+various ways; sometimes by clockwork mechanism
+and sometimes by the direct action of an electromagnet.
+Wheatstone exhibited one in 1841. House
+of Vermont invented in 1845-1846 the first printing
+telegraph that was brought into any extensive use
+in the United States. Then followed that of David
+E. Hughes of Kentucky in 1855, aided by his co-inventor
+George M. Phelps of Troy, New York, and
+which was subsequently adopted by the French government,
+by the United Kingdom Telegraph Co.
+of Great Britain, and by the American Telegraph
+Co in the United States. The system was subsequently
+greatly improved by Hughes and others.
+Alexander Bain of Edinburgh in 1845-46 originated
+the modern automatic chemical telegraph. In this
+system a kind of punch was used to perforate two
+rows of holes grouped to represent letters on a strip
+of paper conducted over a metal cylinder and arranged
+so as to permit spring levers to drop through
+the perforations and touch the cylinder, thus forming
+an electrical contact; and a recording apparatus
+consisting of a strip of paper carried through a chemical
+solution of an acid and potash and over a metal
+roller, and underneath one or two styles, or pens,
+which pens were connected by live wires with the
+poles of two batteries at the sending station. The
+operation is such that colored marks upon the paper
+were made by the pens corresponding precisely to
+the perforations in the strip at the sending station.
+Siemens, Wheatstone and others also improved this<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_148" id="PAGE_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+system; but none of these systems have as yet replaced
+or equalled in extensive use the Morse key and
+sounder system, and its great acoustic advantage of
+reading the messages by the click of the instrument.
+The type-printing system, however, has been recently
+greatly improved by the inventions of Howe, C. L.
+Buckingham, Fiske and others in the United States.
+Special contrivances and adaptations of the telegraph
+for printing stock reports and for transmitting fire
+alarm, police, and emergency calls, have been invented.</p>
+
+<p>The erection of tall office and other buildings, some
+to the height of more than twenty stories, made practicable
+by the invention of the elevator system, has
+in turn brought out most ingenious devices for operating
+and controlling the elevators to insure safety
+and at the same time produce economy in the motive
+power.</p>
+
+<p>The utility of the telephone has been greatly increased
+by the inventions of Hughes and Edison of
+the <i>microphone</i>. This consists, in one form, of
+pieces of carbon in loose contact placed in the circuit
+of a telephone. The very slightest vibrations
+communicated to the wood are heard distinctly in
+the telephone. By these inventions and certain improvements
+not only every sound and note of an
+opera or concert has been carried to distant places,
+but the slightest whispers, the minute movements of
+a watch, even the tread of a fly, and the pressure of
+a finger, have been rendered audible.</p>
+
+<p>By the aid of the electric current certain rays of
+light directed upon the mineral selenium, and some
+other substances, have been discovered to emit musical
+sounds.</p>
+
+<p>So wonderful and mysterious appear these com<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_149" id="PAGE_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>munications
+along the electric wire that each and
+every force in the universe seems to have a voice
+awaiting utterance to man. The hope is indulged
+that by some such means we may indeed yet
+receive the “touch of a vanished hand and the sound
+of a voice that is still.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1879 that eminent English scientist, Prof. Wm.
+Crookes, published his extensive researches in electrical
+discharges as manifested in glass tubes from
+which the air had been exhausted. These same tubes
+have already been referred to as Geissler tubes, from
+the name of a young artist of Bonn who invented
+them. In these tubes are inclosed various gases through
+which the sparks from an induction coil can be passed
+by means of platinum electrodes fused into the glass,
+and on the passage of the current a soft and delicately-tinted
+light is produced which streams through the
+tube from pole to pole.</p>
+
+<p>In 1895, Wm. Konrad Roentgen, professor of
+Physics in the Royal University of Würzburg, while
+experimenting with these Crookes and Geissler tubes,
+discovered with one of them, which he had covered
+with a sort of black cardboard, that the rays
+emanating from the same and impinging on certain
+objects would render them self-luminous, or fluorescent;
+and on further investigation that such rays,
+unlike the rays of sunlight, were not deflected, refracted
+or condensed; but that they proceeded in
+straight lines from the point at which they were produced,
+and penetrated various articles, such as flesh,
+blood, and muscle, and thicknesses of paper, cloth
+and leather, and other substances which are opaque
+to ordinary light; and that thus while penetrating
+such objects and rendering them luminous, if a portion
+of the same were of a character too dense to ad<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_150" id="PAGE_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>mit
+of the penetration, the dark shadow of such obstacle
+would appear in the otherwise luminous mass.</p>
+
+<p>Unable to explain the nature or cause of this
+wonderful revelation, Roentgen gave to the light an
+algebraic name for the unknown&mdash;the X rays.</p>
+
+<p>This wonderful discovery, at first regarded as a
+figment of scientific magic, soon attracted profound
+attention. At first the experiments were confined to
+the gratification of curiosity&mdash;the interior of the
+hand was explored, and on one occasion the little
+mummified hand of an Egyptian princess folded in
+death three or four thousand years ago, was held up
+to this light, and the bones, dried blood, and muscle
+of the ancient Pharaohs exhibited to the startled
+eyes of the present generation. But soon surgery
+and medicine took advantage of the unknown rays
+for practical purposes. The location of previously
+unreachable bullets, and the condition of internal
+injuries, were determined; the cause of concealed
+disease was traced, the living brain explored, and
+the pulsations of the living heart were witnessed.</p>
+
+<p>Retardation of the strength of the electric current
+by the inductive influence of neighboring wires and
+earth currents, together with the theory that the
+electric energy pervades all space and matter, gave
+rise to the idea that if the energy once established
+could be set in motion at such point above the ordinary
+surface of the earth as would free this upper
+current from all inductive disturbance, impulses of
+such power might be conveyed from one high point
+and communicated to another as to produce signals
+without the use of a conducting wire, retaining only
+the usual batteries and the earth connection. On
+July 30th, 1872, Mahlen Loomis of Washington, D.
+C., took out a patent for “the utilization of natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_151" id="PAGE_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+electricity from elevated points” for telegraphic
+purposes, based on the principle mentioned, and
+made successful experiments on the Blue Ridge
+mountains in Virginia near Washington, accounts of
+which were published in Washington papers at the
+time; but being poor and receiving no aid or encouragement
+he was compelled to give it up. Marconi
+of Italy has been more successful in this direction,
+and has sent electric messages and signals from
+high stations over the English Channel from the
+shores of France to England. So that now wireless
+telegraphy is an established fact.</p>
+
+<p>It is certainly thrilling to realize that there is a
+mysterious, silent, invisible and powerful mechanical
+agent on every side of us, waiting to do our bidding,
+and to lend a hand in every field of human
+labour, and yet unable to be so used without excitement
+to action and direction in its course by some
+master, intermediate between itself and man. The
+principal masters for this purpose are steam and
+water power. A small portion of the power of the
+resistless Niagara has been taken, diverted to turn
+the machinery which excites electricity to action,
+and this energy in turn employed to operate a multitude
+of the most powerful motors and machines of
+many descriptions.</p>
+
+<p>So great is the might of this willing agent that at
+a single turn of the hand of man it rushes forth
+to do work for him far exceeding in wonder and extent
+any labour of the gods of mythological renown.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_152" id="PAGE_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+HOISTING, CONVEYING AND STORING.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Allusion has been made to the stupendous buildings
+and works of the ancients and of the middle
+ages; the immense multitude of workers and great
+extent of time and labour employed in their construction;
+and how the awful drudgery involved in
+such undertakings was relieved by the invention of
+modern engineering devices&mdash;the cranes, the derricks,
+and the steam giants to operate them, so that
+vast loads which required large numbers of men and
+beasts to move, and long periods of time in which to
+move them, can now be lifted with ease and carried
+to great heights and distances in a few minutes by
+the hands of one or of a few men.</p>
+
+<p>But outside of the line of such undertakings there
+is an immense field of labor-saving appliances
+adapted for use in transportation of smaller loads
+from place to place, within and without buildings,
+and for carrying people and freight from the lower
+to the upper stories of tall structures. In fact the
+tall buildings which we see now in almost every
+great city towering cloudward from the ground to
+the height of fifteen, twenty and twenty-five stories,
+would have been extravagant and useless had not
+the invention of the modern elevator rendered their
+highest parts as easy of access as their lowest, and at
+the same time given to the air space above the city<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_153" id="PAGE_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+lot as great a commercial value in feet and inches as
+the stretch of earth itself.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the “sky-scrapers” so called, are splendid
+monuments of the latest inventions of the century.</p>
+
+<p>It is by means of the modern elevator that the
+business of a whole town may be transacted under a
+single roof.</p>
+
+<p>In the multiplicity of modern human contrivances
+by which the sweat and drudgery of life are saved,
+and time economised for worthier objects, we are
+apt to overlook the painful and laborious steps by
+which they were reached, and to regard with impatience,
+or at least with indifference, the story of
+their evolution; and yet no correct or profound
+knowledge of the growth of humanity to its higher
+planes can be obtained without noting to what extent
+the minor inventions, as well as the startling ones,
+have aided the upward progress.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, consider how few and comparatively
+awkward were the mechanical means before this
+century. The innumerable army of men when men
+were slaves, and when blood and muscle and brain
+were cheap, who, labouring with the beast, toiled upward
+for years on inclined ways to lay the stones
+of the stupendous pyramids, still had their counterpart
+centuries later in the stream of men carrying on
+their shoulders the loads of grain and other freight
+and burdens from the shore to the holds of vessels,
+from vessels to the shore, from the ground to high
+buildings and from one part of great warehouses to
+another. Now look at a vessel moved to a wharf,
+capable of holding fifty thousand or one hundred
+thousand bushels of grain and having that amount
+poured into it in three hours from the spouts of an
+elevator, to which the grain has been carried in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_154" id="PAGE_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+myriad buckets on a chain by steam power in about
+the same time; or to those arrangements of carriers,
+travelling on ropes, cords, wires, or cables, by which
+materials are quickly conveyed from one part of some
+structure or place to another, as hay and grain in
+barns or mows, ores from mines to cars, merchandise
+of all kinds from one part of a great store to another;
+or shot through pipes underground from one section
+of a city or town to their destination by a current of
+air.</p>
+
+<p>True, as it has before been stated, the ancients
+and later generations had the wedge, the pulley, the
+inclined plane, the screw and the windlass, and by
+these powers, modified in form and increased in size
+as the occasion demanded, in the form of cranes, derricks,
+and operated by animal power, materials were
+lifted and transported; but down to the time of the
+practical and successful application of steam by
+Watt in the latter part of the 18th century, and
+until a much later period in most places in the world,
+these simple means actuated alone by men or animals
+were the best means employed for elevating and conveying
+loads, and even they were employed to a comparatively
+limited extent.</p>
+
+<p>The century was well started before it was common
+to employ cups on elevator bands in mills, invented
+by Oliver Evans in 1780, to carry grain to
+the top of the mill, from whence it was to fall by gravity
+to the grinding and flouring apparatus below.
+It was not until 1795 that that powerful modern apparatus&mdash;the
+hydraulic, or hydrostatic, press was
+patented by Bramah in England. The model he
+then made is now in the museum of the Commissioner
+of Patents, London. In this a reservoir for water is
+provided, on which is placed a pump having a piston<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_155" id="PAGE_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+rod worked by a hand lever. The water is conveyed
+from the reservoir to a cylinder by a pipe, and this
+cylinder is provided with a piston carrying at its
+top a table, which rises between guides. The load to
+be carried is placed on this table, and as the machine
+was at first designed to compress materials the load
+is pressed by the rising table against an upper stationary
+plate. The elevation of the table is proportionate
+to the quantity of water injected, and the
+power proportionate to the receptive areas of the
+pump and the cylinder. The first great application
+of machines built on this principle was by Robert
+Stephenson in the elevation of the gigantic tubes for
+the tubular bridge across the Menai straits, already
+described in the chapter on Civil Engineering. The
+century was half through with before it was proposed
+to use water and steam for passenger elevators.</p>
+
+<p>In 1852 J. T. Slade in England patented a device
+consisting of a drum to be actuated by steam,
+water, or compressed air, around which drum ropes
+were wound, and to which ropes were attached separate
+cages in separate wells, to counterbalance each
+other, the cages moving in guides, and provided with
+brakes and levers to stop and control the cages
+and the movement of the drum. Louis T. Van Elvean,
+also of England, in 1858 invented counterbalance
+weights for such lifts. Otis, an American,
+invented and patented in America and England
+in 1859 the first approach to the modern passenger
+elevator for hotels, warehouses, and other structures.
+The motive power was preferably a steam engine;
+and the elevating means was a large screw placed vertically
+and made to revolve by suitable gearing, and
+a cylinder to which the car was attached, having
+projections to work in the threads of the screw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_156" id="PAGE_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+Means were provided to start and to stop the car, and
+to retard its otherwise sudden fall and stoppage.</p>
+
+<p>Elevators, which are now so largely used to raise
+passengers and freight from the lower to the upper
+stories of high edifices, have for their motive power
+steam, water, compressed air, and electricity. With
+steam a drum is rotated over which a hoisting wire-rope
+is wound, to which the elevator car is attached.
+The car for passengers may be a small but elegantly
+furnished room, which is carried on guide blocks,
+and the stationary guides are provided with ratchet
+teeth with which pawls on the car are adapted to engage
+should the hoisting rope give way. To the
+hoisting rope is attached a counterbalance weight to
+partly meet the weight of the car in order to prevent
+the car from sticking fast on its passage, and also to
+prevent a sudden dropping of the car should the rope
+become slack. A hand rope for the operator is provided,
+which at its lower end is connected with a
+starting lever controlling the valves of the cylinders
+into which steam is admitted to start the piston shaft,
+which in turn actuates the gear wheels, by which
+movement the ropes are wound around the drums.</p>
+
+<p>In another form of steam elevator the drums are
+turned in opposite directions, by right and left worms
+driven by a belt.</p>
+
+<p>In the hydraulic form of elevator, a motor worked
+by water is employed to lift the car, although steam
+power is also employed to raise the water. The car
+is connected to wire cables passing over large sheaves
+at the top of the well room to a counterbalancing
+bucket. This bucket fits closely in a water-tight upright
+tube, or stand-pipe, about two feet in diameter,
+extending from the basement to the upper story.
+Near this stand-pipe in the upper story is placed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_157" id="PAGE_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+water supply tank. A pipe discharges the water
+from the tank into the bucket, which moves up and
+down in the stand pipe. There is a valve in the tank
+which is opened by stepping on a treadle in the car,
+and this action admits to the bucket just enough
+weight of water to overbalance the load on the car.
+As soon as the bucket is heavier than the car it descends,
+and of course draws the car upward, thus
+using the minimum power required to raise each load,
+rather than, when steam is employed, the full power
+of the engine each and every time. The speed is controlled
+by means of brakes or clamps that firmly clasp
+wrought-iron slides secured to posts on each side of
+the well room, the operator having control of these
+brakes by a lever on the car. When the car has ascended
+as far as desired, the operator steps upon another
+treadle in the car connected with a valve in the
+bottom of the bucket and thus discharges the water
+into the receiving tank below until the car is heavier
+than the bucket, when it then of course descends.
+The water is thus taken from the upper tank into the
+bucket, discharged through the stand-pipe into the
+receiving tank under the floor of the basement and
+then pumped back again to the upper tank, so that
+it is used over and over again without loss.</p>
+
+<p>Various modifications have been made in the hydraulic
+forms. In place of steam, electricity was
+introduced to control the hydraulic operation.
+Again, an electric motor has been invented to be
+placed on the car itself, with connected gearing engaging
+rack bars in the well.</p>
+
+<p>Elevators have been contrived automatically controlled
+by switch mechanisms on the landings; and in
+connection with the electric motor safety devices are
+used to break the motor circuit and thus stop the car<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_158" id="PAGE_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+the moment the elevator door is opened; and there
+are devices to break the circuit and stop the car at
+once, should an obstruction, the foot for instance,
+be accidentally thrust out into the path of the car
+frame. Columns of water and of air have been so
+arranged that should the car fall the fall will be
+broken by the water or air cushion made to yield
+gradually to the pressure. So many safety devices
+have been invented that there is now no excuse for
+accidents. They result by a criminal neglect of
+builders or engineers to provide themselves with such
+devices, or by a most ignorant or careless management
+and operation of simple actuating mechanisms.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1880 and 1890 there was great activity
+in the invention of what is known as store service
+conveyors. One of the earliest forms, and one which
+had been partly selected from other arts, was to suspend
+from a rigid frame work connected to the floor,
+roof, or side of the building, a long platform in the
+direction through the building it was desired the road
+to run, giving this platform a slight inclination. On
+this platform were placed tracks, and from the tracks
+were suspended trucks, baskets, or other merchandise
+receptacles, having wheels resting on and adapted
+to roll on the tracks. Double or single tracks could
+be provided as desired. The cars ran on these tracks
+by gravity, and considerable ingenuity was displayed
+in the feature alone of providing the out-going and
+returning inclined tracks; in hand straps and levers
+for raising and lowering the carriage, part or all of
+it, to or from the tracks, and in buffers to break the
+force of the blow of the carriages when arriving at
+their stopping places.</p>
+
+<p>Then about 1882-83 it was found by some inventors
+if moderately fine wires were stretched level,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_159" id="PAGE_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+and as tight as possible, they would afford such little
+friction and resistance to light and nicely balanced
+wheels, that no inclination of the tracks was necessary,
+and that the carriages mounted on such wheels
+and tracks would run the entire length of a long
+building and turn corners not too sharp by a single
+initial push of the hand. In other arrangements a
+carrier is self-propelled by means of a coiled spring
+on the carrier, which begins its operation as soon as
+the carrier is given a start; and to meet the exhausted
+strength of such spring, coiled springs at different
+points on the line are arranged to engage and give
+the carrier an additional push. Before the carrier
+is stopped its action is such as to automatically rewind
+its spring.</p>
+
+<p>A system of pneumatic transmission was invented,
+by which a carrier is caused to travel through a tube
+by the agency of an air current, created therein by an
+air compressor, blower, or similar device. The device
+is so arranged that the air current is caused to
+take either direction through the tube; and in some
+instances gravity may be used to assist a vacuum
+formed behind the carrier. The tube is controlled at
+each end by one or more sliding gates or valves, and
+the carrier is made to actuate the gates, and close the
+one behind it, so that the carrier may be discharged
+without permitting the escape of the air and consequent
+reduction of pressure.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting invention has been made by James
+M. Dodge of Philadelphia in the line of conveyors,
+whereby pea coal and other quite heavy materials introduced
+by a hopper into a trough are subjected to a
+powerful air blast which pushes the material forward;
+and as the trough is provided with a series of
+frequently occurring slots or perforations open to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_160" id="PAGE_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+outer air and inclined opposite the direction of travel,
+the powerful current from the blower in escaping
+through such outlets tends to lift or buoy the material
+and carry it forward in the air current, thereby
+greatly reducing frictional contact and increasing the
+impelling operation. The inventor claims that with
+such an apparatus many tons of material per hour
+may be conveyed with a comparatively small working
+air pressure.</p>
+
+<p>In order that a conveyor carriage may be automatically
+switched off at a certain place or station
+on the line, one mode adopted was to arrange at a
+gate or station a sort of pin or projection or other
+deflector to engage some recess or corresponding feature
+on the carriage, so as to arrest and turn the carriage
+in its new direction at that point. Another
+mode was the adoption of electro-magnets, which
+would operate at a certain place to arrest or divert
+the carriage; and in either case the carriage was so
+constructed that its engaging features would operate
+automatically only in conjunction with certain features
+at a particular place on the line.</p>
+
+<p>Signals have been also adopted, in some cases operated
+by an electric current, by which the operator
+can determine whether or not the controlling devices
+have operated to stop the carrier at the desired place.
+By electric or mechanical means it is also provided
+that one or more loop branches may be connected with
+or disconnected from the main circuit.</p>
+
+<p>The “lazy tongs” principle has been introduced,
+by which a long lazy-tongs is shot forth through
+a tube or box to carry forward the carriage;
+and the same principle is employed in fire-escapes
+to throw up a cage to a great height to a window or
+other point, which cage is lowered gently and safely<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_161" id="PAGE_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+by the same means to the ground. Buffers of all
+kinds have been devised to effect the stoppage of the
+carrier without injury thereto under the different
+degrees of force with which it is moved upon its way,
+to prevent rebounding, and to enable the carrier to be
+discharged with facility at the end of its route.</p>
+
+<p>Among the early mechanical means of transporting
+the carriage was an endless cable moved continuously
+by an engine, and this adoption of cable principle
+in store service was co-eval with its adoption for
+running street cars. Also the system of switching
+the cars from the main line to a branch, and in
+different parts of a city, at the same time that all
+lines are receiving their motive power from the main
+line, corresponds to the manner of conveying cash to
+all parts of a building at the same time from many
+points.</p>
+
+<p>To the great department store or monstrous building
+wherein, as we have said, the whole business of
+a town may be transacted, the assemblage and conjoint
+use of elevators and conveyors seem to be actually
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>A very useful and important line of inventions
+consists in means for forming connections between
+rotary shafts and their pulleys and mechanisms to
+be operated thereby, by which such mechanism can
+be started or stopped at once, or their motion reversed
+or retarded; or by which an actuating shaft
+may be automatically stopped. These means are
+known as <i>clutches</i>.</p>
+
+<p>They are designed often to afford a yielding connection
+between the shaft and a machine which shall
+prevent excessive strain and wear upon starting of
+the shaft. They are also often provided with a
+spring connection, which, in the rotation of the shaft<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_162" id="PAGE_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+in either direction, will operate to relieve the strain
+upon the shaft, or shafts, and its driving motor.
+Safety clutches are numerous, by which the machine
+is quickly and automatically stopped by the action
+of electro-magnets should a workman or other obstruction
+be caught in the machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Electric auxiliary mechanism has also been devised
+to start or stop the main machine slowly, and thus
+prevent injury to small or delicate parts of complicated
+machines, like printing presses for instance.
+Clutches are arranged sometimes in the form of
+weights, resembling the action of the weights
+in steam governors, whereby centrifugal action is relied
+upon for swinging the weights outward to effect a
+clutching and coupling of the shaft, or other mechanism,
+so that two lines of shafting are coupled, or the
+machine started, or speeded, at a certain time during
+the operation. In order to avoid the great mischief
+arising sometimes from undue strain upon and the
+breaking of a shaft, a weak coupling composed of a
+link is sometimes employed between the shaft and the
+driven machine, whereby, should the force become
+suddenly too great, the link of weaker metal is broken,
+and the connection between the shaft thereby destroyed
+and the machine stopped.</p>
+
+<p>To this class of inventions, as well as to many
+others, the phrase, “labour-saving”, is applied as a
+descriptive term, and as it is a correct one in most instances,
+since they save the labour of many human
+hands, they are regarded by many as detrimental to
+a great extent, as they result in throwing out of employment
+a large number of persons.</p>
+
+<p>This derangement does sometimes occur, but the
+curtailment of the number of labourers is but temporary
+after all.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_163" id="PAGE_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The increased production of materials, resulting
+from cheaper and better processes, and from the reduced
+cost of handling them, necessitates the employment
+of a larger number of persons to take care of,
+in many ways, the greater output caused by the increased
+demand; the new machinery demands the
+labour of additional numbers in its manufacture; the
+increase in the size and heights of buildings involves
+new modes of construction and a greater number of
+artisans in their erection; new forms of industry
+springing from every practical invention which produces
+a new product or results in a new mode of operation,
+complicates the systems of labour, and creates
+a demand for a large number of employers and
+employees in new fields. Hence, it is only necessary
+to resort to comparative, statistics (too extensive
+to cite here) to show that the number of unemployed
+people in proportion to the populations, is less
+in the present age than in any previous one. In
+this sense, therefore, inventions should be classed as
+labour-<i>increasing</i> devices.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_164" id="PAGE_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+HYDRAULICS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The science of Hydraulics appears to be as old as
+the thirst of man.</p>
+
+<p>When prehistoric men had only stone implements,
+with which to do their work, they built aqueducts,
+reservoirs and deep wells which rival in extent many
+great similar works that are the boast of their modern
+descendants. Modern inventors have also produced
+with a flourish nice instrumentalities for raising
+water, agencies which are covered with the moss of
+untold centuries in China.</p>
+
+<p>It was more than an ancient observation that came
+down to Pliny’s time for record, that water would
+rise to a level with its source. The observation, however,
+was put into practical use in his time and long
+before without a knowledge of its philosophical
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing in Egyptian sculpture portraying the arts
+in vogue around the cradle of the human race is older
+than the long lever rocking upon a cleft stick, one
+arm of the lever carrying a bracket and the other arm
+used to raise a bucket from a well. Forty centuries
+and more have not rendered this device obsolete.</p>
+
+<p>Among other machines of the Egyptians, the Carthaginians,
+the Greeks, and the Romans for raising
+water was the <i>tympanum</i>, a drum-shape wheel divided
+into radial partitions, chambers, or pockets,
+which were open to a short depth on the periphery<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_165" id="PAGE_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+of the wheel, and inclined toward the axis, and which
+was driven by animal or manual power. These
+pockets scooped up the water from the stream or
+pond in which the wheel was located as the wheel revolved,
+and directed it toward the axis of the wheel,
+where it ran out into troughs, pipes, or gutters.
+The <i>Noria</i>, a chain of pots, and the screw of Archimedes
+were other forms of ancient pumps. The
+bucket pumps with some modifications are known in
+modern times as scoop wheels, and have been used extensively
+in the drainage of lands, especially by the
+Dutch, who at first drove them by windmills and
+later by steam.</p>
+
+<p>The division of water-wheels into overshot, undershot
+and breast wheels is not a modern system.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Pneumatics of Hero</i>, which compilation
+of inventions appeared in 225 B. C., seventy-nine illustrations
+are given and described of simple machines,
+between sixty and seventy of which are hydraulic devices.
+Among these, are siphon pumps, the force
+pump of Ctesibius, a “fire-pump,” having two cylinders,
+and two pistons, valves, and levers. We have
+in a previous chapter referred to Hero’s steam engine.
+The fact that a vacuum may be created in a
+pump into which water will rise by atmospheric pressure
+appears to have been availed of but not explained
+or understood.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of the rope, pulley and windlass
+to raise water was known to Hero and his countrymen
+as well as by the Chinese before them. The
+chain pump and other pumps of simple form have
+only been improved since Hero’s day in matters of
+detail. The screw of Archimedes has been extended
+in application as a carrier of water, and converted
+into a conveyor of many other materials.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_166" id="PAGE_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus, aqueducts, reservoirs, water-wheels (used
+for grinding grain), simple forms of pumps, fountains,
+hydraulic organs, and a few other hydraulic
+devices, were known to ancient peoples, but their
+limited knowledge of the laws of pneumatics and
+their little mechanical skill prevented much general
+progress or extensive general use of such inventions.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that Frontinus, a Roman Consul, and inspector
+of public fountains and aqueducts in the
+reigns of Nerva and Trajan, and who wrote a book,
+<i>De Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae Commentarius</i>, describing
+the great aqueducts of Rome, was the first
+and the last of the ancients to attempt a scientific investigation
+of the motions of liquids.</p>
+
+<p>In 1593 Serviere, a Frenchman, born in Lyons,
+invented the rotary pump. In this the pistons consisted
+of two cog wheels, their leaves intermeshing,
+and rotated in an elliptical shaped chamber. The
+water entered the chamber from a lower pipe, and
+the action of the wheels was such as to carry the
+water around the chamber and force it out through
+an opposite upper pipe. Subsequent changes involved
+the rotating of the cylinder instead of the
+wheels and many modifications in the form of the
+wheels. The same principle was subsequently
+adopted in rotary steam engines.</p>
+
+<p>In 1586, a few years before this invention of Serviere,
+Stevinus, the great engineer of the dikes of
+Holland, wrote learnedly on the <i>Principles of
+Statics and Hydrostatics</i>, and Whewell states that
+his treatment of the subject embraces most of the
+elementary science of hydraulics and hydrostatics
+of the present day. This was followed by the investigations
+and treatises of Galileo, his pupil Torricelli,
+who discovered the law of air pressure, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_167" id="PAGE_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+great French genius, Pascal, and Sir Isaac Newton,
+in the 17th century; and Daniel Bernoulli, d’Alembert,
+Euler, the great German mathematician and
+inventor of the centrifugal pump, the Abb&eacute; Bossut,
+Venturi, Eylewein, and others in the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that
+mankind departed much from the practice of supplying
+their towns and cities with water from distant
+springs, rivers and lakes, by pipes and aqueducts,
+and resorted to water distribution systems from
+towers and elevated reservoirs. Certain cities in
+Germany and France were the first to do this, followed
+in the 18th century by England. This seems
+strange, as to England, as in 1582 one Peter Maurice,
+a Dutch engineer, erected at London, on the
+old arched bridge across the Thames, a series of
+forcing pumps worked by undershot wheels placed
+in the current of the river, by which he forced a supply
+of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty buildings
+adjacent to the bridge. Before the inventions
+of Newcomen and Watt in the latter part of the 18th
+century of steam pumps, the lift and force pumps
+were operated by wheels in currents, by horses, and
+sometimes by the force of currents of common sewers.</p>
+
+<p>When the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and
+cities thus began to be pumped for drinking purposes,
+<i>strainers</i> and <i>filters</i> of various kinds were invented
+of necessity. The first ones of which there is any
+printed record made their appearance in 1776.</p>
+
+<p>After the principles of hydraulics had thus been reviewed
+and discussed by the philosophers of the 17th
+and 18th centuries and applied, to the extent indicated,
+further application of them was made, and especially
+for the propelling of vessels. In 1718 La<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_168" id="PAGE_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+Hire revived and improved the double-acting pump of
+Ctesibius, but to what extent he put it into use does
+not appear. However, it was the double-acting pump
+having two chambers and two valves, and in which
+the piston acted to throw the water out at each stroke.</p>
+
+<p>In 1730 Dr. John Allen of England designed a vessel
+having a tunnel or pipe open at the stern thereof
+through which water was to be pumped into the air
+or sea&mdash;the reaction thus occasioned driving the vessel
+forward. He put such a vessel at work in a
+canal, working the pumps by manual labor, and suggested
+the employment of a steam engine. A vessel
+of this kind was patented by David Ramsey of England
+in 1738. Rumsey of America in 1782 also
+invented a similar vessel, built one 50 feet long, and
+ran it experimentally on the Potomac river. Dr.
+Franklin also planned a boat of this kind in 1785 and
+illustrated the same by sketches. His plan has since
+been tried on the Scheldt, but two turbines were substituted
+for his simple force pump. Further mention
+will be made later on of a few more elaborate inventions
+of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>It also having been discovered that the fall of a
+column of water in a tube would cause a portion of it
+to rise higher than its source by reason of the force of
+momentum, a machine was devised by which successive
+impulses of this force were used, in combination
+with atmospheric pressure, to raise a portion of the
+water at each impulse. This was the well-known
+<i>ram</i>, and the first inventor of such a machine was
+John Whitehurst of Cheapside, England, who constructed
+one in 1772. From a reservoir, spring, or
+cistern of water, the water was discharged downward
+into a long pipe of small diameter, and from thence
+into a shorter pipe governed by a stop-cock. On the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_169" id="PAGE_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+opening of the stop-cock the water was given a quick
+momentum, and on closing the cock water was forced
+by the continuing momentum through another pipe
+into an air chamber. A valve in the latter-mentioned
+pipe opened into the air chamber. The air
+pressure served to overcome the momentum and to
+close the chamber and at the same time forced the
+water received into the air chamber up an adjacent
+pipe. Another impulse was obtained and another injection
+of water into the chamber by again opening
+the stop-cock, and thus by successive impulses water
+was forced into the chamber and pressed by the air up
+through the discharge pipe and thence through a
+building or other receptacle. But the fact that the
+stop-valve had to be opened and closed by hand to obtain
+the desired number of lifts rendered the machine
+ineffective.</p>
+
+<p>In 1796 Montgolfier, a Frenchman and one of the
+inventors of the balloon, substituted for the stop-cock
+of the Whitehurst machine a loose impulse valve in
+the waste pipe, whereby the valve was raised by the
+rush of the water, made to set itself, check the outflow
+and turn the current into the air chamber. This
+simple alteration changed the character of the machine
+entirely, rendered it automatic in action and
+converted it into a highly successful water-raising
+machine. For this invention Montgolfier obtained
+a Gold Medal from the French Exposition of 1802.
+Where a head can be had from four to six feet, water
+can be raised to the height of 30 feet. Bodies of
+water greater in amount than is desired to be raised
+can thus be utilised, and this simple machine has
+come into very extensive use during the present century.</p>
+
+<p>Allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_170" id="PAGE_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>hydraulic press of Joseph Bramah invented in
+1795-1800, its practical introduction in this century
+and improvements therein of others. After
+the great improvements in the steam engine made
+by Watt, water, steam and air pressure joined their
+forces on the threshold of this century to lift and
+move the world, as it had never been moved before.</p>
+
+<p>The strong hands of hydraulics are pumps. They
+are divided into classes by names indicating their
+purpose and mode of operation, such as single,
+double-acting, lift or force, reciprocating or rotary,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>Knight, in his celebrated <i>Mechanical Dictionary</i>,
+enumerates 100 differently constructed pumps connected
+with the various arts. In a broader enumeration,
+under the head of <i>Hydraulic Engineering
+and Engineering Devices</i>, he gives a list of over 600
+species. The number has since increased. About
+nine-tenths of these contrivances have been invented
+during the 19th century, although the philosophical
+principles of the operation of most of them had
+been previously discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The important epochs in the invention of pumps,
+ending with the 18th century, were thus the single-acting
+pump of Ctesibius, 225 B. C., the double-acting
+of La Hire in 1718, the hydraulic ram of Whitehurst,
+1772, and the hydraulic press of Bramah of
+1795-1802.</p>
+
+<p>Bramah’s press illustrates how the theories of one
+age often lie dormant, but if true become the practices
+of a succeeding age. Pascal, 150 years before
+Bramah’s time, had written this seeming hydraulic
+paradox: “If a vessel closed on all sides has two
+openings, the one a hundred times as large as the
+other, and if each be supplied with a piston which<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_171" id="PAGE_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+fits it exactly, then a man pushing the small piston
+will equilibrate that of 100 men pushing the piston
+which is 100 times as large, and will overcome the
+other 99.” This is the law of the hydraulic press,
+that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same.</p>
+
+<p>The next important epoch was the invention of
+Forneyron in 1823, of the water-wheel known as the
+Turbine and also as the Vortex Wheel. If we will
+return a moment to the little steam engine of the
+ancient Hero of Alexandria, called the Eolipile, it
+will be remembered that the steam admitted into
+a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite
+pipes, having bent exits turned in contrary directions,
+caused the vessel to rotate by reason of the reaction of
+the steam against the pipes. In what is called
+Barker’s mill, brought out in the 18th century, substantially
+the same form of engine is seen with water
+substituted for the steam.</p>
+
+<p>A turbine is a wheel usually placed horizontally
+to the water. The wheel is provided with curved
+internal buckets against which the water is led by
+outer curved passages, the guides and the buckets
+both curved in such manner that the water shall
+enter the wheel as nearly as possible without shock,
+and leave it with the least possible velocity, thereby
+utilising the greatest possible amount of energy.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapter on Electrical inventions reference
+is made to the mighty power of Niagara used to actuate
+a great number of electrical and other machines
+of vast power. This utilisation had long been
+the dream of engineers. Sir William Siemens had
+said that the power of all the coal raised in the
+world would barely represent the power of Niagara.
+The dream has been realised, and the turbine is the
+apparatus through which the power of the harnessed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_172" id="PAGE_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+giant is transmitted. A canal is dug from the river
+a mile above the falls. It conducts water to a power
+house near the falls. At the power house the canal
+is furnished with a gate, and with cribs to keep
+back the obstructions, such as sticks. At the gate
+is placed a vertical iron tube called a penstock, 7&frac12; feet
+in diameter and 160 feet deep. At the bottom
+of the penstock is placed a turbine wheel fixed on a
+shaft, and to which shaft is connected an electric
+generator or other power machine. On opening the
+gate a mass of water 7&frac12; feet in diameter falls upon
+the turbine wheel 160 feet below. The water rushing
+through the wheel turns it and its shaft many
+hundred revolutions a minute. All the machinery
+is of enormous power and dimensions. One electric
+generator there is 11 feet 7 inches in diameter
+and spins around at the rate of 250 revolutions a
+minute. Means are provided by which the speed of
+each wheel is regulated automatically. Each turbine
+in a penstock represents the power of 5,000
+horses, and there are now ten or more employed.</p>
+
+<p>After the water has done its work on the wheels it
+falls into a tunnel and is carried back to the river
+below the falls. Not only are the manufactures of
+various kinds of a large town at the falls thus supplied
+with power, but electric power is transmitted
+to distant towns and cities.</p>
+
+<p>Turbine pumps of the Forneyron type have an outward
+flow; but another form, invented also by a
+Frenchman, Jonval, has a downward discharge, and
+others are oblique, double, combined turbine, rotary,
+and centrifugal, embodying similar principles. The
+term <i>rotary</i>, broadly speaking, includes turbine and
+centrifugal pumps. The centrifugal pump, invented<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_173" id="PAGE_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+by Euler in 1754, was taken up in the nineteenth
+century and greatly improved.</p>
+
+<p>In the centrifugal pump of the ordinary form the
+water is received at the centre of the wheel and diverted
+and carried out in an upward direction, but
+in most of its modern forms derived from the
+turbine, the principle is adopted of so shaping
+the vanes that the water, striking them in the
+curved direction, shall not have its line of curvature
+suddenly changed.</p>
+
+<p>Among modern inventions of this class of pumps
+was the “Massachusetts” of 1818 and McCarty’s, in
+1830, of America, that of some contemporary French
+engineers, and subsequently in France the Appold
+system, which latter was brought into prominent
+notice at the London Exposition of 1851. Improvements
+of great value were also made by Prof. James
+Thompson of England.</p>
+
+<p>Centrifugal pumps have been used with great success
+in lifting large bodies of water to a moderate
+height, and for draining marshes and other low lands.</p>
+
+<p>Holland, Germany, France, England and America
+have, through some of their ablest hydraulic engineers
+and inventors, produced most remarkable results
+in these various forms of pumps. We have
+noted what has been done at Niagara with the turbines;
+and the drainage of the marshes of Italy, the
+lowlands of Holland, the fens of England and the
+swamps of Florida bear evidence of the value of kindred
+inventions.</p>
+
+<p>That modern form of pump known as the <i>injector</i>,
+has many uses in the arts and manufactures.
+One of its most useful functions is to automatically
+supply steam boilers with water, and regulate the
+supply. It was the invention of Giffard, patented<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_174" id="PAGE_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+in England in 1858, and consists of a steam pipe
+leading from the boiler and having its nozzle projecting
+into an annular space which communicates
+with a feed pipe from a water supply. A jet of
+steam is discharged with force into this space, producing
+a vacuum, into which the water from the
+feed pipe rushes, and the condensed steam and water
+are driven by the momentum of the jet into a pipe
+leading into the boiler. This exceedingly useful
+apparatus has been improved and universally used
+wherever steam boilers are found. This idea of
+injecting a stream of steam or water to create or increase
+the flow of another stream has been applied
+in <i>intensifiers</i>, to increase the pressure of water in
+hydraulic mains, pipes, and machines, by additional
+pressure energy. Thus the water from an ordinary
+main may be given such an increased pressure that
+a jet from a hydrant may be carried to the tops of
+high houses.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with pumping it may be said that
+a great deal has been discovered and invented during
+this century concerning the force and utilisation of
+jets of water and the force of water flowing through
+orifices. In the art of mining, a new system called
+<i>hydraulicising</i> has been introduced, by which jets
+of water at high pressure have been directed against
+banks and hills, which have crumbled, been washed
+away, and made to reveal any precious ore they have
+concealed.</p>
+
+<p>To assist this operation <i>flexible nozzles</i> have been
+invented which permit the stream to be easily turned
+in any desired direction.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic
+pressure, mention must be made of the recent
+invention of the <i>hydraulic jack</i>, a portable machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_175" id="PAGE_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+for raising loads, and which has displaced the older
+and less efficient screw jack. As an example of the
+practical utility of the hydraulic jack, about a half
+century ago it required the aid of 480 men working
+at capstans to raise the Luxor Obelisk in Paris,
+whilst within 30 years thereafter Cleopatra’s Needle,
+a heavier monument, was raised to its present position
+on the Thames embankment by four men each
+working one hydraulic jack.</p>
+
+<p>By the high pressures, or stresses given by the hydraulic
+press it was learned that cold metals have
+plasticity and can be moulded or stretched like other
+plastic bodies. Thus in one modification a machine
+is had for making lead pipes:&mdash;A “container”
+is filled with molten lead and then allowed to cool.
+The container is then forced by the pump
+against an elongated die of the size of the pipe required.
+A pressure from one to two tons per square
+inch is exerted, the lead is forced up through the die,
+and the pipe comes out completed. Wrought iron
+and cold steel can be forced like wax into different
+forms, and a rod of steel may be drawn through a
+die to form a piano wire.</p>
+
+<p>By another modification of the hydraulic press
+pipes and cables are covered with a coating of lead
+to prevent deterioration from rust and other causes.</p>
+
+<p>Not only are cotton and other bulky materials
+pressed into small compass by hydraulic machines,
+but very valuable oils are pressed from cotton seed
+and from other materials&mdash;the seed being first softened,
+then made into cakes, and the cakes pressed.</p>
+
+<p>If it is desired to line tunnels or other channels
+with a metal lining, shield or casing, large segments
+of iron to compose the casing are put in position, and
+as fast as the tunnel is excavated the casing is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_176" id="PAGE_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+pressed forward, and when the digging is done the
+cast-iron tunnel is complete.</p>
+
+<p>If the iron hoops on great casks are to be tightened
+the cask is set on the plate of a hydraulic press,
+the hoops connected to a series of steel arms projecting
+from an overhanging support, and the cask is
+pressed upward until the proper degree of tightness
+is secured.</p>
+
+<p>In the application of hydraulic power to machine
+tools great advances have been made. It has become
+a system, in which Tweddle of England was a
+pioneer. The great force of water pressure combined
+with comparatively slow motion constitutes the
+basis of the system. Sir William Fairbairn had
+done with steam what Tweddle and others accomplished
+with water. Thus the enormous force of men
+and the fearful clatter formerly displayed in these
+huge works where the riveting of boilers was carried
+on can now be dispensed with, and in place of the
+noisy hammer with its ceaseless blows has come the
+steam or the hydraulic riveting machine, which noiselessly
+drives the rivet through any thickness of metal,
+clinches the same, and smooths the jointed plate.
+The forging and the rolling of the plates are performed
+by the same means.</p>
+
+<p>William George Armstrong of England, afterward
+Sir William, first a lawyer, but with the strongest
+bearing toward mechanical subjects, performed a
+great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering.
+It is claimed that he did for hydraulic
+machinery, in the storage and transmission of power
+thereby, what Watt did for the steam engine and
+Bessemer did for steel. In 1838 he produced his
+first invention, an important improvement in the
+hydraulic engine. In 1840, in a letter to the <i>Me<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_177" id="PAGE_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>chanics’
+Magazine</i>, he calls attention to the advantages
+of water as a mechanical agent and a reservoir
+of power, and showed how water pumped to
+an elevated reservoir by a steam engine might
+have the potential energy thus stored utilised
+in many advantageous ways. How, for instance,
+a small engine pumping continuously could thus
+supply many large engines working intermittently.
+In illustration of this idea he invented a crane, which
+was erected on Newcastle quay in 1846; another was
+constructed on the Albert dock at Liverpool, and
+others at other places. These cranes, adapted for the
+lifting and carrying of enormous loads, were worked
+by hydraulic pressure obtained from elevated tanks
+or reservoirs, as above indicated. But as a substitute
+for such tanks or reservoirs he invented the <i>Accumulator</i>.
+This consists of a large cast-iron cylinder
+fitted with a plunger, which is made to work water-tight
+therein by means of suitable packing. To this
+plunger is attached a weighted case filled with one or
+many tons of metal or other coarse material. Water
+is pumped into the cylinder until the plunger is
+raised to its full height within the cylinder, when the
+supply of water is cut off by the automatic operation
+of a valve. When the cranes or other apparatus to be
+worked thereby are in operation, water is passed
+from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates
+the crane through hydraulic pressure. This
+pressure of course depends upon the weight of the
+plunger. Thus a pressure of from 500 to 1,000
+pounds per square inch may be obtained. The descending
+plunger maintains a constant pressure
+upon the water, and the water is only pumped into
+the cylinder when it is required to be filled. With
+sensitive accumulators of this character hydraulic<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_178" id="PAGE_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+machinery is much used on board ships for steering
+them, and for loading, discharging and storing cargoes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water Pressure Engines</i> or <i>Water Motors</i> of a
+great variety as to useful details have been invented
+to take advantage of a natural head of water from falls
+wherever it exists, or from artificial accumulators or
+from street mains. They resemble steam engines, in
+that the water under pressure drives a piston in a
+cylinder somewhat in the manner of steam. The
+underlying principle of this class of machinery is
+the admission of water under pressure to a cylinder
+which moves the piston and is allowed to escape on
+the completion of the stroke. They are divided
+into two great classes, single and double acting engines,
+accordingly as the water is admitted to one
+side of the piston only, or to both sides alternately.
+Both kinds are provided with a regulator in the
+form of a turn-cock, weight, or spring valve to regulate
+and control the flow of water and to make it
+continuous. They are used for furnishing a limited
+amount of power for working small printing
+presses, dental engines, organs, sewing machines,
+and for many other purposes where a light motor
+is desired.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century has seen a revolution in
+<i>baths</i> and accompanying <i>closets</i>. However useful,
+luxurious, and magnificent may have been the patrician
+baths of ancient Rome, that system, which modern
+investigators have found to be so complete to a certain
+extent, was not nor ever has been in the possession
+of the poor. It is within the memory of many
+now living everywhere how wretched was the sanitary
+accommodations in every populous place a generation
+or two ago. Now, with the modern water distribu<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_179" id="PAGE_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>tion
+systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which
+can be brought to the homes of all, with plunger,
+valved siphon and valved and washout closets, air
+valve, liquid seal, pipe inlet, and valve seal traps,
+and with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning
+systems for drains and cesspools, little excuse can be
+had for want of proper sanitary regulations in any
+intelligent community. The result of the adoption
+of these modern improvements in this direction on the
+health of the people has been to banish plagues, curtail
+epidemics, and prolong for years the average duration
+of human life.</p>
+
+<p>How multiplied are the uses to which water is
+put, and how completely it is being subjected to the
+use of man!</p>
+
+<p>Rivers and pipes have their metres, so that now
+the velocity and volume of rivers and streams are
+measured and controlled, and floods prevented. The
+supplies for cities and for families are estimated,
+measured and recorded as easily as are the supplies
+of illuminating gas, or the flow of food from elevators.</p>
+
+<p>Among the minor, but very useful inventions, are
+<i>water scoops</i> for picking up water for a train while
+in motion, consisting of a curved open pipe on a car,
+the mouth of which strikes a current of water in an
+open trough between the tracks and picks up and
+deposits in a minute a car load of water for the engine.
+<i>Nozzles</i> to emit jets of great velocity, and
+ball nozzles terminating in a cup in which a ball
+is loosely seated, and which has the effect, as it is
+lifted by the jet, to spread it into an umbrella-shaped
+spray, are of great value at fires in quenching flame
+and smoke.</p>
+
+<p>Next to pure air to breathe we need pure water to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_180" id="PAGE_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+drink, and modern discoveries and inventions have
+done and are doing much to help us to both. Pasteur
+and others have discovered and explained the
+germ theory of disease and to what extent it is due
+to impure water. Inventors have produced <i>filters</i>,
+and there is a large class of that character which render
+the water pure as it enters the dwelling, and fit
+for all domestic purposes. A specimen of the latter
+class is one which is attached to the main service
+pipe as it enters from the street. The water is
+first led into a cylinder stored with coarse filtering
+material which clears the water of mud, sediment and
+coarser impurities, and then is conducted into a second
+cylinder provided with a mass of fine grained
+or powdered charcoal, or some other material which
+has the quality of not only arresting all remaining
+injurious ingredients, but destroys organisms, neutralises
+ammonia and other deleterious matter.
+From thence the water is returned to the service pipe
+and distributed through the house. The filter may
+be thoroughly cleansed by reversing the movement
+of the water, and carrying it off through a drain
+pipe until it runs clear and sweet, whereupon the
+water is turned in its normal course through the
+filter and house.</p>
+
+<p>In a very recent report of General J. M. Wilson,
+Chief of Engineers, U.S.A., the subject of filtration
+of water, and especially of public water supplies in
+England, the United States, and on the Continent,
+is very thoroughly treated, and the conclusion arrived
+at there is that the system termed “the American,”
+or mechanical system, is the most successful
+one.</p>
+
+<p>This consists, first, in leading the water into one or
+more reservoirs, then coagulating suspended matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_181" id="PAGE_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+in the water by the use of the sulphate of alumina,
+and then allowing the water to flow through a body
+of coarse sand, by which the coagulated aluminated
+matter is caught and held in the interstices of the
+sand, and the bacteria arrested. All objectionable
+matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of
+the sand body, which portion is from time to time
+scraped off, and the whole sand mass occasionally
+washed out by upward currents of water forced
+through the same.</p>
+
+<p>By this system great rapidity of filtration is obtained,
+the rate being 120,000,000 gallons a day per
+acre.</p>
+
+<p>The English system consists more in the use of extended
+and successive reservoirs or beds of sand alone,
+or aided by the use of the sulphate. This also is
+extensively used in many large cities.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_182" id="PAGE_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>“The march of the human mind is slow,” exclaimed
+Burke in his great speech on “Conciliation
+with the Colonies.” It was at the beginning of the
+last quarter of the 18th century that he was speaking,
+and he was referring to the slow discovery of
+the eternal laws of Providence as applied in the
+field of political administration to distant colonies.
+The same could then have been said of the march
+of the human mind in the realms of Nature. How
+slow had been the apprehension of the forces of that
+kind but silent Mother whose strong arms are ever
+ready to lift and carry the burdens of men whenever
+her aid is diligently sought! The voice of
+Burke was, however, hardly silent when the human
+mind suddenly awoke, and its march in the realms
+of government and of natural science since then cannot
+be regarded as slow.</p>
+
+<p>More than fifteen centuries before Burke spoke,
+not only had Greece discovered the principles of
+political freedom for its citizens and its colonies, but
+the power of steam had been discovered, and experimental
+work been done with it.</p>
+
+<p>Yet when the famous orator made his speech the
+Grecian experiment was a toy of Kings, and the steam
+engine had just developed from this toy into a
+mighty engine in the hands of Watt. The age of
+mechanical inventions had just commenced with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_183" id="PAGE_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+the production of machines for spinning and
+weaving. And yet, in view of the rise of learning,
+and the appearance from time to time of
+mighty intellects in the highest walks of science, the
+growth of the mind in the line of useful machinery
+had indeed been strangely slow. “Learning” had
+revived in Italy in the 12th and 13th centuries and
+spread westward in the 14th. In the 15th, gunpowder
+and printing had been discovered, and Scaliger,
+the famous scholar of Italy, and Erasmus, the
+celebrated Dutch philosopher, were the leading restorers
+of ancient literature. Science then also revived,
+and Copernicus, the Pole, gave us the true
+theory of the solar system. The 16th century produced
+the great mathematicians and astronomers
+Tycho Brahe, the Dane, Cardan and Galileo, the illustrious
+Italians, and Kepler, the German astronomer,
+whose discovery of the laws of planetary motion
+supplemented the works of Copernicus and Galileo
+and illuminated the early years of the 17th century.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century appeared Torricelli, the inventor
+of the barometer; Guericke, the German, inventor
+of the air pump; Fahrenheit, the inventor of
+the mercurial thermometer bearing his name; Leibnitz,
+eminent in every department of science and
+philosophy; Huygens, the great Dutch astronomer
+and philosopher; Pascal of France and Sir Isaac
+Newton of England, the worthy successors of Kepler,
+Galileo and Copernicus; and yet, with the exception
+of philosophical discoveries and a few experiments,
+the field of invention in the way of motor
+engines still remained practically closed. But slight
+as had been the discoveries and experiments referred
+to, they were the mine from which the inventions of
+subsequent times were quarried.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_184" id="PAGE_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest, if not the first of pneumatic
+machines, was the bellows. Its invention followed
+the discovery of fire and of metals. The bladders
+of animals suggested it, and their skins were substituted
+for the bladders.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians have left a record of its use, thirty-four
+centuries ago, and its use has been continuous
+ever since.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has been made of the cannon. It was
+probably the earliest attempt to obtain motive power
+from heat. The ball was driven out of an iron cylinder
+by the inflammatory power of powder. Let a
+piston be substituted for the cannon ball, as was suggested
+by Huygens in 1680 and by Papin in 1690,
+and the charge of powder so reduced that when it is
+exploded the piston will not be thrown entirely out
+of the cylinder, another small explosive charge introduced
+on the other side of the piston to force it
+back, or let the cylinder be vertical and the piston
+be driven back by gravity, means provided to permit
+the escape of the gas after it has done its work,
+and means to keep the cylinder cool, and we have
+the prototype of the modern heat engines. The gunpowder
+experiments of Huygens and Papin were not
+successful, but they were the progenitors of similar
+inventions made two centuries thereafter.</p>
+
+<p>Jan Baptista van Helmont, a Flemish physician
+(1577-1644), was the first to apply the term, <i>gas</i>
+to the elastic fluids which resemble air in physical
+properties. Robert Boyle, the celebrated Irish
+scholar and scientist, and improver of the air pump,
+and Edwin Mariotte, the French physicist who was
+first to show that a feather and a coin will drop the
+same distance at the same time in a reservoir exhausted
+of air, were the independent discoverers of
+Boyle’s and Mariotte’s law of gases (1650-1676).<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_185" id="PAGE_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+This was that at any given temperature of a gas
+which is at rest its volume varies inversely with the
+pressure put upon it. It follows from this law that
+the density and tension, and therefore the expansive
+force of a gas, are proportional to the compressing
+force to which it is subjected. It is said that Abb&eacute;
+Hauteville, the son of a baker of Orleans, about
+1678 proposed to raise water by a powder motor;
+and that in 1682 he described a machine based on
+the principle of the circulation of the blood, produced
+by the alternate expansion and contraction
+of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>The production of heat by concentrating the rays
+of the sun, and for burning objects had been known
+from the time of Archimedes, and been repeated from
+time to time.</p>
+
+<p>Thus stood this art at the close of the 17th century,
+and thus it remained until near the close of the 18th.</p>
+
+<p>In England Murdock, the Cornish Steam Engineer,
+was the first to make and use coal gas for
+illuminating purposes, which he did in 1792 and
+1798. Its utilisation for other practical purposes
+was then suggested.</p>
+
+<p>Gas engines as motive powers were first described
+in the English patent to John Barber, in
+1791, and then in one issued to Robert Street in
+1794. Barber proposed to introduce a stream of
+carbonated hydrogen gas through one port, and a
+quantity of air at another, and explode them against
+the piston. Street proposed to drive up the piston by
+the expansive force of a heated gas, and anticipated
+many modern ideas. Phillipe Lebon, a French engineer,
+in 1799 and in 1801 anticipated in a theoretical
+way many ideas since successfully reduced
+to practice. He proposed to use coal gas to drive a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_186" id="PAGE_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+piston, which in turn should move the shaft that
+worked the pumps which forced in the gas and air,
+and thus make the machine double-acting; to introduce
+a charge of inflammable gas mixed with sufficient
+air to ignite it; to compress the air and gas
+before they entered the motor cylinder; to introduce
+the charge alternately on each side of the piston;
+and he also suggested the use of the electric spark
+to fire the mixture. But Lebon was assassinated
+and did not live to work out his ideas.</p>
+
+<p>At the very beginning of the 19th century John
+Dalton in England, 1801-1807, and Gay-Lussac in
+France began their investigations of gases and vapours.
+Dalton was not only the author of the atomic
+theory, but the discoverer of the leading ideas in the
+“Constitution of Mixed Gases.” These features were
+the diffusion of gases, the action of gases on each
+other in vacuum&mdash;the influence of different temperatures
+upon them, their chemical constituents and
+their relative specific gravity.</p>
+
+<p>Gay-Lussac, continuing his investigations as to
+expansion of air and gases under increased temperatures,
+in 1807-10, established the law that when free
+from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to
+equal amounts for all equal increments of temperature.
+He also showed that the gases combine, as
+to volume, in simple proportions, and that several of
+them on being compounded contracted always in
+such simple proportions as one-half, one-third, or
+one-quarter, of their joint bulk. By these laws all
+forms of engines which were made to work through
+the agency of heat are classed as heat engines&mdash;so
+that under this head are included steam engines, air
+engines, gas engines, vapour engines and solar
+engines. The tie that binds these engines into<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_187" id="PAGE_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+one great family is temperature. It is the heat that
+does the work. Whether it is a cannon, the power of
+which is manifested in a flash, or the slower moving
+steam engine, whose throbbing heart beats not until
+water is turned to steam, or the sun, the parent of
+them all, whose rays are grasped and used direct,
+the question in all cases is, what is the amount of
+heat produced and how can it be controlled?</p>
+
+<p>It, then, can make no difference what the agent
+is that is employed, whether air, or gas, or steam,
+or the sun, or gunpowder explosion, but what is the
+temperature to be attained in the cylinder or vessel in
+which they work. Power is the measure of work done
+in a given time. Horse power is the unit of such
+measurement, and it consists of the amount of power
+that is required to raise one pound through a vertical
+distance of one foot. This power is pressure and the
+pressure is heat. The unit of heat is the amount of
+heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of
+distilled water one degree&mdash;from 39 degrees to 40 degrees
+F. Its amount or measurement is determined
+in any instance by a dynamometer.</p>
+
+<p>These were the discoveries with which Philosophy
+opened the nineteenth century so brilliantly in the
+field of Pneumatics.</p>
+
+<p>Before that time it seemed impossible that explosive
+gases would ever be harnessed as steam had been
+and made to do continual successful work in a cylinder
+and behind a piston. As yet means were to be
+found to make the engine efficient as a double-acting
+one&mdash;to start the untamed steed at the proper moment
+and to stop him at the moment he had done his work.</p>
+
+<p>As Newcomen had been the first in the previous
+century to apply the steam engine to practical work&mdash;pumping
+water from mines&mdash;so Samuel Brown of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_188" id="PAGE_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+England was the first in this century to invent and
+use a gas engine upon the water.</p>
+
+<p>Brown took out patents in 1823 and 1826. He
+proposed to use gunpowder gas as the motive power.
+His engine was also described in the <i>Mechanics’
+Magazine</i> published in London at that time. In the
+making of his engine he followed the idea of a steam
+engine, but used the flame of an ignited gas jet to
+create a vacuum within the cylinder instead of steam.
+He fitted up an experimental boat with such an engine,
+and means upon the boat to generate the gas.
+The boat was then operated upon the Thames. He also
+succeeded experimentally in adapting his engine to
+a road carriage. But Brown’s machines were cumbrous,
+complicated, and difficult to work, and therefore
+did not come into public use.</p>
+
+<p>About this time (1823), Davy and Faraday reawakened
+interest in gas engines by their discovery
+that a number of gases could be reduced to a liquid
+state, some by great pressure, and others by cold, and
+that upon the release of the pressure the gases would
+return to their original volume. In the condensation
+heat was developed, and in re-expansion it was rendered
+latent.</p>
+
+<p>Then Wright in 1833 obtained a patent in which
+he expounded and illustrated the principles of expansion
+and compression of gas and air, performed in
+separate cylinders, the production of a vacuum by the
+explosion and the use of a water jacket around the
+cylinder for cooling it.</p>
+
+<p>For William Burdett, in 1838, is claimed the
+honour of having been the first to invent the means
+of compressing the gas and air previous to the explosion,
+substantially the same as adopted in gas engines
+of the present day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_189" id="PAGE_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The defects found in gas engines thus far were
+want of proper preliminary compression, then in
+complete expansion, and finally loss of heat through
+the walls.</p>
+
+<p>Some years later, Lenoir, a Frenchman, invented
+a gas engine of a successful type, of which three hundred
+in 1862 were in use in France. It showed
+what could be accomplished by an engine in which
+the fuel was introduced and fired directly in the piston
+cylinder. Its essential features were a cylinder
+into which a mixture of gas and air was admitted
+at atmospheric pressure, which was maintained until
+the piston made half its stroke, when the gas was exploded
+by an electric spark. A wheel of great weight
+was hung upon a shaft which was connected to the
+piston, and which weight absorbed the force suddenly
+developed by the explosion, and so moderated the
+speed. Another object of the use of the heavy wheel
+was to carry the machine over the one-half of the
+period in which the driving power was absent.</p>
+
+<p>Hugon, another eminent French engineer, invented
+and constructed a gas engine on the same principle
+as Lenair’s.</p>
+
+<p>About this time (1850-60) M. Beau de Rohes,
+a French engineer, thoroughly investigated the
+reasons of the uneconomical working of gas motors,
+and found that it was due to want of sufficient compression
+of the gas and air previous to explosion, incomplete
+expansion and loss of heat through the walls
+of the cylinder, and he was the first to formulate
+a “cycle” of operations necessary to be followed in
+order to render a gas engine efficient. They related
+to the size and dimensions of the cylinder; the maximum
+speed of the piston; the greatest possible expansion,
+and the highest pressure obtainable at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_190" id="PAGE_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+beginning of the act of expansion. The study and
+application of these conditions created great advancements
+in gas engines.</p>
+
+<p>With the discovery and development of the oil
+wells in the United States about 1860 a new fuel was
+found in the crude petroleum, as well as a source of
+light. The application of petroleum to engines,
+either to produce furnace heat, or as introduced
+directly into the piston cylinder mixed with inflammable
+gas to produce flame heat and expansion, has
+given a wonderful impetus to the utilisation of gas
+engines.</p>
+
+<p>G. H. Brayton of the United States in 1873 invented
+a very efficient engine in which the vapour of
+petroleum mixed with air constituted the fuel. Adolf
+Spiel of Berlin has also recently invented a petroleum
+engine.</p>
+
+<p>Principal among those to whom the world is indebted
+for the revolution in the construction of gas
+engines and its establishment as a successful rival to
+the steam engine is Nicolaus A. Otto of Deutz on the
+Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>In the Lenair and Hugon system the expansive
+force of the exploded gas was used directly upon the
+piston, and through this upon the other moving parts.
+A great noise was produced by these constant explosions.
+In the Otto system the explosion is used
+indirectly and only to produce a vacuum below the
+piston, when atmospheric pressure is used to give
+the return stroke of the piston and produce the
+effective work. The Otto engine is noiseless. This
+is accomplished by his method of mixing and admitting
+the gases. He employs two different mixtures,
+one a “feebly explosive mixture,” and the
+other “a strongly explosive mixture,” used to operate
+on the piston and thus prolong the explosions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_191" id="PAGE_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The mode of operation of one of Otto’s most successful
+engines is as follows: The large fly wheel is
+started by hand or other means, and as the piston
+moves forward it draws into the cylinder a light
+charge of mixed coal gas and air, and the gas inlet
+is then cut off. As the piston returns it compresses
+this mixture. At the moment the down stroke is
+completed the compressed mixture is ignited, and, expanding,
+drives the piston before it. In the second
+return stroke the burnt gases are expelled from the
+cylinder and the whole made ready to start afresh.
+Work is actually done in the piston only during one-quarter
+of the time it is in motion. The fly-wheel
+carries forward the work at the outset and the gearing
+the rest of the time.</p>
+
+<p>Otto was associated with Langen in producing his
+first machine, and its introduction at the Centennial
+Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 excited great attention.
+Otto and E. W. and W. J. Crossley jointly,
+and then Otto singly, subsequently patented notable
+improvements.</p>
+
+<p>Simon Bischof and Clark, Hurd and Clayton in
+England; Daimler of Deutz on the Rhine, Riker
+and Wiegand of the United States, and others, have
+made improvements in the Otto system.</p>
+
+<p>Ammoniacal gas engines have been successfully
+invented. <i>Aqua ammonia</i> is placed in a generator
+in which it is heated. The heat separates the ammonia
+gas from the water, and the gas is then used
+to operate a suitable engine. The exhaust gas is
+cooled, passed into the previously weakened solution,
+reabsorbed and returned to the generator. In 1890
+Charles Tellier of France patented an ammoniacal
+engine, also means for utilising solar heat and exhaust
+steam for the same purpose; and in the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_192" id="PAGE_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+year De Susini, also of France, patented an engine
+operated by the vapour of ether; A. Nobel, another
+Frenchman, in 1894, patented a machine for propelling
+torpedoes and other explosive missiles, and for
+controlling the course of balloons, the motive power
+of which is a gas developed in a closed reservoir by
+the chemical reaction of metallic sodium or potassium
+in a solution of ammonia. These vapour engines
+are used for vapour launches, bicycles and
+automobiles.</p>
+
+<p>In 1851 the ideas of Huygens and Papin of two
+hundred years before were revived by W. M. Storm,
+who in that year took out a gunpowder engine patent
+in the United States, in which the air was compressed
+by the explosions of small charges of gunpowder.
+About fifteen other patents have been taken out in
+America since that time for such engines. In some
+the engines are fed by cartridges which are exploded
+by pulling a trigger.</p>
+
+<p>As to gas and vapor engines generally, it may now
+be said, in comparison with steam, that although the
+steam engine is now regarded as almost perfect in
+operation, and that it can be started and stopped and
+otherwise controlled quietly, smoothly, instantaneously,
+and in the most uniform and satisfactory
+manner, yet there is the comparatively long delay
+in generating the steam in the boiler, and the loss of
+heat and power as it is conducted in pipes to the
+working cylinder, resulting in the utilisation of only
+ten per cent of the actual power generated, whereas
+gas and vapour engines utilise twenty-five per cent
+of the power generated, and the flame and explosions
+are now as easily and noiselessly controlled as the
+flow of oil or water. The world is coming to agree
+with Prof. Fleeming Jenkins that “Gas engines will
+ultimately supplant the steam.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_193" id="PAGE_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The smoke and cinder nuisance with them has been
+solved.</p>
+
+<p>The sister invention of the gas engine is the air
+engine. There can be no doubt about the success of
+this busy body, as it is now a swift and successful
+motor in a thousand different fields. Machines in
+which air, either hot or cold, is used in place of steam
+as the moving power to drive a piston, or to be driven
+by a piston, are known generally as air, caloric, or
+hot-air engines, air compressors, or compressed air
+engines, and are also classed as pneumatic machines,
+air brakes, or pumps. They are now specifically
+known by the name of the purpose to which they are
+applied, as air ship, ventilator, air brake, fan blower,
+air pistol, air spring, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The attention of inventors was directed towards
+compressed and heated air as a motor as soon as
+steam became a known and efficient servant; but the
+most important and the only successful air machine
+existing prior to this century was the air pump, invented
+by Guericke in 1650, and subsequently perfected
+by Robert Boyle and others. The original
+pump and the Magdeburg hemispheres are still
+preserved.</p>
+
+<p>It is recorded that Amontons of France, in 1699,
+had an atmospheric fire wheel or air engine in which
+a heated column of air was made to drive a wheel.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been noted what Papin (1680-1690)
+proposed and did in steam. His last published
+work was a Latin essay upon a new system for
+raising water by the action of fire, published in
+1707.</p>
+
+<p>The action of confined and compressed steam and
+gases, and air, is so nearly the same in the machines
+in which they constitute the motive power that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_194" id="PAGE_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+history, development, construction, and operation of
+the machines of one class are closely interwoven with
+those of the others.</p>
+
+<p>Taking advantage of what had been taught them
+by Watt and others as to steam and steam engines,
+and of the principles and laws of gases as expounded
+by Boyle, Mariotte, Dalton, and Gay-Lussac, that
+many of the gases, such as air, preserve a permanent
+expansive gaseous form under all degrees of temperature
+and compression to which they had as yet
+been subjected, that when compressed and released
+they will expand, and exert a pressure in the contrary
+direction until the gas and outside atmospheric pressure
+are in equilibrium, that this compressed gas
+pressure is equal, and transmitted equally in all directions,
+and that the weight of a column of air resting
+on every horizontal square inch at the sea level is
+very nearly 14.6 pounds, the inventors of the nineteenth
+century were enabled by this supreme illumination
+to enter with confidence into that work of mechanical
+contrivances which has rendered the age so
+marvellous.</p>
+
+<p>It was natural that in the first development of
+mechanical appliances they should be devoted to
+those pursuits in which men had the greatest practical
+interest. Thus as to steam it was first applied
+to the raising of water from mines and then to road
+vehicles. And so in 1800 Thos. Parkinson of England
+invented and patented an “hydrostatic engine
+or machine for the purpose of drawing beer or any
+other liquid out of a cellar or vault in a public house,
+which is likewise intended to be applied for raising
+water out of mines, ships or wells.” By the use of a
+sort of an air pump he maintained an air pressure
+on the beer in an air-tight cask situated in the cellar,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_195" id="PAGE_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+which was connected with pipes having air-tight
+valves, with the upper floor. The liquid was forced
+from the cellar by the air pressure, and when
+turned off, the air pressure was resumed in the cask,
+which “preserved the beer from being thrown into
+a state of flatness.” Substantially the same device
+in principle has been reinvented and incorporated
+in patents numerous times since.</p>
+
+<p>In the innumerable applications of the pneumatic
+machines and air tools of the century, especially of
+air-compressing devices, to the daily uses of life, we
+may, by turning first to our home, find its inner and
+outer walls painted by a pneumatic paint-spraying
+machine, for such have been made that will coat forty-six
+thousand square feet of surface in six hours; and
+it is said that paint can be thus applied not only more
+quickly, but more thoroughly and durably than by
+the old process. The periodical and fascinating practice
+of house cleaning is now greatly facilitated by
+an air brush having a pipe with a thin wide end in
+which are numerous perforations, and through which
+the air is forced by a little pump, and with which
+apparatus a far more efficient cleaning effect upon
+carpets, mattresses, curtains, clothes, and furniture
+can be obtained than by the time-honoured broom and
+duster.</p>
+
+<p>Is the home uncomfortable by reason of heat and
+summer insects? A compressor having tanks or cisterns
+in the cellar filled with cool or cold air may be
+set to work to reduce the temperature of the house
+and fan the inmates with a refreshing breeze.</p>
+
+<p>Air engines have been invented which can be used
+to either heat or cool the air, or do one or the other
+automatically. The heating when wanted is by fuel
+in a furnace forced up by a working cylinder, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_196" id="PAGE_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+cooling by the circulation of water around small, thin
+copper tubes through which the air passes to the
+cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>Do the chimes of the distant church bells lead one
+to the house of worship? The worshipper goes with
+the comforting assurance that the chimes which send
+forth such sweet harmonies are operated not by toiling,
+sweating men at ropes, but by a musician who
+plays as upon an organ, and works the keys, valves
+and stops by the aid of compressed air, and sometimes
+by the additional help of electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has already been made of office and other
+elevators, in which compressed air is an important
+factor in operating the same and for preventing accidents.</p>
+
+<p>If a waterfall is convenient, air is compressed by
+the body of descending water, and used to ventilate
+tunnels, and deep shafts and mines, or drive the
+drills or other tools.</p>
+
+<p>The pneumatic mail tube despatch system, by
+which letters, parcels, etc., are sent from place to
+place by the force of atmospheric pressure in an air-exhausted
+tube, is a decidedly modern invention, unknown
+in use even by those who are still children.
+Tubes as large as eight inches in diameter are now
+in use in which cartridge boxes are placed, each
+holding six hundred or more letters, and when the
+air is exhausted the cartridge is forced through the
+tubes to the distance sometimes of three miles and
+more in a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p>In travelling by rail the train is now guided in
+starting or in stopping on to the right track, which
+may be one out of forty or fifty, by a pneumatic
+switch, the switches for the whole number of tracks
+being under the control of a single operator. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_197" id="PAGE_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+fast-moving train is stopped by an air brake, and the
+locomotive bell is rung by touching an air cylinder.
+The “baggage smashing,” a custom more honoured
+in the breach than in the observance, is prevented by
+a pneumatic baggage arrangement consisting of an
+air-containing cylinder, and an arm on which to place
+the baggage, and which arm is then quickly raised by
+the cylinder piston and is automatically swung
+around by a cam action carrying the baggage out of
+or into the car.</p>
+
+<p>Bridge building has been so facilitated by the use
+of pneumatic machines for raising heavy loads of
+stone and iron, and for riveting and hammering, and
+other air tools, aided by the development in the art
+of quick transportation, that a firm of bridge builders
+in America can build a splendid bridge in Africa
+within a hundred days after the contract has been
+entered upon.</p>
+
+<p>Ship building is hastened by these same air drilling
+and riveting machines.</p>
+
+<p>The propelling of cars, road vehicles, boats, balloons,
+and even ships, by explosive gases and compressed
+air is an extensive art in itself, yet still in its
+infancy, and will be more fully described in the
+chapter on carrying machines.</p>
+
+<p>The realm of Art has received a notable advancement
+by the use of a little blow-pipe or atomiser by
+which the pigments forming the background on
+beautiful vases are blown with just that graduated
+force desired by the operator to produce the most exquisitely
+smooth and blended effects, while the varying
+colours are made to melt imperceptibly into one
+another as delicately as the mingled shade and coloured
+sunlight fall on a forest brook.</p>
+
+<p>But to enumerate the industrial arts to which air<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_198" id="PAGE_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+and other pneumatic machines have been adapted
+would be to catalogue them all. Mention is made of
+others in chapters in which those special arts are
+treated.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_199" id="PAGE_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATION
+AND LIGHTING.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>That Prometheus stole fire from heaven to give
+it to man is perhaps as authentic an account of the
+invention of fire as has been given. It is also reported
+that he brought it to earth in a hollow tube.
+If a small stick or twig had then been dipped into the
+divine fire the suggestion of the modern match may
+be supposed to have been made.</p>
+
+<p>But men went on to reproduce the fire in the old
+way by rubbing pieces of wood together, or using
+the flint, the steel and the tinder until 1680, when
+Godfrey Hanckwitz of London, learning of the recent
+discovery of phosphorus and its nature, and inspired
+by the Promethean idea, wrapped the phosphorus
+in folds of brown paper, rubbed it until it
+took fire, and then ignited thereat one end of a stick
+which he had dipped in sulphur; and this is commonly
+known as the first invented match. There followed
+the production of a somewhat different form of
+match, sticks first dipped in sulphur, and then in a
+composition of chlorate potash, sulphur, colophony,
+gum of sugar, and cinnabar for coloring. These
+were arranged in boxes, and were accompanied by
+a vial containing sulphuric acid, into which the
+match was dipped and thereby instantly ignited.
+These were called chemical matches and were sold at
+first for the high price of fifteen shillings a box.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_200" id="PAGE_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>They were too costly for common use, and so our
+fathers went on to the nineteenth century using the
+flint, the steel and the tinder, and depending on the
+coal kept alive upon their own or their neighbour’s
+hearth.</p>
+
+<p>Prometheus, however, did reappear about 1820-25,
+when a match bearing the name “Promethean”
+was invented. It consisted of a roll of paper treated
+with sugar and chlorate of potash and a small cell
+containing sulphuric acid. This cell was broken by a
+pair of pliers and the acid ignited the composition
+by contact therewith.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1827-29 that John Walker,
+chemist, at Stockton-upon-Tees, improved upon the
+idea of Prometheus and Hanckwitz of giving fire to
+men in a hollow tube. He used folded sanded
+paper&mdash;it may have been a tube&mdash;and through this
+he drew a stick coated with chlorate of potash and
+phosphorus. This successful match was named
+“Lucifer,” whose other name was Phosphor, the
+Morning Star, and the King of the Western Land.
+Faraday, to whom also was given Promethean inspiration,
+procured some of Walker’s matches and
+brought them to public notice.</p>
+
+<p>In many respects the mode of their manufacture
+has been improved, but in principle of composition
+and ignition they remain the same as Walker’s to-day.
+In 1845, Schrotter of Vienna discovered amorphous
+or allotropic phosphorus, which rendered the manufacture
+of matches less dangerous to health and property.
+Tons of chemicals and hundreds of pine trees
+are used yearly in the making of matches, and many
+hundreds of millions of them are daily consumed.</p>
+
+<p>But this vast number of matches could not be supplied
+had it not been for the invention of machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_201" id="PAGE_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+for making and packing them. Thus in 1842 Reuben
+Partridge of America patented a machine for making
+splints. Others for making splints and the matches
+separately, quickly followed. Together with these
+came match dipping and match box machines. The
+splint machines were for slitting a block of wood of
+the proper height downward nearly the whole way
+into match splints, leaving their butts in the solid
+wood. These were square and known as block
+matches. Other mechanisms cut and divided the
+block into strips, which were then dipped at one end,
+dried and tied in bundles. By other means, a swing
+blade, for instance, the matches were all severed from
+the block. Matches are made round by one machine
+by pressing the block against a plate having circular
+perforations, and the interspaces are beveled so as to
+form cutting edges.</p>
+
+<p>Poririer, a Frenchman, invented a machine for
+making match boxes of pasteboard. Suitable sized
+rectangular pieces of pasteboard rounded at the angles
+for making the body of the box are first cut, then
+these pieces are introduced into the machine, where
+by the single blow of a plunger they are forced into
+a matrix or die and pressed, and receive by this
+single motion their complete and final shape. The
+lid is made in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>By one modern invention matches after they are
+cut are fed into a machine at the rate of one hundred
+thousand an hour, on to a horizontal table, each
+match separated from the other by a thin partition.
+They are thus laid in rows, one row over another, and
+while being laid, the matches are pushed out a little
+way beyond the edge of the table, a distance far
+enough to expose their ends and to permit them to be
+dipped. When a number of these rows are completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_202" id="PAGE_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+they are clamped together in a bundle and then dipped&mdash;first,
+into a vessel of hot sulphur, and then into one
+of phosphorus, or other equivalent ingredients may
+be used or added. After the dipping they are subjected
+to a drying process and then boxed. Processes
+differ, but all are performed by machinery.</p>
+
+<p>In many factories where phosphorus is used without
+great care workmen have been greatly affected
+thereby. The fumes of the phosphorus attack the
+teeth, especially when decayed, and penetrate to the
+jaw, causing its gradual destruction, but this has
+been avoided by proper precautions.</p>
+
+<p>The greatly-increased facility of kindling a fire by
+matches gave an impetus to the invention of <i>cooking
+and heating stoves</i>. Of course stoves, generically
+speaking, are not a production of the nineteenth
+century. The Romans had their <i>laconicum</i> or heating
+stove, which from its name was an invention from
+Laconia. It probably was made in most cases of
+brick or marble, but might have been of beaten iron,
+was cylindrical in shape, with an open cupola at the
+top, and was heated by the flames of the <i>hypocaust</i>
+beneath. The <i>hypocaust</i> was a hot-air furnace built
+in the basement or cellar of the house and from
+which the heat was conducted by flues to the bath
+rooms and other apartments. The Chinese ages ago
+heated their hollow tiled floors by underground furnace
+fires. We know of the <i>athanor</i> of the alchemists
+of the middle ages. Knight calls it the “original
+base-burning furnace.” A furnace of iron or earthenware
+was provided on one side with an open stack
+or tower which opened at the bottom into the furnace,
+and which stack was kept filled with charcoal, or
+other fuel, which fed itself automatically into the furnace
+as the fuel on the bed thereof burned away.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_203" id="PAGE_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+Watt introduced an arrangement on the same principle
+in his steam boiler furnace in 1767, and thousands
+of stoves are now constructed within England
+and the United States also embodying the same principle.</p>
+
+<p>The earthenware and soapstone stoves of continental
+Europe were used long before the present century.</p>
+
+<p>In Ben Franklin’s time in the American Colonies
+there was not much of a demand for stoves outside of
+the largest cities, where wood was getting a little
+scarce and high, but the philosopher not only deemed
+it proper to invent an improvement in chimneys to
+prevent their smoking and to better heat the room, but
+also devised an improved form of stove, and both inventions
+have been in constant use unto this day.
+Franklin invented and introduced his celebrated
+stove, which he called the Pennsylvania Fire Place,
+in 1745, having all the advantages of a cheerful open
+fireplace, and a heat producer; and which consisted
+of an iron stove with an open front set well into the
+room, in which front part the fire was kindled, and
+the products of combustion conducted up a flue, and
+thence under a false back and up the chimney. Open
+heat spaces were left between the two flues. Air inlets
+and dampers were provided. In his description
+of this stove at that time Franklin also referred to
+the iron box stoves used by the Dutch, the iron plates
+extending from the hearths and sides, etc., chimneys
+making a double fireplace used by the French, and
+the German stove of iron plates, and so made that the
+fuel had to be put into it from another room or from
+the outside of the house. He dwells upon the pleasure
+of an open fire, and the destruction of this pleasure
+by the use of the closed stoves. He also describes<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_204" id="PAGE_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+the discomforts of the fireplace in cold weather&mdash;of
+the “cold draught nipping one’s back and heels”&mdash;“scorched
+before and frozen behind”&mdash;the sharp
+draughts of cold from crevices from which many
+catch cold and from “whence proceed coughs,
+catarrhs, toothaches, fevers, pleurisies and many
+other diseases.” Added to the pleasure of seeing the
+crackling flames, feeling the genial warmth, and the
+diffusion of a spirit of sociability and hospitality, is
+the fact of increased purity of the air by reason of
+the fireplace as a first-class ventilator. Hence it will
+never be discarded by those who can afford its use;
+but it alone is inadequate for heating and cooking
+purposes. It is modernly used as a luxury by those
+who are able to combine with it other means for
+heating.</p>
+
+<p>The great question for solution in this art at all
+times has been how to produce through dwelling
+houses and larger buildings in cold and damp weather
+a uniform distribution and circulation of pure
+heated air. The solution of this question has of
+course been greatly helped in modern times by a better
+knowledge of the nature of air and other gases,
+and the laws which govern their motions and combinations
+at different temperatures.</p>
+
+<p>The most successful form of heating coal stove of
+the century has been one that combined in itself the
+features of base-burning: that is, a covered magazine
+at the centre or back of the stove open at or near the
+top of the stove into which the coal is placed, and
+which then feeds to the bottom of the fire pot as fast
+as the coal is consumed, a heavy open fire pot placed
+as low as possible, an ash grate connected with the
+bottom of the pot which can be shaken and dumped
+to an ash box beneath without opening the stove, thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_205" id="PAGE_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+preventing the escape of the dust, an illuminating
+chamber nearly or entirely surrounding the fire pot,
+provided with mica windows, through which the fire
+is reflected and the heat radiated, a chamber above the
+fire pot and surrounding the fuel chamber and into
+which the heat and hot gases arise, producing additional
+radiating surface and permitting the gases to
+escape through a flue in the chimney, or, leading
+them first through another chamber to the base of the
+stove and thence out, and dampers to control and
+regulate the supply of air to the fuel, and to cut off
+the escape or control the course of the products of
+combustion.</p>
+
+<p>The cheerful stove fireplace and stove of Franklin
+and the French were revived, combined and improved
+some years ago by Capt. Douglas Galton of
+the English army for use in barracks, but this
+stove is also admirably adapted for houses. It consists
+of an open stove or grate set in or at the front
+of the fireplace with an air inlet from without, the
+throat of the fireplace closed and a pipe extending
+through it from the stove into the chimney. Although
+a steady flow of heat, desirable regulation of
+temperature and great economy in the consumption
+of fuel, by reason of the utilisation of so much of the
+heat produced, were obtained by the modern stove,
+yet the necessity of having a stove in nearly every
+room, the ill-ventilation due to the non-supply of pure
+outer air to the room, the occasional diffusion of
+ash dust and noxious gases from the stove, and inability
+to heat the air along the floor, gave rise to a
+revival of the hot-air furnace, placed under the floor
+in the basement or cellar, and many modern and radical
+improvements therein.</p>
+
+<p>The heat obtained from stoves is effected by radia<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_206" id="PAGE_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>tion&mdash;the
+throwing outward of the waves of heat
+from its source, while the heat obtained from a hot-air
+furnace is effected by convection&mdash;the moving
+of a body of air to be heated to the source of heat, and
+then when heated bodily conveyed to the room to be
+warmed. Hence in stoves and fireplaces only such
+obstruction is placed between the fire and the room
+as will serve to convey away the obnoxious smoke and
+gases, and the greatest facility is offered for radiation,
+while in hot-air furnaces, although provision
+is also made to carry away the smoke and impure
+gases, yet the radiation is confined as closely as possible
+to chambers around the fire space, which chambers
+are protected by impervious linings from the
+outer air, and into which fresh outdoor air is
+introduced, then heated and conveyed to different
+apartments by suitable pipes or flues, and admitted
+or excluded, as desired, by registers operated by
+hand levers.</p>
+
+<p>There are stationary furnaces and portable furnaces;
+the former class enclose the heating apparatus
+in walls of brick or other masonry, while in the
+latter the outer casing and the inner parts are metal
+structures, separable and removable. In both classes
+an outer current of pure air is made to course around
+the fire chamber and around among other flues and
+chambers through which the products of combustion
+are carried, so that all heat possible is utilised.
+Vessels of water are supplied at the most convenient
+place in one of the hot-air chambers to moisten and
+temper the air, and dampers are placed in the pipes
+to regulate and guide the supply of heat to the rooms
+above.</p>
+
+<p>After Watt had invented his improvements on the
+steam engine the idea occurred to him of using steam<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_207" id="PAGE_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+for heating purposes. Accordingly, in 1784, he made
+a hollow sheet-iron box of plates, and supplied it with
+steam from the boiler of the establishment. It had an
+air-escape cock, and condensed-water-escape pipe;
+and in 1799 Boulton and Watt constructed a heating
+apparatus in Lee’s factory, Manchester, in which the
+steam was conducted through cast-iron pipes, which
+also served as supports to the floor. Patents were
+also taken out by others in England for steam-heating
+apparatuses during the latter part of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>Heating by the circulation of hot water through
+pipes was also originated or revived during the 18th
+century, and a short time before Watt’s circulation
+of steam. It is said that Bonnemain of England, in
+1777, desiring to improve the ancient methods of
+hatching poultry by artificial heat&mdash;practised by
+both ancient and modern Egyptians ages before it
+became a latter day wonder, and taught the Egyptians
+by the ostriches&mdash;conceived the idea of constructing
+quite a large incubator building with shelves for
+the eggs, coops for holding the chickens, and a tube
+for circulating hot water leading from a boiler below
+and above each shelf, and through the coops, and
+back to the boiler. This incubator contains the germs
+of modern water heaters. In both the steam and
+water heating systems the band or collection of pipes
+in each room may be covered with ornamental radiating
+plates, or otherwise treated or arranged to render
+them sightly and effective. In one form of the hot-water
+system, however, the collection of a mass of
+pipes in the rooms is dispensed with, and the pipes
+are massed in an air chamber over or adjacent to the
+furnace, where they are employed to heat a current of
+air introduced from the outside, and which heated<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_208" id="PAGE_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+pure air is conveyed through the house by flues and
+registers as in the hot-air furnace system.</p>
+
+<p>The hanging of the crane, the turning of the spit,
+the roasting in ashes and on hot stones, the heating
+of and the baking in the big “Dutch” ovens, and
+some other forms of cooking by our forefathers had
+their pleasures and advantages, and still are appreciated
+under certain circumstances, and for certain
+purposes, but are chiefly honoured in memory alone
+and reverenced by disuse; while the modern cooking
+stove with its roasting and hot water chambers,
+its numerous seats over the fire for pots, pans, and
+kettles, its easy means of controlling and directing
+the heat, its rotating grate, and, when desired, its
+rotating fire chamber, for turning the hot fire on top
+to the bottom, and the cold choked fire to the top, its
+cleanliness and thorough heat, its economy in the use
+of fuel, is adopted everywhere, and all the glowing
+names with which its makers and users christen it
+fail to exaggerate its qualities when rightly made and
+used.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that the field of labour and the
+number of labourers, chiefly those who toiled with
+brick and mortar, were greatly reduced when those
+huge fireplaces were so widely discarded. This
+must have seemed so especially in those regions
+where the houses were built up to meet the yearning
+wants of an outside chimney, but armies of men are
+engaged in civilised countries in making stoves and
+furnaces, where three-quarters of a century ago very
+few were so employed. As in every industrial art
+old things pass away, but the new things come in
+greater numbers, demand a greater number of workers,
+develop new wants, new fields of labour, and the
+new and increasing supply of consumers refuse to be
+satisfied with old contrivances.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_209" id="PAGE_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the United States alone there are between four
+and five hundred stove and furnace foundries, in
+which about ten thousand people are employed, and
+more than three million stoves and furnaces produced
+annually, which require nearly a million tons
+of iron to make, and the value of which is estimated
+as at least $100,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The matter of <i>ventilation</i> is such a material part
+of heating that it cannot escape attention. There
+can be no successful heating without a circulation of
+air currents, and fortunately for man in his house no
+good fire can be had without an outflow of heat and
+an inflow of cooler air. The more this circulation is
+prevented the worse the fire and the ventilation.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to many such a simple thing, this change
+of air&mdash;only to keep open the window a little&mdash;to
+have a fireplace, and convenient door. And
+yet some of the brightest intellects of the century
+have been engaged in devising means to accomplish
+the result, and all are not yet agreed as to which is
+the best way.</p>
+
+<p>How to remove the heated, vitiated air and to
+supply fresh air while maintaining the same uniform
+temperature is a problem of long standing. The history
+of the attempts to heat and ventilate the Houses
+of Parliament since Wren undertook it in 1660 has
+justly been said to be history of the Art of Ventilation
+since that time, as the most eminent scientific
+authorities in the world have been engaged or consulted
+in it, and the most exhaustive reports on the
+subject have been rendered by such men as Gay-Lussac,
+Sir Humphry Davy, Faraday and Dr. Arnott
+of England and Gen. Morin of France. The
+same may be said in regard to the Houses of Congress
+in the United States Capitol for the past thirty-five<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_210" id="PAGE_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+years. Prof. Henry, Dr. Billings, the architect,
+Clark, of that country, and many other bright inventors
+and men of ability have given the subject devoted
+attention. Among the means for creating
+ventilation are underground tunnels leading to the
+outer air, with fans in them to force the fresh air in
+or draw the poor air out, holes in the ceiling, fire
+places, openings over the doors, openings under the
+eaves, openings in the window frames, shafts from
+the floor or basement with fires or gas jets to create
+an upward draught, floors with screened openings to
+the outer air, steam engines to work a suction pipe
+in one place and a blow pipe in another, air boxes
+communicating with the outer air, screens, hoods,
+and deflectors at these various openings,&mdash;all these,
+separately or in combination, have been used for the
+purpose of drawing the vitiated air out and letting
+the pure air in without creating draughts to chill the
+sensitive, or overheating to excite the nervous.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to have been as many devices invented
+to keep a house or building closed up tight
+while highly heating it, as to ventilate the same and
+preserve an even, moderate temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The most approved system of ventilation recognises
+the fact that air is of the same weight and is
+possessed of the same constituents in one part of a
+room as at another, and to create a perfect ventilation
+a complete change and circulation must take
+place. It therefore creates a draught, arising from
+the production of a vacuum by a current of heat or
+by mechanical means, or by some other way, which
+draws out of a room the used up, vitiated air through
+outlets at different places, while pure outer air is admitted
+naturally, or forced in if need be, through
+numerous small inlets, such outlets and inlets so located
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_211" id="PAGE_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>and distributed and protected as not to give
+rise to sensible draughts on the occupants.</p>
+
+<p>The best system also recognises the fact that all
+parts of a house, its cellars and attic, its parlours
+and kitchens, its closets, bathrooms and chambers,
+should be alike clean and well ventilated, and that if
+one room is infected all are infected.</p>
+
+<p>The laurels bestowed on inventors are no more
+worthily bestowed than on those who have invented
+devices which give to our homes, offices, churches and
+places of amusement a pure and comfortable atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Car Heaters.</i>&mdash;The passing away of the good old
+portable foot stove for warming the feet, especially
+when away from home, and while travelling, is not
+to be regretted, although in some instances it was
+not at first succeeded by superior devices. For a
+long time after the introduction of steam, railroad
+cars and carriages, in which any heat at all was used,
+were heated by a stove in each car&mdash;generally kept
+full of red hot coal or wood&mdash;an exceedingly dangerous
+companion in case of accident. Since 1871
+systems have been invented and introduced, the
+most successful of which consists of utilising the
+heat of the steam from the locomotive for producing
+a hot-water circulation through pipes along the
+floor of each car, and in providing an emergency
+heater in each car for heating the water when steam
+from the locomotive is not available.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grass-burning Stoves.</i>&mdash;There are many places in
+this world where neither wood nor coal abound, or
+where the same are very scarce, but where waste grass
+and weeds, waste hay and straw, and similar combustible
+refuse are found in great abundance.
+Stoves have been invented especially designed for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_212" id="PAGE_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+economical consumption of such fuel. One requisite
+is that such light material should be held in a compressed
+state while in the stove to prevent a too rapid
+combustion. Means for so holding the material under
+compression appear to have been first invented
+and patented by Hamilton of America in 1874.</p>
+
+<p>Some means besides the sickle and scythe, hoe
+and plough, were wanted to destroy obnoxious standing
+grass and weeds. A weed like the Russian
+thistle, for instance, will defy all usual means for its
+extermination. A fire chamber has been invented
+which when drawn over the ground will burn a swath
+as it advances, and it is provided with means, such as
+a wide flange on the end of the chamber, which extinguishes
+the fire and prevents its spreading beyond
+the path. A similar stove with jets of flame from
+vapour burners has been used to soften hard asphalt
+pavement when it is desired to take it up.</p>
+
+<p>The art of heating and cooking by oil, vapour and
+gas stoves is one that has arisen during the latter half
+of this century, and has become the subject of a vast
+number of inventions and extensive industries.
+Stoves of this character are as efficient and economical
+as coal stoves, and are in great demand, especially
+where coal and wood are scarce and high-priced.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oil stoves</i> as first invented consisted of almost the
+ordinary lamp, without the glass shade set in the
+stove and were similar to gas stoves. But these were
+objectionable on account of the fumes emitted. By
+later inventions the lamp has been greatly improved.
+The wick is arranged within tubular sliding cylinders
+so as to be separated from the other parts of the stove
+when it is not lit, and better regulating devices
+adopted, whereby the oil is prevented from spreading
+from the wick on to the other parts of the stove,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_213" id="PAGE_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+which give rise to obnoxious fumes by evaporation
+and heating. Some recent inventors have dispensed
+with the wick altogether and the oil is burned practically
+like vapour. <i>Gasoline</i>, and other heavy oily
+vapours are in many stoves first vapourised by a preliminary
+heating in a chamber before the gas is ignited
+for use. These vapours are then conducted by
+separate jets to different points in the stove where
+the heat is to be applied. The danger and unpleasant
+flame and smoke arising from this vapourising
+in the stove have been obviated by inventions which
+vapourise the fuel by other means, as by carbonating,
+or loading the air with the vapour in an elevated
+chamber and conducting the saturated air to
+the burners; or by agitation, by means of a quick-acting,
+small, but powerful fan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sterilising.</i>&mdash;The recent scientific discoveries and
+investigations of injurious bacteria rendered it desirable
+to purify water by other means than filtering,
+especially for the treatment of disease-infected localities;
+and this gave rise to the invention of a system
+of heat sterilising and filtering the water, in one
+process, and out of contact with the germ-laden air,
+thus destroying the bacteria and delivering the water
+in as pure and wholesome condition as possible. West
+in 1892 patented such a system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electric Heating and Cooking.</i>&mdash;Reference has already
+been made in the Chapter on Electricity to the
+use of that agent in heating and cooking. The use
+of the electric current for these purposes has been
+found to be perfectly practical, and for heating cars
+especially, where electricity is the motive power, a
+portion of the current is economically employed.</p>
+
+<p>The art of heating and cooking naturally suggests
+the other end of the line of temperature&mdash;<i>Refrigeration</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_214" id="PAGE_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A refrigeration by which ordinary ice is artificially
+produced, perishable food of all kinds preserved for
+long times, and transported for great distances,
+which has proved an immense advantage to mankind
+everywhere and is still daily practised to the gratification
+and comfort of millions of men, must receive
+at least a passing notice. The Messrs. E. and F.
+Carr&eacute; of France invented successful machines about
+1870 for making ice by the rapid absorption and
+evaporation of heat by the ammonia process. The
+discoveries and inventions of others in the artificial
+production of cold by means of volatile liquids,
+whether for the making of ice or other purposes, constituted
+a great step in the art of refrigeration.</p>
+
+<p>Vaporisation, absorption, compression or reduction
+of atmospheric pressure are the principal methods
+of producing cold. By vaporisation, water,
+ether, sulphuric acid, ammonia, etc., in assuming the
+vaporous form change sensible heat to latent heat
+and produce a degree of cold which freezes an adjacent
+body of water. The principle of making ice
+by evaporation and absorption may be illustrated
+by two examples of the Carr&eacute; methods:&mdash;It is well
+known what a great attraction sulphuric acid has for
+water. Water to be frozen is placed in a vessel connected
+by a pipe to a reservoir containing sulphuric
+acid. A vacuum is produced in this reservoir by the
+use of an air pump, while the acid is being constantly
+stirred. Lessening of the atmospheric pressure upon
+water causes its evaporation, and as the vapour is
+quietly absorbed by the sulphuric acid the water is
+quickly congealed. It is known that ammonia can
+be condensed into liquid form by pressure or cold,
+and is absorbed by and soluble in water to an extraordinary
+degree. A generator containing a strong so<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_215" id="PAGE_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>lution
+of ammonia is connected by a pipe to an empty
+receiver immersed in cold water. The ammonia
+generator is then heated, its vapour driven off and
+conducted to a jacket around the centre of the receiver
+and is there condensed by pressure of an air
+pump. The central cylindrical space in the receiver
+is now filled with water, and the operation is
+reversed. The generator is immersed in cold water
+and pressure on the liquid ammonia removed. The
+liquid ammonia now passes into the gaseous state,
+and is conducted to and reabsorbed by the water in
+the generator. But in this evaporation great cold
+is produced and the water in the receiver is soon
+frozen.</p>
+
+<p>Twining’s inventions in the United States in 1853
+and 1862 of the compression machine, followed by
+Pictet of France, and a number of improvements
+elsewhere have bid fair to displace the absorption
+method. In dispensing with absorption these machines
+proceed on the now well-established theory
+that air and many other gases become heated when
+compressed; that this heat can then be drawn away,
+and that when the gas is allowed to re-expand it
+will absorb a large amount of heat from any solid or
+fluid with which it is brought in contact, and so
+freeze it. Accordingly such machines are so constructed
+that by the operation of a piston, or pistons,
+in a cylinder, and actuated by steam or other motive
+power, the air or gas is compressed to the desired
+temperature, the heat led off and the cold vapour conducted
+through pipes and around chambers where
+water is placed and where it is frozen. By the best
+machines from five hundred to one thousand pounds
+of ice an hour are produced.</p>
+
+<p>The art of refrigeration and of modern transpor<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_216" id="PAGE_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>tation
+have brought the fruits of the tropics in great
+abundance to the doors of the dwellers of the north,
+and from the shores of the Pacific to the Atlantic
+and across the Atlantic to Europe. A train of refrigerator
+cars in California laden with delicious
+assorted fruits, and provided with fan blowers
+driven by the car axles to force the air through ice
+chambers, from whence it is distributed by perforated
+pipes through the fruit chambers, and wherein
+the temperature is maintained at about 40° Fah., can
+be landed in New York four days after starting on
+its journey of 3,000 miles, with the fruits in perfect
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>But the public is still excited and wondering over
+the new king of refrigeration&mdash;<i>liquid air</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As has been stated, the compression of air to produce
+cold is a modern discovery applied to practical
+uses, and prominent among the inventors and
+discoverers in this line have been Prof. Dewar and
+Charles E. Tripler.</p>
+
+<p>Air may be compressed and heat generated in the
+process withdrawn until the temperature of the air
+is reduced to 312° below zero, at which point the air
+is visible and to a certain extent assumes a peculiar
+material form, in which form it can be confined in
+suitable vessels and used as a refrigerant and as a
+motor of great power when permitted to re-expand.
+It is said that it was not so long ago when Prof.
+Dewar produced the first ounce of liquid air at a
+cost of $3,000, but that now Mr. Tripler claims that
+he can produce it by his apparatus for five cents a
+gallon.</p>
+
+<p>Refrigeration is at present its most natural and
+obvious use, and it is claimed that eleven gallons of
+the material when gradually expanded has the refrig<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_217" id="PAGE_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>erating
+power of one ton of ice. Its use of course
+for all purposes for which cold can be used is thus
+assured. It is also to be used as a motor in the running
+of various kinds of engines. It is to be used
+as a great alleviator of human suffering in lowering
+and regulating the temperature of hospitals in hot
+weather, and in surgical operations as a substitute
+for anæsthetics and cauterising agents.</p>
+
+<p>It was one of the marvellous attractions at the
+great Paris Exposition of 1900.</p>
+
+<p>Lighting is closely allied to the various subjects
+herein considered, but consideration of the various
+modes and kinds of lamps for lighting will be reserved
+for the Chapter on Furniture for Houses, etc.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_218" id="PAGE_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+METALLURGY.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Nigh on the plain, in many cells prepared,<br></span>
+<span class="line">That underneath had veins of liquid fire<br></span>
+<span class="line">Sluiced from the lake, a second multitude<br></span>
+<span class="line">With wondrous art founded the massy ore;<br></span>
+<span class="line">Severing each kind, and scumm’d the bullion dross;<br></span>
+<span class="line">A third as soon had formed within the ground<br></span>
+<span class="line">A various mould, and from the boiling cells<br></span>
+<span class="line">By strange conveyance fill’d each hollow nook;<br></span>
+<span class="line">As in an organ, from one blast of wind,<br></span>
+<span class="line">To many a row of pipes the sound board breathes.”<br></span>
+<br>
+<span class="right">&mdash;<i>Paradise Lost.</i></span>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>Ever since those perished races of men who left
+no other record but that engraven in rude emblems on
+the rocks, or no other signs of their existence but in
+the broken tools found buried deep among the solid
+leaves of the crusted earth, ever since Tubal Cain
+became “an instructor of every artificer in brass and
+iron,” the art of smelting has been known. The
+stone age flourished with implements furnished
+ready-made by nature, or needing little shaping for
+their use, but the ages of metal which followed required
+the aid of fire directed by the hand of man to
+provide the tool of iron or bronze.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks claimed that the discovery of iron was
+theirs, and was made at the burning of a forest on
+the mountains of Ida in Crete, about 1500 B. C.,
+when the ore contained in the rocks or soil on which
+the forest stood was melted, cleansed of its impurities,
+and then collected and hammered. Archeolo<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_219" id="PAGE_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>gists
+have deprived the Greeks of this gift, and carried
+back its origin to remoter ages and localities.</p>
+
+<p>Man first discovered by observation or accident
+that certain stones were melted or softened by fire,
+and that the product could be hammered and shaped.
+They learned by experience that the melting could
+be done more effectually when the fuel and the ore
+were mixed and enclosed by a wall of stone; that the
+fire and heat could be alone started and maintained
+by blowing air into the fuel&mdash;and they constructed a
+rude bellows for this purpose. Finding that the
+melted metal sank through the mass of consumed
+fuel, they constructed a stone hearth on which to
+receive it. Thus were the first crude furnace and
+hearth invented.</p>
+
+<p>As to gold, silver and lead, they doubtless were
+found first in their native state and mixed with other
+ores and were hammered into the desired shapes with
+the hardest stone implements.</p>
+
+<p>That copper and tin combined would make bronze
+was a more complex proceeding and probably followed
+instead of preceding, as has sometimes been
+alleged, the making of iron tools. That bronze relics
+were found apparently of anterior manufacture to
+any made of iron, was doubtless due to the destruction
+of the iron by that great consumer&mdash;oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>What was very anciently called “brass” was no
+doubt gold-coloured copper; for what is modernly
+known as brass was not made until after the discovery
+of zinc in the 16th century and its combination
+with copper.</p>
+
+<p>Among the “lost arts” re-discovered in later ages
+are those which supplied the earliest cities with ornamented
+vessels of gold and copper, swords of steel
+that bent and sprung like whalebones, castings that<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_220" id="PAGE_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+had known no tool to shape their contour and embellishments,
+and monuments and tablets of steel and
+brass which excite the wonder and admiration of the
+best “artificers in brass and iron” of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>To understand and appreciate the advancements
+that have been made in metallurgy in the nineteenth
+century, it is necessary to know, in outline at least,
+what before had been developed.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest form of a smelting furnace of historic
+days, such as used by the ancient Egyptians,
+Hebrews, and probably by the Hindoos and other ancient
+peoples, and still used in Asia, is thus described
+by Dr. Ure:</p>
+
+<p>“The furnace or bloomary in which the ore is
+smelted is from 4 to 5 feet high; it is somewhat pear-shaped,
+being about 5 feet wide at bottom and 1 at
+top. It is built entirely of clay. There is an opening
+in front about a foot or more in height which is
+filled with clay at the commencement, and broken
+down at the end of each smelting operation. The
+bellows are usually made of two goatskins with bamboo
+nozzles, which are inserted into tubes of clay
+that pass into the furnace. The furnace is filled
+with charcoal, and a lighted coal being introduced before
+the nozzle, the mass in the interior is soon kindled.
+As soon as this is accomplished, a small portion
+of the ore previously moistened with water to
+prevent it from running through the charcoal, but
+without any flux whatever, is laid on top of the coals,
+and covered with charcoal to fill up the furnace. In
+this manner ore and fuel are supplied and the bellows
+urged for three or four hours. When the
+process is stopped and the temporary wall in front
+broken down the bloom is removed with a pair of
+tongs from the bottom of the furnace.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_221" id="PAGE_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This smelting was then followed by hammering to
+further separate the slag, and probably after a reheating
+to increase the malleability.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that in this earliest process pure
+carbon was used as a fuel, and a blast of air to keep
+the fire at a great heat was employed. To what extent
+this carbon and air blast, and the mixing and remixing
+with other ingredients, and reheating and rehammering,
+may have been employed in various instances
+to modify the conditions and render the
+metal malleable and more or less like modern steel,
+is not known, but that an excellent quality of iron resembling
+modern steel was often produced by this
+simple mode of manufacture by different peoples, is
+undoubtedly the fact. Steel after all is iron with a
+little more carbon in it than in the usual iron in the
+smelting furnace, to render it harder, and a little less
+carbon than in cast or moulded iron to render it malleable,
+and in both conditions was produced from
+time immemorial, either by accident or design.</p>
+
+<p>It was with such a furnace probably that India
+produced her keen-edged weapons that would cut a
+web of gossamer, and Damascus its flashing blades&mdash;the
+synonym of elastic strength.</p>
+
+<p>Africa, when its most barbarous tribes were first
+discovered, was making various useful articles of
+iron. Its earliest modes of manufacture were
+doubtless still followed when Dr. Livingstone explored
+the interior, as they now also are. He thus describes
+their furnaces and iron: “At every third or fourth
+village (in the regions near Lake Nyassa) we saw a
+kiln-looking structure, about 6 feet high and 2&frac12; feet
+in diameter. It is a clay fire-hardened furnace for
+smelting iron. No flux is used, whether with specular
+iron, the yellow hematite, or magnetic ore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_222" id="PAGE_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
+and yet capital metal is produced. Native manufactured
+iron is so good that the natives declare English
+iron “rotten” in comparison, and specimens of
+African hoes were pronounced at Birmingham
+nearly equal to the best Swedish iron.” The natives
+of India, the Hottentots, the early Britons, the
+Chinese, the savages of North and South America, as
+discovery or research brought their labours to light,
+or uncovered the monuments of their earliest life,
+were shown to be acquainted with similar simple
+forms of smelting furnaces.</p>
+
+<p>Early Spain produced a furnace which was
+adopted by the whole of Europe as fast as it became
+known. It was the Catalan furnace, so named from
+the province of Catalonia, where it probably first
+originated, and it is still so known and extensively
+used. “It consists of a four-sided cavity or hearth,
+which is always placed within a building and separated
+from the main wall thereof by a thinner interior
+wall, which in part constitutes one side of the
+furnace. The blast pipe comes through the wall,
+and enters the fire through a flue which slants downward.
+The bottom is formed of a refractory stone,
+which is renewable. The furnace has no chimneys.
+The blast is produced by means of a fall of water
+usually from 22 to 27 feet high, through a rectangular
+tube, into a rectangular cistern below, to whose
+upper part the blast pipe is connected, the water escaping
+through a pipe below. This apparatus is exterior
+to the building, and is said to afford a continuous
+blast of great regularity; the air, when it
+passes into the furnace, is, however, saturated with
+moisture.”&mdash;<i>Knight.</i></p>
+
+<p>No doubt in such a heat was formed the metal
+from which was shaped the armour of Don Quixote
+and his prototypes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_223" id="PAGE_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bell in his history of Metallurgy tells us that the
+manufacture of malleable iron must have fallen into
+decadence in England, especially before the reign of
+Elizabeth and Charles I., as no furnaces equal even
+to the Catalan had for a long time been in use; and
+the architectural iron column found in ancient Delhi,
+16 inches in diameter, about 48 feet long and calculated
+to weigh about 17 tons, could not have been
+formed by any means known in England in the sixteenth
+century. This decadence was in part due to
+the severe laws enacted against the destruction of
+forests, and most of the iron was then brought to
+England from Germany and other countries.</p>
+
+<p>From time immemorial the manufacture of iron
+and steel has been followed in Germany, and that
+country yet retains pre-eminence in this art both as to
+mechanical and chemical processes. It was in the
+eighteenth century that the celebrated Freiberg Mining
+Academy was founded, the oldest of all existing
+mining schools; and based on developing mining and
+metallurgy on scientific lines, it has stood always on
+the battle line in the fight of progress.</p>
+
+<p>The early smelting furnaces of Germany resembled
+the Catalan, and were called the “Stückofen,”
+and in Sweden were known as the “Osmund.”
+In these very pure iron was made.</p>
+
+<p>The art of making cast iron, which differs from
+the ordinary smelted iron in the fact that it is
+<i>melted</i> and then run into moulds, although known
+among the ancients more than forty centuries ago, as
+shown by the castings of bronze and brass described
+by their writers and recovered from their ruins, appears
+to have been forgotten long before the darkness
+of the middle ages gathered. There is no record
+of its practice from the time the elder Pliny de<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_224" id="PAGE_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>scribed
+its former use (40-79 A. D.), to the sixteenth
+century. It is stated that then the lost art
+was re-invented by Ralph Page and Peter Baude of
+England in 1543&mdash;who in that year made cast-iron
+in Sussex.</p>
+
+<p>The “Stückofen” furnace above referred to was
+succeeded in Germany by higher ones called the
+“Flossofen,” and these were followed by still higher
+and larger ones called “Blauofen,” so that by the
+middle of the eighteenth century the furnaces were
+very capacious, the blast was good, and it had been
+learned how to supply the furnaces with ore, coal and
+lime-stone broken into small fragments. The lime was
+added as a flux, and acted to unite with itself the
+sand, clay and other impurities to form a slag or
+scoria. The melted purified iron falling to the bottom
+was drawn off through a hole tapped in the
+furnace, and the molten metal ran into channels
+in a bed of sand called the “Sow and pigs.” Hence
+the name, “pig iron.”</p>
+
+<p>The smelting of ore by charcoal in those places
+where carried on extensively required the use of a
+vast amount of wood, and denuded the surrounding
+lands of forests. So great was this loss felt that it
+gave rise to the prohibitory laws and the decadence
+in England of the manufacture of iron, already alluded
+to. This turned the attention of iron smelters
+to coal as a substitute. Patents were granted in England
+for its use to several unsuccessful inventors.
+Finally in 1619 Dud Dudley, a graduate of Oxford
+University, and to whom succeeded his father’s iron
+furnaces in Worcestershire, obtained a patent and
+succeeded in producing several tons of iron per week
+by the use of the pitcoal in a small blast furnace.</p>
+
+<p>This success inflamed the wood owners and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_225" id="PAGE_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+charcoal burners and they destroyed Dudley’s
+works. He met with other disasters common to
+worthy inventors and discontinued his efforts to improve
+the art.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that in 1664 Sir John Winter of England
+made coke by burning sea coal in closed pots.
+But this was not followed up, and the use of charcoal
+and the destruction of the forests went on until
+1735, when Abraham Darby of the Coalbrookdale
+Iron Works at Shropshire, England, commenced to
+treat the soft pit coal in the same way as wood is
+treated in producing charcoal. He proposed to
+burn the coal in a smouldering fire, to expel the
+sulphur and other impurities existing in the form
+of phosphorus, hydrogen and oxygen, etc. while
+saving the carbon. The attempt was successful,
+and thus <i>coke</i> was made. It was found cheaper and
+superior to either coal or charcoal, and produced a
+quicker fire and a greater heat. This was a wonderful
+discovery, and was preserved as a trade secret
+for a long time. It was referred to as a curiosity
+in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> in 1747. In
+fact it was not introduced in America until a century
+later, when in 1841 the soft coal abounding
+around Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and in the
+neighbouring regions of Ohio was thus treated.
+Even its use then was experimental, and did not
+become a practical art in the United States until
+about 1860.</p>
+
+<p>With the invention of coke came also the revival
+of cast iron.</p>
+
+<p>The process of making cast steel was reinvented
+in England by Benjamin Huntsman of Attercliff,
+near Sheffield, about 1740. Between that time and
+1770 he practised melting small pieces of “blis<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_226" id="PAGE_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>tered”
+steel (iron bars which had been carbonised
+by smelting in charcoal) in closed clay crucibles.</p>
+
+<p>In 1784 Henry Cort of England introduced the
+puddling process and grooved rolls. Puddling had
+been invented, but not successfully used before. The
+term “puddling” originated in the covering of the
+hearth of stones at the bottom of the furnace with
+clay, which was made plastic by mixing the clay in
+a puddle of water; and on which hearth the ore when
+melted is received. When in this melted condition
+Cort and others found that the metal was greatly
+improved by stirring it with a long iron bar called
+a “rabble,” and which was introduced through an
+opening in the furnace. This stirring admitted air
+to the mass and the oxygen consumed and expelled
+the carbon, silicon, and other impurities. The
+process was subsequently aided by the introduction
+of pig iron broken into pieces and mixed with hammer-slag,
+cinder, and ore. The mass is stirred from
+side to side of the furnace until it comes to a boiling
+point, when the stirring is increased in quickness
+and violence until a pasty round mass is collected by
+the puddler. As showing the value of Cort’s discovery
+and the hard experience inventors sometimes
+have, Fairbairn states that Cort “expended a fortune
+of upward of £20,000 in perfecting his invention
+for puddling iron and rolling it into
+bars and plates; that he was robbed of the fruits of
+his discoveries by the villainy of officials in a high
+department of the government; and that he was
+ultimately left to starve by the apathy and
+selfishness of an ungrateful country. His inventions
+conferred an amount of wealth on the country
+equivalent to £600,000,000, and have given employment
+to 600,000 of the working population of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_227" id="PAGE_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+our land for the last three or four generations.”
+This process of puddling lasted for about an
+hour and a half and entailed extremely severe labour
+on the workman.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of mechanical puddlers, hereinafter
+referred to, consisting chiefly of rotating furnaces,
+were among the beneficent developments of the nineteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to Cort’s time the plastic lump or ball of
+metal taken from the furnace was generally beaten
+by hammers, but Cort’s grooved rollers pressed out
+the mass into sheets.</p>
+
+<p>The improvements of the steam engine by Watt
+greatly extended the manufacture of iron toward the
+close of the 18th century, as powerful air blasts were
+obtained by the use of such engines in place of the
+blowers worked by man, the horse, or the ox.</p>
+
+<p>So far as the art of refining the precious metals
+is concerned, as well as copper, tin and iron, it had
+not, previous to this century, proceeded much beyond
+the methods described in the most ancient
+writings; and these included the refining in furnaces,
+pots, and covered crucibles, and alloying, or
+the mixture and fusion with other metals. Furnaces
+to hold the crucibles, and made of iron cylinders
+lined with fire brick, whereby the crucibles were subjected
+to greater heat, were also known.</p>
+
+<p>The amalgamating process was also known to the
+ancients, and Vitruvius (B. C. 27) and Pliny (A.
+D. 79), describe how mercury was used for separating
+gold from its impurities. Its use at gold and
+silver mines was renewed extensively in the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we find that the eighteenth century closed
+with the knowledge of the smelting furnaces of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_228" id="PAGE_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+various kinds, of coke as a fuel in place of charcoal,
+of furious air blasts driven by steam and other
+power, of cast iron and cast steel, and of refining,
+amalgamating, and compounding processes.</p>
+
+<p>Looking back, now, from the threshold of the nineteenth
+century over the path we have thus traced, it
+will be seen that what had been accomplished in
+metallurgy was the result of the use of ready means
+tested by prolonged trials, of experiments more or
+less lucky in fields in which men were groping, of
+inventions without the knowledge of the real properties
+of the materials with which inventors were
+working or of the unvarying laws which govern their
+operations. They had accomplished much, but it
+was the work mainly of empirics. The art preceding
+the nineteenth century compared with what followed
+is the difference between experience simply, and experience
+when combined with hard thinking, which is
+thus stated by Herschel: “Art is the application of
+knowledge to a practical end. If the knowledge be
+merely accumulated experience the art is empirical;
+but if it is experience reasoned upon and brought under
+general principles it assumes a higher character
+and becomes a scientific art.”</p>
+
+<p>With the developments, discoveries and inventions
+in the lines of steam, chemistry and electricity, as
+elsewhere told, the impetus they gave to the exercise
+of brain force in every field of nature at the outset
+of the century, and with their practical aid, the
+art of metallurgy soon began to expand to greater usefulness,
+and finally to its present wonderful domain.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of metallurgy in this century soon
+became scientifically treated and its operations
+classified.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the physical character and metallic constit<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_229" id="PAGE_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>uents
+of ores received the first consideration; then
+the proper treatment to which the ores were to be
+subjected for the purpose of extracting the metal&mdash;which
+are either mechanical or chemical. The mechanical
+processes designed to separate the ore from
+its enclosing rock or other superfluous earthy matter
+called <i>gangue</i> became known as <i>ore dressing</i> and
+<i>ore concentrating</i>. These included mills with
+rollers, and stamps operated by gravity, or steam,
+for breaking up the ore rocks; abrasion apparatus
+for comminuting the ore by rubbing the pieces of
+ore under pressure; and smelting, or an equivalent
+process, for melting the ore and driving off the impurities
+by heat, etc. The chemical processes are
+those by which the metal, whatever it may be, is
+either dissolved or separated from other constituents
+by either the application to the ore of certain
+metallic solutions of certain acids, or by the fusion
+of different ores or metals in substantially the old
+styles of furnaces; or its precipitation by amalgamating,
+or by electrolysis&mdash;the art of decomposing
+metals by electricity.</p>
+
+<p>In the early decades of the century, by the help of
+chemistry and physics, the nature of heat, carbon,
+and oxygen, and the great affinity iron has for oxygen,
+became better known; and particularly how in
+the making of iron its behaviour is influenced by
+the presence of carbon and other foreign constituents;
+also how necessary to its perfect separation
+was the proper elimination of the oxygen and carbon.
+The use of manganese and other highly oxidisable
+metals for this purpose was discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest most notable inventions in
+the century, in the manufacture of iron, was that
+of Samuel B. Rogers of Glamorganshire, Wales, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_230" id="PAGE_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
+invented the iron floor for furnaces with a refractory
+lining&mdash;a great improvement on Cort’s sand
+floor, which gave too much silicon to the iron; and
+the <i>hot air blast</i> by Neilson of Glasgow, Scotland,
+patented in 1828. The latter consisted in the use
+of heated air as the blast instead of cold air&mdash;whereby
+ignition of the fuel was quickened, intensity
+of the heat and the expulsion of oxygen and carbon
+from the iron increased, and the operation shortened
+and improved in every way. The patent was
+infringed and assailed, but finally sustained by the
+highest courts of England. It produced an immense
+forward stride in the amount and quality of
+iron manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>By the introduction of the hot air blast it became
+practicable to use the hard anthracite coal as a fuel
+where such coal abounded; and to use pig iron, scrap
+iron, and refractory ore and metals with the fuel to
+produce particular results. Furnaces were enlarged
+to colossal dimensions, some being a hundred feet
+high and capable of yielding 80 or 100 tons of metal
+per day.</p>
+
+<p>The forms of furnaces and means for lining and
+cooling the hearth and adjacent parts have received
+great attention.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery that the flame escaping from the
+throat of the blast furnace was nothing else than
+burning carbon led Faber du Faur at Wasseralfugen
+in 1837 to invent the successful and highly valuable
+method of utilising the unburnt gas from the blast
+furnace for heating purposes, and to heat the blast
+itself, and drive the steam engine that blew the blast
+into the furnace, without the consumption of additional
+fuel. This also led to the invention of separate
+gas producers. Bunsen in 1838 made his first<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_231" id="PAGE_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
+experiments at Hesse in collecting the gases from
+various parts of the furnace, revealing their composition
+and showing their adaptability for various
+purposes. Thus, from a scientific knowledge of the
+constituents of ores and of furnace gases, calculations
+could be made in advance as to the materials
+required to make pig iron, cast iron, and steel of
+particular qualities.</p>
+
+<p>In the process of puddling difficulty had been
+experienced in handling the bloom or ball after it
+was formed in the furnace. A sort of squeezing apparatus,
+or tongs, called the alligator, had been employed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 Henry Burden of America invented
+and patented a method and means for treating these
+balls, whereby the same were taken directly from
+the furnace and passed between two plain converging
+metal surfaces, by which the balls were gradually
+but quickly pressed and squeezed into a cylindrical
+form, while a large portion of the cinders and other
+foreign impurities were pressed out.</p>
+
+<p>We have described how by Cort’s puddling process
+tremendous labour was imposed on the workmen in
+stirring the molten metal by hand with “rabbles.”
+A number of mechanical puddlers were invented to
+take the place of these hand means, but the most
+important invention in this direction was the revolving
+puddlers of Beadlestone, patented in 1857
+in England, and of Heaton, Allen and Yates, in
+1867-68. The most successful, however, was that
+of Danks of the United States in 1868-69. The
+Danks rotary puddler is a barrel-shaped, refractory
+lined vessel, having a chamber and fire grate and
+rotated by steam, into which pig iron formed by the
+ordinary blast furnaces, and then pulverised, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_232" id="PAGE_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
+placed, with the fuel. Molten metal from the furnace
+is then run in, which together with the fuel is
+then subjected to a strong blast. Successive charges
+may be made, and at the proper time the puddler
+is rotated, slowly at some stages and faster at others,
+until the operation is completed. A much more
+thorough and satisfactory result in the production
+of a pure malleable iron is thus obtained than is
+possible by hand puddling.</p>
+
+<p>But the greatest improvements in puddling, and in
+the production of steel from iron, and which have
+produced greater commercial results than any other
+inventions of the century relating to metallurgy,
+were the inventions of Henry Bessemer of Hertfordshire,
+England, from 1855 to 1860. In place of
+the puddling “rabbles” to stir the molten metal, or
+<i>matte</i>, as it is called, while the air blast enters to
+oxidise it, he first introduced the molten metal from
+the furnace into an immense egg-shaped vessel lined
+with quartzose, and hung in an inclined position on
+trunnions, or melted the metal in such vessel, and
+then dividing the air blast into streams forced with
+great pressure each separate stream through an opening
+in the bottom of the vessel into the molten mass,
+thus making each stream of driven air a rabble; and
+they together blew and lifted the white mass into a
+huge, surging, sun-bright fountain. The effect of
+this was to burn out the impurities, silicon, carbon,
+sulphur, and phosphorus, leaving the mass a pure
+soft iron. If steel was wanted a small amount of
+carbon, usually in the form of spiegeleisen, was introduced
+into the converter before the process was
+complete.</p>
+
+<p>A. L. Holley of the United States improved the
+Bessemer apparatus by enabling a greater number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_233" id="PAGE_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+charges to be converted into steel within a given
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Henry Bessemer has lived to gain great fortunes
+by his inventions, to see them afford new fields
+of labour for armies of men, and to increase the riches
+of nations, from whom he has received deserved
+honours.</p>
+
+<p>The Bessemer process led to renewed investigations
+and discoveries as to heat and its utilisation,
+the constituents of different metals and their decomposition,
+and as to the parts played by carbon,
+silicon, and phosphorus. The carbon introduced by
+the charge of pig iron in the Bessemer process was
+at first supposed to be necessary to produce the greatest
+heat, but this was found to be a mistake; and
+phosphorus, which had been regarded as a great
+enemy of iron, to be eliminated in every way, was
+found to be a valuable constituent, and was retained
+or added to make phosphorus steel.</p>
+
+<p>The Bessemer process has been modified in various
+ways: by changing the mode of introducing the
+blast from the bottom of the converter to the sides
+thereof, and admitting the blast more slowly at
+certain stages; by changing the character of the pig
+iron and fuel to be treated; and by changing the
+shape and operation of the converters, making them
+cylindrical and rotary, for instance.</p>
+
+<p>The Bessemer process is now largely used in
+treating copper. By this method the blowing
+through the molten metal of a blast of air largely
+removes sulphur and other impurities.</p>
+
+<p>The principles of reduction by the old style furnaces
+and methods we have described have been revived
+and combined with improvements. For instance,
+the old Catalan style of furnace has been re<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_234" id="PAGE_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>tained
+to smelt the iron, but in one method the iron is
+withdrawn before it is reduced completely and introduced
+into another furnace, where, mixed with
+further reducing ingredients, a better result by far
+is produced with less labour.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a long list that would name the
+modern discoverers and inventors of the century
+in the manufacture of iron and steel. But eminent
+in the list, in addition to Davy and Bessemer, and
+others already mentioned, are Mushet, Sir L. Bell,
+Percy, Blomfield, Beasley, Giers and Snellus of
+England; Martin, Chennot, Du Motay, Pernot and
+Gruner of France; Lohage, Dr. C. L. Siemens and
+Höpfer of Germany; Prof Sarnstrom and Akerman
+of Sweden; Turner of Austria; and Holley, Slade,
+Blair, Jones, Sellers, Clapp, Griffiths and Eames
+of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the new metals discovered in the last century
+have in this century been combined with iron
+to make harder steel. Thus we have nickel, chromium,
+and tungsten steel. Processes for hardening
+steel, as the “Harveyized” steel, have given rise to
+a contest between “irresistible” projectiles and
+“impenetrable” armour plate.</p>
+
+<p>If there are some who regard modern discoveries
+and inventions in iron and steel as lessening the
+number of workmen and cheapening the product too
+much, thus causing trouble due to labour-saving
+machinery, let them glance, among other great works
+in the world, at Krupp’s at Essen, where on January
+1st, 1899, 41,750 persons were employed, and at
+which works during the previous year 1,199,610 tons
+of coal and coke were consumed, or about 4000 tons
+daily. Workers in iron will not be out of employment
+in the United States, where 16,000,000 tons of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_235" id="PAGE_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
+coke are produced annually, 196,405,953 tons of
+coal mined, 11,000,000 tons of pig iron and about
+9,000,000 tons of steel made. The increase of population
+within the last hundred years bears no comparison
+with this enormous increase in iron and fuel.
+It shows that as inventions multiply, so does the demand
+for their better and cheaper products increase.</p>
+
+<p>As the other metals, gold, silver, copper and
+lead often occur together, and in the same deposits
+with iron, the same general modes of treatment
+to extract them are often applied. These are known
+as the dry and the wet methods, and electro-reduction.</p>
+
+<p>Ever since Mammon bowed his head in search for
+gold, every means that the mind of man could suggest
+to obtain it have been tried, but the devices of this
+century have been more numerous and more successful
+than any before. The ancient methods of simply
+melting and “skimming the bullion dross” have
+been superseded. Modern methods may be divided
+into two general classes, the mechanical and the
+chemical. Of the former methods, when gold was
+found loose in sand or gravel, washing was the
+earliest and most universally practised, and was
+called panning. In this method mercury is often used
+to take up and secure the fine gold. Rockers like a
+child’s cradle, into which the dirt is shovelled and
+washed over retaining riffles, were used; coarse-haired
+blankets and hides; sluices and separators, with or
+without quicksilver linings to catch the gold; and
+powerful streams of water worked by compressed
+air to tear down the banks. Where water could not
+be obtained the ore and soil were pulverised and
+dried, and then thrown against the wind or a blast
+of air, and the heavier gold, falling before the
+lighter dust, was caught on hides or blankets. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_236" id="PAGE_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
+the crushing of the quartz in which gold was found,
+innumerable inventions in stamp mills, rollers, crushers,
+abraders, pulverisers and amalgamators have been
+invented; and so with roasters, and furnaces, and crucibles
+to melt the precious metal, separate the remaining
+impurities and convert it to use.</p>
+
+<p>As to chemical methods for the precious metals,
+the process of <i>lixiviation</i>, or <i>leaching</i>, by which the
+ore is washed out by a solution of potash, or with
+dilute sulphuric acid, or boiling with concentrated
+sulphuric acid, is quite modern. About 1889 came
+out the great cyanide process, also known as the MacArthur-Forrest
+process (they being the first to obtain
+patents and introduce the invention), consisting of
+the use of cyanide potassium in solution, which dissolves
+the gold, and which is then precipitated by the
+employment of zinc. This process is best adapted
+to what are known as free milling or porous ores,
+where the gold is free and very fine and is attracted
+readily by mercury.</p>
+
+<p>In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the metal
+potassium by subjecting moistened potash to the
+action of a powerful voltaic battery; the positive
+pole gave off oxygen and the metallic globules of pure
+potassium appeared at the negative pole. It is
+never found uncombined in nature. Now if potassium
+is heated in cyanogen gas (a gas procured by
+heating mercury) or obtained on a large scale by the
+decomposition of yellow prussiate of potash, a white
+crystalline body very soluble in water, and exceedingly
+poisonous, is obtained. When gold, for instance,
+obtained by pulverising the ore, or found free
+in sand, is treated to such a solution it is dissolved
+from its surrounding constituents and precipitated
+by the zinc, as before stated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_237" id="PAGE_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chlorine is another metal discovered by Scheele
+in 1774, but not known as an elementary element
+until so established by Davy’s investigations in 1810,
+when he gave it the name it now bears, from the
+Greek <i>chloras</i>, yellowish green. It is found abundantly
+in the mineral world in combination with common
+salt. Now it was found that chlorine is one of
+the most energetic of bodies, surpassing even oxygen
+under some circumstances, and that a chlorine solution
+will readily dissolve gold.</p>
+
+<p>These, the cyanide and chlorination processes,
+have almost entirely superseded the old washing and
+amalgamating methods of treating free gold&mdash;and
+the cyanide seems to be now taking the lead.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alloys.</i>&mdash;The art of fusing different metals to
+make new compounds, although always practised,
+has been greatly advanced by the discoverers and
+inventors of the century. As we have seen, amalgamating
+to extract gold and silver, and the making
+of bronze from tin and copper were very early followed.
+One of the most notable and useful of modern
+inventions or improvements of the kind was that
+of Isaac Babbitt of Boston in 1839, who in that
+year obtained patents for what ever since has been
+known as “babbitting.” The great and undesirable
+friction produced by the rubbing of the ends of
+journals and shafts in their bearings of the same
+metal, cast or wrought iron, amounting to one-fifth
+of the amount of power exerted to turn them, had
+long been experienced. Lubricants of all kinds had
+been and are used; but Babbitt’s invention was an
+anti-friction metal. It is composed of tin, antimony,
+and copper, and although the proportions and ingredients
+have since been varied, the whole art is
+still known as babbitting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_238" id="PAGE_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Other successful alloys have been made for gun
+metal, sheathing of ships, horseshoes, organ pipes,
+plough shares, roofing, eyelets, projectiles, faucets,
+and many and various articles of hardware, ornamental
+ware, and jewelry.</p>
+
+<p>Valuable metals, such as were not always rare or
+scarce, but very hard to reduce, have been rendered
+far less in cost of production and more extensive in
+use by modern processes. Thus, aluminium, an
+abundant element in rocks and clay, discovered by
+the German chemist Wöhler, in 1827, a precious
+metal, so light, bright, and tough, non-oxidizing,
+harder than zinc, more sonorous than silver, malleable
+and ductile as iron, and more tenacious, has
+been brought to the front from an expensive and
+mere laboratory production to common and useful
+purposes in all the arts by the processes commencing
+in 1854 with that of St. Clair Deoville, of France,
+followed by those of H. Rose, Morin, Castner, Tissier,
+Hall, and others.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electro-metallurgy</i>, so far, has chiefly to do with
+the decomposition of metals by the electric current,
+and the production of very high temperatures for
+furnaces, by which the most refractory ores, metals,
+and other substances may be melted, and results
+produced not obtainable in any other way. By placing
+certain mixtures of carbon and sand, or of carbon
+and clay, between the terminals of a powerful
+current, a material resembling diamonds, but harder,
+has been produced. It has been named carbonundrum.
+The production of diamonds themselves is looked for.
+Steel wire is now tempered and annealed
+by electricity, as well as welding done, of which
+mention further on will be made.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we have seen how the birth of ideas of for<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_239" id="PAGE_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>mer
+generations has given rise in the present age to
+children of a larger growth. Arts have grown only
+as machinery for the accomplishment of their objects
+has developed, and machinery has waited on the development
+of the metals composing it. The civilisation
+of to-day would not have been possible if the successors
+of Tubal Cain had not been like him, instructors
+“of every artificer in brass and iron.”</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_240" id="PAGE_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+METAL WORKING.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>We referred in the last chapter to the fact that
+metal when it came from the melting and puddling
+furnace was formerly rolled into sheets; but, when
+the manufacturers and consumers got these sheets
+then came the severe, laborious work by hand of cutting,
+hammering, boring, shaping and fitting the
+parts for use and securing them in place.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the glories of this century that metal-working
+tools and machinery have been invented that
+take the metal from its inception, mould and adapt
+it to man’s will in every situation with an infinite
+saving of time and labour, and with a perfection and
+uniformity of operation entirely impossible by
+hand.</p>
+
+<p>Although the tools for boring holes in wood, such
+as the gimlet, auger, and the lathe to hold, turn and
+guide the article to be operated on by the tool, are
+common in some respects with those for drilling and
+turning metal, yet, the adaptation to use with metal
+constitutes a class of metal-working appliances distinct
+in themselves, and with some exceptions not interchangeable
+with wood-working utensils. The
+metal-working tools and machines forming the subject
+of this chapter are not those which from time immemorial
+have been used to pierce, hammer, cut, and
+shape metals, directed by the eye and hand of man,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_241" id="PAGE_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
+but rather those invented to take the place of the
+hand and eye and be operated by other powers.</p>
+
+<p>It needs other than manual power to subdue the
+metals to the present wants of man, and until those
+modern motor powers, such as steam, compressed
+air, gas and electricity, and modern hydraulic machinery,
+were developed, automatic machine tools to
+any extent were not invented. So, too, the tools that
+are designed to operate on hard metal should themselves
+be of the best metal, and until modern inventors
+rediscovered the art of making cast steel such
+tools were not obtainable. The monuments and
+records of ancient and departed races show that it
+was known by them how to bore holes in wood, stone
+and glass by some sharp instruments turned by hand,
+or it may be by leather cords, as a top is turned.</p>
+
+<p><i>The lathe</i>, a machine to hold an object, and at
+the same time revolve it while it is formed by the
+hand, or cut by a tool, is as old as the art of pottery,
+and is illustrated in the oldest Egyptian monuments,
+in which the god Ptah is shown in the act of
+moulding man upon the throwing wheel. It is a
+device as necessary to the industrial growth of man as
+the axe or the spade. Its use by the Egyptians appears
+to have been confined to pottery, but the ancient
+Greeks, Chinese, Africans, and Hindoos used lathes,
+for wood working in which the work was suspended
+on horizontal supports, and adapted to be rotated by
+means of a rope and treadle and a spring bar, impelled
+by the operator as he held the cutting tool on
+the object. Joseph Holtzapffel in his learned work
+on <i>Turning and Mechanical Manipulation</i>, gives a
+list of old publications describing lathes for
+turning both wood and metal. Among these is
+Hartman Schapper’s book published at Frankfort, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_242" id="PAGE_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+1548. A lathe on which was formed wood screws
+is described in a work of Jacques Besson, published
+at Lyons, France, in 1582.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated that there is on exhibition in the Abbott
+museum of the Historical Society, New York, a
+bronze drinking vessel, five inches in diameter, that
+was exhumed from an ancient tomb in Thebes, and
+which bears evidence of having been turned on a
+lathe. It is thought by those skilled in the art that
+it was not possible to have constructed the works
+of metal in Solomon’s Temple without a turning
+lathe. One of the earliest published descriptions of
+a metal turning lathe in its leading features is that
+found in a book published in London, in 1677-83,
+by Joseph Moxon, “hydographer” to King Charles
+II., entitled, <i>Mechanical Exercises, or the Doctrine of
+Handy Works</i>. He therein also described a machine
+for planing metal. Although there is some
+evidence that these inventions of the learned gentleman
+were made and put to some use, yet they were
+soon forgotten and were not revived until a century
+later, when, as before intimated, the steam engine
+had been invented and furnished the power for working
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-working implements in which the cutting
+tool was carried by a sliding block were described in
+the English patents of General Sir Samuel Bentham
+and Joseph Bramah, in 1793-94. But until this
+century, and fairly within its borders, man was content
+generally to use the metal lathe simply as a
+holding and turning support, while he with such
+skill and strength as he could command, and with an
+expenditure of time, labour and patience truly marvellous,
+held and guided with his hands the cutting
+tool with which the required form was made upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_243" id="PAGE_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+or from the slowly turning object before him. The
+contrivance which was to take the place of the hand
+and eye of man in holding, applying, directing and
+impelling a cutting tool to the surface of the metal
+work was the <i>slide-rest</i>. In its modern successful
+automatic form Henry Maudsley, an engineer in
+London, is claimed to be the first inventor, in the
+early part of the century. The leading feature of his
+form of this device consists of an iron block which
+constitutes the rest, cut with grooves so as to adapt
+it to slide upon its iron supports, means to secure
+the cutting tool solidly to this block, and two screw
+handles, one to adjust the tool towards and against
+the object to be cut in the lathe, and the other to
+slide the rest and tool lengthwise as the work progresses,
+which latter motion may be given by the
+hand, or effected automatically by a connection of the
+screw handle of the slide and the rotating object on
+the lathe.</p>
+
+<p>A vast variety of inventions and operations have
+been effected by changes in these main features. Of
+the value of this invention, Nasmyth, a devoted pupil
+of Maudsley and himself an eminent engineer and
+inventor, thus writes:&mdash;“It was this holding of a
+tool by means of an iron hand, and constraining it
+to move along the surface of the work in so certain
+a manner, and with such definite and precise motion,
+which formed the great era in the history of mechanics,
+inasmuch as we thenceforward became possessed,
+by its means, of the power of operating alike on the
+most ponderous or delicate pieces of machinery with
+a degree of minute precision, of which language cannot
+convey an adequate idea; and in many cases we
+have, through its agency, equal facility in carrying
+on the most perfect workmanship in the interior<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_244" id="PAGE_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>
+parts of certain machines where neither the hand nor
+the eye can reach, and nevertheless we can give to
+these parts their required form with a degree of accuracy
+as if we had the power of transforming our-selves
+into pigmy workmen, and so apply our labour
+to the innermost holes and corners of our machinery.”</p>
+
+<p>The scope of the lathe, slide-rest and operating
+tool, by its adaptation to cut out from a vast roll of
+steel a ponderous gun, or by a change in the size of
+parts to operate in cutting or drilling the most delicate
+portions of that most delicate of all mechanisms,
+a watch, reminds one of that other marvel of
+mechanical adaptation, the steam hammer, which
+makes the earth tremble with its mighty blows upon
+a heated mass of iron, or lightly taps and cracks
+the soft-shelled nut without the slightest touch of
+violence upon its enclosed and fragile fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The adaptation of the lathe and slide to wood-working
+tools will be referred to in the chapter relating
+to wood-working.</p>
+
+<p>Following the invention of the lathe and the slide-rest,
+came the <i>metal-planing</i> machines. It is stated
+in Buchanan’s <i>Practical Essays</i>, published in 1841,
+that a French engineer in 1751, in constructing the
+Marly Water Works on the Seine in France, employed
+a machine for planing out the wrought iron
+pump-barrels used in that work, and this is thought to
+be the first instance in which iron was reduced to a
+plane surface without chipping or filing. But it needed
+the invention of the slide-rest and its application to
+metal-turning lathes to suggest and render successful
+metal-planing machines. These were supplied in
+England from 1811 to 1840 by the genius of Bramah,
+Clement, Fox, Roberts, Rennie, Whitworth, Fletcher,
+and a few others. When it is considered how many<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_245" id="PAGE_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+different forms are essential to the completion of
+metal machines of every description, the usefulness
+of machinery that will produce them with the greatest
+accuracy and despatch can be imagined. The
+many modifications of the planing machine have
+names that indicate to the workman the purpose for
+which they are adapted&mdash;as the <i>jack</i>, a small portable
+machine, quick and handy; the <i>jim crow</i>, a machine
+for planing both ways by reversal of the movement
+of the bed, and it gets its name because it can “wheel
+about and turn about and do just so”; the key
+groove machine, the milling machine with a serrated-faced
+cutter bar, shaping machine and shaping bar,
+slotting machine, crank planer, screw cutting, car-wheel
+turning, bolt and nut screwing, etc.</p>
+
+<p>As to the mutual evolution and important results
+of these combined inventions, the slide-rest and the
+planer, we again quote Nasmyth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“The first planing machine enabled us to produce
+the second still better, and that a better still, and then
+slide rests of the most perfect kind came streaming
+forth from them, and they again assisted in making
+better still, so that in a very short time a most important
+branch of engineering business, namely, tool-making,
+arose, which had its existence not merely
+owing to the pre-existing demand for such tools, but
+in fact raised a demand of its own creating. One
+has only to go into any of these vast establishments
+which have sprung up in the last thirty years to
+find that nine-tenths of all the fine mechanisms in
+use and in process of production are through the
+agency, more or less direct, of the <i>slide rest and planing
+machine</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>Springing out of these inventions, as from a
+fruitful soil, came the metal-boring machines, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_246" id="PAGE_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>
+class for turning the outside of cylinders to make
+them true, and another class for boring and drilling
+holes through solid metal plates. The principle of
+the lathe was applied to those machines in which the
+shaft carrying the cutting or boring tool was held
+either in a vertical or in a horizontal position.</p>
+
+<p>Now flowed forth, as from some Vulcan’s titanic
+workshop, machines for making bolts, nuts, rivets,
+screws, chains, staples, car wheels, shafts, etc., and
+other machines for applying them to the objects with
+which they were to be used.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of screw-making had been such that
+in 1840, by the machines then in use for cutting, slotting,
+shaving, threading, and heading, twenty men
+and boys were enabled to manufacture 20,000 screws
+in a day. Thirty-five years later two girls tending
+two machines were enabled to manufacture 240,000
+screws a day. Since then the process has proceeded
+at even a greater rate. So great is the consumption
+of screws that it would be utterly impossible
+to supply the demand by the processes in vogue
+sixty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In England’s first great International Fair, in
+1851, a new world of metallurgical products, implements,
+processes, and metal-working tools, were
+among the grand results of the half century’s inventions
+which were exhibited to the assembled nations.
+The leading exhibitor in the line of self-acting
+lathes, planing, slotting, drilling and boring machines
+was J. Whitworth &amp; Co., of Manchester, England.
+Here were for the first time revealed in a compact
+form those machines which shaped metal as wood
+alone had been previously shaped. But another
+quarter of a century brought still grander results,
+which were displayed at the Centennial Exhibition
+at Philadelphia, in 1876.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_247" id="PAGE_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As J. Whitworth &amp; Co. were the leading exhibitors
+at London in 1851, so were William Sellers &amp;
+Co., of Philadelphia, the leading exhibitors in the
+1876 exhibition. As showing the progress of the
+century, the official report, made in this class by
+citizens of other countries than America, set forth
+that this exhibit of the latter company, “in extent and
+value, in extraordinary variety and originality, was
+probably without parallel in the past history of international
+exhibitions.” Language seemed to be inadequate
+to enable the committee to describe satisfactorily
+the extreme refinement in every detail, the
+superior quality of material and workmanship, the
+mathematical accuracy, the beautiful outlines, the
+perfection in strength and form, and the scientific
+skill displayed in the remarkable assemblage of this
+class of machinery at that exhibition.</p>
+
+<p>An exhibit on that occasion made by Messrs.
+Hoopes &amp; Townsend of Philadelphia attracted great
+attention by the fact that the doctrine of the flow
+of solid metal, so well expounded by that eminent
+French scientist, M. Tresca, was therein well illustrated.
+It consisted of a large collection of bolts and
+screws which had been <i>cold-punched</i>, as well as of
+elevator and carrier chains, the links of which had
+been so punched. This punching of the cold metal
+without cutting, boring, drilling, hammering, or
+otherwise shaping the metal, was indeed a revelation.</p>
+
+<p>So also at this Exhibition was a finer collection of
+machine-made horseshoes than had ever previously
+been presented to the world. A better and more intelligent
+and refined treatment of that noble animal,
+the horse, and especially in the care of his feet, had
+sprung up during the last half century, conspicuously
+advocated by Mr. Fleming in England, and followed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_248" id="PAGE_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
+promptly in America and elsewhere. Within the
+last forty years nearly two hundred patents have
+been taken out in the United States alone for machines
+for making horseshoes. Prejudices, jealousies
+and objections of all kinds were raised at first against
+the machine-made horseshoe, as well as the horseshoe
+nail, but the horses have won, and the blacksmiths
+have been benefited despite their early objections.
+The smiths make larger incomes in buying and applying
+the machine-made shoes. The shoes are not
+only hammered into shape on the machine, but there
+are machines for stamping them out from metal at
+a single blow; for compressing several thicknesses of
+raw hide and moulding them in a steel mould, producing
+a light, elastic shoe, and without calks; furnishing
+shoes for defective hoofs, flexible shoes for
+the relief and cure of contracted or flat feet, shoes
+formed with a joint at the toe, and light, hard shoes
+made of aluminium.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tube Making.</i>&mdash;Instead of heating strips of metal
+and welding the edges together, tubes may now be
+made seamless by rolling the heated metal around a
+solid heated rod; or by placing a hot ingot in a die
+and forcing a mandrel through the ingot. And as to
+tube and metal bending, there are wonderful machines
+which bend sheets of metal into great tubes, funnels,
+ship masts and cylinders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Welding.</i>&mdash;As to welding&mdash;the seams, instead of
+being hammered, are now formed by melting and condensing
+the edges, or adjoining parts, by the electric
+current.</p>
+
+<p><i>Annealing and Tempering.</i>&mdash;Steel wire and plates
+are now tempered and annealed by electricity. It is
+found that they can be heated to a high temperature
+more quickly and evenly by the electric current<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_249" id="PAGE_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+passed through them than by combustion, and the
+process is much used in making clock and watch
+springs.</p>
+
+<p>One way of hardening plates, especially armour
+plates, by what is called the Harveyized process, is
+by embedding the face of the plate in carbon, protecting
+the back and sides with sand, heating to
+about the melting point of cast iron, and then hardening
+the face by chilling, or otherwise.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coating with Metal.</i>&mdash;Although covering metal
+with metal has been practised from the earliest
+times, accomplished by heating and hammering, it
+was not until this century that electro-plating, and
+plating by chemical processes, as by dipping the
+metal into certain chemical solutions, and by the use
+of automatic machinery, were adopted. It was in the
+early part of the century that Volta discovered that
+in the voltaic battery certain metallic salts were reduced
+to their elements and deposited at the negative
+pole; and that Wollaston demonstrated how a
+silver plate in bath of sulphate of copper through
+which a current was passed became covered with
+copper. Then in 1838, Spencer applied these principles
+in making casts, and Jacobi in Russia shortly
+after electro-gilded a dome of a cathedral in St.
+Petersburg. Space will not permit the enumeration
+of the vast variety of processes and machines for coating
+and gilding that have since followed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Metal Founding.</i>&mdash;The treatment of metal after
+it flows from the furnaces, or is poured from the
+crucibles into moulds, by the operations of facing,
+drying, covering, casting and stripping, has given
+rise to a multitude of machines and methods for
+casting a great variety of objects. The most interesting
+inventions in this class have for their object<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_250" id="PAGE_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
+the chilling, or chill hardening, of the outer surfaces
+of articles which are subject to the most and hardest
+wear, as axle boxes, hammers, anvils, etc., which is
+effected by exposing the red-hot metal to a blast of
+cold air, or by introducing a piece of iron into a
+mould containing the molten metal.</p>
+
+<p>In casting steel ingots, in order to produce a
+uniform compact structure, Giers of England invented
+“soaking pits of sand” into which the ingot from
+the mould is placed and then covered, so that the
+heat radiating outward re-heats the exterior, and the
+ingot is then rolled without re-heating.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sheet Metal Ware.</i>&mdash;Important improvements have
+been made in this line. Wonderful machines have
+been made which, receiving within them a piece of
+flat metal, will, by a single blow of a plunger in a die,
+stamp out a metal can or box with tightly closed
+seams, and all ready for the cover, which is made in
+another similar machine; or by which an endless
+chain of cans are carried into a machine and there
+automatically soldered at their seams; and another
+which solders the heads on filled cans as fast as they
+can be fed into the machine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Metal Personal Ware.</i>&mdash;Buckles, clasps, hooks and
+eyelets, shanked buttons, and similar objects are now
+stamped up and out, without more manual labour
+than is necessary to supply the machines with the
+metal, and to take care of the completed articles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wire Working.</i>&mdash;Not only unsightly but useful
+barbed wire fences, and the most ornamental wire
+work and netting for many purposes, such as fences,
+screens, cages, etc., are now made by ingenious machines,
+and not by hand tools.</p>
+
+<p>In stepping into some one of the great modern
+works where varied industries are carried on under<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_251" id="PAGE_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+one general management, one cannot help realising
+the vast difference between old systems and the new.
+In one portion of the establishment the crude ores
+are received and smelted and treated, with a small
+force and with ease, until the polished metal is
+complete and ready for manipulation in the manufacture
+of a hundred different objects. In another
+part ponderous or smaller lathes and planing machines
+are turning forth many varied forms; in
+quiet corners the boring, drilling, and riveting
+machines are doing their work without the clang of
+hammers; in another, an apparently young student
+is conducting the scientific operation of coating or
+gilding metals; in another, girls may be seen with
+light machines, stamping, or burnishing, or assembling
+the different parts of finished metal ware; and
+the motive power of all this is the silent but all-powerful
+electric current received from the smooth-running
+dynamo giant who works with vast but unseen
+energy in a den by himself, not a smoky or a
+dingy den, but light, clean, polished, and beautiful
+as the workshop of a god.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_252" id="PAGE_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+ORDNANCE, ARMS AND EXPLOSIVES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Although the progress in the invention of fire-arms
+of all descriptions seems slow during the ages
+preceding the 19th century, yet it will be found on investigation
+that no art progressed faster. No other
+art was spurred to activity by such strong incentives,
+and none received the same encouragement and reward
+for its development. The art of war was the trade
+of kings and princes, and princely was the reward to
+the subject who was the first to invent the most
+destructive weapon. Under such high patronage
+most of the ideas and principles of ordnance now prevailing
+were discovered or suggested, but were embodied
+for the most part in rude and inefficient contrivances.</p>
+
+<p>The art waited for its success on the development
+of other arts, and on the mental expansion and freedom
+giving rise to scientific investigation and results.</p>
+
+<p>The cannon and musket themselves became the
+greatest instruments for the advancement of the new
+civilisation, however much it was intended otherwise
+by their kingly proprietors, and the new civilisation
+returned the compliment through its trained
+intellects by giving to war its present destructive
+efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>To this efficiency, great as the paradox may seem,
+Peace holds what quiet fields it has, or will have,
+until most men learn to love peace and hate the arts
+of war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_253" id="PAGE_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As to the Chinese is given the credit for the invention
+of gunpowder, so they must also be regarded
+as the first to throw projectiles by its means. But
+their inventions in these directions may be classed as
+fireworks, and have no material bearing on the modern
+art of Ordnance. It is supposed that the word
+“cannon,” is derived from the same root as “cane,”
+originally signifying a hollow reed; and that these
+hollow reeds or similar tubes closed at one end were
+used to fire rockets by powder.</p>
+
+<p>It is also stated that the practice existed among
+the Chinese as early as 969 A. D. of tying rockets to
+their arrows to propel them to greater distances, as
+well as for incendiary purposes.</p>
+
+<p>This basic idea had percolated from China through
+India to the Moors and Arabs, and in the course of a
+few centuries had developed into a crude artillery
+used by the Moors in the siege of Cordova in 1280.
+The Spaniards, thus learning the use of the cannon,
+turned the lesson upon their instructors, when under
+Ferdinand IV. they took Gibraltar from the Moors
+in 1309. Then the knowledge of artillery soon
+spread throughout Europe. The French used it at
+the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and the English
+had three small guns at Crecy in 1346. These antique
+guns were made by welding longitudinal bars
+of iron together and binding them by iron rings
+shrunk on while hot. Being shaped internally
+and externally like an apothecary’s mortar, they
+were called mortars or bombards. Some were
+breech-loaders, having a removable chamber at
+the breech into which the charge of powder was
+inserted behind the ball. The balls were stone.
+These early cannon, bombards, and mortars were
+mounted on heavy solid wooden frames and moved<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_254" id="PAGE_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+with great difficulty from place to place. Then in
+the fifteenth century they commenced to make
+wrought-iron cannon, and hollow projectiles, containing
+a bursting charge of powder to be exploded by a
+fuse lit before the shell was fired. In the next century
+cannon were cast.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindoos, when their acquaintance was made
+by the Europeans, were as far advanced as the latter
+in cannon and fire-arms. One cannon was found at
+Bejapoor, in India, cast of bronze, bearing date
+1548, and called the “Master of the Field,” which
+weighed 89,600 pounds, and others of similar size of
+later dates. Great cast bronze guns of about the
+same weight as the Hindoo guns were also produced
+at St. Petersburg, Russia, in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Many and strange were the names given by Europeans
+to their cannon in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries to denote their size and the weight of the
+ball they carried: such as the Assick, the Bombard,
+the Basilisk, the cannon Royal, or Carthoun, the Culverin,
+Demi-culverin, Falcon, Siren, Serpentine, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The bombards in the fifteenth century were made
+so large and heavy, especially in France, that they
+could not be moved without being taken apart.</p>
+
+<p>When the heavy, unwieldy bombards with stone
+balls were used, artillery was mostly confined to
+castles, towns, forts, and ships. When used in the
+field they were dragged about by many yokes of oxen.
+But in the latter part of the fifteenth century, when
+France under Louis XI. had learned to cast lighter
+brass cannon, to mount them on carriages that could
+be drawn by four or six horses, and which carriages
+had trunnions in which the cannon were swung so as
+to be elevated or depressed, and cast-iron projectiles<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_255" id="PAGE_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+were used instead of stones, field artillery took its
+rise, and by its use the maps of the world were
+changed. Thus with their artillery the French under
+Charles VIII., the successor of Louis XI., conquered
+Italy.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth century Europe was busy in
+adopting these and other changes. Cannon were
+made of all sizes and calibres, but were not arranged
+in battle with much precision. Case shot were invented
+in Germany but not brought into general use.
+Shells were invented by the Italians and fired from
+mortars, but their mode of construction was preserved
+in great secrecy. The early breech-loaders had been
+discarded, as it was not known how to make the
+breech gas-tight, and the explosions rendered the
+guns more dangerous to their users than to the
+enemy.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century Holland began to make
+useful mortar shells and hand grenades. Maurice
+and Henry Frederick of Nassau, and Gustave Adolphus,
+made many improvements in the sizes and
+construction of cannon. In 1674, Coehorn, an officer
+in the service of the Prince of Orange, invented
+the celebrated mortar which bears his name, and the
+use of which has continued to the present time. The
+Dutch also invented the howitzer, a short gun in
+which the projectiles could be introduced by hand.
+About the same time Comminges of France invented
+mortars which threw projectiles weighing 550
+pounds. In this part of that century also great improvements
+were made under Louis XIV. Limbers,
+by which the front part of the gun carriage was made
+separable from the cannon part and provided with the
+ammunition chest; the prolonge, a cord and hook by
+which the gun part could be moved around by hand;<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_256" id="PAGE_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
+and the elevating screw, by which the muzzle of the
+gun could be raised or depressed,&mdash;were invented.</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the eighteenth century it was
+thought by artillerists in England that the longer the
+gun the farther it would carry. One, called “Queen
+Ann’s Pocket Piece” still preserved at Dover, is
+twenty-five feet long and carries a ball only twenty-five
+pounds in weight. It was only after repeated
+experiments that it was learned that the shorter guns
+carried the projectile the greatest distance.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest improvements in the eighteenth century
+were made by Gribeauval, the celebrated French
+artillerist, about 1765. He had guns made of such
+material and of such size as to adapt them to the
+different services to which they were to be put, as
+field, siege, garrison, and sea coast. He gave greater
+mobility to the system by introducing six-pound
+howitzers, and making gun carriages lighter; he introduced
+the system of fixed ammunition, separate
+compartments in the gun carriages for the projectiles,
+and the charges of powder in paper or cloth
+bags or cylinders; improved the construction of the
+elevating screw, adapted the tangent scale, formed
+the artillery into horse batteries, and devised new
+equipments and a new system of tactics.</p>
+
+<p>It was with Gribeauval’s improved system that
+“Citizen Bonaparte, young artillery officer,” took
+Toulon; with which the same young “bronze artillery
+officer” let go his great guns in the Cul-de-Sac
+Dauphin against the church of St. Roch; on the
+Port Royal; at the Theatre de la Republique; “and
+the thing we specifically call French Revolution is
+blown into space by it, and became a thing that was.”</p>
+
+<p>It was with this system that this same young officer
+won his first brilliant victories in Italy. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_257" id="PAGE_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+the fruit of these victories had been lost during his
+absence he reappeared with his favorite artillery, and
+on the threshold of the century, in May 1800, as
+“First Consul of the Republic” re-achieved at Marengo
+the supremacy of France over Austria.</p>
+
+<p>As to <i>small arms</i>, as before suggested, they doubtless
+had their origin in the practice of the Chinese
+in throwing fire balls from bamboo barrels by the
+explosion of light charges of powder, as illustrated to
+this day in what are known as “Roman Candles.”
+Fire-crackers and grenades were also known to the
+Chinese and the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>Among ancient fire-arms the principal ones were
+the arquebus, also bombardelle, and the blunderbuss.
+They were invented in the fourteenth century but
+were not much used until the fifteenth century.
+These guns for the most part were so heavy that they
+had to be rested on some object to be fired. The
+soldiers carried a sort of tripod for this purpose.
+The gun was fired by a slow-burning cord, a live
+coal, a lit stick, or a long rod heated at one end, and
+called a match. The blunderbuss was invented in
+Holland. It was a large, short, funnel-shaped muzzle-loader,
+and loaded with nails, slugs, etc. The injuries
+and hardships suffered by the men who used
+it, rather than by the enemy, rendered its name significant.
+Among the earliest fire-arms of this period
+one was invented which was a breech-loader and revolver.
+The breech had four chambers and was rotated
+by hand on an arbour parallel to the barrel.
+The extent of its use is not learned. To ignite the
+powder the “wheel-lock” and “snap-haunce” were
+invented by the Germans in the sixteenth century.
+The wheel lock consisted of a furrowed wheel and was
+turned by the trigger and chain against a fixed piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_258" id="PAGE_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>
+of iron on the stock to excite sparks which fell on to
+the priming. The snap-haunce, a straight piece of
+furrowed steel, superseded the wheel-lock. The sixteenth
+century had got well started before the English
+could be induced to give up the cross-bow and
+arrow, and adopt the musket. After they had introduced
+the musket with the snap-haunce and
+wooden ramrod, it became known, in the time of
+Queen Elizabeth, as the “Brown Bess.”</p>
+
+<p>The “old flint-lock” was quite a modern invention,
+not appearing until the seventeenth century. It
+was a bright idea to fix a piece of flint into the cock
+and arrange it to strike a steel cap on the priming
+pan when the trigger was fired; and it superseded the
+old match, wheel-lock, and snap-haunce. The flint-lock
+was used by armies well into the nineteenth century,
+and is still in private use in remote localities.
+As the arquebus succeeded the bow and arrow, so the
+musket, a smooth and single-barrel muzzle-loader
+with a flint-lock and a wooden ramrod, succeeded the
+arquebus. Rifles, which were the old flint-lock
+muskets with their barrels provided with spiral
+grooves to give the bullet a rotary motion and cause it
+to keep one point constantly in front during its flight,
+is claimed as the invention of Augustin Kutler of
+Germany in 1520, and also of Koster of Birmingham,
+England, about 1620. Muskets with straight
+grooves are said to have been used in the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The rifle with a long barrel and its flint-lock was
+a favourite weapon of the American settler. It was
+made in America, and he fought the Indian wars and
+the war of the Revolution with it.</p>
+
+<p>It would not do to conclude this sketch of antique
+cannon and fire-arms without referring to Puckle’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_259" id="PAGE_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+celebrated English patent No. 418, of May 15, 1718,
+for “A Defence.” The patent starts out with the
+motto:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Defending King George, your Country, and Lawes,<br></span>
+<span class="line">Is defending Yourselves and Protestant Cause.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>It proceeds to describe a “Portable Gun or Machine”
+having a single barrel, with a set of removable
+chambers which are charged with bullets before
+they are placed in the gun, a handle to turn the
+chambers to bring each chamber in line with the
+barrel, a tripod on which the gun is mounted and
+on which it is to be turned, a screw for elevating
+and turning the gun in different directions, a set of
+square chambers “for shooting square bullets against
+Turks,” a set of round chambers “for shooting round
+bullets against the Christians;” and separate drawings
+show the square bullets for the Turks and the
+round bullets for the Christians. History is silent as
+to whether Mr. Puckle’s patent was put in practice,
+but it contained the germs of some modern inventions.</p>
+
+<p>Among the first inventions of the century was a
+very important one made by a clergyman, the Rev.
+Mr. Forsyth, a Scotchman, who in 1803 invented the
+percussion principle in fire-arms. In 1807 he patented
+in England detonating powder and pellets
+which were used for artillery. About 1808 General
+Shrapnel of the English army invented the celebrated
+shell known by his name. It then consisted
+of a comparatively thin shell filled with bullets, having
+a fuse lit by the firing of the gun, and adapted
+to explode the shell in front of the object fired at.
+This fuse was superseded by one invented by General
+Bormann of Belgium, which greatly added to the
+value of case shot.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_260" id="PAGE_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1814 Joshua Shaw of England invented the
+percussion cap. Thus, by the invention of the percussion
+principle by Forsyth, and that little copper
+cylinder of Shaw, having a flake of fulminating
+powder inside and adapted to fit the nipple of a gun
+and be exploded by the fall of the hammer, was
+sounded the death knell of the old flint-locks with
+which the greatest battles of the world had been and
+were at that time being fought. The advantages
+gained by the cap were the certain and instantaneous
+fire, the saving in time, power, and powder obtained
+by making smaller the orifice through which the ignition
+was introduced, and the protection from
+moisture given by the covering cap. And yet so slow
+is the growth of inventions sometimes that all
+Europe continued to make the flint-locks for many
+years after the percussion cap was invented; and
+General Scott, in the war between the United States
+and Mexico in 1847, declined to give the army the
+percussion cap musket. The cap suggested the necessity
+and invention of machines for making them
+quickly and in great quantities.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated “Colt’s” revolver was invented by
+Colonel Samuel Colt of the United States, in 1835.
+He continued to improve it, and in 1851 exhibited
+it at the World’s Fair, London, where it excited great
+surprise and attention. Since then the revolver has
+become a great weapon in both private and public
+warfare. The next great inventions in small arms
+were the readoption and improvement of the breech-loader,
+the making of metallic cartridges, the magazine
+gun, smokeless powder and other explosives, to
+which further reference will be made.</p>
+
+<p>To return to cannons:&mdash;In 1812 Colonel Bomford,
+an American officer, invented what is called the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_261" id="PAGE_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
+“Columbiad,” a kind of cannon best adapted for sea-coast
+purposes. They are long-chambered pieces,
+combining certain qualities of the gun, howitzer and
+mortar, and capable of projecting shells and solid
+shot with heavy charges of powder at high angles of
+elevation, and peculiarly adapted to defend narrow
+channels and sea-coast defences. A similar gun was
+invented by General Paixhans of the French army in
+1822. The adoption of the Paixhans long-chambered
+guns, designed to throw heavy shells horizontally as
+well as at a slight elevation and as easily as solid
+shot, was attended with great results. Used by the
+French in 1832, in the quick victorious siege of Antwerp,
+by the allies at Sebastopol, where the whole
+Russian fleet was destroyed in about an hour, and
+in the fight of the Kearsarge and the doomed Alabama
+off Cherbourg in the American civil war, it
+forced inventors in the different countries to devise
+new and better armour for the defence of ships.
+This was followed by guns of still greater penetrative
+power. Then as another result effected by these
+greater guns came the passing away of the old-fashioned
+brick and stone forts as a means of defence.</p>
+
+<p>In an interesting address by Major Clarence E.
+Dutton of the Ordnance Department, U.S.A., at the
+Centennial Patent Congress at Washington in 1891,
+he thus stated what the fundamental improvements
+were that have characterised the modern ordnance
+during the century:</p>
+
+<p>1. The regulation and control of the action of gunpowder
+in such a manner as to exert less strain upon
+the gun, and to impart more energy to the projectile.</p>
+
+<p>2. To so construct the gun as to transfer a portion
+of the strain from the interior parts of the walls
+which had borne too much of it, to the exterior parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_262" id="PAGE_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
+which had borne too little, thus nearly equalising
+the strain throughout the entire thickness of the
+walls.</p>
+
+<p>3. To provide a metal which should be at once
+stronger and safer than any which had been used before.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States General Rodman, “one of
+the pioneers of armed science,” commenced about
+1847 a series of investigations and experiments on
+the power and action of gunpowder and the strains
+received by every part of the gun by the exploding
+gases, of very great importance; and in this matter he
+was assisted greatly by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, who
+invented an ingenious apparatus termed a “piezometer,”
+or a pressure measurer, by which the pressure
+of the gases at the various parts of the gun was determined
+with mathematical certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Woodbridge also added greatly to the success
+of rifled cannon. The success in rifling small arms,
+by which an elongated ball is made to retain the same
+end foremost during its flight, led again to the attempts
+of rifling cannon for the same purpose, which
+were finally successful. But this success was due
+not to the spiral grooves in the cannon bore, but in
+attachments to the ball compelling it to follow the
+course of the grooves and giving it the proper initial
+movement. The trouble with these attachments was
+that they were either stripped off, or stripped away,
+by the gun spirals. Woodbridge in 1850 overcame the
+difficulty by inventing an improved <i>sabot</i>, consisting
+of a ring composed of metal softer than the projectile
+or cannon, fixed on the inner end of the projectile
+and grooved at its rear end, so that when
+the gun is fired and the ball driven forward these
+grooves expand, acting valvularly to fill the grooves<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_263" id="PAGE_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>
+in the gun, thus preventing the escape of the gases,
+while the ring at the same time is forced forward on
+to the shell so tightly and forcibly that the projectile
+is invariably given a rotary motion and made to
+advance strictly in the line of axis of the bore, and
+in the same line during the course of its flight. This
+invention in principle has been followed ever since,
+although other forms have been given the sabot, and
+it is due to this invention that modern rifled cannon
+have been so wonderfully accurate in range and efficient
+in the penetrating and destructive power both
+on sea and land.</p>
+
+<p>Woodbridge also invented the <i>wire-wound cannon</i>,
+and a machine for winding the wire upon the gun,
+thus giving the breach part, especially, immense
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>In England, among the first notable and greater
+inventors in ordnance during the latter half of the
+century, a period which embraces the reduction to
+practice of the most wonderful and successful inventions
+in weapons of war which the world had up
+to that time seen, are Lancaster, who invented
+the elliptical bore; Sir William Armstrong, who,
+commencing in 1885, constructed a gun built of
+wrought-iron bars twisted into coils and applied
+over a steel core and bound by one or more wrought-iron
+rings, all applied at white heat and shrunk on
+by contraction due to cooling, by which method
+smooth-bore, muzzle-loading cannon of immense calibre,
+one weighing one hundred tons, were made.
+They were followed by Armstrong, inventor of
+breech-loaders; Blakely, inventor of cannon made of
+steel tubes and an outer jacket of cast iron; and Sir
+Joseph Whitworth, inventor of most powerful steel
+cannon and compressed steel projectiles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_264" id="PAGE_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In Germany, Friedrich Krupp at Essen, Prussia,
+invented and introduced such improvements in
+breech-loading cannon as revolutionised the manufacture
+of that species of ordnance, and established
+the foundation of the greatest ordnance works in the
+world. The first of his great breech-loading steel
+guns was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867.
+A Krupp gun finished at Essen in the 70’s was then
+the largest steel gun the world had ever seen. It
+weighed seventy-two tons, and was thirty-two feet
+long. The charge consisted of 385 pounds of powder,
+the shell weighed 1,660 pounds, having a bursting
+charge of powder of 22 pounds, and a velocity of
+1,640 feet per second. It was estimated that if the
+gun were fired at an angle of 43° the shell would be
+carried a distance of fifteen miles. It was in the
+Krupp guns, and also in the Armstrong breech-loaders,
+that a simple feature was for the first time
+introduced which proved of immense importance in
+giving great additional expansive force to the explosion
+of the powder. This was an increase in the
+size of the powder chamber so as to allow a vacant
+space in it unfilled with powder.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, Rodman, commencing in
+1847, and Dahlgren in 1850, and Parrott in 1860,
+invented and introduced some noticeable improvements
+in cast-iron, smooth-bore, and rifled cannon.</p>
+
+<p>In France General Paixhans and Colonel Treuille
+de Beaulieu improved the shells and ordnance.</p>
+
+<p>The latest improvements in cannon indicate that
+the old smooth-bore muzzle-loader guns are to be entirely
+superseded by breech-loaders, just as in small
+arms the muzzle-loading musket has given way to
+the breech-loading rifle.</p>
+
+<p>A single lever is now employed, a single turn of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_265" id="PAGE_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+which will close or open the breech, and when opened
+expel the shell by the same movement. Formerly
+breech-loaders were confined to the heaviest ordnance;
+now they are a part of the lightest field pieces.</p>
+
+<p>As to the operation of those immense guns above
+referred to, which constitute principally sea-coast
+defences and the heavy armament for forts, gun
+carriages have been invented whereby the huge guns
+are quickly raised from behind immense embrasures
+by pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, quickly fired
+(the range having been before accurately ascertained)
+and then as quickly lowered out of sight, the
+latter movement being aided by the recoil action of
+the gun.</p>
+
+<p>It is essential that the full force of the gases of explosion
+shall be exerted against the base of the projectile,
+and therefore all escape of such gases be prevented.
+To this end valuable improvements in <i>gas
+checks</i> have been made,&mdash;one kind consisting of an
+annular canvas sack containing asbestos and tallow
+placed between the front face of the breech block
+and a mushroom-shaped piece, against which the explosion
+impinges.</p>
+
+<p>As among projectiles and shells for cannon those
+have been invented which are loaded with dynamite
+or other high explosive, a new class of <i>Compressed
+air ordnance</i> has been started, in which air or gas is
+used for the propelling power in place of powder,
+whereby the chances of exploding such shells in the
+bore of the gun are greatly lessened.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of metals, both for cannon to resist
+most intense explosives and for plates to resist
+the penetration of the best projectiles, have received
+great attention. They are matters pertaining to
+metallurgy, and are treated of under that head. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_266" id="PAGE_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
+strife still continues between impenetrable armour
+plate and irresistible projectiles. Within the last
+decade or so shells have been invented with the design
+simply to shatter or fracture the plate by which the
+way is broken for subsequent shots. Other shells
+have been invented carrying a high explosive and capable
+of penetrating armour plates of great thickness,
+and exploding after such penetration has taken place.</p>
+
+<p>A great accompaniment to artillery is “The
+Range Finder,” a telescopic apparatus for ascertaining
+accurately the location and distance of objects to
+be fired at.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to <i>small arms</i>,&mdash;at the time percussion
+caps were invented in England, 1803-1814, John
+H. Hall of the United States invented a breech-loading
+rifle. It was in substance an ordinary musket
+cut in two at the breech, with the rear piece connected
+by a hinge and trunnion to the front piece, the bore
+of the two pieces being in line when clamped, and
+the ball and cartridge inserted when the chamber
+was thrown up. A large number were at once manufactured
+and used in the U.S. Army. A smaller
+size, called <i>carbines</i>, were used by the mounted troops.
+After about twenty years’ use these guns began to be
+regarded as dangerous in some respects, and their
+manufacture and use stopped, although the carbines
+continued in use to some extent in the cavalry. A
+breech-loading rifle was also invented by Colonel
+Pauly of France in 1812, and improved by Dreyse
+in 1835; also in Norway in 1838, and in a few years
+adopted by Sweden as superior to all muzzle-loading
+arms. About 1841 the celebrated “Needle
+Gun” was invented in Prussia, and its superiority
+over all muzzle-loaders was demonstrated in 1848 in
+the first Schleswig-Holstein war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_267" id="PAGE_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cartridges</i>, in which the ball and powder were secured
+together in one package, were old in artillery,
+as has been shown, but their use for small arms is a
+later invention. <i>Metallic</i> cartridges, made of sheet
+metal with a fulminate cap in one end and a rim
+on the end of the shell by which it could be extracted
+after the explosion, were invented by numerous
+persons in Europe and America during the
+evolution of the breech-loader. Combined metal case
+and paper patented in England in 1816, and numerous
+wholly metallic cartridge shells were patented
+in England, France, and United States between
+1840 and 1860. M. Lefaucheux of France,
+in the later period, devised a metal <i>gas check</i> cartridge
+which was a great advance.</p>
+
+<p>A number of inventors in the United States besides
+Hall had produced breech-loading small arms before
+the Civil War of 1861, but with the exception of
+Colt’s revolver and Sharp’s carbine, the latter used
+by the cavalry to a small extent, none were first adopted
+in that great conflict. Later, the Henry or Winchester
+breech-loading rifle and the Spencer magazine
+gun were introduced and did good service. But
+the whole known system of breech-loading small
+arms was officially condemned by the U.S. Military
+authorities previous to that war. The absence of
+machines to make a suitable cartridge in large quantities
+and vast immediate necessities compelled the
+authorities to ignore the tested Prussian and Swedish
+breech-loaders and those of their own countrymen
+and to ransack Europe for muskets of ancient pattern.
+These were worked by the soldiers under the
+ancient tactics, of load, ram, charge and fire, until
+a stray bullet struck the ramrod, or the discharge of
+a few rammed cartridges so over-heated the musket<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_268" id="PAGE_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>
+as to thereby dispense with the soldier and his gun
+for further service in that field. However, private
+individuals and companies continued to invent and
+improve, and the civil war in America revolutionised
+the systems of warfare and its weapons. The wooden
+walls of the navies disappeared as a defence after the
+conflict between the Monitor and the Merrimac, and
+muzzle-loading muskets became things of the past.</p>
+
+<p>Torpedoes, both stationary and movable, then became
+a successful weapon of warfare. Soon after
+that war, and when the United States had adopted the
+Springfield breech-loading rifle, the works at Springfield
+were equipped with nearly forty different machines,
+each for making a separate part of a gun in
+great quantities. Many of these had been invented
+by Thomas Blanchard forty years before. That great
+inventor of labour-saving machinery had then designed
+machines for the shaping and making of gun
+stocks and for forming the accompanying parts.
+Blanchard was a contemporary of Hall, and Hall, to
+perfect his breech-loader, was the first to invent machines
+for making its various parts. His was the
+first interchangeable system in the making of small
+arms.</p>
+
+<p>Army officers had come to regard “the gun as only
+the casket while the cartridge is the jewel;” and to
+this end J. G. Gill at the U.S. Arsenal at Frankford,
+Philadelphia, devised a series of cartridge-making
+machines which ranked among the highest triumphs
+of American invention.</p>
+
+<p>The single breech-loader is now being succeeded
+by the magazine gun, by which a supply of cartridges
+in a chamber is automatically fed into the barrel.
+The Springfield, has been remodelled as a magazine
+loader. Among later types of repeating rifles, known
+from the names of their inventors, are the “Krag-<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_269" id="PAGE_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>Jorgensen,”
+and the “Mauser,” and the crack of
+these is heard around the world. Modern rifles are
+rendered more deadly by the fact that they can be
+loaded and fired in a recumbent position, and with
+smokeless powder, by which the soldier and his
+location remain concealed from his foe.</p>
+
+<p>The recoil of the gun in both large and small arms
+is now utilised to expel the fired cartridge shell, and
+to withdraw a fresh one from its magazine and place
+it in position in the chamber. <i>Compressed air and explosive
+gases</i> have been used for the same purpose.
+A small <i>electric battery</i> has been placed in the stock
+to explode the cartridge when the trigger is pulled.</p>
+
+<p>Sporting guns have kept pace with other small
+arms in improvements, and among modern forms are
+those which discharge in alternative succession the
+two barrels by a single trigger. Revolvers have been
+improved and the Smith and Wesson is known
+throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of <i>Machine Guns</i>, or <i>Mitrailleuses</i>, was
+not a new one, as we have seen from Puckle’s celebrated
+patent of 1718. Also history mentions a gun
+composed of four breech-loading tubes of small calibre,
+placed on a two-wheeled cart used in Flanders as
+early as 1347, and of four-tubed guns used by the
+Scotch during the civil war in 1644. The machine
+gun invented by Dr. Gatling of the United States
+during the Civil War and subsequently perfected,
+has become a part of the armament of every civilised
+nation. The object of the gun is to combine in one
+piece the destructive effect of a great many, and to
+throw a continuous hail of projectiles. The gun is
+mounted on a tripod; the cartridges are contained in
+a hopper mounted on the breech of the gun and are
+fed from locks into the barrels (which are usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_270" id="PAGE_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+five or ten in number) as the locks and barrels are revolved
+by a hand crank. As the handle is turned
+the cartridges are first given a forward motion, which
+thrusts them into the barrels, closes the breech and
+fires the cartridges in succession, and then a backward
+motion which extracts the empty shells. The gun
+weighs one hundred pounds and firing may be kept
+up with a ten-barreled gun at one thousand shots a
+minute.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Hotchkiss</i> revolving cannon is another celebrated
+American production named from its inventor,
+and constructed to throw heavier projectiles
+than the Gatling. It also has revolving barrels and
+great solidity in the breech mechanism. It has
+been found to be of great service in resisting the attacks
+of torpedo boats. It is adapted to fire long-range
+shells with great rapidity and powerful effect,
+and is exceedingly efficient in defence of ditches and
+entrenchments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Explosives.</i>&mdash;The desire to make the most effective
+explosives for gunnery led to their invention not only
+for that purpose but for the more peaceful pursuit
+of blasting. <i>Gun Cotton</i>, that mixture of nitric
+acid and cotton, made by Schönbein in 1846, and experimented
+with for a long time as a substitute for
+gunpowder in cannon and small arms and finally discarded
+for that purpose, is now being again revived,
+but used chiefly for blasting. This was followed by
+the discovery of nitro-glycerine, a still more powerful
+explosive agent&mdash;too powerful and uncontrollable for
+guns as originally made. They did not supersede
+gunpowder, but smokeless powders have come, containing
+nitro-cellulose, or nitro-glycerine rendered
+plastic, coherent and homogeneous, and converted into
+rods or grains of free running powder, to aid the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_271" id="PAGE_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+breech-loaders and magazine guns, while the high explosives,
+gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, dynamite, dualine,
+etc., have become the favorite agencies for those
+fearful offensive and defensive weapons, the <i>Torpedoes</i>.
+From about the time of the discovery of gunpowder,
+stationary and floating chambers and mines
+of powder, to be discharged in early times by fuses
+(later by percussion or electricity), have existed, but
+modern inventions have rendered them of more fearful
+importance than was ever dreamed of before this
+century. The latest invention in this class is the
+<i>submarine torpedo boat</i>, which, moving rapidly towards
+an enemy’s vessel, suddenly disappears from
+sight beneath the water, and strikes the vessel at its
+lowest or most vulnerable point.</p>
+
+<p>To the inquiry as to whether all this vast array
+of modern implements of destruction is to lessen the
+destruction of human life, shorten war, mitigate its
+horrors and tend toward peace, there can be but one
+answer. All these desirable results have been accomplished
+whenever the new inventions of importance
+have been used. “Warlike Tribes” have been
+put to flight so easily by civilised armies in modern
+times that such tribes have been doubted as possessing
+their boasted or even natural courage. Nations
+with a glorious past as to bravery but with a poor
+armament have gone down suddenly before smaller
+forces armed with modern ordnance. The results
+would have been reversed, and the derision would
+have proceeded from the other side, if the conditions
+had been reversed, and those tribes and brave peoples
+been armed with the best weapons and the knowledge
+of their use. The courage of the majority of men on
+the battle-field is begot of confidence and enthusiasm,
+but this confidence and enthusiasm, however great<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_272" id="PAGE_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+the cause, soon fail, and discretion becomes the better
+part of valour, if men find that their weapons are
+weak and useless against vastly superior arms of the
+enemy. The slaughter and destruction in a few
+hours with modern weapons may not be more terrible
+than could be inflicted with the old arms by far
+greater forces at close quarters in a greater length of
+time in the past, but the end comes sooner; and the
+prolongation of the struggle with renewed sacrifices of
+life, and the long continued and exhausting campaigns,
+giving rise to diseases more destructive than
+shot or shell, are thereby greatly lessened, if not altogether
+avoided.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_273" id="PAGE_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+PAPER AND PRINTING.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Paper-making.</i>&mdash;“The art preservative of all arts”&mdash;itself
+must have means of preservation, and hence
+the art of paper-making precedes the art of printing.</p>
+
+<p>It was Pliny who wrote, at the beginning of the
+Christian era, that “All the usages of civilised life
+depend in a remarkable degree upon the employment
+of paper. At all events the remembrance of past
+events.”</p>
+
+<p>Naturally to the Chinese, the Hindoo, and the
+Egyptian, we go with inquiries as to origin, and find
+that as to both arts they were making the most delicate
+paper from wood and vegetable fibres and printing
+with great nicety, long before Europeans had
+even learned to use papyrus or parchment, or had
+conceived the idea of type.</p>
+
+<p>So far as we know the wasp alone preceded the
+ancient Orientals in the making of paper. Its gray
+shingled house made in layers, worked up into paper
+by a master hand from decayed wood, pulped, and
+glutinised, waterproofed, with internal tiers of chambers,
+a fortress, a home, and an airy habitation, is
+still beyond the power of human invention to reproduce.</p>
+
+<p>Papyrus&mdash;the paper of the Egyptians: Not only
+their paper, but its pith one of their articles of food,
+and its outer portions material for paper, boxes, baskets,
+boats, mats, medicines, cloths and other articles
+of merchandise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_274" id="PAGE_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Once one of the fruits of the Nile, now no longer
+growing there. On its fragile leaves were recorded
+and preserved the ancient literatures&mdash;the records of
+dynasties&mdash;the songs of the Hebrew prophets&mdash;the
+early annals of Greece and Rome&mdash;the vast, lost
+tomes of Alexandria. Those which were fortunately
+preserved and transferred to more enduring forms
+now constitute the greater part of all we have of the
+writings of those departed ages.</p>
+
+<p>In making paper from papyrus, the inner portion
+next to the pith was separated into thin leaves; these
+were laid in two or more layers, moistened and
+pressed together to form a leaf; two or more leaves
+united at their edges if desired, or end to end, beaten
+smooth with a mallet, polished with a piece of iron or
+shell, the ends, or sides, or both, of the sheet sometimes
+neatly ornamented, and then rolled on a wooden
+cylinder. The Romans and other ancient nations
+imported most of their papyrus from Egypt, although
+raising it to considerable extent in their own swamps.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventh century, the Saracens conquered
+Egypt and carried back therefrom, papyrus, and the
+knowledge of how to make paper from it to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Parchment manufactured from the skins of young
+calves, kids, lambs, sheep, and goats, was an early
+rival of papyrus, and was known and used in Europe
+before papyrus was there introduced.</p>
+
+<p>The softening of vegetable and woody fibre of various
+kinds, flax and raw cotton and rags, and reducing
+it into pulp, drying, beating, and rolling it into paper,
+seem to have been suggested to Europe by the
+introduction of papyrus, for we learn of the first
+appearance of such paper by the Arabians, Saracens,
+Spaniards and the French along through the eighth,
+ninth, and tenth and eleventh centuries. Papyrus<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_275" id="PAGE_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+does not, however, appear to have been superseded
+until the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p>Public documents are still extant written in the
+twelfth century on paper made from flax and rags;
+and paper mills began to put in an appearance in
+Germany in the fourteenth century, in which the
+fibre was reduced to pulp by stampers. England began
+to make paper in the next century. Pulping the
+fibre by softening it in water and beating the same
+had then been practised for four centuries. Rollers
+in the mills for rolling the pulp into sheets were introduced
+in the fifteenth century, and paper makers
+began to distinguish their goods from those made by
+others by water marks impressed in the pulp sheets.
+The jug and the pot was one favourite water mark in
+that century, succeeded by a fool’s cap, which name
+has since adhered to paper of a certain size, with or
+without the cap. So far was the making of paper
+advanced in Europe that about 1640 wall paper began
+to be made as a substitute for tapestry; although
+as to this fashion the Chinese were still ahead some
+indefinite number of centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Holland was far advanced in paper-making in the
+seventeenth century. The revolution of 1688 having
+seriously interrupted the art in England, that country
+imported paper from Holland during that period
+amounting to £100,000. It was a native of Holland,
+Rittenhouse, who introduced paper-making in America
+and erected a mill near Philadelphia in the early
+years of the eighteenth century, and there made paper
+from linen rags.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch also had substituted cylinders armed
+with blades in place of stampers and used their windmills
+to run them. The Germans and French experimented
+with wood and straw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_276" id="PAGE_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the eighteenth century some
+manufacturers in Europe had learned to make
+white paper from white rags, and as good in quality,
+and some think better, than is made at the present
+day. The essentials of paper making by hand from
+rags and raw vegetable fibres, the soaking of fibres in
+water and boiling them in lyes, the beating, rolling,
+smoothing, sizing and polishing of the paper, were
+then known and practised. But the best paper was
+then a dear commodity. The art of bleaching coloured
+stock was unknown, and white paper was made alone
+from stock that came white into the mill. The
+processes were nearly all hand operations. “Beating”
+was pounding in a mortar. The pulp was laid
+by hand upon moulds made of parallel strands of
+coarse brass wire; and the making of the pulp by
+grinding wood and treating it chemically to soften it
+was experimental.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century produced a revolution. It
+introduced the use of modern machinery, and modern
+chemical processes, by which all known varieties and
+sizes of paper, of all colours, as well as paper vessels,
+are made daily in immense quantities in all civilised
+countries, from all sorts of fibrous materials.</p>
+
+<p>Knight, in his <i>Mechanical Dictionary</i>, gives a list
+of nearly 400 different materials for paper making
+that had been used or suggested, for the most part
+within the century and up to twenty years ago, and
+the number has since increased.</p>
+
+<p>The modern revolution commenced in 1799, when
+Louis Robert, an employee of François Didot of
+Essones, France, invented and patented the first machine
+for making paper in a long, wide, continuous
+web. The French government in 1800 granted him
+a reward of 8,000 francs. The machine was then<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_277" id="PAGE_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+exhibited in England and there tested with success.
+It was there that Messrs. Fourdrinier, a wealthy stationery
+firm, purchased the patents, expended
+£60,000 for improvements on the machine, and first
+gave to the world its practical benefits. This expenditure
+bankrupted them, as the machines were not
+at once remunerative, and parliament refused to
+grant them pecuniary assistance. Gamble, Donkin,
+Koops, the Fourdriniers, Dickenson, and Wilkes,
+were the first inventors to improve the Robert machine,
+and to give it that form which in many essential
+features remains to-day. They, together with
+later inventors, gave to the world a new system of
+paper making.</p>
+
+<p>By 1872 two hundred and ninety-nine Fourdrinier
+machines were running in the United States alone.
+In the improved Fourdrinier machine or system, rags,
+or wood, or straw are ground or otherwise reduced to
+pulp, and then the pulp, when properly soaked and
+drained, is dumped into a regulating box, passing
+under a copper gate to regulate the amount and
+depth of feed, then carried along through strainers,
+screeners or dressers, to free the mass from clots and
+reduce it to the proper fineness, over an endless wire
+apron, spread evenly over this apron by a shaking
+motion, subjected to the action of a suction box by
+which the water is drawn off by air-suction pumps,
+carried between cloth-covered rollers which press and
+cohere it, carried on to a moving long felt blanket to
+further free it from moisture, and which continues
+to hold the sheet of pulp in form; then with the
+blanket through press rolls adjustable to a desired
+pressure and provided with means to remove therefrom
+adhering pulp and to arrest the progress of
+the paper if necessary; then through another set of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_278" id="PAGE_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+compression rollers, when the condensed and matted
+pulp, now paper, is carried on to a second blanket,
+passed through a series of steam cylinders, where the
+web is partially dried, and again compressed, thence
+through another series of rollers and drying cylinders,
+which still further dry and stretch it, and now,
+finally completed, the sheet is wound on a receiving
+cylinder. The number of rollers and cylinders and
+the position and the length of the process to fully dry,
+compact, stretch and finish the sheet, may be, and
+are, varied greatly. If it is desired to impress on or
+into the paper water marks, letters, words, or ornamental
+matter, the paper in its moist stage, after it
+passes through the suction boxes, is passed under a
+“dandy” or fancy scrolled roll provided on its surface
+with the desired design. When it is desired to
+give it a smooth, glossy surface, the paper, after its
+completion, is passed through animal sizing material,
+and then between drying and smoothing rollers. Or
+this sizing may be applied to the pulp at the outset
+of the operation. Colouring material, when desired,
+is applied to the pulp, before pressing. By the use
+of machines under this system, a vast amount of material,
+cast-off rags, etc., before regarded as waste,
+was utilised for paper making.</p>
+
+<p>The modern discoveries of the chemists of the
+century as to the nature of fibres, best modes and materials
+for reducing them to pulp, and bleaching
+processes, have brought the art of paper making from
+wood and other fibrous materials to its present high
+and prosperous condition.</p>
+
+<p>What are known as the soda-pulp and the sulphite
+processes are examples of this. The latter and other
+acid processes were not successful until cement-lined
+digesters were invented to withstand their corroding<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_279" id="PAGE_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+action. But now it is only necessary to have a convenient
+forest of almost any kind of wood to justify
+the establishment of a paper mill.</p>
+
+<p>It was the scarcity of rags, especially of linen
+rags, that forced inventors to find other paper-producing
+materials.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible and uninteresting in a
+work of this character to enumerate the mechanical
+details constituting the improvements of the century
+in paper-making machinery of all kinds. Thousands
+of patents have been granted for such inventions.
+With one modern Fourdrinier machine, and a few
+beating engines, a small paper mill will now turn out
+daily as much paper as could be made by twelve
+mills a hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In moulding pulp into articles of manufacture,
+satisfactory machines have been invented, not only
+for the mere forming them into shape, but for water-proofing
+and indurating the same. From the making
+of a ponderous paper car wheel to a lady’s delicate
+work basket, success has been attained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paper bag machines</i>, machines for making <i>paper
+boxes</i>, applying and staying corners of such boxes, for
+making <i>cell cases</i> used in packing eggs and fruit, and
+for wrapping fruit; machines for affixing various
+forms of labels and addresses, are among the wonders
+of modern inventions relating to paper. It is
+wonderful how art and ingenuity united about thirty
+years ago to produce attractive <i>wall papers</i>.
+Previous to that time they were dull and conventional
+in appearance. Now beautiful designs are rolled out
+from machines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Printing.</i>&mdash;We have already seen how paper
+making and printing grew up together an indefinite
+number of centuries ago in the Far East. Both block<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_280" id="PAGE_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+printing and movable types were the production of
+the Chinese, with which on their little pages of many-coloured
+paper they printed myriads of volumes of
+their strange literature in stranger characters during
+centuries when Europeans were painfully inscribing
+their thoughts with the stylus and crude pens upon
+papyrus and the dried skins of animals.</p>
+
+<p>But the European and his descendants delight to
+honour most the early inventors of their own countries.
+Italy refers with pride to the printing from
+blocks practised by the Venetians, and at Ravenna,
+from 1280 to 1300; from type at Subiaco in the
+Roman territory in 1465, and to the first Roman
+book printed in 1470; the Dutch to Laurens Coster,
+whom they allege invented movable type in 1423.
+Some of the Dutch have doubted this, and pin their
+faith on Jacob Bellaert, as the first printer, and
+Gerard Leeu, his workman, who made the types at
+Haarlem, in 1483. The Germans rely with confidence
+on John Guttenberg, who at Strasburg, as early
+as 1436, had wooden blocks, and wooden movable
+types, and who, two or three years after, printed several
+works; on the partnership of Faust and Guttenberg
+in 1450 at Mentz, and their Bible in Latin
+printed in 1456 on vellum with types imitating
+manuscript in form, and illustrated by hand; and,
+finally, on Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim, who then
+made matrices in which were cast the letters singly,
+and who thereby so pleased his master, Faust, that
+the latter gave him his daughter, Christina, in marriage.</p>
+
+<p>From Germany the art spread to Paris and thence
+to England. About 1474 Caxton was printing his
+black-letter books in England. Spain followed, and
+it is stated that in 1500 there were two hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_281" id="PAGE_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+printing offices in Europe. The religious and political
+turmoils in Germany in the sixteenth century
+gave an immense impetus to printing there. The
+printing press was the handmaid of the Reformation.
+In America the first printing press was set
+up in Mexico in 1536, and in Lima, Brazil, in 1586.
+In 1639, nineteen years after the landing of the Pilgrims
+on the bleak rock at Plymouth, they set up a
+printing press at Cambridge, Mass.</p>
+
+<p>The art of printing soon resolved itself into two
+classes: first, <i>composition</i>, the arranging of the type
+in the proper order into words and pages; and second,
+<i>press work</i>; the taking of impressions from the
+types, or from casts of types in plates&mdash;being a <i>facsimile</i>
+of a type bed. This was <i>stereotyping</i>&mdash;the invention
+of William Ged, of Edinburgh, in 1731.</p>
+
+<p>Types soon came to be made everywhere of uniform
+height; that of England and America being
+92-100 of an inch, and became universally classified
+by names according to their sizes, as pica, small
+pica, long primer, minion, nonpareil, etc.</p>
+
+<p>After movable types came the invention of
+<i>Presses</i>. The earliest were composed of a wooden
+frame on which were placed the simple screw and a
+lever to force a plate down upon a sheet of paper
+placed on the bed of type which had been set in the
+press, with a spring to automatically raise the screw
+and plate after the delivery of the impression. This
+was invented by Blaew of Amsterdam in 1620.
+Such, also, was the Ramage press, and on such a one
+Benjamin Franklin worked at his trade as a printer,
+both in America and in London. His London press,
+on which he worked in 1725, was carried to the
+United States, and is now on exhibition in Washington.
+This was substantially the state of the art at
+the beginning of the century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_282" id="PAGE_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Then Earl Stanhope in England invented a press
+entirely of iron, and the power consisted of the combination
+of a toggle joint and lever. The first
+American improvement was invented by George
+Clymer, of Philadelphia, in 1817, the power being an
+improved lever consisting of three simple levers of
+the second order. This was superseded by the
+“Washington” press invented by Samuel Rust in
+1829. It has as essential parts the toggle joint and
+lever, and in the frame work, as in the Stanhope,
+type bed, rails on which the bed was moved in and
+out, means to move the bed, the platen, the tympan
+on which the sheet is placed, the frisket, a perforated
+sheet of paper, to preserve the printed sheet, an inking
+roller and frame. In this was subsequently introduced
+an automatic device for inking the roller, as
+it was moved back from over the bed of type on to an
+inking table. This, substantially, has been the hand
+press ever since.</p>
+
+<p>With one of these hand-presses and the aid of two
+men about two hundred and fifty sheets an hour
+could be printed on one side. The increase in the circulation
+of newspapers before the opening of the 19th
+century demanded greater rapidity of production and
+turned the attention of inventors to the construction
+of power or machine presses. Like the paper-making
+machine, the power press was conceived in the
+last decade of the eighteenth century, and like that
+art was also not developed until the nineteenth century.
+William Nicholson of England is believed to
+have been the first inventor of a machine printing
+press. He obtained an English patent for it in 1720.
+The type were to be placed on the face of one cylinder,
+which was designed to be in gear, revolved with,
+and press upon another cylinder covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_283" id="PAGE_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
+soft leather, the type cylinder to be inked by
+a third cylinder to which the inking apparatus,
+was applied, and the paper to be printed
+by being passed between the type and the impression
+cylinder. These ideas were incorporated into the
+best printing machines that have since been made.
+But the first successful machine printing press was
+the invention of two Saxons, König and Bauer, in
+1813, who introduced their ideas from Germany,
+constructed the machine in London, and on which on
+the 28th of November, 1814, an issue of the <i>London
+Times</i> was printed. The <i>Times</i> announced to
+its readers that day that they were for the first time
+perusing a paper printed upon a machine driven
+by steam power. What a union of mighty forces was
+heralded in this simple announcement! The union
+of the steam engine, the printing press, and a great
+and powerful journal! An Archimedean lever had
+been found at last with which to move the world.</p>
+
+<p>The production of printed sheets per hour over the
+hand-press was at once quadrupled, and very shortly
+1800 sheets per hour were printed. This machine
+was of that class known as cylinder presses. In this
+machine ordinary type was used, and the type-form
+was flat and passed beneath a large impression cylinder
+on which the paper was held by tapes. The
+type-form was reciprocated beneath an inking apparatus
+and the paper cylinder alternately. The inking
+apparatus consisted of a series of rollers, to the
+first of which the ink was ejected from a trough and
+distributed to the others. In 1815 Cowper patented
+in England electrotype plates to be affixed to a cylinder.
+Applegath and Cowper improved the König
+machine in the matter of the ink distributing rollers,
+and in the adaptation of four printing cylinders to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_284" id="PAGE_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>
+the reciprocating type bed, whereby, with some other
+minor changes, 5000 impressions on one side were
+produced per hour. Again Applegath greatly
+changed the arrangement of cylinders and multiplied
+their number, and the number of the other parts, so
+that in 1848 the sheets printed on one side were first
+8000 and then 12,000 an hour.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, Daniel Treadwell of Boston
+invented the first power printing machine in 1822.
+Two of these machines were at that time set up in
+New York city. It was a flat bed press and was long
+used in Washington in printing for the government.
+David Bruce of New York, in 1838, invented the
+first successful type-casting machine, which, when
+shortly afterward it was perfected, became the model
+for type-casting machines for Europe and America.
+Previous to that time type were generally made by
+casting them in hand-moulds&mdash;the metal being
+poured in with a spoon.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Hoe, an English inventor, went to New
+York in 1803, and turned his attention to the making
+of printing presses. His son, Richard March Hoe,
+inherited his father’s inventive genius. While in
+England in 1837-1840, obtaining a patent on and introducing
+a circular saw, he became interested in
+the printing presses of the London Times. Returning
+home, he invented and perfected a rotary machine
+which received the name of the “Lightning
+Press.” It first had four and then ten cylinders arranged
+in a circle. As finally completed, it printed
+from a continuous roll of paper several miles in
+length, and on both sides at the same time, cutting off
+and folding ready for delivery, 15,000 to 20,000
+newspapers an hour, the paper being drawn through
+the press at the rate of 1,000 feet in a minute. Before
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_285" id="PAGE_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>it was in this final, completed shape, it was
+adopted by the <i>London Times</i>. John Walter of
+London in the meantime invented a machine of a
+similar class. He also used a sheet of paper miles
+long. It was first damped, passed through blotting
+rolls, and then to the printing cylinders. It gave
+out 11,000 perfected sheets, or 22,000 impressions an
+hour, and as each sheet was printed, it was cut by
+a knife on the cylinder, and the sheets piled on the
+paper boards. It was adopted by the London <i>Times</i>
+and the New York <i>Times</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A German press at Augsburg, and the Campbell
+presses of the United States, have also become celebrated
+as web perfecting presses, in which the web is
+printed, the sheets cut, associated, folded, and delivered
+at high speed. One of the latest quadruple
+stereotype perfecting presses made by Hoe &amp; Co.
+of New York has a running capacity of 48,000
+papers per hour. On another, a New York paper
+has turned off nearly six hundred thousand copies
+in a single day, requiring for their printing ninety-four
+tons of paper. Among other celebrated inventors
+of printing presses in the United States were
+Isaac Adams, Taylor, Gordon, Potter, Hawkins, Bullock,
+Cottrell, Campbell, Babcock, and Firm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mail-marking Machines</i>, in which provision is
+made for holding the printing mechanism out of
+operative position in case a letter is not in position
+to be stamped; address-printing machines, including
+machines for printing addresses by means of a
+stencil; machines for automatically setting and distributing
+the type, including those in which the
+individual types are caused to enter the proper receptacle
+by means of nicks in the type, which engage
+corresponding projections on a stationary guard<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_286" id="PAGE_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>
+plate, and automatic type justifying machines. All
+such have been invented, developed, and perfected
+in the last half century.</p>
+
+<p>Another invention which has added wonderfully
+to push the century along, is the <i>Typewriter</i>. It
+has long been said that “The pen is mightier than
+the sword,” but from present indications, it is proper
+to add that the typewriter is mightier than the pen.</p>
+
+<p>A machine in which movable types are caused to
+yield impressions on paper to form letters by means
+of key levers operated by hand, has been one of
+slow growth from its conception to its present practical
+and successful form.</p>
+
+<p>Some one suggested the idea in England in a
+patent in 1714. The idea rested until 1840, when a
+French inventor revived it in a patent. At the same
+time patents began to come out in England and the
+United States; and about forty patents in each of
+these two countries were granted from that time until
+1875. Since that date about 1400 patents more have
+been issued in the United States, and a large number
+in other countries. It was, however, only that year
+and before 1880, that the first popular commercially
+successful machines were made and introduced.</p>
+
+<p>The leading generic idea of all subsequent successful
+devices of this kind was clearly set forth in
+the patent of S. W. Francis of the United States in
+1857. This feature is the arranging of a row of hammers
+in a circle so that when put in motion they will
+all strike the same place, which is the centre of that
+circle. The arrangement of a row of pivoted hammers
+or type levers, each operated by a separate key
+lever to strike an inked ribbon in front of a sheet
+of paper, means to automatically move the carriage
+carrying the paper roll from right to left as the letters
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_287" id="PAGE_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>are successfully printed, leaving a space between
+each letter and word, and sounding a signal when the
+end of a line is reached, so that the carriage may be
+returned to its former position&mdash;all these and some
+other minor but necessary operations may seem simple
+enough when stated, but their accomplishment
+required the careful study of many inventors for
+years.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most modern of typewriters has a single
+electro-magnet to actuate all the type bars of a set,
+and to throw each type from its normal position to
+the printing centre. By an extremely light touch
+given to each key lever the circuit is closed and
+causes the lever to strike without the necessity of
+pressing the key down its whole extent and releasing
+it before the next key strikes. By this device, the
+operator is relieved of fatigue, as his fingers may
+glide quickly from one key to another, the printing
+is made uniform, and far greater speed attained by
+reason of the quick and delicate action. Mr. Thaddeus
+Cahill of Washington appears to be the first
+to have invented the most successful of this type of
+machines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Book-binding Machinery</i> is another new production
+of the century. It may be that the old hand
+methods would give to a book a stronger binding
+than is found on most books to-day, but the modern
+public demands and has obtained machinery that will
+take the loose sheets and bind them ready for delivery,
+at the rate of ten or fifteen thousand volumes a
+day.</p>
+
+<p>The “quaint and curious volumes of forgotten
+lore,” the Latin folios in oak or ivory boards with
+brass clasps, or bound in velvet, or in crimson satin,
+ornamented with finest needlework or precious<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_288" id="PAGE_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+stones, or the more humble beech boards, and calf
+and sheep skins with metal edges and iron clasps, in
+all of which the sheets were stoutly sewed together
+and glued, when glue was known, to the covers, are
+now but relics of the past. Machinery came to the
+front quite rapidly after 1825, at which time cloth
+had been introduced as cheaper than leather, and as
+cheap and a more enduring binder than paper.
+The processes in book-binding are enumerated as
+follows; and for each process a machine has been
+invented within the last sixty years to do the work:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">Folding the sheets;<br></span>
+<span class="line">Gathering the consecutive sheets;<br></span>
+<span class="line">Rolling the backs of folded sheets;<br></span>
+<span class="line">Saw cutting the backs for the combs;<br></span>
+<span class="line">Sewing;<br></span>
+<span class="line">Rounding the back of the sewed sheets.<br></span>
+<span class="line">Edge cutting;<br></span>
+<span class="line">Binding, securing the books to the sides, covering with muslin, leather or paper. Tooling and lettering.<br></span>
+<span class="line">Edge gilting.<br></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>One of the best modern illustrations of human
+thought and complicated manual operations contained
+in automatic machinery is the <i>Linotype</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is a great step from the humble invention of
+Schoeffer five hundred and fifty years ago of cast
+movable type to that of another German, Mergenthaler,
+in 1890-92.</p>
+
+<p>The Linotype (a line of type) was pronounced by
+the <i>London Engineering</i> “as the most remarkable
+machine of this century.” It was the outcome of
+twelve years of continuous experiment and invention,
+and the expenditure of more than a million dollars.
+A brief description of this invention is given in the
+report of the United States commissioner of patents
+for 1895 as follows: “In the present Mergenthaler<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_289" id="PAGE_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>
+construction there is a magazine containing a series
+of tubes for the letter or character moulds, each of
+which moulds is provided with a single character.
+There are a number of duplicates of each character,
+and the moulds containing the same character are
+all arranged in one tube. The machine is provided
+with a series of finger keys, which, when pressed
+like the keys of a typewriter, cause the letter moulds
+to assemble in a line in their proper order for print.
+A line mould and a melting pot are then brought into
+proper relation to the assembled line of letter moulds
+and a cast is taken, called the linotype, which represents
+the entire line, a column wide, of the matter to
+be printed. The letter moulds are then automatically
+returned to their proper magazine tube. The Mergenthaler
+machine is largely in use in the principal
+newspaper offices, with the result that a single operator
+does at least the work of four average compositors.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr Rogers obtained a United States patent, September
+23, 1890, for a machine for casting lines of
+type, the principal feature of which is that the letter
+moulds are strung on wires secured on a hinged
+frame. “When the frame is in one position, the letter
+moulds are released by the keys, slide down the
+wires by gravity and are assembled in line at the
+casting point. After the cast is taken, the lower ends
+of the guide wires are elevated, which causes the
+letter moulds to slide back on the wires to their original
+position, when the operation is repeated for the
+next line.” Operated by a single person, the Mergenthaler
+produces and assembles linotypes ready
+for the press or stereotyping table at the rate of from
+3,600 to 7,000 ems (type characters) per hour. It
+permits the face or style of type to be changed at will<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_290" id="PAGE_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+and it permits the operator to read and correct his
+matter as he proceeds.</p>
+
+<p>To the aid of the ordinary printing press came
+<i>electrotyping</i>, stenographic colour printing, engraving,
+and smaller job and card presses, all entirely
+new creations within the century, and of infinite
+variety, each in itself forming a new class in typographic
+art, and a valuable addition to the marvellous
+transformation.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of the linotype and other modern
+machines into printing offices has without doubt
+many times reduced and displaced manual labour,
+and caused at those times at least temporary suffering
+among employees. But statistics do not show
+that as a whole there are fewer printers in the land.
+On the contrary, the force seems to increase, just as
+the number of printing establishments increase, with
+the multiplication of new inventions. As in other
+arts, the distress caused by the displacement of hand-labour
+by machinery is local and temporary. The
+whole art rests for its development on the demand
+for reading matter, and the demand never seems to
+let up. It increases as fast as the means of the consumers
+increase for procuring it. One hundred
+years ago a decent private library, consisting of a
+hundred or so volumes, one or two weekly newspapers,
+and an occasional periodical, was the badge
+and possession alone of the wealthy few. Now
+nearly every reading citizen of every village has
+piled up in some corner of his house a better supply
+than that, of bound or unbound literature, and of a
+far superior quality. Besides the tons of reading
+matter of all kinds turned out daily by the city
+presses, every village wants its own paper and its
+town library, and every one of its business men has<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_291" id="PAGE_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+recourse to the typewriter and the printer for his
+letters, his cards, and his advertisements.</p>
+
+<p>To supply the present demand for printed matter
+with the implements of a hundred years ago, it would
+be necessary to draw upon and exhaust the supply of
+labourers in nearly every other occupation. Printing
+would become the one universal profession.</p>
+
+<p>The roar of the guns at Waterloo and the click
+of the first power printing press in London were
+nearly simultaneous. The military Colossus then
+tumbled, and the Press began to lead mankind.
+Wars still continue, and will, until men are civilised;
+but the vanguard of civilisation are the printers, and
+not the warriors. The marvellous glory of the nineteenth
+century has proceeded from the intelligence of
+the people, awakened, stimulated, and guided by the
+press. But the press itself, and its servitors and
+messengers, speeding on the wings of electricity, are
+the children of the inventors.</p>
+
+<p>These inventions have made the book and the newspaper
+the poor man’s University. They are mirrors
+which throw into his humble home reflections of the
+scenes of busy life everywhere. By them knowledge
+is spread, thought aroused, and universal education
+established.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_292" id="PAGE_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+TEXTILES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Spinning</i>:&mdash;A bunch of combed fibre fixed in the
+forked end of a stick called a distaff, held under the
+left arm, while with the right forefinger and thumb
+the housewife or maiden deftly drew out and twisted
+a thread of yarn of the fibre and wound it upon a stick
+called a spindle, was the art of spinning that came
+down to Europe from Ancient Egypt or India without
+a change through all the centuries to at least the
+middle of the fourteenth century, and in England
+to the time of Henry VIII. Then the spinning
+wheel was introduced, which is said to have also been
+long in use in India. By the use of the wheel the
+spindle was no longer held in the hand, but, set upon
+a frame and connected by a cord or belt to the wheel,
+was made to whirl by turning the wheel by hand, or
+by a treadle. The spindle was connected to the
+bunch of cotton by a cord, or by a single roving of
+cotton or wool attached to the spindle, which was held
+between the finger and thumb, and as the spindle
+revolved the thread was drawn out and twisted and
+wound by the spindle upon itself.</p>
+
+<p>In the cloth of the ancient East the warp and weft
+were both of cotton. In England the warp was linen
+and the weft was cotton. The warp was made by the
+cloth and linen manufacturers, and the weft yarns
+furnished by the woman spinsters throughout the
+country. By both these methods only a single thread<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_293" id="PAGE_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+at a time was spun. The principle of the spinning
+operation, the drawing out and twisting a thread or
+cord from a bunch or roll of fibre, has remained the
+same through all time.</p>
+
+<p>The light and delicate work, the pure and soft material,
+and the beauty and usefulness of raiments produced,
+have all through time made woman the natural
+goddess, the priestess, the patroness, and the
+votary of this art. The object of all modern machinery,
+however complicated or wonderful, has simply
+been to increase the speed and efficiency of the ancient
+mode of operation and to multiply its results.
+The loom, that antique frame on which the threads
+were laid in one direction to form the warp, and
+crossed by the yarns in the opposite direction, carried
+through the warp by the shuttle thrown by hand, to
+form the woof, or weft, comprised a device as old as,
+if not older than, the distaff and spindle.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient and isolated races of Mexico had
+also learned the art of spinning and weaving. When
+the Spaniards first entered that country they found
+the natives clothed in cotton, woven plain, or in
+many colours.</p>
+
+<p>After forty centuries of unchanged life, it occurred
+to John Kay of Bury, England, that the weaving
+process might be improved. In 1733 he had succeeded
+in inventing the picker motion, “picker peg,”
+or “fly.” This consisted of mechanical means for
+throwing the shuttle across the web by a sudden jerk
+of a bar&mdash;one at each side&mdash;operated by pulling a
+cord. He could thus throw the shuttle farther and
+quicker than by hand&mdash;make wider cloth, and do
+as much work in the same time as two men had done
+before. This improvement put weaving ahead of
+spinning, and the weavers were continually calling<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_294" id="PAGE_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+on the spindlers for more weft yarns. This set the
+wits of inventors at work to better the spinning
+means.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time that Kay was struggling with his
+invention of the flying shuttle, another poor man, but
+with less success, had conceived another idea, as to
+spinning. John Wyatt of Lichfield thought it would
+be a good thing to draw out the sliver of cotton or
+wool between two sets of rollers, one end of the
+sliver being held and fed by one set of rollers, while
+the opposite end was being drawn by the other set of
+rollers moving at a greater speed. His invention, although
+not then used, was patented in 1738 by Lewis
+Paul, who in time won a fortune by it, while Wyatt
+died poor, and it was claimed that Paul and not
+Wyatt was the true inventor.</p>
+
+<p>About 1764 a little accident occurring in the home
+of James Hargreaves, an English weaver of Blackburn,
+suggested to that observant person an invention
+that was as important as that of Kay. He was studying
+hard how to get up a machine to meet the weavers’
+demands for cotton yarns. One day while Hargreaves
+was spinning, surrounded by his children,
+one of them upset the spinning wheel, probably in
+a children’s frolic, and after it fell and while lying
+in a horizontal position, with the spindle in a
+vertical position, and the wheel and the spindle
+still running, the idea flashed into Hargreaves’
+mind that a number of spindles might be placed
+upright and run from the same power. Thus
+prompted he commenced work, working in secret and
+at odd hours, and finally, after two or three years,
+completed a crude machine, which he called the spinning
+jenny, some say after his wife, and others that
+the name came from “gin,” the common abbreviated<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_295" id="PAGE_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+name of an engine. This machine had eight or ten
+spindles driven by cords or belts from the same
+wheel, and operated by hand or foot. The rovings
+at one end were attached to the spindles and their
+opposite portions held together and drawn out by a
+clasp held in the hand. When the thread yarn was
+drawn out sufficiently it was wound upon the spindles
+by a reverse movement of the wheel. Thus finally
+were means provided to supply the demand for the
+weft yarns. One person with one of Hargreaves’
+machines could in the same time spin as much as
+twenty or thirty persons with their wheels. But
+those who were to be most benefited by the invention
+were the most alarmed, for fear of the destruction
+of their business, and they arose in their wrath, and
+demolished Hargreaves’ labours. It was a hard time
+for inventors. The law of England then was that
+patents were invalid if the invention was made known
+before the patent was applied for, and part of the
+public insisted on demolishing the invention if it was
+so made known, so that to avoid the law and the
+lawless the harassed inventors kept and worked
+their inventions in secret as long as they could.
+Hargreaves fled to Nottingham, where works were
+soon started with his spinning jennys. The ideas
+of Kay, Wyatt and Hargreaves are said to have
+been anticipated in Italy. There were makers of
+cloths at Florence, and also in Spain and the Netherlands,
+who were far in advance of the English and
+French in this art, but the descriptions of machinery
+employed by them are too vague and scanty to sustain
+the allegation.</p>
+
+<p>And now the long ice age of hand working was
+breaking up, and the age of machine production was
+fast setting in. Hargreaves was in the midst of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_296" id="PAGE_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+troubles and his early triumphs, in 1765-1769,
+when Richard Arkwright entered the field. Arkwright,
+first a barber, and then a travelling buyer
+of hair, and finally a knight, learned, as he travelled
+through Lancashire, Lichfield, Blackburn and Nottingham,
+of the inventions and labours of Wyatt,
+Kay and Hargreaves. Possessed as he was of some
+mechanical skill and inventive genius, and realising
+that the harvest was ripe and the labourers few, entered
+the field of inventions, and with the help of Kay,
+revived the old ideas of John Wyatt and Lewis Paul
+of spinning by rollers, which had now slumbered for
+thirty years. Kay and Arkwright constructed a
+working model, and on this Arkwright by hard pushing
+and hard work obtained capital, and improved,
+completed and patented his machine. The machine
+was first used by him in a mill erected at Nottingham
+and worked by horses; then at Cromford, and
+in this mill the power used to drive the spinning
+machine was a water wheel. His invention was
+therefore given the name of the <i>water</i> frame, which
+it retained long after steam had been substituted for
+water as the driving power. It was also named the
+<i>throstle</i>, from the fact that it gave a humming or
+singing sound while at work; but it is commonly
+known as the <i>drawing</i> frame. Arkwright patented
+useful improvements. He had to contend with mobs
+and with the courts, which combined to destroy his
+machines and his patent, but he finally succeeded in
+establishing mills, and in earning from the Government,
+manufacturers, and the public a great and
+well-merited munificence.</p>
+
+<p>It is a remarkable coincidence that Watt’s steam
+engine patent and Arkwright’s first patent for his
+spinning machine were issued in the same year<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_297" id="PAGE_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>&mdash;1769.
+The new era of invention was dawning fast.</p>
+
+<p>Then, in 1776, came Samuel Crompton of Bolton,
+who invented a combination of the jenny of Hargreaves
+and the roller water frame of Arkwright, and
+to distinguish his invention from the others he named
+it the “mule.” The mule was a carriage on wheels
+to which the spindles were attached. When the
+mule was drawn out one way on its frame the rovings
+were drawn from bobbins through rollers on a
+stationary frame, stretched and twisted into threads,
+and then as the mule was run back the spun threads
+were wound on spools on the spindles. The mule entirely
+superseded the use of the jenny. Notwithstanding
+the advantage in names the mule did more
+delicate work than the jenny. It avoided the continuous
+stretch on the thread of the jenny by first
+completing the thread and then winding it. Crompton’s
+mule was moved back and forth by hand. Roberts
+subsequently made it self-acting. Next, followed
+in England the Rev. Edward Cartwright, who,
+turning his attention to <i>looms</i>, invented the first loom
+run by machinery, the <i>first power loom</i>, 1784-85.
+Then the rioters turned on him, and he experienced
+the same attentions received by Hargreaves and Arkwright.
+The ignorance of ages died in this branch
+of human progress, as it often dies in others, with
+a violent wrench. But the age of steam had at last
+come, and with it the spinning machine, the power
+loom, the printing press, and the discovery among
+men of the powers of the mind, their freedom to
+exercise such powers, and their right to possess the
+fruits of their labours.</p>
+
+<p>The completed inventions of Arkwright and others,
+combined with Watt’s steam engine, revolutionised<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_298" id="PAGE_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+trade, and resulted in the establishment of mills and
+factories. A thousand spindles whirled where one
+hummed before. The factory life which drew the
+women and girls from their country homes to heated,
+and closely occupied, ill ventilated buildings within
+town limits, was, however, not regarded as an improvement
+in the matter of health; and it was a long
+time before mills were constructed and operated with
+the view to the correction of this evil.</p>
+
+<p>The great increase in demand for cotton produced
+by these machine inventions could not have been met
+had it not been for Eli Whitney’s invention of the
+saw gin in America in 1793. The cleaning of the
+seed from the cotton accomplished by this machine
+produced as great a revolution in the culture of cotton
+in America as the inventions of Arkwright and others
+accomplished in spinning and weaving in England.
+America had also learned of Arkwright’s machinery.
+Samuel Slater, a former employee of Arkwright, introduced
+it to Rhode Island in 1789, and built a great
+cotton mill there in 1793. Others followed in Massachusetts.
+Within twenty years after the introduction
+of Arkwright’s machines in the United States
+there were a hundred mills there with a hundred
+thousand spindles.</p>
+
+<p>As has been said, it was customary for weavers to
+make the warp on their looms at one place, and the
+spinners to furnish the yarns for the weft from their
+homes, and even after the spinning machines were invented
+the spinning and weaving were done at
+separate places. It remained for Francis C. Lowell
+of Boston, who had been studying the art of spinning
+and weaving in England and Scotland and the inventions
+of Arkwright and Crompton, to establish in
+1813 at Waltham, Mass., with the aid of Paul<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_299" id="PAGE_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+Moody, machinist, the first factory in the world
+wherein were combined under one roof all the processes
+for converting cotton into cloth.</p>
+
+<p>The task of the century in this art has been to
+greatly extend the dominion of machinery in the
+treatment of cotton and wool in all stages, from the
+reception of the raw material at the door of the factory
+to its final completion in the form of the choicest
+cloth, and to increase the capacity of machines sufficiently
+to meet an ever-increasing and enormous
+consumption. There are from twenty to forty separate
+and distinct operations performed both in spinning
+and weaving and the completion of a piece of
+cloth from cotton or wool, and nearly all of these operations
+are accomplished by machinery.</p>
+
+<p>The century’s improvements and inventions in
+machines for treating and spinning cotton comprise
+machines for first opening and tearing the matted
+mass apart as it is taken from the bales, then cleaning,
+carding, drawing, roving, stretching, spinning,
+winding, doubling, dressing, warping, weaving, etc.
+Formerly, the opening machines were simply cylinders
+armed with spikes, to which the cotton was led
+through nipping rollers, and then delivered in a loose,
+fluffy condition. When such a machine was associated
+with a blowing machine to blow out the dust and
+cleanse the fibre, the loose and scattered condition
+in which the cotton was left gave rise to a great danger
+from fire, and destructive fires often occurred.
+The object of the later opening machinery is to confine
+the cotton within a casing in its passage through
+the machine, during which passage it is thoroughly
+stretched, beaten and blown and then rolled into a
+continuous sheet or lap. At the same time,
+by nice devices, it is evened, that is, freed from<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_300" id="PAGE_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
+all knots, and made of uniform thickness, while a
+certain quantity only of cotton of known weight is
+allowed to pass through to constitute the required
+lap. Finally the lap is wound upon a roller, which
+when filled is removed to the carder. Although the
+cotton is now a white, soft, clean, downy sheet, still
+the fibres cross each other in every direction, and
+they require to be straightened and laid parallel before
+the spinning. This is done by carding. Paul,
+Hargreaves, Robert Peel, and Arkwright had worked
+in constructing a machine to take the place of hand
+carding, and it was finally reduced by Arkwright,
+towards the close of the 18th century, to its present
+form and principle.</p>
+
+<p>But to make those narrow, ribbon-like, clean, long
+lines of rolled cotton, known as slivers, by machinery
+with greater precision and uniformity than is possible
+by hand, and with a thousand times greater
+rapidity, has been the work of many inventors at different
+times and in different countries. The machine
+cards are cylinders clothed with leather and
+provided with separate sets of slender, sharp, bent
+fingers. The different cards are arranged to move
+past each other in opposite directions, so as to catch
+and disentangle the fibres. Flat, overhead stationary
+cards are also used through which the cotton is carried.
+As one operation of carding is not sufficient for most
+purposes the cotton is subjected to one or more successive
+cardings. So ingenious is the structure in
+some of its parts that as the stream of cotton passes
+on, any existing knots do not fail to excite the attention
+of the machine, which at once arrests them and
+holds them until disentangled. In connection with
+the cards, combers and strippers are used to assist
+in further cleaning and straightening the fibre, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_301" id="PAGE_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
+is finally removed from the cards and the combs by
+the doffer. The cotton is stripped from the doffer by
+the doffer knife and in the form of delicate, flat
+narrow ribbons, which are drawn through a small
+funnel to consolidate them, and finally delivered in
+a coiled form into a tall tin can. The material is
+then carried to a drawing frame, which takes the
+spongy slivers, and, carrying them through successive
+sets of rollers moving at increased speed, elongates,
+equalises, straightens and “doubles” them, and finally
+condenses them into two or more rolls by passing
+the same through a trumpet-shaped funnel. As the
+yarns still need to be twisted, they are passed through
+a roving frame similar to a drawing frame. An ingenious
+device connected with the winding of the roving
+yarns upon bobbins may be here noted. Formerly
+the bobbins on which the yarns were wound increased
+in speed as they were filled, thus endangering
+and often breaking the thread, and at all times increasing
+the tension. In 1823 Asa Arnold of Rhode
+Island invented “a differential motion” by which
+the velocity of the bobbin is kept uniform. The
+roving having been reduced to proper size for the intended
+number of yarns, now goes to the spinning
+machine, to still further draw out the threads and
+give to them a more uniform twist and tenuity.
+The spinning machine is simply an improved form
+of Crompton’s mule, already described.</p>
+
+<p>Great as have been the improvements in many matters
+in spindle structure, the drawing, the stretching
+and the twisting still remain fundamentally the same
+in principle as in the singing throstle of Arkwright
+and the steady mule of Crompton. And yet so great
+and rapid has been the advancement of inventions as
+to details and to meet the great demand, that the machinery
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_302" id="PAGE_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>of half a century ago has been almost entirely
+discarded and supplanted by different types. A great
+improvement on the spinning frame of the 18th century
+is the ring frame invented by Jenks. In this
+the spindles, arranged vertically in the frame, are
+driven by bands from a central cylinder, and project
+through apertures in a horizontal bar. A flanged
+ridge around each aperture forms a ring and affords
+a track for a little steel hoop called a traveller, which
+is sprung over the ring. The traveller guides the
+thread on to the spool. As the spindles revolve, the
+thread passing through the traveller revolves it rapidly,
+and the horizontal bar rising and falling has the
+effect of winding the yarn alternately and regularly
+upon the spools.</p>
+
+<p>The bobbins of the spindle frame were found not
+large enough to contain a sufficient amount of yarn
+to permit of a long continuous operation when the
+warp came to be applied, and besides there were occasional
+defects in the thread which could not be
+detected until it broke, if the yarn was used directly
+from the bobbins. So to save much time and trouble
+spooling machines were invented which wind the
+yarn from the bobbins holding 1200 to 1800 yards,
+to large spools, each holding 18,000 to 20,000 yards;
+and then by passing the yarn through fine slots in
+guides which lead to the spool, lumps or weak places,
+which would break the yarns at the guide, could at
+once be discovered and the yarn retied firmly, so
+that there would be no further breaking in the
+warper. After the yarn is finally spooled it is
+found that its surface is still rough and covered with
+fuzz. It is desirable, therefore, that it shall be
+smoothed out and be given somewhat of a lustre before
+weaving. These final operations are performed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_303" id="PAGE_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+by the warping and dressing machines. In the warping
+machine the threads are drawn between rollers,
+the tension of which can be regulated, and then
+through a “reed,” a comb-shaped device which
+separates the threads, and then finally wound upon
+a large cylinder. In this machine a device is also
+arranged which operates to stop the machine at once
+if any thread is broken. When the cylinder is filled
+it is then taken to the dresser, which in its modern
+and useful form is known as the “slusher,” by which
+the yarns are drawn through hot starch, the superfluous
+starch squeezed out, and the yarns, kept separated
+all the time, dried by passing them around large
+drying cylinders, or through a closed box heated by
+steam pipes, and then wound upon the loom beam or
+cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>In weaving, as in spinning, however advanced,
+complicated and improved the means may be beyond
+the hand methods and simple looms of past ages,
+the general principles in the process are still the
+same. These means, generally and broadly speaking,
+consist of a frame for two sets of threads, a roller,
+called the warp beam, for receiving and holding the
+threads which form the warp, a cloth beam upon
+which the cloth is wound as it is woven, the warp
+threads, being first laid parallel, carried from the
+warp beam and attached to the cloth beam; means
+called heddles, which with their moving frames constitute
+“a harness,” consisting of a set of vertical
+strings or rods having central loops through which the
+threads are passed, two or more sets of which receive
+alternate threads, and by the reciprocation of which
+the threads are separated into sets, <i>decussated</i>, forming
+between them what is called a shed through which
+the shuttle is thrown; means for throwing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_304" id="PAGE_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+shuttle; and means, called the batten, lay or lathe,
+for forcing or packing the weft tight into the angle
+formed by the opened warp and so rendering the
+fabric tight and compact, and then the motive power
+for turning the cloth beam and winding the cloth as
+fast as completed. It is along these lines that the inventors
+have wrought their marvellous changes from
+hand to power looms.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1800, in the weaving of figures into cloths,
+it was customary to employ boys to pull the cords in
+the loom harness in order to arrange the coloured
+threads in their relative positions. In that year appeared
+at the front Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French
+mechanician and native of Lyons, whose parents were
+weavers, a prolific inventor in his youth, a wayward
+wanderer after fortune and a wife, a soldier in the
+Revolution, losing a son fighting by his side, eking
+out a poor living with his wife’s help at straw weaving,
+finally employed by a silk manufacturer, and
+while thus engaged, producing that loom which has
+ever since been known by his name. This loom
+was personally inspected by Napoleon, who rewarded
+the inventor with honours and a pension. It was
+then demolished by a mob and its inventor reviled,
+but it afterward became the pride of Lyons and the
+means of its renown and wealth in the weaving of
+silks of rich designs.</p>
+
+<p>The leading feature of the Jacquard loom consists
+of a chain of perforated pattern cards made to
+pass over a drum, through which cards certain needles
+pass, causing certain threads of the warp to rise and
+fall, according to the holes in the cards, and thus admitting
+at certain places in the warp coloured weft
+threads thrown by the shuttle, and reproducing the
+pattern which is perforated in the cards. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_305" id="PAGE_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+Jacquard device could be applied to any loom, and
+it worked a revolution in the manufacture of figured
+goods. The complexity and expensiveness of Jacquard’s
+loom were greatly reduced by subsequent improvements.
+In 1854 M. Bonelli constructed an
+electric loom in which the cards of the Jacquard apparatus
+are superseded by an endless band of tin-foiled
+paper, which serves as an electrical conductor
+to operate the warp thread needles, which before had
+each been actuated by a spiral spring. The Jacquard
+loom was also greatly improved by the English inventors,
+Barlow, Taylor, Martain and others.</p>
+
+<p>Radcliffe and Johnson, also of England, had invented
+and introduced the machines for dressing the
+yarns in one operation before the weaving; Horrocks
+and Marsland of Stockport greatly improved the
+adaptation of steam to the driving of looms, and Roberts
+of Manchester made striking advances in their
+mechanical parts and in bringing them to their present
+state of wonderful efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>In America, in 1836, George Crompton of Taunton,
+Massachusetts, commenced a series of inventions
+in power looms for the manufacture of fancy woollen
+goods, and in the details of such looms generally,
+particularly in increasing the speed of the shuttle,
+which vastly increased the production of such goods
+and gave to his looms a world-wide reputation.</p>
+
+<p>E. B. Bigelow of Massachusetts in 1848 invented a
+power loom, which was exhibited at the Exhibition
+at London in 1851, and astonished the world by his
+exhibition of carpets superior to any woven by hand.
+By the later improvements, and the aid of steam
+power, a single American Bigelow carpet loom can
+turn out now one hundred yards of Brussels carpet in
+a day, far superior in quality to any carpet which<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_306" id="PAGE_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+could possibly be made by hand, when a man toiled
+painfully to produce five yards a day. Mr. Bigelow
+was also a pioneer inventor of power machines for
+weaving coach lace, and cotton checks and ginghams.
+James Lyall of New York invented a power loom
+applicable either to the weaving of very wide and
+heavy fabrics, such as jute canvas for the foundation
+of floor oil cloth, or to fabrics made of the finest
+and most delicate yarns.</p>
+
+<p>It would be interesting, if space permitted, to describe
+the great variety of machines that have been
+invented for dressing, finishing and treating cloths
+after they are woven: The <i>teasling</i> machine, by
+which the nap of woollen cloth is raised; the cloth
+<i>drying</i> machine, with heated rollers, over which the
+cloth is passed to drive off the moisture acquired in
+dyeing, washing, etc., the cloth <i>printing</i>, <i>figuring</i>,
+<i>colouring</i> and <i>embossing</i> machines, with engraved
+cylinders; cloth pressing and <i>creasing</i> machines, and
+the <i>cloth</i> cutting machines for cutting the cloth into
+strips of all lengths, or for cutting piles of cloth in a
+single operation into parts of garments corresponding
+to the prearranged pattern; machines for making
+<i>felt</i> cloth, and stamping or moulding different articles
+of apparel from felt, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p>For the making of ribbons and other kind of narrow
+ware, the needle power loom has been invented,
+in which the fine weft thread is carried through the
+web by a needle instead of a shuttle. This adaptation
+of the needle to looms has placed ribbons within
+the reach of the poor as well as the rich girl.</p>
+
+<p>What a comparison between the work of the virtuous
+Penelopes and the weavers of a century ago and
+to-day! Then with her wheel, and by walking to and
+from it as the yarn was drawn out, and wound up, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_307" id="PAGE_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
+maiden could spin twelve skeins of thread in ten
+hours, producing a thread a little more than three
+miles in length, while the length of her walk to and
+fro was about five miles. Now one Penelope can attend
+to six or eight hundred spindles, each of which
+spins five thousand yards of thread a day, or, with the
+eight hundred spindles, four million yards, or nearly
+twenty-one hundred miles of thread in a day, while
+she need not walk at all.</p>
+
+<p>It was when the weaver threw the shuttle through
+the warp by hand that Job’s exclamation, “My days
+are like a weaver’s shuttle” was an appropriate text
+on the brevity of human life. It may be just as appropriate
+now, but far more striking, when it is realised
+that machines now throw the shuttle one hundred
+and eighty times a minute, or three times a
+second. Flying as fast as it does, when the shuttle
+becomes exhausted of yarn a late invention presents
+a new bobbin and a new supply of yarn to the shuttle
+without stopping the machine.</p>
+
+<p>As to <i>knitting</i>, the century has seen the day pass
+when all hosiery was knit by hand. First, machines
+were invented for knitting the leg or the foot of the
+stocking, which were then joined by hand, and then
+came machines that made the stocking complete.
+The social industry so quietly but slowly followed by
+the good women in their chimney corners with their
+knitting needles, by which a woman might possibly
+knit a pair a day, was succeeded a quarter of a century
+ago by machines, twelve of which could be attended
+to by a boy, which would knit and complete
+five thousand pairs a week. Such a machine commences
+with the stocking at the top, knits down,
+widening and narrowing, changes the stitch as it goes
+on to the heel, shapes the heel, and finishes at the end<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_308" id="PAGE_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+of the toe, all one thread, and then it recommences the
+operation and goes on with another and another.
+Fancy stockings, with numerous colours blended, are
+so knit, and if the yarn holds out a mile of stockings
+may be thus knit, without a break and without an
+attendant. By these machines the astounding result
+was reached of making the stockings at the cost of
+one-sixth of a mill per pair.</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful reduction in the cost of all kinds
+of textile fabrics due to the perfection of spinning
+and loom mechanisms, and its power to meet the
+resulting enormous increase in demand, has enabled
+the poor of to-day to be clad better and with a far
+greater variety of apparel than it was possible for the
+rich a hundred years ago; and the increased consumption
+and demand have brought into these fields
+of labour, and into other fields of labour created by
+these, great armies of men and women, notwithstanding
+the labour-saving devices.</p>
+
+<p>The wants of the world can no longer be supplied
+by skilled hand labour. And it is better that machines
+do the skilled labour, if the product is increased
+while made better and cheaper, and the number
+of labourers in the end increased by the development
+and demands of the art.</p>
+
+<p>Among the recent devices is one which dispenses
+with the expensive and skilful work by hand of
+drawing the warp threads into the eyes of the heddles
+and through the reed of the loom.</p>
+
+<p>Cane-backed and bottomed chairs and lounges only
+a few years ago were a luxury of the rich and made
+slowly by hand. Now the open mesh cane fabric,
+having diagonal strands, and other varieties, are
+made rapidly by machinery. Turkish carpets are
+woven, and floors the world over are carpeted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_309" id="PAGE_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+those rich materials the sight of which would
+have astonished the ordinary beholder a half century
+ago. Matting is woven; wire, cane, straw, spun
+glass; in fact, everything that can be woven by hand
+into useful articles now finds its especially constructed
+machine for weaving it.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_310" id="PAGE_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+GARMENTS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>“Man is a tool-using animal. Weak in himself,
+and of small stature, he stands on a basis, at most for
+the flattest-soled, of some half square foot, insecurely
+enough; has to straddle out his legs lest the very
+wind supplant him. Feeblest of bipeds! Three
+quintals are a crushing load for him; the steer
+of the meadow tosses him aloft, like a waste rag.
+Nevertheless he can use tools, can devise tools;
+with these the granite mountain melts into light
+dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if it were
+paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire
+his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him
+without tools; without tools he is nothing, with tools
+he is all.... Man is a tool-using animal, of which
+truth, clothes are but one example.”&mdash;<i>Sartor Resartus.</i></p>
+
+<p>In looking through the records of man’s achievements
+to find the beginnings of inventions, we discover
+the glimmering of a change in the form of the
+immemorial needle, in an English patent granted to
+Charles F. Weisenthal, June 24, 1775. It was a
+needle with a centrally located eye, and with both
+ends pointed, designed for embroidery work by hand,
+and the object of the two points was to prevent the
+turning of the needle end for end after its passage
+through the cloth. But it was not until the 19th<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_311" id="PAGE_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>
+century that the idea was reduced to practice in
+sewing machines.</p>
+
+<p>To Thomas Saint, a cabinet maker by trade, of
+Greenhills Rents, in the Parish of St. Sepulchre,
+Middlesex County, England, the world is indebted
+for the first clear conception of a sewing machine.
+Saint’s attention was attracted to the slow way of
+sewing boots and shoes and other leather work, so he
+determined to improve the method. He took out a
+patent September 17, 1790, and although the germs
+of some of the leading parts of the modern sewing
+machine are there described, it does not appear that
+his patent was applied to practice. In fact, it slumbered
+in the archives of the British patent office for
+two generations, and after the leading sewing machines
+of the century had been invented and introduced,
+before it was rediscovered, and its contents
+appreciated in the light of more recent developments.
+Probably Saint’s machine, if constructed in
+accordance with his plans, would not have done much
+good work, certainly not with woven cloth, as he proposed
+to employ a hooked needle to carry a loop
+through the material, which would have been snarled
+by the cloth threads; but from his drawings and description
+it is clearly established that he was first to
+conceive of a vertically reciprocating needle for
+forming a seam from a continuous thread drawn
+from a spool; a seam in which each loop is locked,
+or enchained with a subsequent loop, to form what
+is known as the chain, or single thread stitch; and a
+horizontal sliding plate, to support the material to
+be sewed, and by which the material was also moved
+sideways after each stitch.</p>
+
+<p>May 30, 1804, John Duncan received an English
+patent for “tamboring on cloth.” He proposed to employ
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_312" id="PAGE_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>a series of hooked needles attached in a straight
+line to a horizontal bar, which, when threaded,
+were first thrust forward and their hooked ends carried
+through the cloth, where each needle hook was
+supplied with a thread by a thread carrier. Then
+the motion of the bar was reversed, which drew the
+thread back through the cloth in the form of loops,
+and through the loops first formed, thus producing
+a chain stitch. The cloth was automatically shifted
+to correspond to the pattern to be produced, and thus
+was chain stitch embroidery first manufactured.
+From this point of time successful embroidery machines
+were made.</p>
+
+<p>In 1807 another Englishman patented a machine
+for making a sort of rope matting, in which he describes
+two eye-pointed, thread-carrying, perforating
+needles, each held in a reciprocating needle bar,
+and designed to unite several small ropes laid parallel,
+by a reciprocating movement.</p>
+
+<p>A German publication, the <i>Kunst</i> and <i>Generbe
+Blatt</i>, for 1817, and <i>Karmarsch’s History of Technology</i>,
+made mention of a sewing machine invented
+by one Mr. Joseph Madersperger of Vienna, formerly
+from Kuefstein in the Tyrol, and for which
+he received royal letters patent in 1814. From
+these descriptions it appears Madersperger used a
+needle pointed at both ends, and the eye in the centre,
+invented many years before by Weisenthal, as
+above stated, which was moved vertically up and
+down, piercing alternately the top and bottom of the
+stuff, and which carried a short thread, enough to
+make about one hundred and thirty stitches, which
+machine was driven by a crank and handle, on which
+sewing was made of many different shaped forms, by
+slight changes, and which sewed with far greater accuracy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_313" id="PAGE_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>and rapidity than hand work. The inventor
+was striving to simplify the machine, but to what extent
+it had been used or had been improved, or what
+finally became of it, does not appear. Yet it is a bit
+of evidence showing that Germany came next to
+England in the earlier ideas, conceptions of, and
+struggles after a sewing machine.</p>
+
+<p>France then entered the list, and it was in 1830 that
+Barthelmy Thimonnier there produced and patented
+a sewing machine, which he continued to improve
+and to further patent in 1848 and in 1850
+in France, England, and the United States. The
+Thimonnier resembled in some prominent respects
+the machine that had been described in the Saint patent,
+but unlike Saint’s, it was reduced to successful
+practice, and possessed some points in common with
+more modern machines. These were the flat cloth
+plate, vertical post, overhung arm, vertically reciprocating
+needle, and continuous thread. The crochet
+or barbed needle was worked by a treadle, and upon
+pushing the needle down through the cloth, it there
+caught a thread from a carrier, carried the loop to
+and laid it upon the upper surface of the cloth.
+Again descending, it brought up another loop, enchained
+it with the one last made, making a chain
+stitch, consisting of a series of loops on the upper side.</p>
+
+<p>Thimonnier made quite a large number of machines,
+constructed mostly of wood, and which were
+used to make army clothing at Paris. They were
+best adapted to work on leather and in embroidering.
+They were so far successful as to arouse the jealousy
+and fear of the workmen and working women, and,
+as in the case of Hargreaves, Jacquard, and others, a
+mob broke into his shop, destroyed his machines,
+ruined his business, and he died penniless in 1857.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_314" id="PAGE_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the meantime an English patent, No. 8948, of
+May 4, 1841, had been issued to Newton and Archbold
+for a machine for embroidering the backs of
+gloves, having an eye-pointed needle, worked by a
+vibrating lever, and adapted to carry a thread
+through the back of the glove, held on a frame&mdash;the
+frame and glove moving together after each
+stitch.</p>
+
+<p>The germs of inventions often develop and
+fructify simultaneously in distant places, without,
+so far as any one can ascertain, the slightest mutual
+knowledge or co-operation on the part of the separate
+inventors. Between 1832 and 1834, while
+Thimonnier was in the midst of his early struggles
+in Paris, Walter Hunt was inventing a sewing machine
+in New York, which he completed at that time
+and on which he sewed one or two garments. But as
+it was experimental in form, and Hunt was full of
+other inventions and schemes, he put it aside, and it
+probably would never have been heard of had not
+Elias Howe of Massachusetts, ten years after Hunt
+had abandoned his invention, but without knowledge
+of Hunt’s efforts, made the first practical successful
+sewing machine for commercial purposes the world
+had ever seen, obtained his patent, and made claims
+therein which covered not only his special form of
+improvements, but Hunt’s old device as well.</p>
+
+<p>Howe’s patent was issued September 10, 1846.
+In that he claimed to be the first and original inventor
+of “A sewing machine, constructed and
+operated to form a seam, substantially as described.”</p>
+
+<p>Also “The combination of a needle and a shuttle,
+or equivalent, and holding surfaces, constructed and
+operating substantially as described.”</p>
+
+<p>Also “The combination of holding surfaces with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_315" id="PAGE_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+a baster plate or equivalent, constructed and operating
+substantially as described.”</p>
+
+<p>Also “A grooved and eye-pointed needle, constructed
+and adapted for rapid machine sewing substantially
+as described.”</p>
+
+<p>When the machine commenced to be a practical
+success this patent was infringed, and when Howe
+sued upon it a few years after its issue, it woke up
+Hunt and all other alleged prior inventors; and all
+prior patents and publications the world over, relating
+to sewing machines, were raked up to defeat
+Howe’s claims.</p>
+
+<p>But the courts, after long deliberation, held that
+although, so far as Hunt was concerned he had
+without doubt made a machine in many respects like
+Howe’s machine, that it had a curved, eye-pointed
+needle similar to Howe’s operated by a vibrating
+arm and going through the cloth, a shuttle carrying
+the thread that passed through the loop made by the
+needle thread, thus making a lock stitch by drawing
+it up to one side of the cloth, and that this machine
+did, to a certain extent, sew, yet that it ended in an
+experiment, was laid aside, destroyed, and never perfected
+nor used so as to give to the public the knowledge
+and benefit of a completed invention, and was
+not therefore an anticipation in the eye of the law of
+Howe’s completed, more successful and patented machine.</p>
+
+<p>Public successful use is the fact in many cases
+which alone establishes the title of an inventor, when
+all other tests fail. And this is right in one sense,
+as the laws of all countries in respect to protection
+by patents for inventions are based upon the primary
+condition of benefit to society. This benefit is not
+derived from the inventor who hides his completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_316" id="PAGE_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>
+invention for years in his closet, or throws it on a
+dust heap. As to previous patents and publications,
+some were not published before Howe’s inventions
+were made, and others were insufficient in showing
+substantially the same machine and mode of operation.
+And as to prior use abroad, it was not regarded
+under the law of his country as competent evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Seldom have the lives of great inventors presented
+a more striking example of the vicissitudes, the despair,
+and the final triumphs of fortune, which are
+commonly their lot, than is shown in the case of
+Howe. A machinist with a wife and children to
+support, his health too feeble to earn hardly a scanty
+living, he watches his faithful wife ply her constant
+needle, and wonders why a machine cannot be made
+to do the work. The idea cannot be put aside, and
+with such poor aids as he can command he commences
+his task.</p>
+
+<p>At last, amid the trials of bitter poverty, he brings
+his invention to that stage in which he induces a
+friend to advance some money, by the promise of a
+share in the future patent, and thereby gains a temporary
+home for his family and a garret for his workshop.
+Day after day and night after night he labours,
+and finally, in April, 1845, the rather crude
+machine is completed, and two woollen suits of clothing
+are sewed thereon, one for a friend, and one for
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the effort to make more machines and
+place them on the market. People admired the machines
+as a curiosity, but none were induced to buy
+them or help him pecuniarily. Finally, in September,
+1846, he obtained his patent, but by that time
+his best friends had become discouraged, and he was
+compelled to return with his family to his father’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_317" id="PAGE_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
+house in Cambridge, Mass. To earn his bread he
+sought and found employment on a railway locomotive.
+By some means his brother sold one of his machines
+to Mr. William Thomas, a corset maker of
+London, and Howe was induced to go there to make
+stays, and his machines. He took his wife and children
+with him. The arrangement made with his employer
+was not such as to enable him to keep his
+family there, and he soon sent them home.</p>
+
+<p>Unable to sell his machines, he was soon reduced
+to want. He pawned his patent and his last machine,
+and procured money to return to New York,
+where he arrived penniless in 1849. He then
+learned that his wife was dying of consumption at
+Cambridge. He was compelled to wait until money
+could be sent him to pay his passage home, and
+reached there just before his wife’s death.</p>
+
+<p>He then learned that during his absence his patent
+and machine had attracted attention, that others had
+taken the matter up, added their improvements to
+his machines, and that many in various places were
+being made and sold which were infringements of
+his patent. A great demand for sewing machines
+had sprung up. He induced friends to again help
+him. Suits were commenced which, although bitterly
+fought for six years, were finally successful.</p>
+
+<p>Now fortune turned her smiling face upon him.
+Medals and diplomas, the Cross of the Legion of
+Honour, and millions of money became his. When
+the great civil war broke out in 1861, he entered the
+army as a private soldier, and advanced the money to
+pay the regiment to which he belonged, when the
+Government paymaster had been long delayed. His
+life was saddened by the fact that his wife had not
+lived to share his fortune. He died in Brooklyn,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_318" id="PAGE_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+New York, October 3, 1867, in the midst of life,
+riches, and honour, at the comparatively early age of
+forty-eight.</p>
+
+<p>In referring to the early inventors of sewing machines
+in America who entered the field about the
+same time with Howe, mention should be made
+of J. J. Greenough and George Corliss, who had
+machines patented respectively in 1842 and 1843,
+for sewing leather, with double pointed needles; and
+the running stitch sewing machine used for basting,
+made and patented by B. W. Bean in 1843. About
+this time, both in England and America, machines
+had been devised for sewing lengths of calico and
+other cloths together, previous to bleaching, dyeing
+or printing. The edges of the cloths were first
+crimped or fluted and then sewed by a running
+stitch.</p>
+
+<p>The decade of 1849-1859, immediately following
+the development of the Howe machine, was the
+greatest in the century for producing those successful
+sewing machines which were the foundation of
+the art, established a new industrial epoch, and converted
+Hood’s “Song of the Shirt” into a lament
+commemorative of the miseries of a slavish but dying
+industry.</p>
+
+<p>It was during that decade that, in the United
+States, Batcheller invented the perpetual feed for
+moving the cloth horizontally under and past the
+needle. In Howe’s the cloth could be sewed but a
+certain distance at a time, and then the machine
+must be readjusted for a new length. Then Blodgett
+and Lerow imparted to the eye-pointed needle
+what is called the “dip motion,”&mdash;the needle being
+made to descend completely through the material,
+then to rise a little to form a loop; the shuttle then<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_319" id="PAGE_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>
+entered the loop, the needle descended again a short
+distance, while the shuttle passed through the loop of
+the needle thread, and then the needle was raised
+above the cloth.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Allen B. Wilson invented the
+still more famous “four-motion feed” for feeding
+the cloth forward. He employed a bar having saw
+like teeth on one edge which projected up through
+a slotted plate and engaged the cloth. He then first
+moved the bar forward carrying the cloth; second,
+dropped the bar; third, moved it back under the
+plate; and fourth, raised it to its first position to
+again engage the cloth. These motions were so
+timed with the movement of the needle and so
+quickly done that the cloth was carried forward while
+the needle was raised, the passage and quick action
+of the needle was not interfered with, and the feeding
+and the sewing seem to be simultaneous. The
+intermittent grasp and feed of the cloth were hardly
+perceptible, and yet it permitted the cloth to be
+turned to make a curved seam. Wilson also invented
+the rotating hook which catches the loop of the
+upper thread, and drops a disk bobbin through it to
+form the stitch. The shuttle was thus dispensed
+with, and an entirely new departure was made in the
+art. These with other improvements made up the
+celebrated “Wheeler and Wilson” machine.</p>
+
+<p>Now also appeared “the Singer,” consisting
+chiefly of the invention of T. M. Singer. He improved
+the operation of the needle bar, devised a
+roughened feed wheel, as a substitute for Wilson’s
+serrated bar, introduced a spring presser foot, alongside
+the needle, to hold the work down in proper position
+while permitting it to be moved forward or in
+any other direction. A “friction pad” was also placed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_320" id="PAGE_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>
+between the cloth seam and the spool, to prevent the
+thread from kinking or twisting under the point of
+the descending needle. He was the first to give the
+shuttle an additional forward movement after it had
+once stopped, to draw the stitch tight,&mdash;such operation
+being taken while the feed moved the cloth in
+the reverse direction, and while, the needle completed
+its upward motion, so that the two threads
+were simultaneously drawn, and finally a spring
+guide upon the shuttle to control the slack of the
+thread, and prevent its catching by the needle.</p>
+
+<p>By reason of these improvements it is thought by
+many that Singer was the first to furnish the people
+with a successful operating and practical sewing machine.
+At any rate, the world at last so highly
+appreciated his machines, that it lifted him from
+poverty to an estate which was valued at between
+eight and ten millions of dollars at the time of
+his death in 1875. Singer was also the first to invent
+the “ruffler,” a machine for ruffling or gathering
+cloth, and a device which laid an embroidering
+thread upon the surface of the cloth under the needle
+thread.</p>
+
+<p>The “Grover and Baker” another celebrated
+American machine, was invented by William O.
+Grover and William E. Baker in 1851. By certain
+changes they made in the thread carrier and connections,
+they were enabled to make a double looped
+stitch. This required more thread, but the stitch
+made was unexcelled in strength.</p>
+
+<p>And so the work went on, from step to step, and
+from the completion of one machine after another,
+until when the Centennial Exhibition came to be
+held in Philadelphia in 1876, a fine array of excellent
+sewing machines was had, from the United<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_321" id="PAGE_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
+States, principally, but also those of inventors and
+manufacturers in Great Britain, Canada, France,
+Germany, Belgium, Sweden and Denmark.</p>
+
+<p>Up to that time about twenty-two hundred patents
+had been granted in the United States, all of
+which, with the exception of a very few, were for inventions
+made within the preceding quarter of a
+century. And during the last quarter of the century
+about five thousand more United States patents
+have been issued for devices in this art. This number
+includes many, of course, to inventors of other
+countries. When it is remembered that these patents
+were issued only after an examination in each
+case as to its novelty, and although slight as may
+have been the changes or additions, yet substantially
+different they must have been in nearly all respects,
+it may to some extent be realized how great and incessant
+has been the exercise of invention in this useful
+class of machines.</p>
+
+<p>On this point of the exercise of invention in sewing
+machines, as well as on some others growing out
+of the subject, Knight, writing in his <i>Mechanical
+Dictionary</i>, about twenty years ago, remarks: “If
+required to name the three subjects on which the
+most extraordinary versatility of invention has been
+expended, the answer would be without hesitation,
+the <i>sewing machine</i>, <i>reaping machine</i> and <i>breech-loading
+firearm</i>. Each of these has thousands of
+patents, and although each is the growth of the
+last forty years, it is only during the last twenty-five
+years that they have filled any notable place
+in the world. It was then only by a combination
+of talents that any of these three important
+inventions was enabled to achieve remarkable
+success. The sewing machine previous to 1851,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_322" id="PAGE_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>
+made without the admirable division of labour
+which is a feature in all well conducted factories,
+was hard to make, and comparatively hard to
+run. The system of <i>assembling</i>, first introduced
+in the artillery service of France by General
+Gribeauval in 1765 and brought to proximate
+perfection by Colonel Colt in the manufacture
+of the revolver at Hartford, Connecticut, has economised
+material and time, improved the quality
+as well as cheapened the product. There is
+to-day, and in fact has been for some years, more
+actual invention in the special machines for <i>making</i>
+sewing machines than in the machines themselves.
+The assembling system, that is, making the
+component parts of an article in distinct pieces of
+pattern, so as to be interchangeable, and the putting
+them together, is the only system of order. How
+else should the Providence Tool Company execute
+their order for 600,000 rifles for the Turkish Government?
+How otherwise could the Champion
+Harvesting Machine Company of Springfield, Ohio,
+turn out an equipped machine every four minutes
+each working day of ten hours? Or, to draw the illustration
+from the subject in hand, how by any
+other than the nicest arrangement of detail can the
+Singer Sewing Machine Company make 6,000 machines
+per week at Elizabethport, New Jersey?”</p>
+
+<p>When sewing machines were so far completed as
+to be easily run by a hand crank, or treadle, the application
+of power to run them singly, or in series,
+and to run machines of a larger and more powerful
+description, soon naturally followed&mdash;so that garment-making
+factories of all kinds, whether of
+cloth or leather, have been established in many countries&mdash;in
+which steam or electric power is utilised as<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_323" id="PAGE_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>
+the motor, and thus human strain and labour saved,
+while the amount of production is increased.</p>
+
+<p>No radical changes in the principle or mode of
+operation of sewing machines have been made in
+the last twenty-five years; but the efforts of inventors
+have been directed to improve the previously established
+types, and to devise attachments of all kinds,
+by the aid of which anything that can be sewed, can
+be sewed upon a machine. Tucking, ruffling, braiding,
+cording, hemming, turning, plaiting, gaging,
+and other attachment devices are numerous. Inventors
+have rivalled one another in originating new
+forms of stitches. About seventy-five distinct
+stitches have been devised, each of which must of
+course be produced by a change in mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>When sewing machines were in their infancy, and
+confined to sewing straight seams and other plain
+sewing, it was predicted that it was not possible to
+take from the hands of women the making of fine embroidery
+from intricate patterns, or the working of
+button-holes, and the destruction of the quilting party
+was not apprehended. Nor was it expected that human
+hands could be dispensed with in the cutting out
+of garments. And yet these things have followed.
+Machines, by a beautiful but complex system of
+needles, working to some extent on the Jacquard system
+of perforated card boards, and by the help of
+pneumatic or electrical power, will work out on
+most delicate cloths embroidery of exquisite patterns.</p>
+
+<p>The button-hole machines will take the garment,
+cut the button-hole at the desired point, and either,
+as in one class of machines, by moving the fabric
+about the stitch-forming mechanism, or, as in another
+class, moving the stitch-forming mechanism about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_324" id="PAGE_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
+button-hole, complete the delicate task in the nicest
+and most effective manner.</p>
+
+<p>Quilting machines have their own bees, consisting
+of a guide which regulates the spaces between the
+seams, and adjusts them to any width, and a single
+needle, or gang of needles, the latter under the control
+of cams which force the needles to quilt certain
+desired patterns.</p>
+
+<p>And as to cutting, it is only necessary to place the
+number of pieces of fabric desired to be cut in cutting
+dies, or upon a table, and over them an “over-board”
+cutter, which comprises a reciprocating band-saw,
+or a rotary knife, all quick, keen and delicate,
+in an apparatus guided by hand, in order to produce
+in the operation a great pile of the parts formerly so
+slowly produced, one at a time, by scissors or shears.</p>
+
+<p>If men were contented with that single useful garment
+of some savages, a blanket with a slit cut in it
+for the passage of the head and neck, not only would
+a vast portion of the joys and sorrows of social philosophy
+have been avoided, but an immense strain and
+trouble on the part of inventors of the century would
+have been obviated.</p>
+
+<p>But man’s propensity for wearing clothes has led
+to the invention of every variety of tools for making
+them faster, cheaper, and better.</p>
+
+<p>No machine has yet been invented that will take the
+place of the deft fingers of women in certain lines of
+ornamentation, as in final completion and trimming
+of their hats. The airy and erratic demands of
+fashion are too nimble to be supplied by the slow
+processes of machinery, although the crude ground-work,
+the frame, has been shaped, moulded and sewed
+by machines; and women themselves have invented
+and patented <i>bonnet frames</i> and <i>patterns</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_325" id="PAGE_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But no such difficulty in invention has occurred
+in <i>hat-making</i> for men. From the treating and cutting
+of the raw material, from the outer bound edge,
+and the band about the body, to the tip of the crown,
+a machine may be found for performing each separate
+step. Especially is this the case with the hard
+felt and the high silk hats.</p>
+
+<p>Seventy-five years ago the making of hats was by
+hand processes. Now in all hat factories machines
+are employed, and the ingenuity displayed in the construction
+of some of them is marvellous. It is exceedingly
+difficult to find many of the old hand implements
+existing even as relics.</p>
+
+<p>Wool and fur each has its special machines for
+turning it into a hat. The operations of cleaning and
+preparing the material, felting the fur, when fur is
+used, shaping the hat body, and then the brim, washing,
+dying, hardening and stiffening it, stretching,
+smoothing, finishing, sizing, lining, trimming, all are
+now done by machines devised for each special purpose.
+A description of these processes would be interesting,
+but even in an abbreviated form would fill
+a book.</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful things done in the manufacture of
+boots and shoes and rubber goods will be referred to
+in subsequent chapters.</p>
+
+<p>Although it was old from time immemorial to colour
+cotton goods, and the calico power printing cylinder
+was invented and introduced into England in
+the latter part of the 18th century and began to turn
+out at once immense quantities of decorated calicoes
+and chintz, yet <i>figured</i> woven goods were a novelty
+sixty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In 1834, Mr. Bonjeau, a prominent wool manufacturer
+in Sedan, France, and an <i>&eacute;l&egrave;ve</i> of the Polytechnic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_326" id="PAGE_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>School, conceived the idea of modifying the
+plain cloths, universally made, by the union of different
+tints and patterns. This he was enabled to
+do by the Jacquard loom. The manufacture of fancy
+woven cloths, cassimeres, worsted coatings, etc., of
+great beauty, combined with strength of fabrication,
+followed in all civilised countries, but their universal
+adoption as wearing apparel was due in part to the
+lessening of the expense in the making them into
+garments by the sewing machine.</p>
+
+<p>As to the effect of modern inventions on wearing
+apparel, it is not apparent that they were necessary
+to supply the wardrobes of the rich. The Solomons
+and the Queen of Sheba of ancient days, and all
+their small and great successors in the halls of Fortune,
+have had their rich robes, their purple and their
+fine linen, whether made in one way or another; but
+modern inventions have banished the day when the
+poor man’s hard labour of a long day will not suffice
+to bring his wife a yard of cheapest cloth. Toil, then,
+as hard as he and his poor wife and children might,
+their united labours would hardly suffice to clothe
+them in more than the poorly-dressed skins of animals
+and the coarsest of homespun wool.</p>
+
+<p>Now, cottons and calicoes are made and sold at a
+profit for three cents a yard; and the poorest woman
+in the land may appear in neat, comfortable and tasteful
+dress, the entire cost of material and labor of
+which need not exceed fifty cents. The comfort, respectability
+and dignity of a large family, which depend
+so much on clothes, may be ensured at the cost
+of a few dollars.</p>
+
+<p>And as to the condition of the sewing woman, trying
+and poor as it is in many instances, yet she can
+earn more money with less physical exhaustion than
+under the old system.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_327" id="PAGE_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The epoch of good clothes for the people, with all
+that it means in the fight upward from degradation,
+began in this century, and it was due to the inventions
+which have been above outlined.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_328" id="PAGE_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>One invention engenders another, or co-operates
+with another. None lives, or stands, or dies, alone.</p>
+
+<p>So, in the humble but extensive art of <i>broom-making</i>,
+men and women worked along through ages
+binding with their hands the supple twigs of trees or
+bushes, or of corn, by thongs, or cords, or wire, upon
+the rudely-formed collar of a hand-smoothed stick,
+until the modern lathe and hollow mandrel armed
+with cutters, the power-driven shuttle, and the sewing
+machine, were invented.</p>
+
+<p>The lathe and mandrel to hold the stick while it
+was cut was used before, but it was long within the
+century that a hollow mandrel was first invented,
+which was provided internally with cutting bevelled
+knives, and into which the stick was placed, carried
+through longitudinally, and during its passage cut
+smooth and finished. As broom corn became the chief
+product from which brooms are made, it became desirable
+to have a machine, after the corn had been
+scraped of its seed, to size and prepare the stems in
+regular lengths for the various sizes of brooms, and
+accordingly such a machine was invented. Then a
+machine was needed and invented to wind the corn-brush
+with the cord or wire and tie it in a round
+bunch, preparatory to flattening and sewing it.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed different forms of broom-sewing<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_329" id="PAGE_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
+machines. Among the pioneers was one which received
+the round bunch between two compressing
+jaws, and pressed it flat. While so held a needle with
+its coarse thread was forced through the broom above
+the binding and the cord twined around it. Then a
+shuttle, also carrying a stout thread, was thrown over
+the cord, the needle receded and was then forced
+through the broom again <i>under</i> the binding cord.
+Thus in conjunction with the shuttle the stitches were
+formed alternately above and below the binding
+twine, the holding jaws being raised intermittently
+for that purpose. As each stitch was formed the machine
+fed the broom along laterally and intermittently.
+By another ingenious device the cord was tied
+and cut, when the sewing was completed.</p>
+
+<p>It is only by such machines which treat the entire
+article from the first to the last step, that the immense
+number of brooms now necessary to supply
+the market are made. True it is that at first labour
+was displaced. At one time seventeen skilled workmen
+would manufacture five hundred dozen brooms
+per week.</p>
+
+<p>They had reduced the force of earlier times by
+making larger quantities by better processes. Then
+when the broom-sewing machines and other inventions
+got fairly to work, nine men would turn out
+twelve hundred dozen brooms per week. Thus,
+while the force was reduced nearly one-half,
+the quantity of product was more than doubled. But
+as the cost of labour decreased and the product increased,
+the product became more plentiful and
+cheaper, the demand and use became greater, more
+broom-corn was raised, more broom-factories started,
+and soon the temporary displacement of labour was
+succeeded by a permanent increase in manufacture<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_330" id="PAGE_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>
+and in labourers, an increase in their wages, and an
+improvement in their condition.</p>
+
+<p>Useful and extensive as is its use, the broom does
+not compare in variety and wide application to the
+<i>brush</i>. The human body, cloth, leather, metals,
+wood and grains, everything that needs rubbing,
+cleaning, painting and polishing, meets the acquaintance
+of the brush. Nearly a hundred species of
+brushes might be enumerated, each having an especial
+construction for a particular use.</p>
+
+<p>Although the majority of brushes are still made by
+hand, yet a few most ingenious machines have been
+made which greatly facilitate and speed the operation,
+and many mechanical appliances have been invented
+in aid of hand-work. These machines and appliances,
+together with those which cut, turn, bore,
+smooth, and polish the handles and backs, to which
+the brush part is secured, have greatly changed and
+improved the art of brush-making during the last
+fifty years.</p>
+
+<p>The first machine which attracted general attention
+was invented by Oscar D. and E. C. Woodbury
+of New York, and patented in 1870. As in hand-making
+and before subjected to the action of the machine,
+the bristles are sorted as to length and color.
+A brush-back, bored with holes by a gang of bits, which
+holes do not extend, however, all the way through the
+back, is placed in the machine under a cone-jointed
+plunger, adapted to enter the hole in the brush-back.
+A comb-shaped slitted plate in the machine has
+then each slit filled with bristles, sufficient in number
+to form a single tuft. When the machine is started,
+the bristles in a slit are forced out therefrom through
+a twisted guideway, which forms them into a round
+tuft, and which is laid horizontally beneath a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_331" id="PAGE_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>
+plunger, which, descending, first doubles the tuft, and
+as the plunger continues to descend, forces the double
+end down into the hole. The plunger is supplied with
+a wire from a reel, turns as it descends, and twists
+the wire around the lower end of the tuft, the wire
+being directed in that way by a spiral groove within
+the plunger. The continuing action of the plunger
+is such as to screw the wire into the back. The wire
+is cut when the rotary plunger commences its descent,
+and when the tuft is thus secured the plunger ascends,
+the block is moved for another hole, and another set
+of bristles is presented for manipulation. Brushes
+with 70 holes can be turned out by this machine at
+the rate of one a minute.</p>
+
+<p>Another most ingenious machine for this purpose
+is that of Kennedy, Diss, and Cannan, patented in
+the United States in 1892. In this, brush blocks of
+varying sizes, but of the same pattern, are bored by
+the same machine which receives the bristles, and
+the tufts are inserted as fast as the holes are bored.
+Both machines are automatic in operation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Street-sweeping machines</i> began to appear about
+1831 in England, shortly after in France, and then
+in cities in other countries.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form and most effective sweeper
+comprises a large cylinder armed with spiral rows
+of splints and hung diagonally on the under side and
+across a frame having two or four wheels. This
+cylinder is connected by bevelled gearing with the
+wheels, and in revolving throws the dirt from the
+street into a ridge on one side thereof, where it is
+swept into heaps by hand sweepers, and is then
+carted off. King of the United States was the inventor.</p>
+
+<p>A more recent improvement consists in the use of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_332" id="PAGE_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+pneumatic means for removing the dust that is
+caused by the use of revolving brooms or brushes,
+such removal being effected by means of a hood that
+covers the area of the street beneath the body of the
+machine, and incloses an air exhaust, the sweepings
+being drawn through the exhaust mechanism and deposited
+in a receptacle for the purpose, or in some
+instances deposited in a furnace carried by the machine
+and there burned.</p>
+
+<p>In cities having hard, smooth, paved streets and
+sufficient municipal funds, the most effective, but
+most expensive way, has been found to keep a large
+force of men constantly at work with hoes, shovels,
+brooms, bags and carts, removing the dirt as fast as
+it accumulates.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Abrading Machines.</i></h4>
+
+<p>One of the most striking inventions of the century
+is the application of the sand-blast to industrial
+and artistic purposes.</p>
+
+<p>For ages the sands of the desert and wild mountain
+plains, lifted and driven by the whirling winds, had
+sheared and polished the edges and faces of rocks,
+and cut them into fantastic shapes, and the sands of
+the shore, tossed by the winds of the sea, had long
+scratched and bleared the windows of the fisherman’s
+hut, before it occurred to the mind of man that here
+were a force and an agent which could be harnessed
+into his service.</p>
+
+<p>It was due finally to the inventive genius of B. F.
+Tilghman of Philadelphia, Pa., who, in 1870,
+patented a process by which common sand, powdered
+quartz, emery, or other comminuted sharp cutting
+material, may be blown or driven with such force<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_333" id="PAGE_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>
+upon the surface of the hardest materials, as to cut,
+clean, engrave, and otherwise abrade them, in the
+most wonderful and satisfactory manner.</p>
+
+<p>Diamonds are abraded; glass depolished, or engraved,
+or bored; metal castings cleaned; lithographic
+zinc plates grained; silverware frosted;
+stone and glass for jewelry shaped and figured; the
+inscriptions and ornaments of monuments and
+tombstones cut thereon; engravings and photographs
+copied; steel files cleaned and sharpened, and stones
+and marble carved into forms of beauty with more
+exactness and in far less time than by the chisel of
+the artisan.</p>
+
+<p>The gist of the process is the employment of a jet
+of sand or other hard abrading material, driven at a
+high velocity by a blast of air or steam, under a certain
+pressure, in accordance with the character of the
+work to be done. The sand is placed in a box-like
+receptacle into which the air or steam is forced, and
+the sand flowing into the same chamber is driven
+through a narrow slit or slits in the form of a thin
+sheet, directly on to the object to be abraded.</p>
+
+<p>By one method the surface of the object is first
+coated with tinfoil on which the artist traces his design,
+and this is then coated with melted transparent
+wax. Then when the wax is hardened it is cut away
+along the lines already indicated, and seen through
+the wax. The object now is subjected to the blast,
+and as the sand will not penetrate a softened material
+sufficient to abrade a surface beneath, the exposed
+portions alone will be cut away. The sand
+after it strikes is carried off by a blast to some receptacle,
+from which it is returned to its former place
+for further use. Other means may be used in the
+place of a slitted box, as a small or larger blow-pipe;<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_334" id="PAGE_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+but the driving of the sand, or similar abrading material,
+with great force by the steam or air blast, is
+the essential feature of the process.</p>
+
+<p><i>Emery</i>, that variety of the mineral corundum,
+consisting of crystalline alumina, resembling in appearance
+dark, fine-grained iron ore, ranking next
+to the diamond in hardness, and a sister of the sapphire
+and the ruby, has long been used as an abradant.
+The Eastern nations have used corundum for
+this purpose for ages. Turkey and Greece once had
+a monopoly of it. Knight says: “The corundum
+stone used by the Hindoos and Chinese is composed
+of corundum powdered, two parts; lac resin, one
+part. The two are intimately mixed in an earthen
+vessel, kneaded and flattened, shaped and polished.
+A hole in the stone for the axis is made by a heated
+copper rod.”</p>
+
+<p>However ancient the use of artificial stones for
+grinding and polishing, nevertheless it is true that
+the solid emery wheel in the form that has made it
+generally useful, in machines known as <i>emery
+grinders</i>, is a modern invention, and of American
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>In the manufacture of such machines great attention
+and the highest scientific skill has been paid,
+first, to the material composing the wheel, and to the
+cementing substances by which the emery is compacted
+and bound in the strongest manner, to prevent
+bursting when driven at great speed; secondly, to the
+construction of machines and wheels of a composition
+varying from the finest to the coarsest; and
+thirdly, to the proper balancing of the wheels in the
+machines, an operation of great nicety, in order that
+the wheel may be used on delicate tools, when driven
+at high speed, without producing uneven work, marking
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_335" id="PAGE_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>the objects, or endangering the breaking, or
+bursting of the wheel.</p>
+
+<p>Such machines, when properly constructed, although
+not adapted to take the place of the file, other
+steel-cutting tools, and the grindstone for many
+purposes, yet have very extensively displaced those
+tools for cutting edges, and the grinding and polishing
+of hardened metals, by reason chiefly of their
+greater convenience, speed, and general adaptability.
+Not only tools of all sizes are ground and polished,
+but ploughshares, stove and wrought-iron plates, iron
+castings, the inner surfaces of hollow ironware, the
+bearings of spindles, arbours, and the surfaces of
+steel, chilled or cast-iron rolls, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the great class of Industrial Mechanics, no machines
+of the century have contributed more to the
+comfort and cleanliness of mankind than those by
+which wearing apparel in its vast quantities is
+washed and ironed more thoroughly, speedily, and
+satisfactorily in every way than is possible by the old
+hand systems. When it is remembered how under the
+old system such a large part of humanity, and this
+the weaker part, devoted such immense time and
+labour to the universal washing and ironing days, the
+invention of these machines and appliances must be
+regarded as among the great labour-saving blessings
+of the century.</p>
+
+<p>True, the individual washerwoman and washerman,
+and ironers, have by no means disappeared,
+and are still in evidence everywhere, yet the universal
+and general devotion of one-half the human race to
+the wash-tub and ironing-table for two or more days
+in the week is no longer necessary. And even for the
+individual worker, the convenient appliances and
+helps that have been invented have greatly relieved
+the occupation of pain and drudgery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_336" id="PAGE_336">[Pg 336]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among modern devices in the laundry, worked by
+hand, is, first, the <i>washing-machine</i>, in which the
+principle is adapted of rolling over or kneading the
+clothes. By moving a lever by hand up and down, the
+clothes are thoroughly rubbed, squeezed and lifted at
+each stroke. Then comes the <i>wringer</i>, a common
+form of which consists of two parallel rolls of vulcanized
+and otherwise specially treated rubber, fitted
+to shafts which, by an arrangement of cog-wheels,
+gearing and springs in the framework at the ends of
+rolls, and a crank handle, are made to roll on each
+other. The clothes are passed between the rollers,
+the springs permit the rollers to yield and part more
+or less, according to the thickness of the clothes.</p>
+
+<p>Then the old-fashioned, or the new-fashioned mangle
+is brought into play. The old-style mangle had
+a box, weighted with stone, which was reciprocated
+on rollers, and was run back and forth upon the
+clothes spread upon a polished table beneath. One
+of the more modern styles is on the principle of the
+wringer above described, or a series of rollers arranged
+around a central drum, and each having a
+rubber spring attached, by which means the clothes
+are not subjected to undue pressure at one or two
+points, as in the first mentioned kind.</p>
+
+<p>Starch is also applied by a similar machine. The
+cloth is dipped into a body of starch, or the same is
+applied by hand, and then the superfluous starch
+squeezed out as the clothes are passed through the
+rollers.</p>
+
+<p>But for hotels and other large institutions washing
+is now done by steam-power machinery.</p>
+
+<p>It is an attractive sight to step into a modern laundry,
+operated with the latest machinery on the largest
+scale. The first thing necessary in many localities is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_337" id="PAGE_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+to clarify the water. This is done by attaching to
+the service pipe tanks filled with filtering material,
+through which the water flows before reaching the
+boiler. The driving engine and shafting are compactly
+placed at one end or side of the room, with
+boilers and kettles conveniently adjacent. The
+water and clothes are supplied to the washing-machine,
+and operated by the engine. Steam may be
+used in addition to the engine to keep it boiling hot,
+or steam may be substituted entirely for the water.</p>
+
+<p>The machine may be one of several types selected
+especially for the particular class of goods to be
+washed. There is the dash-wheel, constructed on
+the principle of the cylinder churn; the outer case
+being stationary and the revolving dash-wheel water-tight,
+or perforated, which is the preferred form for
+collars and cuffs. In place of the dash-wheel cylinders
+are sometimes used, having from sixty to
+seventy revolutions a minute. Another form has
+vibrating arms or beaters, giving between four hundred
+and five hundred strokes a minute, and by
+which the clothes are squeezed between rubbing corrugated
+boards. The rubbing boards also roll the
+clothes over and over until they are thoroughly
+washed. In another form a rotating cylinder for
+the clothes is provided with an arrangement of pipes
+by which either steam, water or blueing can be introduced
+as desired, into the cylinder, through its
+hollow journals, so that the clothes can be washed,
+rinsed, and blued without removal from the machine.</p>
+
+<p>Another type has perforated, reciprocating pistons,
+between which the clothes are alternately
+squeezed and released, a supply of fresh water being
+constantly introduced through one of the hollow
+cylinder journals, while the used water is discharged<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_338" id="PAGE_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>
+through the opposite journal; and in still another the
+clothes are placed in a perforated cylinder within an
+outer casing, and propeller blades, assisted by other
+spiral blades, force a continuous current of water
+through the clothes.</p>
+
+<p>In ironing, hollow polishing rolls of various sizes
+are used, heated either by steam or gas. The articles
+to be ironed are placed in proper position upon a
+table and carried under and in contact with the rolls.
+Or the goods are ironed between a heated cylinder
+and a revolving drum covered with felting, and the
+polishing effected by the cylinder revolving faster
+than the drum. Ingenious forms of hand-operated
+ironing machines for turning over and ironing the
+edges of collars, and other articles, are in successful
+use.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_339" id="PAGE_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+WOOD-WORKING.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In surveying the wonderful road along which
+have travelled the toiling inventors, until the splendid
+fields of the present century have been reached,
+the mind indulges in contrasts and reverts to the far
+gone period of man’s deprivations, when man, the
+animal, was fighting for food and shelter.</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Poor naked wretches, wheresoe’er you are,<br></span>
+<span class="line">That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,<br></span>
+<span class="line">How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,<br></span>
+<span class="line">Your loop’d and window’d raggedness, defend you<br></span>
+<span class="line">From seasons such as these?”<br></span>
+<br>
+<span class="right">&mdash;<i>King Lear III, IV.</i></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>When the implements of labour and the weapons of
+war were chiefly made of stone, or bronze, or iron,
+such periods became the “age” of stone, or bronze, or
+iron; and we sometimes hear of the ages of steam,
+steel and electricity. But the age of wood has always
+existed, wherever forests abounded. It was, doubtless,
+the earliest “age” in the industries of man,
+but is not likely to be the latest, as the class of inventions
+we are about to consider, although giving
+complete dominion to man over the forests, are hastening
+their destruction.</p>
+
+<p>As in every other class of inventions, there had
+been inventions in the class of wood-working through
+the ages preceding this century, in tools, implements
+and machines; but not until near the close of
+the eighteenth century had there been much of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_340" id="PAGE_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>
+break in the universal toil by hand. The implements
+produced were, for the most part, the result
+of the slow growth of experience and mechanical
+skill, rather than the product of inventive genius.</p>
+
+<p>True, the turning-lathe, the axe, the hammer, the
+chisel, the saw, the auger, the plane, the screw, and
+cutting and other wood-shaping instruments in
+simple forms existed in abundance. The Egyptians
+used their saws of bronze. The Greeks deified their
+supposed inventor of the saw, Talus, or Perdix, and
+they claimed Theodore of Lamos as the inventor of
+the turning-lathe; although the main idea of pivoting
+an object between two supports, so that it could be
+turned while the hands were free to apply a tool to
+its shaping, was old in the potter’s wheel of the
+Egyptians, which was turned while the vessel resting
+upon it was shaped and ornamented by the hand and
+tools. It appears also to have been known by the
+Hindoos and the Africans.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny refers to the curled chips raised by the
+plane, and Ansonius refers to mills driven by the
+waters of the Moselle for sawing marble into slabs.
+Early records mention saw-mills run by water-power
+in the thirteenth century in France, Germany and
+Norway; and Sweden had them in the next century.
+Holland had them one hundred years at least before
+they were introduced into England.</p>
+
+<p>Fearful of the entire destruction of the forests by
+the wood used in the manufacture of iron, and incited
+by the opposition and jealousy of hand sawyers,
+England passed some rigid laws on the subject in
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which,
+although preserving the forests, gave for a long time
+the almost exclusive manufacture of iron and lumber
+to Germany and Holland. Even as late as 1768,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_341" id="PAGE_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>
+a saw-mill, built at Limehouse, under the encouragement
+of the Society of Arts, by James Stansfield, was
+destroyed by a mob. Saw-mills designed to be run
+by water-power had been introduced into the American
+colonies by the Dutch more than a century before
+they made their appearance in England. William
+Penn found that they had long been at work
+on the Delaware when he reached its shores in
+1682.</p>
+
+<p>It was nothing indigenous to the climate or race
+that rendered the Americans inventors. The early
+colonists, drawn from the most civilised countries of
+Europe, carried to the new world knowledge of the
+latest and best appliances known to their respective
+countries in the various arts. With three thousand
+miles of water between them and the source of
+such appliances, and between them and the source of
+arbitrary power and laws to hamper efforts and enterprise,
+with stern necessity on every hand prompting
+them to avail themselves of every means to meet their
+daily wants, all known inventions were put to use,
+and brains were constantly exercised in devising new
+means to aid, or take the place of, manual labour,
+which was scarce. Surrounded, too, by vast forests,
+from which their houses, their churches and their
+schools must be constructed, these pioneers naturally
+turned their thoughts toward wood-working machinery.
+The attention to this art necessarily created
+interest in and developed other arts. Thus constant
+devotion to pursuits strenuously demanding labour-saving
+devices evolved a race of keen inventors and
+mechanics. So that when Watt had developed his
+wonderful application of steam to industrial purposes,
+America was ready to substitute steam for
+water-power in the running of saw-mills.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_342" id="PAGE_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Steam saw-mills commenced to buzz with the
+opening of the century.</p>
+
+<p>As to the relation of that humble machine, the
+saw-mill, to the progress of civilisation, it was once
+said: “The axe produces the log hut, but not until
+the saw-mill is introduced do framed dwellings and
+villages arise; it is civilisation’s pioneer machine;
+the precursor of the carpenter, wheelwright and turner,
+the painter, the joiner, and legions of other professions.
+Progress is unknown where it is not. Its
+comparative absence in the Southern American continent
+was not the least cause of the trifling advancement
+made there during three centuries and a half.
+Surrounded by forests of the most valuable and variegated
+timber, with water-power in mountain streams,
+equally neglected, the masses of the people lived in
+shanties and mud hovels, not more commodious than
+those of the aborigines, nor more durable than the
+annual structures of birds. Wherever man has not
+fixed and comfortable homes, he is, as regards civilisation,
+stationary; improvement under such circumstances
+has never taken place, nor can it.”</p>
+
+<p>Miller, in England, in 1777, had described in his
+patent a circular saw, and Hatton, in 1776, had
+vaguely described a planing machine; but the inception
+of the marvellous growth in wood-working machinery
+in the nineteenth century occurred in England
+during the last decade of the eighteenth. It
+was due to the splendid efforts of General Samuel
+Bentham, and of Bramah and Branch, both as to
+metal-working and wood-working machinery.</p>
+
+<p>General Bentham, a brother of the celebrated
+jurist, Jeremy Bentham, had his attention drawn to
+the slow, laborious, and crude methods of working
+in wood, while making a tour of Europe, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_343" id="PAGE_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>
+especially in Russia, and engaged in inspecting the
+art of ship-building in those countries, in behalf of
+the British Admiralty. On his return, 1791-1792,
+he converted his home into a shop for making wood-working
+machines. These included “Planing,
+moulding, rabbeting, grooving, mortising, and sawing,
+both in coarse and fine work, in curved, winding,
+and transverse directions, and shaping wood in
+complicated forms.”</p>
+
+<p>Of the amount of bills presented to and paid for
+by the Admiralty for these machines, General Bentham
+received about £20,000.</p>
+
+<p>These machines were developed and in use just
+as the new century approached. Thus, with the exception
+of the saw-mill, it may be again said that
+prior to this century the means mankind had to
+aid them in their work in metals and in wood were
+confined to hand tools, and these were for the most
+part of a simple and crude description.</p>
+
+<p>The ground-work now being laid, the century advanced
+into a region of invention in tools and machinery
+for wood-working of every description, far
+beyond the wildest dreams of all former carpenters
+and joiners. Not only were the machines themselves
+invented, but they gave rise in turn to a host of inventions
+in metal-working for making them.</p>
+
+<p>In the same line of inventions there appeared in
+the first decade of the century one of the most ingenious
+of men, and a most fitting type of that great
+class of Yankee inventors who have carved their way
+to renown with all implements, from the jack-knife
+to the electrically-driven universal shaping machine.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Blanchard, born in Massachusetts in 1788,
+while a boy, was accustomed to astonish his companions
+by the miniature wind-wheels and water-wheels<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_344" id="PAGE_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>
+that he whittled out with his knife. While
+attending the parties of young people who gathered on
+winter evenings at different homes in the country to
+pare apples, the idea of a paring machine occurred
+to him, and when only thirteen years of age, he invented
+and made the first apple-paring machine, with
+which more apples could be pared in a given time
+than any twelve of his girl acquaintances could pare
+with a knife.</p>
+
+<p>At eighteen, while working in a shop, driving the
+heads down on tacks, on an anvil, with a hammer,
+he invented the first tack-forming machine, which,
+when perfected by him, made five hundred tacks a
+minute, and which has never since been improved
+in principle. He improved the steam engine, and
+invented one of the first envelope machines. He
+made the first metal lathe for cutting out the butts
+of gun-barrels. But his greatest triumphs were in
+wood-working machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Challenged to make a machine that would make
+a gun stock, always before that time regarded an
+impossible task, its every part being so irregular in
+form, he secluded himself in his workshop for six
+months, and after constant labour and experiments
+he at the end of that time had produced a machine
+that more than astonished the entire world, and
+which worked a revolution in the making of all
+irregular forms from wood. This was in 1819.
+This machine would not only make a perfect gun-stock,
+but shoe lasts, and ships’ tackle-blocks, axe-handles,
+and a multitude of irregular-shaped blocks
+which before had always required the most expert
+hand operatives to produce. This machine became
+the subject of parliamentary inquiry on the part of
+England, and so great were the doubts concerning it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_345" id="PAGE_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>
+that successive commissions were appointed to examine
+and report upon it. Finally the English government
+ordered eight or ten of such machines for
+the making of gun-stocks for its army, and paid
+Blanchard about $40,000 for them. He was once
+jestingly asked at the navy department at Washington
+if he could turn a seventy-four? He at once replied,
+“Yes, if you will furnish me the block.” Of
+course infringers appeared, but he maintained his
+rights and title as first and original inventor after
+the most searching trials in court.</p>
+
+<p>The generic idea of Blanchard’s lathe for turning
+irregular forms consists in the use of a pattern of
+the device which is to be shaped from the rough
+material, placing such pattern in a lathe, alongside
+of the rough block, and having a guide wheel which
+has an arm having cutters, and which guide follows
+all the lines of the pattern, and which cutters, extending
+to the rough material, chip it away to the
+depth and in the direction imparted by the pattern
+lines to the guide, thus producing from the rough
+block a perfect representation of the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of his studies in the construction of
+his inventions Blanchard’s attention was drawn to
+the operations of a boring worm upon an old oak log.
+Closely examining and watching the same by the aid
+of a microscope, he gained valuable ideas from the
+work of his humble teacher, which he incorporated
+into his new cutting and boring machines.</p>
+
+<p>His series of machines in gun-making were designed
+to make and shape automatically every part
+of the gun, whether of wood or metal. His machines,
+and subsequent improvements by others, for boring,
+mortising and turning, display wonderful ingenuity.
+A modern mortising machine, for instance, is adapted<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_346" id="PAGE_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>
+to quickly and accurately cut a square or oblong hole
+to any desired depth, width, and length by cutting
+blades; to automatically reciprocate the cutters both
+vertically and horizontally in order to cut the mortise,
+both as to length and depth, at one time, and to
+automatically withdraw the cutters when they have
+finished cutting the mortise. They are provided with
+simple means for setting and feeding the cutters to
+do this work, and while giving the cutters a positive
+action, ample clearance is provided for the removal
+of the chips as fast as they are cut.</p>
+
+<p>From what such inventions will produce in the
+way of complicated and ornamental workmanship
+we may conclude that it is a law of invention that
+whatever can be made by hand may be made by a
+machine, and made better.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carving Machines</i> made their appearance early in
+the century. In 1800 a Mr. Watt of London produced
+one, on which he carved medallions and
+figures in ivory and ebony. Also subsequently, John
+Hawkins of the same city, and a Mr. Cheverton, invented
+machines for the same purpose. Another
+Englishman, Braithwaite, in 1840, invented a most
+attractive carving process in which, instead of cutting
+tools, he employed <i>burning</i> as his agent. Heated
+casts of previously carved models were pressed into
+or on to wet wood, and the charcoal surfaces then
+brushed off with hard brushes.</p>
+
+<p>After Blanchard’s turning-lathes and boring
+apparatus, appeared machines in which a series of
+cutters were employed, guided by a tracing lever
+attached to a carved model, and actuating the cutter
+to reproduce on material placed upon an adjusting
+table a copy of the model.</p>
+
+<p>Machines have been invented which consist of hard<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_347" id="PAGE_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>
+iron or steel rollers on the surface of which are cut
+beautiful patterns, and between which wood previously
+softened by steam is passed, and designs
+thus impressed thereon. A similar process of embossing,
+was devised in Paris and called Xyloplasty,
+by which steam-softened wood is compressed in
+carved moulds, which give it bas-relief impressions.</p>
+
+<p>But in the carving of wood by hand, a beautiful
+art, which has been revived within the past generation,
+there are touches of sentiment, taste and human
+toil, which, like the touches of the painter and the
+master of music, appeal to cultivated minds in a
+higher than mechanical sense. The mills of the
+modern gods, the inventors, grind with exceeding and
+exact fineness, but the work of a human hand upon
+a manufactured article still appeals to human sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>The bending of wood when heated by fire or steam
+had been known and practised to a limited extent,
+but Blanchard invented a <i>clamping machine</i>, to which
+improvements have been added, and by which ship
+timbers, furniture, ploughs, piano frames, carriage
+bows, stair and house banisters and balusters, wheel
+rims, staves, etc., etc., are bent to the desired forms,
+and without breaking. Bending to a certain extent
+does not weaken wood, but stretching the same
+has been found to impair and destroy its strength.</p>
+
+<p>The principal problems which the inventors of the
+century have solved in the class of wood-working
+have been the adaptation to rapid-working machinery
+of the saw and other blades, to sever; the plane
+to smooth, the auger, the bit and the gimlet to bore,
+the hammer to drive, and a combination of all or a
+part of these to shape and finish the completed article.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_348" id="PAGE_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was a great step from the reciprocating hand
+saw, worked painfully by one or two men, to the
+band saw, invented by a London mechanic, William
+Newbury, in 1808. This was an endless steel belt
+serrated on one edge, mounted on pulleys, and driven
+continuously by the power of steam through the
+hardest and the heaviest work. Pliable, to conform
+to the faces of the wheels over which it is carried, it
+will bend with all the sinuosities of long timber, no
+time is lost in its operation, and no labour of human
+hands is necessary to guide it or the object on which
+it works.</p>
+
+<p>At the Vienna Exposition in 1873, the first mammoth
+saw of this description was exhibited. The
+saw itself was made by the celebrated firm of Perin
+&amp; Co., of Paris, upon machinery the drawings of
+which were made by Mr. Van Pelt of New York, and
+constructed by Richards, Loudon and Kelly of Philadelphia.
+The saw was fifty-five feet long, and sawed
+planks from a pine log three feet thick, at the rate
+of sixty superficial feet per minute. The difficulty
+of securing a perfectly reliable weld in the endless
+steel band was overcome by M. Perin, who received
+at the Paris Exhibition in 1867 the Grand Cross of
+the Legion of Honour. Now gangs of such saws may
+be found in America and elsewhere, and circular
+saws have also been added. Saws that both cut, form,
+and <i>plane</i> the boards at the same time are now known.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boring tools</i>, both for hand and machinery, demanded
+improvement. Formerly augers and similar
+boring tools had merely a curved sharpened end and
+a concavity to hold the chips, and the whole tool had
+to be withdrawn to empty the chips. It was known as
+a <i>pod</i> auger. In 1809, L’Hommedieu, a Frenchman,
+invented an auger with two pods and cutting lips, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_349" id="PAGE_349">[Pg 349]</a></span>
+central screw and a twisted shank. About the same
+time Lilley of Connecticut made a twisted auger,
+and these screw-form, twisted, cutting tools of various
+kinds, with their cutting lips, and by which the shavings
+or chips were withdrawn continuously from
+the hole as the cutting proceeded, became so improved
+in the United States that they were known as
+the American augers and bits. The planing machines
+of General Bentham were improved by
+Bramah, and he and Maudsley also greatly improved
+other wood-working machines and tools in
+England&mdash;1802-1810.</p>
+
+<p>We have before, in the chapter on metal-working,
+shown the importance of the <i>slide-rest</i>, <i>planer</i> and
+<i>lathe</i>, <i>when combined</i>, and which also are extensively
+adapted to wood-working. In Bramah’s machine,
+a vertical spindle carried at its lower extremity
+a horizontal wheel having twenty-eight cutter
+blades, followed by a plane also attached to a wheel.
+A board was by these means perfectly trimmed and
+smoothed from end to end, as it was carried against
+the cutters by suitable moving means. William
+Woodworth of New York, in 1828, patented a celebrated
+planing machine which became so popular and
+its use was regarded so necessary in the wood-working
+trades, that the patent was looked upon as an
+odious monopoly. It consisted of a combination of
+rollers armed with cutters, attached to a horizontal
+shaft revolving at a great speed, and of means for
+feeding the boards to the cutters. With Bentham’s,
+Bramah’s, Blanchard’s, and Woodworth’s ideas for a
+basis, those innumerable improvements have been
+made in machinery, by which wood is converted with
+almost lightning rapidity into all the forms in
+which we see it, whether ornamental or useful, in
+modern homes and other structures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_350" id="PAGE_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Some machines are known as “Universal Wood
+Workers.” In these a single machine is provided
+with various tools, and adapted to perform a great
+variety of work by shifting the position of the material
+and the tools. The following operations can
+be performed on such a machine:&mdash;Planing, bevelling,
+tapering, tenoning, tongueing and grooving
+(grooves straight, circular or angular), making of
+joints, twisting and a number of other operations.</p>
+
+<p>The later invention by Stow of Philadelphia of a
+<i>flexible</i> shaft, made up of a series of coils of steel
+wire, given a leather covering, and to which can be
+attached augers, bits, or metal drills, the tool applied
+to its work from any direction, and its direction
+varied while at work, has excited great attention.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shingles</i> are as old in the art as the framework of
+buildings. Rome was roofed with shingles for centuries,
+made of oak or pine.</p>
+
+<p>Tiles, plain and fancy, and slates, have to a certain
+extent superseded wood shingling, but the wood will
+always be used where it can be found in plenty, as
+machines will now turn them out complete faster
+than they can be hauled away. A shingle is a thin
+piece of wood, thicker at one end than at the other,
+having parallel sides, about three times as long as it
+is wide, having generally smooth surfaces and edges.
+All these features are now given to the shingle by
+modern machines.</p>
+
+<p>A great log is rolled into a mill at one end and
+soon comes out at the other in bundles of shingles;
+the logs sawed into blocks, the blocks split or sawed
+again into shingle sizes, tapered, planed in the direction
+of the grain of the wood, the complete shingles
+collected and bound in bundles, each operation by
+a special machine, or by a series of mechanisms.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_351" id="PAGE_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Veneering</i>, that art of covering cheap or ordinary
+wood with a thin covering of more ornamental and
+valuable wood, known from the days of the Egyptians,
+has been vastly extended by modern machinery.
+The practice, however, so emphatically denounced
+centuries ago by Pliny, as “the monstrous
+invention of paint and dyes applied to the woods or
+veneers, to imitate other woods,” has yet its practitioners
+and admirers.</p>
+
+<p>T. M. Brunel, in 1805-1808, devised a set of circular
+saws run by a steam engine, which cut sheets
+of rosewood and mahogany, one-fourteenth of an
+inch thick, with great speed and accuracy. Since
+that day the veneer planing machine, for delicately
+smoothing the sheets, the straightening machine, for
+straightening scrolls that have been cut from logs,
+the polishing machines for giving the sheets their
+bright and glossy appearance, the pressing machine
+for applying them to the surfaces to which they are
+to be attached, the hammering machine for forcing
+out superfluous glue from between a veneer and the
+piece to which it is applied; all of these and numerous
+modifications of the same have been invented, and
+resulted in placing in the homes everywhere many
+beautiful ornamental articles of furniture, which
+before the very rich only could afford to have.</p>
+
+<p>Special forms of machinery for making various
+articles of wood are about as numerous as the articles
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>We appear before the house and know before entering
+that its doors and sills, clapboards and window
+frames, its sashes and blinds, its cornices, its
+embrasures and pillars, and shingles, each or all have
+had a special machine invented for its manufacture.
+We enter the house and find it is so with objects<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_352" id="PAGE_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>
+within&mdash;the flooring may be adorned with the beautiful
+art of marquetry and parquetry, wood mosaic
+work, the wainscoting and the frescoes and ceilings,
+the stairs and staircases, its carved and ornamental
+supporting frames and balusters, the charming mantel
+frames around the hospitable fireplaces, and every
+article of furniture we see in which wood is a part.
+So, too, it is with every useful wooden implement
+and article within and without the house,&mdash;the trays,
+the buckets, the barrels, the tubs, the clothes-pins, the
+broom-handles, the mops, the ironing and bread
+boards; and outside the house, the fences, railings and
+posts&mdash;many of these objects entirely unknown to
+the poor of former generations, uncommon with the
+rich, and the machinery for making them unknown
+to all.</p>
+
+<p>It was a noble array of woodwork and machinery
+with which the nations surprised and greeted the
+world, at each of its notable international Expositions
+during the century. Each occasion surpassed its predecessor
+in the beauty of construction of the machines
+displayed and efficiency of their work. The
+names of the members of this array were hard and
+uncouth, such as the axe, the adze, and the bit, the
+auger, bark-cutting and grinding machines, blind-slat
+boring, and tenoning, dovetail, mortising, matching
+and planing, wood splitting, turning, wheeling
+and planing, wood-bending, rim-boring dowelling,
+felly-jointing, etc., etc. These names and
+the clamour of the machines were painful to the ear,
+but to the thoughtful, they were converted into
+sweeter music, when reflection brought to mind the
+hard toil of human hands they had saved, the before
+unknown comforts and blessings of civilisation they
+had brought and were bringing to the human race,
+and the enduring forms of beauty they had produced.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_353" id="PAGE_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To the invention of wood-working machinery we
+are also indebted for the awakening of interest in the
+qualities of wood for a vast number of artistic purposes.
+It was a revelation, at the great Philadelphia
+Exposition of 1876, to behold the specimens of different
+woods from all the forests of the earth, selected
+and assembled to display their wonderful
+grain and other qualities, and showing how well
+nature was storing up for us in its silent shades those
+growths which were waiting the genius of invention
+to convert into forms of use and beauty for every
+home.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_354" id="PAGE_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+FURNITURE.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>So far as machinery is concerned for converting
+wood into furniture, the same has been anticipated in
+the previous chapter, but much remains to be said
+about the articles of furniture themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Although from ancient days the most ancient countries
+provided by hand elaborate and beautiful articles
+of furniture of many descriptions, yet it has
+been left for modern advances in machinery and
+kindred arts to yield that universal supply of convenient
+and ornamental furniture which now prevails.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians used chairs and tables of a more
+modern form than the Greeks or Romans, who lolled
+about on couches even at their meals; but the Egyptians
+did not have the convenient section tables built
+in sliding sections, which permit the table to be enlarged
+to accommodate an increased number of
+guests. And now recently this modern form of table
+has been improved, by arranging the sections and
+leaves so that when the sections are slid out the leaves
+are automatically raised and placed in position,
+which is done either by lazy-tongs mechanism, or by a
+series of parallel links: Tables constructed with
+folding detachable and adjustable legs, tables constructed
+for special purposes as sewing machines, and
+typewriting machine tables, by which the machine
+head may be dropped beneath the table top when<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_355" id="PAGE_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
+not in use; tables combined with desks wherein the
+table part may be slid into the desk part when not in
+use and the sliding cover pulled down to cover and
+lock from sight both the table and desk; surgical
+tables, adapted to be raised or lowered at either end
+or at either side and to be extended; “knock down”
+tables, adapted to be taken all apart for shipment or
+storage; tables combined with chairs to be folded
+down by the side of the chair when not in use; and
+many other useful forms have been added to the list.</p>
+
+<p>Much ingenuity has been displayed in the construction
+of desks, to save and economise space.
+Mention has been made of a combined folding desk
+and extensible table. Another form is an arrangement
+of desk drawers, whereby when one
+drawer is locked or unlocked all the rest are locked
+or unlocked automatically. Whatever shape or
+function anyone desires in a desk may be met, except,
+perhaps, the performance of the actual work
+of the occupant.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of <i>beds</i>, the principal developments
+have been due to the advancement of wood-working
+machinery, and the manufacture of iron, steel,
+and brass. The old-fashioned ponderous bedsteads,
+put together by heavy screws, have given way to
+those mortised and tenoned, joined and matched,
+and by which they can easily be put up and taken
+down; and to iron and brass bedsteads, which are
+both ornamental and more healthful. No bed may
+be without an inexpensive steel spring frame or
+mattress for the support of the bedding. Folding
+beds made to economise space, and when folded upright
+become an ornamental bureau; and invalid bedsteads,
+designed for shifting the position of the invalid,
+are among the many modern improvements.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_356" id="PAGE_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Utensils.</i>&mdash;A vast amount of drudgery
+in the kitchen has been relieved by the convenient
+inventions in labor-saving appliances: coffee and
+spice mills, can-openers, stationary washtubs, stopper
+extractors, superseding the old style of hand-corkscrews
+where large numbers of bottles are to be
+uncorked; refrigerators and provision safes, attaching
+and lifting devices and convenient culinary
+dishes and utensils of great variety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Curtains</i>, <i>shades</i> and <i>screens</i> have been wonderfully
+improved and their use made widely possible
+by modern inventions and new adaptation of old
+methods. Wood, cotton, silk, paper, combined or
+uncombined with other materials, in many novel
+ways unknown to our ancestors, have rendered these
+articles available in thousands of homes where
+their use was unknown and impossible a century
+ago. Among the most convenient attachments to
+shades is the spring roller, invented by Hartshorn
+of America, in 1864, whereby the shade is automatically
+rolled upon its stick to raise or lower it.</p>
+
+<p>Window screens for the purpose of excluding
+flies, mosquitoes, and other insects, while freely admitting
+the air, are now made extensible and adjustable
+in different ways to fit different sizes of
+windows. Curtains and shades are provided with
+neat and most attractive supporting rods, to which
+they are attached by brass or wooden rings, and provided
+with easily manipulated devices to raise and
+securely hold them in any desired position.</p>
+
+<p>The art of steaming wood and bending it, by iron
+pattern forms adjustable to the forms desired, as
+particularly devised in principle by Blanchard in
+America in 1828-1840, referred to in Wood-working,
+has produced great changes in the art of furniture
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_357" id="PAGE_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>making, especially in chairs. A particularly
+interesting illustration of the results of this art
+occurred in Austria. About forty years ago the
+manufacture in Germany and Austria of furniture
+by machinery, especially of bent wood-ware, became
+well established there; and by the time of the Vienna
+Exposition in 1873, factories on a most extensive
+scale for the construction of bed furniture were
+in operation among the vast mountain beech forests
+of Moravia and Hungary. The greatest of these
+works were located in Great Urgroez, Hungary, and
+Bisritz, Moravia, with twenty or more auxiliary
+establishments. Between five and six thousand
+work people were employed, the greater part of
+whom were females, and it was necessary to use
+steam and water motors, to the extent of many
+hundred horse power.</p>
+
+<p>The forests were felled, and the tree-tops removed
+and made into charcoal for use in the glass works
+of Bohemia. The trunks were hauled to the mills
+and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws.
+The planks in turn were cut with circular
+saws into square pieces for turning, and then the
+pieces turned and cut on lathes, to give them the size
+required and the rounded shape; the pieces then
+steamed while in their green state for twenty-four
+hours in suitable boilers, then taken out and
+bent to the desired shape on a cast-iron frame by
+hand, then subjected, with the desired pattern, to
+the pattern-turning table, and cut; then kept locked
+in the pattern’s iron embrace until the pieces were
+dried and permanently set in shape, then clamped
+to a bench, filed, rasped, stained, and French polished
+by the deft hands of the women; then assembled
+in proper position in frames of the form of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_358" id="PAGE_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+chair or other article to be made, their contact surface
+sawed to fit at the joints, and then finally the
+parts glued together and further secured by the
+addition of a few screws or balls.</p>
+
+<p>Chairs, lounges and lighter furniture were thus
+made from bent pieces of wood with very few joints,
+having a neat and attractive appearance, and possessing
+great strength. The art has spread to other
+forests and other countries, and the turned, bent,
+highly polished and beautiful furniture of this generation
+would have been but a dream of beauty to the
+householder of a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>Children’s chairs are made so that the seat may
+be raised or lowered, or the chair converted into a
+perambulator. Dentist’s chairs have been developed
+until it is only necessary for the operator to
+turn a valve governing a fluid, generally oil, under
+pressure to raise or lower the chair and the patient.
+In the more agreeable situation at the theatre or
+concert one may hang his hat on the bottom of the
+chair, upturned to afford access to it through a
+crowded row, and turning down the chair, sit with
+pleasure, as the curtain is rolled up by compressed
+air, or electricity, at the touch of a button.</p>
+
+<p>To the unthinking and unobserving, the subject
+of <i>bottle stoppers</i> is not entrancing, but those acquainted
+with the art know with what long, continuous,
+earnest efforts, thousands of inventors have
+sought for the best and cheapest bottle stopper to
+take the place of corks&mdash;the enormous demand for
+which was exhausting the supply and rendering
+their price almost prohibitive.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most successful types is a stopper of
+rubber combined with a metal disk, and hung by a
+wire on the neck of the bottle, so that the stopper<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_359" id="PAGE_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>
+can be used over and over again; another form
+composed of glass, or porcelain, and cork; another
+is a thin disk of cork placed in a thin metal cap
+which is crimped over a shoulder on the neck of the
+bottle, and still another is a thin disk of pasteboard
+adapted for milk bottles and pressed tightly within
+a rim on the inside of the neck of the bottle.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection should be mentioned that self-sealing
+fruit jar, known from its inventor as “Mason’s
+fruit jar,” which came into such universal
+use&mdash;that combination of screw cap, screw-threaded
+jar-neck and the rubber ring, or gasket, on which the
+cap was screwed so tightly as to seal the jar hermetically.</p>
+
+<p>In lamplighting, what a wonderful change from
+the old oil lamps of former ages! The modern lamp
+may be said to be an improved means of grace, as it
+will hold out much longer, and shed a far more attractive
+light for the sinner, whose return, by its
+genial light, is, even to the end, so greatly desired.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of petroleum and its introduction
+as a light produced a revolution in the construction
+of lamps. Wicks were not discarded, but changed
+in shape from round to flat, and owing to the coarseness
+and disagreeable odour of coal oil, especially in
+its early unrefined days, devices first had for their
+object the easy feeding of the wick, and perfect combustion.
+To this end the burner portion through
+which the wick passed was perforated at its base to
+create a proper draft, and later the cap over the base
+was also perforated. But with refined oil the disagreeable
+odour continued. It was found that this
+was mainly due to the fact that both in lamps and
+stoves the oil would ooze out of the wick on to the adjacent
+parts of the lamps or stove, and when the wick<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_360" id="PAGE_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>
+was lit the heat would burn or heat the oil and thus
+produce the odour. Inventors therefore contrived
+to separate the oil reservoir and wick part when the
+lamp or stove were not in use; and finally, in stoves,
+to dispense with the wick altogether. As wickless
+oil stoves are now in successful use the wickless lamp
+may be expected to follow.</p>
+
+<p>The lamp, however, that throws all others into the
+shade is that odourless, heatless, magic, mellow, tempered
+light of electricity, that springs out from the
+little filament, in its hermetically sealed glass cage,
+and shines with unsurpassed loveliness on all those
+fortunate enough to possess it.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_361" id="PAGE_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+LEATHER.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>It is interesting to speculate how prehistoric man
+came to use the skin of the beasts of the field for
+warmth and shelter. Originally no doubt, and for
+untold centuries, the use was confined to the hairy,
+undressed, fresh, or dried skins, known as pelts.
+Then came the use of better tools. The garments
+have perished, but the tools of stone and of bronze
+survived, which, when compared with those employed
+among the earliest historic tribes of men, were
+found to be adapted to cut and strip the hairy covering
+from the bodies of animals, and clean, pound,
+scrape and otherwise adapt them to use.</p>
+
+<p>And ever since the story of man began to be preserved
+in lasting records from farthest Oriental to
+the northernmost limits of Europe and America,
+memorials of the early implements of labour in the
+preparation of hides for human wear have been
+found. The aborigines knew how to sharpen bones
+of the animals they killed to scrape, clean, soften or
+roughen their skins. They knew how to sweat, dry,
+and smoke the skins, and this crude seasoning process
+was the forerunner of modern tanning. But
+leather as we know it now, that soft, flexible, insoluble
+combination of the gelatine and fibrine of the
+skin with tannic acid, producing a durable and imputrescible
+article, that will withstand decay from<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_362" id="PAGE_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>
+the joint attack of moisture, warmth and air, was
+unknown to the earlier races of men, for its production
+was due to thorough tanning, and thorough tanning
+was a later art.</p>
+
+<p>When men were skin-dressed animals they knew
+little or nothing of tanning. Tannic acid is found
+in nearly every plant that grows, and its combination
+with the fresh skins spread or thrown thereon, may
+have given rise to the observation of the beneficial
+result and subsequent practice. But whether discovered
+by chance, accident or experience, or invented
+from necessity, the art of tanning should
+have rendered the name of the discoverer immortal.
+The earliest records, however, describe the art, but
+not the inventor.</p>
+
+<p>From the time the Hebrews covered the altars of
+their tabernacles with rams’ skins dyed red, as recorded
+in Exodus; when they and the Egyptians
+worked their leather, currying and stretching it with
+their knives, awls, stones, and other implements, making
+leather water buckets, resembling very much
+those now made by machinery, covering their harps
+and shields with leather, ornamental and embossed;
+from the days of the early Africans, famous for their
+yellow, red and black morocco; from the days of
+the old national dress of the Persians with their
+leather trousers, aprons, helmets, belts and shirts;
+from the time that the ancient Scythians utilised the
+skins of their enemies, and Herodotus described the
+beauty and other good qualities of the human hide;
+from the early days of that peculiar fine and agreeable
+leather of the Russians, fragrant with the oil
+of the birch; from the days of the white leather of
+the Hungarians, the olive-tanned leather of the
+Saracens; from the time of the celebrated Cordovan
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_363" id="PAGE_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>leather of the Spaniards; from the ancient
+cold periods of the Esquimaux and the Scandinavians,
+who, clad in the warm skins of the Arctic bears,
+stretched tough-tanned sealskin over the frame work
+of their boats; from the time of the introduction of
+the art of the leather worker to the naked Briton,
+down to almost the nineteenth century, substantially
+the same hand tools, hard hand labour, and the old
+elbow lubricant were known and practised.</p>
+
+<p>Hand tools have improved, of course, as other arts
+in wood and iron making have developed, but the
+operations are about the same. There were and
+must be fleshing knives to scrape from off the hide
+the adherent flesh and lime,&mdash;for this the hide is
+placed over the convex edge of an inclined beam and
+the work is called beaming; the curriers’ knife for
+removing the hair; skiving, or the cutting off the
+rough edges and fleshy parts on the border of the
+hide; shaving and flattening; the cutting away of
+the inequalities left after skiving; <i>stoning</i>, the rubbing
+of the leather by a scouring stone to render it
+smooth; <i>slicking</i>, to remove the water and grease;
+or to smooth and polish, by a rectangular sharpened
+stone, steel or glass tool; <i>whitening</i>, to shave off thin
+strips of the flesh, leaving the leather thinner, whiter
+and more pliable; <i>stuffing</i>, to soften the scraped and
+pounded hides and make them porous; <i>graining</i>, the
+giving to the hair or grain side a granular appearance
+by rubbing with a grooved or roughened piece
+of wood; <i>bruising</i> or boarding to make the leather
+supple and pliable by bringing the two flesh sides
+together and rubbing with a graining board; <i>scouring</i>,
+by aid of a stream of water to whiten the leather
+by rubbing with a slicking stone or steel.</p>
+
+<p>The inventions of the century consist in labour-saving
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_364" id="PAGE_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>machinery for these purposes, new tanning
+and dressing processes, and innumerable machines
+for making special articles of leather.</p>
+
+<p>As before stated, the epoch of modern machinery
+commenced with the practical application of water
+power to other than grinding mills, and of steam in
+place of water, contemporaneously with the invention
+of spinning and weaving machinery in the last
+half of the eighteenth century. These got fairly
+to work at the beginning of the century, and the
+uses of machinery spread to the treatment of leather.
+John Bull was the appropriate name of the man who
+first patented a scraping machine in England, about
+1780, and Joseph Weeks the next one, some years
+later.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest machines of the century was
+the hide mill, which, after the hand tools had scraped
+and stoned, shaved and hardened the hides, was used
+to rub and dub them, and soften and swell them for
+tanning. Pegged rollers were the earliest form for
+this purpose, and later corrugated rollers and power-worked
+hammers were employed. Hundreds of hides
+could be softened daily by these means.</p>
+
+<p>Then came ingenious machines to take the place
+of the previous operations of the hand tools,&mdash;the
+fleshing machine, in one form of which the hides are
+placed on a curved bed, and the fleshy parts scraped
+off or removed by revolving glass blades, or by
+curved teeth of steel and wood in a roller under
+which a table is given a to-and-fro movement; tanning
+apparatus of a great variety, by which hides,
+after they are thoroughly washed and softened, and
+the pores opened by swelling, are subjected to movements
+in the tanning liquor vats, such as rocking or
+oscillating, rotary, or vertical; or treated by an air<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_365" id="PAGE_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>
+exhaust, known as the vacuum process; in all of
+which the object is to thoroughly impregnate in the
+shortest time all the interstices and pores of the skin
+with the tannic acid, by which the fibrous and gelatinous
+matter is made to combine to form leather, and
+by which process, also, the hide is greatly increased
+in weight.</p>
+
+<p>Reel machines are then employed to transfer the
+hides from one vat to another, thus subjecting them
+to liquors of increasing strength. Soaking in vats
+formerly occupied twelve or eighteen months, but
+under the new methods the time has been greatly reduced.
+And now since 1880, the chemists are pushing
+aside the vegetable processes, and substituting
+mineral processes, by which tanning is still further
+shortened and cheapened. The new processes depend
+chiefly on the use of chromium compounds.</p>
+
+<p>Then came scouring machines, in which a rapidly
+revolving stiff brush is used to scour the grain
+or hair side, removing the superfluous colouring
+matter, called the bloom, and softening and cleansing
+the hide; the slicking or polishing machines to
+clean, stretch and smooth the leather by glass, stone,
+or copper blades on a rapidly-moving belt carried
+over pulleys; whitening, buffing, skiving, fleshing
+and shaving machines, all for cutting off certain portions
+and inequalities of the leather, and reducing
+its thickness.</p>
+
+<p>In one form of this class of machines an oscillating
+pendulum lever is employed, carrying at its end
+a revolving cylinder having thirty or more spiral
+blades. The pendulum swings to and fro at the rate
+of ninety movements a minute, while the cylinder
+rolls over the leather at the rate of 2780 revolutions
+per minute. Scarfing, skiving, chamfering, bevelling,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_366" id="PAGE_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+feather-edging, appear to be synonymous terms for a
+variety of machines for cutting the edges of leather
+obliquely, for the purpose chiefly of making lap
+seams, scarf-joints, and reducing the thickness and
+stiffness of leather at those and certain other points.</p>
+
+<p>Then there are leather-splitting machines, consisting
+of one or more rollers and a pressure bar, which
+draw and press the leather against a horizontally
+arranged and adjustable knife, which nicely splits
+the leather in two parts, and thus doubles the
+quantity. This thin split leather is much used in
+making a cheap quality of boots and shoes and other
+articles.</p>
+
+<p>There are also corrugating, creasing, fluting,
+pebbling, piercing and punching machines; machines
+for grinding the bark and also for grinding the
+leather; machines for gluing sections of leather together,
+and machines for sewing them; machines for
+rounding flat strips of leather, for the making of
+whips and tubes; machines for scalloping the edges;
+and a very ingenious machine for assorting leather
+strips or strings according to their size or thickness.</p>
+
+<p>The most important improvements of the century
+in leather working relate to the manufacture of
+boots and shoes. It could well be said of boots and
+shoes, especially those made for the great mass of
+humanity, before the modern improvements in
+means and processes had been invented: “Their
+feet through faithless leather met the dirt.”</p>
+
+<p>It is true that in the eighteenth century, both in
+Europe and America, the art of leather and boot and
+shoe making had so far advanced that good durable
+foot wear was produced by long and tedious processes
+of tanning, and by careful making up of the leather
+into boots and shoes by hand; the knife, the awl, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_367" id="PAGE_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>
+waxed thread, the nails and hammer and other
+hand tools of the character above referred to being
+employed. But the process was a tedious and costly
+one and the articles produced were beyond the limits
+of the poor man’s purse. Hence the wooden shoes,
+and those made of coarse hide and dressed and undressed
+skins, and of coarse cloth, mixed or unmixed
+with leather.</p>
+
+<p>In 1809, David Mead Randolph of England patented
+machinery for riveting soles and heels to the
+uppers instead of sewing them together.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated civil engineer, Isambard M. Brunel,
+shortly thereafter added several machines of his own
+invention to Randolph’s method, and he established
+a large manufactory for the making chiefly of army
+shoes. The various separate processes performed
+by his machines involved the cutting out of the
+leather, hardening it by rolling, securing the welt on
+to the inner sole by small nails, and studding the
+outer sole with larger nails. Divisions of men were
+employed to work each separate step, and the shoes
+were passed from one process to another until complete.</p>
+
+<p>Large quantities of shoes were made at reduced
+prices, but complaints were made as to the nails
+penetrating into the shoe and hurting the feet. The
+demand for army shoes fell off, and the system was
+abandoned; but it had incited invention in the direction
+of machine-made shoes and the day of exclusive
+hand labour was doomed.</p>
+
+<p>About 1818 Joseph Walker of Hopkinston, Massachusetts
+invented the wooden peg. Making and
+applying pegs by hand was too slow work, and
+machines were at once contrived for making them.
+As one invention necessitates and begets others, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_368" id="PAGE_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>
+special forms of machines for sawing and working
+up wood into pegs were devised.</p>
+
+<p>Such machinery was for first sawing the selected
+log of wood into slices across the grain a little
+thicker than the length of a peg and cutting out
+knots in the wood; then planing the head of the
+block smooth; grooving the block with a V-shaped
+cutting tool; splitting the pegs apart, and then
+bleaching, drying, polishing and winnowing them.</p>
+
+<p>It took forty or fifty years to perfect these and kindred
+machines, but at the end of that time there was
+a factory at Burlington, Vermont, which from four
+cords of wood, made every day four hundred bushels
+of shoe pegs.</p>
+
+<p>About 1858 B. F. Sturtevant of Massachusetts
+made a great improvement in this line. He was a
+very poor man, getting a living by pegging on the
+soles of a few pair of shoes each day. He devised
+a pegging machine, and out of his scanty earnings
+and at odd hours, with much pain and labour, and by
+borrowing money, he finally completed it. The
+machine made what was called “peg wood,” a long
+ribbon strip of seasoned wood, sharpened on one edge
+and designed to be fed into the machine for pegging
+shoes. The shoes were punctured by awls driven
+by machinery, and then as the peg strip was carried
+to it the machine severed the strip into chisel-edged
+pegs, and peg-driving mechanism drove them into the
+holes. Nine hundred pegs a minute were driven.
+It soon almost supplanted all other peg-driving
+machines, and after the machines were quite generally
+introduced, there were made in one year alone
+in New England fifty-five million pairs of boots and
+shoes pegged by the Sturtevant machines.</p>
+
+<p>Other forms of pegs followed, such as the metal<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_369" id="PAGE_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>
+screw pegs, and machines to cut them off from a
+continuous spiral wire from which they were made.
+Lasts on which the shoes were made had been manufactured
+by the hundred thousand on the wood-turning
+lathes invented by Blanchard, described in the
+chapter on Wood-Working.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858 also, about the same time the Sturtevant
+pegging machine was introduced, the shoe-sewing
+machine was developed. The McKay Shoe-Sewing
+Machine Co. of Massachusetts after an expenditure
+of $130,000, and three years’ time in experiments,
+were enabled to put their machines in practical operation.
+The pegging machines and sewing machines
+worked a revolution in shoemaking.</p>
+
+<p>A revolution in the art of shoemaking thus started
+was followed up by wondrous machines invented to
+meet every part of the manufacture. Lasting machines
+for drawing and fitting the leather over lasts,
+in which the outer edges of the leather are drawn
+over the bottom of the last and tacked thereto by the
+hands and fingers of the machine instead of those of
+the human hand, were invented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indenting machines</i>:&mdash;The welt is known as that
+strip of leather around the shoe between the upper
+and the sole, and machines were invented for cutting
+and placing this, indenting it for the purpose of
+rendering it flexible and separating the stitches, all
+a work until recently entirely done by hand. Machines
+for twining the seams in the uppers, and forming
+the scallops; machines especially adapted to the
+making of the heel, as heel trimming and compressing,
+rounding and polishing, and for nailing the
+finished heel to the boot or shoe; machines for treating
+the sole in every way, rolling it, in place of the good
+old way of pounding it on a lap stone; trimming,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_370" id="PAGE_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>
+rounding, smoothing, and polishing it; machines for
+cutting out gores; machines for marking the uppers
+so that at one operation every shoe will be stamped
+by its size, number, name of manufacture, number
+of case, and any other convenient symbols; machines
+for setting the buttons and eyelets; all these are simply
+members in the long line of inventions in this art.</p>
+
+<p>The old style of boot has given way to the modern
+shoe and gaiter, but for the benefit of those who still
+wear them, special machines for shaping the leg,
+called boot trees, have been contrived.</p>
+
+<p>So far had the art advanced that twenty years ago
+one workingman with much of this improved machinery
+combined in one machine called the “bootmaker,”
+could make three hundred pairs of boots
+or shoes a day. Upward of three thousand such machines
+were then at work throughout the world; and
+one hundred and fifty million pairs of boots were
+then being made annually thereon. Now the number
+of machines and pairs of boots and shoes has
+been quadrupled.</p>
+
+<p>And the world is having its feet clothed far more
+extensively, better and at less cost than was ever possible
+by the hand system. The number of workers
+in the art, both men and women, has vastly increased
+instead of being diminished, while their wages have
+greatly advanced over the old rates.</p>
+
+<p>As an illustration of how rapidly modern enterprise
+and invention proceeds in Yankeeland, it has
+been related that some years ago in Massachusetts,
+after many of these shoe-making machines had got
+into use, a factory which was turning out 2400 pairs
+of shoes every day was completely destroyed by fire
+on a Wednesday night. On Thursday the manufacturer
+hired a neighbouring building and set carpenters
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_371" id="PAGE_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>at work fitting it up. On Friday he ordered a
+new and complete outfit of machinery from Boston;
+on Saturday the machinery arrived and the men set
+it up; on Monday work was started, and on Tuesday
+the manufacturer was filling his orders to the
+full number of 2400 pairs a day.</p>
+
+<p>There are very many people in the world who still
+prefer the hand-made shoe, and there is nothing to
+prevent the world generally from going back to that
+system if they choose; but St. Crispin’s gentle art
+has blossomed into a vaster field of blessings for mankind
+under the fruitful impetus of invention than if
+left to vegetate under the simple processes of primitive
+man.</p>
+
+<p>Horses, no less than man, have shared in the improvement
+in leather manufacture. The harnesses
+of the farmer’s and labouring man’s horses a century
+ago, when they were fortunate enough to own horses,
+were of the crudest description. Ropes, cords, coarse
+bands of leather were the common provisions. Now
+the strength and cheapness of harnesses enable the
+poor man to equip his horse with a working suit impossible
+to have been produced a hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>To the beautiful effects produced by the use of
+modern embossing machines on paper and wood have
+been added many charming patterns in <i>embossed</i>
+leather. Books and leather cases, saddlery and
+household ornamentation of various descriptions
+have been either moulded into forms of beauty, or
+stamped or rolled by cameo and intaglio designs cut
+into the surface of fast-moving cylinders.</p>
+
+<p>The leather manufactures have become so vastly
+important and valuable in some countries, especially
+in the United States&mdash;second, almost to agricultural<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_372" id="PAGE_372">[Pg 372]</a></span>
+products&mdash;that it would be very interesting to extend
+the description to many processes and machines,
+and to facts displaying the enormous traffic in
+leather, now necessarily omitted for want of space.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_373" id="PAGE_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+MINERALS&mdash;WELLS.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">Dost thou hear the hammer of Thor,<br></span>
+<span class="line">Wielded in his gloves of iron?<br></span>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>As with leather, so with stone, the hand tools and
+hard labour have not changed in principle since the
+ancient days. The hammer for breaking, the lever
+for lifting, the saw for cutting, rubbing-stones and
+irons for smoothing and polishing, sand and water
+for the same purpose, the mallet and chisel, and
+other implements for ornamenting, the square, the
+level, and the plumb for their respective purposes,
+all are as old as the art of building.</p>
+
+<p>And as for buildings and sculpture of stone and
+marble made by hand tools, we have yet to excel the
+pyramids, the Parthenon of Athens, which “Earth
+proudly wears as the best gem upon her zone,” the
+palaces, coliseums, and aqueducts of Rome, the grand
+and polished tombs of India, the exquisite halls of
+the Alhambra, and the Gothic cathedrals.</p>
+
+<p>But the time came when human blood and toil became
+too dear to be the possession solely of the rulers
+and the wealthy, and to be used alone to perpetuate
+and commemorate riches, power and glory.</p>
+
+<p>Close on the expansion of men’s minds came the
+expansion of steam and the development of modern
+inventions. The first application of the steam engine
+in fields of human labour was the drawing of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_374" id="PAGE_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>
+water from the coal mines of England; then in drawing
+the coal itself.</p>
+
+<p>It was only a step for the steam engine into a new
+field of labour when General Bentham introduced his
+system of wood-sawing machinery in 1800; and from
+sawing wood to sawing stone was only one more step.
+We find that taken in 1803 in Pennsylvania, when
+Oliver Evans of Philadelphia drove with a high-pressure
+steam engine, “twelve saws in heavy frames,
+sawing at the rate of one hundred feet of marble in
+twelve hours.” How long would it have taken hand
+sawyers of marble at ancient Paros and Naxos to
+have done the same?</p>
+
+<p><i>Stone-cutting</i> machines of other forms than sawing
+then followed.</p>
+
+<p>It was desired to divide large blocks generally at
+the quarries to facilitate transportation. Machines for
+this purpose are called stone-channelling machines.
+They consist of a gang of chisels bound together and
+set on a framework which travels on a track adjacent
+to the stone to be cut, and so arranged that the cutters
+may be set to the stone at desired angles, moved
+automatically forward and back in the grooves they
+are cutting, be fed in or out, raised or lowered, detached,
+and otherwise manipulated in the operation.</p>
+
+<p>Other stone-cutting machines had for their objects
+the cutting and moulding the edges of tables, mantels
+and slabs; and the cutting of circular and other
+curved work. In the later style of machine the cutter
+fixed on the end of a spindle is guided in the desired
+directions on the surface of the stone by a pointer,
+which, attached to the cutter spindle, moves in the
+grooves of a pattern also connected to the rotating
+support carrying the cutter.</p>
+
+<p>Other forms of most ingenious stone-dressing and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_375" id="PAGE_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>
+carving machines have been devised for cutting
+mouldings, and ornamental figures and devices, in
+accordance with a model or pattern fixed to the
+under side of the table which carries the stone or
+marble to be dressed; and in which, by means of a
+guide moving in the pattern, the diamond cutter or
+cutters, carried in a circular frame above the work
+and adjusted to its surface, are moved in the varying
+directions determined by the pattern. A stream
+of water is directed on the stone to clear it of the
+dust during the operations. The carving of stone
+by machinery is now a sister branch of wood carving.
+Monuments, ornamentation, and intricate forms of
+figures and characters are wrought with great accuracy
+by cutting and dressing tools guided by the
+patterns, or directed by the hand of the operator.</p>
+
+<p>For the dressing of the faces of grindstones, special
+forms of cutting machines have been devised.</p>
+
+<p>It was a slow and tedious task to drill holes through
+stone by hand tools; and it was indeed a revolution
+in this branch of the art when steam engines were
+employed to rotate a rod armed at its end with diamond
+or other cutters against the hardest stone. This
+mode of drilling also effected a revolution in the art
+of blasting. Then, neither height, nor depth, nor
+thickness of the stone could prevent the progress of
+the drill rod. Tunnels through mountain walls, and
+wells through solid quartz are cut to the depth of
+thousands of feet.</p>
+
+<p>One instance is related of the wonderful efficiency
+on a smaller scale of such a machine: The immense
+columns of the State Capitol at Columbus, Ohio,
+were considered too heavy for the foundation on
+which they rested. The American Diamond Rock
+Boring Company of Providence, Rhode Island, bored<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_376" id="PAGE_376">[Pg 376]</a></span>
+out a twenty-four inch core from each of the great
+pillars, and thus relieved the danger.</p>
+
+<p>In the most economical and successful stone drills
+<i>compressed air</i> is employed as the motive power to
+drive the drills, which may be used singly or in
+gangs, and which may be adjusted against the rock
+or quarry in any direction. When in position and
+ready for work a few moments will suffice to bore
+the holes, apply the explosive and blast the ledge.
+The cleaning away of submarine ledges in harbours,
+such as the great work at Hell Gate in the harbour
+of New York, has thus been effected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crushing</i>:&mdash;Among the most useful inventions relating
+to stone working are machines for crushing
+stones and ores, and assorting them. The old way
+of hammering by hand was first succeeded by powerful
+stamp hammers worked by steam. Both methods
+of course are still followed, but they demand too
+great an expenditure of force and time.</p>
+
+<p>About a third of a century ago, Eli Whitney
+Blake of New Haven, Connecticut, was a pioneer inventor
+of a new and most successful type of stone
+breaking machine, which ever since has been known
+as the “Blake Crusher.” This crusher consists of
+two ponderous upright jaws, one fixed and the other
+movable, between which the stones or ores to be
+crushed are fed. Each of the jaws is lined with the
+hardest kind of chilled steel. The movable jaw is
+inclined from its lower end from the fixed jaw and at
+its upper end is pivoted to swing on a heavy round
+iron bar. The movable jaw is forced toward the
+fixed jaw by two opposite toggle levers set, in one
+form of the crusher, at their inner ends in steel bearings
+of a vertical vibrating, rocking lever, one of the
+toggles bearing at its outer end against the movable<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_377" id="PAGE_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>
+jaw and the outer toggle against a solid frame-work.
+The rocking lever is operated through a crank by a
+steam engine, and as it is vibrated, the toggle joint
+forces the lever end of the movable jaw towards the
+fixed jaw with immense force, breaking the hardest
+stone like an eggshell.</p>
+
+<p>The setting of the movable jaw at an incline enables
+the large stone to be first cracked, the movable
+jaw then opens, and as the stone falls lower between
+the more contracted jaws, it is broken finer, until it
+is finally crushed or pulverized and falls through
+at the bottom. The movable jaw is adjustable and
+can be set to crush stones to a certain size.</p>
+
+<p>As the rock drill made a revolution in blasting and
+tunnelling, so the Blake crusher revolutionised the
+art of road making. “Road metal,” as the supply
+of broken stones for roads is now called, is the fruit
+of the crusher. Hundreds of tons of stone per day
+can be crushed to just the size desired, and the machine
+may be moved from place to place where most
+convenient to use.</p>
+
+<p>Other crushers have been invented, formed on the
+principle of abrasion. The stones, or ore, fall between
+two great revolving disks, having corrugated
+steel faces, which are set the desired distance apart,
+and between which the stones are crushed by the rubbing
+action. In this style of machine the principle of
+a gradual breaking from a coarse to a finer grade, is
+maintained by setting the disks farther apart at the
+centre where the stone enters, and nearer together at
+their peripheries where the broken stone is discharged.
+Large smooth or corrugated rollers, conical
+disks, concentric rollers armed with teeth of varying
+sizes, and yet so arranged as to preserve the feature of
+the narrowing throat at the bottom or place of discharge,
+have also been devised and extensively used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_378" id="PAGE_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A long line of inventions has appeared especially
+adapted to break up and separate coal into different
+sizes. To view the various monstrous heaps of assorted
+coals at the mouth of a coal mine creates an
+impression that some great witch had imposed on a
+poor victim the gigantic and seemingly impossible
+task of breaking and assorting a vast heap of coal
+into these separate piles within a certain time&mdash;a
+task which also seems to have been miraculously and
+successfully performed within such an exceedingly
+short time as to either satisfy or confuse the presiding
+evil genius.</p>
+
+<p>Modern civilisation has been developed mostly
+from steam and coal, and they have been to each other
+as strong brothers, growing more and more mutually
+dependent to meet the demands made upon them.</p>
+
+<p>The mining of coal, and its subsequent treatment
+for burning, before the invention of the steam engine,
+were long, painful, and laborious tasks, and
+the steam engine could never have had its modern
+wants supplied if its power had not been used to supplement,
+with a hundredfold increased effect, the
+labour of human hands.</p>
+
+<p>It being impracticable to carry steam or the steam
+engine to the bottom of the mine for work there, compressed
+air is there employed, which is compressed
+by a steam engine up at the mouth. By this compressed
+air operated in a cylinder to drive a piston,
+and a connecting rod and a pick, a massive steel
+pick attached to the rod may be driven in any direction
+against the wall of coal at the rate of from ninety
+to one hundred and twenty blows per minute; and at
+the same time the discharged compressed, cold, pure,
+fresh air flows into and through the mine, affording
+ventilation when and where most needed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_379" id="PAGE_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to these great drills, more recent inventors
+have brought out small machines for single
+operators, worked by the electric motor.</p>
+
+<p>After the coal is lifted out, broken and assorted,
+it needs to be washed free of the adhering dust and
+dirt; and for this purpose machines are provided,
+as well as for screening, loading and weighing. The
+operations of breaking, assorting and washing are
+often combined in one machine, while an intermediate
+hand process for separating the pieces
+of slate from the coal may be employed; but additional
+automatic means for separating the coal and
+slate are provided, consisting in forcing with great
+power water through the coal as it falls into a chamber,
+which carries the lighter slate to the top of the
+chamber, where it is at once drawn off.</p>
+
+<p>The chief of machines with <i>ores</i> is the <i>ore mill</i>,
+which not only breaks up the ore but grinds or pulverises
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Some chemical and other processes for reducing
+ores have been referred to in the Chapter on Metallurgy.</p>
+
+<p>Other mechanical processes consist of <i>separators</i>
+of various descriptions&mdash;a prominent one of which
+acts on the principal of centrifugal force. The
+crushed material from a spout being led to the centre
+of a rapidly rotating disk is thrown off by centrifugal
+force; and as the lighter portions are thrown
+farther from the disk, and the heavier portions
+nearer to the same, the material is automatically assorted
+as to size and weight. As the disk revolves
+these assorted portions fall through properly graded
+apertures into separate channels of a circular trough,
+from whence they are swept out by brushes secured
+to a support revolving with the disk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_380" id="PAGE_380">[Pg 380]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Many forms of ore washing machines have been
+invented to treat the ore after it has been reduced to
+powder. These are known by various names, as
+jiggers, rifflers, concentrators, washing frames, etc.
+A stream of water is directed on, into, and through
+the mass of pulverised ore and dirt, the dirt and
+kindred materials, lighter than the ore, are raised
+and floated towards the top of the receptacle and carried
+away, while the ore settles.</p>
+
+<p>This operation is frequently carried on in connection
+with amalgamated surfaces over which the
+metal is passed to still further attract and concentrate
+the ore. An endless apron travelling over cylinders
+is sometimes employed, composed of slats the
+surface of each of which is coated with an amalgam,
+and on this belt the powdered ore is spread thinly
+and carried forward. The vibrations of the belt
+tend to shake and distribute the ore particles, the
+amalgam attracts them, the refuse is thrown off as
+the belt passes down over the cylinder, while the ore
+particles are retained and brushed off into a proper
+receptacle. <i>Amalgamators</i> themselves form a large
+class of inventions. They are known as electric,
+lead, mercury, plate, vacuum, vapour, etc.</p>
+
+<p>By the help of these and a vast number of other
+kindred inventions, the business of mining in all
+its branches has been revolutionised and transformed,
+even within the last half century. With the
+vast increase in the output of coal, and of ores, and
+the incalculable saving of hand labour, the number
+of operators has been increased in the same proportion,
+their wages increased, their hours of labour
+shortened, and their comforts multiplied in variety
+and quantity, with a diminished cost. The whole
+business of mining has been raised from ceaseless
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_381" id="PAGE_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>
+darkness and drudgery to light and dignity. Opportunity
+has been created for miners to become men of
+standing in the community in which they live; and
+means provided for educating their children and for
+obtaining comfortable homes adorned with the refinements
+of civilisation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Well boring</i> is an ancient art&mdash;known to the
+Egyptians and the Chinese. Wells were coeval
+with Abraham when his servant had the celebrated
+interview with Rebecca. “Jacob’s well at Sychar&mdash;the
+ancient Shechim&mdash;has been visited by travellers
+in all ages and has been minutely described. It is
+nine feet in diameter and one hundred and five feet
+deep, made entirely through rock. When visited by
+Maundrel it contained fifteen feet of water.”&mdash;<i>Knight.</i>
+Some kind of a drill must have been
+used to have cut so great a depth through rock. The
+Chinese method of boring wells from time immemorial
+has been by the use of a sharp chisel-like
+piece of hard iron on the end of a heavy iron and
+wood frame weighing four or five hundred pounds,
+lifted by a lever and turned by a rattan cord operated
+by hand, and by which wells from fifteen hundred
+to eighteen hundred feet in depth and five or
+six inches in diameter have been bored.</p>
+
+<p>This method has lately been improved by attaching
+the chisel part, which is made very heavy,
+to a rope of peculiar manufacture, which gives the
+chisel a turn as it strikes, combined with an air
+pump to suck up from the hole the accumulating dirt
+and water.</p>
+
+<p>Artesian wells appear to have first been known in
+Europe in the province of Artois, France, in the
+thirteenth century. Hence their name. The previous
+state of the art in Egypt, China and elsewhere
+was not then known.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_382" id="PAGE_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Other modern inventions in well-making machinery
+have consisted in innumerable devices to supplant
+manual labour and to meet new conditions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coal Oil</i>:&mdash;Reichenbach, the German chemist, discovered
+paraffine. Young, soon after, in 1850,
+patented paraffine oil made from coal. These discoveries,
+added to the long observed fact of coal oil
+floating on streams in Pennsylvania and elsewhere,
+led to the search for its natural source. The discovery
+of the reservoirs of petroleum in Pennsylvania
+in 1855-1860, and subsequently of gas, which nature
+had concealed for so long a time, gave a great
+impetus to inventions to obtain and control these
+riches. With earth-augurs, drills, and drill cleaning
+and clearing and “fishing” apparatus, and devices
+for creating a new flow of oil, and tubing, new forms
+of packing, etc., inventors created a new industry.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel E. Drake sank the first oil well in Pennsylvania
+in 1859. Since then, 125,000 oil wells
+have been drilled in that and neighbouring localities.
+The world has seldom seen such excitement,
+except in California on the discovery of gold, as attended
+the coal oil discovery. The first wells sunk
+gushed thousands of barrels a day. Farmers and
+other labouring men went to bed poor and woke up
+rich. Rocky wildernesses and barren fields suddenly
+became Eldorados. The burning rivers of oil
+were a reflection of the golden treasures which flowed
+into the hands and pockets of thousands as from a
+perpetual fountain touched by some great magician’s
+wand.</p>
+
+<p>Old methods of boring wells were too slow, and although
+the underlying principle was the same, the
+new methods and means invented enabled wells to be
+bored with one-tenth the labour, in one-tenth the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_383" id="PAGE_383">[Pg 383]</a></span>
+time, and at one-tenth the cost. Many great cities and
+plains and deserts have been provided with these wells
+owing to the ease with which they can now be sunk.</p>
+
+<p>Another ingenious method of sinking wells was invented
+by Colonel N. W. Greene at Cortland, New
+York, in 1862. It became known as the “driven
+well,” and consisted of a pointed tube provided with
+holes above the pointed end, and an inclosed tube to
+prevent the passage of sand or gravel through the
+holes in the outer tube. When the pointed tube was
+driven until water was reached the inner tube was
+withdrawn and a pump mechanism inserted. This
+well, so simple, so cheap and effective, has been used
+in all countries by thousands of farmers on dry
+plains and by soldiers in many desert lands. With
+these and modern forms of artesian wells the deserts
+have literally been made to blossom as the rose.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_384" id="PAGE_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Time measures all things, but I measure it.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>So far as we at present know there were four
+forms of time-measuring instruments known to antiquity&mdash;the
+sun-dial, the clepsydra or water clock,
+the hour-glass, and the graduated candle.</p>
+
+<p>The sun-dial, by which time was measured by the
+shadow cast from a pin, rod or pillar upon a graduated
+horizontal plate&mdash;the graduations consisting
+of twelve equal parts, in which the hours of the day
+were divided, were, both as to the instrument and the
+division of the day into hours, invented by the Babylonians
+or other Oriental race, set up on the plains of
+Chaldea, constructed by the Chinese and Hindoos&mdash;put
+into various forms by these nations, and adapted,
+but unimproved, by the learned Greeks and conquering
+Romans. It appears to have been unknown to
+the Assyrians and Egyptians, or if known, its knowledge
+confined to their wise men, as it does not appear
+in any of their monuments.</p>
+
+<p>The clepsydra, an instrument by which in its
+earliest form a portion of time was measured by the
+escape of water from a small orifice in the bottom of a
+shell or vase, or by which the empty vase, placed in
+another vessel filled with water, was gradually filled
+through the orifice and which sank within a certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_385" id="PAGE_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>
+time, is supposed by many to have preceded the invention
+of the sun-dial. At any rate they were used
+contemporaneously by the same peoples.</p>
+
+<p>In its later form, when the day and night were
+each divided into twelve hours, the vessel was correspondingly
+graduated, and a float raised by the inflowing
+water impelled a pointer attached to the
+float against the graduations.</p>
+
+<p>Plato, it is said, contrived a bell so connected with
+the pointer that it was struck at each hour of the
+night. But the best of ancient clepsydras was invented
+by Ctesibius of Alexandria about the middle
+of the third century B. C. He was the pupil of
+Archimedes, and adopting his master’s idea of
+geared wheels, he mounted a toothed wheel on a
+shaft extending through the vessel and carrying at
+one end outside of the vessel a pointer adapted to
+move around the face of a dial graduated with the
+24 hours. The vertical toothed rod or rack, adapted
+to be raised or lowered by a float in a vessel gradually
+filled with water, engaged a pinion fixed on another
+horizontal shaft, which pinion in turn engaged
+the larger wheel. It was not difficult to proportion
+the parts and control the supply of water to make the
+point complete its circuit regularly. Then the
+same inventor dispensed with the wheel, rack, and
+pinion, and substituted a cord to which a float was
+attached, passing the cord over a grooved pulley and
+securing a weight at its other end. The pulley was
+fixed on the shaft which carried the hour hand. The
+float was a counterbalance to the weight, and as it
+was lifted by the water the weight stretched the cord
+and turned the pulley, which caused the pointer to
+move on the dial and indicate the hour. The water
+thus acted as an escapement to control the motive<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_386" id="PAGE_386">[Pg 386]</a></span>
+power. In one form the water dropped on wheels
+which had their motion communicated to a small
+statue that gradually rose and pointed with a rod
+to the hour upon the dial.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the essential parts of a clock&mdash;an escapement,
+which is a device to control the power in a
+clock or watch so that it shall act intermittently on
+the time index, a motive power, which was then water
+or a weight, a dial to display the hours, and an
+index to point them out&mdash;were invented at this early
+age. But the art advanced practically no further
+for many centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The hour-glass is too familiar to need description.</p>
+
+<p>The incense sticks of the Chinese, the combustion
+of which proceeded so slowly and regularly as to render
+them available for time measures, were the precursors
+of the graduated candles.</p>
+
+<p>With the ungraduated sun-dial the Greeks fixed
+their times for bathing and eating. When the
+shadow was six feet long it was time to bathe, when
+twice that length it was time to sup. The clepsydra
+became in Greece a useful instrument to enforce the
+law in restricting loquacious orators and lawyers to
+reasonable limits in their addresses. And in Rome
+the sun-dials, the clepsydras and the hour-glass were
+used for the same purpose, and more generally than
+in Greece, to regulate the hours of business and
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>The graduated candles are chiefly notable as to
+their use, if not invention, by Alfred the Great in
+about 883. They were 12 inches long, divided into
+12 parts, of which three would burn in one hour. In
+use they were shielded from the wind by thin pieces
+of horn, and thus the “horn lantern” originated.
+With them he divided the day into three equal parts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_387" id="PAGE_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>
+one for religion, one for public affairs, and one for
+rest and recreation.</p>
+
+<p>Useful clocks of wondrous make were described
+in the annals of the middle ages, especially in Germany,
+made by monks and others for Kings, monasteries
+and churches. The old Saxon and Teutonic
+words <i>cligga</i>, and <i>glocke</i>, signifying the striking of a
+bell, and from which the name clock is derived, indicates
+the early combination of striking and time-keeping
+mechanism. The records are scant as to the
+particulars of inventions in horology during the middle
+ages and down to the sixteenth century, but we
+know that weights, and trains of wheels and springs,
+and some say pendulums, were used in clockwork,
+and that the tones of hourly bells floated forth from
+the dim religious light of old cathedrals. They all
+appear to have involved in different forms the principle
+of the old clepsydra, using either weights or
+water as the motive power to drive a set of wheels
+and to move a pointer over the face of a dial.</p>
+
+<p>Henry de Vick of France about 1370 constructed
+a celebrated clock for Charles V., the first nearest
+approach to modern weight clocks. The weight was
+used to unwind a cord from a barrel. The barrel
+was connected to a ratchet and there were combined
+therewith a train of toothed wheels and pinions, an
+escapement consisting of a crown wheel controlled by
+two pallets, which in turn were operated alternately
+by two weights on a balanced rod. An hour hand
+was carried by a shaft of the great wheel, and a dial
+plate divided into hours. This was a great advance,
+as a more accurate division of time was had by improving
+the isochronous properties of the vibrating
+escapement. But the world was still wanting a time-keeper
+to record smaller portions of the day than the
+hour and a more accurate machine than Vick’s.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_388" id="PAGE_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years, nearly, elapsed before the next
+important advance in horology. By this time great
+astronomers like Tycho Brahe and Valherius had
+divided the time-recording dials into minutes and
+seconds.</p>
+
+<p>About 1525 Jacob Zech of Prague invented the
+fusee, which was re-invented and improved by the
+celebrated Dr. Hooke, 125 years later.</p>
+
+<p>Small portable clocks, the progenitors of the modern
+watch, commenced to appear about 1500. It
+was then that Peter Hele of Nuremberg substituted
+for weights as the motive power a ribbon of steel,
+which he wound around a central spindle, connecting
+one end to a train of wheels to which it gave motion
+as it unwound.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed the famous observation of the
+swinging lamp by the then young Galileo, about
+1582, while lounging in the cathedral of Pisa. The
+isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum inferred
+from this observation was not published or
+put to practical application in clocks for nearly sixty
+years afterward. In 1639 Galileo, then old and
+blind, dictated to his son one of his books in which
+he discussed the isochronal properties of oscillating
+bodies, and their adaptation as time measures. He
+and others had used the pendulum for dividing time,
+but moved it by hand and counted its vibrations.
+But Huygens, the great Dutch scientist, about 1556
+was the first to explain the principles and properties
+of the pendulum as a time measurer and to apply it
+most successfully to clocks. His application of it
+was to the old clock of Vick’s.</p>
+
+<p>The seventeenth century thus opened up a new era
+in clock and watch making. The investigations, discoveries,
+and inventions of Huygens and other Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_389" id="PAGE_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
+clock-makers, of Dr. Hooke and David Ramsey of
+England, Hautefeuille of France, and a few others
+placed the art of clock and watch making on the
+scientific basis on which it has ever since rested.</p>
+
+<p>The pendulum and watch-springs needed to have
+their movements controlled and balanced by better
+escapements. Huygens thought that the pendulum
+should be long and swing in a cycloidal course, but
+Dr. Hooke found the better way to produce perfect
+isochronous movements was to cause the pendulum
+to swing in short arcs, which he accomplished by his
+invention of the anchor escapement.</p>
+
+<p>The fusee which Dr. Hooke re-invented consists
+of a conical spirally-grooved pulley, around which a
+chain is wound, and which is connected at one end to
+a barrel, in which the main actuating spring is
+tightly coiled. The fusee is thus interposed between
+the wheel train and the spring to equalise the power
+of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>To Dr. Hooke must also be credited the invention
+of that delicate but efficient device, the hair-spring
+balance for watches. His inventions in this line
+were directed to the best means of utilising and controlling
+the force of springs, his motto being “<i>ut
+tensio sic vis</i>,” (as the tension is so is the force.)
+Repeating watches to strike the hours, half-hours and
+quarters, made their appearance in the seventeenth
+century. In the next century Arnold made one for
+George III., as small as an English sixpence. This
+repeated the hours, halves and quarters, and in it
+for the first time in the art a jewel was used as a
+bearing for the arbors, and this particular one was a
+ruby made into a minute cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>After the discovery and practical application of
+weights, springs, wheels, levers and escapements to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_390" id="PAGE_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>
+time mechanisms, subsequent inventions, numerous
+as they have been, have consisted chiefly, not in the
+discovery of new principles, but in new methods in
+the application of old ones. Prior to the eighteenth
+century, however, clocks were cumbrous and expensive,
+and the watches rightly regarded as costly toys;
+and as to their accuracy in time-measuring, the
+cheaper ones were hardly as satisfactory as the ancient
+sun-dials.</p>
+
+<p>With the coming of the machine inventions and
+the new industrial and social ideas of the eighteenth
+century came an almost sudden new appreciation of
+the value of time. Hours, minutes and seconds began
+to be carefully prized, both by the trades and
+professions, and the demand from the common people
+for accurate time records became great. This demand
+it has been the office of the nineteenth century
+to supply, and to place clocks and watches within the
+reach of the poor as well as the rich. While thus
+lessening the cost of time-keepers their value has
+been enhanced by increasing their accuracy and
+durability.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other ideas for which the eighteenth
+century was famous in watch-making was that of
+dispensing with the key for winding, thus saving
+the losing of keys and preventing access of dust, an
+idea which, however, was perfected only in the last
+half of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century was chiefly distinguished
+by its scientific improvements in time-keepers, to
+adapt them for astronomical observations and for
+use at sea, in not only accurately determining the
+time, but the degrees of longitude. Chronometers
+were invented, distinguished from watches and clocks,
+by means by which the fluctuation of the parts caused<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_391" id="PAGE_391">[Pg 391]</a></span>
+by the variations in temperature are obviated or compensated.
+In clocks what are known as the mercurial
+and gridiron pendulums were invented respectively
+toward the close of the eighteenth century
+by Graham and Harrison, and the latter also subsequently
+invented the expanding and contracting balance
+wheel for watches. The principle in these appliances
+is the employment of two different metals
+which expand unequally, and thus maintain an uniformity
+of operation.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch, with Huygens in the lead, were long
+among the leading clock-makers. Germany ranked
+next. It was in the seventeenth century that a wonderful
+industry in clock-making there commenced,
+which lasted for two centuries. The Black Forest
+region of South Germany became a famous locality
+for the manufacture of cheap wooden clocks. The
+system adopted was a minute division of labour.
+From fourteen to twenty thousand hands twenty years
+ago were employed in the Schwarzwald district.
+Labour-saving machines were ignored almost entirely.
+The annual production finally reached nearly two
+million clocks, of the value of about five million
+dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Switzerland in watch-making followed precisely
+the example of Germany in clock-making. It commenced
+there in the seventeenth and culminated in
+the nineteenth century. Many thousands of its population
+were engaged in the business and it flourished
+under the fostering care of the government&mdash;by the
+establishment of astronomical observations for testing
+the adjustment of the best watches, the giving of
+prizes, and the establishment and encouragement of
+schools of horology conducted on thorough scientific
+methods. A quarter of a century ago it was estimated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_392" id="PAGE_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>that in Switzerland 40,000 persons out of a
+population of 150,000 were engaged in watch-making,
+and that the annual production sometimes reached 1,600,000
+completed movements. The whole world was
+their market. The United States alone was in 1875 importing
+134,000 watches annually from that country.</p>
+
+<p>As in Germany, so one characteristic of the Swiss
+system was a minute sub-division of the labour. Individuals
+and entire families had certain parts
+only to make. It is said that the Swiss watch
+passed through the hands of one hundred and
+thirty different workmen before it was put upon the
+market. The use of machines was also, as in Germany,
+ignored. By this national devotion to a single
+trade and its sub-division of labour, the successful
+production of complicated watches became great and
+their prices comparatively low.</p>
+
+<p>The United States in the commencement of its
+career and at the opening of the century had no
+clocks or watches of its own manufacture. But it
+soon followed the example of Germany and Switzerland
+and established cheap clock manufactories, first
+of wood, and then of metal, which became famous
+and of world-wide use. But it could make no headway
+against the cheap labour of Europe in watch-making,
+and the country was flooded with watches of
+all qualities, principally from Switzerland and England.
+Finally, at the half-way mark in the century,
+the inquiry arose among Americans, why could not
+the system of the minute sub-division of human
+labour followed in watch-making countries so
+cheaply and profitably, be accomplished by machinery?
+The field was open, the prize was great,
+and the government stood ready to grant exclusive
+patents to every inventor who would devise a new and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_393" id="PAGE_393">[Pg 393]</a></span>
+useful machine. The problem was great, as the fields
+abroad had been filled for generations by skilled artisans
+who had reduced the complicated mechanism
+of watch-making to a fine art. Fortunately the
+habit had been established in America in several of
+the leading industries, principally in that of fire-arms,
+of fabricating separate machinery for the independent
+making of numerous parts of the same
+implement, whereby uniformity and interchangeability
+were established. Under such a practice,
+which was known as the American system, a duplicate
+of the smallest part of a complicated machine,
+lost or worn out thousands of miles from the factory,
+could soon be furnished by simply sending the number
+or name of such required part to the manufacturer,
+or to the nearest dealer in such machines.</p>
+
+<p>With such encouragement and example the scheme
+of watch-making was commenced. Soon large factories
+were built, and by the time of the Centennial
+Exhibition in 1876, the American Watch Company
+of Waltham, Massachusetts, were enabled to present
+an exhibit of watch movements made by machinery,
+which astonished the world. Other great companies
+in different parts of the country soon followed with
+the same general system. Machines, working with
+the apparent intelligence and facility of human
+minds and hands, and with greater mathematical
+accuracy than was possible with the hands, appeared:&mdash;for
+cutting out the finest teeth from blank
+wheels stamped out from steel or brass; for making
+and cutting the smallest, finest threaded screws by
+the thousands per hour and with greatest uniformity
+and accuracy; for jewel-making; for cutting and
+polishing by diamonds, or sapphire-armed tools, the
+rough, unpolished diamond and ruby, crysolite,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_394" id="PAGE_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>
+garnet, or aqua-marine, and for boring, finishing and
+setting the same; for the formation of the most delicate
+pins or arbors; for the making of the escapements,
+including forks, pallets, rollers, and scape
+wheels; for making springs and balances, including
+the main-springs and hair-springs; for making
+and setting the stem-winding parts; for making the
+cases, and engraving the same, etc. The list would
+be too long to simply name all the ingenious machines
+there exhibited and subsequently invented
+for every important operation.</p>
+
+<p>It was the aim of these manufacturers to locate
+every great factory in some quiet and attractive spot,
+free from the dust of town, and city, and divide it
+into many departments, from the blacksmithing to
+the packing and transportation of the completed article;
+and to conduct every department with the best
+mechanical and mathematical skill that money and
+brains could provide.</p>
+
+<p>The same system was followed with equal success
+in producing the first-class pocket-chronometer for
+the nicest work to which chronometers can be put.</p>
+
+<p>Thus with every watch and its every part made
+the exact duplicate of its fellow, uniformity in time-keeping
+has been established; and the simile of Pope
+is no longer so correct, “’Tis with our judgments
+as our watches, none go just alike, yet each believes
+his own.” A simple statement of this system illustrates
+with greater force than an entire volume the
+revolution the nineteenth century has produced in
+the useful art of horology. And yet the story should
+not omit reference to the application of the electric
+system to clocks, whereby clocks at distant points of
+a city or country are connected, automatically corrected
+and set to standard time from a central observatory
+or other time station.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_395" id="PAGE_395">[Pg 395]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Great as were the advances in horology during the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the number of
+inventions that have been made in the nineteenth
+century is evidenced by the fact that in the United
+States alone about 4,000 patents have been granted
+since 1800, which, however, represent not only American
+inventors but very many of other countries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Registering Devices.</i>&mdash;Devices for recording fares
+and money have employed the keenest wits of many
+inventors and is an art of quite recent origin. Attention
+was first directed to fare registers in public
+vehicles, the object of which is to accurately report
+to the proper office of the company at the end of a
+trip, or of the day, the number of passengers carried
+and the fares received. Portable registers, to
+be carried by the conductor and operated in front
+of the passenger have been almost universally succeeded
+by stationary ones set up at one end of the
+vehicle in open view of all the passengers and operated
+by a strap and lever by the conductor. These fare
+registers have been called “A mechanical conscience
+for street car conductors.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Cash Registers</i>, intended to compel honesty on the
+part of retail salesmen, are required to be operated
+by them, and when the proper lever, or levers, or it
+may be a crank handle, is or are touched, the machine
+automatically records the amount of the sale,
+the amount of change given, and the total amount of
+all the sales and money received and paid out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Voting Machines</i>&mdash;designed to overcome the
+difficulties, expenditure of time, and the commission
+of errors and frauds experienced in the reading and
+counting of votes&mdash;have received great attention from
+inventors, and are not yet in a satisfactory condition.
+The problem involves the dispensing of printing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_396" id="PAGE_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>
+ballots, the prevention of fraudulent deposition of
+ballots, the automatic correct counting of the same,
+and a display of the result as soon as the balloting is
+closed.</p>
+
+<p>Successful electrical devices have been made for
+recording the votes of a great number of persons
+in a large assembly by the touch of an “aye” or
+“nay” button at the seat of the voter and the recording
+of the same on paper at a central desk.</p>
+
+<p>The invention and extensive use of bicycles, automobiles,
+etc., have given rise to the invention of
+<i>cyclometers</i>, which are small devices connected to
+some part of the vehicle to indicate to the rider or
+driver the rate at which he is riding, and the number
+of miles ridden.</p>
+
+<p><i>Speed Indicators.</i>&mdash;Many municipalities having
+adopted ordinances limiting the rate of speed for
+street and steam cars, bicycles, automobiles, and
+other vehicles, a want was created, which has been
+met, for devices to indicate to the passengers, drivers
+or conductors the rate at which the vehicle is travelling,
+and to sound an alarm in case of excess of
+speed, so that brakes can be applied and the speed
+reduced. Or to relieve persons of anxiety and
+trouble in this respect, ingenious devices have been
+contrived which automatically reduce the speed when
+the prescribed limit has been exceeded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weighing Scales and Machines.</i>&mdash;“Just balances
+and just weights” have been required from the day
+of the declaration, “a false weight is an abomination
+unto the Lord.” And therefore strict accuracy must
+always be the measure of merit of a weighing machine.
+To this standard the inventions of the century
+in weighing scales have come. Until this century
+the ordinary balance with equal even arms suspended
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_397" id="PAGE_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>from a central point, and each carrying
+means for suspending articles to be weighed, or compared
+in weights, and the later steelyard with its
+unequal arms, with its graduated long arms and a
+sliding weight and holding pan, were the principal
+forms of weighing machines. Platform scales were
+described in an English patent to one Salman in
+1796, but their use is not recorded. The compound
+lever scale on the principle of the steelyard, but arranged
+to be used with a platform, was invented and
+came into use in the United States about 1831.
+Thaddeus and Erastus Fairbanks of St. Johnsbury,
+Vermont, were the inventors, and it was found to meet
+the want of farmers in weighing hemp, hay, etc., by
+more convenient means than the ordinary steelyard.
+They converted the steelyard into platform scales.
+The leading characteristics of such machines are, first,
+a convenient platform nicely balanced on knife edges
+of steel levers, and second, a graduated horizontal
+beam, a sliding weight thereon connected by an upright
+rod at one end to the beam, and at its opposite
+end to the balance frame beneath the platform.</p>
+
+<p>The modification in size and adaptation of this machine
+for the weighing of different commodities
+amounted to some 400 different varieties&mdash;running
+from the delicately-constructed apparatus for weighing
+the fraction of a grain, to the ponderous machines
+for weighing and recording the loaded freight car
+of fifty or sixty tons, or the canal-boat or other vessel
+with its load of five or six hundred tons. The adaptation
+of a balance platform on which to place a light
+load, or to drive thereon with heavy loads, whether of
+horses, steam, or water vehicles, was a great blessing
+to mankind. No wonder that they were soon sold<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_398" id="PAGE_398">[Pg 398]</a></span>
+all over the world, and that monarchs and people
+hastened to heap honors on the inventors.</p>
+
+<p>Spring weighing scales have recently been invented,
+which will accurately and automatically
+show not only the weight but the total price of the
+goods weighed, the price per unit being known and
+fixed.</p>
+
+<p>In the weighing of large masses of coarse material,
+such as grain, coal, cotton seed, and the like, machines
+have been constructed which automatically
+weigh such materials and at the same time register
+the weight.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to this century no method was known, except
+the exercise of good judgment in the light of
+experience, of accurately testing the strength of materials.
+Wood and metals were used in unnecessarily
+cumbrous forms for the purpose to which they
+were put, in order to ensure safety, or else the
+strength of the parts failed where it was most
+needed.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of testing the tensile, transverse, and
+cubical resisting strength of materials has been applied
+to many other objects than beams and bars of
+wood and metals; to belts, cloths, cables, wires,
+fibres, paper, twine, yarn, cement, and to liquids.
+Kiraldy, Kennedy, and others of England, Thomasset
+of France, Riehle of Germany, and Fairbanks,
+Thurston and Emery of the United States, are among
+the noted inventors of such machines.</p>
+
+<p>In the Emery system of machines, consisting of
+scales, gages, and dynamometers, the power exerted
+on the material tested is transmitted from the load
+to an indicating device by means of liquid acting on
+diaphragms. The same principle is employed in his
+weighing machines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_399" id="PAGE_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By one of these hydraulic testing machines the
+tensile strength of forged links has been ascertained
+by the exertion of a power amounting to over
+700,000 pounds before breaking a link, the chain
+breaking with a loud report.</p>
+
+<p>The most delicate materials are tested by the same
+machine&mdash;the tensile strength of a horsehair, some
+of which are found to stand the strain of one and
+two pounds. Eggs and nuts are cracked without
+being crushed, and the power exerted and the strain
+endured automatically recorded. Steel beams and
+rods have been subjected to a strain of a million
+pounds before breaking.</p>
+
+<p>Governments, municipalities, and the people generally
+are thus provided with means by which they
+can proceed with the greatest confidence in the safe
+and economical construction and completion of their
+buildings and public works.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_400" id="PAGE_400">[Pg 400]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, FINE ARTS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Neither the historic nor prehistoric records find
+man without musical instruments of some sort.
+They are as old as religion, and have been found
+wherever evidence of religious rites of any description
+have been found, as they constituted part of the
+instrumentalities of such rites. They are found as
+relics of worship and the dance, ages after the worshippers
+and the dancers have become part of the
+earth’s strata. They have been found wherever the
+earliest civilisations have been discovered; and they
+appear to have been regarded as desirable and necessary
+as the weapons and the labour implements of
+those civilisations. They abounded in China, in
+India, and in Egypt before the lyre of Apollo was invented,
+or the charming harp of Orpheus was conceived.</p>
+
+<p>There was little melody according to modern
+standards, but the musical instruments, like all other
+inventions, the fruit of the brain of man, were slowly
+evolved as he wanted them, and to meet the conditions
+surrounding him.</p>
+
+<p>There were the conch shell trumpet, the stone, bone,
+wood and metal dance rattles, the beaks of birds, and
+the horns and teeth of beasts, for the same rattling
+purpose. The simple reed pipes, the hollow wooden
+drums, the skin drum-heads, the stretched strings of
+fibre and of tendons, the flutes, the harps, the guitars,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_401" id="PAGE_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>
+the psalteries, and hundreds of other forms of musical
+instruments, varied as the skill and fancy of man
+varied, and in accordance with their taste and wants,
+along the entire gamut of noises and rude melodies.
+The ancient races had the instruments, but their
+voices, except as they existed in the traditions of
+their gods, were not harmonious.</p>
+
+<p>As modern wants and tastes developed and music
+became a science the demands of the nineteenth century
+were met by a Helmholtz, who discovered and
+explained the laws of harmony, and by many ingenious
+manufacturers, who so revolutionised the
+pianoforte action, and the action of musical instruments
+constructed on these principles, that their
+predecessors would hardly be recognised as prototypes.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the piano, that queen of musical instruments,
+involves the whole history of the art of
+music. Its evolution from the ancient harp, gleaned
+by man from the wind, “that grand old harper, who
+smote his thunder harp of pines,” is too long a
+story to here recite in detail. It must suffice to say,
+it started with the harp, in its simplest form, composed
+of a frame with animal tendons stretched tight
+thereon and twanged by the fingers. Then followed
+strings of varied length, size, and tension, to obtain
+different tones, soon accompanied by an instrument
+called the plectrum&mdash;a bone or ivory stick with
+which to vibrate the strings, to save the fingers. This
+was the harp of the Egyptians, and of Jubal, “the
+father of all such as handle the harp and the organ,”
+and half-brother of Tubal Cain, the great teacher
+“of every artificer in brass and iron.” Then the
+harp was laid prostrate, its strings stretched over a
+sounding board, and each held and adapted to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_402" id="PAGE_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>
+tightened by pegs, and played upon by little hammers
+having soft pellets or corks at their ends. This
+was the psaltery and the dulcimer of the Assyrians
+and the Hebrews.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks derived their musical instruments
+from the Egyptians, and the Romans borrowed theirs
+from the Greeks, but neither the Greeks nor the
+Romans invented any.</p>
+
+<p>Then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find
+the harp, both in a horizontal and an upright position,
+with its strings played upon by keys. This was the
+<i>clavicitherium</i>. In the sixteenth century came the
+virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments
+favoured by Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary,
+and which, recently brought from obscurity, have
+been made to revive the ancient Elizabethan melodies,
+to the delight of modern hearers. These were
+followed in the seventeenth century by the clavichord,
+the favourite instrument of Bach. Then appeared the
+harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano,
+having a hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which
+Mozart and Handel and Haydn brought out their
+grand productions. The ancient Italian cembello
+was another spinet.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, through the centuries these instruments had
+slowly grown. By 1711 in Italy, under the inventive
+genius of Bartolommeo Cristofori of Florence,
+they had culminated in the modern piano. The
+piano as devised by him differed from the instruments
+preceding it chiefly in this, that in the latter
+the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on
+them by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated
+by keys, whereas, in the piano there were applied
+hammers in place of quills.</p>
+
+<p>In the 1876 exhibition at Philadelphia, a piano
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_403" id="PAGE_403">[Pg 403]</a></span>
+was displayed which had been made by Johannes
+Christian Schreiber of Germany in 1741.</p>
+
+<p>Then in the latter part of the eighteenth century
+Broadwood and Clementi of London and Erard of
+Strasburg and Petzold of Paris commenced the
+manufacture of their fine instruments. Erard particularly
+made many improvements in that and in
+the nineteenth century in the piano, its hammers and
+keys, and Southwell of Dublin in the dampers.</p>
+
+<p>By them and the Collards of London, Bechstein
+of Berlin, and Chickering, Steinway, Weber, Schomacher,
+Decker and Knabe of America, was the
+piano “ripened after the lapse of more than 2,000
+years into the perfectness of the magnificent instruments
+of modern times, with their better materials,
+more exact appliances, finer adjustments, greater
+strength of parts, increase of compass and power,
+elastic responsiveness of touch, enlarged sonority,
+satisfying delicacy, and singing character in tone.”</p>
+
+<p>A piano comprises five principal parts: first, the
+framing; second, the sounding board; third, the
+stringing; fourth, the key mechanism, or action, and
+fifth, the ornamental case. To supply these several
+parts separate classes of skilled artisans have arisen,
+the forests have been ransacked for their choicest
+woods, the mines have been made to yield their
+choicest stores, and the forge to weld its finest work.
+Science has given to music the ardent devotion of a
+lover, and resolved a confused mass of more or less
+pleasant noises into liquid harmonies. In 1862 appeared
+Helmholtz’s great work on the “Law and
+Tones and the Theory of Music.” He it was who invented
+the method of analysing sound. By the use of
+hollow bodies called <i>resonators</i> he found that every
+sound as it generally occurs in nature and as it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_404" id="PAGE_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>
+produced by most of our musical instruments, or the
+human voice, is not a single simple sound, but a
+compound of several tones of different intensity and
+pitch; all of which different tones combined are
+heard as one; and that the difference of quality or
+<i>timbre</i> of the sounds of different musical instruments
+resides in the different composition of these sounds;
+that different compound sounds contain the same
+fundamental tone but differently mixed with other
+tones. He explained how these fundamental and
+compound tones might be fully developed to produce
+either harmonious or dissonant sensations. His researches
+were carried farther and added to by Prof.
+Mayer of New Jersey. These theories were practically
+applied in the pianos produced by the celebrated
+firm of Steinway and Sons of New York; and
+their inventions and improvements in the iron framing,
+in laying of strings in relation to the centre
+of the sounding-board, in “resonators” in upright
+frames, and in other features, from 1866 to 1876,
+produced a revolution in the art of piano making.</p>
+
+<p>If the piano is properly the queen of musical instruments,
+the organ may be rightly regarded, as it
+has been named, “King in the realm of music.” It
+is an instrument, the notes of which are produced
+by the rush of air through pipes of different lengths,
+the air being supplied by bellows or other means, and
+controlled by valves which are operated by keys, and
+by which the supply of air is admitted or cut off.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest description appears to be that in the
+“Spiritalia” of Hero of Alexandria (150-200 B. C.)
+and Ctesibius of Alexandria was the inventor. A
+series of pipes of varying lengths were filled by an
+air-pump which was operated by a wind-mill. Organs
+were again originated in the early Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_405" id="PAGE_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>
+centuries; and a Greek epigram of the fourth century
+refers to one as provided with “reeds of a new
+species agitated by blasts of wind that rush from a
+leathern cavern beneath their roots, while a robust
+mortal, running with swift fingers over the concordant
+keys, makes them smoothly dance and emit harmonious
+sounds.”</p>
+
+<p>The same in principle to-day, but more complicated
+in structure, “yet of easy control under the
+hands of experts, fertile in varied symphonious
+effects, giving with equal and satisfying success the
+gentlest and most sympathetic tones as well as complete
+and sublimely full utterances of musical inspiration.”</p>
+
+<p>The improvements of the century have consisted
+in adding a great variety of stops; in connections and
+couplers of the great keyboard and pipes; in the pedal
+part; in the construction of the pipes and wind
+chests; and principally in the adaptation of steam,
+water, air, and electricity, in place of the muscles of
+men, as powers in furnishing the supply of air. Some
+of the great organs of the century, having three or
+four thousand pipes, with all the modern improvements,
+and combining great power with the utmost
+brilliancy and delicacy of utterance, and with a
+blended effect which is grand, solemn and most impressive,
+render indeed this noble instrument the
+“king” in the realm of music.</p>
+
+<p>In the report of 1895 of the United States Commissioner
+of patents it is stated that “the <i>autoharp</i>
+has been developed within the past few years, having
+bars arranged transversely across the strings and
+provided with dampers which, when depressed, silence
+all the strings except those producing the desired
+chords.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_406" id="PAGE_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“An ingenious musical instrument of the class having
+keyboards like the piano or organ has been recently
+invented. All keyboard instruments in
+ordinary use produce tones that are only approximately
+correct in pitch, because these must be limited
+in number to twelve, to the octave, while the
+tones of the violin are absolute or untempered. The
+improved instrument produces untempered tones
+without requiring extraordinary variations from the
+usual arrangement of the keys.”</p>
+
+<p>Self-playing musical instruments have been known
+for more than forty years, but it is within the past
+twenty-five years that devices have been invented
+for controlling tones by pneumatic or electrical appliances
+to produce expressions. Examples of the
+later of these three kinds of musical instruments
+may be found in the United States patents of Zimmermann
+in 1882, Tanaka, 1890, and Gally, 1879.</p>
+
+<p>The science of <i>acoustics</i> and its practical applications
+have greatly advanced, chiefly due to the researches
+of Helmholtz, referred to above.</p>
+
+<p>When the nature and laws of the waves of sound
+became fully known a great field of inventions was
+opened. Then came the telephone, phonograph,
+graphophone and gramophone.</p>
+
+<p>The telephone depends upon a combination of electricity
+and the waves of the human voice. The
+phonograph and its modifications depend alone on
+sound waves&mdash;the recording of the waves from one
+vibrating membrane and their exact reproduction on
+another vibrating membrane.</p>
+
+<p>The acoustic properties of churches and other
+buildings were improved by the adaptation of banks
+of fine wires to prevent the re-echoing of sounds.
+<i>Auricular tubes</i> adapted to be applied to the ears and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_407" id="PAGE_407">[Pg 407]</a></span>
+concealed by the hair, and other forms of aural instruments,
+were devised.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Megaphone</i> of Edison appeared, consisting of
+two large funnels having elastic conducting tubes
+from their apices to the aural orifice. Conversation
+in moderate tones has been heard and understood by
+their use at a distance of one and a half miles. The
+megaphone has been found very useful in speaking
+to large outdoor crowds.</p>
+
+<p>But let us go back a little: In 1845, Chas. Bourseuil
+of France published the idea that the vibrations
+of speech uttered against a diaphragm might break
+or make an electric contact, and the electric pulsations
+thereby produced might set another diaphragm
+vibrating which should produce the transmitted
+sound waves. In 1857, another Frenchman, Leon
+Scott, patented in France his <i>Phonautograph</i>&mdash;an
+instrument consisting of a large barrel-like mouth-piece
+into which words were spoken, a membrane
+therein against which the voice vibrations were received,
+a stylus attached to this vibrating membrane,
+and a rotating cylinder covered with blackened
+paper, against which the stylus bore and on which
+it recorded the sound waves in exact form received
+on the vibrating diaphragm. Then came the researches
+and publications of Helmholtz and König
+on acoustic science, 1862-1866. Then young Philip
+Reis of Frankfort, Germany, attempted to put all
+these theories into an apparatus to reproduce speech,
+but did not quite succeed. Then in 1874-1875, Bell
+took up the matter, and at the Philadelphia exhibition,
+1876, astonished the world by the revelations
+of the telephone. In April, 1877, Charles Cros, a
+Frenchman, in a communication to the Academy of
+Sciences in Paris, after describing an apparatus like<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_408" id="PAGE_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>
+the Scott phonautograph, set forth how traced undulating
+lines of voice vibrations might be reproduced
+in intaglio or in relief, and reproduced upon a
+vibrating membrane by a pointed stylus attached
+thereto and following the line of the original pulsations.
+The communication seems to have been
+pigeon-holed, and not read in open session until
+December, 1877, and until after Thomas A. Edison
+had actually completed and used his phonograph in
+the United States. Cros rested on the suggestion.
+Edison, without knowing of Cros’ suggestion, was
+first to make and actually use the same invention.
+Edison’s cylinder, on which the sounds were recorded
+and from which they were reproduced, was covered
+by tin foil. A great advance was made by Dr. Chichester
+A. Bell and Mr. C. S. Tainter, who in 1886
+patented in the United States means of cutting or
+engraving the sound waves in a solid body. The
+solid body they employed was a thin pasteboard
+cylinder covered with wax. This apparatus they
+called the <i>graphophone</i>. Two years thereafter, Mr.
+Emile Berliner of Washington had invented the
+<i>gramophone</i>, which consists in etching on a metallic
+plate the record of voice waves. He has termed his
+invention, “the art of etching the human voice.” He
+prepares a polished metal plate, generally zinc, with
+an extremely thin coating of film or fatty milk,
+which dries upon and adheres to the plate. The
+stylus penetrates this film, meeting from it the
+slightest possible resistance, and traces thereon the
+message. The record plate is then subjected to a
+particularly constituted acid bath, which, entering the
+groove or grooves formed by the stylus, cuts or etches
+the same into the plate. The groove thus formed
+may be deepened by another acid solution. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_409" id="PAGE_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>
+thus produced, as many copies of the record as desired
+may be made by the electrotyper or print
+plater.</p>
+
+<p>The public is now familiar with the different forms
+of this wonderful instrument, and like the telephone,
+they no longer seem marvellous. Yet it is only
+within the age of a youth or a maiden when the allegations
+or predictions that the human voice would
+soon be carried over the land, and reproduced across
+a continent, or be preserved or engraven on tablets
+and reproduced at pleasure anywhere, in this or any
+subsequent generation, were themselves regarded
+as strange messages of dreamers and madmen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Optical Instruments.</i>&mdash;There were practical inventions
+in optical instruments long before this century.
+Achromatic and other lenses were known, and
+the microscope, the telescope and spectacles.</p>
+
+<p>The inventive genius of this century in the field
+of optics has not eclipsed the telescope and microscope
+of former ages. They were the fruits of the
+efforts of many ages and of many minds, although
+Hans Lippersheim of Holland in 1608 appears to
+have made the first successful instrument “for seeing
+things at a distance.” Galileo soon thereafter greatly
+improved and increased its capacity, and was the
+first to direct it towards the heavens. And as to the
+microscope, Dr. Lieberkulm, of Berlin, in 1740, made
+the first successful solar microscope. As well known,
+it consisted essentially of two lenses and a mirror,
+by which the sun’s rays are reflected on the first lens,
+concentrated on the object and further magnified by
+the second lens.</p>
+
+<p>The depths of the stars and the minutest mote that
+floats in the sun beam reflect the glory of those inventions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_410" id="PAGE_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The invention of John Dolland of London, about
+1758, of the achromatic lens should be borne in mind
+in connection with telescopes, microscopes, etc. He
+it was who invented the combination of two lenses,
+one concave and the other convex, one of flint glass
+and the other of crown glass, which, refracting in
+contrary ways, neutralised the dispersion of colour
+rays and produced a clear, colourless light.</p>
+
+<p>Many improvements and discoveries in optics and
+optical instruments have been made during the century,
+due to the researches of such scientists as Arago,
+Brewster, Young, Fresnel, Airy, Hamilton, Lloyd,
+Cauchy and others, and of the labours of the army
+of skilled experts and mechanicians who have followed
+their lead.</p>
+
+<p>Sir David Brewster, born in Scotland in 1781,
+made (1810-1840) many improvements in the construction
+of the microscope and telescope, invented
+the kaleidoscope, introduced in the stereoscope the
+principles and leading features which those beautiful
+instruments still embody, and rendered it popular
+among scientists and artists.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that Prof. Eliot of Edinburgh in 1834
+was the first to conceive of the idea of a stereoscope,
+by which two different pictures of the same object,
+taken by photography, to correspond to the two different
+positions of an object as viewed by the two
+eyes, are combined into one view by two reflecting
+mirrors set at an angle of about 45°, and conveying
+to the eyes a single reflection of the object as a solid
+body. But Sir Charles Wheaton in 1838 constructed
+the first instrument, and in 1849 Brewster introduced
+the present form of lenticular lenses.</p>
+
+<p>Brewster also demonstrated the utility of dioptric
+lenses, and zones in lighthouse illumination; and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_411" id="PAGE_411">[Pg 411]</a></span>
+which field Faraday and Tyndall also subsequently
+worked with the addition of electrical appliances.
+The labours of these three men have illuminated the
+wildest waters of the sea and preserved a thousand
+fleets of commerce and of war from awful shipwreck.</p>
+
+<p>As illustrating the difficulties sometimes encountered
+in introducing an invention into use, the
+American Journal of Chemistry some years ago related
+that the Abb&eacute; Moigno, in introducing the
+stereoscope to the savants of France, first took it
+to Arago, but Arago had a defect of vision
+which made him see double, and he could only
+see in it a medley of four pictures; then the
+Abb&eacute; went to Savart, but unfortunately Savart had
+but one eye and was quite incapable of appreciating
+the thing. Then Becquerel was next visited, but he
+was nearly blind and could see nothing in the new
+optical toy. Not discouraged, the Abb&eacute; then called
+upon Puillet of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.
+Puillet was much interested, but he was
+troubled with a squint which presented to his
+anxious gaze but a blurred mixture of images. Lastly
+Brot was tried. Brot believed in the corpuscular
+theory of light, and was opposed to the undulatory
+theory, and the good Abb&eacute; not being able to
+assure him that the instrument did not contradict
+his theory, Brot refused to have anything to do with
+it. In spite, however, of the physical disabilities of
+scientists, the stereoscope finally made its way in
+France.</p>
+
+<p>Besides increasing the power of the eye to discover
+the secrets and beauties of nature, modern invention
+has turned upon the eye itself and displayed the
+wonders existing there, behind its dark glass doors.
+It was Helmholtz who in 1851 described his <i>Ophthalmoscope</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_412" id="PAGE_412">[Pg 412]</a></span>.
+He arranged a candle so that its rays of
+light, falling on an inclined reflector, were thrown
+through the pupil of the patient’s eye, whose retina
+reflected the image received on the retina back to the
+mirror where it could be viewed by the observer.
+This image was the background of the eye, and its
+delicate blood vessels and tissues could thus be observed.
+This instrument was improved and it gave
+rise to the contrivance of many delicate surgical instruments
+for operating on the eye.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Spectroscope</i> is an instrument by which the
+colours of the solar rays are separated and viewed,
+as well as those of other incandescent bodies. By it,
+not only the elements of the heavenly bodies have
+been determined, but remarkable results have been
+had in analysing well-known metals and discovering
+new ones. Its powers and its principles have been so
+developed during the century by the discoveries, inventions
+and investigations of Herschel, Wollaston,
+Fraunhofer, Bronsen and Kirchoff, Steinheil, Tyndall,
+Huggins, Draper and others, that spectrum
+analysis has grown from the separation of light into
+its colours by the prism of Newton, to what Dr.
+Huggins has aptly termed “a new sense.”</p>
+
+<p>We have further referred to this wonderful discovery
+in the Chapter on Chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>The inventions and improvements in optical instruments
+gave rise to great advances in the making
+of lenses, based on scientific principles, and not resting
+alone on hard work and experience. Alvan
+Clark a son of America, and Prof. Ernst Abbe
+of Germany, have within the last third of the century
+produced a revolution in the manufacture of
+lenses, and thereby extended the realms of knowledge
+to new worlds of matter in the heavens and on earth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_413" id="PAGE_413">[Pg 413]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Solarmeter.</i>&mdash;In 1895 a United States patent was
+granted to Mr. Bechler for an instrument called a
+solarmeter. It is designed for taking observations
+of heavenly bodies and recording mechanically the
+parts of the astronomical triangle used in navigation
+and like work. Its chief purpose is to determine the
+position of the compass error of a ship at sea independently
+of the visibility of the sea horizon. If
+the horizon is clouded, and the sun or a known star
+is visible, a ship’s position can still be determined by
+the solarmeter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Instruments for Measuring the Position and Distances
+of Unseen Objects.</i>&mdash;Some of the latest of such
+instruments will enable one to see and shoot at an
+object around a corner, or at least out of sight. Thus
+a United States patent was granted to Fiske in 1889,
+wherein it is set forth that by stationing observers at
+points distant from a gun, which points are at the
+extremities of a known base line, and which command
+a view of the area within the range of the
+gun, the observers discover the position and range of
+the object by triangulation and set certain pointers.
+By means of electrical connection between those
+pointers and pointers at the gun station based on the
+system of the Wheatstone bridge, the latter pointers,
+or the guns themselves serving as pointers, may be
+placed in position to indicate the line of fire. By a
+nice arrangement of mirror and lenses attached to a
+firearm the same object may be accomplished. Similar
+apparatuses in which the reflectory surfaces of
+mirrors mounted on an elevated frame-work, and
+known as <i>Polemoscopes</i> and <i>Altiscopes</i> and <i>Range-Finders</i>,
+have also been invented, and used with artillery.
+But such devices may be profitably used for
+more peaceful and amusing purposes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_414" id="PAGE_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Born with the ear attuned to music and the eye
+to observe beauty, the hand of Art was to trace and
+make permanent the fleeting forms which melody and
+the eye impressed upon the soul of man.</p>
+
+<p>In fact modern science has demonstrated that
+tones and colours are inseparable. Bell and Tainter
+with their <i>photophone</i> have converted the undulatory
+waves of light into the sweetest music. Reversing
+the process, beautiful flashes of light have been produced
+from musical vibrations by the <i>phonophote</i> of
+M. Coulon and the <i>phonoscope</i> of Henry Edmunds.</p>
+
+<p>Entrancing as the story is, we can only here allude
+to a few of those discoveries and inventions that have
+become the handmaidens of the art which guided the
+chisel of Phidias and inspired the brush of Raphael.</p>
+
+<p><i>Photography.</i>&mdash;The art of producing permanent
+images of the “human face divine,” natural scenes,
+and other objects, by the agency of light, is due more
+to the discoveries of the chemist than to the inventions
+of the mechanic; and to the chemists of this century.
+At the same time a mechanical invention of old
+times became a necessary appliance in the reduction
+of the theories of the chemists to practice:&mdash;The
+<i>Camera Obscura</i>, that dark box in which a mirror
+is placed, provided also with a piece of ground glass
+or white cardboard paper, and having a projecting
+part at one end in which a lens is placed, whereby
+when the lens part is directed to an object an image
+of the same is thrown by the rays of light focused by
+the lens upon the mirror, and reflected by the mirror
+to the glass or paper board, was invented by Roger
+Bacon about 1297, or by Alberta in 1437, described
+by Leonardo da Vinci in 1500 as an imitation of the
+structure of the eye, again by Baptista Porta in 1589,
+and remodelled by Sir Isaac Newton in 1700. Until<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_415" id="PAGE_415">[Pg 415]</a></span>
+the 19th century it was used only in the taking of
+sketches and scenes on or from the card or glass on
+which the reflection was thrown.</p>
+
+<p>Celebrated chemists such as Sheele of the 18th century,
+and Ritter, Wollaston, Sir Humphry Davy,
+Young, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and others in the early
+part of the 19th century, began to turn their attention
+to the chemical and molecular changes which the sunlight
+and its separate rays effected in certain substances,
+and especially upon certain compounds of
+silver. In sensitising the receiving paper, glass, or
+metal with such a compound it must necessarily be
+protected from exposure to sunlight, and this fact,
+together with the desire to sensitise the image produced
+by the camera, not only suggested but seemed
+to render that instrument indispensable to photography.
+Nevertheless the experiments of chemists
+fell short of the high mark, and it was reserved for
+an artist to unite the efforts of the sun and the chemists
+in a successful instrument.</p>
+
+<p>It was Louis Jacques Mand&eacute; Daguerre, born at
+Corneilles, France, in 1789, and who died in 1851,
+who was the first to reduce to practice the invention
+called after his name. He was a brilliant scene
+painter, and especially successful in painting panoramas.
+In 1822, assisted by Bouton, he had invented
+the <i>diorama</i>, by which coloured lights representing
+the various changes of the day and season were
+thrown upon the canvasses in his beautiful panoramas
+of Rome, London, Naples and other great cities.
+Several years previous to 1839 he and Joseph N.
+Niepce, learning of the efforts of chemists in that
+line, began independently, and then together, to develop
+the art of obtaining permanent copies of objects
+produced by the chemical action of the sun.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_416" id="PAGE_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>
+Niepce died while they were thus engaged. Daguerre
+prosecuted his researches alone, and toward
+the close of 1838 his success was such that he made
+known his invention to Arago, and Arago announced
+it in an eloquent and enthusiastic address
+to the French Academy of Sciences in January 1839.
+It at once excited great attention, which was
+heightened by the pictures produced by the new
+process. The French Government, in consideration
+of the details of the invention and its improvements
+being made public and on request of Daguerre,
+granted him an annuity and one also to Niepce’s son.</p>
+
+<p>At first only pictures of natural objects were
+taken; but in learning of Daguerre’s process Dr.
+John William Draper of New York, a native of England
+and adopted son of America, the brilliant author
+of <i>The Intellectual Development of Europe</i>,
+and other great works, in the same year, 1839, took
+portraits of persons by photography, and he was the
+first to do this. Draper was also the first in America
+to reveal the wonders of the spectroscope; and he
+was first to show that each colour of the spectrum had
+its own peculiar chemical effect. This was in 1847.</p>
+
+<p>The sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of
+man in the new great art of Photography. Natural
+philosophers, chemists, inventors, mechanics, all now
+pressed forward, and still press forward to improve
+the art, to establish new growths from the old art,
+and extend its domains. Those domains have the
+generic term of <i>Photo-Processes</i>. Daguerreotypy,
+while the father of them all, is now hardly practised
+as Daguerre practised it, and has become a small
+subordinate sub-division of the great class. Yet
+more faithful likenesses are not yet produced than
+by this now old process. Among the children of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_417" id="PAGE_417">[Pg 417]</a></span>
+Photo-Process family are the <i>Calotype</i>, <i>Ambrotype</i>,
+<i>Ferreotype</i>, <i>Collodion</i> and <i>Silver Printing</i>, <i>Carbon
+Printing</i>, <i>Heliotype</i>, <i>Heliogravure</i>, <i>Photoengraving</i>
+(relief intaglio-Woodburytype), <i>Photolithography</i>;
+<i>Alberttype</i>; <i>Photozincograph</i>, <i>Photogelatine-printing</i>;
+<i>Photomicrography</i> (to depict microscopic objects),
+<i>Kinetographs</i>, and <i>Photosculpture</i>. A world
+of mechanical contrivances have been invented:&mdash;<i>Octnometers</i>,
+<i>Baths</i>, <i>Burnishing tools</i>, <i>Cameras and
+Camera stands</i>, <i>Magazine and Roll holders</i>; <i>Dark
+rooms</i> and <i>Focussing devices</i>, <i>Heaters</i> and <i>Driers</i>;
+<i>Exposure Meters</i>, etc. etc.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Kinetograph</i>, for taking a series of pictures of
+rapidly moving objects, and by which the living object,
+person or persons, are made to appear moving
+before us as they moved when the picture was taken,
+is a marvellous invention; and yet simple when the
+process is understood. Photography and printing
+have combined to revolutionise the art of illustration.
+Exact copies of an original, whether of a
+painting or a photograph, are now produced on paper
+with all the original shades and colours. The long-sought-for
+problem of photographing in colours has
+in a measure been solved. The “three <i>colour processes</i>”
+is the name given to the new offspring of the
+inventors which reproduces by the camera the natural
+colours of objects.</p>
+
+<p>The scientists Maxwell Young and Helmholtz
+established the theory that the three colours, red,
+green, and blue, were the primary colours, and from a
+mixture of these, secondary colours are produced.
+Henry Collen in 1865 laid down the lines on which
+the practical reduction should take place; and within
+the last decade F. E. Ives of Philadelphia has invented
+the <i>Photochromoscope</i> for producing pictures<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_418" id="PAGE_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
+in their natural colours. The process consists in
+blending in one picture the separate photographic
+views taken on separate negative plates, each sensitised
+to receive one of the primary colours, which are
+then exposed and blended simultaneously in a triple
+camera.</p>
+
+<p>Plates and films and many other articles and
+processes have helped to establish the Art of Photography
+on its new basis.</p>
+
+<p>Among the minor inventions relating to Art, mention
+may be made of that very useful article the lead
+<i>pencil</i>, which all have employed so much time in
+sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands.
+Within a decade, pencils in which the lead or crayon
+is covered instead of with wood, with slitted, perforated
+or creased paper, spirally rolled thereon, and
+on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new
+point is exposed; or that other style in which a number
+of short, sharpened marking leads, or crayons,
+are arranged in series and adapted to be projected
+one after the other as fast as worn away.</p>
+
+<p><i>In Painting</i> modern inventions and discoveries
+have simply added to the instrumentalities of genius
+but have created no royal road to the art made
+glorious by Titian and Raphael. It has given to
+the artists, through its chemists, a world of new
+colours, and through its mechanics new and convenient
+appliances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Air Brushes</i> have proved a great help by which the
+paint or other colouring matter is sprayed in heavy,
+light, or almost invisible showers to produce backgrounds
+by the force of air blown upon the pigments
+held in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube.
+Made of larger proportions, this brush has been used
+for fresco painting, and for painting large objects,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_419" id="PAGE_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>
+such as buildings, which it admits of doing with great
+rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>A description of modern methods of applying
+colours to porcelain and pottery is given in the chapter
+treating of those subjects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Telegraphic pictures</i>:&mdash;Perhaps it is appropriate
+in closing this chapter that reference be made to that
+process by which the likeness of the distant reader
+may be taken telegraphically. A picture in relief
+is first made by the swelled gelatine or other process;
+a tracing point is then moved in the lines across the
+undulating surface of the pictures, and the movements
+of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical
+apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the
+opposite end of the line and there reproduced upon
+a suitable substance.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_420" id="PAGE_420">[Pg 420]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+SAFES AND LOCKS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Prior to the century safes were not constructed to
+withstand the test of intense heat. Efforts were numerous,
+however, to render them safe against the entrance
+of thieves, but the ingenuity of the thieves
+advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers.
+And the race between these two classes of
+inventors still continues. For with the exercise of
+a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks, aided
+by all the advancement of science as to the nature of
+metals, their tough manufacture and their resistance
+to explosives, thieves still manage to break in and
+steal. The only sure protection against burglars at
+the close of the nineteenth century appears to consist
+of what it was at the close of any previous century&mdash;the
+preponderance of physical force and the
+best weapons. Among the latest inventions are electrical
+connections with the safe, whereby tampering
+therewith alarms one or more watchmen at a near
+station.</p>
+
+<p>A classification of safes embraces, <i>Fire-proof</i>,
+<i>Burglar-proof</i>, <i>Safe Bolt Works</i>, <i>Express and Deposit
+Safes and Boxes</i>, <i>Circular Doors</i>, <i>Pressure
+Mechanism</i>, and <i>Water and Air Protective Devices</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The attention of the earliest inventors of the century
+were directed toward making safes fire-proof.
+In England the first patent granted for a fire-proof
+safe was to Richard Scott in 1801. It had two casings,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_421" id="PAGE_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>an inner and outer one, including the door, and
+the interspace was filled in with charcoal, or wood,
+and treated with a solution of alkaline salt.</p>
+
+<p>This idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible
+material has been generally followed ever
+since. The particular inventions in that line consist
+in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials,
+variations in the form of the interspacing,
+and new methods in the construction of the casings,
+and the selection of the best metals for such construction.</p>
+
+<p>In 1834 William Marr of England patented a
+lining for a double metallic chest, filled with non-combustible
+materials such as mica, or talc clay,
+lime, and graphite. Asbestos commenced to be used
+about the same time.</p>
+
+<p>The great fire in New York City in 1835, destroying
+hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of property
+of every description, gave a great impetus to the
+invention of fire-proof safes in America.</p>
+
+<p>B. G. Wilder there patented in 1843 his celebrated
+safe, now extensively used throughout the
+world. It consisted of a double box of wrought-iron
+plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron, with
+a bar across the middle; and as a filling for the interspaces
+he used hydrated gypsum, hydraulic cement,
+plaster of paris, steatite, alum, and the dried
+residuum of soda water.</p>
+
+<p>Herring was another American who invented celebrated
+safes, made with a boiler-iron exterior, a
+hardened steel inner safe, with the interior filled
+with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft
+steel. Thus the earth, air and water were ransacked
+for lining materials, in some cases more for the
+purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_422" id="PAGE_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>any real advance in the art. Water itself
+was introduced as a lining, made to flow through
+the safes, sometimes from the city mains, and so
+retained that when the temperature in case of
+fire reached 212° F. it became steam; and
+an arrangement for introducing steam in place of
+water was contrived. Among other lining materials
+found suitable were soapstone, alumina, ammonia,
+copperas, starch, Epsom salts, and gypsum, paper,
+pulp, and alum, and a mixture of various other materials.</p>
+
+<p>After safes were produced that would come out
+of fiery furnaces where they had been buried for
+days without even the smell of fire or smoke upon
+their contents, inventors commenced to direct their
+attention to burglar-proof safes.</p>
+
+<p>Chubb, in 1835, patented a process of rendering
+wooden safes burglar proof by lining them with steel,
+or case-hardened iron plate. Newton in 1853 produced
+one made of an outer shell of cast iron, an
+interior network of wrought iron rods, and fluid
+iron poured between these, so that a compound mass
+was formed of different degrees of resistance to turn
+aside the burglar’s tools. Chubb again, in 1857, and
+in subsequent years, and Chartwood, Glocker, and
+Thompson and Tann and others in England invented
+new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the
+drilling by tools. Hall and Marvin of the United
+States also invented safes for the same purpose.
+Hall had thick steel plates dovetailed together; and
+angle irons tenoned at the corners. Marvin’s safe
+was globeshaped, to present no salient points for the
+action of tools, made of chrome steel, mounted in this
+shape on a platform, or enclosed in a fire-proof safe.
+Herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_423" id="PAGE_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
+grooved the doors with double casings, and which he
+hung with a lever-hinge, provided the doors with separate
+locks and packed all the joints with rubber to
+prevent the operation of the air pump&mdash;which had
+become a dangerous device of burglars with which to
+introduce explosives to blow open the doors.</p>
+
+<p>Still later and more elaborate means have been
+used to frustrate the burglars. Electricity has been
+converted into an automatic warder to guard the
+castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient
+stations when the locks or doors are meddled with
+and the proper manipulation not used. Express safes
+for railroad cars have been made of parts telescoped
+or crowded together by hydraulic power, requiring
+heavy machinery for locking and unlocking, and this
+machinery is located in machine shops along the route
+and not accessible to burglars.</p>
+
+<p>About 1815 inventors commenced to produce devices
+to show with certainty if a lock had been
+tampered with. The keyhole was closed by a revolving
+metallic curtain, and paper was secured over
+the keyhole. As a further means of detection photographs
+of some irregular object are made, one of
+which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained.
+This prevents the substitution of one piece
+of paper for another piece without detection. A
+large number of patents have been taken out on glass
+coverings for locks which have to be broken before
+the lock can be turned. These are called seal locks.</p>
+
+<p>Locks of various kinds, consisting at least of the
+two general features of a bolt and a key to move the
+bolt, have existed from very ancient days. The
+Egyptians, the Hebrews and the Chinese, and Oriental
+nations generally had locks and keys of ponderous
+size. Isaiah speaks of the key of the house<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_424" id="PAGE_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>
+of David; and Homer writes sonorously of the lock
+in the house of Penelope with its brazen key, the respondent
+wards, the flying bars and valves which,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring,<br></span>
+<span class="line">So roared the lock when it released the spring.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The castles, churches and convents of the middle
+ages had their often highly ornamental locks and
+their warders to guard and open them. Later, locks
+were invented with complex wards. These are
+carved pieces of metal in the lock which fit into
+clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the lock from
+being opened except by its own proper key.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1650 the Dutch had invented the Letter
+lock, the progenitor of the modern permutation
+lock, consisting of a lock the bolt of which is surrounded
+by several rings on which were cut the letters
+of the alphabet, which by a prearrangement on
+the part of the owner were made to spell a certain
+word or number of words before the lock could be
+opened. Carew, in verses written in 1621, refers to
+one of these locks as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“As doth a lock that goes with letters; for, till every one be known,<br></span>
+<span class="line">The lock’s as fast as though you had found none.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The art had also advanced in the eighteenth century
+to the use of <i>tumblers</i> in locks, the lever or latch
+or plate which falls into a notch of the bolt and prevents
+it from being shot until it has been raised
+or released by the action of the key. Barron in
+England in 1778 obtained a patent for such a lock.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Bramah, who has before been referred to
+in connection with the hydraulic press he invented,
+also in 1784 invented and patented in England a
+lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_425" id="PAGE_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>
+century’s extensive use. It was the first, or among
+the first of locks which troubled modern burglars’
+picks. Its leading features were a key with longitudinal
+slots, a barrel enclosing a spring, plates,
+called sliders, notched unequally and resting against
+the spring, a plate with a central perforation and
+slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the
+slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be
+turned by the key so as to actuate the bolt. Chubb
+and Hobbs of England made important improvements
+in tumbler locks, which for a long time were
+regarded as unpickable.</p>
+
+<p>Most important advances have been made during
+the century in <i>Combination</i> or <i>Permutation Locks</i>
+and <i>Time Locks</i>. For a long time permutation or
+combination locks consisted of modifications of one
+general principle, and that was the Dutch letter lock
+already referred to, or the wheel lock, composed of a
+series of disks with letters around their edges. The
+interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt
+being shot until a series of letters were in line, forming
+a combination known only to the operator. Time
+locks are constructed on the principle of clockwork,
+so that they cannot be opened even with the proper
+key until a regulated interval of time has elapsed.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most celebrated combination and time
+locks of the century are those known as the Yale
+locks, chiefly the inventions of Louis Yale, Jr., of
+Philadelphia. The Yale double dial lock is a double
+combination bank or safe lock having two dials, each
+operating its own set of tumblers and bolts, so that
+two persons, each in possession of his own combination,
+must be present at a certain time in order to
+unlock it. If this double security is not desired, one
+person alone may be possessed of both combinations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_426" id="PAGE_426">[Pg 426]</a></span>
+or the combinations may be set as one. In their
+time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render
+it impossible to unlock except at a predetermined
+time each day, but the arrangement is such that on
+intervening Sundays the time mechanism will entirely
+prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of
+the door on that day.</p>
+
+<p>Another feature of the lock is the thin, flat keys
+with bevel-edged notchings, or with longitudinal
+sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow slit of a cylinder
+lock. To make locks for use with the corrugated keys
+machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised.
+In such a lock the keyhole, which is a little
+very narrow slit, is formed sinuously to correspond to
+the sinuosities of the key. No other key will fit it, nor
+can it be picked by a tool, as the tool must be an exact
+duplicate of the key in order to enter and move in
+the keyhole.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years numerous locks have been invented
+for the special uses to which they are to be applied.
+Thus, one type of lock is that for safety deposit
+vaults and boxes, in which a primary key in the keeping
+of a janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard
+mechanism to set the lock, while the box owner may
+use a secondary key to completely unlock the box or
+vault.</p>
+
+<p>Master, or secondary key locks, are now in common
+use in hotels and apartment-houses, by which
+the key of the door held by a guest will unlock only
+his door, but the master key held by the manager or
+janitor will unlock all the doors. This saves the duplication
+and multiplicity of a vast number of extra
+keys.</p>
+
+<p>The value of a simple, cheap, safe, effective lock
+in a place where its advantages are appreciated by all<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_427" id="PAGE_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>
+classes of people everywhere is illustrated in the application
+of the modern rotary registering lock to the
+single article of mail bags. Formerly it was not unusual
+that losses by theft of mail matter were due in
+part to the extraction of a portion of the mail matter
+by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring
+it in place.</p>
+
+<p>The United States, with its 76,000,000 of people,
+found it necessary to use in its mail service hundreds
+of thousands of mail pouches, having locks for securing
+packages of valuable matter. But these locks are
+of such character that it is impossible for anyone to
+break into the bag and conceal the evidence of his
+crime. The unfortunate thief is reduced to the necessity
+of stealing the whole pouch. Losses under
+this system have grown so small “as to be almost incapable
+of mathematical calculation.”</p>
+
+<p>Safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes
+are now so common, even to prevent the unauthorised
+use of an umbrella, or the unfriendly taking
+away of a bicycle or other vehicle, that notwithstanding
+the nineteenth century dynamite with
+which burglars still continue to blow open the best
+constructed safes and vaults, still a universal sense
+of greater security in such matters is beginning to
+manifest itself; and not only the loss of valuables
+by fire and theft is becoming the exception, but the
+temptation to steal is being gradually removed.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_428" id="PAGE_428">[Pg 428]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+CARRYING MACHINES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The reflecting observer delights occasionally to
+shift the scenes of the present stage and bring to the
+front the processions of the past. That famous triumphal
+one, for instance, of Ptolemy of Philadelphus,
+at Alexandria, about 270 B. C., then in the
+midst of his power and glory, in which there were
+chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants
+and goats, antelopes, oryxes, buffaloes, ostriches,
+gnus and zebras; then a tribe of the Scythians, when
+with many scores of oxen they were shifting their
+light, big round houses, made of felt cloth and
+mounted on road carts, to a new camping place; next
+a wild, mad dash of the Roman charioteers around the
+amphitheatre, or a triumphal march with chariots
+of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory;
+and now an army of the ancient Britons driving
+through these same charioteers of Cæsar with their
+own rude chariots, having sharp hooks and crooked
+iron blades extending from their axles; now a
+“Lady’s Chair” of the fourteenth century&mdash;the state
+carriage of the time&mdash;with a long, wooden-roofed and
+windowed body, having a door at each end, resting
+on a cumbrous frame without springs, and the axles
+united rigidly to a long reach; next comes a line of
+imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century,
+with bodies provided with pillars to support the
+roof, and adorned with curtains of cloth and leather,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_429" id="PAGE_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>
+but still destitute of springs; and here in stately approach
+comes a line of more curious and more comfortable
+“royal coaches” of the seventeenth century,
+when springs were for the first time introduced; and
+now rumbles forward a line of those famous old English
+stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century,
+which were two days flying from Oxford to
+London, a distance of fifty-five miles; but a scene in
+the next century shows these ponderous vehicles
+greatly improved, and the modern English stage
+mail-coaches of Palmer in line. Referring to
+Palmer’s coaches, Knight says: “Palmer, according
+to De Quincey, was twice as great a man as Galileo,
+because he not only invented mail-coaches (of more
+general practical utility than Jupiter’s satellites),
+but married the daughter of a duke, and succeeded in
+getting the post-office to use them. This revolutionised
+the whole business.” The coaches were built
+with steel springs, windows of great strength and
+lightness combined, boots for the baggage, seats for
+a few outside passengers, and a guard with a grand
+uniform, to protect the mail and stand for the dignity
+of his majesty’s government.</p>
+
+<p>By the system of changing horses frequently great
+speed was attained, and the distance from Edinburgh
+to London, 400 miles, was made in 40 hours. Other
+lines of coaches, arranged to carry double the number
+of passengers outside than in, fourteen to six, were
+made heavier, and took the road more leisurely.</p>
+
+<p>The carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous,
+heavy contrivances, without springs, mostly
+two-wheel, heavy carts.</p>
+
+<p>The middle classes at that time were not seen riding
+in coaches of their own, but generally on horseback,
+as the coaches of the rich were too expensive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_430" id="PAGE_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>
+and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in construction,
+and too painful in operation.</p>
+
+<p>Let the observer now pass to the largest and most
+varied exhibition of the best types of modern vehicles
+of every description that the world had ever seen,
+the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876,
+and behold what wonderful changes art, science, invention,
+and mechanical skill had wrought in this domain.
+Here were the carriages of the rich, constructed
+of the finest and most appropriate woods that
+science and experience had found best adapted for
+the various parts, requiring the combination of
+strength and lightness, the best steel for the springs,
+embodying in themselves a world of invention and
+discovery, and splendid finish and polish in all parts
+unknown to former generations.</p>
+
+<p>Here, too, were found vehicles of a great variety
+for the comfort and convenience of every family,
+from the smallest to the largest means.</p>
+
+<p>The farmer and the truckman were especially provided
+for. One establishment making an exhibition
+at that time, employed some six hundred or seven
+hundred hands, four hundred horse-power of steam,
+turning out sixty wagons a day, or one in every ten
+minutes of each working day in the year.</p>
+
+<p>Here England showed her victoria, her broughams,
+landaus, phætons, sporting-carts, wagonettes,
+drays and dog-carts; Canada her splendid sleighs;
+France her superb barouches, carriages, double-top
+sociables, the celebrated Collinge patent axle-trees
+and springs; Germany the best carriage axles,
+springs and gears; Russia its famous low-wheeled
+fast-running carriages; Norway its carryalls, or
+sulkies, and sleighs strongly built, and made of wood
+from those vast forests that ever abound in strength<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_431" id="PAGE_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>
+and beauty. One ancient sleigh there was, demurely
+standing by its modern companions, said to have
+been built in 1625, and it was still good. America
+stood foremost in carriage wheels of best materials
+and beautiful workmanship, bent rims, turned and
+finished spokes, mortised hubs, steel tires, business
+and farm wagons, carts and baby carriages. Each
+trade and field of labour had its own especially
+adapted complete and finished vehicle. There were
+hay wagons and hearses; beer wagons and ice carts;
+doctors’ buggies, express wagons, drays, package delivery
+wagons; peddlers’ wagons with all the shelves
+and compartments of a miniature store, skeleton
+wagons, and sportsmen’s, and light and graceful two
+and four “wheelers.” Beautiful displays of bent
+and polished woods, a splendid array of artistic, elegant,
+and useful harnesses, and all the traps that go
+to make modern means of conveyance by animal
+power so cheap, convenient, strong and attractive
+that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in
+principles of construction of vehicles and in their
+materials, and since contents itself in improving details.</p>
+
+<p>To this century is due the development of that
+class of carriages, the generic term for which is
+<i>Velocipedes</i>&mdash;a word which would imply a vehicle
+propelled by the feet, although it has been applied
+to vehicles propelled by the hands and steered by the
+feet. This name originated with the French, and
+several Frenchmen patented velocipedes from 1800
+to 1821.</p>
+
+<p>Tricycles having three wheels, propelled by the
+hands and steered with the feet, were also invented in
+the early part of the century.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>Bicycle</i> does not appear to have been
+used until about 1869.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_432" id="PAGE_432">[Pg 432]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although such structures had been referred to in
+publications before, yet the modern bicycle appears
+to have been first practically constructed in Germany.
+In 1816 Baron von Drais of Manheim made a vehicle
+consisting of two wheels arranged one before the
+other, and connected by a bar, the forward wheel
+axled in a fork which was swiveled to the front end
+of the bar and had handles to guide the machine,
+with a seat on the bar midway between the two
+wheels, and arranged so that the driver should bestride
+the bar. But there was no support for the
+rider’s feet, and the vehicle was propelled by thrusting
+his feet alternately against the ground. This
+machine was called the “Draisine” and undoubtedly
+was the progenitor of the modern bicycle. Denis
+Johnson patented in England in 1818 a similar vehicle
+which he named the “Pedestrian Curricle.”
+Another style was called the “Dandy Horse.” Another
+form was that of Gompertz in England in 1821,
+who contrived a segmental rack connected with a
+frame over the front wheel and engaging a pinion
+on the wheel axle. With some improvements added
+by others, the vehicle came into quite extensive and
+popular use in some of the cities in Europe and
+America. It was also named the “Dandy” and the
+“Hobby Horse.” Treadles were subsequently applied,
+but after a time the machine fell into disuse
+and was apparently forgotten. In 1863, however,
+the idea was revived by a Frenchman, Michaux, who
+added the crank to the front wheel axle of the
+“Draisine” (also called the “c&eacute;l&eacute;rif&egrave;r&eacute;.”) In 1866
+Pierre Lallement of France, having adapted the
+idea of the crank and pedal movement and obtained
+a patent, went to America, where after two years of
+public indifference the machine suddenly sprung<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_433" id="PAGE_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>
+into favour. In 1869 a popular wave in its favour
+also spread over part of Europe, and all classes of
+people were riding it.</p>
+
+<p>But the wheels had hard tires, the roads and many
+of the streets were not smooth, the vehicle got the
+name of the “bone-breaker” and its use ceased. During
+the few years following some new styles of frames
+were invented. Thus some very high wheels, with a
+small wheel in front, or one behind, wheels with levers
+in addition to the crank, etc., and then for a time the
+art rested again.</p>
+
+<p>Some one then recalled the fact that McMillan,
+a Scotchman, about 1838-1841, had used two low
+wheels like the “Draisine” with a driving gear, and
+that Dalzell, also of Scotland, had in 1845 made a
+similar machine. Parts of these old machines were
+found and the wheel reconstructed. Then in the
+seventies the entire field was thrown open to women
+by the invention in England of the “drop frame,”
+which removed completely the difficulty as to arrangement
+of the skirts and thus doubled the interest in
+and desire for a comfortable riding machine. But
+they were still, to a great degree, “bone-breakers.”</p>
+
+<p>Then J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of
+Belfast, Ireland, in order to meet the complaints of
+his son that the wheel was too hard, thought of the
+<i>pneumatic rubber tire</i>, and applied it with great success.
+This was a very notable and original re-invention.
+A re-invention, because a man “born before his
+time” had invented and patented the pneumatic tire
+more than forty years before. It was not wanted
+then and everybody had forgotten it. This man was
+Robert William Thomson, a civil engineer of Adelphi,
+Middlesex county, England. In 1845 he obtained
+a patent in England, and shortly after in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_434" id="PAGE_434">[Pg 434]</a></span>
+United States. In both patents he describes how he
+proposed to make a tire for all kinds of vehicles consisting
+of a hollow rubber tube, with an inner mixed
+canvas and rubber lining, a tube and a screw cup
+by which to inflate it, and several ways for preventing
+punctures. To obviate the bad results of punctures
+he proposed also to make his tire in sectional
+compartments, so that if one compartment was punctured
+the others would still hold good. He also proposed
+to use vulcanised rubber, thus utilising the
+then very recent discovery of Goodyear of mixing
+sulphur with soft rubber, and to apply the same to
+the canvas lining.</p>
+
+<p>And, now, when the last decade of the century had
+been reached, and after a century’s hard work by the
+inventors, the present wonderful vehicle, known as
+the “safety bicycle,” had obtained a successful and
+permanent foothold among the vehicles of mankind.
+Proper proportions, low wheels, chain-gearing,
+treadles, pedals and cranks, cushion and pneumatic
+tires, drop frames, steel spokes like a spider’s web,
+ball-bearings for the crank and axle parts, a spring-supported
+cushioned seat which could be raised or
+lowered, adjustable handles, and the clearest-brained
+scientific mechanics to construct all parts from the
+best materials and with mathematical exactness&mdash;all
+this has been done. To these accomplishments have
+been added a great variety of tires to prevent wear and
+puncturing, among which are <i>self-healing</i> tires, having
+a lining of viscous or plastic rubber to close up automatically
+the air holes. Many ways of clamping the
+tire to the rim have been contrived. So have brakes
+of various descriptions, some consisting of disks on
+the driving shaft, brought into frictional contact by
+a touch of the toe on the pedal, as a substitute for<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_435" id="PAGE_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>
+those applied to the surface of the tire, known as
+“spoon brakes”; saddles, speed-gearings, men’s machines
+in which by the removal of the upper bar the
+machine is converted into one for the use of women;
+the substitution of the direct action, consisting of
+beveled gearing for the sprocket chain, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p>The ideas of William Thomson as to pneumatic
+and cushioned tires are now, after a lapse of fifty
+years, generally adopted. Even sportsmen were glad
+to seize upon them, and wheels of sulkies, provided
+with the pneumatic tires, have enabled them to
+lower the record of trotting horses. Their use on
+many other vehicles has accomplished his objects,
+“of lessening the power required to draw carriages,
+rendering the motion easier, and diminishing the
+noise.”</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to overlook the fact in connection
+with this subject that the processes and machinery
+especially invented to make the various parts of a
+bicycle are as wonderful as the wheel itself. Counting
+the spokes there are, it is estimated, more than
+300 different parts in such a wheel. The best and
+latest inventions and discoveries in the making of
+metals, wood, rubber and leather have been drawn
+upon in supplying these useful carriers. And what
+a revolution they have produced in the making of
+good roads, the saving of time, the dispatch of business,
+and more than all else, in the increase of the
+pleasure, the health and the amusement of mankind!</p>
+
+<p>It was quite natural that when the rubber cushion
+and pneumatic tires rounded the pleasure of easy
+and noiseless riding in vehicles that <i>Motor vehicles</i>
+should be revived and improved. So we have the
+<i>Automobiles</i> in great variety. Invention has been
+and is still being greatly exercised as to the best motive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_436" id="PAGE_436">[Pg 436]</a></span>power, in the adaption of electric motors, oil
+and gasoline or vapour engines, springs and air
+pumps, in attempts to reduce the number of complicated
+parts, and to render less strenuous the mental
+and muscular strain of the operator.</p>
+
+<p><i>Traction Engines.</i>&mdash;The old road engines that antedated
+the locomotives are being revived, and new
+ideas springing from other arts are being incorporated
+in these useful machines to render them more
+available than in former generations. Many of the
+principles and features of motor vehicles, but on a
+heavier scale, are being introduced to adapt them to
+the drawing of far heavier loads. Late devices comprise
+a spring link between the power and the traction
+wheel to prevent too sudden a start, and permit
+a yielding motion; steering devices by which the
+power of the engine is used to steer the machine; and
+application of convenient and easily-worked brakes.</p>
+
+<p>An example of a modern traction engine may be
+found attached to one or more heavy cars adapted for
+street work, and on which may be found apparatus
+for making the mixed materials of which the roadbed
+is to be constructed, and all of which is moved
+along as the road or street surface is completed.
+When these fine roads become the possession of a
+country light traction engines for passenger traffic
+will be found largely supplanting the horse and
+the steam railroad engines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brakes</i>, railway and electric, have already been
+referred to in the proper chapters. In the latest
+system of railroading greater attention has been
+paid to the lives and limbs of those employed as
+workmen on the trains, especially to those of brakemen.
+And if corporations have been slow to adopt
+such merciful devices, legislatures have stepped in to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_437" id="PAGE_437">[Pg 437]</a></span>
+help the matter. One great source of accidents in
+this respect has been due to the necessity of the
+brakemen entering between the cars while they are in
+motion to couple them by hand. This is now being
+abolished by <i>automatic couplers</i>, by which, when the
+locking means have been withdrawn from connection
+or thrown up, they will be so held until the cars meet
+again, when the locking parts on the respective cars
+will be automatically thrown and locked, as easily
+and on the same principle as the hand of one man
+may clasp the hand of another.</p>
+
+<p>The comfort of passengers and the safety of
+freight have also been greatly increased by the invention
+of <i>Buffers</i> on railroad cars and trains to prevent
+sudden and violent concussion. Fluid pressure
+car buffers, in which a constant supply of fluid under
+pressure is provided by a pump or train pipe connected
+to the engine is one of a great variety.</p>
+
+<p>Another notable improvement in this line is the
+splendid vestibule trains, in which the cars are connected
+to one another by enclosed passages and which
+at their meeting ends are provided with yieldingly
+supported door-like frames engaging one another by
+frictional contact, usually, whereby the shock and
+rocking of cars are prevented in starting and stopping,
+and their oscillation reduced to a minimum.</p>
+
+<p>As collisions and accidents cannot always be prevented,
+car frames are now built in which the frames
+are trussed, and made of rolled steel plates, angles,
+and channels, whereby a car body of great resistance
+to telescoping or crushing is obtained.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_438" id="PAGE_438">[Pg 438]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="line">“Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam,<br></span>
+<span class="line">Survey our empire, and behold our home.”<br></span>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>“Ships are but boards,” soliloquised the crafty
+Shylock, and were this still true, yet this present
+period has seen wonderful changes in construction.</p>
+
+<p>The high castellated bows and sterns and long
+prows of <i>The Great Harry</i>, of the seventeenth
+century, and its successors in the eighteenth, with
+some moderation of cumbersome matter, gave way to
+lighter, speedier forms, first appearing in the quick-gliding
+Yankee clippers, during the first decade of
+the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Eminent naval architects have regarded the proportions
+of Noah’s ark, 300 cubits long, 50 cubits
+broad and 30 cubits high, in which the length was six
+times the breadth, and the depth three-fifths of the
+breadth, as the best combination of the elements of
+strength, capacity and stability.</p>
+
+<p>Even that most modern mercantile vessel known
+as the “whale-back” with its nearly flat bottom,
+vertical sides, arched top or deck, skegged or spoon-shaped
+at bow and stern, straight deck lines, the
+upper deck cabins and steering gear raised on hollow
+turrets, with machinery and cargo in the main
+hull, has not departed much from the safe rule of
+proportions of its ancient prototype.</p>
+
+<p>But in other respects the ideas of Noah and of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_439" id="PAGE_439">[Pg 439]</a></span>
+Ph&#339;nicians, the best of ancient ship-builders, as well
+as the Northmen, the Dutch, the French, and the English,
+the best ship-builders of later centuries, were
+decidedly improved upon by the Americans, who, as
+above intimated, were revolutionizing the art and
+building the finest vessels in the early part of the
+century, and these rivalled in speed the steam vessels
+for some years after steamships were ploughing the
+rivers and the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Discarding the lofty decks fore and aft and ponderous
+topsides, the principal characteristics of the
+American “clippers” were their fine sharp lines,
+built long and low, broad of beam before the centre,
+sharp above the water, and deep aft. A typical
+vessel of this sort was the clipper ship <i>Great Republic</i>,
+built by Donald McKay of Boston during
+the first half of the century. She was 325 feet long,
+53 feet wide, 37 feet deep, with a capacity of about
+4000 tons. She had four masts, each provided with
+a lightning rod. A single suit of her sails consisted
+of 15,563 yards of canvas. Her keel rose for 60
+feet forward, gradually curved into the arc of a circle
+as it blended with the stern. Vessels of her
+type ran seventeen and eighteen miles an hour at a
+time when steam vessels were making only twelve or
+fourteen miles an hour, the latter speed being one
+which it was predicted by naval engineers could not
+with safety be exceeded with ocean steamships.</p>
+
+<p>These vessels directed the attention of ship-builders
+to two prominent features, the shape of the
+bow and the length of the vessel. For the old convex
+form of bow and stern, the principal of an
+elongated wedge was substituted, the wedge slightly
+hollowed on its face, by which the waters were more
+easily parted and thrown aside.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_440" id="PAGE_440">[Pg 440]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A departure was early made in the matter of
+strengthening the “ribs of oak” to better meet the
+strains from the rough seas. In 1810 Sir Robert
+Seppings, surveyor of the English navy, devised and
+introduced the system of diagonal bracing. This
+was an arrangement of timbers crossing the ribs on
+the inside of the ship at angles of about 45°, and
+braced by diagonals and struts.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the great and leading event of the nineteenth
+century in the matter of inventions relating
+to ships was the introduction of steam as the motive
+power. Of this we have treated in the chapter on
+steam engineering. The giant, steam, demanded
+and received the obeisance of every art before devoting
+his inexhaustible strength to their service. Systems
+of wood-working and metal manufacture must
+be revolutionised to give him room to work, and to
+withstand the strokes of his mighty arm. Lord
+Dundas at the beginning of the century had an iron
+boat built for the Forth and Clyde Canal, which was
+propelled by steam.</p>
+
+<p>But the departure from the adage that “ships are
+but boards” did not take place, however, until about
+1829-30, when the substitution of iron for wood
+in the construction of vessels had passed beyond the
+experimental stage. In those years the firm of John
+Laird of Birkenhead began the building of practical
+iron vessels, and he was followed soon by Sir William
+Fairbairn at Manchester, and Randolph, Elder
+&amp; Co., and the Fairfield Works on the Clyde.</p>
+
+<p>The advantage of iron over wood in strength, and
+in power to withstand tremendous shocks, was early
+illustrated in the <i>Great Britain</i> built about 1844,
+the first large, successful, seagoing vessel constructed.
+Not long thereafter this same vessel lay<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_441" id="PAGE_441">[Pg 441]</a></span>
+helpless upon the coast of Ireland, driven there by a
+great storm, and beaten by the tremendous waves of
+the Atlantic with a force that would have in a few
+hours or days broken up and pulverised a “ship of
+boards,” and yet the <i>Great Britain</i> lay there several
+weeks, was finally brought off, and again restored to
+successful service.</p>
+
+<p>Wood and iron both have their peculiar advantages
+and disadvantages. Wood is not only
+lighter, but easily procured and worked, and cheaper,
+in many small and private ship-yards where an iron
+frame and parts would be difficult and expensive to
+produce. It is thought that as to the fouling of
+ships’ bottoms a wooden hull covered with copper
+fouls less, and consequently impedes the speed less;
+that the damage done by shocks or the penetration
+of shot is not so great or difficult to repair, and that
+the danger of variation of the compass by reason of
+local attraction of the metal is less.</p>
+
+<p>But the advantages of iron and steel far outnumber
+those of wood. Its strength, its adaptability for
+all sizes and forms and lines, its increased cheapness,
+its resistance to shot penetration, its durability,
+and now its easy procurement, constitute
+qualities which have established iron ship-building
+as a great new and modern art. In this modern revolution
+in iron-clad ships, their adaptation to naval
+warfare was due to the genius of John Ericsson, and
+dates practically from the celebrated battle between
+the iron-clads the <i>Merrimac</i> and the <i>Monitor</i> in
+Hampton Roads on the Virginia coast in the Civil
+war in America in April, 1862.</p>
+
+<p>Although the tendency at first in building iron
+and steel vessels, especially for the navy, was towards
+an entire metal structure, later experience resulted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_442" id="PAGE_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>in a more composite style, using wood in
+some parts, where found best adapted by its capacity
+of lightness, non-absorption of heat and less electrical
+conductivity, etc., and at the same time protecting
+such interior portions by an iron shell or
+frame-work.</p>
+
+<p>One great improvement in ship-building, whether
+in wood or metal, thought of and practised to some
+extent in former times, but after all a child of this
+century, is the building of the hull and hold in compartments,
+water-tight, and sometimes fire-proof, so
+that in case of a leakage or a fire in one or more compartments,
+the fire or water may be confined there
+and the extension of the danger to the entire ship
+prevented.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of <i>Marine Propulsion</i>, when the
+steam engine was made a practical and useful servant
+by Watt, and men began to think of driving
+boats and ships with it, the problem was how to
+adapt it to use with propelling means already known.
+Paddle-wheels and other wheels to move boats in
+place of oars had been suggested, and to some extent
+used from time to time, since the days of the Romans;
+and they were among the first devices used in steam
+vessels. Their whirl may still be heard on many
+waters. Learned men saw no reason why the screw of
+Archimedes should not be used for the same purpose,
+and the idea was occasionally advocated by French
+and English philosophers from at least 1680, by
+Franklin and Watt less than a century later, and
+finally, in 1794, Lyttleton of England obtained a
+patent for his “aquatic propeller,” consisting of
+threads formed on a cylinder and revolving in a
+frame at the head, stern, or side of a vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Other means had been also suggested prior to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_443" id="PAGE_443">[Pg 443]</a></span>
+1800, and by the same set of philosophers, and experimentally
+used by practical builders, such as
+steam-pumps for receiving the water forward, or
+amidships, and forcing it out astern, thus creating a
+propulsive movement. The latter part of the
+eighteenth century teemed with these suggestions and
+experiments, but it remained for the nineteenth to
+see their embodiment and adaptation to successful
+commercial use.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest, most successful demonstrations of
+screw propellers and paddle wheels in steam vessels
+in the century were the construction and use of a
+boat with twin screws by Col. John Stevens of Hoboken,
+N. J., in 1804 and the paddle-wheel steamboat
+trial of Fulton on the Hudson in 1807.</p>
+
+<p>But it was left to John Ericsson, that great
+Swedish inventor, going to England in 1826 with his
+brain full of ideas as to steam and solar engines, to
+first perfect the screw-propeller. He there patented
+in 1836 his celebrated propeller, consisting of several
+blades or segments of a screw, and based on
+such correct principles of twist that they were at once
+adopted and applied to steam vessels.</p>
+
+<p>In 1837-1839 the knowledge of his inventions had
+preceded him to America, where his propeller was at
+once introduced and used in the vessels <i>Frances B.
+Ogden</i> and the <i>Robert E. Stockton</i> (the latter built
+by the Lairds of Birkenhead and launched in 1837).
+In 1839 or 1840 Ericsson went to America, and in
+1841 he was engaged in the construction of the
+U.S. ship of war <i>Princeton</i>, the first naval screw
+warship built having propelling machinery under the
+water line and out of reach of shot.</p>
+
+<p>The idea that steamships could not be safely run
+at a greater speed than ten or twelve miles an hour
+was now abandoned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_444" id="PAGE_444">[Pg 444]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Twice Ericsson revolutionised the naval construction
+of the world by his inventions in America:
+first by the introduction of his screw-propeller in the
+<i>Princeton</i>; and second, by building the iron-clad
+<i>Monitor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Since Ericsson’s day other inventors have made
+themselves also famous by giving new twists to the
+tail of this famous fish and new forms to its iron-ribbed
+body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pneumatic Propellers</i> operated by the expulsion of
+air or gas against the surrounding body of water, and
+chain-propellers, consisting of a revolving chain provided
+with paddles or floats, have also been invented
+and tested, with more or less successful results.</p>
+
+<p>A great warship as she lies in some one of the vast
+modern ship-yards of the world, resting securely on
+her long steel backbone, from which great ribs of
+steel rise and curve on either side and far overhead,
+like a monstrous skeleton of some huge animal that
+the sea alone can produce, clothed with a skin, also
+of steel; her huge interior, lined at bottom with an
+armoured deck that stretches across the entire breadth
+of the vessel, and built upon this deck, capacious
+steel compartments enclosing the engines and boilers,
+the coal, the magazines, the electric plant for supplying
+power to various motors for lighting the ship and
+for furnishing the current to powerful search-lights;
+having compartments for the sick, the apothecary
+shop, and the surgeon’s hospital, the men’s and the
+officers’ quarters; above these the conning tower
+and the armoured pilot-house, then the great guns interspersed
+among these various parts, looking like
+the sunken eyes, or protruding like the bony prominences
+of some awful sea monster, is a structure
+that gives one an idea of the immense departure<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_445" id="PAGE_445">[Pg 445]</a></span>
+which has occurred during the last half century, not
+only from the wooden walls of the navies of all the
+past, but from all its mechanical arts.</p>
+
+<p>What a great ocean liner contains and what the
+contributions are to modern ship-building from
+other modern arts is set forth in the following extract
+from <i>McClure’s Magazine</i> for September, 1900,
+in describing the <i>Deutschland</i>. “The <i>Deutschland</i>,
+for instance has a complete refrigerating plant,
+four hospitals, a safety deposit vault for the immense
+quantities of gold and silver which pass between
+the banks of Europe and America, eight
+kitchens, a complete post-office with German and
+American clerks, thirty electrical motors, thirty-six
+pumps, most of them of American and English
+make, no fewer than seventy-two steam engines, a
+complete drug store, a complete fire department, with
+pumps, hose and other fire-fighting machinery, a
+library, 2600 electric lights, two barber shops, room
+for an orchestra and brass band, a telegraph system,
+a telephone system, a complete printing establishment,
+a photographic dark room, a cigar store, an
+electric fire-alarm system, and a special refrigerator
+for flowers.”</p>
+
+<p>We have seen, in treating of safes and locks, how
+burglars keep pace with the latest inventions to protect
+property by the use of dynamite and nitro-glycerine
+explosions. The reverse of this practice
+prevails when those policemen of the seas, the <i>torpedo
+boats</i>, guard the treasures of the shore. It is
+there the defenders are armed with the irresistible
+explosives. These explosives are either planted in
+harbours and discharged by electricity from the shore,
+or carried by very swift armoured boats, or by boats
+capable of being submerged, directed, and propelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_446" id="PAGE_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>
+by mechanisms contained there and controlled
+from the shore, or from another vessel; or by boats
+containing all instrumentalities, crew, and commander,
+and capable of submerging and raising itself,
+and of attacking and exploding the torpedo
+when and where desired. The latter are now considered
+as the most formidable and efficient class of
+destroyers.</p>
+
+<p>No matter how staunch, sound and grand in dimensions
+man may build his ships, old Neptune can
+still toss them. But Franklin, a century and a half
+ago, called attention to his experiments of oiling his
+locks when in a tempestuous mood, and thus rendering
+the temper of the Old Man of the Sea as placid
+as a summer pond. Ships that had become unmanageable
+were thus enabled, by spreading oil on the
+waves from the windward side, to be brought under
+control, and dangerous surfs subdued, so that boats
+could land. Franklin’s idea of pouring oil on the
+troubled waters has been revived during the last
+quarter of the century and various means for doing
+it vigorously patented. The means have varied in
+many instances, but chiefly consist of bags and other
+receptacles to hold and distribute the oil upon the
+surrounding water with economy and uniformity.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the century the world was still
+waiting for the successful <i>Air-ship</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A few successful experiments in balloon navigation
+by the aid of small engines of different forms
+have been made since 1855. Some believe that
+Count Zeppelin, an officer of the German army has
+solved the great problem, especially since the ascent
+of his ship made on July 2, 1900, at Lake Constance.</p>
+
+<p>It has been asserted that no vessel has yet been<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_447" id="PAGE_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>
+made to successfully fly unless made on the balloon
+principle, and Count Zeppelin’s boat is on that principle.
+According to the description of Eugen Wolf,
+an aeronaut who took part in the ascent referred to
+and who published an account of the same in the November
+number of <i>McClure’s</i>, 1900, it is not composed
+of one balloon, but of a row of them, and these
+are not exposed when inflated to every breeze that
+blows, but enclosed and combined in an enormous
+cylindrical shell, 420 feet in length, about 38 feet in
+diameter, with a volume of 14,780 cubic yards and
+with ends pointed like a cigar. This shell is a framework
+made up of aluminium trellis work, and divided
+into seventeen compartments, each having its own gas
+bag. The frame is further strengthened and the
+balloons stayed by a network of aluminium wire,
+and the entire frame covered with a soft ramie fibre.
+Over this is placed a water-tight covering of pegamoid,
+and the lower part covered with light silk.
+An air space of two feet is left between the cover
+and the balloons. Beneath the balloons extends a
+walking bridge 226 feet long, and from this bridge
+is suspended two aluminium cars, at front and rear
+of the centre, adapted to hold all the operative machinery
+and the operator and other passengers.</p>
+
+<p>The balloons, provided with proper valves, served
+to lift the structure; large four-winged screws, one
+on each side of the ship, their shafts mounted on a
+light framework extending from the body of the
+ship, and driven backward and forward by two light
+benzine engines, one on each car, constituted the
+propelling force. Dirigibility (steering) was provided
+for by an apparatus consisting of a double pair
+of rudders, one pair forward and one aft, reaching out
+like great fins, and controlled by light metal cords<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_448" id="PAGE_448">[Pg 448]</a></span>
+from the cars. A ballast of water was carried in a
+compartment under each car. To give the ship an
+upward or a downward movement the plane on which
+the ship rests was provided with a weight adapted to
+slip back and forth on a cable underneath the balloon
+shell. When the weight was far aft the tip of
+the ship was upward and the movement was upward,
+when at the forward end the movement was downward,
+and when at the centre the ship was poised and
+travelled in a horizontal plane. The trip was made
+over the lake on a quiet evening. A distance of three
+and three-quarter miles, at a height of 1300 feet, was
+made in seventeen minutes. Evolutions from a
+straight course were accomplished. The ship was
+lowered to the lake, on which it settled easily and
+rode smoothly.</p>
+
+<p>The other great plan of air navigation receiving
+the attention of scientists and aeronauts is the aeroplane
+system. Although the cohesive force of the
+air is so exceedingly small that it cannot be relied
+upon as a sufficient resisting medium through which
+propulsion may be accomplished alone by a counter-resisting
+agent like propeller blades, yet it is known
+what weight the air has and it has been ascertained
+what expanse of a thin plane is necessary without
+other means to support the weight of a man in the
+air.</p>
+
+<p>To this idea must be added the means of flight, of
+starting and maintaining a stable flight and of directing
+its course. Careful observation of the manner
+of the flight of large heavy birds, especially in
+starting, has led to some successful experiments.
+They do not rise at once, but require an initiative
+force for soaring which they obtain by running on the
+ground before spreading their wings. The action of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_449" id="PAGE_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>
+the wings in folding and unfolding for maintaining
+the flight and controlling its direction, is then to be
+noted.</p>
+
+<p>It is along these lines that inventions in this system
+are now working. An initiative mechanism to
+start the ship along the earth or water, to raise it at
+an angle, to spread planes of sufficient extent to support
+the weight of the machine and its operators on
+the body of the air column, light engines to give the
+wing-planes an opening and closing action, rudders
+to steer by, means for maintaining equilibrium, and
+means when landing to float upon the water or roll
+upon the land, these are the principal problems that
+navigators of the great seas above us are now at work
+upon.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_450" id="PAGE_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+ILLUMINATING GAS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<blockquote><p>“How wonderful that sunbeams absorbed by vegetation
+in the primordial ages of the earth and buried
+in its depths as vegetable fossils through immeasurable
+eras of time, until system upon system of
+slowly formed rocks have been piled above, should
+come forth at last, at the disenchanting touch of
+science, and turn the light of civilised man into day.”&mdash;<i>Prof.
+E. L. Youmans.</i></p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p>“The invention of artificial light has extended
+the available term of human life, by giving the night
+to man’s use; it has, by the social intercourse it encourages,
+polished his manners and refined his
+tastes, and perhaps as much as anything else, has
+aided his intellectual progress.”&mdash;<i>Draper.</i></p></blockquote>
+
+<p>If one desires to know what the condition of
+cities, towns and peoples was before the nineteenth
+century had lightened and enlightened them, let him
+step into some poor country town in some out-of-the-way
+region (and such may yet be found) at night,
+pick his way along rough pavements, and no pavements,
+by the light of a smoky lamp placed here
+and there at corners, and of weeping lamps and limp
+candles in the windows of shops and houses, and
+meet people armed with tin lanterns throwing a
+dubious light across the pathways. Let him be prepared
+to be assailed by the odours of undrained gutters,
+ditches, and roads called streets, and escape, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_451" id="PAGE_451">[Pg 451]</a></span>
+he can, stumbling and falling into them. Let him
+take care also that he avoid in the darkness the
+drippings from the overhanging eaves or windows,
+and falling upon the slippery steps of the dim doorway
+he may be about to enter. Within, let him overlook,
+if he can, in the hospitable reception, the dim
+and smoky atmosphere, and observe that the brightest
+and best as well as the most cheerful illuminant
+flashes from the wide open fireplace. Occasionally
+a glowing grate might be met. The eighteenth century
+did have its glowing grates, and its still more
+glowing furnaces of coal in which the ore was melted
+and by the light of which the castings were made.</p>
+
+<p>It is very strange that year after year for successive
+generations men saw the hard black coal break
+under the influence of heat and burst into flames
+which lit up every corner, without learning, beyond
+sundry accidents and experiments, that this <i>gast</i>, or
+<i>geest</i>, or <i>spirit</i>, or <i>vapour</i>, or <i>gas</i>, as it was variously
+called, could be led away from its source, ignited
+at a distance, and made to give light and heat at other
+places than just where it was generated.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Dr. Clayton, Dean of Kildare, Ireland, in
+1688 distilled gas from coal and lit and burned it,
+and told his learned friend, the Hon. Robert Boyle,
+about it, who announced it with interest to the Royal
+Society, and again it finds mention in the <i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i> fifty years later. Then, in
+1726, Dr. Hales told how many cubic inches of gas
+a certain number of grains of coal would produce.
+Then Bishop Watson in 1750 passed some gas
+through water and carried it in pipes from one place
+to another; and then Lord Dundonald in 1786 built
+some ovens, distilled coal and tar, burned the gas,
+and got a patent. In the same year, Dr. Rickel of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_452" id="PAGE_452">[Pg 452]</a></span>
+Würzburg lighted his laboratory with gas made by
+the dry distillation of bones; but all these were experiments.
+Finally, William Murdock, the owner of
+large workshops at Redruth, in Cornwall, a practical
+man and mechanic, and a keen observer, using soft
+coal to a large extent in his shops, tried with success
+in 1792 to collect the escaping gas and with it lit up
+the shops. Whether he continued steadily to so use
+the gas or only at intervals, at any rate it seems to
+have been experimental and failed to attract attention.
+It appears that he repeated the experiment at
+the celebrated steam engine works of Boulton and
+Watt at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1798, and again
+illuminated the works in 1802, on occasion of a peace
+jubilee.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, in 1801, Le Bon, a Frenchman
+at Paris, had succeeded in making illuminating gas
+from wood, lit his house therewith, and proposed to
+light the whole city of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it may be said that illuminating gas and the
+new century were born together&mdash;the former preceding
+the latter a little and lighting the way.</p>
+
+<p>Then in 1803 the English periodicals began to take
+the matter up and discuss the whole subject. One
+magazine objected to its use in houses on the ground
+that the curtains and furniture would be ruined by
+the saturation produced by the oxygen and hydrogen,
+and that the curtains would have to be wrung out the
+next morning after the illumination. There doubtless
+was good cause for objection to the smoky, unpleasant
+smelling light then produced.</p>
+
+<p>In America in 1806 David Melville of Newport,
+Rhode Island, lighted with gas his own house and the
+street in front of it. In 1813 he took out a patent
+and lighted several factories. In 1817 his process<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_453" id="PAGE_453">[Pg 453]</a></span>
+was applied to Beaver Tail Lighthouse on the Atlantic
+coast&mdash;the first use of illuminating gas in
+lighthouses. Coal oil and electricity have since been
+found better illuminants for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Murdoch, Winser, Clegg and others continued to
+illuminate the public works and buildings of England.
+Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament
+were lighted in 1813, and the streets of
+London in 1815. Paris was lighted in 1820, and the
+largest American cities from 1816 to 1825. But it
+required the work of the chemists as well as the
+mechanics to produce the best gas. The rod of
+Science had touched the rock again and from the
+earth had sprung another servant with power to
+serve mankind, and waited the skilled brain and
+hand to direct its course.</p>
+
+<p>Produced almost entirely from bituminous coal,
+it was found to be composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen
+and hydrogen; but various other gases were
+mixed therewith. To determine the proper proportions
+of these gases, to know which should be increased
+or wholly or partly eliminated, required
+the careful labours of patient chemists. They taught
+also how the gas should be distilled, condensed,
+cleaned, scrubbed, confined in retorts, and its flow
+measured and controlled.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately the latter part of the eighteenth century
+and the early part of the nineteenth had produced
+chemists whose investigations and discoveries
+paved the way for success in this revolution in the
+world of light. Priestley had discovered oxygen.
+Dalton had divided matter into atoms, and shown
+that in its every form, whether solid, liquid, or
+gaseous, these atoms had their own independent,
+characteristic, unalterable weight, and that gases
+diffused themselves in certain proportions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_454" id="PAGE_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Berthollet, Graham, and a host of others in England,
+France, and Germany, advanced the art.
+The highest skilled mechanics, like Clegg of England,
+supplied the apparatus. He it was who invented
+a gas purifier, liquid gas meter, and other
+useful contrivances.</p>
+
+<p>As the character of the gas as an illuminator depends
+on the quantity of hydro-carbon, or olefiant
+elements it contains, great efforts were made to invent
+processes and means of carbureting it.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacture of gas was revolutionised by the
+invention of water gas. The main principle of this
+process is the mixture of hydrogen with the vapour
+of some hydro-carbon: Hydrogen burns with very
+little light and the purpose of the hydro-carbon is to
+increase the brilliancy of the flame. The hydrogen
+gas is so obtained by the decomposition of water, effected
+by passing steam through highly heated coals.</p>
+
+<p>Patents began to be taken out in this line in England
+in 1823-24; by Donovan in 1830; Geo. Lowe
+in 1832, and White in 1847. But in England water
+gas could not compete with coal gas in cheapness.
+On the contrary, in America, especially after the
+petroleum wells were opened up, and nature supplied
+the hydro-carbon in roaring wells and fountains,
+water gas came to the front.</p>
+
+<p>The leading invention there in this line was that of
+T. S. C. Lowe of Morristown, Pennsylvania, in 1873.
+In Lowe’s process anthracite coal might be used,
+which was raised in a suitable retort to a great heat,
+then superheated steam admitted over this hot bed
+and decomposed into hydrogen and carbonic oxide;
+then a small stream of naphtha or crude petroleum
+was thrown upon the surface of the burning coal,
+and from these decompositions and mixtures a rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_455" id="PAGE_455">[Pg 455]</a></span>
+olefiant product and other light-giving gases were
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1886
+awarded Lowe, or his representatives, a grand medal
+of honour, his being the invention exhibited that
+year which in their opinion contributed most to the
+welfare of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>A number of inventors have followed in the direction
+set by Lowe. The largest part of gas manufacture,
+which has become so extensive, embodies the
+basic idea of the Lowe process.</p>
+
+<p>The competition set up by the electricians, especially
+in the production of the beautiful incandescent
+light for indoor illumination, has spurred inventors
+of gas processes to renewed efforts&mdash;much to the
+benefit of that great multitude who sit in darkness
+until corporations furnish them with light.</p>
+
+<p>It was found by Siemens, the great German inventor
+of modern gas regenerative furnace systems,
+that the quality of the gas was much improved, and
+a greater intensity of light obtained, by heating the
+gases and air before combustion&mdash;a plan particularly
+adapted in lighting large spaces.</p>
+
+<p>To describe in detail the large number of inventions
+relating to the manufacture of gas would require
+a huge volume&mdash;the generators, carburetors,
+retorts, mixers, purifiers, metres, scrubbers, holders,
+condensers, governors, indicators, registers, chargers,
+pressure regulators, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p>It was a great convenience outside of towns and
+cities, where gas mains could not be laid, to have
+domestic plants and portable gas apparatus, worked
+on the same principles, but in miniature form,
+adapted to a single house, but the exercise of great
+ingenuity was required to render such adaptation
+successful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_456" id="PAGE_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the use of liquid illuminants, which need a
+wick to feed them, the <i>Argand burner</i>&mdash;that arrangement
+of concentric tubes between which the wick is
+confined&mdash;although invented by Argand in 1784,
+yet has occupied a vast field of usefulness in connection
+with the lamps of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>A dangerous but very extensively used illuminating
+liquid before coal oil was discovered was camphene,
+distilled from turpentine. It gave a good
+light but was not a safe domestic companion.</p>
+
+<p>Great attention has recently been paid to the production
+of <i>acetylene</i> gas, produced by the reaction
+between <i>calcium carbide</i> and water. The making of
+the calcium carbide by the decomposition of mixed
+pulverised lime and coal by the use of a powerful
+electric battery, is a preliminary step in the production
+of this gas, and was a subsequent discovery.</p>
+
+<p>The electric light, acetylene, magnesium, and other
+modern sources of light, although they may be more
+brilliant and intense than coal gas, cannot compete
+in cheapness of production with the latter. Thus
+far illuminating coal gas is still the queen of artificial
+lights.</p>
+
+<p>After gas was fairly started in lighting streets and
+buildings its adaptation to lamps followed; and
+among the most noted of gas lamps is that of Von
+Welsbach, who combined a bunsen gas flame and a
+glass chimney with a “<i>mantle</i>” located therein.
+This mantle is a gauze-like structure made of refractory
+quartz, or of certain oxides, which when
+heated by the gas flame produce an incandescent glow
+of intense brilliancy, with a reduced consumption
+of gas.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_457" id="PAGE_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub">
+BRICK, POTTERY, GLASS, PLASTICS.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>When the nineteenth century dawned, men were
+making brick in the same way for the most part that
+they were fifty centuries before. It is recorded in
+the eleventh chapter of Genesis that when “the whole
+earth was of one language and one speech, it came
+to pass as they journeyed from the east that they
+found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt
+there, and they said to one another, Go to, let
+us make brick and burn them thoroughly, And they
+had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar.”
+Then commenced the building of Babel. Who
+taught the trade to the brick-makers of Shinar?</p>
+
+<p>The journey from the east continued, and with it
+went brick making to Greece and Rome, across the
+continent of Europe, across the English channel,
+until the brick work of Cæsar, stamped by the trade
+mark of his legions, was found on the banks of the
+Thames, and through the fields of Caerleon and
+York.</p>
+
+<p>Alfred the Great encouraged the trade, and the
+manufacture flourished finely under Henry VIII.,
+Elizabeth and Charles I.</p>
+
+<p>As to Pottery:&mdash;Could we only know who among
+the peoples of the earth first discovered, used, or invented
+fire, we might know who were the first makers
+of baked earthenware. Doubtless the art of pottery
+arose before men learned to bake the plastic clay, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_458" id="PAGE_458">[Pg 458]</a></span>
+that groping time when men, kneading the soft clay
+with their fingers, or imprinting their footsteps in
+the yielding surface and learning that the sun’s heat
+stiffened and dried those forms into durability, applied
+the discovery to the making of crude vessels, as
+children unto this day make dishes from the tenacious
+mud. But the artificial burning of the vessels
+was no doubt a later imitation of Nature.</p>
+
+<p>Alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone
+implements have been found the hollow clay dish
+for holding fire, or food, or water. “As the fragment
+of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision,
+the dream of a vanished hand, a draught of water
+from a familiar spring, the almost perished fragrance
+of a pressed flower call back the singer, the
+loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood,
+or the parting hour, so in the same manner there
+linger in this crowning decade of the crowning century
+bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole
+people the fragrance and beauty of its past.” <i>Prof.
+O. T. Mason.</i> The same gifted writer, adds: “Who
+has not read, with almost breaking heart, the story of
+Palissy, the Huguenot potter? But what have our
+witnesses to say of that long line of humble creatures
+that conjured out of prophetic clay, without wheels
+or furnace, forms and decorations of imperishable
+beauty, which are now being copied in glorified material
+in the best factories of the world? In ceramic
+as well as textile art the first inventors were women.
+They quarried the clay, manipulated it, constructed
+and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace
+and wore it out in a hundred uses.”</p>
+
+<p>From the early dawn of human history to its present
+noonday civilisation the progress of man may be
+traced in his pottery. Before printing was an art, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_459" id="PAGE_459">[Pg 459]</a></span>
+inscribed on it his literature. Poets and painters have
+adorned it; and in its manufacture have been embodied
+through all ages the choicest discoveries of the
+chemist, the inventor and the mechanic.</p>
+
+<p>It would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery
+from at least the time of Homer, who draws a metaphor
+from the potter seated before his wheel and
+twirling it with both hands, as he shapes the plastic
+clay upon it; to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured
+vases, covered with Egyptian scenes and
+history; to re-excite wonder over the arts of China,
+in her porcelain, the production of its delicacy and
+bright colours wrapped in such mystery, and stagnant
+for so many ages, but revived and rejuvenated
+in Japan; to recall to mind the styles and composition
+of the Ph&#339;nician vases with mythological
+legends burned immortally therein; the splendid
+work of the Greek potteries; to lift the Samian enwreathed
+bowl, “filled with Samian wine”; to look
+upon the Roman pottery, statues and statuettes of
+Rome’s earlier and better days; the celebrated
+<i>Faience</i> (enamelled pottery) at its home in Faenza,
+Italy, and from the hands of its master, Luca della
+Robia; to trace the history of the rare Italian majolica;
+to tread with light steps the bright tiles of the
+Saracens; to rehearse the story of Bernard Palissy,
+the father of the beautiful French enamelled ware;
+to bring to view the splendid old ware of Nuremberg,
+the raised white figures on the deep blue
+plaques of Florence, the honest Delft ware of Holland;
+and finally to relate the revolution in the production
+of pottery throughout all Europe caused by
+the discoveries and inventions of Wedgwood of England
+in the eighteenth century. All this would be
+interesting, but we must hasten on to the equally<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_460" id="PAGE_460">[Pg 460]</a></span>
+splendid and more practical works of the busy nineteenth
+century, in which many toilsome methods
+of the past have been superseded by labour-saving
+contrivances.</p>
+
+<p>The application of machinery to the manufacture
+of brick began to receive attention during the latter
+part of the eighteenth century, after Watt had harnessed
+steam, and a few patents were issued in England
+and America at that time for such machinery
+of that character, but little was practically done.</p>
+
+<p>The operations in <i>brickmaking</i>, to the accomplishment
+of which by machines the inventors of the nineteenth
+century have devoted great talent, relate:</p>
+
+<p>First, to the preparation of the clay.&mdash;In ancient
+Egypt, in places where water abounded, it appears
+that the clay was lifted from the bottoms of ponds
+and lakes on the end of poles, was formed into bricks,
+then sun-dried, modernly called <i>adobes</i>. The clay
+for making these required a stiffening material. For
+this straw was used, mixed with the clay; and stubble
+was also used in the different courses. Hence the
+old metaphor of worthlessness of “bricks without
+straw,” but of course in burning, and in modern processes
+of pressing unburnt bricks, straw is no longer
+used. Sand should abound in the clay in a certain
+proportion, or be mixed therewith, otherwise the
+clay, whether burned or unburned, will crumble.
+Stones, gravel and sticks must be removed, otherwise
+the contraction of the clay and expansion of
+the stones on burning, produce a weak and crumbling
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>Brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of
+iron, and in proportion as this abounds the burned
+brick is of a lighter or a deeper red. It may be desired
+to add colouring matter or mix different forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_461" id="PAGE_461">[Pg 461]</a></span>
+of clay, or add sand or other ingredients. Clay
+treated by hand was for ages kneaded as dough is
+kneaded, by the hand or feet, and the clay was often
+long subjected, sometimes for years, to exposure to
+the air, frost and sun to disintegrate and ripen it. As
+the clay must be first disintegrated, ground or pulverised,
+as grain is first ground to flour to make and
+mould the bread, so the use of a grinding mill was
+long ago suggested. The first machine used to do all
+this work goes by the humble name of <i>pug mill</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many ages ago the Chilians of South America
+hung two ponderous solid wood or stone wheels on an
+axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated by animal
+power; the wheels were made to run round on
+a deep basin in which ores, or stones, or grain were
+placed to be crushed. This Chilian mill, in principle,
+was adopted a century or so ago in Europe to
+the grinding of clay. The pug mill has assumed
+many different forms in this age; and separate preliminary
+mills, consisting of rollers of different
+forms for grinding, alone are often used before the
+mixing operation. In one modern form the pug mill
+consists of an inverted conical-shaped cylinder provided
+with a set of interior revolving blades arranged
+horizontally, and below this a spiral arrangement of
+blades on a vertical axis, by which the clay is thoroughly
+cut up and crushed against the surrounding
+walls of the mill, in the meantime softened with
+water or steam if desired, and mixed with sand if
+necessary, and when thus ground and tempered is
+finally pressed down through the lower opening of
+the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds
+beneath.</p>
+
+<p>Second.&mdash;The next operation is for moulding and
+pressing the brick. To take the place of that ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_462" id="PAGE_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>
+and still used mode of filling a mould of a certain
+size by the hands with a lump of soft clay, scraping
+off the surplus, and then dumping the mould upon a
+drying floor, a great variety of machines have been
+invented.</p>
+
+<p>In some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to
+feed out the clay in the form of a long horizontal
+slab, which is cut up into proper lengths to form the
+bricks. Some machines are in the form of a large
+horizontal revolving wheel, having the moulds arranged
+in its top face, each mould charged with clay
+as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout
+of the grinding mill, and then the clay is pressed by
+pistons or plungers worked by a rocking beam, and
+adapted to descend and fit into the mould at stated
+intervals; or the moulds, carried in a circular direction,
+may have movable bottom plates, which may
+be pressed upwards successively by pistons attached
+to them and raised by inclines on which they travel,
+forcing the clay against a large circular top plate,
+and in the last part of the movement carrying the
+pressed brick through an aperture to the top of the
+plate, where it is met by and carried away on an endless
+apron.</p>
+
+<p>In some machines two great wheels mesh together,
+one carrying the moulds in its face, and the other the
+presser plate plungers, working in the former, the
+bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by
+the action of cam followers, or by other means.</p>
+
+<p>In others the moulds are passed, each beneath a
+gravity-descending or cam-forced plunger, the clay
+being thus stamped by impact into form; or in other
+forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to
+successive pressure from the cam-operated pistons
+arranged horizontally and on a line with the discharging
+belt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_463" id="PAGE_463">[Pg 463]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Third, the drying and burning of the brick.&mdash;The
+old methods were painfully slow and tedious.
+A long time was occupied in seasoning the clay, and
+then after the bricks were moulded, another long
+time was necessary to dry them, and a final lengthy
+period was employed to burn them in crude kilns.
+These old methods were too slow for modern wants.
+But they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions,
+as in all ages the use of old arts and implements
+have continued along by the side of later inventions
+and discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>No useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently
+ever entirely supplanted. The implements of
+the stone age are still found in use by some whose environment
+has deprived them of the knowledge of
+or desire to use better tools. The single ox pulling
+the crooked stick plough, or other similar ancient
+earth stirrer, and Ruth with her sickle and sheaves,
+may be found not far from the steam plough and the
+automatic binder.</p>
+
+<p>But the use of antiquated machinery is not followed
+by those who lead the procession in this industrial
+age. Consequently other means than the
+slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics,
+and the crude kilns are giving way to modern
+heat distributing structures.</p>
+
+<p>Air and heat are driven by fans through chambers,
+in which the brick are openly piled on cars, the surplus
+heat and steam from an engine-room being often
+used for this purpose, and the cars so laden are slowly
+pushed on the tracks through heated chambers. Passages
+and pipes and chimneys for heat and air controlled
+by valves are provided, and the waste moisture
+drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys,
+the draft of which is increased by a hot blast, or blasts<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_464" id="PAGE_464">[Pg 464]</a></span>
+of heated air are driven in one direction through a
+chamber while the brick are moved through in the opposite
+direction, or a series of drying chambers are
+separated from each other by iron folding-doors, the
+temperature increasing as cars are moved on tracks
+from one chamber to another.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Hoffmann of Berlin invented different forms
+of drying and burning chambers which attracted
+great attention. In his kiln the bricks are stacked
+in an <i>annular</i> chamber, and the fire made to progress
+from one section of the chamber to another,
+burning the brick as the heat advances; and as fast
+as one section of green brick is dried, or burned,
+it is withdrawn, and a green section presented. Austria
+introduced most successful and thorough
+systems of drying brick about 1870. In some great
+kilns fires are never allowed to cease. One kiln had
+been kept thus heated for fifteen years. Thus great
+quantities of green brick can at any time be pushed
+into the kiln on tracks, and when burned pushed out,
+and thus the process may go on continuously day and
+night.</p>
+
+<p>To return to pottery: As before stated, Wedgwood
+of England revolutionised the art of pottery in
+the eighteenth century. He was aided by Flaxman.
+Before their time all earthenware pottery was what
+is now called “soft pottery.” That is, it was unglazed,
+simply baked clay; <i>lustrous</i> or <i>semi-glazed</i>
+and <i>enamelled</i> having a harder surface. Wedgwood
+invented the hard porcelain surface, and very
+many beautiful designs. To improve such earthenware
+and to best decorate it, are the objects around
+which modern inventions have mostly clustered.</p>
+
+<p>The “<i>regenerative</i>” principle of heating above
+referred to employed in some kilns, and so successfully
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_465" id="PAGE_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>incorporated in the regenerators invented since
+1850 by Siemens, Frank, Boetius, Bicheroux,
+Pousard and others, consisting in using the intensely
+hot wasted gases from laboratories or combustion
+chambers to heat the incoming air, and carrying the
+mingled products of combustion into chambers and
+passages to heat, dry or burn materials placed therein,
+has been of great service in the production of modern
+pottery; not only in a great saving in the amount
+of fuel, but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware
+spoiled in the firing.</p>
+
+<p>The old method of burning wood, or soft coal, or
+charcoal at the bottom of a small old-fashioned cylindrical
+fire brick kiln attended to by hand, and
+heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves
+in the chamber above, is done away with to a great
+extent in large manufactories for the making of
+stone and earthenware&mdash;although still followed in
+many porcelain kilns.</p>
+
+<p>Inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received
+the aid of woman. Susan Frackelton of the
+United States invented a portable kiln for firing
+pottery and porcelain, for which she obtained a patent
+in 1886.</p>
+
+<p>As in drying clay for brick, so in drying clay for
+porcelain and pottery generally, great improvements
+have been made in the drying of the clay, and other
+materials to be mixed therewith. A great step was
+taken to aid drying by the invention of the <i>filter
+press</i>, in which the materials, after they are mixed
+and while still wet, are subjected to such pressure
+that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed
+out, by which the inclosure of air bubbles in the
+clay is prevented.</p>
+
+<p>Despairing of excelling the China porcelain, although
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_466" id="PAGE_466">[Pg 466]</a></span>French investigators having alleged their discovery
+of such methods, modern inventors have contented
+themselves in inventing new methods and
+compositions. Charles Aoisseau, the potter of Tours,
+born in 1796, rediscovered and revived the art of
+Palissy. About 1842, Thomas Battam of England
+invented the method of imitating marble and other
+statuary by a composition of silica, alumina, soda,
+and traces of lime, magnesia, and iron, reducing it
+to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds,
+forming the figure or group. His plaster casts soon
+became famous. In the use of materials the aid of
+chemists was had in finding the proper ingredients
+to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common
+and fine <i>Faience</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Porcelain Moulding</i>, and its accompanying ornamentation
+and the use of apparatus for moulding by
+compression and by exhaustion of the air has become
+since that time a great industry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Porcelain Colours.</i>&mdash;Chemists also aided in discovering
+what metallic ingredients could best be used
+when mixed with the clay and sand to produce the
+desired colours. As soon as a new metal was discovered,
+it was tested to find, among other things,
+what vitrifiable colour it would produce. In the production
+of metallic glazes, the oxides generally are
+employed. The colours are usually applied to ware
+when it is in its unglazed or <i>biscuit</i> form. In the
+<i>biscuit</i> or <i>bisque</i> form pottery is bibulous, the prepared
+glaze sinks into its pores and when burned
+forms a vitreous coating.</p>
+
+<p>The application of oil colours and designs to ware
+before baking by the “bat” system of printing originated
+in the eighteenth and was perfected in the
+nineteenth century. It consists of impressing oil<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_467" id="PAGE_467">[Pg 467]</a></span>
+pictures on a bat of glue and then pressing the bat on
+to the porous unbaked clay or porcelain which transferred
+the colours. This was another revolution in
+the art.</p>
+
+<p>One manner for ages of applying colours to ware
+is first to reduce the mixture to a liquid form,
+called “slip,” and then, if the Chinese method is
+followed, to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow
+bamboo rod, which end is covered with wire gauze,
+then by blowing through the rod the colour was
+sprayed or deposited on the ware. Another method
+is the use of a brush and comb. The brush being
+dipped into the coloured matter, the comb is passed
+over the brush in such manner as to cause the paint
+to spatter the object with fine drops or particles. A
+very recent method, by which the beautiful background
+and blended colours of the celebrated Rookwood
+pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio, have become distinguished,
+consists in laying the colour upon the
+ware in a cloud or sheet of almost imperceptible
+mist by the use of an air atomiser blown by the
+operator. By the use of this simple instrument, the
+laying on a single colour, or the delicate blending
+and shadings of two or more colours in very beautiful
+effects is easily produced.</p>
+
+<p>This use of the atomiser commenced in 1884, and
+was claimed as the invention of a lady, Miss Laura
+Fry, who obtained a patent for thus blowing the
+atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in 1889;
+but it was held by the courts that she was anticipated
+by experiments of others, and by descriptions in
+previous patents of the spraying of paint on other
+objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air
+brush. However, this introduction of the use of the
+atomiser caused quite a revolution in the art of applying
+colours to pottery in the forming of backgrounds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_468" id="PAGE_468">[Pg 468]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery.
+About 1878 Niedringhaus in the United States began
+to enamel sheet iron by the application of glaze and
+iron oxide, giving such articles a granite appearance;
+and since then metallic cooking vessels, bath tubs,
+etc., have been converted in appearance into the
+finest earthenware and porcelain, and far more durable,
+beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone
+for such purposes.</p>
+
+<p>When we remember that for many centuries, wood
+and pewter, and to some extent crude earthenware,
+were the materials from which the dishes of
+the great bulk of the human family were made, as
+well as their table and mantel ornaments, and compare
+them in character and plenteousness with the
+table and other ware of even the poorest character
+of to-day, we can appreciate how much has been done
+in this direction to help the human family by
+modern inventions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artificial Stone.</i>&mdash;The world as yet has not so far
+exhausted its supply of stone and marble as to compel
+a resort to artificial productions on a great scale,
+and yet to meet the demands of those localities
+wherein the natural supplies of good building stones
+and marble are very scarce, necessitating when used
+a long and expensive transportation, methods have
+been adopted by which, at comparatively small cost,
+fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have
+been produced, having all the durable and artistic
+qualities of the originals, as for the most part, they
+are composed of the same materials as the stone and
+marbles themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic backgrounds, the veins and
+shadowings, and the soft colours of various marbles
+have been quite successfully imitated by treating dehydrated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_469" id="PAGE_469">[Pg 469]</a></span>gypsum with various colouring solutions.
+Sand stones have been moulded or pressed from the
+same ingredients, and with either smooth or undressed
+faces. When necessary the mixture is coloured,
+to resemble precisely the original stones.</p>
+
+<p>One of the improvements in the manufacture and
+use of modern <i>cements</i> and artificial stones consists
+in their application to the making of streets and
+sidewalks. Neat, smooth, hard, beautiful pavements
+are now taking the place everywhere of the
+unsatisfactory gravel, wood, and brick pavements of
+former days. We know that the Romans and other
+ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements, and
+the plaster on some of their walls stands to-day to
+attest its good quality. Modern inventors have
+turned their attention in recent years to the production
+of machines to grind, crush, mix and set the
+materials, and to apply them to large wall surfaces, in
+place of hand labour. <i>Ready-made plaster</i> of a fine
+quality is now manufactured in great quantities.
+It needs only the addition of a little water to reduce
+it to a condition for use; and a machine operated
+by compressed air may be had for spreading it
+quickly over the lath work of wood or sheet metal,
+slats, or over rough cement ceilings and walls.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glass.</i>&mdash;The Sister of Pottery is Glass. It may
+have been an accidental discovery, occurring when
+men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach, that fire
+could melt and fuse sand and ashes, or sand and lime,
+or sand and soda or some other alkali, and with
+which may also have been mixed some particles of
+iron, or lead, or manganese, or alumina to produce
+that hard, lustrous, vitreous, brittle article that we
+call <i>glass</i>.</p>
+
+<p>But who invented the method of blowing the viscid<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_470" id="PAGE_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>
+mass into form on the end of a hollow tube? Who
+invented the scissors and shears for cutting and trimming
+it when soft? Or the use of the diamond, or
+its dust, for polishing it when hard? History is
+silent on these points. The tablets of the most ancient
+days of Egypt, yet recovered, show glass
+blowers at work at their trade&mdash;and the names of the
+first and original inventors are buried in oblivion.
+Each age has handed down to us from many countries
+specimens of glass ware which will compare
+favourably in beauty and finish with any that can
+be made to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Yet with the knowledge of making glass of the
+finest description existing for centuries, it is strange
+that its manufacture was not extended to supply the
+wants of mankind, to which its use now seems so indispensable.
+And yet as late as the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries glass windows were found only
+in the houses of the wealthy, in the churches and
+palaces, and glass mirrors were unknown except to
+the rich, as curiosities, and as aids to the scientists
+in the early days of telescopy. Poor people used
+oiled paper, isinglass, thinly shaved leather, resembling
+parchment, and thin sheets of soft pale
+crystalised stone known as talc, and soapstone.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century has been characterised as
+the scientific century of glass, and the term commercial,
+may well be added to that designation.</p>
+
+<p>Its commercial importance and the advancement
+in its manufacture during the first half of the century
+is illustrated in the fact that the Crystal Palace
+of the London Industrial Exhibition of 1851, although
+containing nearly 900,000 square feet of
+glass, was furnished by a single firm, Messrs. Chance
+&amp; Co. of London, without materially delaying their<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_471" id="PAGE_471">[Pg 471]</a></span>
+other orders. In addition to scientific discoveries,
+the manufacture of glass in England received a great
+impetus by the removal of onerous excise duties
+which had been imposed on its manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The principal improvements in the art of glass-making
+effected during the nineteenth century may
+be summarised as follows:</p>
+
+<p>First, Materials.&mdash;By the investigations of chemists
+and practical trials it was learned what
+particular effect was produced by the old ingredients
+employed, and it was found that the
+colours and qualities of glass, such as clearness,
+strength, tenacity, purity, etc., could be greatly modified
+and improved by the addition to the sand of certain
+new ingredients. By analysis it was learned
+what different metallic oxides should be employed to
+produce different colours. This knowledge before
+was either preserved in secrecy, or accidentally or
+empirically practised, or unknown. Thus it was
+learned and established that lime hardens the glass
+and adds to its lustre; that the use of ordinary ingredients,
+the silicates of lime, magnesia, iron, soda and potash,
+in their impure form, will produce the coarser
+kinds of glass, such as that of which green bottles are
+made; that silicates of soda and lime give the common
+window glass and French plate; that the beautiful
+varieties of Bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate
+of potash and lime; that crystal or flint glass, so
+called because formerly pulverised flints were used
+in making it, can be made of a suitable combination
+of potassia plumbic silicate; that the plumbic
+oxide greatly increases its transparency, brilliancy,
+and refractive power; that <i>paste</i>&mdash;that form of glass
+from which imitations of diamonds are cut, may be
+produced by adding a large proportion of the oxide<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_472" id="PAGE_472">[Pg 472]</a></span>
+of lead; that by the addition of a trace of ferric oxide
+or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had; that
+by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire
+is produced; that cuperic oxide will give the
+emerald, gold oxide the ruby, manganic oxide the
+royal purple, and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic
+oxides the rich black onyx.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Faraday as early as 1824 had noticed
+a change in colour gradually produced in glass containing
+oxide of manganese by exposure to the rays
+of the sun. This observation induced an American
+gentleman, Mr. Thomas Gaffield, a merchant of Boston,
+to further experiment in this direction. His experiments
+commenced in 1863, and he subjected
+eighty different kinds of glass, coloured and uncoloured,
+and manufactured in many different countries,
+to this exposure of the sun’s rays. He found
+that not only glass having manganese as an element,
+but nearly every species of glass, was so affected,
+some in shorter and some in longer times; that this
+discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun,
+but to its actinic rays; and that the original colour
+of the glass could be reproduced by reheating the
+same.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain
+the power of different coloured glasses to
+transmit the actinic or chemical rays, and found that
+blue would transmit the most and red and orange
+the least.</p>
+
+<p>Others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining
+the best materials to be employed in glass-making
+in producing the clearest and most permanent
+uncoloured light; the best coloured lights for
+desired purposes; glasses having the best effects on the
+growth of plants; and the best class for refracting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_473" id="PAGE_473">[Pg 473]</a></span>
+dispersing and transmitting both natural lights and
+those great modern artificial lights, gas and electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Another illustration of modern scientific investigation
+and success in glass-making materials is seen
+at the celebrated German glass works at Jena under
+the management of Professors Ernst Abbe and Dr.
+Schott, commenced in 1881. They, too, found that
+many substances had each its own peculiar effect in
+the refraction and dispersion of light, and introduced
+no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass
+making. Their special work was the production of
+glass for the finest scientific and optical purposes,
+and the highest grades of commercial glass. They
+have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass.
+Their lenses for telescopes and microscopes and photographic
+cameras, and glass and prisms, and for
+all chemical and other scientific work, have a worldwide
+reputation.</p>
+
+<p>So that in materials of composition the old days
+in which there were substantially but two varieties
+of glass&mdash;the old-fashioned standard crown, and
+flint glass&mdash;have passed away.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methods.</i>&mdash;The revolution in the production of
+glass has been greatly aided also by new methods of
+treatment of the old as well as the new materials.
+For instance, the application of the Siemens regenerative
+furnace, already alluded to in referring
+to pottery, in place of old-fashioned kilns, and by
+which the amount of smoke is greatly diminished,
+fuel saved, and the colour of the glass improved.
+Pots are used containing the materials to be melted
+and not heated in the presence of the burning fuel,
+but by the heated gases in separate compartments.</p>
+
+<p>Another process is that of M. de la Bastie, added<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_474" id="PAGE_474">[Pg 474]</a></span>
+to by others, of toughening glass by plunging it
+while hot and pasty and after it has been shaped, annealed,
+and reheated, into a bath of grease, whereby
+the rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular
+condition so that it is less dense, resists breaking
+to a greater degree, and presents no sharp edges
+when broken.</p>
+
+<p>Another process is that of making plate glass by
+the cylinder process&mdash;rolling it into large sheets.</p>
+
+<p>Other processes are those for producing hollow
+ware by pressing in moulds; for decorating; for surface
+enamelling of sheet glass whereby beautiful
+lace patterns are transferred from the woven or
+netted fabric itself by using it as a stencil to distribute
+upon the surface the pulverised enamel, which
+is afterwards burned on; of producing <i>iridescent</i>
+glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of
+delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against
+the surface of hydrochloric acid under pressure, or the
+fumes of other materials volatilised in a reheating
+furnace.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is Dode’s process for platinising glass,
+by which a reflecting mirror is produced without
+silvering or otherwise coating its back, by first applying
+a thin coating of platinic choride mixed
+with an oil to the surface of the glass and heating the
+same, by which the mirror reflects from its front
+face. The platinum film is so thin that the pencil
+and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it,
+the object to be copied being seen by reflection.</p>
+
+<p>Again there is the process of making <i>glass wool
+or silk</i>&mdash;which is glass drawn out into such extremely
+fine threads that it may be used for all purposes
+of silk threads in the making of fabrics for
+decorative purposes and in some more useful purposes,
+such as the filtration of water and other liquids.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_475" id="PAGE_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We have already had occasion to refer to Tilghman’s
+sand blast in describing pneumatic apparatus.
+In glass manufacture the process is used in etching
+on glass designs of every kind, both simple and intricate.
+The sand forced by steam, or by compressed
+air on the exposed portions of the glass on which the
+design rests, will cut the same deeply, or most delicately,
+as the hand and eye of the operator may direct.</p>
+
+<p><i>Machines.</i>&mdash;In addition to the new styles of furnaces,
+moulds and melting, and rolling mills to
+which we have alluded, mention may be made of annealing
+and cooling ovens, by which latter the glass
+is greatly improved by being allowed to gradually
+cool. A large number of instruments have been invented
+for special purposes, such as for making the
+beautiful expensive cut glass, which is flint glass
+ground by wheels of iron, stone, and emery into the
+desired designs, while water is being applied, and
+then polished by wheels of wood, and pumice, or
+rottenstone; for grinding and polishing glass for
+lenses; and for polishing and finishing plate glass;
+for applying glass lining to metal pipes, tubes, etc.;
+for the delicate engraving of glass by small revolving
+copper disks, varying in size from the diameter
+of a cent down to one-fifteenth of an inch, cutting
+the finest blade of grass, a tiny bud, the downy wing
+of an insect, or the faint shadow of an exquisite eyebrow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cameo</i> cutting and incrustation; porcelain electroplating
+and moulding apparatus, and apparatus for
+making porcelain plates before drying and burning,
+may be added to the list.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a much longer list to enumerate the
+various objects made of glass unknown or not in common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_476" id="PAGE_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>use in former generations. The reader must
+call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks
+desirable to be made from or covered with this lustrous
+indestructible material, or any practicable form
+of instrument for the transmission of light, and it is
+quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops
+or instruments in factories ready for its making.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Rubber&mdash;Goodyear.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The rubber tree, whether in India with its immense
+trunk towering above all its fellows and wearing
+a lofty crown, hundreds of feet in circumference,
+of mixed green and yellow blossoms; or in South
+America, more slender and shorter but still beautiful
+in clustered leaves and flowers on its long, loosely
+pendent branches; or in Africa, still more slender
+and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees
+along the water courses, hiding its struggling support
+and festooning the whole forest with its glossy
+dark green leaves, sweetly scented, pure white, star-like
+flowers, and its orange-like fruit&mdash;yields from its
+veins a milk which man has converted into one of the
+most useful articles of the century.</p>
+
+<p>The modes of treating this milky juice varies
+among the natives of the several countries where the
+trees abound. In Africa they cut or strip the bark,
+and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and
+smear it thickly over their limbs and bodies, and
+when it dries pull it off and cut it into blocks for
+transportation. In Brazil the juice is collected in
+clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering
+fire of palm nuts, which gives the material its dark
+brown appearance. They mould the softened rubber
+over clay patterns in the form of shoes, jars, vases,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_477" id="PAGE_477">[Pg 477]</a></span>
+tubes, etc., and as they are sticky they carry them
+separated on poles to the large towns and sea ports
+and sell them in this condition. It was some such
+articles that first attracted the attention of Europeans,
+who during the eighteenth century called the
+attention of their countrymen to them.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1736 that La Condamine described rubber
+to the French Academy. He afterward resided
+in the valley of the Amazon ten years, and then he
+and MM. Herissent, Macquer, and Grossat, again
+by their writings and experiments interested the scientific
+and commercial world in the matter.</p>
+
+<p>In 1770 Dr. Priestley published the fact that this
+rubber had become notable for rubbing out pencil
+marks, bits of it being sold for a high price for that
+purpose. About 1797, some Englishman began to
+make water-proof varnish from it, and to take out
+patents for the same. This was as far as the art had
+advanced in caoutchouc, or rubber, in the eighteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1819 Mr. Mackintosh, of Glasgow, began experimenting
+with the oil of naphtha obtained from gas
+works as a solvent for India rubber; and so successfully
+that he made a water-proof varnish which was
+applied to fabrics, took out his patent in England in
+1823, and thus was started the celebrated “Mackintoshes.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 Thomas C. Wales, a merchant of Boston,
+conceived the idea of sending American boot and
+shoe lasts to Brazil for use in place of their clay models.
+This soon resulted in sending great quantities
+of rubber overshoes to Europe and America.</p>
+
+<p>The importation of rubber and the manufacture
+of water-proof garments and articles therefrom now
+rapidly increased in those countries. But nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_478" id="PAGE_478">[Pg 478]</a></span>
+that could be done would prevent the rubber from
+getting soft in summer and hard and brittle in the
+winter. Something was needed to render the rubber
+insensible to the changes of temperature.</p>
+
+<p>For fifty years, ever since the manufacturers and
+inventors of Europe and America had learned of
+the water-proof character of rubber, they had been
+striving to find something to overcome this difficulty.
+Finally it became the lot of one man to supply the
+want. His name was Charles Goodyear.</p>
+
+<p>Born with the century, in New Haven, Connecticut,
+and receiving but a public school education, he
+engaged with his father in the hardware business in
+Philadelphia. This proving a failure, he, in 1830,
+turned his attention to the improvement of rubber
+goods. He became almost a fanatic on the subject&mdash;going
+from place to place clad in rubber fabrics,
+talking about it to merchants, mechanics, scientists,
+chemists, anybody that would listen, making his experiments
+constantly; deeply in debt on account of
+his own and his father’s business failures, thrown
+into jail for debt for months, continuing his experiments
+there with philosophical, good-natured persistence;
+out of jail steeped to his lips in poverty; his
+family suffering for the necessaries of life; selling
+the school books of his children for material to continue
+his work, and taking a patent in 1835 for a
+rubber cement, which did not help him much. Finding
+that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber
+by removing its adhesiveness, he introduced this
+process, which met with great favour, was applied
+generally to the manufacture of overshoes, and
+helped his condition. But his trials and troubles
+continued. Finally one Nathaniel Haywood suggested
+the use of sulphurous acid gas, and this<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_479" id="PAGE_479">[Pg 479]</a></span>
+was found an improvement; but still the rubber
+would get hard in winter, and although not so
+soft in summer, yet the odour was offensive. Yet
+by the use of this improvement he was enabled
+to raise more money to get Haywood a patent
+for it, while he became its owner. In the midst
+of his further troubles, and while experimenting
+with the sulphur mixed with rubber he found by
+accidental burning or partly melting of the two together
+on a stove, that the part in which the sulphur
+was embedded was hard and inelastic, and that the
+part least impregnated with the sulphur was proportionately
+softer and more elastic. At last the
+great secret was discovered!</p>
+
+<p>And now at this later day, when $50,000,000
+worth of rubber goods are made annually in the
+United States alone, the whole immense business is
+still divided into but two classes&mdash;hard and soft&mdash;hard
+or vulcanized like that called “ebonite,” or soft,
+it may be, as a delicate wafer. And these qualities
+depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of sulphur
+is used, as described in the patents of Goodyear,
+commencing with his French patent of 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Then of course the pirates began their attacks, and
+he was kept poor in defending his patents, and died
+comparatively so in 1860; but happy in his great discovery.
+He had received, however, the whole
+world’s honours&mdash;the great council medal at the
+Nations Fair in London in 1851 the Cross of the
+Legion of Honour by Napoleon III., and lesser tributes
+from other nations.</p>
+
+<p>It can be imagined the riches that flowed into the
+laps of Goodyear’s successors; the wide field opened
+for new inventions in machines and processes; and
+the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_480" id="PAGE_480">[Pg 480]</a></span>
+Goodyear’s introduction of a new and useful material
+to man.&mdash;A material which, takes its place and
+stands in line with wood, and leather, and glass, and
+iron, and steel!</p>
+
+<p>But rubber and steel as we now know them are
+not the only new fabrics given to mankind by the inventors
+of the Nineteenth Century.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the silk worm has been rivalled; and
+a <i>wool</i> as white and soft as that clipped from the
+cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands of these
+magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts
+from a blast furnace.</p>
+
+<p>The silk referred to is made from a solution of
+that inflammable material of tremendous force
+known as gun-cotton, or pyroxylin. Dr. Chardonnet
+was the inventor of the leading form of the
+article, which he introduced and patented about
+1888. The solution made is of a viscous character,
+allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices
+in fine streams; and as the solvent part evaporates
+rapidly these fine streams become hard, flexible
+fibres, which glisten with a beautiful lustre and
+can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the
+fine threads spun by that mysterious master of his
+craft&mdash;the silk worm.</p>
+
+<p>The gusts of wind that drove against the molten
+lava thrown from the crater of Kilauea, producing
+as it did, a fall of white, metallic, hairy-like material
+resembling wool, suggested to man an industrial
+application of the same method. And at the
+great works of Krupp at Essen, Prussia, for instance,
+may be witnessed a fine stream of molten slag
+flowing from an iron furnace, and as it falls is met
+by a strong blast of cold air which transforms it into
+a silky mass as white and fine as cotton.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_481" id="PAGE_481">[Pg 481]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>
+<b>A.</b><br><br>
+Abbe, Prof. Ernst, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>, <a href="#PAGE_473">473</a>.<br><br>
+
+Abbott Museum, N.Y., <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br>
+
+Abrading machines, <a href="#PAGE_332">332</a>.<br><br>
+
+Acetylene, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Accumulators, <a href="#PAGE_177">177</a>.<br><br>
+
+Achromatic lens, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Acoustics, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Addressing machines, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br>
+
+Aeolipile, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>.<br><br>
+
+Affixers, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br>
+
+African inventions, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>.<br><br>
+
+Agriculture, Chap. <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_3">3</a>, <a href="#PAGE_4">4</a>, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>.<br><br>
+
+Agricultural chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>.<br><br>
+
+Agricultural societies, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>.<br><br>
+
+Aeronautics. (See Air Ships and Balloons, <a href="#PAGE_169">169</a>, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>, <a href="#PAGE_448">448</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Air Atomizers, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br>
+
+Air brakes, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br>
+
+Air Brushes, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br>
+
+Air Compressors and propellers, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>.<br><br>
+
+Air Drills, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+Air Engines, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+Air propellers. (See Pneumatics.)<br><br>
+
+Air Pumps, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>, <a href="#PAGE_196">196</a>, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br>
+
+Air Ships, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>, <a href="#PAGE_449">449</a>.<br><br>
+
+Airy, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Alabama,” The, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br>
+
+Alarm Locks. (See Locks.)<br><br>
+
+Alchemistry and alchemists. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Alcohol, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br>
+
+Alfred the Great, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>.<br><br>
+
+Alembert, D., <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br>
+
+Alhambra, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>.<br><br>
+
+Allen, Horatio, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br>
+
+Allen, Dr. John, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>.<br><br>
+
+Allotropic phosphorus. (See Matches.)<br><br>
+
+Allen and Yates. (See Puddling.)<br><br>
+
+Alloys, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br>
+
+Altiscope, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br>
+
+Aluminium, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br>
+
+Amalgamators, <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>.<br><br>
+
+American Inventions, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ammonia, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>, <a href="#PAGE_215">215</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ammoniacal gas engines, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>.<br><br>
+
+Amp&egrave;re, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>.<br><br>
+
+Amontons air engines, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ancient smelting. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Anæsthetics, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>.<br><br>
+
+Aniline dyes, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br>
+
+Annealing and tempering, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br>
+
+Antiseptics, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br>
+
+Antwerp, Siege of, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Aoisseau, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br>
+
+Apollo, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>.<br><br>
+
+Applegath, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br>
+
+Aqueducts, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arabs, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arabic notation, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arago, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arc Lamps, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Archimedes, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br>
+
+Aristotle, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Argand burner, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arkwright, Richard, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arlberg tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Armor, plate, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>, <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arnold, Asa, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arnold, watchmaker, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br>
+
+Armstrong, Sir William G., <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Arquebus. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Artesian Wells, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br>
+
+Artificial Stone. (See Pottery.)<br><br>
+
+Artificial Silk. (See Glass.)<br><br>
+
+Arts, Fine, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>, <a href="#PAGE_353">353</a>, <a href="#PAGE_371">371</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br>
+
+Art, Scientific, <a href="#PAGE_228">228</a>.<br><br>
+
+Artificial Teeth. (See Dentistry.)<br><br>
+
+Artillery. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Asbestos, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br>
+
+Assembling machines and system. (See Sewing machines, Watch, and Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Assyrians, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br>
+
+Astronomical inventions, <a href="#PAGE_390">390</a>. (See Horology and Optics.)<br><br>
+
+Athens. (See Greece.)<br><br>
+
+Athanor, Alchemist’s stone. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Atmospheric and Gas pressure, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+Atoms&mdash;atomic theory, <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>.<br><br>
+
+Atomizer, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br>
+
+Attraction of Gravitation, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Augurs, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br>
+
+Auricular instruments, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Australia, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br>
+
+Austria, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>.<br><br>
+
+Autoharps, <a href="#PAGE_405">405</a>.<br><br>
+
+Automobiles, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br>
+
+Axes, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>B.</b><br><br>
+
+Babbitt, Isaac, metal, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br>
+
+Babylonians, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bach. (See Pianos.)<br><br>
+
+Bacon, Roger, <a href="#PAGE_214">214</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bacteria, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bailey, 1822; <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bain, Alex., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br>
+
+Baling and Bale ties, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>.<br><br>
+
+Balloons, <a href="#PAGE_169">169</a>, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br>
+
+Band Saw, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br>
+
+Barber, John, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>.<br><br>
+
+Barker’s Mill, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br>
+
+Barlow looms, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Barlow, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>.<br><br>
+
+Barrel making. (See Wood Working.)<br><br>
+
+Bartholdi, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bastie, <a href="#PAGE_473">473</a>.<br><br>
+
+Batcheller, <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br>
+
+Baths&mdash;closets, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bath system, Porcelain, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br>
+
+Battam, Thomas, artificial marble, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br>
+
+Baude, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br>
+
+Beadlestone, metallurgist, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bean, B. W., <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br>
+
+Beaulieu, Col. (Ordnance), <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Beating engines. (See Paper.)<br><br>
+
+Becher, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bechler, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br>
+
+Becquerel, <a href="#PAGE_44">44</a>.<br><br>
+
+Beds, <a href="#PAGE_355">355</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bed&mdash;printing, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br>
+
+Beer. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Bellaert, Jacob, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bell, Alex. Graham, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_142">142</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bell, C. A., <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bell, Sir L., metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bell’s history of metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bell, Rev. Patrick, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bells and Bell making&mdash;Metallurgy.<br><br>
+
+Bending wood, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>. (See Woodworking.)<br><br>
+
+Bennett, Richard, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bentham, Sir Sam’l, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_374">374</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bergman, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>.<br><br>
+
+Berliner, Emile, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bernoulli, D., <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br>
+
+Berthollet, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br>
+
+Berzelius, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bessemer, Henry, and process, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_232">232</a>, <a href="#PAGE_233">233</a>.<br><br>
+
+Besson, Prof. J., <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bicheroux, potter, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bicycles, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bigelow, E. B., <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Billings, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_210">210</a>.<br><br>
+
+Binding books. (See Printing.)<br><br>
+
+Binders, grain and twine, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bicycles, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a> to <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bischof, Simon, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blacksmithing. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Blaew of Amsterdam, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br>
+
+Black, chemist, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blair, iron and steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blakely Gun. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Blake, Eli. W., Blake crusher, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>, <a href="#PAGE_377">377</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blanchard, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>, <a href="#PAGE_343">343</a>, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blasting, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blast, steel. (See Bessemer.)<br><br>
+
+Blauofen furnace. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Bleaching and Dyeing, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blenkinsop, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Blithe, Walter, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br>
+
+Block Printing. (See Printing.)<br><br>
+
+Blodgett &amp; Lerow, sewing machines, <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bloomaries. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Blunderbuss, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bobbins&mdash;spinning, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boerhaave, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boetius, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bohemia, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boilers. (See Steam Engineering.)<br><br>
+
+“Boke of Husbandry,” 1523, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bollman bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bolting. (See Milling.)<br><br>
+
+Bolt making. (See Metal Working.)<br><br>
+
+Bombards, <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bombs. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Bomford, Col., <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bonaparte, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_90">90</a>, <a href="#PAGE_256">256</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bonnets and ladies’ hats, <a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bonjeau, M., <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bonelli, M., <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Book making and binding, <a href="#PAGE_287">287</a>, <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boots and shoes, <a href="#PAGE_366">366</a> to <a href="#PAGE_371">371</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boring machines, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boring square holes, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bormann, Genl., <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bottle stoppers, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boulton and Watt, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bouton, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bourseuil, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boyce, 1799, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br>
+
+Boyle, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+Box making. (See Woodworking Machinery.)<br><br>
+
+Braiding. (See Sewing Machines.)<br><br>
+
+Braithwaite, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brakes, bicycle, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>-<a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brakes, steam, Railway and Electric, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brakes and gins, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bramah, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_424">424</a>.<br><br>
+
+Branch, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>.<br><br>
+
+Branco, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brahe, Tycho, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brass, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brayton, G. H., <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brazil, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+Breech-loaders, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>, <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Brewster, Sir David, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brickmaking machines, kilns and processes, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bridges and Bridge Building, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a> to <a href="#PAGE_104">104</a>, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bright, John, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br>
+
+Broadwood piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bronsen, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Broom-making, <a href="#PAGE_328">328</a>, <a href="#PAGE_329">329</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brot, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brothers of the Bridge, <a href="#PAGE_94">94</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bronze, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brooklyn bridge, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_99">99</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brown, Sir Saml., <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Brown Bess,” <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bruce, David, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brunel, I. K., <a href="#PAGE_97">97</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brunel, I. M., <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brunton, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brush&mdash;Brush light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Brushes and Brush making, <a href="#PAGE_330">330</a>.<br><br>
+
+Buchanan’s Practical Essays, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br>
+
+Buckingham, C. L., <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br>
+
+Buffing machines, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>.<br><br>
+
+Builders’ hardware, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Buildings, tall, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>.<br><br>
+
+Buffers, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>. (See Railways, Elevator, etc., <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>, <a href="#PAGE_161">161</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Bunsen, Robt. W., <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>, <a href="#PAGE_230">230</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bunsen light, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Burden, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>.<br><br>
+
+Burdett, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br>
+
+Burke, Edmund, <a href="#PAGE_182">182</a>.<br><br>
+
+Burns, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_31">31</a>.<br><br>
+
+Butter, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br>
+
+Button-hole machines, <a href="#PAGE_323">323</a>.<br><br>
+
+Bunsen. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>C.</b><br><br>
+
+Cable transportation, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cæsar, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cahill, Thaddeus, <a href="#PAGE_287">287</a>.<br><br>
+
+Caissons, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>.<br><br>
+
+Calcium-carbide, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Calico making and printing, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>, <a href="#PAGE_326">326</a>.<br><br>
+
+California, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cameo cutting, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br>
+
+<i>Camera obscura</i>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Campbell printing press, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br>
+
+Canada, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br>
+
+Canals, and boats for, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br>
+
+Canal locks, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cane woven goods, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cannons and firearms, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a>-<a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cantilever bridges, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>, <a href="#PAGE_104">104</a>.<br><br>
+
+Caoutchouc. (See Rubber, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Caps,&mdash;gun, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br>
+
+Car heating, <a href="#PAGE_211">211</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cars, sleeping, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>. (See Railways.)<br><br>
+
+Car tracks, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br>
+
+Car rails, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br>
+
+Car wheels, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carbines, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Carbon&mdash;chemistry.<br><br>
+
+Carbonating, <a href="#PAGE_68">68</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carborundum, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cardan, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carding, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cardova. (See Leather.)<br><br>
+
+Carlyle, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carnot. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Carpentry, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carpets and Looms, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carr&eacute; Brothers, <a href="#PAGE_214">214</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carriages and carrying machines, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>-<a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carthagenians, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carts. (See Coaches and Waggons.)<br><br>
+
+Cartridges, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cartwright, Rev. Edwd., <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br>
+
+Carving machinery, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>.<br><br>
+
+Case-shot. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Cash registers, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cast iron, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br>
+
+Catalan furnace, <a href="#PAGE_222">222</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Cauchy, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Caus, Salomon de, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cavendish, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Caxton, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Centennial Exhibition. 1876; <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>, <a href="#PAGE_320">320</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>, <a href="#PAGE_353">353</a>, <a href="#PAGE_393">393</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br>
+
+Centrifugal machines (pumps), <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br>
+
+Charcoal. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Chairs. (See Furniture.)<br><br>
+
+Chaff separator. (See Milling.)<br><br>
+
+Chain wheels&mdash;hydraulics, <a href="#PAGE_156">156</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chairs, tables, desks, etc. (See Furniture, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Challey, M., <a href="#PAGE_97">97</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Champion harvesters”&mdash;Harvesters.<br><br>
+
+Chance &amp; Co., Glass makers, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br>
+
+Channelling shoes. (See Leather.)<br><br>
+
+Chanute, Octave, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chappe, M., <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br>
+
+Charles I. (See Ordnance;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Charles II., <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Charles V., <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Charles VIII., <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chemical Telegraph. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br>
+
+Chester-dial telegraph, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chili, <a href="#PAGE_461">461</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chill hardening, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chickering pianos, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chimes, <a href="#PAGE_196">196</a>.<br><br>
+
+China and Chinese inventions, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_222">222</a>, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chlorates, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chlorine, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chlorination, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chromium, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chronometers, <a href="#PAGE_390">390</a>, <a href="#PAGE_394">394</a>.<br><br>
+
+Chubb-safes, <a href="#PAGE_422">422</a>, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cigar and cigarette machines, <a href="#PAGE_56">56</a>, <a href="#PAGE_57">57</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cincinnati Bridge. (See Engineering.)<br><br>
+
+Cincinnatus, <a href="#PAGE_17">17</a>, <a href="#PAGE_31">31</a>.<br><br>
+
+Circulation of blood, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Civil Engineering, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>-<a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clark, Alvan, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clavichord, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clayton, Dr., 1688, <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clay, Treatment of. (See Brick and Pottery making.)<br><br>
+
+Cleaning grain, etc. (See Mills.)<br><br>
+
+Clement, metal worker, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clementi, pianist, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clepsydra, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Clermont.” (See Steam Ships.)<br><br>
+
+Clippers, Ships, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clocks, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>. (See Horology.)<br><br>
+
+Clocks, Essential parts of, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>.<br><br>
+
+Closets. (See Baths.)<br><br>
+
+Cloth, Making, Finishing, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Drying, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Printing, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Creasing and pressing, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Cutting, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>-<a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Fancy woven, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>-<a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clothes. (See Garments.)<br><br>
+
+Clover Header, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clutches, <a href="#PAGE_161">161</a>-<a href="#PAGE_162">162</a>.<br><br>
+
+Clymer, of Philadelphia, press, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coaches, stages, mail, etc., <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>-<a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coach lace, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coal, <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>, <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Coal breakers and cleaners, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>-<a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coal gas, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Coal tar colors. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Coal mining. (See Ores.)<br><br>
+
+Coaling Ships, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coehorn, shell, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coffin, journalist, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coke. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Cold metal punching, working and rolling, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>-<a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br>
+
+Colding of Denmark, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br>
+
+Collards, pianos, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Collen, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Collins line. (See Steam Ships.)<br><br>
+
+Collinge, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coloring cloth, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br>
+
+Colors and coloring, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>-<a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br>
+
+Color process. (See Photography, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>, Printing, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Colt, revolvers, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>, <a href="#PAGE_322">322</a>.<br><br>
+
+Columbiad, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br>
+
+Colossus of Rhodes, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br>
+
+Comminges of France, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br>
+
+Comminuting machines. (See Grinding.)<br><br>
+
+Compartment vessels, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br>
+
+Compass, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Compensating devices, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br>
+
+Compound engines, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>-<a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>.<br><br>
+
+Compressed air drills, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>.<br><br>
+
+Compressed air and steam, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>.<br><br>
+
+Compressed air ordnance, <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br>
+
+Condensers, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br>
+
+Condamine, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+Conservation of forces, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Constitution, U.S., <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>.<br><br>
+
+Convertibility of forces, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Containers, <a href="#PAGE_175">175</a>.<br><br>
+
+Conveyors, transportation, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_158">158</a>, <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>, <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cook, Telegraphy, <a href="#PAGE_127">127</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cooke, Prof. J. P., <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cooke, James, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cooking. (See Stoves.)<br><br>
+
+Cooper, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coopering. (See Wood Working.)<br><br>
+
+Copernicus, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Copper, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>, etc.<br><br>
+
+Corliss, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Corn:<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Cultivators, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>-<a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Mills, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Planters, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>.<br><br>
+
+Correlation of forces, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cort, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_226">226</a>-<a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br>
+
+Corundum, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_334">334</a>.<br><br>
+
+Coster, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cotton, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Gin, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Harvester, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cotton seed oil, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cotton and wool machinery, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br>
+
+“Counterblast to Tobacco,” <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br>
+
+Couplers, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cowper, <a href="#PAGE_31">31</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cowper, printer, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cowley, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cradle, grain, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cranes and derricks, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br>
+
+Crecy, (1346). (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Cristofori, pianist, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Crompton, Saml., <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br>
+
+Crompton, George, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Crookes, Prof. Wm., <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br>
+
+Crooke tubes, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cros, Charles, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br>
+
+Crushers, stone and ore, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>.<br><br>
+
+Crystal Palace, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ctesibius, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cultivators, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br>
+
+Curtet, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cugnot, 1769, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br>
+
+Culverin. (See Cannon.)<br><br>
+
+Cunard line, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cuneus, <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>.<br><br>
+
+Curtains Shades and Screens, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cyanide. Cyanide process, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br>
+
+Cyclometers, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>D.</b><br><br>
+
+Daguerre, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>-<a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>.<br><br>
+
+Daguerreotype, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dahlgren, Cannon, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Danks, Rotary puddler, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dalton, John, <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>-<a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_186">186</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>.<br><br>
+
+Damascus Steel, <a href="#PAGE_221">221</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Dana, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br>
+
+Daniell’s battery, <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br>
+
+Darby, Abraham, 1777, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>.<br><br>
+
+Darwin, Dr., 18th cent., <a href="#PAGE_73">73</a>.<br><br>
+
+Davy, Humphry, Sir, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br>
+
+David’s harp, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>.<br><br>
+
+Decker, piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Delinter, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dentistry, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dental Chairs, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Drills, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Engines, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Hammers, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Pluggers, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br>
+
+Deoville, St. Clair, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br>
+
+Derricks, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Deutschland,” The, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>.<br><br>
+
+Desks, <a href="#PAGE_355">355</a>.<br><br>
+
+De Susine, <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dewar, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dial Telegraphs. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br>
+
+Diamonds. (See Milling; Polishing; Artificial, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Diamond Drill, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>.<br><br>
+
+Diana, Temple of, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br>
+
+Diastase, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>.<br><br>
+
+Didot, Francois, 1800, <a href="#PAGE_276">276</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dickenson, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br>
+
+Digesters. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Differential motion, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dioptric Lens, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Diorama, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br>
+
+Direct Acting Engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Direct Feed Engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Discoveries, distinct from inventions, <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Disk Plows, <a href="#PAGE_21">21</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br>
+
+Distaff and Spindle. (See Textiles, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Dodge, James M., <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>.<br><br>
+
+Doffers, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dog Carts. (See Carriages.)<br><br>
+
+Dollond, John, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Donkin, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br>
+
+Donovan, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br>
+
+Don Quixote, <a href="#PAGE_222">222</a>.<br><br>
+
+Douglass, Nicholas, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br>
+
+Draining, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Drags and Drays. (See Waggons, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>-<a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Drais, Baron Von, <a href="#PAGE_432">432</a>.<br><br>
+
+Drake, E. S., Col., <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br>
+
+Draper, J. W., Prof., <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>, <a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>.<br><br>
+
+Drawing Machines, Spinning, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dredging, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dressing;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; of thread and cloths, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; of skins. (See Leather.)<br><br>
+
+Drills, seeders, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>.<br><br>
+
+Drills, stone ore and iron, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>.<br><br>
+
+Drying apparatus. (See Kilns.)<br><br>
+
+Dreyse, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dualine, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Duboscq, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dudley, Dud, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br>
+
+Duncan, John, <a href="#PAGE_311">311</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dundas, Charlotte, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dundonald, Lord, <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dundas, Lord, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dunlop, J. B., Bicycles, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>.<br><br>
+
+Duplex Engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dulcimer. (See Music.)<br><br>
+
+Dust Explosions and Collectors, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutch Paper, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Printing, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutch Canals, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutch Clocks, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutch Furnaces and Stoves, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutch Locks, <a href="#PAGE_424">424</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutch Ships, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutch Ware, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dutton, Maj. C. E., <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dynamometer, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dynamite, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Dynamo Electric Machines, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>, <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>E.</b><br><br>
+
+Eads, James B., <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br>
+
+Eames of U. S., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+East River Bridge, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_99">99</a>.<br><br>
+
+Eddystone Lighthouse, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br>
+
+Edison, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br>
+
+Egyptian agriculture, arts and inventions, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#PAGE_220">220</a>, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_354">354</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br>
+
+Eiffel, M., <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electricity, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_111">111</a>-<a href="#PAGE_151">151</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Alarms. (See Locks.)<br><br>
+
+Electric Batteries, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>-<a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Cable, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Heating, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Lighting, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>, <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a> to <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>, <a href="#PAGE_360">360</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electro-Chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electro-magnets, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>-<a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electro Metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electrodes, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electrolysis, <a href="#PAGE_129">129</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electrometer, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electrical Music, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electro Plating, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Railway, <a href="#PAGE_143">143</a>, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Signals and Stops, <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>, <a href="#PAGE_162">162</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Telegraphy, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>, <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electrotyping, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Type Printing, <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Type Writer, <a href="#PAGE_287">287</a>.<br><br>
+
+Electric Voters, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br>
+
+Elevators, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>, <a href="#PAGE_156">156</a>, <a href="#PAGE_157">157</a>.<br><br>
+
+Eliot, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Elton, John, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>.<br><br>
+
+Elvean, Louis T. van, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br>
+
+Embossing, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>.<br><br>
+
+Embossing, weaving, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Embroidery, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br>
+
+Emery, abrading, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_334">334</a>.<br><br>
+
+Emery, testing machines, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br>
+
+England, <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>, <a href="#PAGE_17">17</a>, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br>
+
+Engraving Machines, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br>
+
+Enamelling. (See Pottery.)<br><br>
+
+Enamelled Ware, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>.<br><br>
+
+Engineering. (See Civil.)<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Electric, <a href="#PAGE_143">143</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Hydraulic, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Marine, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Mining, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Steam, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Eolipile. (See Hero.)<br><br>
+
+Erard, pianist, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Erasmus, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ericsson, John, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_441">441</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>, <a href="#PAGE_444">444</a>.<br><br>
+
+Euclid, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>.<br><br>
+
+Euler, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br>
+
+Evans, Oliver, 1755-1819; <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>, <a href="#PAGE_47">47</a>, <a href="#PAGE_48">48</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_374">374</a>.<br><br>
+
+Evaporating, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>.<br><br>
+
+Evelyn, John, 1699; <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br>
+
+Evolution of modern inventions, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>.<br><br>
+
+Excavating, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>.<br><br>
+
+Explosives, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Eylewein, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>F.</b><br><br>
+
+Fabroni, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>.<br><br>
+
+Faience, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fairbairn, Sir Wm., <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_226">226</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fairbanks, scales and testing, <a href="#PAGE_397">397</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fahrenheit, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fanning Mills, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>.<br><br>
+
+Faraday, Michael, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_129">129</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_472">472</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fan mills, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fare registers, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br>
+
+Farmer, Moses G., <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>.<br><br>
+
+Factory life, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br>
+
+Faure, M. Camille, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br>
+
+Faur, Faber du, <a href="#PAGE_230">230</a>.<br><br>
+
+Faust, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Felt making, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fermentation, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fertilizers&mdash;machines and compositions. (See Agriculture.)<br><br>
+
+Field, Cyrus W., <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br>
+
+Filament-carbon, <a href="#PAGE_360">360</a>. (See Electric Lighting.)<br><br>
+
+Filters, filtering, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_180">180</a>, <a href="#PAGE_181">181</a>.<br><br>
+
+Filter Press, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fink bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fire-arms, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a>-<a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fire crackers, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fire engines, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fire place, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fiske, range finder, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fiske, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fitch, John, 1784, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fitzherbert, Sir A., 1523, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fireproof safes. (See Locks.)<br><br>
+
+Flax machines, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>.<br><br>
+
+Flax brakes, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>.<br><br>
+
+Flaxman, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br>
+
+Flax-threshers, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fleming, <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fleshing machines, <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fletcher, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br>
+
+Flexible shafts, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br>
+
+Florence, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Flour. (See Mills.)<br><br>
+
+Fly Shuttle. (See Spinning and Weaving.)<br><br>
+
+Foods, preparation of, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>.<br><br>
+
+Force feed-seeders, <a href="#PAGE_26">26</a>.<br><br>
+
+Forneyron, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br>
+
+Forsythe, Rev. Mr., <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br>
+
+Foucault, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fourcroy, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fourdrinier, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>. (See Paper making.)<br><br>
+
+Frackelton, Susan, portable kiln, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+France, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br>
+
+Francis, S. W., <a href="#PAGE_286">286</a>.<br><br>
+
+Frank, pottery, <a href="#PAGE_463">463</a>.<br><br>
+
+Franklin, Benj., <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_111">111</a>, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>, <a href="#PAGE_116">116</a>, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br>
+
+Franklin Institute, <a href="#PAGE_455">455</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fraunhofer, von, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Frederick, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br>
+
+Freiberg Mining Academy, Metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fresnel, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Frictional Electricity, <a href="#PAGE_111">111</a>.<br><br>
+
+Frieburg Bridge. (See Bridges.)<br><br>
+
+Frogs, R. R., <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br>
+
+Flintlock, firearms, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br>
+
+Froment, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br>
+
+Frontinus, on Roman aqueducts, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fruits, Preparation of, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fruit jars, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fry, Laura, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fulton, Robt., <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>-<a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br>
+
+Furnaces, hot air; hot water, <a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>, <a href="#PAGE_207">207</a>.<br><br>
+
+Furniture, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_354">354</a>, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br>
+
+Furniture machinery, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br>
+
+Fuses, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>G.</b><br><br>
+
+Gaffield, Thos., glass, <a href="#PAGE_472">472</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gale, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br>
+
+Galileo, <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gally, self-playing pianos, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Galton, Capt. Douglas, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>.<br><br>
+
+Galvani, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br>
+
+Galvanism, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>,121.<br><br>
+
+Galvanic batteries, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>.<br><br>
+
+Galvanic music, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Galvanometer, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gamble, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br>
+
+Garay, Blasco de, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Garments, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>-<a href="#PAGE_327">327</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gas, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; illuminating, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>-<a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gases, motors, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gas checks, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gas engines, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>-<a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gasoline and stoves, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gas pumps, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gatling, Dr., gun, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gaul, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gauss, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gay-Lussac, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ged, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br>
+
+Geissler tubes, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br>
+
+Generator, Electric, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gentleman Farmer, 1768, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>.<br><br>
+
+George III., <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br>
+
+German inventions, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>, <a href="#PAGE_473">473</a>.<br><br>
+
+Germ theory, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br>
+
+German clock and watch making, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gibraltar, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br>
+
+Giffard-injector, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gilbert, Dr., 1600, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gill, J. G., <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>.<br><br>
+
+Giers, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gin-cotton, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gladstone, inventor, 1806, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br>
+
+Glass, <a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>.<br><br>
+
+Glass, wool, and silk, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br>
+
+Glazes, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>. (See Porcelain.)<br><br>
+
+Glauber, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Glycerine, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gold. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Goodyear, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_434">434</a>, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>, <a href="#PAGE_478">478</a>, <a href="#PAGE_479">479</a>, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br>
+
+Googe, Barnaby, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gompertz, <a href="#PAGE_432">432</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gordon, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gothic architecture, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>.<br><br>
+
+Governors, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br>
+
+Graham (chemist), <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br>
+
+Graham. (See Horology.)<br><br>
+
+Grain Binder. (See Harvesters.)<br><br>
+
+Grain cradles, drills, and seeders. (See Agriculture.)<br><br>
+
+Grain elevator, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grain Separators, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gramme, Z., <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_136">136</a>, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gramophone, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br>
+
+Graphophone, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grass burning stoves, <a href="#PAGE_211">211</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gray, Elisha. (See Electricity.)<br><br>
+
+Gray, S., 1729, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Great Britain,” The, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Great Republic,” The, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br>
+
+Great Urgroez, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>.<br><br>
+
+Greece and Greek antiquities and inventions, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#PAGE_182">182</a>, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grenades, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br>
+
+Green, N. W., driven well, <a href="#PAGE_383">383</a>.<br><br>
+
+Greenough, J. J., <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gribeauval, <a href="#PAGE_256">256</a>.<br><br>
+
+Griffith, Julius, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Griffiths of U. S., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grinding by stones, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a> to <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grinding glass, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grindstones, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grossat, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grover and Baker sewing mach., <a href="#PAGE_320">320</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grooving, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br>
+
+Grove, Sir Wm. Robert, <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gruner, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gun carriages. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Gun cotton, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gun making, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gunpowder, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gunpowder eng., <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gun-stock, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br>
+
+Guericke, Otto von, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br>
+
+Guillaume, Puy, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br>
+
+Gurney, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Guttenberg, John, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>H.</b><br><br>
+
+Hales, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hall, John H., <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hall safes, <a href="#PAGE_422">422</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hamberg, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hamblet, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hamilton (stove inventor), <a href="#PAGE_212">212</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hammers, steam and air, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hanckwitz, Godfrey, 1680, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hancock, Walter, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Handel, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hanging Gardens, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hardening metals, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hardware. (See Metal Working.)<br><br>
+
+Hargreaves, Jas., <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_294">294</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br>
+
+Harnesses, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br>
+
+Harp, The, and the Harpsichord, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Harvesters, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>, <a href="#PAGE_322">322</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hartshorn, spring roller shades, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br>
+
+Harveyized steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Harrows, <a href="#PAGE_22">22</a>, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hautefeuille, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hauteville, Abb&eacute;, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hat making, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br>
+
+Haydn, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hay, rakes and tedders, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br>
+
+Headers, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br>
+
+Heat as power, <a href="#PAGE_186">186</a>, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br>
+
+Heating, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>, <a href="#PAGE_210">210</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hebrews, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hele, P., <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br>
+
+Helmont, J. van, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hell Gate, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Helmholtz, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hendley, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Henry, Joseph, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>, <a href="#PAGE_210">210</a>.<br><br>
+
+Henry, rifle, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br>
+
+Henry, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>.<br><br>
+
+Herissent, M., <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hermetical sealing, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br>
+
+Herodotus, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hero of Alexander, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br>
+
+Herring, safes, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br>
+
+Herschel, <a href="#PAGE_228">228</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hides, treatment of. (See Leather.)<br><br>
+
+Hide mills, <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br>
+
+High and low pressure engines, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hindoos, <a href="#PAGE_220">220</a>, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>, <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hodges, James, of Montreal, <a href="#PAGE_101">101</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hoe, Robert, and son, R. M., <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hoe drill-seeders, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hoes, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hoffman, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hoisting, conveying, and storing, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>-<a href="#PAGE_163">163</a>.<br><br>
+
+Holland, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>.<br><br>
+
+Holley, A. L., <a href="#PAGE_232">232</a>.<br><br>
+
+Holtzapffel, J., <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>.<br><br>
+
+Homer, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hooke, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hoopes and Townsend, <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hoppers. (See Mills.)<br><br>
+
+Hopper boy. (See Mills.)<br><br>
+
+Hoosac tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hornblower, 1781, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br>
+
+Horrocks, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Horse power, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br>
+
+Horseshoes, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br>
+
+Horology, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>-<a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hot air engines, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hot air blast, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hot furnaces. (See Heating.)<br><br>
+
+Hot water circulation. (See Heating.)<br><br>
+
+Hotchkiss gun, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Houdin regulator, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Houses, their construction, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br>
+
+Houston. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br>
+
+Howe, Elias, <a href="#PAGE_314">314</a>-<a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br>
+
+Howe bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Howitzer. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Hunt, Walter, <a href="#PAGE_314">314</a>, <a href="#PAGE_315">315</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hungary, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>.<br><br>
+
+Huggins, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hughes, D. E., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hugon, <a href="#PAGE_189">189</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hulls, Jonathan, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>.<br><br>
+
+Huntsman, Benj., <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Husbandry, The whole art of.” (See Agriculture.)<br><br>
+
+Huskisson, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hussey, 1833, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br>
+
+Huxley, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br>
+
+Huygens, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hydraulicising, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hydraulic elevators, <a href="#PAGE_156">156</a>, <a href="#PAGE_157">157</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hydraulic jacks, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hydraulic motors, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>-<a href="#PAGE_181">181</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; pumps, rams, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; press, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_175">175</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; testing, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>, <a href="#PAGE_399">399</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hydrogen gas, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br>
+
+Hydrostatic engines and presses, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>I.</b><br><br>
+
+Ida, mountains of, iron, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>.<br><br>
+
+Illuminating gas. (See Gas.)<br><br>
+
+Impulse pump. (See Ram.)<br><br>
+
+Incandescent light, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Incubators, <a href="#PAGE_207">207</a>.<br><br>
+
+India, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>.<br><br>
+
+Industrial mechanics, <a href="#PAGE_328">328</a>-<a href="#PAGE_338">338</a>.<br><br>
+
+Injectors, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br>
+
+Intensifiers, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>.<br><br>
+
+International Exposition, London, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br>
+
+Invention, what it is, how induced, distinctions, growth, protection of, <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>-<a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>.<br><br>
+
+Iron, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>.<br><br>
+
+Iron Ships. (See Ships.)<br><br>
+
+Iridescent glass, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ironing machines, <a href="#PAGE_338">338</a>.<br><br>
+
+Italy, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ives. F. E. (three-color process), <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>J.</b><br><br>
+
+Jablochoff, M. Paul, <a href="#PAGE_136">136</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jacks, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jacobi, of Russia, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jackson, C. T., Dr., <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jacquard Loom, The, <a href="#PAGE_304">304</a>, <a href="#PAGE_323">323</a>, <a href="#PAGE_326">326</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jacquard, Joseph Marie, <a href="#PAGE_304">304</a>, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jenk’s ring frame, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jenkins, Prof. F., <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jefferson, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>,18.<br><br>
+
+Jenkin, Prof. Fleeming, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jewelry, <a href="#PAGE_333">333</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Jimcrow,” <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br>
+
+Johnson, Denis. (See Bicycle.)<br><br>
+
+Jones, iron and steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jonval, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br>
+
+Joule, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Jupiter, statue of, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>K.</b><br><br>
+
+Kaleidoscope, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Karnes, Lord, 1768, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kaolin. (See Lighting.)<br><br>
+
+Kay, John, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>, <a href="#PAGE_295">295</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Kearsarge,” The, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kepler, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kennedy, Diss and Cannan, <a href="#PAGE_331">331</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kilns, <a href="#PAGE_463">463</a>, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kinetic energy, Age of, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kinetograph, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kirchoff, G. R., <a href="#PAGE_62">62</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kitchen and table utensils, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br>
+
+Knabe piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Knight, Edward, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_202">202</a>, <a href="#PAGE_232">232</a>, <a href="#PAGE_276">276</a>, <a href="#PAGE_321">321</a>, <a href="#PAGE_429">429</a>.<br><br>
+
+Knitting, <a href="#PAGE_307">307</a>, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>.<br><br>
+
+König and Bauer, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>.<br><br>
+
+König, acoustics, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br>
+
+Koops, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br>
+
+Koster, 1620, rifle, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br>
+
+Krag-Jorgensen rifle, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kramer, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br>
+
+Krupp, steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Krupp, Fredk., guns, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Krupp, glass, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br>
+
+Kutler, Augustin, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>L.</b><br><br>
+
+La Condamine, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+Labor organizations, <a href="#PAGE_11">11</a>.<br><br>
+
+Labor, how affected by inventions; reducing, and increasing, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_162">162</a>,
+<a href="#PAGE_163">163</a>, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>, <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>, <a href="#PAGE_381">381</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lace making, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Laconium, <a href="#PAGE_202">202</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ladd electric machine, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br>
+
+La Hire, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>.<br><br>
+
+Laird, John, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lallement, P. (See Bicycle.)<br><br>
+
+Lamps and lamp lighting, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lancaster, cannon, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br>
+
+Land reclamation, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lane, 1828, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lane-Fox light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Langen and Otto. (See Gas Engine.)<br><br>
+
+Langley, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_4">4</a>.<br><br>
+
+L’Hommedieu, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lapping-cotton, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lasts, making of, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lathes, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>-<a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; for turning irregular forms of wood, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lattice work bridges, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Laundry, <a href="#PAGE_335">335</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lavoisier, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lawn mowers, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lazy tongs mechanism, <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>.<br><br>
+
+Le Bon, 1801, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br>
+
+Leaching, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lead, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Leather, <a href="#PAGE_361">361</a>-<a href="#PAGE_372">372</a>.<br><br>
+
+Leeuwenhoek of Holland, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br>
+
+Leeu, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Leckie, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br>
+
+Le Conte, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lefaucheux, M., <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br>
+
+Leibnitz, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lenoir, <a href="#PAGE_189">189</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lesage, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lescatello, 1662, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br>
+
+Leyden jar, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>.<br><br>
+
+Libavius, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Liebig, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lieberkulm, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br>
+
+Light, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lighting. (See Lamps and Gas.)<br><br>
+
+Light Houses, illumination, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Linotype, <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>, <a href="#PAGE_289">289</a>, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br>
+
+Linville bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lippersheim, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br>
+
+Liquid air, <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>, <a href="#PAGE_217">217</a>.<br><br>
+
+Livingstone, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_221">221</a>.<br><br>
+
+Livingston, Robt., <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lixiviation, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br>
+
+Locks, <a href="#PAGE_420">420</a>-<a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br>
+
+Locomotives, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Looms, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br>
+
+Loomis, Mahlen, <a href="#PAGE_150">150</a>.<br><br>
+
+“London Engineering,” <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>.<br><br>
+
+London exhibition, 1851, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br>
+
+London Times, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lontin regulator, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lost arts, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br>
+
+Louis XI., XIV., <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lowell, Francis C., <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lowe, T. S. C., gas, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>, <a href="#PAGE_455">455</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lubricants, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lyall, James, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Lyttleton, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>M.</b><br><br>
+
+MacArthur-Forrest, cyanide process, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br>
+
+Macaulay, Lord, <a href="#PAGE_10">10</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mackintosh, of Glasgow, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+Machine guns, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br>
+
+Madersperger, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_312">312</a>.<br><br>
+
+Magdeburg, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br>
+
+Magic lantern. (See Optics.)<br><br>
+
+Magnets and Magnetic Electricity, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mail bags and locks, <a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mail service, <a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mail marking, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br>
+
+Majolica. (See Pottery.)<br><br>
+
+Malt, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>.<br><br>
+
+Man a tool-using animal, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>.<br><br>
+
+Manning, 1831, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>.<br><br>
+
+Marble, artificial, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>, <a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>.<br><br>
+
+Marine propulsion, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br>
+
+Marconi, <a href="#PAGE_151">151</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mariotte’s law of gases, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+Markers and cutters, <a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>.<br><br>
+
+Markham, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br>
+
+Marsland, looms, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br>
+
+Marr, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br>
+
+Martin, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br>
+
+Marvin’s safes, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br>
+
+McClure’s Magazine, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>, <a href="#PAGE_447">447</a>.<br><br>
+
+McCormick reaper, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br>
+
+McCallum bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+McKay, ships, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br>
+
+McKay, shoe machines, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br>
+
+McMillan bicycle, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mary, Queen, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mason, Prof. O. T., <a href="#PAGE_458">458</a>.<br><br>
+
+Massachusetts, mills, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br>
+
+Massachusetts, shoe making, <a href="#PAGE_370">370</a>.<br><br>
+
+Master locks, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>, <a href="#PAGE_426">426</a>.<br><br>
+
+Matches, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>, <a href="#PAGE_201">201</a>.<br><br>
+
+Matting, <a href="#PAGE_309">309</a>, <a href="#PAGE_312">312</a>.<br><br>
+
+Maudsley, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br>
+
+Maurice of Nassau, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br>
+
+Maurice, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mauser rifle, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mausoleum, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br>
+
+Maxim electric light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Maxwell, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mayer, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br>
+
+Meares, 1800, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br>
+
+Meat, Preparation of, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mechanical powers, <a href="#PAGE_4">4</a>.<br><br>
+
+Medicine and surgery, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br>
+
+Meigs, General M. C., <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br>
+
+Meikle, 1786, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br>
+
+Megaphone, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br>
+
+Melville, David, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br>
+
+Menai Straits bridges, <a href="#PAGE_96">96</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mendeljeff, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br>
+
+Menzies of Scotland, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mergenthaler, <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>.<br><br>
+
+Merrimac and Monitor, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>, <a href="#PAGE_441">441</a>.<br><br>
+
+Metals and Metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>-<a href="#PAGE_239">239</a>.<br><br>
+
+Metal founding, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Metal working and turning, <a href="#PAGE_240">240</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; boring, planing, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; hammering, shaping, <a href="#PAGE_240">240</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; modern metal
+&nbsp; &nbsp; working plant, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Metal, personal ware, buckles, clasps, hooks, buttons, etc., <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Meters, gas and water, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mexico, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>.<br><br>
+
+Microphone, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br>
+
+Microscope, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br>
+
+Middlings purifier, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>.<br><br>
+
+Milk, milkers, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br>
+
+Millet, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mills, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a> to <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>.<br><br>
+
+Milling, high, low, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>.<br><br>
+
+Miller, wood working, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>.<br><br>
+
+Miller and Taylor, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br>
+
+Millwright, The Young, <a href="#PAGE_47">47</a>.<br><br>
+
+Milton, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mineral wool, minerals and mining, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>-<a href="#PAGE_383">383</a>.<br><br>
+
+Minneapolis mills, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mitrailleuses, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br>
+
+Modern machinery, its commencement, <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mohl, von, Hugo, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br>
+
+Moigno, Abb&eacute;, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mold, aging. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Moulding. (See Wood-working and Glass making.)<br><br>
+
+Monks, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Monitor,” The, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>, <a href="#PAGE_441">441</a>.<br><br>
+
+Montgolfier, <a href="#PAGE_169">169</a>.<br><br>
+
+Moody, Paul, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br>
+
+Moors, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br>
+
+Morin, Genl., <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br>
+
+Morland, Sir Sam’l, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br>
+
+Morrison, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>.<br><br>
+
+Morse, S. B. F., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>, <a href="#PAGE_127">127</a>, <a href="#PAGE_128">128</a>, <a href="#PAGE_129">129</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mortars, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mortise making, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br>
+
+Morton, Dr. W. T. G., <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>.<br><br>
+
+Motor vehicles, <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mont Cenis Tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mowers, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>.<br><br>
+
+Moxon, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mozart, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Murdock, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br>
+
+Music, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>-<a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Musical instruments, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>.<br><br>
+
+Musical electrical apparatus, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Muschenbroeck, Prof., 1745, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>.<br><br>
+
+Mushet, iron and steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Muskets. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Muzzle loaders, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>N.</b><br><br>
+
+National Assembly, France, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>.<br><br>
+
+Napoleon. (See Bonaparte.)<br><br>
+
+Naphtha, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nasmyth, <a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br>
+
+Needle, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br>
+
+Needle gun, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Niedringhaus, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>.<br><br>
+
+Netting. (See Spinning.)<br><br>
+
+Newcomen, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>, <a href="#PAGE_79">79</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br>
+
+Newbold, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_19">19</a>.<br><br>
+
+Newbury, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br>
+
+Newton, Sir Isaac, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_11">11</a>, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Niagara bridges, <a href="#PAGE_97">97</a>, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_104">104</a>.<br><br>
+
+Niagara power, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nicholson and Carlisle, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nicholson, Wm., of England, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nickel. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Niepce, Jas. N., <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nitro-glycerine, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Noah’s Ark, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nobel, A., <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nollet, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>.<br><br>
+
+Noria, The, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>.<br><br>
+
+Norway, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br>
+
+Nozzles, flexible, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; water, <a href="#PAGE_179">179</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>O.</b><br><br>
+
+Oersted, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ogle, 1822, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ohm, G. S., <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br>
+
+Oils and fats, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br>
+
+Oil cloth, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Oil lamps, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br>
+
+Oil stoves and furnaces, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_212">212</a>.<br><br>
+
+Oiling waves, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br>
+
+Oil wells, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br>
+
+Omnibus. (See Stages and Carriers.)<br><br>
+
+Opening and blowing machines, cotton, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>.<br><br>
+
+Opthalmoscope, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br>
+
+Optical instruments, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>-<a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ordnance, arms, explosives, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a> to <a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ores, treatment of, <a href="#PAGE_229">229</a>, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a> to <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ore separators, <a href="#PAGE_379">379</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Organs, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ornamental iron work. (See Metal Working.)<br><br>
+
+Ornamental wood work. (See Wood Working.)<br><br>
+
+Oscillating engines. (See Steam.)<br><br>
+
+Osmund furnaces. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Otis elevators, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br>
+
+Otto, Nicolaus A., Otto engine, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>.<br><br>
+
+Oxygen, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>. (See Priestley.)<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>P.</b><br><br>
+
+Paddle wheels and vessels, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br>
+
+Paints, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br>
+
+Painting, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>, <a href="#PAGE_419">419</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Painting machines, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br>
+
+Paixhans, Genl., <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Page, Prof. C. G., <a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>.<br><br>
+
+Page, Ralph, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br>
+
+Palissy, Bernard, <a href="#PAGE_458">458</a>.<br><br>
+
+Palmer, stage-coaches, <a href="#PAGE_429">429</a>.<br><br>
+
+Palladius, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br>
+
+Panoramas, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br>
+
+Paper and printing, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>-<a href="#PAGE_291">291</a>.<br><br>
+
+Paper bag machinery, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br>
+
+Papin, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br>
+
+Papyrus, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br>
+
+Paraffine. (See Oils.)<br><br>
+
+Parchment, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br>
+
+Parkinson, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br>
+
+Parliament, House of, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br>
+
+Parquetry. (See Wood-working.)<br><br>
+
+Parrott, gun, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Parthenon, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>.<br><br>
+
+Partridge, Reuben, matches, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pascal, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pasteur, <a href="#PAGE_68">68</a>.<br><br>
+
+Patents, their origin and purpose, <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>, <a href="#PAGE_21">21</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pattern making. (See Wood, Metal, and Textiles.)<br><br>
+
+Pauley, Col., <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pegs, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>, <a href="#PAGE_368">368</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pencils, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pendulum. (See Horology.)<br><br>
+
+Pendulum machines, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>.<br><br>
+
+Penelope, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pennsylvania fireplace, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>.<br><br>
+
+Percussion caps, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br>
+
+Percy. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Permutation locks, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pernot, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Perin &amp; Co., saws, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br>
+
+Persians, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>.<br><br>
+
+Petroleum, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br>
+
+Petzold, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pfaff, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pharos of Alexandria, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br>
+
+Phelps, G. M., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ph&#339;nicians, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Ph&#339;nix,” The. (See Ships.)<br><br>
+
+Phonautograph, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br>
+
+Phonograph, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Phonophone, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Phonoscope, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Photophone, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Phosphorus matches, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br>
+
+Photochromoscope, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Photography, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>, <a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br>
+
+Photo-processes, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Piano, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_401">401</a>-<a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br>
+
+Picking machine, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>.<br><br>
+
+Picker-motion, looms, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br>
+
+Piezometer, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pigments, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pitt, inventor, 1786, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pixii, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>.<br><br>
+
+Planes, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>. (See Wood-working.)<br><br>
+
+Planing machines, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>. (See Wood-working.)<br><br>
+
+Plant&eacute;, G., <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br>
+
+Planters. (See Chap. III.)<br><br>
+
+Plaster, <a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>.<br><br>
+
+Plato, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>.<br><br>
+
+Platt, Sir Hugh, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br>
+
+Platt, Senator, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pliny, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ploughs, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>, <a href="#PAGE_17">17</a>, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_19">19</a>, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>, <a href="#PAGE_21">21</a>, <a href="#PAGE_22">22</a>, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br>
+
+Plucknett, 1808, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pneumatics, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_182">182</a> to <a href="#PAGE_198">198</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pneumatic machines, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_198">198</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pneumatic propellers, <a href="#PAGE_444">444</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pneumatic tires, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pneumatic tubes and transmission, <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>, <a href="#PAGE_196">196</a>.<br><br>
+
+Polemoscope, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br>
+
+Polishing glass, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pope, Alexander, <a href="#PAGE_394">394</a>.<br><br>
+
+Porcelain, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br>
+
+Poririer (match machine), <a href="#PAGE_201">201</a>.<br><br>
+
+Porta Baptista, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Porta G. della, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Portable engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Potato planters, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>.<br><br>
+
+Potassium, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br>
+
+Potter, Humphrey, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pottery, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>-<a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pousard, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+Powder, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br>
+
+Power, measure of, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br>
+
+Prehistoric inventions. (See beginning of each Chapter.)<br><br>
+
+Pressing machines, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>.<br><br>
+
+Priestley, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Princeton,” The, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br>
+
+Printing press, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>-<a href="#PAGE_291">291</a>.<br><br>
+
+Prince of Orange, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br>
+
+Projectiles, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>-<a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Prometheus, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br>
+
+Protoplasm, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br>
+
+Prussia, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Providence, R. I., Tool Co., <a href="#PAGE_322">322</a>.<br><br>
+
+Psalteries, <a href="#PAGE_401">401</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ptah, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>.<br><br>
+
+Puckle’s patent breech loader, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br>
+
+Puddling, <a href="#PAGE_226">226</a>, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pug mills, <a href="#PAGE_461">461</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pullman car, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pulp, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>-<a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pumps, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ptolemy, <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>.<br><br>
+
+Puillet, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br>
+
+Puy Guillaume, battle of, 1338, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br>
+
+Pyramids, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>Q.</b><br><br>
+
+Quadruplex telegraphy. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br>
+
+“Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece,” <a href="#PAGE_256">256</a>.<br><br>
+
+Queen of Sheba, <a href="#PAGE_326">326</a>.<br><br>
+
+Quern, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>.<br><br>
+
+Quilting machine, <a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>R.</b><br><br>
+
+Radcliffe, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br>
+
+Radiation and radiators, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>, <a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>.<br><br>
+
+Railways, rails and tracks, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; cars, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; frogs, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br>
+
+Railway cars, <a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rakes. (See Agriculture.)<br><br>
+
+Ramage Press, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ramseye, David, 1630, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ramelli, Cardan, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ramsey, David, 1738, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ram, water. (See Pumps.)<br><br>
+
+Randolph, David M., <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br>
+
+Randolph, Elder and Co., <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ranges. (See Stoves.)<br><br>
+
+Range finder, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br>
+
+Raphael, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rawhides. (See Leather.)<br><br>
+
+Read, Nathan, 1791, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br>
+
+Reapers. (See Harvesters, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Reichenbach, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br>
+
+Reis, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br>
+
+Refining metals, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>.<br><br>
+
+Refrigeration, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>, <a href="#PAGE_214">214</a>, <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>.<br><br>
+
+Regenerators, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+Regenerative furnace. (See Metallurgy, also, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Registers, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br>
+
+Regulators, Electric, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; time, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rennie, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br>
+
+Repeating watches, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br>
+
+Reservoirs, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_180">180</a>.<br><br>
+
+Resonators, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br>
+
+Revault, 1605, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Revolvers. (See Fire Arms.)<br><br>
+
+Rhode Island, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ribbon making, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rickel, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rider bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Riehle, testing mach., <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rifles, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rifled cannon, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ring frame-spinning, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ritter, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br>
+
+Riveting, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>.<br><br>
+
+Road carriage, steam, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roads, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Road making, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>.<br><br>
+
+Robia, Luca della, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Robert, Louis, <a href="#PAGE_276">276</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roberts, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rock drilling, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rockers, ore, <a href="#PAGE_235">235</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rockets, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rodman, General, gun, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roebling, John A., engineer, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_99">99</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roebling, Washington, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roentgen, X rays, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rohes, M. Beau de, <a href="#PAGE_189">189</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rogers, Saml. B., metallurgist, <a href="#PAGE_229">229</a>, <a href="#PAGE_230">230</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rogers, type maker, <a href="#PAGE_289">289</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roller press, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roman arts, inventions, etc., <a href="#PAGE_10">10</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>, <a href="#PAGE_202">202</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rookwood pottery, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br>
+
+Romagnosi, G. D., <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br>
+
+Roscoe, Prof. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Rose, H., <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rotary engines. (See Steam.)<br><br>
+
+Rotary printing press, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>. (See Printing.)<br><br>
+
+Rotary pumps. (See Water and Steam Eng.)<br><br>
+
+Roving, spinning, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rubber, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>, <a href="#PAGE_434">434</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ruhmkorff coil, <a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rumford, Count, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rumsey, James, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>.<br><br>
+
+Russia, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br>
+
+Russian leather, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>.<br><br>
+
+Rust, Saml., <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ruth, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>S.</b><br><br>
+
+Sabot, projectiles, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br>
+
+Safes and locks, <a href="#PAGE_420">420</a>-<a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br>
+
+Safety valves, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br>
+
+Saint, Thomas, sewing machine, <a href="#PAGE_311">311</a>.<br><br>
+
+Salman, scales maker, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br>
+
+Salonen, 1807, mower, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>.<br><br>
+
+Samians and Samos, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sand blast, <a href="#PAGE_332">332</a>, <a href="#PAGE_334">334</a>, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sand filters. (See Filters.)<br><br>
+
+Sandwich, Earl, 1699, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br>
+
+Saracens, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sarnstrom, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Savery, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br>
+
+Saws, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>.<br><br>
+
+Saw mills, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>.<br><br>
+
+Saxton, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scales, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scaliger, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scandinavians, <a href="#PAGE_363">363</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scarborough, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br>
+
+Schilling, Baron, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br>
+
+Schönbein, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Schapper, Hartman, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>.<br><br>
+
+Schoeffer, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br>
+
+Schreiber, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Schrotter (matches), <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br>
+
+Schweigger, S. C., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scoops, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scotland, <a href="#PAGE_19">19</a>, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scott, phonautograph, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_80">80</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scott, Gen. W., <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scott, Rich’d, <a href="#PAGE_420">420</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scouring machines. (See Leather and Cloth, and Grain.)<br><br>
+
+Screw, Archimedean. (See Ships and Propeller.)<br><br>
+
+Screw, press, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>.<br><br>
+
+Screw propeller, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br>
+
+Screw making, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scythians, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>, <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>.<br><br>
+
+Scythes, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br>
+
+Seed drills, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_26">26</a>, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>.<br><br>
+
+Seely, F. A., <a href="#PAGE_3">3</a>.<br><br>
+
+Self-playing Instruments, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Seguin, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sellers, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br>
+
+Separators, Grain, <a href="#PAGE_48">48</a>, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; milk, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; ore, <a href="#PAGE_379">379</a>. (See Mills.)<br><br>
+
+Seppings, Sir Robert, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br>
+
+Serrin, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Serviere, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br>
+
+Seward, Wm. H., <a href="#PAGE_3">3</a>.<br><br>
+
+Seven Wonders, The, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sewing machines, <a href="#PAGE_311">311</a>-<a href="#PAGE_323">323</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sewer construction, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shades and screens, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shaping machines, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sharp’s carbine, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shaw, Joshua, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sheele, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sheet metal ware, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shells, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shingle making, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shinar, Brick making in, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ships, war, and others, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>, <a href="#PAGE_343">343</a>, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>-<a href="#PAGE_449">449</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shoes and machinery, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>-<a href="#PAGE_371">371</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sholes, inventor, type writing, <a href="#PAGE_286">286</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shrapnel, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br>
+
+Shuttles, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br>
+
+Sickle, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br>
+
+Side wheel steamboats, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br>
+
+Siemens, Dr. Werner, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br>
+
+Siemens, Wm., Sir., <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br>
+
+Siemens and Halske, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br>
+
+Siemens, C. L., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br>
+
+Silk making. (See Spinning.)<br><br>
+
+Silk, artificial. (See Glass.)<br><br>
+
+Silver, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br>
+
+Singer, sewing machine, <a href="#PAGE_319">319</a>, <a href="#PAGE_320">320</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sinking shafts, Mode of, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Skiving. (See Leather.)<br><br>
+
+Slade, J. T., <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br>
+
+Slater, Thomas, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br>
+
+Slaughtering, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sleighs, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br>
+
+Slide, rest, <a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br>
+
+Slotting machines, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br>
+
+Small arms, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br>
+
+Small, Jas., 1784, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>.<br><br>
+
+Smeaton, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br>
+
+Smelting, <a href="#PAGE_220">220</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Smiles, Self Help, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>.<br><br>
+
+Smith &amp; Wesson, revolvers, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br>
+
+Snellus, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br>
+
+Snow ploughs, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>.<br><br>
+
+Soda, pulp, <a href="#PAGE_278">278</a>.<br><br>
+
+Solarmeter, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br>
+
+Solomon’s temple, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br>
+
+Somerset, Marquis of Worcester. (See Steam.)<br><br>
+
+Sound, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>. (See Acoustics.)<br><br>
+
+Sowing, <a href="#PAGE_23">23</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spanish inventions, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spectacles. (See Optics.)<br><br>
+
+Spectrum, analysis, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_62">62</a>, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spectroscope, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Speed Indicators, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spencer, gun, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spencer, metal coating, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spinet, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spinning, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br>
+
+“Spinning Jenny,” <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spinning Mule, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Spiritalia,” <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br>
+
+Splitting, leather, <a href="#PAGE_366">366</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spooling, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br>
+
+Springfield musket, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>.<br><br>
+
+Spun glass. (See Spinning and <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>.)<br><br>
+
+Stamp mills and metal working, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Standard time, <a href="#PAGE_394">394</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stanhope, Earl, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br>
+
+St. Gothard tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+St. Louis bridge, <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br>
+
+Steam engines, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_73">73</a> to <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; boilers, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; heating, <a href="#PAGE_207">207</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; pumps, <a href="#PAGE_79">79</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br>
+
+Steam ships, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stearns, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>.<br><br>
+
+Steel, manufacture of. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br>
+
+Steinheil, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Steinway, pianos, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stenographing, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stereoscope, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stereotyping, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sterilisation, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stephenson, Geo., <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stephenson, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>, <a href="#PAGE_101">101</a>, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stevens, John C., <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stevinus, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stitching machines. (See Sewing.)<br><br>
+
+Stocking making, <a href="#PAGE_307">307</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stone cutting, carving and dressing, <a href="#PAGE_374">374</a>, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stone crushing, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stone, artificial, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>.<br><br>
+
+Storage battery, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br>
+
+Storm, W. M. (Gunpowder Engine,) <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br>
+
+Store service, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_158">158</a>, <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stoves, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>-<a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>.<br><br>
+
+Street, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>.<br><br>
+
+Street sweeping, <a href="#PAGE_331">331</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stow, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br>
+
+Stückofen, metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sturgeon, inventor, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sturtevant, B. F. (shoes), <a href="#PAGE_368">368</a>.<br><br>
+
+Submarine blasting, etc., <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Suez canal, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sugar, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sun-dial, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br>
+
+Subdivision of labor, <a href="#PAGE_392">392</a>. (See Ordnance and Sewing Machines.)<br><br>
+
+Surgery and instruments, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br>
+
+Suspension bridges, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_96">96</a>-<a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>.<br><br>
+
+Swan, light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sweden, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br>
+
+Sweeping machines, <a href="#PAGE_331">331</a>.<br><br>
+
+Swiss manufactures, (See Watches, etc.)<br><br>
+
+Switzerland, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br>
+
+Symington, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br>
+
+Syphon recorder, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>T.</b><br><br>
+
+T-rail, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tables, <a href="#PAGE_354">354</a>. (See Furniture.)<br><br>
+
+Tachenius, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tack making, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tainter, C. S., <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br>
+
+Takamine, <a href="#PAGE_68">68</a>.<br><br>
+
+Talus, or Perdix, saw inventor, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tanning. (See Leather.)<br><br>
+
+Tapestry, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>.<br><br>
+
+Teasling, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tedders, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br>
+
+Telegraph, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>-<a href="#PAGE_128">128</a>, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>.<br><br>
+
+Telegraphic pictures, <a href="#PAGE_419">419</a>.<br><br>
+
+Telephone, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_142">142</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Telescope, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br>
+
+Telpherage, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>.<br><br>
+
+Telford, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_96">96</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tennyson, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tesla, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>.<br><br>
+
+Testing machines, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br>
+
+Textiles, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>-<a href="#PAGE_309">309</a>.<br><br>
+
+Thermo-electricity, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br>
+
+Theodore of Samos, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br>
+
+Thimonnier, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br>
+
+Thomson, Sir Wm., <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>.<br><br>
+
+Thompson, Robt. Wm., <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>, <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br>
+
+Thompson &amp; Houston, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+“Three color process,” <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Thread making. (See Spinning.)<br><br>
+
+Threshing machines, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br>
+
+Throstle, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>.<br><br>
+
+Thurston, Prof. R. H., <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tiles, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tilghman, B. F., sand blast, <a href="#PAGE_332">332</a>, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br>
+
+Time locks, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br>
+
+Time measuring of the ancients, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tissier, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tobacco and machinery, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>, <a href="#PAGE_56">56</a>, <a href="#PAGE_57">57</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tools, primitive, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_328">328</a>, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>.<br><br>
+
+Torpedo vessels, <a href="#PAGE_271">271</a>, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>.<br><br>
+
+Torpedoes, <a href="#PAGE_271">271</a>.<br><br>
+
+Torricelli, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tour, Cagniard de la, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br>
+
+Towne’s lattice bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Traction railways and engines, <a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>.<br><br>
+
+Transplanters, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>.<br><br>
+
+Transportation, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>.<br><br>
+
+Treadwell, Daniel, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tresca, M., <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br>
+
+Trevithick, Richard, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tripler, C. E., liquid air, <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>.<br><br>
+
+Trolley lines. (See Electric, etc.)<br><br>
+
+Trough batteries. (See Electricity.)<br><br>
+
+Truss bridges, <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tubal Cain, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_239">239</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tubes and tubing, making, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tubular bridges, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>, <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tull, Jethro, 1680-1740, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tungsten. (See Metals.)<br><br>
+
+Tunnels, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br>
+
+Turbines, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br>
+
+Turning, Art of, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tusser, Thomas, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tweddle, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>.<br><br>
+
+Twine binders. (See Harvesters.)<br><br>
+
+Twinings (inventor, refrigerator), <a href="#PAGE_215">215</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tympanum, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>.<br><br>
+
+Tyndall, John, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Type, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br>
+
+Type Distributor, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br>
+
+Type setter, <a href="#PAGE_278">278</a>, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br>
+
+Type writers, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_286">286</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>V.</b><br><br>
+
+Vail, Alfred, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br>
+
+Valerius, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br>
+
+Valves, valve gear, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vapor engines, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>-<a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vapor stoves, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>-<a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>, <a href="#PAGE_212">212</a>.<br><br>
+
+Varley, Alfred, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br>
+
+Varro, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vegetable cutters, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>.<br><br>
+
+Velocipedes, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br>
+
+Venetians, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br>
+
+Ventilation, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br>
+
+Veneering, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vestibule cars, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vick, Henry de, clockmaker, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>.<br><br>
+
+Victoria bridge. (See Bridges.)<br><br>
+
+Vienna, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vienna exposition, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vince, Leonardo de, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Virgil, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br>
+
+Virginal, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vitruvius, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>.<br><br>
+
+Volta, voltaic electricity, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a> to <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br>
+
+Von Alteneck, H., <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br>
+
+Von Drais, <a href="#PAGE_432">432</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vortex theory, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Vortex wheel, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br>
+
+Voting machines, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vulcan, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>.<br><br>
+
+Vulcanisation. (See Rubber.)<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>W.</b><br><br>
+
+Waggons, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br>
+
+Walker, John (matches), <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br>
+
+Walker, Joseph, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wales, Thos. C., <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wallace and Maxim, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wall paper, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br>
+
+Walter, John, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br>
+
+Watches, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>. (See Clocks.)<br><br>
+
+Waltham watches, <a href="#PAGE_393">393</a>.<br><br>
+
+War, effect on by inventions, <a href="#PAGE_271">271</a>, <a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br>
+
+Washington, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>.<br><br>
+
+Washing and ironing machines, <a href="#PAGE_335">335</a>-<a href="#PAGE_338">338</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wasp, first paper maker, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>.<br><br>
+
+Watches. (See Horology.)<br><br>
+
+Water. (See Hydraulics.)<br><br>
+
+Water clocks, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>.<br><br>
+
+Water closets, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br>
+
+Water distribution, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; gas, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br>
+
+Water wheels, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; mills, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; engines, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br>
+
+Water frame. (See Spinning.)<br><br>
+
+Water metres, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; scoops, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br>
+
+Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>.<br><br>
+
+Watt, James, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>, <a href="#PAGE_79">79</a>, <a href="#PAGE_80">80</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_182">182</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>.<br><br>
+
+Watson, Bishop, <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br>
+
+Weaving, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_304">304</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br>
+
+Weaver’s shuttle, <a href="#PAGE_307">307</a>.<br><br>
+
+Weber piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br>
+
+Webster, Daniel, <a href="#PAGE_91">91</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wedgwood, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br>
+
+Weeks, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br>
+
+Weighing, scales, etc., <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>, <a href="#PAGE_397">397</a>, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br>
+
+Weisenthal, C. F., <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_312">312</a>.<br><br>
+
+Welding, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wellington, Duke of, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wells, making and boring of, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>, <a href="#PAGE_379">379</a>-<a href="#PAGE_383">383</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; driven, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Artesian, <a href="#PAGE_381">381</a>.<br><br>
+
+Welsbach lamp, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br>
+
+Westinghouse, electric light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br>
+
+Weston, Sir Richard, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br>
+
+Weston, electrician, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br>
+
+West (destroyer of bacteria), <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br>
+
+Whaleback ships, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wheat, its cultivation, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_26">26</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wheatstone, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_127">127</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>, <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wheeler and Wilson, <a href="#PAGE_319">319</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wheelbarrow, seeder, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br>
+
+Whewell, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br>
+
+Whitehurst, Geo., <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>.<br><br>
+
+Whitney, Eli, cotton gin, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br>
+
+Whitworth, Sir J., <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wilde, electric magnet, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wilder, safes, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wilkes, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br>
+
+William of Malmesbury, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wilson, A. B., sewing machinery,  <a href="#PAGE_319">319</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wilson, Genl. John M., <a href="#PAGE_180">180</a>.<br><br>
+
+Winchester rifle, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wind mills, wheels, etc., <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>. (See Mills.)<br><br>
+
+Window glass, window screens, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wine making. (See Chemistry.)<br><br>
+
+Winter, Sir John, <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wire working, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wire wound gun, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wireless telegraphy, <a href="#PAGE_150">150</a>, <a href="#PAGE_151">151</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wolf, aeronaut, <a href="#PAGE_447">447</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wöhler, chemist, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wollaston, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br>
+
+Woodbridge, Dr. W. E., <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br>
+
+Woodbury, Oscar D. and E. C., <a href="#PAGE_330">330</a>.<br><br>
+
+Woodworth, Wm., planing machinery, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wood, lathe turning, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wood, bending and trenting of, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wood working machinery, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br>
+
+Woods, variety and beauty, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wood carving, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wool. (See Spinning, Weaving, Textiles.)<br><br>
+
+Wool, mineral, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wooden shoes, making of, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br>
+
+Worcester, Marquis of, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br>
+
+Work shop, a modern, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>.<br><br>
+
+World’s fair, 1851, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br>
+
+Woven goods, variety of, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>, <a href="#PAGE_309">309</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wright (gas engine), <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wren, architect, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br>
+
+Wyatt of Lichfield, <a href="#PAGE_294">294</a>, <a href="#PAGE_295">295</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>X.</b><br><br>
+
+X rays, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>, <a href="#PAGE_150">150</a>.<br><br>
+
+Xyloplasty, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>Y.</b><br><br>
+
+Yale, Linus, Jr., locks, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br>
+
+Yankee clippers, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>.<br><br>
+
+Yarn. (See Weaving, etc.)<br><br>
+
+Yeast, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br>
+
+York, Duke of, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br>
+
+Young of America, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br>
+
+Young, Arthur, 1741-1800, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>.<br><br>
+
+Youmans, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>.<br><br>
+
+
+<br><b>Z.</b><br><br>
+
+Zanon, 1764, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br>
+
+Zech, Jacob, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br>
+
+Zeppelin, Count, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br>
+
+Zimmermann, self-playing pianos, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br>
+
+Zinc, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br>
+
+Zinc batteries. (See Electricity.)<br><br>
+</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 80%;">
+<h2>THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Price 5s. each net.</i></p>
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td>Religious Progress in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By W. H. Withrow, M. A., D. D., F. R. S. C.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Literature of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Professor A. B. de Mille, M. A.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of South Africa in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By George McCall Theal, D. Lit., LL. D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Medicine, Surgery, and Hygiene in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Ezra Hurlburt Stafford, M. D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of India, Japan, and China in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., LL. D., &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of the United States of America in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Prof. Wm. Peterfield Trent, M. A., LL. D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Continental Rulers in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Percy M. Thornton, LL. B., M. P.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>British Sovereigns in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By T. H. S. Escott, M. A.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of British Empire in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By James Stanley Little.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of Canada in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By J. Castell Hopkins, F. S. S.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of Australasia in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By T. A. Coghlan, F. S. S., and Thomas T. Ewing.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of New Zealand in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By R. F. Irvine, M. A., and O. T. J. Alpers, M. A.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Political Progress of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Thomas Macknight.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Discoveries and Explorations of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Professor C. G. D. Roberts, M. A.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By H. de Beltgens Gibbins, D. Lit., M. A., F. R. G. S.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Inventions of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By William H. Doolittle.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Wars of the Century, and the Development of Military Science.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Professor Oscar Browning, M. A.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Naval Battles of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Rear-Admiral Francis John Higginson.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Naval Development of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, K. C. B.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Jefferson to Fillmore).</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Francis Bellamy.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Pierce to McKinley).</td>
+<td class="padLeft">Francis Knowles.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Fine Arts in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By William Sharp.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of Education in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By James Laughlin Hughes and Louis R. Klemm, Ph. D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Temperance and Social Progress of the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By the Hon. John G. Woolley, M. A.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Progress of Science in the Century.</td>
+<td class="padLeft">By Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M. A.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>Edinburgh: Printed by W. &amp; R. Chambers, Limited.</h3>
+
+
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY ***</div>
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+eBook #36776 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36776)
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+Project Gutenberg's Inventions in the Century, by William Henry Doolittle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inventions in the Century
+
+Author: William Henry Doolittle
+
+Release Date: July 18, 2011 [EBook #36776]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Stephanie Kovalchik and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Misspellings in the source text have been corrected.
+
+The oe-ligature is indicated with [oe] in this text version.
+
+Missing page entries for "Wooden shoes" was assigned a page number by
+the transcriber.
+
+Index entry for "Stamfield, Jas." was removed since this name does not
+occur in the main text.
+
+
+
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES
+
+
+  EDITOR:
+    JUSTIN McCARTHY.
+
+  ASSOCIATE EDITORS:
+    REV. W. H. WITHROW, M.A., D.D., F.R.S.C.
+    CHARLES G. D. ROBERTS, M.A., F.R.C.I.
+    J. CASTELL HOPKINS, F.R.S.L.
+    T. G. MARQUIS, B.A.
+    REV. T. S. LINSCOTT, F.R.C.I.
+
+
+
+
+
+INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM H. DOOLITTLE
+
+
+
+_Expert and Patent Solicitor, Ex-Examiner in the Patent Office and
+Assistant Commissioner of Patents at Washington, Writer of Inventions,
+Etc._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE LINSCOTT PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+TORONTO AND PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+W. & R. CHAMBERS, Limited
+
+LONDON AND EDINBURGH
+
+1903
+
+
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand Nine
+Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited, in the Office
+of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Year One
+Thousand Nine Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited,
+in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture.
+
+
+_All Rights Reserved._
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.
+
+ Inventions and Discoveries.--Distinctions and Contrast.--The
+ One, Useful Contrivances of Man; the Other, New Things Found
+ in Nature.--Galileo and the Telescope.--Newton and the Law of
+ Gravitation.--Often United as Soul and Body.--Inventions and
+ Discoveries do not Precede or Succeed in Order.--Inventions--
+ Alphabetical Writing; Arabic Notation; The Mariner's Compass;
+ The Telescope; The Steam Engine.--Discoveries;--Attraction of
+ Gravitation; Planetary Motions; Circulation of Blood; Velocity
+ of Light.--Nineteenth Century Inventions and Discoveries.--
+ Further Definitions.--Law of Development.--Contrivances, not
+ Creations.--Man Always an Inventor.--Prof. Langley on Slow
+ Growth of Inventions.--Inventions of this Century Outgrowth of
+ Past Ones.--Egyptian Crooked Stick, Precursor of Modern
+ Plough.--Hero of Alexandria and James Watt.--David's Harp and
+ the Grand Piano.--Electrical Science in 1600 and the Present
+ Day.--Evolution and Interrelation of the Arts.--Age of Machine
+ Inventions.--Its Beginning.--The Inducements to Invention.--
+ Necessity not Always the Mother.--Wants of Various Kinds.--
+ Accident.--Governmental Protection the Greatest Incentive.--
+ Origin and Growth of Patent Laws.--Influence of Personal,
+ Political and Intellectual Freedom and Education.--Arts of
+ Civilization Due to the Inventor.--Macaulay's Estimate.--
+ Will Inventions Continue to Increase or Decrease.--Effect of
+ Economic, Industrial and Social Life upon Inventions.--What
+ Inventions have Done for Humanity.--Thread of the Centuries.--
+ The Roll of Inventions too Vast for Enumeration.                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.
+
+ The Egyptians the Earliest and Greatest Agriculturists.--
+ Rome and Farming.--Cato, Varro, Virgil.--Columella.--Pliny.--
+ Palladius.--The Decline of Agriculture.--Northern Barbarism.--
+ Lowest Ebb in the Middle Ages.--Revival in the Fifteenth and
+ Sixteenth Centuries.--With Invention of Printing.--Publications
+ then, Concerning.--Growth in Seventeenth and Eighteenth
+ Centuries.--Jethro Tull.--Arthur Young.--Washington.--
+ Jefferson.--The Art Scientifically Commenced with Sir Humphry
+ Davy's Lectures on Soils and Plants, 1802-1812.--Societies.--
+ "Book Farming" and Prejudice of Farmers.--A Revisit of Ruth
+ and Cincinnatus at Beginning of Nineteenth Century.--Their
+ Implements still the Common Ones in Use.--The Plough and its
+ History.--Its Essential Parts and their Evolution to Modern
+ Forms.--Originated in Holland.--Growth in England and
+ America.--Small, Jefferson, Newbold.--Lord Kames' Complaint.--
+ The American Plough.--Cutting Disks.--Steam Ploughs: Implements
+ for Preparing the Soil for Planting.--Various Forms of Harrows.      13
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
+
+ The Sowing of Grain.--The Sower of the Parables.--His Art and
+ its Defects Lasted until Nineteenth Century.--The Problems to
+ be Solved.--Assyrian and Chinese Seeding Implements.--India.--
+ Italy First to Introduce a Grain Sowing Machine, Seventeenth
+ Century.--Zanon's Work on Agriculture, 1764.--Austria and
+ England.--A Spaniard's Invention.--Don Lescatello.--The Drill
+ of Jethro Tull.--A Clergyman, Cooke's Machine.--Washington
+ and Others.--Modern Improvements in Seeders and their Operation
+ and Functions.--Force Feed and Gravity Feed.--Graduated Flow.--
+ Divided Feeds for Separate Grains and Fertilizing Material.--
+ Garden Ploughs and Seeders.--Gangs of Heavy Ones.--Operated by
+ Steam.--Corn Planters.--Walking and Riding.--Objects of Proper
+ Planting.--How Accomplished by Machinery.--Variety of
+ Machines.--Potatoes and the Finest Seeds.--Transplanters.--
+ Cultivators.--Their Purposes and Varieties.--Primitive and
+ Modern Toilers.--Millet.--Tillers of the Soil no Longer
+ "Brothers of the Ox."                                                23
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
+
+ Harvesting in Ancient Times.--The Sickle.--Pliny's Machine.--
+ Now the Clover Header.--Palladius' Description.--Improved in
+ 1786.--Scotchman's Grain Cradle in 1794.--The Seven Ancient
+ Wonders and the Seven Modern Wonders.--The Modern Harvester
+ and the Cotton Gin.--Requirements of the Harvester.--Boyce.--
+ Meares.--Plucknett.--Gladstone and the First Front Draft
+ Machine, 1806.--Salonen introduced Vibrating Knives over
+ Stationary Blades, 1807.--Ogle and Reciprocating Knife Bar,
+ 1822.--Rev. Patrick Bell, 1823, Cuts an Acre of Grain in an
+ Hour.--Mowers and Reapers in America in 1820.--Reaper and
+ Thresher combined by Lane, of Maine, 1828.--Manning's Harvester,
+ 1831.--Schnebly.--Hussey.--McCormick, 1833-34.--Harvesters and
+ Mowers at World's Fair, London, 1851.--Automatic Binders.--Wire
+ and Twine.--Advances Shown at Centennial Exhibition, 1876.--
+ Inventions Beyond the Wildest Dreams of Former Farmers.--One
+ Invention Generates Another.--Lawn Mowers.--Hay Forks and
+ Stackers.--Corn, Cotton, Potato, Flax Harvesters.--Threshing.--
+ The Old Flail.--Egyptian and Roman Methods.--The First Modern
+ Threshing Machine.--Menzies, Leckie, Meikle.--Combined
+ Harvesters and Threshers.--Flax Threshers and Brakes.--Cotton
+ Gins.--Eli Whitney.--Enormous Importance of this Machine in
+ Cotton Products.--Displacement of Labour.                            32
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (_continued_).
+
+ Harvest Ended, Comes the Preparation of Grain and Fruits for
+ Food.--Cleaning.--Separating.--Grinding.--Fanning Mills and
+ Sir Walter Scott.--The Rudimentary Mills.--Egyptian.--Hebrew,
+ Grecian, and Roman Methods, Prevailed until Middle of Eighteenth
+ Century.--The Upper and Nether Mill Stone in Modern Dress.--
+ Modern Mills Invented at Close of Eighteenth Century.--Oliver
+ Evans of America, 1755-1819.--Evans' System Prevailed for Three
+ Quarters of a Century.--New System.--Middlings.--Low Milling.--
+ High Milling.--Roller Mills.--Middlings Separators.--Dust
+ Explosions and Prevention.--Vegetable Cutters.--Choppers.--Fruit
+ Parers and Slicers.--Great Range of Mechanisms to Treat the
+ Tenderest Pods and Smallest Seeds.--Crushing Sugar Cane.--
+ Pressing and Baling.--Every Product has its own Proper Machine
+ for Picking, Pressing, Packing, or Baling.--Cotton Compress.--
+ Extensive and Enormous Cotton Crops of the World.--Cotton
+ Presses of Various Kinds.--Hay and its Baling.--Bale Ties.--
+ Fruits and Foods.--Machines for Gathering, Packing, Preserving,
+ etc., all Modern.--Drying and Evaporating.--Sealing.--
+ Transporting.--Tobacco.--Its Enormous Production.--The Interdict
+ of James I., and of Popes, Kings, Sultans, etc.--Variety of
+ Machines for its Treatment.                                          45
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CHEMISTRY, MEDICINES, SURGERY, DENTISTRY.
+
+ Chemistry among the Ancients.--Egyptians.--Ph[oe]nicians.--
+ Israelites.--Greeks and Romans.--Chinese.--Became a Science in
+ the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.--Libavius.--Van
+ Helmont.--Glauber--Tachenius.--Boyle.--L�mery.--Becher.--
+ Stahl.--Boerhaave.--Black.--Cavendish.--Lavoisier.--Priestley.--
+ Chemistry of Nineteenth Century a New World.--Atomic and
+ Molecular Theories.--Light, Heat, and Electricity.--Correlation
+ and Conservation of Forces.--Spectrum Analysis.--Laws of
+ Chemical Changes.--John Dalton.--Wollaston.--Gay.--Lussac.--
+ Berzelius.--Huygens'and Newton's Discoveries in Light in
+ Seventeenth Century.--Unfolded and Developed by Fraunhofer,
+ Kirchoff.--Bunsen in the Nineteenth.--Young of America.--
+ Combination of Spectroscope and Telescope.--Huggins of England,
+ Spectrum Analysis of the Stars.--Heat and other Forces.--Count
+ Rumford.--Davy.--Mayer.--Helmholtz.--Colding.--Joule.--Grove.--
+ Faraday.--Sir William Thomson.--Le Conte and Martin.--French
+ Revolution and Agricultural Chemistry.--Lavoisier, Berthollet.--
+ Guyton.--Fourcroy.--Napoleon.--Sir Humphry Davy.--Liebig.--
+ Fermentation.--Alcohol.--Yeast.--Malt.--Wines.--Beer.--Huxley's
+ Lecture on Yeast, 1871.--Protein.--Protoplasm.--Evolution from
+ one all-pervading Force.--Alcohol and Pasteur.--Manufacture of
+ Liquors.--Carbonating.--Soils and Fertilisers.--Liquids, Oils,
+ Sugar and Fats.--Bleaching and Dyeing.--Aniline Colours.--
+ Perfumes.--Electro-Chemical Methods.--Applied to the Production
+ of Artificial Light.--Abradants.--Disinfectants.--Pigments.--
+ Mineral Analysis.--Purification of Water and Sewage.--
+ Electroplating Metals.--Chemicals and the Fine Arts.--Redemption
+ of Waste Materials.--Medicines and Surgery.--Their Growth from
+ Empiricism.--An�sthetics.--Davy.--Morton.--Jackson.--Innumerable
+ Medical Compounds.--Antiseptic Treatment of Wounds.--Vast
+ Variety of Surgical Instruments Invented.--Four Thousand Patents
+ in United States Alone.--Dentistry.--Its Ancient Origin.--
+ Account of Herodotus.--Revolution in, during Nineteenth
+ Century.--Instruments.--Artificial Teeth.--Vast Relief from Pain.    58
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.
+
+ Prophecy of Dr. Darwin in Eighteenth Century.--Review of the Art
+ from Hero to James Watt.--Pumping Engines.--Road Carriages.--
+ Watt.--Cugnot.--Rumsey.--Fitch.--Oliver Evans.--Read.--
+ Symington.--Trevithick.--Locomotives.--Blenkinsop.--Griffith.--
+ Bramah.--Horse Engine.--Hancock.--Blackett.--George
+ Stephenson.--Hackworth.--Braithwaite.--Ericsson.--Huskisson
+ First Victim of Railroad Accident.--Seguin.--John C. Stevens.--
+ Horatio Allen.--Peter Cooper.--Symington.--Lord Dundas.--Fulton
+ and Livingston.--The First Successful Steamboat.--Transatlantic
+ Steam Navigation.--Scarborough of Georgia.--Bell of Scotland.--
+ Cunard Line; Paddle Wheels.--Screw Propellers.--The Age of
+ Kinetic Energy.--Professor Thurston.--Variety of Engines and
+ Boilers.--Corliss.--Bicycle and Automobile Engines.--Napoleon's
+ Stage Trip and Present Locomotion.--Daniel Webster's Survey of
+ the Art.                                                             73
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.
+
+ The Duties of a Civil Engineer.--Great Engineering of the
+ Past.--The Divisions.--Steam.--Mining.--Hydraulic.--
+ Electrical.--Marine.--Bridge Making, Its Development.--First
+ Arched Iron Bridge.--Darby.--Telford.--Leading Bridges of the
+ Century.--Suspension.--Tubular.--Tubular Arch.--Truss.--
+ Cantilever.--Spider's Web and Suspension.--Sir Samuel Brown.--
+ The Tweed.--Menai Straits and Telford.--M. Chaley and
+ Fribourg.--J. K. Brunel and Isle of Bourbon.--British America
+ and the United States united in 1855--Niagara.--John A.
+ Roebling.--The Brooklyn Bridge.--Caissons and the Caisson
+ Disease.--Tubular Bridge at Menai.--"The Grandest Lift in
+ Engineering."--Robert Stephenson.--The Tubular Arch at
+ Washington.--Captain Meigs and Captain Eads.--St. Louis
+ Bridge.--Truss System and Vast Modern Bridges.--Cantilever
+ Succeeded the Suspension.--New Niagara and River
+ Forth.--Schneider.--Hayes.--Fowler and Baker.--Milton's
+ Description.--Lighthouses.--Smeaton.--Douglass.--Bartholdi.--
+ Eiffel.--Excavating, Dredging, Draining.--Road-making.--
+ Railroads.--Canals.--Tunnels.--Excavating.--Desert Lands
+ Reclaimed.--Holland and Florida Swamps.--The Tunnels of the
+ Alps.--Suez Canal.--Engineering, as seen from a Pullman
+ Car.--Cable Transportation.--Pneumatic Lock System.--Grain
+ Elevators--Progress in Civilisation.                                 93
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ELECTRICITY.
+
+ Theories and Definitions.--Franklin's and a Modern One.--
+ Varieties of the Force.--Generation.--Dynamic Energy.--
+ Discoveries before the Nineteenth Century.--Magnetism and
+ Electricity.--Fathers of the Science.--Doctor Gilbert.--Otto
+ von Guericke.--Sir Isaac Newton.--Gray.--Dufay.--Professor
+ Muschenbroeck.--Cuneus.--Charles Morrison.--Franklin and
+ Galvani.--Volta.--The Door to Nineteenth Century Inventions
+ then Opened.--Fabroni.--Sir Humphry Davy, Wollaston, Nicholson,
+ and Carlisle.--Ritter Followed--Electrolysis.--Faraday and its
+ Laws.--Davy and the Electric Light.--Batteries.--Daniell.--
+ Grove.--Bunsen.--Brilliant Discoveries from 1800 to 1820.--
+ Oersted, Schweigger.--Magnetising Helix.--Indicators.--Arago
+ and Davy.--Amp�re's Discoveries.--Sturgeon and the first
+ Electro-Magnet, 1825.--Telegraphy.--Gauss, Weber, Schilling.--
+ Professor Barlow's Demonstration that Telegraphy was
+ Impracticable.--Joseph Henry.--Powerful Magnets.--Modern and
+ Ancient Telegraphy of Various Kinds.--The Third Decade.--George
+ Simon Ohm.--Steinheil.--Telegraph of Morse, Vail, Dana, Gale.--
+ Wheatstone.--U.S. Supreme Court on Morse System.--His Alphabet
+ and Submarine Telegraph.--Michael Faraday and Science of
+ Magnets.--Steam and Magneto-Dynamo Machines.--Chemical Affinity
+ and Electricity.--Helmholtz, Faraday, Henry, and Pixii.--
+ Ruhmkorff Coil.--Page.--Electrical Light.--Decomposition of
+ Water.--Professor Nollet.--First Practical Electric Light
+ Shone on the Sea, 1858.--Faraday and Holmes.--Lighthouse
+ Illumination.--Dr. W. Siemens.--Wilde's Machine.--Other
+ Powerful Magnetic Machines.--Field Magnets.--Z. Gramme.--
+ The Various Ways and Means of Developing Electric Light.--
+ Geissler Tubes.--First House Lighted in America.--Moses
+ G. Farmer.--Jablochoff's Candle.--French Regulators.--Outdoor
+ and Indoor Illumination.--Siemens, Farmer, Brush, Maxim,
+ Westinghouse, Edison, Swan, Lane--Fox and Others.--Arc Lamps
+ of Heffner von Alteneck.--Ocean Cables.--Cyrus W. Field.--John
+ Bright's Expression.--Weak Currents.--Thomson's Remedy.--Mirror
+ Galvanometer.--Centennial Exhibition and the Telephone.--
+ Alexander Graham Bell, 1875.--The Telephone and Helmholtz'
+ Theory of Tone.--Scott's Phonautograph.--Page's Production of
+ Galvanic Music and Researches of Reis.--Its Slow Growth.--The
+ Ideas of Faraday and Henry still the Basis of the Great
+ Machines.--"Lines of Force."--Electric Railway.--Storage
+ Batteries.--Dynamos.--First Railway at Berlin, 1879.--Then
+ Saxony, Paris, London, New York.--Telpherage by Professor
+ Jenkin.--Problems Solved.--Electrical Magicians.--Edison and
+ Tesla.--Recent Improvements in Telegraphy.--The Talks Both Ways
+ at Same Time and Multiplied.--Printing Systems by Types and
+ Otherwise.--Electrical Elevators.--Microphone.--Ticks of a
+ Watch and the Tread of a Fly Recorded.--Musical Sounds from
+ Minerals and Other Substances.--Signalling and Other
+ Appliances.--The X Rays.--Wireless Telegraphy.                      111
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HOISTING, CONVEYING, AND STORING.
+
+ Drudgery of Ancient Times Relieved by Modern Inventions.--
+ The Labour of Men and Beasts now Done by Steam Giants.--
+ Labour-Saving Appliances for Transportation.--Tall Buildings
+ and Elevators.--Evolution Slow until 19th Century.--Carrying
+ of Weights.--The Pyramids.--Modern Methods.--Ship-Loading.--
+ The Six Ordinary Powers Alone Used until the Time of Watt.--
+ Elevator Mills of Oliver Evans.--The Hydraulic Press of
+ Bramah.--The Lifting of Tubular Bridge by Robt. Stephenson.--
+ Compressed Air Elevator of Slade.--Counterbalance Lifts of
+ Van Elvean.--Modern Elevator of Otis, 1859.--Steam-Water.--
+ Compressed Air.--Electricity: Elevators, how Controlled.--
+ Store Service Conveyors.--Pneumatic Transmission: Dodge's
+ Air Blast Conveyor.--Mode of Switching Conveyors.--"Lazy
+ Tongs" Conveyors.--Buffers.--Endless Cables.--Clutches,
+ Safety.--Labour-Saving Devices and Derangement of Labour.--
+ In One Sense, Inventions Labour-Increasing Devices.                 152
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+ Old as the Thirst of Man.--Prehistoric Inventions.--China.--
+ Pliny's Record.--Egyptian, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman Water
+ Works.--"Pneumatics of Hero."--Overshot, Undershot, and Breast
+ Wheels, Ancient.--Screw of Archimedes.--Frontinus, a Roman
+ Inspector.--1593, Servi�re Invents the Rotary Pump.--1586,
+ Stevinus of Holland, Father of the Elementary Science.--Galileo,
+ Torricelli, Pascal, and Sir Isaac Newton in the Seventeenth
+ Century.--Bernoulli, D'Alembert, Euler, Abb� Bossut, Venturi,
+ and Eylewein in the Eighteenth.--Water Distribution then
+ Originated.--Peter Maurice and the London Bridge Pumps.--La
+ Hire's Double Acting Pump.--Dr. John Allen and David Ramsey of
+ England.--Franklin's Force Pump.--Water Ram of Whitehurst and
+ Montgolfier.--Nineteenth Century Opens with Bramah's Pumps.--
+ Water and Steam.--Pumps the Strong Hands of Hydraulics.--Review
+ of Past Inventions: Pascal's Paradox.--Turbines of Forneyron.--
+ Power of Niagara and Turbines there.--Jonval's.--Euler's Old
+ Centrifugal Pumps Revived.--Massachusetts and Appold Systems.--
+ Lowlands of Holland, Marshes of Italy, Swamps of Florida,
+ Drained.--Injectors.--Giffard.--Intensifiers.--Hydraulicising.--
+ Hydraulic Jack and Cleopatra's Needle.--Flow of Cold Metal.--
+ Lead Pipe Made, and Cold Steel Stretched by Water Pressure.--
+ Cotton Presses, Sir Wm. Armstrong's Inventions.--Tweddle and Sir
+ Wm. Fairbairn.--Water Motors.--Baths and Closets.--Results of
+ Modern Improvements.--Germ Theory and Filters.                      164
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
+
+ The Slow March of the Human Mind.--Burke.--The Age of Mechanical
+ Inventions not until nearly Watt's Steam Engine.--Review of
+ "Learning" until that Time.--Motor Engines not Produced until
+ Seventeenth Century.--Suggested by the Bellows and the
+ Cannon.--Huygens and Papin.--Van Helmont the Author of the
+ Term "Gas," 1577-1644.--Robert Boyle and the Air Pump.--Law
+ of Gases.--Mariotte.--Abb� Hauteville, 1682.--The Heart and
+ a Motor.--Sun Burner.--Murdock, 1798, Uses Coal Gas for
+ Illumination.--John Barber and Carburetted Hydrogen.--
+ Street's Heated Gas.--1801, Lebon Proposes Coal Gas Motor.--
+ Investigations of Dalton and Gay-Lussac, 1810.--Heat engines:
+ Air, Gas, Steam, Vapor, Solar.--Explosive.--Temperature the Tie
+ that Binds them as One Family.--1823-26, Sir Samuel Brown.--
+ Gunpowder and Gas Engine.--Davy and Faraday.--Gas to a Liquid
+ State.--Wright, 1833.--Burdett's Compressed Air Engine, 1838.--
+ Lenoir's.--Hugon's.--Beau de Rohes' Investigations.--Oil Wells
+ of United States, 1860.--Petroleum Engines.--Brayton, Spiel.--
+ Otto's Gas Engine and Improvements.--Ammoniacal Gas Engines.--
+ Nobels' Inventions.--Storm's Gunpowder Engine.--Gas and Vapour
+ Compared with Steam.--Prof. Jenkins' Prediction.--Gas to
+ Supplant Steam.--Compressed Air Engines.--Innumerable
+ Applications of Pneumatic Machines.--A Number Mentioned.--
+ Their Universal Application to the Useful and Fine Arts.            182
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATING AND LIGHTING.
+
+ Prometheus and the Modern Match.--1680, Godfrey Hanckwitz
+ Invented First Phosphorous Match.--Other Forms of Matches.--
+ Promethean Matches in 1820.--John Walker.--Lucifer.--Tons of
+ Chemicals, Hundreds of Pine Trees Yearly Made into Matches.--
+ Splints and Machines.--Reuben Partridge.--Poririer.--Pasteboard
+ Box.--Machines for Assorting and Dipping, Drying and Boxing.--
+ Cooking and Heating Stoves.--History of, from Rome to Ben
+ Franklin.--The Old-Fashioned Fireplace.--Varieties of Coal
+ Stoves.--Stove Fireplace.--Ventilation.--Hot Air Furnaces.--
+ How Heat is Distributed, Retained, and Moistened.--Hot Water
+ Circulation.--Incubators.--Baking Ovens, the Dutch and the
+ Modern.--Vast Number of Stove and Furnace Foundries in United
+ States.--Ventilation.--Parliament Buildings and U. S. Capitol.--
+ Eminent Scientific Men who have Made Ventilation a Study.--Best
+ Modes.--Its Great Importance.--Car Heaters.--Grass and Refuse
+ Burning Stoves.--Oil, Vapour, and Gas Stoves, their Construction
+ and Operation.--Sterilising.--Electric Heating and Cooking.--
+ Refrigeration.--Messrs. Carr� of France, 1870.--Artificial
+ Ice.--Sulphuric Acid and Ammonia Processes.--Absorption and
+ Compression Methods Described.--Refrigerating Cars.--Liquid Air.    199
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+ The Antiquity of the Art.--The "Lost Arts" Rediscovered.--
+ The Earliest Forms of Smelting Furnaces.--Ancient Iron and
+ Steel.--India and Africa.--Early Spain and the Catalan
+ Furnace.--The Armour of Don Quixote.--Bell's History of the
+ Art.--Germany.--Cast Iron Made by Ancients, Disused for 15
+ Centuries.--Reinvented by Page and Baude in England, 1543.--
+ German Furnaces.--Dud Dudley, the Oxford Graduate and his
+ Furnace, 1619.--Origin of Coke in England.--Use in United
+ States.--Revival of Cast Iron.--Cast Steel in England, Huntsman,
+ 1740.--Henry Cort and Puddling, 1784, and its Subsequent
+ Wonderful Value.--Steam Engine of Watt and Iron.--Refining of
+ Precious Metals.--Amalgamating Process.--Review of the 18th
+ Century.--Herschel's Distinction of Empirical and Scientific
+ Art.--The Nineteenth Century, Scientific Metallurgy.--Steam,
+ Chemistry, Electricity.--Rogers' Iron Floor.--Neilson's Hot Air
+ Blast, 1828, Patent Sustained.--Anthracite Coal.--Colossal
+ Furnaces.--Gas Producers.--Bunsen's Experiments.--Constituents
+ of Ores.--Squeezing Process.--Burden's Method.--Mechanical
+ Puddlers.--Rotary.--Henry Bessemer's Great Process--1855-1860.--
+ Steel from Iron.--Holley's Apparatus.--Effects of and Changes in
+ Bessemer Process.--Old Methods and Means Revived and Improved.--
+ Eminent Inventors.--New Metals and New Processes Discovered.--
+ Harveyised Steel.--Irresistible Projectiles and Impenetrable
+ Armour Plate.--Krupp's Works.--Immense Manufactures in United
+ States.--Treatment of Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, etc.; Mining
+ Operations, Separation, Reduction.--Chemical Methods:
+ Lixiviation or Leaching.--MacArthur.--Forrest.--Sir Humphry
+ Davy.--Scheele.--Chlorine and Cyanide Processes.--Alloys.--
+ Babbitting.--Metallic Lubricants.--Various Alloys and Uses.--
+ Reduction of Aluminium and other Metals.--Electro-Metallurgy.--
+ Diamonds to be Made.--All Arts have Waited on Development of
+ this Art.                                                           218
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+METAL WORKING PROCESSES AND MACHINES.--TUBE MAKING.--WELDING.--ANNEALING
+AND TEMPERING.--COATING AND METAL FOUNDING.--METAL WARE.--WIRE WORKING.
+
+ Metal Working Tools One of the Glories of 19th Century.--Wood
+ Working and Metal Working.--Ancient and Modern Lathe.--Turning
+ Metal Lathe.--A Lost Art in Use in Egypt and in Solomon's
+ Time.--Revived in Sixteenth Century.--Forgotten and Revived
+ again in Eighteenth.--Sir Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah
+ Laid Foundation of Nineteenth Century Tools.--The Slide Rest
+ and Henry Maudsley.--Nasmyth's Description.--Vast Rolls, and
+ Most Delicate Watch Mechanisms, cut by the Lathe and its
+ Tools.--Metal Planing.--Eminent Inventors, 1811-1840.--
+ Many Inventions and Modifications Resulting in a Wonderful
+ Evolution.--Metal-Boring Machines.--Modern Vulcan's Titanic
+ Work-Shop.--Screw Making.--Demand Impossible to Supply under
+ Old Method.--Great Display at London Exhibition, 1851, and
+ Centennial, Philadelphia, 1876.--J. Whitworth & Co., of England,
+ Sellers & Co., of America, and Others.--The Great Revelation.--
+ Hoopes and Townsend and the Flow of Cold, Solid Metal.--Cold
+ Punching, etc.--Machine-Made Horse-Shoes.--The Blacksmith
+ and Modern Inventions.--Making of Great Tubes.--Welding by
+ Electricity, and Tempering and Annealing.--How Armour Plate
+ is Hardened.--Metals Coated.--Electro-Plating and Casting.--
+ Great Domes Gilded.--Moulds for Metal Founding.--Machines
+ and Methods.--Steel Ingots.--Sheet Metal and Personal Ware.--
+ Great Variety of Machines for Making.--Wire Made Articles.--
+ Description of Great Modern Work-Shop.                              240
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ORDNANCE, ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND EXPLOSIVES.
+
+ This Art Slow in Growth, but no Art Progressed Faster.--The
+ Incentives to its Development.--The Greatest Instruments in
+ the New Civilisation.--Peace and its Fruits Established by
+ them.--Its History.--Chinese Cannon.--India.--The Moors.--
+ Arabs.--Cannon at Cordova in 1280.--The Spaniards and Gibraltar,
+ 1309.--The Spread of Artillery through Europe.--Description of
+ Ancient Guns.--Breech Loaders and Stone Cannon Balls.--Wrought
+ Iron Cannon and Shells in 15th Century.--Big Cannon of the
+ Hindoos and Russians.--Strange Names.--France under Louis
+ XI.--Improvements of the Sixteenth Century.--Holland's Mortar
+ Shells and Grenades in the Seventeenth.--Coehorn Mortars and
+ Dutch Howitzers.--Louis XIV.--French Artillery Conquers Italy.--
+ Eighteenth Century.--"Queen Ann's Pocket Piece."--Gribeauval
+ the Inventor of the Greatest Improvements in the Eighteenth.--
+ His System Used by Bonaparte at Toulon, the French Revolution,
+ and in Italy.--Marengo, 1800.--Small Arms, their History.--From
+ the Arquebus to the Modern Rifle.--Rifle, the Weapon of the
+ American Settler, and the Revolution.--Puckle's Celebrated
+ Breech-Loading Cannon Patent, and Christian and Turk Bullets.--
+ 1803, Percussion Principle in Fire-arms, Invented by a
+ Clergyman, Forsyth.--1808, Genl. Shrapnel.--Bormann of
+ Belgium.--1814, Shaw and the Cap.--Flint Locks Still in Use,
+ 1847.--Colt's Revolvers, 1835-1851.--History of Cannon again
+ Reverted to.--Columbiads of Bomford.--Paixhan in 1822.--Shells
+ of the Crimea.--Kearsarge and Alabama.--Requirements of Modern
+ Ordnance.--Rodman One of the Pioneers.--Woodbridge's Wire Wound
+ Guns, Piezometer, and Shell Sabot.--Sir William Armstrong and
+ Sir Jos. Whitworth.--Krupp's Cannon and Works.--The Latest
+ Improvements.--Compressed Air Ordnance.--Constructions of
+ Metals and Explosives.--The "Range Finder."--Small Arms again
+ Considered.--History of the Breech Loader and Metallic
+ Cartridges.--Wooden Walls and Stone Forts disappeared.--Monitor
+ and Merrimac.--Blanchard and Hall.--Gill.--Springfield Rifle.--
+ Machine Guns.--Electric Battery.--Gatling's, Hotchkiss'.--
+ Explosives.--Torpedoes.--Effect of Modern Weapons.                  252
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PAPER AND PRINTING, TYPEWRITING AND THE LINOTYPE.
+
+ Paper-making Preceded the Art of Printing.--The Wasp Preceded
+ Man.--The Chinese, the Hindoos, Egyptians, and other Orientals
+ had Invented Both Arts.--History of Papyrus.--Parchment.--
+ Twelfth Century Documents Written on Linen Paper still
+ Extant.--Water Marks.--Wall Paper, Substitute for Tapestry,
+ 1640.--Holland in Advance, Seventeenth Century.--Rittenhouse
+ of Holland Introduces Paper-Making in America, Eighteenth
+ Century.--Paper a Dear Commodity.--The Revolution of the
+ Nineteenth Century.--400 Different Materials now Used.--
+ Nineteenth Century Opens with Robert's Paper-Making Machine.--
+ Messrs. Fourdrinier.--Immense Growth of their System.--Modern
+ Discoveries of Chemists.--Soda Pulp and Sulphite Processes.--
+ Paper Mills.--Paper Bag Machines, etc.--Printing.--Chinese
+ Invented Both Block and Movable Types.--European Inventors.--
+ The Claims of Different Nations.--From Southern Italy to
+ Sweden.--Spread of the Art.--Printing Press and the
+ Reformation.--First Printing Press in New World Set up in
+ Mexico, 1536.--Then in Brazil.--Then in 1639 in
+ Massachusetts.--Types and Presses.--English and American.--
+ Ramage and Franklin.--Blaew of Amsterdam.--Nineteenth Century
+ Opens with Earl of Stanhope's Hand Press.--Clymer of
+ Philadelphia, 1817.--The First Machine Presses.--Nicholson in
+ Eighteenth.--Konig and Bauer in Nineteenth Century, 1813.--
+ London Times, 1814.--1815, Cowper's Electrotype plates.--1822,
+ First Power Press in United States.--Treadwell.--Bruce's Type
+ Casting Machines.--Hoe's Presses.--John Walter's.--German and
+ American Presses.--Capacities of Modern Presses.--Mail
+ Marking.--Typewriting.--Suggested in Eighteenth Century.--
+ Revived by French in 1840.--Leading Features Invented in
+ U. S., 1857.--Electro-Magnet Typewriters.--Cahill.--
+ Book-binding.--Review of the Art.--Linotype "Most Remarkable
+ Machine of Century."--Merganthaler.--Rogers.--Progress and
+ Triumphs of the Art.                                                273
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+TEXTILES.
+
+ The Distaff and the Spindle, without a Change from Ancient
+ Days to Middle of Fourteenth Century.--Ancient and Modern Cloth
+ Making.--Woman the Natural Goddess of the Art.--The Ancient and
+ Isolated Weavers of Mexico.--After 40 Centuries of Hand-Weaving
+ Comes John Kay, of England, 1733.--The Spinning Machines of
+ Wyatt and Hargreaves.--1738-1769, Richard Arkwright.--The
+ "Spinning Jenny" and the "Throstle."--The Steam Engine and
+ Weaving.--1776, Crompton and the "Mule."--1785, Cartwright
+ and Power Looms.--1793, Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin.--
+ 1793-1813, Samuel Slater, Lowell, and Cotton Factories of
+ America.--The Dominion of the Nineteenth Century.--What it
+ Comprises in the Art of Spinning and Weaving.--Description
+ of Operations.--Bobbins of Asa Arnold and the Ring Frame of
+ Jenks.--Spooling Machines.--Warping and Dressing and other
+ Finishing Operations.--Embroidery.--Cloth Finishing.--The
+ Celebrated Jacquard Loom.--Jacquard and Napoleon.--Bonelli's
+ Electric Loom.--Fancy Woollen Looms of George Crompton.--
+ Bigelow's Carpet Looms.--Figuring, Colouring, Embossing.--
+ Cloth Pressing and Creasing.--Felting.--Ribbons.--Comparison
+ of Penelopes of Past and Present.--Knitting Days of our
+ Grandmothers and Knitting Machines.--A Mile of Stockings.--
+ Fancy Stocking and Embroidery Machines.--Netting and Turkish
+ Carpets.--Matting.--Spun Glass, etc.--Hand, and the Skilled
+ Labour of Machinery.                                                292
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GARMENTS.
+
+ "Man is a Tool-using Animal, of which Truth, Clothes are
+ but one Example."--Form of Needle not Changed until 1775.--
+ Weisenthal.--Embroidery Needle.--Saint's Sewing Machine,
+ 1790.--John Duncan's Tamboring Machine, 1804.--Eye Pointed
+ Needles for Rope Matting, 1807.--Madersperger's Sewing Machine,
+ 1814.--France and the Thimonnier Machine, 1830-1848-50, Made of
+ Wood.--Destroyed by Mob.--English Embroidering Machine, 1841.--
+ Concurrent Inventions in Widely Separated Countries.--Thimonnier
+ in France, Hunt in America, 1832, 1834.--Elias Howe, 1846.--
+ Description of Howe's Inventions.--Recital of his Struggles and
+ final Triumphs.--The Test of Priority.--Leather Sewing Machines
+ of Greenough and Corliss, 1842-43.--Bean's Running Stitch,
+ 1843.--The Decade of 1849-1859, Greatest in Century in Sewing
+ Machine Inventions.--Hood's "Song of the Shirt," a Dying
+ Drudgery.--Improvements after Howe.--Blodgett and Lerow's Dip
+ Motion.--Wilson's Four-Motion Feed.--Singer's Inventions, their
+ Importance, his Rise from Poverty to Great Wealth.--The Grover
+ and Baker.--The Display in 1876 at the Centennial.--Vast Growth
+ of the Industry.--Extraordinary Versatility of Invention in
+ Sewing and Reaping Machines, and Breech-Loading Fire-arms.--
+ Commercial Success due to Division of Labour and Assembling
+ of Parts.--Innumerable Additions to the Art.--Seventy-five
+ Different Stitches.--Passing of the Quilting Party.--Embroidery
+ and Button-hole Machines.--Garment-cutting Machines.--Bonnets
+ and Inventions of Women.--Hat Making.--Its History.--Bonjeau's
+ Improvements in Plain Cloths, 1834.--Effect of Modern Inventions
+ on Wearing Apparel and Condition of the Poor.--The Epoch of Good
+ Clothes.                                                            310
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.
+
+ Inventions Engender Others.--Co-operative Growth.--Broom
+ Making.--Crude Condition until the Modern Lathe, Mandrel,
+ Shuttle and Sewing Machine.--Broom Sewing Machines.--Effect
+ on Labour.--The Brush and Brush Machines.--A Hundred Species
+ of Brushes, each Made by a Special Machine.--First Successful
+ Brush Machine, Woodbury's, 1870.--Wonderful Operations.--
+ Street-Sweeping Machines, 1831.--Most Effective Form.--Abrading
+ Machines.--Application of Sand Blast.--Nature's Machine
+ Patented by Tilghman in 1870.--Things Done by the Sand Blast
+ and How.--Emery and Corundum Machines.--Vast Application in
+ Cutting, Grinding, Polishing.--Washing and Ironing Machines.--
+ Their Contribution to Cleanliness and Comfort.--Laundry
+ Appliances.--Old and the New Mangle.--Starch Applying.--Steam
+ Laundry Machinery.--Description of Work done in a Modern Laundry.   328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+WOOD-WORKING.
+
+ Contrast of Prehistoric Labour and Implements and Modern
+ Tools.--The Ages of Stone, Bronze, Iron, and the Age of
+ Wood.--The Slow Growth of Wood-working Inventions.--Tools
+ of the Egyptians.--Saw of the Greeks.--Known to Hindoos
+ and Africans.--Accounts of Pliny and Ansonius as to Planes
+ and Marble Sawing.--Saw-mills of France, Germany, Norway,
+ Sweden.--Holland 100 Years ahead of England, and Why.--William
+ Penn Found Saw-mills in America in 1682.--What made Americans
+ Inventors.--Progress Unknown where Saw-mills are not.--Steam
+ and Saw Mills.--Splendid System and Inventions of Samuel
+ Bentham, Bramah and Branch at Close of Eighteenth Century.--
+ First Decade of Nineteenth Century Produces Wonderful Inventor,
+ Thomas Blanchard.--His Life and Inventions.--Machines for
+ Turning Irregular Forms in Wood and Metal.--The Boring Worm
+ and Boring Machine.--Gun-making and Mortising Machines.--
+ Complicated Ornamental Wood-cutting and Carving Machines.--
+ Whatever Made by Hand can be Better Made by Machinery.--
+ Pattern-Cutting Machines.--Xyloplasty.--Art of Hand Carving
+ Revived.--Bending of Wood by Fire and Steam.--The Problems
+ Solved by Wood-working Inventors.--Great Saws at the Vienna
+ Exposition, 1873.--Boring Tools, Augers, Planes, Lathes, etc.
+ How Improved and by Whom.--"The Universal Wood Workers."--
+ Flexible Shafting.--Shingles and Tiles.--A Great Log, how
+ Turned into Bundles of Shingles.--Veneering.--What Pliny
+ Thought of It.--Brunel's Machines, 1805-1808.--Homes Made
+ Beautiful by Modern Wood-working.--Objects without and Within
+ a House, Made by Such Machinery.--Array of Wood-working
+ Machinery at International Expositions.--The Art of Forestry.       339
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+FURNITURE.--BOTTLING, PRESERVING, AND LAMPLIGHTING.
+
+ Universal Supply of Convenient and Ornamental Furniture Due
+ to Modern Inventions and Machinery.--The Furniture of the
+ Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.--Tables.--Modern Improvements.--
+ Combined Tables, Desks, and Chairs.--Special Forms of Each.--
+ Beds: Advance from the Ponderous Bedsteads of Former Times.--
+ Modern, Ornamental, Healthful Styles.--Iron, Brass, Springs,
+ Surgical and Invalid Chairs and Beds.--Kitchen Utensils.--Vast
+ Amount of Drudgery Relieved.--Curtains, Shades, and Screens.--
+ Great Changes Produced by Steaming and Bending Wood.--The
+ Bentwood Ware Factories of Austria, Hungary, Moravia (1870-73),
+ in Vast Beech Forests Followed in other Countries.--Modern
+ Chairs of Various Kinds.--The Dentist and the Theatre.--Bottle
+ Stoppers.--Enormous Demand for Cork Exhausting the Supply.--
+ Modern Substitutes.--Fruit Jars, etc.--Lamplighting, Ancient
+ and Modern.--Revolution Produced by Petroleum.--Wickless and
+ Electric Lamps.                                                     354
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+LEATHER.
+
+ Leather and Prehistoric Man.--Earliest Implements and Processes
+ Forerunners of Modern Inventions.--Modern Leather Unknown to
+ the Earliest Races.--Tanning.--Leathers of Different Nations.--
+ Hand Tools and Variety of Operations.--Inventions of Nineteenth
+ Century--Labour-Saving Machinery and New Processes.--Epoch of
+ Modern Machinery.--1780, John Bull and his Scraping Machine,
+ Hide-mill, Pioneer Machine of Century.--Fleshing Machines.--
+ Tanning Apparatus.--Reel Machines.--Tanning Processes and the
+ Chemists.--Machines for Different Operations.--Pendulum Lever
+ Machine.--Leather Splitting, and other Remarkable Machines.--
+ Boots and Shoes, their Character before Modern Inventions.--
+ Randolph's Riveting Machine of 1809.--Great Civil Engineer,
+ J. M. Brunel's Machines.--1818, Walker Invents the Wooden
+ Peg.--Peg-making Machines.--1858, Sturtevant's Great
+ Improvement.--Fifty-five Million Pairs of Boots and Shoes then
+ Annually Pegged.--Metal Wire, and Screw Pegs.--Last-turning
+ Machines of Blanchard.--McKay's Shoe Sewing Machine.--
+ Revolution in Shoe Making.--Special Machines for Making Every
+ Part.--One Machine Makes 300 Pairs a Day.--Many Millions made
+ Daily.--Vast Increase of Labourers as the Art Advances.--
+ Illustrations of Yankee Enterprise.--Modern and Ancient
+ Harnesses.--Embossed Leather.--Book Covers and the many Useful
+ and Beautiful Leather Articles.--The Vast and Important Leather
+ Manufactures.                                                       361
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+MINERALS.--WELLS.
+
+ Ancient Tools and the Art of Building.--The Parthenon.--
+ Aqueducts of Rome.--Tombs of India.--Halls of Alhambra.--
+ Gothic Cathedrals.--Steam First Drew Coal, then Sawed Wood and
+ then Stone.--Stone-cutting Machinery.--Carving.--Dressing.--
+ Drilling.--Tunnels.--Wonderful Work of Stone-Boring Machine
+ on Pillars of Ohio State Capitol.--Stone Drills and Compressed
+ Air.--Hell Gate.--Crushing Stones and Ores.--Blake's Crusher.--
+ "Road Metal."--Different Form of Crushers.--Assorting Coal.--
+ Steam and Coal, strong Brothers.--Compressed Air for Mining
+ Machinery.--Mighty Picks Driven by Air.--Electric Motor.--
+ Machines for Screening, Loading, and Weighing.--Ore Mills.--
+ Separators.--Centrifugal Action.--Ore Washing.--Amalgamators:
+ Electric, Lead, Mercury, Plate, Vacuum, Vapour, etc.--The
+ Revolution in Mining.--Well Boring an Ancient Art.--Artesian
+ Wells.--Coal Oil and Coal Wells.--Preceded by Discovery of
+ Paraffine and its Uses.--Reichenbach, Young.--Petroleum
+ Discovery.--New Industry.--Col. Drake and First Oil Well.--
+ Sudden Riches of Farmers.--Boring Water Wells.--Green's Driven
+ Wells.--The Deserts Made to Bloom as the Rose.                      373
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.
+
+ Time Measuring Instruments of Antiquity.--Sun-dial.--Clepsydra,
+ Hour-glass, Graduated Candle.--Plato's Bell.--The Clepsydra
+ of Ctesibius.--Incense Sticks of Chinese.--Sun-dials of Greeks
+ and Romans.--Candles of Alfred the Great.--Wonderful Clocks
+ of the Middle Ages.--Henry de Vick of France, 1370.--Two
+ Hundred Years without Advance.--Astronomers, Brache and
+ Valherius.--1525, Zech's Fusee.--Progenitors of Modern Watch,
+ 1500.--1582, Swinging Lamp of Galileo.--1639, Galileo's
+ Book.--Huygens and the Pendulum.--Dr. Hooke's and David Ramsey's
+ Inventions.--Hair-Spring Balances.--George the Third's Small
+ Time-Piece.--Eighteenth Century Division of Time Pieces into
+ Hours, Minutes and Seconds.--Stem Winders.--Astronomical
+ Discoveries and Chronometers.--Dutch, Leading Clockmakers;
+ Germany, Switzerland.--Systems Followed in these Countries.--
+ Minute Sub-divisions of Labour.--Watch and Clock Making in the
+ United States.--American System.--Wonderful Machines for every
+ Part.--Watch factories.--Pope's Simile.--Revolution in
+ Nineteenth Century.--Electric System.--4000 Patents in U.S.
+ since 1800.--Registering Devices.--"A Mechanical Conscience."--
+ Cash Registers.--Voting Machines.--Electrical Recorders.--
+ Cyclometers.--Speed Indicators.--Weighing Scales and Machines,
+ History of.--The Fairbanks of Vermont, 1831.--Platform and other
+ Scales.--Spring Weighing.--Automatic Recorders of Weight and
+ Prices.--Testing Machines, English, German, American.--The Emery
+ Scales.--Gages, Dynamometers.--Hydraulic Testing.--Delicate
+ Operations.--Strength of a Horse-hair and Great Steel Beam,
+ Tested by Same Machine.--Effect on Public Works.                    384
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, PHOTOGRAPHY, FINE ARTS.
+
+ Musical Instruments Old as Religion.--Abounded before the Lyre
+ of Apollo or the Harp of Orpheus.--Their Evolution.--To Meet
+ Wants and Growing Tastes.--Nineteenth Century and the Laws
+ of Helmholtz.--The Story of the Piano, the Queen, Involves
+ whole History of the Art of Music.--Ancient Harp and Growth.--
+ Psaltery and Dulcimer of Assyrians and Hebrews.--No Inventions
+ by Greeks and Romans in this Art.--Fifteenth Century and the
+ Clavicitherium.--Sixteenth Century, the Virginal and the
+ Spinet.--Seventeenth Century, the Clavichord and Harpsichord.--
+ Italian Cembello.--Bach, Mozart, Handel, Haydn.--Cristofori of
+ Florence, Schreiber of Germany and Modern Piano.--Eighteenth
+ Century, Pianos of Broadwood and Clementi of London, Erard of
+ Strasburg, Petzold of Paris and Others.--Two Thousand Years
+ Taken to Ripen the Modern Piano.--Description of Piano Parts.--
+ Helmholtz's Great Work, 1862.--Effect on System of Music and
+ Musical Instruments.--The Organ, King in the Realm of Music.--
+ History of, from Earliest Times.--Improvements of the Nineteenth
+ Century.--The Auto-harp.--Self-playing Instruments.--The Science
+ of Acoustics and Practical Applications.--Auricular Tubes.--
+ Telephone, Phonograph, Graphophone, Gramophone.--Their
+ Evolution and their Inventors.--Optical Instruments.--Their
+ Growth.--Lippersheim, Galileo, Lieberkulm, John Dolland.--The
+ Improvements and Inventors of the Nineteenth Century.--Brewster
+ and the Kaleidoscope, Stereoscope.--Lenticular Lenses.--
+ Lighthouse Illumination.--Faraday and Tyndall.--Abb� Moigno's
+ Troubles.--Ophthalmoscope.--Spectroscope.--Making of Great
+ Lenses.--Solarmeter.--Measuring the Position and Distances
+ of Unseen Objects.--Light Converted into Music.--Daguerre and
+ Photography.--History and Development.--Colour Reproduction.--
+ Pencils.--Painting.--Air Brushes.--Telegraphic Photographs.         400
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+SAFES AND LOCKS.
+
+ Safes, how Constructed before this Century.--Classification.--
+ Century Starts out to Make Safes Fireproof.--Scott in 1801.--
+ Marr, 1834.--Result of Great Fire in New York, 1835.--Wilder's
+ and Herring's Safes.--Burglar-proof Safes, 1835.--Chubb, Newton,
+ Thompson, Hall, Marvin and Others.--Electricity.--Seal Locks
+ from 1815.--Locks of Various Kinds in Ancient Days.--Of
+ Ponderous Size.--Key of the House of David.--Lock of Penelope's
+ House.--Locks of the Middle Ages.--Letter Locks of the Dutch,
+ 1650.--Carew's Verse.--Eighteenth Century Locks.--Tumblers.--
+ Joseph Bramah's Locks.--Combination, Permutation and Time
+ Locks.--Yale Locks.--Modern Locks Invented for Special Uses.--
+ Master or Secondary Key Locks.--Value of Simple, Cheap,
+ Effective Locks.--Mail Locks and Others.--Greater General
+ Security for Property of all Kinds now Obtained.                    420
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+CARRIAGES AND CARRYING MACHINES GENERALLY.
+
+ Review of Conveyances from Time of Ptolemy's Great Procession,
+ 270 B. C., until Nineteenth Century.--The Old Stage Coaches.--
+ Coaches of the Rich, the Middle Classes and the Poor.--The Past
+ Art Compared with the Art as Exhibited at Centennial Exhibition
+ in 1876 at Philadelphia.--The Varieties of Different Vehicles
+ there Displayed by Different Nations.--Velocipedes and
+ Bicycles.--1800 to 1869.--French, German, English, Scotch.--
+ The "Draisine" of Von Drais, 1816.--Johnson's "Curricle,"
+ 1818.--Gompertz's "Dandy" and "Hobby Horse," 1821.--Michaux's,
+ 1863.--Lallement's of France, 1866, Crank and Pedal.--America
+ and Europe Adopts it, 1866, 1869.--Pneumatic Rubber Tire
+ Invented by Thomson, 1845.--Sleeps Forty Years.--Improvements
+ since 1869.--Motor Vehicles and Automobiles.--Traction
+ Engines.--Brakes, Railway, Air and Electric.--Automatic
+ Couplers, Buffers, and Vestibule Trains.                            428
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+SHIPS AND SHIP BUILDING.
+
+ "Ships are but Boards."--"The Great Harry."--Noah's Ark the
+ Prototype of the Modern "Whale-back."--Ph[oe]nicians.--
+ Northmen.--Dutch, French, English, and American Types.--
+ Nineteenth Century, the Yankee Clippers.--Donald McKay.--
+ "Great Republic."--Steam as Motive Power in Ships the Leading
+ Event in the Art.--Lord Dundas and Steam Canal Boats.--Iron
+ Ships in Place of Wood, 1829-30.--John Laird of Birkenhead.--
+ Sir William Fairbairn.--Clyde Works.--Comparison of Wood and
+ Iron.--1844, the Great Britain.--John Ericsson.--Monitor and
+ Merrimac.--Composite Style of Vessels.--Marine Propulsion.--
+ Paddle Wheels.--Screws.--1804, John Stevens.--1807, Fulton.--
+ Screw Propeller of Ericsson.--The Ogden, the Stockton and the
+ Princeton, the First Naval Warship of its Kind.--The Two
+ Revolutions Produced by Ericsson.--Pneumatic Propellers.--
+ Description of a Warship.--The Deutschland.--Torpedo Boats.--
+ Franklin and Oil on the Waves.--Air Ships.--Count Zeppelin's
+ Boat.--Other Plans of Air Navigation.--The Problems to be Solved.   438
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+ILLUMINATING GAS.
+
+ What Artificial Light has done for Man.--Its Condition before
+ the Nineteenth Century.--Experiments of Dr Clayton, Hon. R.
+ Boyle, Dr. Hales, Bishop Watson, Lord Dundonald, Dr. Rickel,
+ and William Murdock in Eighteenth Century.--1801, Le Bon Makes
+ Gas, Proposes to Light Paris.--1803, English Periodicals
+ Discuss the Subject.--1806, Melville of Newport, U. S., Lights
+ House and Street.--1817, First Lighthouse Lit by Gas.--The
+ Beaver Tail on Atlantic Coast.--Parliament in 1813, London
+ Streets Lit in 1815, Paris, 1820, American Cities 1816-25.--
+ Gas Processes.--Chemistry.--Priestley and Dalton.--Berthollet,
+ Graham, and Others.--Clegg of England and his Gas Machines.--
+ Art Revolutionised by Invention of Water Gas, 1823-1847.--
+ Donovan, Lowe, White.--T. S. C. Lowe, Anthracite Process,
+ 1873.--Competition with Electricity.--Siemens' Regenerative
+ System.--The Generators, Carburetors, Retorts, Mixers,
+ Purifiers, Meters, Scrubbers, Holders, Condensers, Governors,
+ Indicators, Registers, Chargers, Pressure Regulators, etc.--
+ Portable Gas Apparatus.--Argand Burners.--Acetylene Gas.--
+ Calcium Carbide.--Magnesium.--Bunsen Burner and Welsbach Mantle.    450
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+POTTERY, PLASTICS, PORCELAINS, STONEWARE, GLASS, RUBBER, CELLULOID.
+
+ Brickmaking from the Earliest Ages to Nineteenth Century.--
+ Pottery, its Origin Unknown.--Its Evolution.--Women the First
+ Inventors in Ceramic and Textile Arts.--Progress of Man Traced
+ in Pottery.--Review of Pottery from Time of Homer to the
+ Wedgwood Ware of Eighteenth Century.--Labour-Saving Devices
+ of Nineteenth.--Operations in Brickmaking and Machinery.--The
+ Celebrated Pug Mill, the Pioneer.--Moulding and Pressing.--
+ Drying and Burning.--The Slow Growth of Methods.--Useful
+ Contrivances never wholly Supplanted.--Modern Heat
+ Distributors.--Hoffman's Kilns.--Wedgwood's Pottery in
+ Eighteenth.--Siemens' Regenerators in Nineteenth, and other
+ Kilns.--Susan Frackelton's.--The Filter Press.--Chinese and
+ French Porcelains--Battam's Imitations of Marbles and Plaster
+ Moulds.--Faience.--Porcelain Moulding and Colours.--Atomisers
+ and Backgrounds.--Rookwood Pottery and Miss Fry.--Enamelled
+ Ware.--Artificial Stone.--Modern Cements.--Glass the Sister
+ of Pottery.--The Inventors of Blowing, Cutting, Trimming by
+ Shears and Diamond Cutting, Ancient and Unknown.--Glass Windows
+ and Mirrors Unknown to the Poor Prior to Eighteenth Century.--
+ The Nineteenth Century the Scientific Age of Glass.--Its
+ Commercial Development.--Crystal Palace of 1851.--Description
+ of Modern Discoveries.--Materials.--Colours and Faraday's
+ Discovery in 1824.--Gaffield's Extensive Experiments in
+ Producing Colours.--The German Glass Works at Jena of Abbe
+ and Schott.--Methods Followed for Different Varieties.--
+ Machines for Different Purposes.--Cut Glass and other
+ Beautiful Ware.--Cameo Cutting.--Porcelain Electroplating.--
+ Rubber, History of, in Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth
+ Centuries.--Sketch of Goodyear.--His Inventions and Present
+ State of the Art.--Glass Wool of Volcano of Kilauea and Krupp's
+ Blast Furnaces.                                                     457
+
+
+
+
+INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY--INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES--THEIR DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+In treating of the subject of Inventions it is proper to distinguish
+them from their scientific kindred--Discoveries.
+
+The history of inventions is the history of new and useful contrivances
+made by man for practical purposes. The history of scientific
+discoveries is the record of new things found in Nature, its laws,
+forces, or materials, and brought to light, as they exist, either
+singly, or in relation, or in combination.
+
+Thus Galileo invented the telescope, and Newton discovered the law of
+gravitation. The practical use of the invention when turned to the
+heavenly bodies served to confirm the truth of the discovery.
+
+Discovery and invention may be, and often are, united as the soul is to
+the body. The union of the two produces one or more inventions. Thus the
+invented electro-telegraph consists of the combination of discoveries of
+certain laws of electricity with an apparatus, by which signs are
+communicated to distances by electrical influence.
+
+Inventions and discoveries do not precede or follow each other in order.
+The instrument may be made before the laws which govern its operation
+are discovered. The discovery may long precede its adaptation in
+physical form, and both the discovery and adaptation may occur together.
+
+Among the great _inventions_ of the past are alphabetical writing,
+Arabic notation, the mariner's compass, the telescope, the
+printing-press, and the steam-engine. Among the great _discoveries_ of
+the past are the attraction of gravitation, the laws of planetary
+motion, the circulation of the blood, and velocity of light. Among the
+great inventions of the nineteenth century are the spectroscope, the
+electric telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, the railways, and the
+steam-ships. Among the great discoveries of this century are the
+correlation and conservation of forces, an�sthetics, laws of electrical
+energy, the germ theory of disease, the molecular theory of gases, the
+periodic law of Mendeljeff in chemistry, antiseptic surgery, and the
+vortex theory of matter. This short enumeration will serve to indicate
+the different roads along which inventions and the discoveries of
+science progress.
+
+By many it is thought that the inventions and discoveries of the
+nineteenth century exceed in number and importance all the achievements
+of the kind in all the ages of the past.
+
+So marvellous have been these developments of this century that, not
+content with sober definitions, men have defined _invent_, even when
+speaking only of mechanical productions, as "creating what had not
+before existed;" and this period has been described as an age of new
+creations. The far-off cry of the Royal Preacher, "There is no new thing
+under the sun: Is there anything whereof it may be said, see this is
+new, it hath been already of old time which was before us," is regarded
+as a cry of satiety and despair, finding no responsive echo in the array
+of inventions of this bright age.
+
+But in one sense the Preacher's words are ever profoundly true. The
+forces and materials of Nature always exist, awaiting man's discovery,
+and at best he can but vary their relations, re-direct their course, or
+change their forms. In a still narrower sense the truth of the
+Preacher's declaration is apparent:--
+
+In an address before the Anthropological Society of Washington in 1885,
+the late Prof. F. A. Seely, of the United States Patent Office, set
+forth that it was one of the established laws of Invention, that,
+
+"Every human invention has sprung from some prior invention, or from
+some prior known expedient."
+
+Inventions, he said, do not, like their protectress, Pallas Athene,
+spring forth full grown from the heads of their authors; that both as to
+modern inventions and as to those whose history is unrecorded, each
+exhibits in itself the evidence of a similar sub-structure; and that,
+"in the process of elimination we go back and back and find no resting
+place till we reach the rude set of expedients, the original endowment
+of men and brutes alike."
+
+Inventions, then, are not creations, but the evolution of man-made
+contrivances.
+
+It may be remarked, however, as was once said by William H. Seward: "The
+exercise of the inventive faculty is the nearest akin to that of the
+Creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind; for while it does
+not create in the same sense that the Creator did, yet it is the nearest
+approach to it of anything known to man."
+
+There is no history, rock-record, or other evidence of his existence as
+man, which discloses a period when he was not an inventor.
+
+Invention is that divine spark which drove, and still drives him to the
+production of means to meet his wants, while it illuminates his way.
+From that inward spark must have soon followed the invention of that
+outer fire to warm and cheer him, and to melt and mould the earth to his
+desires. Formed for society, the necessity of communication with his
+fellows developed the power of speech. Speech developed written
+characters and alphabets. Common communication developed concert of
+action, and from concert of action sprung the arts of society.
+
+But the evolution of invention has not been uniform. Long periods of
+slowness and stagnation have alternated with shorter or longer periods
+of prolific growth, and these with seasons of slumber and repression.
+
+Thus, Prof. Langley has said that man was thousands of years, and
+possibly millions, in evolving a cutting edge by rubbing one stone on
+another; but only a few thousand years to next develop bronze tools, and
+a still shorter period tools of iron.
+
+We cannot say how long the period was from the age of iron tools to the
+building of the pyramids, but we know that before those stupendous
+structures arose, the six elementary mechanical powers, the lever, the
+wheel, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge and the screw, were
+invented. And without those powers, what mechanical tool or machine has
+since been developed? The age of inventions in the times of the ancients
+rested mainly upon simple applications of these mechanical powers. The
+middle ages slumbered, but on the coming of the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries, the inventions of the ancients were revived, new ones added,
+and their growth and development extended with ever-increasing speed to
+the present time.
+
+The inventions of the nineteenth century, wonderful and innumerable as
+they are, and marvellous in results produced, are but the fruit of the
+seed sown in the past, and the blossom of the buds grown upon the stalks
+of former generations. The early crude stone hatchet has become the keen
+finished metal implement of to-day, and the latter involves in itself
+the culmination of a long series of processes for converting the rough
+ore into the hard and glistening steel.
+
+The crooked and pointed stick with which the Egyptian turned the sands
+of the Nile has slowly grown to be the finished plough that is now
+driven through the sod by steam.
+
+The steam-operated toys of Hero of Alexandria were revived in principle
+and incorporated in the engines of Papin and the Marquis of Worcester in
+the seventeenth century; and the better engines of Savery, Newcomen, and
+more especially of James Watt in the eighteenth century, left the
+improvements in steam-engines of the nineteenth century--great as they
+are--inventions only in matter of detail.
+
+It has been said that electrical science began with the labours of Dr.
+Gilbert, published in 1600. These, with the electrical discoveries and
+inventions of Gray, Franklin, Galvani, and others in the next century,
+terminating with the invention of his battery by Volta in 1800,
+constituted the framework on which was built that world of flashing
+light and earth-circling messages in which we now live.
+
+The study of inventions in any one or all eras cannot proceed
+intelligently unless account is taken not only of their mode of
+construction, and of their evolution one from another, but of the
+evolution of distinct arts, their relation, their interdependence in
+growth, and their mutual progress.
+
+The principles adopted by the ancients in weaving and spinning by hand
+are those still in force; but so great was the advance of inventions
+from hand-operated mechanisms to machines in these and other arts, and
+especially in steam, in the last half of the eighteenth century, that it
+has been claimed that the age of machine production or invention then
+for the first time really began.
+
+When the humble lift became the completed elevator of to-day, the
+"sky-scraper" buildings appeared; but these buildings waited upon the
+invention of their steel skeletons, and the steel was the child of the
+Bessemer process.
+
+The harp with which David stirred the dead soul of Saul was the
+prototype of the sweet clavichord, the romantic virginal, the tinkling
+harpsichord, and the grand piano. The thrumming of the chords by the
+fingers was succeeded by the striking keys; and the more perfect
+rendition of tones awaited the application of new discoveries in the
+realm of musical sounds. The keys and the levers in the art of musical
+instruments were transferred to the art of printing, and are found
+to-day striking a more homely music on the type-writer and on those
+other and more wonderful printing instruments that mould, and set, and
+distribute the type. But these results of later days did not reach their
+perfected operations and forms until many other arts had been discovered
+and developed, by which to treat and improve the wood, and the wire, and
+all the other materials of which those early instruments were composed,
+and by which the underlying principles of their operations became known.
+
+Admitting that man possesses the faculty of invention, what are the
+motives that induce its exercise? Why so prolific in inventions now? And
+will they continue to increase in number and importance, or decrease?
+
+An interesting treatise of bulky dimensions might be written in answer
+to these queries, and the answers might not then be wholly satisfactory.
+Space permits the submission of but a few observations and suggestions
+on these points:----
+
+_Necessity_ is still the mother of inventions, but not of all of them.
+The pressing needs of man in fighting nakedness and hunger, wild beasts
+and storms, may have driven him to the production of most of his early
+contrivances; but as time went on and his wants of every kind
+multiplied, other factors than mere necessity entered into the problem,
+and now it is required to account for the multiplicity of inventions
+under the general head of _Wants_.
+
+To-day it is the want of the luxuries, as well as of the necessities of
+life, the want of riches, distinction, power, and place, the wants of
+philanthropy and the wants of selfishness, and that restless, inherent,
+unsatisfied, indescribable want which is ever pushing man onward on the
+road of progress, that must be regarded as the springs of invention.
+
+_Accident_ is thought to be the fruitful source of great inventions. It
+is a factor that cannot be ignored. But accidents are only occasional
+helps, rarely occurring,--flashes of light suddenly revealing the end of
+the path along which the inventor has been painfully toiling, and
+unnoticed except by him alone. They are sudden discoveries which for the
+most part simply shorten his journey. The rare complete contrivance
+revealed by accident is not an invention at all, but a discovery.
+
+The greatest incentive in modern times to the production of inventions
+is governmental protection.
+
+When governments began to recognize the right of property in inventions,
+and to devise and enforce means by which their author should hold and
+enjoy the same, as he holds his land, his house, or his horse, then
+inventions sprung forth as from a great unsealed fountain.
+
+This principle first found recognition in England in 1623, when
+parliament, stung by the abuse of the royal prerogative in the grant of
+exclusive personal privileges that served to crush the growth of
+inventions and not to multiply them, by its celebrated Statute of
+Monopolies, abolished all such privileges, but excepted from its
+provisions the grant of patents "for the sole working or making of any
+manner of new manufactures within this realm to the true and first
+inventor" thereof.
+
+This statute had little force, however, in encouraging and protecting
+inventors until the next century, and until after the great inventions
+of Arkwright in spinning and James Watt in steam-engines had been
+invaded, and the attention of the courts called more seriously thereby
+to the property rights of inventors, and to the necessity of a liberal
+exposition of the law and its proper enforcement.
+
+Then followed in 1789 the incorporation of that famous provision in the
+Constitution of the United States, declaring that Congress shall have
+the power "To promote the progress of science and useful arts by
+securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right
+to their respective writings and discoveries."
+
+In 1791 followed the law of the National Assembly of France for the
+protection of new inventions, setting forth in the preamble, among other
+things, "that not to regard an industrial invention as the property of
+its author would be to attack the essential rights of man."
+
+These fundamental principles have since been adopted and incorporated in
+their laws by all the nations of the earth.
+
+Inventions in their nature being for the good of all men and for all
+time, it has been deemed wise by all nations in their legislation not to
+permit the inventor to lock up his property in secret, or confine it to
+his own use; and hence the universal practice is to enact laws giving
+him, his heirs, and assigns, exclusive ownership to this species of his
+property for a limited time only, adjudged sufficient to reward him for
+his efforts in its production, and to encourage others in like
+productions; while he, in consideration for this protection, is to fully
+make known his invention, so that the public may be enabled to freely
+make and use it after its exclusive ownership shall have expired.
+
+In addition to the motives and incentives mentioned inducing this modern
+mighty outflow of inventions, regard must be had to the conditions of
+personal, political and intellectual freedom, and of education. There is
+no class of inventors where the mass of men are slaves; and when dense
+ignorance abounds, invention sleeps.
+
+In the days of the greatest intellectual freedom of Greece, Archimedes,
+Euclid, and Hero, its great inventors, flourished; but when its
+political _status_ had reduced the mass of citizens to slaves, when the
+work of the artisan and the inventor was not appreciated beyond the gift
+of an occasional crown of laurel, when manual labour and the labourer
+were scorned, inventions were not born, or, if born, found no
+nourishment to prolong their lives.
+
+In Rome, the labourer found little respect beyond the beasts of burden
+whose burdens he shared, and the inventor found no provision of
+fostering care or protection in her mighty jurisprudence. The middle
+ages carefully repressed the minds of men, and hid away in dark recesses
+the instruments of learning. When men at length awoke to claim their
+birthright of freedom, they invented the printing-press and rediscovered
+gunpowder, with which to destroy the tyranny of both priests and kings.
+Then arose the modern inventor, and with him came the freedom and the
+arts of civilisation which we now enjoy.
+
+What the exercise of free and protected invention has brought to this
+century is thus summarised by Macaulay:
+
+"It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; has extinguished
+diseases; has increased the fertility of the soil; given new security to
+the mariner; furnished new arms to the warrior; spanned great rivers and
+estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers; it has guided the
+thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth; it has lighted up the
+night with splendour of the day; it has extended the range of human
+vision; it has multiplied the power of the human muscles; it has
+accelerated motion; it has annihilated distance; it has facilitated
+intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all despatch of
+business; it has enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea, to
+soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of
+the earth; to traverse the land in carts which whirl along without
+horses; to cross the ocean in ships which run many knots an hour against
+the wind. Those are but a part of its fruits, and of its first fruits,
+for it is a philosophy which never rests, which is never perfect. Its
+law is progress. A point which yesterday was invisible is its goal
+to-day, and will be its starting point to-morrow."
+
+The onward flow of inventions may be interrupted, if not materially
+stayed, by the cessation of some of the causes and incentives which now
+give them life. When comfort for all and rest for all, and a suitable
+division of labour, and an equal distribution of its fruits are reached,
+in that state of society which is pictured in the visions of the social
+philosopher, or as fast as such conditions are reached, so soon will
+cease the pricking of those spurs of invention,--individual rewards, the
+glorious strife of competition, the harrowing necessities, and the
+ambitions for place and power. If all are to co-operate and share alike,
+what need of exclusive protection and fierce and individual struggle?
+Why not sit down now and break the loaf and share it, and pour the wine,
+and enjoy things as they are, without a thought for the morrow?
+
+The same results as to inventions may be reached in different but less
+pleasant ways: When all the industries are absorbed by huge combinations
+of capital the strife of competition among individuals, and the making
+of individual inventions to meet such competition, will greatly
+disappear. Or, the same results may be effected by stringent laws of
+labour organisations, in restricting or repressing all individual
+independent effort, prescribing what shall be done or what shall not be
+done along certain lines of manufacture or employment. So that the
+progress of future inventions depends on the outcome of the great
+economic, industrial, and social battles which are now looming on the
+pathway of the future.
+
+But what the inventions of the nineteenth century were and what they
+have done for Humanity, is a chapter that must be read by all those now
+living or to come who wish to learn the history of their race. It is a
+story which gathers up all the threads of previous centuries and weaves
+them into a fabric which must be used in all the coming ages in the
+attainment of their comforts, their adornments, and their civilisations.
+
+To enumerate all the inventions of the century would be like calling up
+a vast army of men and proclaiming the name of each. The best that can
+be done is to divide the wide field into chapters, and in these chapters
+give as best one may an idea of the leading inventions that have
+produced the greatest industries of the World.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+The Egyptians were the earliest and greatest agriculturists, and from
+them the art was learned by the Greeks. Greece in the days of her glory
+greatly improved the art, and some of her ablest men wrote valuable
+treatises on its different topics. Its farmers thoroughly ploughed and
+fertilised the soil, used various implements for its cultivation, paid
+great attention to the raising of fruits,--the apple, pear, cherry,
+plum, quince, peach, lemon, fig and many other varieties suitable to
+their climate, and improved the breeds of cattle, horse and sheep. When,
+however, social pride and luxurious city life became the dominant
+passions, agriculture was left to menials, and the art gradually faded
+with the State. Rome in her best days placed farming in high regard. Her
+best writers wrote voluminously on agricultural subjects, a tract of
+land was allotted to every citizen, which was carefully cultivated, and
+these citizen farmers were her worthiest and most honoured sons. The
+condition and needs of the soil were studied, its strength replenished
+by careful fertilisation, and it was worked with care. There were
+ploughs which were made heavy or light as the different soils required,
+and there were a variety of farm implements, such as spades, hoes,
+harrows and rakes. Grains, such as wheat, barley, rye and oats, were
+raised, a variety of fruits and vegetables, and great attention paid to
+the breeding of stock. Cato and Varro, Virgil and Columella, Pliny and
+Palladius delighted to instruct the farmer and praise his occupation.
+
+But as the Roman Empire grew, its armies absorbed its intelligent
+farmers, the tilling of the soil was left to the menial and the slave,
+and the Empire and agriculture declined together.
+
+Then came the hordes of northern barbarians pouring in waves over the
+southern countries and burying from sight their arts and civilisation.
+The gloom of the middle ages then closed down upon the European world.
+Whatever good may have been accomplished in other directions by the
+crusades, agriculture reached its lowest ebb, save in those instances
+where the culture of the soil received attention from monastic
+institutions.
+
+The sixteenth century has been fixed upon as the time when Europe awoke
+from its long slumber. Then it was after the invention of the printing
+press had become well established that publications on agriculture began
+to appear. The _Boke of Husbandrie_, in 1523, by Sir Anthony
+Fitzherbert; Thomas Tusser's _Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_;
+Barnaby Googe's _The Whole Art of Husbandry_; _The Jewel House of Art
+and Nature_, by Sir Hugh Platt; the _English Improver_ of Walter Blithe,
+and the writings of Sir Richard Weston on the husbandry of Brabant and
+Flanders, were the principal torches by which the light on this subject
+was handed down through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Further
+awakening was had in the eighteenth century, the chief part of which was
+given by Jethro Tull, an English agriculturist, who lived, and wrote,
+and laboured in the cause between 1680 and 1740. Tull's leading idea was
+the thorough pulverisation of the soil, his doctrines being that plants
+derived their nourishment from minute particles of soil, hence the need
+of its pulverisation. He invented and introduced a horse hoe, a grain
+drill, and a threshing machine.
+
+Next appeared Arthur Young, of England, born in 1741, whose life was
+extended into the 19th century, and to whom the world was greatly
+indebted for the spread of agricultural knowledge. He devoted frequent
+and long journeys to obtaining information on agricultural subjects, and
+his writings attracted the attention and assistance of the learned
+everywhere. His chief work was the making known widely of the beneficial
+effects of ammonia and ammoniacal compounds on vegetation. Many other
+useful branches of the subject, clearly treated by him, are found in his
+_Annals of Agriculture_. It was this same Arthur Young with whom
+Washington corresponded from his quiet retreat at Mount Vernon. After
+the close of the War of Independence in 1783 and before the adoption of
+the Constitution in 1789 and his elevation to the Presidency in that
+year, Washington devoted very much of his time to the cultivation of his
+large estate in Virginia. He took great interest in every improvement in
+agriculture and its implements. He invented a plough and a rotary seed
+drill, improved his harrows and mills, and made many inquiries relative
+to the efficacy of ploughs and threshing machines made in England and
+other parts of Europe. It was during this period that he opened an
+interesting correspondence with Young on improvements in agriculture,
+which was carried on even while he was President, and he availed himself
+of the proffer of Young's services to fill an order for seeds and two
+ploughs from a London merchant. He also wrote to Robert Cary & Co.,
+merchants in London, concerning an engine he had heard of as being
+constructed in Switzerland, for pulling up trees and their stumps by the
+roots, and ordered one to be sent him if the machine were efficient.
+
+Jefferson, Washington's great contemporaneous statesman and Virginia
+planter, and to whom has been ascribed the chief glory of the American
+patent system, himself also an inventor, enriched his country by the
+full scientific knowledge he had gained from all Europe of agricultural
+pursuits and improvements.
+
+The progress of the art, in a fundamental sense, that is in a knowledge
+of the constituents, properties, and needs of the soil, commenced with
+the investigations of Sir Humphry Davy at the close of the 18th century,
+resulting in his celebrated lectures before the Board of Agriculture
+from 1802 to 1812, and his practical experiments in the growth of plants
+and the nature of fertilisers. Agricultural societies and boards were a
+characteristic product of the eighteenth century in Europe and America.
+But this birth, or revival of agricultural studies, the enthusiastic
+interest taken therein by its great and learned men, and all its
+valuable publications and discoveries, bore comparatively little fruit
+in that century. The ignorance and prejudice of the great mass of
+farmers led to a determined, and in many instances violent resistance to
+the introduction of labour-saving machinery and the practical
+application of what they called "book-farming." A fear of driving people
+out of employment led them to make war upon new agricultural machines
+and their inventors, as they had upon weaving and spinning inventions.
+This war was more marked in England than elsewhere, because there more
+of the new machines were first introduced, and the number of labourers
+in those fields was the greatest. In America the ignorance took the
+milder shape of contempt and prejudice. Farmers refused, for instance,
+to use cast-iron ploughs as it was feared they would poison the soil.
+
+So slow was the invention and introduction of new devices, that if Ruth
+had revisited the earth at the beginning of the nineteenth century, she
+might have seen again in the fields of the husbandmen everywhere the
+sickle of the reapers behind whom she gleaned in the fields of Boaz,
+heard again the beating on the threshing floor, and felt the old
+familiar rush of the winnowing wind. Cincinnatus returning then would
+have recognised the plough in common use as about the same in form as
+that which he once abandoned on his farm beyond the Tiber.
+
+But with the spread of publications, the extension of learning, the
+protection now at last obtained and enforced for inventions, and with
+the foundations laid and the guide-posts erected in nearly every art and
+science by previous discoverers, inventors and writers, the century was
+now ready to start on that career of inventions which has rendered it so
+glorious.
+
+As the turning over and loosening of the sod and the soil for the
+reception of seed was, and still is the first step in the art of
+agriculture, the plough is the first implement to be considered in this
+review.
+
+A plough possesses five essential features,--a frame or beam to which
+the horses are attached and which is provided with handles by which the
+operator guides the plough, a share to sever the bottom of a slice of
+land--the furrow--from the land beneath, a mould board following the
+share to turn the furrow over to one side, and a landside, the side
+opposite the mould board and which presses against the unploughed ground
+and steadies the plough. To these have been commonly added a device
+called the coulter, which is a knife or sharp disk fastened to the frame
+in advance of the share and adapted to cut the sod or soil so that the
+furrow may be more easily turned, an adjustable gauge wheel secured to
+the beam in advance of the coulter, and which runs upon the surface of
+the soil to determine by the distance between the perimeter of the wheel
+at the bottom and the bottom of the plough share the depth of the
+furrow, and a clevis, which is an adjustable metal strap attached to the
+end of the beam to which the draught is secured, and by which the pitch
+of the beam and the depth and width of the furrow are regulated. The
+general features, the beam, handles, and share, have existed in ploughs
+from the earliest ages in history. A plough with a metal share was
+referred to by the prophecy of Isaiah seven centuries before Christ,
+"They shall beat their swords into plough-shares;" and such a plough
+with the coulter and gauge wheel added is found in the Caylus collection
+of Greek antiquities. The inventions of centuries in ploughs have
+proceeded along the lines of the elements above enumerated.
+
+The leading features of the modern plough with a share and mould board
+constructed to run in a certain track and turn its furrows one over
+against the other, appear to have originated in Holland in the 18th
+century, and from there were made known to England. James Small of
+Scotland wrote of and made ploughs having a cast-iron mould board and
+cast and wrought iron shares in 1784-85.
+
+In America, about the same time, Thos. Jefferson studied and wrote upon
+the proper shape to be given to the mould board.
+
+Charles Newbold in 1797 took out the first patent in the United States
+for a plough--all parts cast in one piece of solid iron except the beam
+and handles.
+
+It is a favourite idea with some writers and with more talkers, that
+when the necessity really arises for an invention the natural inventive
+genius of man will at once supply it. Nothing was more needed and sought
+after for thirty centuries among tillers of the soil than a good plough,
+and what finally supplied it was not necessity alone, but improved
+brains. Long were the continued efforts, stimulated no doubt in part by
+necessity, but stimulated also by other motives, to which allusion has
+already been made, and among which are the love of progress, the hope of
+gain, and legislative protection in the possession of inventive
+property.
+
+The best plans of writers and inventors of the eighteenth century were
+not fully developed until the nineteenth, and it can be safely said that
+within the last one hundred years a better plough has been produced than
+in all of the thousands of years before. The defects which the
+nineteenth century's improvements in ploughs were designed to remedy can
+best be understood by first realising what was the condition of ploughs
+in common use when the century opened.
+
+Different parts of the plough, such as the share and coulter, were
+constructed of iron, but the general practice among farmers was to make
+the beam and frame, handles and mould board of strong and heavy timber.
+The beam was straight, long, and heavy, and that and the mould generally
+hewed from a tree. The mould board on both sides to prevent its wearing
+out too rapidly was covered with more or less thick plates of iron. The
+handles were made from crooked branches of trees. "The beam," it is
+said, "was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the handles
+fastened on almost at right angles with it, thus leaving the ploughman
+little control over his implement which did its work in a very slow and
+imperfect manner." It was some such plough that Lord Kames complained
+about in the _Gentleman Farmer_ in 1768, as being used in Scotland--two
+horses and two oxen were necessary to pull it, "the ridges in the fields
+were high and broad, in fact enormous masses of accumulated earth, that
+could not admit of cross ploughing or cultivation; shallow ploughing
+universal; ribbing, by which half the land was left untilled, a general
+practice over the greater part of Scotland; a continual struggle between
+the corn and weeds for superiority." As late as 1820 an American writer
+was making the same complaint. "Your furrows," he said, "stand up like
+the ribs of a lean horse in the month of March. A lazy ploughman may sit
+on the beam and count every bout of his day's work; besides the greatest
+objection to all these ploughs is that they do not perform the work well
+and the expense is enormous for blacksmith work." It was complained by
+another that it took eight or ten oxen to draw it, a man to ride upon
+the beam to keep it on the ground, and a man followed the plough with a
+heavy iron hoe to dig up the "baulks."
+
+The improvements made in the plough during the century have had for
+their object to lessen the great friction between the wide, heavy,
+ill-formed share and mould board, and the ground, which has been
+accomplished by giving to the share a sharp clean tapering form, and to
+the mould board a shape best calculated to turn the furrow slice; to
+improve the line of draught so that the pull of the team may be most
+advantageously employed, which has been effected after long trials,
+study and experiment in the arrangement of beam, clevis and draft rod,
+setting the coulter at a proper angle and giving the landside a plane
+and parallel surface; to increase the wear and lessen the weight of the
+parts, which has been accomplished by ingenious processes in treating
+the metal of which the parts are composed, and lessening the number of
+parts; to render the plough easily repairable by casting the parts in
+sets and numbering them, by which any part may be replaced by the
+manufacturer without resort to the blacksmith. In short there is no part
+of the plough but what has received the most careful attention of the
+inventor. This has been evidenced by the fact that in the United States
+alone nearly eleven thousand patents on ploughs were issued during the
+nineteenth century. When it is considered that all the applications for
+these patents were examined as to their novelty, before the grant of the
+patent, the enormous amount of study and invention expended on this
+article can be appreciated. Among the century's improvements in this
+line is the use of disks in place of the old shovel blades to penetrate
+the earth and revolve in contact therewith. Cutting disks are harnessed
+to steam motors and are adapted to break up at one operation a wide
+strip of ground. The long-studied problem of employing a gang of ploughs
+to plough back and forth and successfully operated by steam has been
+solved, and electricity is now being introduced as a motor in place of
+steam. Thus millions of broad acres which never would have been
+otherwise turned are now cultivated. The tired muscle-strained ploughman
+who homeward plodded his weary way at night may now comfortably ride at
+his ease upon the plough, while at the same time the beasts that pull it
+have a lighter load than ever before.
+
+Next to the plough among the implements for breaking, clearing and
+otherwise preparing the soil for the reception of seed, comes the
+_harrow_. From time immemorial it has been customary to arm some sort of
+a frame with wooden or iron spikes to scratch the earth after the
+ploughing. But this century has greatly improved the old constructions.
+Harrows are now found everywhere made in sections to give flexibility to
+the frame; collected in gangs to increase the extent of operation; made
+with disks instead of spikes, with which to cut the roots of weeds and
+separate the soil, instead of merely scratching them. A still later
+invention, curved spring teeth, has been found far superior to spikes or
+disks in throwing up, separating and pulverising the soil. A harrow
+comprising two ranks of oppositely curved trailing teeth is especially
+popular in some countries. These three distinct classes of harrows, the
+disk type, the curved spring tooth type, and gangs of sections of
+concavo-convex disks, particularly distinguish this class of implements
+from the old forms of previous ages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+It is wonderful for how many generations men were contented to throw
+grain into the air as the Parable relates:
+
+"Behold, a sower went forth to sow, and when he sowed some seeds fell by
+the way side, and the fowls came and devoured them up: some fell on
+stony places where they had not much earth, and forthwith they sprung
+up, because they had no deepness of earth; and when the sun was up they
+were scorched; and because they had no root they withered away. And some
+fell among thorns and the thorns sprung up and choked them. But others
+fell into good ground and brought forth fruit, some a hundredfold, some
+sixtyfold, and some thirtyfold."
+
+Here are indicated the defects in depositing the seed that only the
+inventions of the century have fully corrected. The equal distribution
+of the seed and not its wide scattering, its sowing in regular drills or
+planting at intervals, at certain and uniform depths, the adaptation of
+devices to meet the variations in the land to be planted, and in short
+the substitution of quick, certain, positive mechanisms for the slow,
+uncertain, variable hand of man. Not only has the increase an
+hundredfold been obtained, but with the machines of to-day the sowing
+and planting of a hundredfold more land has been made possible, the
+employment of armies of men where idleness would have reigned, and the
+feeding of millions of people among whom hunger would otherwise have
+prevailed. Not only did this machinery not exist at the beginning of the
+century, but the agricultural machines and devices in this line of the
+character existing fifty years ago are now discarded as useless and
+worthless.
+
+It is true that, as in the case of the ploughs, attempts had been made
+through the centuries to invent and improve seeding implements. The
+Assyrians 500 years B. C. had in use a rude plough in which behind the
+sharp wooden plough point was fixed a bowl-shaped hopper through which
+seed was dropped into the furrow, and was covered by the falling back of
+the furrow upon it. The Chinese, probably before that time, had a
+wheelbarrow arrangement with a seed hopper and separate seed spouts. In
+India a drilling hopper had been attached to a plough. Italy claims the
+honour among European nations of first introducing a machine for sowing
+grain. It was invented about the beginning of the seventeenth century
+and is described by Zanon in his _Work on Agriculture_ printed at Venice
+in 1764. It was a machine mounted on two wheels, that had a seed box in
+the bottom of which was a series of holes opening into a corresponding
+number of metal tubes or funnels. At their front these tubes at their
+lower ends were sharpened to make small furrows into which the seed
+dropped.
+
+Similar single machines were in the course of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries devised in Austria and England. The one in Austria
+was invented by a Spaniard, one Don Joseph de Lescatello, tested in
+Luxembourg in 1662. The inventor was rewarded by the Emperor,
+recommended to the King of Spain, and in 1663 and 1664 his machines were
+made and sold at Madrid. The knowledge of this Spaniard's invention was
+made known in England in 1699 by the Earl of Sandwich and John Evelyn.
+Jethro Tull in England shortly after invented and introduced a combined
+system of drilling, ploughing and cultivating. He sowed different seeds
+from the same machine, and arranged that they might be covered at
+different depths. Tull's machines were much improved by James Cooke, a
+clergyman of Lancashire, England; and also in the last decade of the
+eighteenth century by Baldwin and Wells of Norfolk, England.
+
+Washington and others in America had also commenced to invent and
+experiment with seeding machines. But as before intimated, the
+nineteenth century found the great mass of farmers everywhere sowing
+their wheat and other grains by throwing them into the air by hand, to
+be met by the gusts of wind and blown into hollows and on ridges, on
+stones and thorny places,--requiring often a second and third repetition
+of the same tedious process.
+
+In 1878 Mr. Coffin, a distinguished journalist of Boston, in an address
+before the Patent Committee of the U. S. Senate, set forth the
+advantages obtained by the modern improvements in seeders as follows:
+
+"The seeder covers the soil to a uniform depth. It sows evenly, and sows
+a specific quantity. You may graduate it so that, after a little
+experience, you can determine the amount per acre even to a quart of
+wheat. They sow all kinds of grain,--wheat, clover, and superphosphate,
+if need be, at once. They harrow at the same time. They make the crop
+more certain. It is the united testimony of manufacturers and farmers
+alike that the crop is increased from one-eighth to one-fourth,
+especially in the winter wheat. Winter wheat, you are aware, in the
+freezing and thawing season, is apt to heave out. It is desirable to
+bury the seed a uniform and proper depth and to throw over the young
+plant such an amount of soil that it shall not heave with the freezing
+and thawing. Of the 360,000,000 bushels of wheat raised last year I
+suppose more than 300,000,000 was winter wheat. One-eighth of this is
+37,700,000 bushels."
+
+It would seem to many that after the adoption of a seed hopper, and
+spouts with sharpened ends that cut the drill rows in the furrows and
+deposited the seed therein, that little was left to be done in this
+class of inventions; but a great many improvements were necessary.
+Gravity alone could not be depended upon for feeding the seed. Means had
+to be devised for a continuous and regular discharge from each grain
+tube; for varying the quantity of the seed fed by varying the escape
+openings, or by positive mechanical movements variable in speed; for
+fixing accurately the quantity of seed discharged; for changing the
+apparatus to feed coarse or fine seed; and for rendering the apparatus
+efficient on different surfaces--steep hillsides, level plains,
+irregular lands.
+
+An important step was the substitution of what is called the "force
+feed" for the gravity feed. There is a variety of devices for this
+purpose, the principle of one of them being a revolving feed wheel
+located beneath the hopper, and above each spout, the two casings
+between which the feed wheel revolves forming the outer walls of a
+complete measuring channel, or throat, through which the grain is
+carried by the rotary motion of the wheel, thus providing the means of
+measuring the seed with as much accuracy as could be done by a small
+measure. The quantity sown per acre is governed by simply increasing or
+diminishing the speed of the feed wheel. In one form of device this
+change of speed is altered by a system of cone gearing. A graduated flow
+of the seed has also been effected by the employment of a cylinder
+having a smooth and fluted part working in a cup beneath the hopper with
+provision for adjustment of the smooth part towards and from the fluted
+part to cut off or increase the flow.
+
+To avoid the use of a separate apparatus for separate sizes of grain and
+other seed, the seed holder has been divided into parts--one part for
+containing wheat, barley and other medium-sized grains, and another for
+corn, peas and the larger seeds. And as these parts are used on separate
+occasions, the respective apertures are opened or closed by a sliding
+bottom and by a single movement of the hand.
+
+Rubber tubes for conducting the seed through the hollow holes were
+introduced in place of the metal spouts that answered both as a spout
+and a hoe.
+
+In place of the common hoe drill of a form used in the early part of the
+century, the hoes being forced into the soil by the use of levers and
+weights, what are known as "shoe drills" have largely succeeded. A
+series of shoes are pivoted to the frame, extend beneath the seed box,
+and are provided with springs for depressing or raising them.
+
+All kinds of seeds and fertilisers, separately or together, may be now
+sown, and the broadcast sowing of a larger area than that covered by the
+throw of the hand can now be given by machinery.
+
+Corn and cotton seed are thus also planted, mixed or unmixed with the
+fertilising material.
+
+Not only have light ploughs been combined with small seed boxes and one
+or more seed tubes, for easy work in gardens, but the arrangements
+varied and graded for different uses until is reached that great machine
+run by steam power, in which is assembled a gang of heavy harrows in
+front to loosen and pulverise the soil, then the seed and fertilising
+drill of capacious width for sowing the grain in rows, followed by a
+lighter broad harrow to cover the seed, and all so arranged that the
+steam lifts the heavy frames on turning, and all controlled easily by
+the man who rides upon the machine.
+
+In planting at intervals or in hills, as corn and potatoes, and other
+like larger seeds, no longer is the farmer required to trudge across the
+wide field carrying a heavy load in bag or box, or compel his boys or
+women folk to drop the seed while he follows on laboriously with the
+hoe. He may now ride, if he so choose, and the machine which carries him
+furnishes the motive power for operating the supply and cut-off of the
+grain at intervals.
+
+The object of the farmer in planting corn is to plant it in straight
+lines about four feet apart each way, putting from three to five grains
+into each spot in a scattered and not huddled condition. These objects
+are together nicely accomplished by a variety of modern machines.
+
+The planting of great fields of potatoes has been greatly facilitated by
+machinery that first slices them and then sows the slices continuously
+in a row, or drops them in separate spots or hills, as may be desired.
+The finest seeds, such as grass and clover, onion and turnip seed, and
+delicate seed like rice, are handled and sown by machines without
+crushing or bruising, and with the utmost exactness. Just what seed is
+necessary to be supplied to the machine for a given area is decided
+upon, and the machine distributes the same with the same nicety that a
+doctor distributes the proper dose of pellets upon the palm of his
+patient.
+
+Transplanters as well as planters have been devised. These transplanters
+will dig the plant trench, distribute the fertiliser, set the plant,
+pack the earth and water the plant, automatically.
+
+The class of machines known as cultivators are those only, properly
+speaking, which are employed to cultivate the plant after the crop is
+above the ground. The duties which they perform are to loosen the earth,
+destroy the weeds, and throw the loosened earth around the growing
+plant.
+
+Here again the laborious hoe has been succeeded by the labour-saving
+machine.
+
+Cultivators have names which indicate their construction and the crop
+with which they are adapted to be used. Thus there are "corn
+cultivators," "cotton cultivators," "sugar-cane cultivators," etc.
+Riding cultivators are known as "sulky cultivators" where they are
+provided with two wheels and a seat for the driver.
+
+If worked between two rows they are termed single, and when between
+three rows, double cultivators. A riding cultivator adapted to work
+three rows has an arched axle to pass over the rows of the growing
+plants and cultivate both sides of the plants in each row. Double
+cultivators are constructed so that their outside teeth may be adjusted
+in and out from the centre of the machine to meet the width of the rows
+between which they operate. A "walking cultivator" is when the operator
+walks and guides the machine with the hands as with ploughs. Ordinary
+ploughs are converted into cultivators by supplying them with double
+adjustable mould boards. Ingenious arrangements generally exist for
+widening or narrowing the cultivator and for throwing the soil from the
+centre of the furrow to opposite sides and against the plant. The depth
+to which the shares or cultivator blades work in the ground may be
+adjusted by a gauge wheel upon the draught beam, or a roller on the back
+of the frame.
+
+Disk cultivators are those in which disk blades instead of ploughs are
+used with which to disturb the soil already broken. As with ploughs, so
+with cultivators, steam-engines are employed to draw a gang of
+cultivating teeth or blades, their framework, and the operator seated
+thereon, to and fro across the field between two or more rows, turning
+and running the machine at the end of the rows.
+
+Millet's recent celebrated painting represents a brutal, primitive type
+of a man leaning heavily on a hoe as ancient and woful in character as
+the man himself. It is a picture of hopeless drudgery and blank
+ignorance. Markham, the poet, has seized upon this picture, dwelt
+eloquently on its horrors, and apostrophised it as if it were a
+condition now existing. He exclaims,
+
+  "O masters, lords and rulers in all lands
+  How will the future reckon with this man?"
+
+The present has already reckoned with him, and he and his awkward
+implement of drudgery nowhere exist, except as left-over specimens of
+ancient and pre-historic misery occasionally found in some benighted
+region of the world.
+
+The plough and the hoe are the chief implements with which man has
+subdued the earth. Their use has not been confined to the drudge and the
+slave, but men, the leaders and ornaments of their race, have stood
+behind them adding to themselves graces, and crowning labor with
+dignity. Cincinnatus is only one of a long line of public men in ancient
+and modern times who have served their country in the ploughfield as
+well as on the field of battle and in the halls of Legislation. We hear
+the song of the poet rising with that of the lark as he turns the sod.
+Burns, lamenting that his share uptears the bed of the "wee modest
+crimson-tipped flower" and sorrowing that he has turned the "Mousie"
+from its "bit o' leaves and stibble" by the cruel coulter. The finest
+natures, tuned too fine to meet the rude blasts of the world, have
+shrunk like Cowper to rural scenes, and sought with the hoe among
+flowers and plants for that balm and strength unfound in crowded marts.
+
+But the dignity imparted to the profession of Agriculture by a few has
+now by the genius of invention become the heritage of all.
+
+While prophets have lamented, and artists have painted, and poets
+sorrowed over the drudgeries of the tillers of the soil, the tillers
+have steadily and quietly and with infinite patience and toil worked out
+their own salvation. They no longer find themselves "plundered and
+profaned and disinherited," but they have yoked the forces of nature to
+their service, and the cultivation of the earth, the sowing of the seed,
+the nourishment of the plant, have become to them things of pleasurable
+labour.
+
+With the aid of these inventions which have been turned into their hands
+by the prolific developments of the century they are, so far as the soil
+is concerned, no longer "brothers of the ox," but king of kings and lord
+of lords.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
+
+
+If the farmer, toward the close of the 18th century, tired with the
+sickle and the scythe for cutting his grass and grain, had looked about
+for more expeditious means, he would have found nothing better for
+cutting his grass; and for harvesting his grain he would have been
+referred to a machine that had existed since the beginning of the
+Christian era. This machine was described by Pliny, writing about A. D.
+60, who says that it was used on the plains of Rh�tia. The same machine
+was described by Palladius in the fourth century. That machine is
+substantially the machine that is used to-day for cutting and gathering
+clover heads to obtain the seed. It is now called a header.
+
+A machine that has been in use for eighteen centuries deserves to be
+described, and its inventor remembered; but the name of the inventor has
+been lost in oblivion. The description of Palladius is as follows:
+
+"In the plains of Gaul, they use this quick way of reaping, and without
+reapers cut large fields with an ox in one day. For this purpose a
+machine is made carried upon two wheels; the square surface has boards
+erected at the side, which, sloping outward, make a wider space above.
+The board on the fore part is lower than the others. Upon it there are a
+great many small teeth, wide set in a row, answering to the height of
+the ears of corn (wheat), and turned upward at the ends. On the back
+part of the machine two short shafts are fixed like the poles of a
+litter; to these an ox is yoked, with his head to the machine, and the
+yoke and traces likewise turned the contrary way. When the machine is
+pushed through the standing corn all the ears are comprehended by the
+teeth and cut off by them from the straw and drop into the machine. The
+driver sets it higher or lower as he finds it necessary. By a few goings
+and returnings the whole field is reaped. This machine does very well in
+plain and smooth fields."
+
+As late as 1786 improvements were being attempted in England on this old
+Gallic machine. At that time Pitt, in that country, arranged a cylinder
+with combs or ripples which tore off the heads of the grain-stalks and
+discharged them into a box on the machine. From that date until 1800
+followed attempts to make a cutting apparatus consisting of blades on a
+revolving cylinder rotated by the rotary motion of the wheels on which
+the machine was carried.
+
+In 1794, a Scotchman invented the grain cradle. Above the blade of a
+scythe were arranged a set of fingers projecting from a post in the
+scythe snath. This was considered a wonderful implement. A report of a
+Scottish Highland Agricultural Society about that time said of this new
+machine:
+
+"With a common sickle, seven men in ten hours reaped one and one-half
+acres of wheat,--about one-quarter of an acre each. With the new machine
+a man can cut one and one-half acres in ten hours, to be raked, bound,
+and stacked by two others."
+
+It was with such crude and imperfect inventions that the farmers faced
+the grain and grass fields of the nineteenth century.
+
+The Seven Wonders of the ancient world have often been compared with the
+wonders of invention of this present day.
+
+Senator Platt in an address at the Patent Centennial Celebration in
+Washington, in 1891, made such a contrast:
+
+"The old wonders of the world were the Pyramids, the Hanging Gardens of
+Babylon, the Phidian statue of Jupiter, the Mausoleum, the Temple of
+Diana at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Pharos of Alexandria.
+Two were tombs of kings, one was the playground of a petted queen, one
+was the habitat of the world's darkest superstition, one the shrine of a
+heathen god, another was a crude attempt to produce a work of art solely
+to excite wonder, and one only, the lighthouse at Alexandria, was of the
+slightest benefit to mankind. They were created mainly by tyrants; most
+of them by the unrequited toil of degraded and enslaved labourers. In
+them was neither improvement nor advancement for the people." With some
+excess of patriotic pride, he contrasts these with what he calls "the
+seven wonders of American invention." They were the cotton-gin; the
+adaptation of steam to methods of transportation; the application of
+electricity to business pursuits; the harvester; the modern
+printing-press; the ocean cable; and the sewing machine. "How
+wonderful," he adds, "in conception, in construction, in purpose, these
+great inventions are; how they dwarf the Pyramids and all the wonders of
+antiquity; what a train of blessings each brought with its entrance into
+social life; how wide, direct and far-reaching their benefits. Each was
+the herald of a social revolution; each was a human benefactor; each was
+a new Goddess of Liberty; each was a great Emancipator of man from the
+bondage of labour; each was a new teacher come upon earth; each was a
+moral force."
+
+Of these seven wonders, the harvester and the cotton-gin will only be
+described in this chapter. "Harvester" has sometimes been used as a
+broad term to cover both mowers and reapers. In a recent and more
+restricted sense, it is applied to a machine that cuts grain, separates
+it into gavels, and binds it.
+
+The difficulty that confronted the invention of mowers was the
+construction, location and operation of the cutting part. To convert the
+scythe or the sickle, or some other sharp blade into a fast
+reciprocating cutter, to hang such cutter low so that it would cut near
+the ground, to protect it from contact with stones by a proper guard, to
+actuate it by the wheels of the vehicle, to hinge the cutter-bar to the
+frame so that its outer end might be raised, and to arrange a seat on
+the machine so that the driver could control the operating parts by
+means of a lever, or handles, were the main problems to be solved.
+
+In 1799, Boyce, of England, had a vertical shaft with six rotating
+scythes beneath the frame of the implement. This died with the century.
+
+In 1800, Meares, his countryman, tried to adapt shears. He was followed
+there, in 1805, by Plucknett, who introduced a horizontal, rotating,
+circular blade. Others, subsequently, adopted this idea, both in England
+and America. It had been customary, as in olden times, to push the
+apparatus forward by a horse or horses hitched behind. But, in 1806,
+Gladstone had patented a front draft machine, with a revolving wheel
+armed with knife-blades cutting at one side of the machine and a
+segment-bar with fingers which gathered the grain and held the straw
+while the knife cut it.
+
+Then, in 1807, Salonen introduced vibrating knifes over stationary
+blades, fingers to gather grain to the cutters, and a rake to carry the
+grain off to one side.
+
+In 1822, Ogle, also of England, was the first to invent the
+_reciprocating_ knife-bar. This is the movement that has been given in
+all the successful machines since. Ogle's was a crude machine, but it
+furnished the ideas of projecting the cutter-bar at the side of a reel
+to gather the grain to the cutter and of a grain platform which was
+tilted to drop the sheaf.
+
+The world is indebted also to the Rev. Patrick Bell, of Scotland, who
+had invented and built as early as 1823-26, a machine which would cut an
+acre of grain in an hour, and is thus described by Knight:
+
+"The machine had a square frame on two wheels which ran loose on the
+axle, except when clutched thereto to give motion to the cutters. The
+cutter-bar had fixed triangular cutters between each of which was a
+movable vibrating cutter, which made a shear cut against the edge of the
+stationary cutter, on each side. It had a reel with twelve vanes to
+press the grain toward the cutters, and cause it to fall upon a
+travelling apron which carried away cut grain and deposited it at the
+side of the machine. The reel was driven by bevel-gearing."
+
+It was used but a few years and then revived again at the World's Fair
+in London, in 1851.
+
+In the United States, inventions in mowers and reapers began to make
+their appearance about 1820. In 1822, Bailey was the first to patent a
+mowing machine. It was a circular revolving scythe on a vertical axis,
+rotated by gearing from the main axle, and so that the scythe was
+self-sharpened by passing under a whet-stone fixed on an axis and
+revolving with the scythe and was pulled by a horse in front. In 1828,
+Lane, of Maine, combined the reaper and thresher. In 1831, Manning had a
+row of fingers and a reciprocating knife, and in 1833, Schnebly
+introduced the idea of a horizontal endless apron on which the grain
+fell, constructed to travel intermittently so as to divide the grain
+into separate parts or gavels, and deliver the gavels at one side.
+Hussey, of Maryland, in 1833, produced the most useful harvester up to
+that time. It had open guard fingers, a knife made of triangular
+sections, reciprocating in the guard, and a cutter-bar on a hinged
+frame.
+
+Then came the celebrated reaper of McCormick, of Virginia, in 1834, and
+his improvements of 1845-1847, and by 1850 he had built hundreds of his
+machines. Other inventors, too numerous to mention, from that time
+pushed forward with their improvements. Then came many public trials and
+contests between rival manufacturers and inventors.
+
+One of the earliest and most notable was the contest at the World's
+Fair, in London, in 1851. This exhibition, the first of the kind the
+world had seen, giving to the nations taking part such an astonishing
+revelation of each other's productions, and stimulating in each such a
+surprising growth in all the industrial and fine arts, revealed nothing
+more gratifying to the lover of his kind than those inventions of the
+preceding half-century that had so greatly lifted the farm labourer from
+his furrow of drudgery.
+
+Among the most conspicuous of such inventions were the harvesters.
+Bell's machine, previously described, and Hussey's and McCormick's were
+the principal contesting machines. They were set to work in fields of
+grain, and to McCormick was finally awarded the medal of honour.
+
+This contest also opened the eyes of the world to the fact that vast
+tracts of idle land, exceeding in extent the areas of many states and
+countries, could now be sown and reaped--a fact impossible with the
+scythe and the sickle. It was the herald of the admission into the
+family of nations of new territories and states, which, without these
+machines, would unto this day be still wild wildernesses and trackless
+deserts.
+
+This great trial also was followed by many others, State and
+International. In 1852, there was in the United States a general trial
+of reapers and mowers at Geneva, New York; in 1855, at the French
+Exposition, at Paris, where again McCormick met with a triumph; in 1857,
+at Syracuse, New York, and subsequently at all the great State and
+International Expositions. These contests served to bring out the
+failures, and the still-existing wants in this line of machinery. The
+earlier machines were clumsy. They were generally one-wheeled machines,
+lacked flexibility of parts and were costly. They cut, indeed, vast
+tracts of grain and grass, but the machines had to be followed by an
+army of men to bind and gather the fallen grain. This army demanded high
+wages and materially increased the cost of reaping the crop, and sadly
+diminished the profits.
+
+When the Vienna Exposition, in 1873, was held, a great advance was shown
+in this and all other classes of agricultural machinery. Reapers and
+mowers were lighter in construction, and far less in cost, and stronger
+and more effective in every way. The old original machines of McCormick
+on which he had worked for twenty years prior to the 1851 triumph, had
+been succeeded by another of his machines, on which an additional twenty
+years of study, experiment and improvement had been expended. An endless
+number of inventors had in the meantime entered the lists. The frame,
+the motive gearing, the hinged cutter-bar and knives, the driver's seat,
+the reel, the divider, for separating the swath of grain to be cut from
+the uncut, the raising and depressing lever, the self-raker, and the
+material of which all the parts were composed had all received the
+greatest attention, and now was awaiting the coming of a perfect
+mechanical binder that would roll the grain on the machine into a
+bundle, automatically bind it, and drop the bound bundles on the ground.
+The latter addition came in an incomplete shape to Vienna. The best form
+was a crude wire binder. In 1876 at the Centennial Exhibition at
+Philadelphia, the mowers and reapers blossomed still more fully, but not
+into full fruition; for it was not until two or three years thereafter
+that the celebrated _twine_ binders, which superseded the wire, were
+fully developed.
+
+Think of the almost miraculous exercise of invention in making a machine
+to automatically cut the grain, elevate it to a platform, separate and
+roll it into sheaves, seize a stout cord from a reel, wrap it about the
+sheaf, tie a knot that no sailor could untie, cut the cord, and throw
+the bound sheaf to one side upon the ground!
+
+So great became the demand for this binders' twine that great
+corporations engaged in its manufacture, and they in turn formed a great
+trust to control the world's supply. This one item of twine, alone,
+amounted to millions of dollars every year, and from its manufacture
+arose economic questions considered by legislators, and serious
+litigation requiring the attention of the courts.
+
+At this Centennial Exhibition, besides twenty or more great
+manufacturing firms of the United States who exhibited reapers and
+mowers, Canada, far-away Australia, and Russia brought each a fine
+machine of this wonderful class. And not only these countries, but
+nearly all of Europe sent agricultural machines and implements in such
+numbers and superior construction that they surpassed the wildest dreams
+of the farmer of a quarter of a century before.
+
+Up to this time, about eleven thousand patents have been granted in the
+United States, all presumably on separate improvements in mowers and
+reapers alone. This number includes, of course, many patents issued to
+inventors of other countries.
+
+Before leaving this branch of the subject the lawn-mower should not be
+overlooked, with its spiral blades on a revolving cylinder, a hand lever
+by which it can be pushed over a lawn and the grass cut as smooth as the
+green rug upon a lady's chamber.
+
+It is the law of inventions that one invention necessitates and
+generates another. Thus the vastly increased facilities for cutting
+grass necessitated new means for taking care of it when cut. And these
+new means were the hay tedder to stir it, the horse hay-rake, the great
+hay-forks to load, and the hay-stackers. Harvesters for grass and grain
+have been supplemented by Corn, Cotton, Potato and Flax Harvesters.
+
+The threshing-floor still resounds to the flail as the grain is beaten
+from the heads of the stalks. Men and horses still tread it out, the
+wooden drag and the heavy wain with its gang of wheels, and all the old
+methods of threshing familiar to the Egyptians and later among the
+Romans may still be found in use in different portions of the world.
+
+Menzies of Scotland, about the middle of the eighteenth century, was the
+first to invent a threshing machine. It was unsuccessful. Then came
+Leckie, of Stirlingshire, who improved it. But the type of the modern
+threshing machine was the invention of a Scotchman, one Meikle, of
+Tyningham, East Lothian, in 1786. Meikle threw the grain on to an
+inclined board, from whence it was fed between two fluted rollers to a
+cylinder armed with blades which beat it, thence to a second beating
+cylinder operating over a concave grating through which the loosened
+grain fell to a receptacle beneath; thence the straw was carried over a
+third beating cylinder which loosened the straw and shook out the
+remaining grain to the same receptacle, and the beaten straw was then
+carried out of the machine. Meikle added many improvements, among which
+was a fan-mill by which the grain was separated and cleaned from both
+straw and chaff. This machine, completed and perfected about the year
+1800, has seen no departure in principle in England, and in the United
+States the principal change has been the substitution of a spiked drum
+running at a higher speed for Meikle's beater drum armed with blades.
+
+In countries like California, says the U.S. Commissioner of Patents in
+his report for 1895, "Where the climate is dry and the grain is ready
+for threshing as soon as it is cut, there is in general use a type of
+machine known as a combined harvester and thresher in which a thresher
+and a harvester machine of the header type are mounted on a single
+platform, and the heads of grain are carried directly from the harvester
+by elevators into the threshing machine, from which the threshed grain
+is delivered into bags and is then ready for shipment. Some of these
+machines are drawn by horses and some have a portable engine mounted on
+the same truck with the harvester propelling the machine, while
+furnishing power to drive the mechanism at the same time. Combined
+harvesters and threshers have been known since 1836, but they have been
+much improved and are now built on a much larger scale."
+
+Flax-threshers for beating the grain from the bolls of the cured flax
+plant, removing the bolls, releasing and cleaning the seed, are also a
+modern invention.
+
+Flax and Hemp Brakes, machines by which the woody and cellular portion
+of the flax is separated from the fibrous portion, produced in practical
+shape in the century, and flanked by the improved pullers, cutters,
+threshers, scutchers, hackles, carders, and rovers, have supplanted
+Egyptian methods of 3,000 years' standing, for preparing the flax for
+spinning, as well as the crude improvements of the 18th century.
+
+After the foundation of cotton manufacture had been laid "as one of the
+greatest of the world's industries," in the 18th century by those five
+great English inventors, Kay, who invented the fly-shuttle, Hargreaves,
+the "Spinning Jenny," Arkwright, the water-frame, Crompton, the
+spinning-mule, and Cartwright, the power-loom, came Eli Whitney in 1793,
+a young school teacher from Massachusetts located in Georgia, who
+invented the _cotton-gin_. His crude machine, worked by a single person,
+could clean more cotton in a single day than could be done by a man in
+several months, by hand.
+
+The enormous importance of such a machine began to be appreciated at the
+beginning of the century, and it set cotton up as a King whose dominion
+has extended across the seas.
+
+Prior to 1871, inventions in this art were mainly directed to perfecting
+the structure of this primary gin. By that machine only the long staple
+fibre was secured, leaving the cotton seed covered with a short fibre,
+which with the seed was regarded as a waste product. To reclaim this
+short fibre and secure the seed in condition for use, have been the
+endeavours of many inventors during the last twenty years. These objects
+have been attained by a machine known as the _delinter_, one of the
+first practical forms of which appeared about 1883.
+
+In a bulletin published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1895,
+entitled, "Production and Price of Cotton for One Hundred Years," the
+period commences with the introduction of Whitney's saw gin, and ends
+with the year mentioned and with the production in that year of the
+largest crop the world had ever seen. No other agricultural crop
+commands such universal attention. Millions of people are employed in
+its production and manufacture. How insignificant compared with the
+wonder wrought by this one machine seems indeed any of the old seven
+wonders of the world! Although the displacement of labour occasioned by
+the introduction of the cotton-gin was not severely felt, as it was
+slave labour, yet that invention affords a good illustration of the fact
+that labour-saving machines increase the supply of the article, the
+increased supply lowers its price, the lower price increases the demand,
+the increased demand gives rise to more machines and develops other
+inventions and arts, all of which results in the employment of ten
+thousand people to every one thousand at work on the product originally.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (_continued_).
+
+
+When the harvest is ended and the golden stores of grains and fruits are
+gathered, then the question arises what shall be next done to prepare
+them for food and for shipment to the distant consumer.
+
+If the cleaning of the grain and separating it from the chaff and dirt
+are not had in the threshing process, separate machines are employed for
+fanning and screening.
+
+It was only during the 18th century that fanning mills were introduced;
+and it is related by Sir Walter Scott in one of his novels that some of
+his countrymen considered it their religious duty to wait for a natural
+wind to separate the chaff from the wheat; that they were greatly
+shocked by an invention which would raise a whirlwind in calm weather,
+and that they looked upon the use of such a machine as rebellion against
+God.
+
+As to the grinding of the grain, the rudimentary means still exist, and
+are still used by rudimentary peoples, and to meet exceptional
+necessities; these are the primeval hollowed stone and mortar and
+pestle, and they too were "the mills of the Gods" in Egyptian, Hebrew
+and Early Greek days: the _quern_--that is, the upper running stone and
+the lower stationary grooved one--was a later Roman invention and can be
+found described only a century or two before the Christian era.
+
+Crude as these means were they were the chief ones used in milling until
+within a century and a quarter ago.
+
+In a very recent bright work published in London, by Richard Bennett and
+John Elton, on Corn Mills, etc., they say on this point: "The mill of
+the last century, that, by which, despite its imperfections, the
+production of flour rose from one of the smallest to one of the greatest
+and most valuable industries of the world, was essentially a structure
+of few parts, whether driven by water or wind, and its processes were
+exceedingly simple. The wheat was cleaned by a rude machine consisting
+of a couple of cylinders and screens, and an air blast passed through a
+pair of mill-stones, running very close together, in order that the
+greatest amount of flour might be produced at one grinding. The meal was
+then bolted, and the tailings, consisting of bran, middlings and
+adherent flour, again sifted and re-ground. It seems probable that the
+miller of the time had a fair notion of the high grade of flour ground
+from middlings, but no systematic method of procedure for its production
+was adopted."
+
+The upper and the nether mill-stone is still a most useful device. The
+"dress," which consists of the grooves which are formed in the meeting
+faces of the stones, has been changed in many ways to meet the
+requirements in producing flour in varying degrees of fineness. Machines
+have been invented to make such grooves. A Swiss machine for this
+purpose consists of two disks carrying diamonds in their peripheries,
+which, being put in rapid revolution, cut parallel grooves in the face
+of the stone.
+
+A great advance in milling was made both in America and Europe by the
+inventions of Oliver Evans. Evans was born in the State of Delaware,
+U.S., in 1755, and died in 1819. He was a poor boy and an apprentice to
+a wheelwright, and while thus engaged his inventive powers were
+developed. He had an idea of a land carriage propelled without animal
+power. At the age of 22 he invented a machine for making card teeth,
+which superseded the old method of making them by hand. Later he
+invented steam-engines and steam-boats, to which attention will
+hereafter be called. Entering into business with his brothers within the
+period extending from 1785 to 1800, he produced those inventions in
+milling which by the opening of the 19th century had revolutionised the
+art. A description of the most important of these inventions was
+published by him in 1795 in a book entitled _The Young Millwright and
+Miller's Grist_. Patents were granted Evans by the States of Delaware,
+Maryland and Pennsylvania in 1787, and by the U.S. Government in 1790
+and 1808.
+
+As these inventions formed the basis of the most important subsequent
+devices of the century, a brief statement of his system is proper:
+
+From the time the grain was emptied from the waggon to the final
+production of the finest flour at the close of the process, all manual
+labour was dispensed with. The grain was first emptied into a box hung
+on a scale beam where it was weighed, then run into an elevator which
+raised it to a chamber over cleaning machines through which it was
+passed, and reclaimed by the same means if desired; then it was run down
+into a chamber over the hoppers of the mill-stones; when ground it fell
+from the mill-stones into conveyors and as carried along subjected to
+the heated air of a kiln drier; then carried into a meal elevator to be
+raised and dropped on to a cooling floor where it was met by what is
+called a hopper boy, consisting of a central round upright shaft
+revolving on a pivot, and provided with horizontal arms and sweeps
+adapted to be raised and lowered and turned, by which means the meal was
+continually stirred around, lifted and turned on the floor and then
+gathered on to the bolting hoppers, the bolts being cylindrical sieves
+of varying degrees of fineness to separate the flour from its coarser
+impurities, and when not bolted sufficiently, carried by a conveyor
+called a drill to an elevator to be dumped again into the bolting
+hoppers and be re-bolted. When not sufficiently ground the same drill
+was used to carry the meal to the grind stones. It was the design of the
+process to keep the meal in constant motion from first to last so as to
+thoroughly dry and cool it, to heat it further in the meantime, and to
+run the machines so slowly as to prevent the rise and waste of the flour
+in the form of dust.
+
+The Evans system, with minor modifications and improvements, was the
+prevailing one for three-quarters of a century. New mills, when erected,
+were provided with this system, and many mills in their quiet retreats
+everywhere awoke from their drowsy methods and were equipped with the
+new one.
+
+But the whole system of milling has undergone another great change
+within the last thirty years:
+
+During that time it has been learned that the coarser portion or kernel
+of wheat which lies next to the skin of the berry and between the skin
+and the heart is the most valuable and nutritious part, as it consists
+largely of gluten, while the interior consists of starch, which when dry
+becomes a pearly powder. Under the old systems this coarser part, known
+as middlings, was eliminated, and ground for feed for cattle, or into
+what was regarded as an inferior grade of flour from which to make
+coarse bread. It was customary, therefore, under the old method to set
+the grinding surfaces very close with keen sharp burrs, so that this
+coarser part was cut off and mixed with the small particles of bran,
+fine fuzz and other foreign substances, which was separated from the
+finer part of the kernel by the bolting.
+
+The new process consists of removing the outer skin and adherent
+impurities from the middlings, then separating the middlings from the
+central finer part and then regrinding the middlings into flour.
+
+This middlings flour being superior, as stated, to what was called
+straight grade, it became desirable to obtain as much middlings as
+possible, and to this end it was necessary to set the grinding surfaces
+further apart so as to grind _high_, hence the _high_ milling process as
+distinguished from _low_ milling. For the better performance of the high
+rolling process, roller mills were invented. It was found that the
+cracking process by which the kernel could be cracked and the gluten
+middlings separated from the starchy heart could best be had by the
+employment of rollers or cylinders in place of face stones, and at the
+same time the heating of the product, which injures it, be avoided.
+
+The rollers operate in sets, and successive crackings are obtained by
+passing and repassing, if necessary, the grain through these rollers,
+set at different distances apart. The operation on grains of different
+qualities, whether hard or soft, or containing more or less of the
+gluten middlings, or starchy parts, and their minute and graded
+separation, thus are obtained with the greatest nicety.
+
+The Hungarians, the Germans, the Austrians, the Swiss, the English and
+the Americans have all invented useful forms of these rollers.
+
+This process was accompanied by the invention of new forms of middlings
+separators and purifiers, in which upward drafts of air are made to pass
+up through flat, graded shaking bolts, in an enclosed case, by which the
+bran specks and fuzz are lifted and conveyed away from the shaken
+material. In some countries, such as the great wheat state of Minnesota,
+U.S., where the wheat had before been of inferior market value owing to
+the poorer grade of flour obtained by the old processes, that same wheat
+was made to produce the most superior flour under the new processes,
+thus increasing the yearly value of the crops by many millions of
+dollars.
+
+Disastrous flour dust explosions in some of the great mills at
+Minneapolis, in 1877-78, developed the invention of dust collectors, by
+which the suspended particles of flour dust are withdrawn from the
+machinery and the mill, and the air is cleared for respiration and for
+the production of the finest flour, while the mill is kept closed and
+comfortable in cold seasons. One of the latest forms of such a collector
+has for its essential principle the vertical or rotatory air current,
+which it is claimed moves and precipitates the finest particles.
+
+The inventions in the class of mills have so multiplied in these latter
+days, that nearly every known article that needs to be cleaned and
+hulled, or ground, or cracked or pulverized, has its own specially
+designed machine. Wind and water as motive powers have been supplanted
+by steam and electricity. It would be impossible in one volume to
+describe this great variety. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary, gives
+a list under "Mills," of more than a hundred distinct machines and
+processes relating to grinding, hulling, crushing, pulverising and
+mixing products.
+
+_Vegetable Cutters._--Modern ingenuity has not neglected those more
+humble devices which save the drudgery of hand work in the preparation
+of vegetables and roots for food for man and beasts, and for use
+especially when large quantities are to be prepared. Thus, we find
+machines armed with blades and worked by springs and a lever, for
+chopping, others for cutting stalks, other machines for paring and
+slicing, such as apple and potato parers and slicers, others for grating
+and pulping, others for seeding fruits, such as cherries and raisins,
+and an entire range of mechanisms, from those which handle delicately
+the tenderest pod and smallest seed, to the ponderous machines for
+cutting and crushing the cane in sugar making.
+
+_Pressing and Baling._--The want of pressing loose materials and packing
+bulky ones, like hay, wool, cotton, hops, etc, and other coarser
+products, into small, compact bales and bodies, to facilitate their
+transportation, was immediately felt on the great increase of such
+products in the century.
+
+From this arose pressing and baling machines of a great variety, until
+nearly every agricultural product that can be pressed, packed or baled
+has its special machine for that operation. Besides those above
+indicated relating to agricultural products, we have cane presses,
+cheese presses, butter presses, cigar and tobacco presses, cork presses,
+and flour packers, fruit and lard presses, peat presses, sugar presses
+and others. Leading mechanical principles in presses are also indicated
+by name, as screw presses, toggle presses, beater press, revolving
+press, hydraulic press, rack and pinion press, and rolling pressure
+press and so on.
+
+There are the presses also that are used in compressing cotton. When it
+is remembered that cotton is raised in about twenty different countries,
+and that the cotton crop of the United States of 1897-98 was 10,897,857
+bales, of about 500 lbs. each; of India, (estimated) for the same
+period, 2,844,000, of 400 lbs each; of China about 1,320,000, of 500 lbs
+each, and between two and three million bales in the other countries, it
+is interesting to consider how the world's production of this enormous
+mass of elastic fibre, amounting to seventeen or eighteen million bales,
+of four and five hundred pounds each, is compressed and bound.
+
+The screw press was the earliest form of machine used, and then came the
+hydraulic press. Later it has been customary to press the cotton by
+screw presses or small hydraulic presses at the plantation, bind it with
+ropes or metal bands and then transport it to some central or seaboard
+station where an immense establishment exists, provided with a great
+steam-operated press, in which the bale from the country is placed and
+reduced to one-fourth or one-third its size, and while under pressure
+new metallic bands applied, when the bale is ready for shipment. This
+was a gain of a remarkable amount of room on shipboard and on cars, and
+solved a commercial problem. But now this process, and the commercial
+rectangular bale, seem destined to be supplanted by roller presses set
+up near the plantations themselves, into which the cotton is fed
+directly from the gin, rolled upon itself between the rollers and
+compressed into round bales of greater density than the square bale,
+thus saving a great amount of cost in dispensing with the steam and
+hydraulic plants, with great additional advantages in convenience of
+handling and cost of transportation.
+
+It is so arranged also that the cotton may be rolled into clean, uniform
+dense layers, so that the same may be unwound at the mill and directly
+applied to the machines for its manufacture into fabrics, without the
+usual tedious and expensive preliminary operations of combing and
+re-rolling.
+
+It has also remained for the developed machine of the century to convert
+hay into an export commodity to distant countries by the baling process.
+Bale ties themselves have received great attention from inventors, and
+the most successful have won fortunes for their owners.
+
+Most ingenious machines have been devised for picking cotton in the
+fields, but none have yet reached that stage of perfection sufficient to
+supplant the human fingers.
+
+_Fruits and Foods._--To prepare and transport fruits in their natural
+state to far distant points, while preserving them from decay for long
+times, is, in the large way demanded by the world's great appetites,
+altogether a success of modern invention.
+
+To gather the fruit without bruising by mechanical pickers, and then to
+place the fruit, oranges for instance, in the hands of an intelligent
+machine which will automatically, but delicately and effectually, wrap
+the same in a paper covering, and discharge them without harm, are among
+the recent inventive wonders. In the United States alone 67 patents had
+been granted up to 1895 for fruit wrapping machines.
+
+Inventions relating to drying and evaporating fruit, and having for
+their main object to preserve as much as possible the natural taste and
+colour of the fruit, have been numerous. Spreading the fruit in the air
+and letting the sun and air do the rest is now a crude process.
+
+These are the general types of drying and evaporating machines:
+
+First, those in which trays of fruit are placed upon stationary ledges
+within a heated chamber; second, those in which the trays are raised and
+lowered by mechanical means toward or farther from the source of heat as
+the drying progresses; third, those in which the fruit is placed in
+imperforate steam jacketed pans. Many improvements, of course, have been
+made in detail of form, in ventilation, the supplying and regulating of
+heat and the moving of trays.
+
+The hermetically sealed glass or earthenware fruit jar, the lids of
+which can be screwed or locked down upon a rubber band, after the jar is
+filled and the small remainder of air drawn out by a convenient steam
+heater, now used by the million, is an illustration of the many useful
+modern contrivances in this line.
+
+_Sterilisation._--In preserving, the desirability of preventing disease
+and keeping foods in a pure state has developed in the last quarter of a
+century many devices by which the food is subjected to a steam heat in
+chambers, and, by devices operated from the outside, the cans or bottles
+are opened and shut while still within the steam-filled chamber.
+
+_Diastase._--By heating starchy matters with substances containing
+diastase, a partial transformation is effected, which will materially
+shorten and aid its digestion, and this fact has been largely made use
+of in the preparation of soluble foods, especially those designed for
+infants and invalids, such as malted milk and lactated food.
+
+_Milkers._--Invention has not only been exercised in the preservation
+and transportation of milk, but in the task of milking itself. Since
+1860 inventors have been seeking patents for milkers, some having tubes
+operated by air-pumps, others on the same principle in which the vacuum
+is made to increase and decrease or pulsate, and others for machines in
+which the tubes are mechanically contracted by pressure plates.
+
+_Slaughtering._--Great improvements have been made in the slaughtering
+of animals, by which a great amount of its repulsiveness and the
+unhealthfulness of its surroundings have been removed. These
+improvements relate to the construction of proper buildings and
+appliances for the handling of the animals, the means for slaughtering,
+and modes of taking care of the meat and transporting the same.
+Villages, towns, and even many cities, are now relieved of the formerly
+unsavoury slaughter-houses, and the work is done from great centres of
+supply, where meats in every shape are prepared for food and shipment.
+
+It would be impossible in a bulky volume, much less in a single chapter,
+to satisfactorily enumerate those thousands of inventions which, taking
+hold of the food products of the earth, have spread them as a feast
+before the tribes of men.
+
+_Tobacco._--Some of the best inventive genius of the century has been
+exercised in providing for man's comfort, not a food, but what he
+believes to be a solace.
+
+  "Sublime Tobacco! which from East to West
+  Cheers the tar's labour or the Turkman's rest."
+
+In the United States alone, in the year 1885, there were 752,520 acres
+of land devoted to the production of tobacco, the amount in pounds grown
+being 562,736,000, and the value of which was estimated as $43,265,598.
+These amounts have been somewhat less in years since then, but the
+appetite continues, and any deficiency in the supply is made up by
+enormous importation. Thus, in 1896, there were imported into the United
+States, 32,924,966 pounds of tobacco, of various kinds, valued at
+$16,503,130. There are no reliable statistics showing that, man for man,
+the people of that country are greater lovers of the weed than the
+people of other countries, but the annual value of tobacco raised and
+imported by them being thus about $60,000,000, it indicates the strength
+of the habit and the interest in the nurture of the plant throughout the
+world. Neither the "Counterblaste to Tobacco" of King James I., and the
+condemnations of kings, popes, priests and sultans, that followed its
+early introduction into Europe, served to choke the weed in its infancy
+or check its after growth. Now it is attended from the day of its
+planting until it reaches the lips of the consumer by contrivances of
+consummate skill to fit it for its destined purpose. Besides the
+ploughs, the cultivators and the weeders of especial forms used to
+cultivate the plant, there are, after the grown plant is cut in the
+field, houses of various designs for drying it, machines for rolling the
+leaves out smoothly in sheets; machines for removing the stems from the
+leaves and for crushing the stem; machines for pressing it into shape,
+and for pressing it, whether solid or in granular form, into boxes, tubs
+and bags; machines for granulating it and for grinding it into snuff;
+machines for twisting it into cords; machines for flavouring the leaf
+with saccharine and other matters; machines for making cigars, and
+machines of a great variety and of the most ingenious construction for
+making cigarettes and putting them in packages.
+
+Samples of pipes made by different ages and by different peoples would
+form a collection of wonderful art and ingenuity, second only to an
+exhibition of the means and methods of making them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+
+Chemistry, having for its field the properties and changes of matter,
+has excited more or less attention ever since men had the power to
+observe, to think, and to experiment.
+
+Some knowledge of chemistry must have existed among the ancients to have
+enabled the Egyptians to smelt ores and work metals, to dye their
+cloths, to make glass, and to preserve their dead from decomposition;
+so, too, to this extent among the Ph[oe]nicians, the Israelites, the
+Greeks and the Romans; and perhaps to a greater extent among the
+Chinese, who added powder to the above named and other chemical
+products. Aristotle speculated, and the alchemists of the middle ages
+busied themselves in magic and guess-work. It reached the dignity of a
+science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by the labours of
+such men, in the former century, as Libavius, Van Helmont, Glauber,
+Tachenius, Boyle, L�mery and Becher; Stahl, Boerhaave and Hamberg in
+both; and of Black, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Priestley and others in the
+eighteenth.
+
+But so great have been the discoveries and inventions in this science
+during the nineteenth century that any chemist of any previous age, if
+permitted to look forward upon them, would have felt
+
+  "Like some watcher of the skies
+  When a new planet swims into his ken."
+
+Indeed, the chemistry of this century is a new world, of which all the
+previous discoveries in that line were but floating nebul�.
+
+So vast and astonishingly fast has been the growth and development of
+this science that before the century was two-thirds through its course
+Watts published his _Dictionary of Chemistry_ in five volumes, averaging
+a thousand closely printed pages, followed soon by a thousand-page
+supplement; and it would have required such a volume every year since to
+adequately report the progress of the science. Nomenclatures, formulas,
+apparatuses and processes have all changed. It was deemed necessary to
+publish works on _The New Chemistry_, and Professor J. P. Cooke is the
+author of an admirable volume under that title.
+
+We can, therefore, in this chapter only step from one to another of some
+of the peaks that rise above the vast surrounding country, and note some
+of the lesser objects as they appear in the vales below.
+
+The leading discoveries of the century which have done so much to aid
+Chemistry in its giant strides are the atomic and molecular theories,
+the mechanics of light, heat, and electricity, the correlation and
+conservation of forces, their invariable quantity, and their
+indestructibility, spectrum analysis and the laws of chemical changes.
+
+John Dalton, that humble child of English north-country Quaker stock,
+self-taught and a teacher all his life, in 1803 gave to the world his
+atomic theory of chemistry, whereby the existence of matter in ultimate
+atoms was removed from the region of the speculation of certain ancient
+philosophers, and established on a sure foundation.
+
+The question asked and answered by Dalton was, what is the relative
+weight of the atoms composing the elementary bodies?
+
+He discovered that one chemical element or compound can combine with
+another chemical element, to form a new compound, in two different
+proportions by weight, which stand to each other in the simple ratio of
+one to two; and at the same time he published a table of the _Relative
+weight of the ultimate particles of Gaseous and other Bodies_. Although
+the details of this table have since been changed, the principles of his
+discovery remain unchanged. Says Professor Roscoe:
+
+  "Chemistry could hardly be said to exist as a science before the
+  establishment of the laws of combination in multiple proportions, and
+  the subsequent progress of chemical science materially depended upon
+  the determination of these combined proportions or atomic weights of
+  the elements first set up by Dalton. So that among the founders of our
+  science, next to the name of the great French Philosopher, Lavoisier,
+  will stand in future ages the name of John Dalton, of Manchester."
+
+Less conspicuous but still eminently useful were his discoveries and
+labours in other directions, in the expansion of gases, evaporation,
+steam, etc.
+
+Wollaston and Gay-Lussac, both great chemists, applied Dalton's
+discovery to wide and most important fields in the chemical arts.
+
+Also contemporaneous with Dalton was the great German chemist,
+Berzelius, who confirmed and extended the discoveries of Dalton. More
+than this, it has been said of Berzelius:
+
+  "In him were united all the different impulses which have advanced the
+  science since the beginning of the present epoch. The fruit of his
+  labors is scattered throughout the entire domain of the science.
+  Hardly a substance exists to the knowledge of which he has not in some
+  way contributed. A direct descendant of the school of his countryman,
+  Bergman, he was especially renowned as an analyst. No chemist has
+  determined by direct experiment the composition of a greater number of
+  substances. No one has exerted a greater influence in extending the
+  field of analytical chemistry."
+
+As to light, the great Huygens, the astronomer and mathematician, the
+improver of differential calculus and of telescopes, the inventor of the
+pendulum clock, chronometers, and the balance wheel to the watch, and
+discoverer of the laws of the double refraction of light and of
+polarisation, had in the 17th century clearly advanced the idea that
+light was propagated from luminous bodies, not as a stream of particles
+through the air but in waves or vibrations of ether, which is a
+universal medium extending through all space and into all bodies. This
+fundamental principle now enters into the explanation of all the
+phenomena of light.
+
+Newton in the next century, with the prism, decomposed light, and in a
+darkened chamber reproduced all the colours and tints of the rainbow.
+But there were dark lines in that beam of broken sunlight which Newton
+did not notice.
+
+It was left to Joseph von Fraunhofer, a German optician, and to the 19th
+century, and nearly one hundred years after Newton's experiments with
+the prism, to discover, with finer prisms that he had made, some 590 of
+these black lines crossing the solar spectrum. What they were he did not
+know, but conjectured that they were caused by something which existed
+in the sun and stars and not in our air. But from that time they were
+called Fraunhofer's dark lines.
+
+From the vantage ground of these developments we are now enabled to step
+to that mountain peak of discovery from which the sun and stars were
+looked into, their elements portrayed, their very motions determined,
+and their brotherhood with the earth, in substance, ascertained.
+
+The great discovery of the cause of Fraunhofer's dark bands in the
+broken sunlight was made by Gustave Robert Kirchoff, a German physician,
+in his laboratory in Heidelberg, in 1860, in conjunction with his fellow
+worker, Robert Bunsen.
+
+Kirchoff happened to let a solar ray pass through a flame coloured with
+sodium, and through a prism, so that the spectrum of the sun and the
+flame fell one upon another. It was expected that the well known yellow
+line of sodium would come out in the solar spectrum, but it was just the
+opposite that took place. Where the bright yellow line should have
+fallen appeared a dark line.
+
+With this observation was coupled the reflection that heat passes from a
+body of a higher temperature to one of a lower, and not inversely.
+Experiments followed: iron, sodium, copper, etc., were heated to
+incandescence and their colours prismatically separated. These were
+transversed with the same colours of other heated bodies, and the latter
+were absorbed and rendered black. Kirchoff then announced his law that
+all bodies absorb chiefly those colours which they themselves emit.
+Therefore these vapours of the sun which were rendered in black lines
+were so produced by crossing terrestrial vapors of the same nature.
+
+Thus by the prism and the blowpipe were the same substances found in the
+sun, the stars, and the earth. The elements of every substance submitted
+to the process were analysed, and many secrets in the universe of matter
+were revealed.
+
+Young, of America, invented a splendid combination of spectroscope and
+telescope, and Huggins of England was the first to establish by spectrum
+analysis the approach and retreat of the stars.
+
+It was prior to this time that those wonderful discoveries and labours
+were made which developed the true nature of heat, which demonstrated
+the kinship and correlation of the forces of Nature, their conservation,
+or property of being converted one into another, and the
+indestructibility of matter, of which force is but another name.
+
+The first demonstrations as to the nature of heat were given by the
+American Count Rumford, and then by Sir Humphry Davy, just at the close
+of the 18th century, and then followed in this the brilliant labours and
+discoveries of Mayer and Helmholtz of Germany, Colding of Denmark, and
+Joule, Grove, Faraday, Sir William Thomson of England, of Henry, Le
+Conte and Martin of America, as to the correlation and convertibility of
+all the forces.
+
+The French revolution, and the Napoleonic wars, isolating France and
+exhausting its resources, its chemists were appealed to devote their
+genius and researches to practical things; to the munitions of war, the
+rejuvenation of the soil, the growing of new crops, like the sugar beet,
+and new manufacturing products.
+
+Lavoisier had laid deep and broad in France the foundations of
+chemistry, and given the science nomenclature that lasted a century. So
+that the succeeding great teachers, Berthollet, Guyton, Fourcroy and
+their associates, and the institutions of instruction in the sciences
+fostered by them, and inspired in that direction by Napoleon, bent their
+energies in material directions, and a tremendous impulse was thus given
+to the practical application of chemistry to the arts and manufactures
+of the century.
+
+The same spirit, to a less extent, however, manifested itself in
+England, and as early as 1802 we find Sir Humphry Davy beginning his
+celebrated lectures on the _Elements of Agricultural Chemistry_ before a
+board of agriculture, a work that has passed through many editions in
+almost every modern language.
+
+When the fact is recalled that agricultural chemistry embraces the
+entire natural science of vegetable and animal production, and includes,
+besides, much of physics, meteorology and geology, the extent and
+importance of the subject may be appreciated; and yet such appreciation
+was not manifested in a practical manner until the 19th century. It was
+only toward the end of the 18th century that the vague and ancient
+notions that air, water, oil and salt formed the nutrition of plants,
+began to be modified. Davy recognized and explained the beneficial
+fertilizing effects of ammonia, and analysed and explained numerous
+fertilizers, including guano. It is due to his discoveries and
+publications, combined with those of the eminent men on the continent,
+above referred to, that agricultural chemistry arose to the dignity of a
+science. The most brilliant, eloquent and devoted apostle of that
+science who followed Davy was Justus von Liebig of Germany, who was born
+in Darmstadt in 1803, the year after Davy commenced his lectures in
+England. It was in response to the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science that he gave to the world his great publications
+on _Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, Commerce, Physiology,
+and Pathology_, from which great practical good resulted the world over.
+One of his favorite subjects was that of fermentation, and this calls up
+the exceedingly interesting discoveries in the nature of alcohol, yeast,
+mould--aging malt, wines and beer--and their accompanying beneficial
+results.
+
+In one of Huxley's charming lectures--such as he delighted to give
+before a popular audience--delivered in 1871, at Manchester, on the
+subject of "Yeast," he tells how any liquid containing sugar, such as a
+mixture of honey and water, if left to itself undergoes the peculiar
+change we know as fermentation, and in the process the scum, or thicker
+muddy part that forms on top, becomes yeast, carbonic acid gas escapes
+in bubbles from the liquid, and the liquid itself becomes spirits of
+wine or alcohol. "Alcohol" was a term used until the 17th century to
+designate a very fine subtle powder, and then became the name of the
+subtle spirit arising from fermentation. It was Leeuwenhoek of Holland
+who, two hundred years ago, by the use of a fine microscope he invented,
+first discovered that the muddy scum was a substance made up of an
+enormous multitude of very minute grains floating separately, and in
+lumps and in heaps, in the liquid. Then, in the next century the
+Frenchman, Cagniard de la Tour, discovered that these bodies grew to a
+certain size and then budded, and from the buds the plant multiplied;
+and thus that this yeast was a mass of living plants, which received in
+science the name of "torula," that the yeast plant was a kind of fungus
+or mould, growing and multiplying. Then came Fabroni, the French
+chemist, at the end of the 18th century, who discovered that the yeast
+plant was of bag-like form, or a cell of woody matter, and that the cell
+contained a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
+This was a vegeto-animal substance, having peculiarities of "animal
+products."
+
+Then came the great chemists of the 19th century, with their delicate
+methods of analysis, and decided that this plant in its chief part was
+identical with that element which forms the chief part of our own blood.
+That it was protein, a substance which forms the foundation of every
+animal organism. All agreed that it was the yeast plant that fermented
+or broke up the sugar element, and produced the alcohol. Helmholtz
+demonstrated that it was the minute particles of the solid part of the
+plant that produced the fermentation, and that such particles must be
+growing or alive, to produce it. From whence sprang this wonderful
+plant--part vegetable, part animal? By a long series of experiments it
+was found that if substances which could be fermented were kept entirely
+closed to the outer air, no plant would form and no fermentation take
+place. It was concluded then, and so ascertained, that the torulae in
+the plant proceeded from the torulae in the atmosphere, from "gay motes
+that people the sunbeams." Concerning just how the torulae broke up or
+fermented the sugar, great chemists have differed.
+
+After the discovery that the yeast was a plant having cells formed of
+the pure matter of wood, and containing a semi-fluid mass identical with
+the composition which constitutes the flesh of animals, came the further
+discovery that all plants, high and low, are made up of the same kind of
+cells, and their contents. Then this remarkable result came out, that
+however much a plant may otherwise differ from an animal, yet, in
+essential constituents the cellular constructure of animal and plant is
+the same. To this substance of energy and life, common in the minute
+plant cell and the animal cell, the German botanist, Hugo von Mohl,
+about fifty years ago gave the name "protoplasm." Then came this
+astounding conclusion, that this _protoplasm_ being common to both plant
+and animal life, the essential difference consisted only in the manner
+in which the cells are built up and are modified in the building.
+
+And from that part of these great discoveries which revealed the fact
+that the sugary element was infected, as it were, from the germs of the
+air, producing fermentation and its results, arose that remarkable
+theory of many diseases known as the "germ theory." And, as it was found
+in the yeast plant that only the solid part or particle of the plant
+germinated fermentation and reaction, so, too, it has been found by the
+germ theory that only the solid particle of the contagious matter can
+germinate or grow the disease.
+
+In this unfolding of the wonders of chemistry in the nineteenth century,
+the old empirical walls between forces and organisms, and organic and
+inorganic chemistry, are breaking down, and celestial and terrestrial
+bodies and vapours, living beings, and growing plants are discovered to
+be the evolution of one all-pervading essence and force. One is reminded
+of the lines of Tennyson:
+
+    "Large elements in order brought
+    And tracts of calm from tempest made,
+    And world fluctuation swayed
+    In vassal tides that followed thought.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    One God, one law, one element,
+    And one far-off divine event
+    To which the whole creation moves."
+
+In the class of alcohol and in the field of yeast, the work of Pasteur,
+begun in France, has been followed by improvements in methods for
+selecting proper ferments and excluding improper ones, and in improved
+processes for aging and preserving alcoholic liquors by destroying
+deleterious ferments. Takamine, in using as ferment, koji, motu and
+moyashi, different forms of mould, and proposing to do entirely away
+with malt in the manufacture of beer and whiskey, has made a noteworthy
+departure. Manufacturing of malt by the pneumatic process, and stirring
+malt during germination, are among the improvements.
+
+_Carbonating._--The injecting of carbonic acid gas into various waters
+to render them wholesome, and also into beers and wines during
+fermentation, and to save delay and prevent impurities, are decided
+improvements.
+
+The immense improvements and discoveries in the character of soils and
+fertilisers have already been alluded to. Hundreds of instruments have
+been invented for measuring, analysing, weighing, separating,
+volatilising and otherwise applying chemical processes to practical
+purposes.
+
+To the chemistry of the century the world is indebted for those devices
+and processes for the utilisation and manufacture of many useful
+products from the liquids and oils, sugar from cane and beets,
+revivifying bone-black, centrifugal machinery for refining sugar, in
+defecating it by chemicals and heat, in evaporating it in pans, in
+separating starch and converting it into glucose, etc.
+
+_Oils and Fats._--Up to within this century the vast amount of cotton
+seed produced with that crop was a waste. Then by the process, first of
+steaming the seed and expressing the oil, now by the process of
+extraction by the aid of volatile solvents, and casting off the solvents
+by distillation, an immensely valuable product has been obtained.
+
+The utilising of oils in the manufacture of oilcloth and linoleum and
+rubber, has become of great commercial value. Formerly sulphur was the
+vulcanising agent, now chloride of sulphur has been substituted for pure
+sulphur.
+
+Steam and the distillation processes have been applied with great
+success to the making of glycerine from fat and from soap underlye and
+in extracting fat from various waste products.
+
+_Bleaching and Dyeing._--Of course these arts are very old, but the old
+methods would not be recognised in the modern processes; and those who
+lived before the century knew nothing of the magnificent colours, and
+certain essences, and sweet savours that can be obtained from the black,
+hand-soiling pieces of coal. In the making of illuminating gas, itself a
+finished chemical product of the century, a vast amount of once wasted
+products, especially coal tar, are now extensively used; and from coal
+tar and the residuum of petroleum oils, now come those splendid aniline
+dyes which have produced such a revolution in the world of colours. The
+saturation of sand by a dye and its application to fabrics by an air
+blast; the circulation of the fluid colors, or of fluids for bleaching
+or drying, or oxidising, through perforated cylinders or cops on which
+the cloths are wound; devices for the running of skeins through dyes,
+the great improvements in carbon dyes and kindred colours, the processes
+of making the colours on the fibre, and the perfumes made by the
+synthetic processes, are among the inventions in this field.
+
+The space that a list of the new chemical products of this age and their
+description would fill, has already been indicated by reference to the
+great dictionary of Watts. Some of the electro-chemical products will be
+hereinafter referred to in the Chapter on Electricity, and the chemistry
+of Metallurgy will be treated under the latter topic.
+
+_Electro-chemical Methods._--Space will only permit it to be said that
+these methods are now employed in the production of a large number of
+elements, by means of which very many of them which were before mere
+laboratory specimens, have now become cheap and useful servants of
+mankind in a hundred different ways; such as aluminium, that light and
+non-corrosive metal, reduced from many dollars an ounce a generation
+ago, to 30 and 40 cents a pound now; carborundum, largely superseding
+emery and diamond dust as an abradant; artificial diamonds; calcium
+carbide, from which the new illuminating acetylene gas is made;
+disinfectants of many kinds; pigments, chromium, manganese, and
+chlorates by the thousand tons. The most useful new chemical processes
+are those used in purifying water sewage and milk, in electroplating
+metals and other substances, in the application of chemicals to the fine
+arts, in extracting grease from wool, and the making of many useful
+products from the waste materials of the dumps and garbage banks.
+
+_Medicines and Surgery._--One hundred years ago, the practice of
+medicine was, in the main, empirical. Certain effects were known to
+usually follow the giving of certain drugs, or the application of
+certain measures, but why or how these effects were produced, was
+unknown. The great steps forward have been made upon the true scientific
+foundation established by the discoveries and inventions in the fields
+of physics, chemistry and biology. The discovery of anaesthetics and
+their application in surgery and the practice of medicine, no doubt
+constitutes the leading invention of the century in this field.
+
+Sir Humphry Davy suggested it in 1800, and Dr. W. T. Morton was the
+first to apply an anaesthetic to relieve pain in a surgical operation,
+which he did in a hospital in Boston in 1846. Both its original
+suggestion and application were also claimed by others.
+
+Not only relief from intense pain to the patient during the operation,
+but immense advantages are gained by the long and careful examination
+afforded of injured or diseased parts, otherwise difficult or impossible
+in a conscious patient.
+
+The exquisite pain and suffering endured previous to the use of
+anaesthetics often caused death by exhaustion. Many delicate operations
+can now be performed for the relief of long-continued diseases which
+before would have been hazardous or impossible. How many before suffered
+unto death long-drawn-out pain and disease rather than submit to the
+torture of the knife! How many lives have been saved, and how far
+advanced has become the knowledge of the human body and its painful
+diseases, by this beneficent remedy!
+
+Inventions in the field of medicine consist chiefly in those innumerable
+compositions and compounds which have resulted from chemical
+discoveries. Gelatine capsules used to conceal unpalatable remedies may
+be mentioned as a most acceptable modern invention in this class.
+Inventions and discoveries in the field of surgery relate not only to
+instrumentalities but processes. The antiseptic treatment of wounds, by
+which the long and exhausting suppuration is avoided, is among the most
+notable of the latter. In instruments vast improvements have been made;
+special forms adapted for operation in every form of injury; in
+syringes, especially hypodermic, those used for subcutaneous injections
+of liquid remedies; inhalers for applying medicated vapours and devices
+for applying volatile anaesthetics, and devices for atomising and
+spraying liquids. In the United States alone about four thousand patents
+have been granted for inventions in surgical instruments.
+
+_Dentistry._--This art has been revolutionised during the century. Even
+in the time of Herodotus, one special set of physicians had the
+treatment of teeth; and artificial teeth have been known and used for
+many ages, but all seems crude and barbarous until these later days. In
+addition to the use of anaesthetics, improvements have been made in
+nearly every form of dental instruments, such as forceps, dental
+engines, pluggers, drills, hammers, etc., and in the means and materials
+for making teeth. Later leading inventions have reference to utilising
+the roots of destroyed teeth as supports on which to form bridges to
+which artificial teeth are secured, and to crowns for decayed teeth that
+still have a solid base.
+
+There exists no longer the dread of the dentist's chair unless the
+patient has neglected too long the visit. Pain cannot be all avoided,
+but it is ameliorated; and the new results in workmanship in the saving
+and in the making of teeth are vast improvements over the former
+methods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.
+
+    "Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar
+    Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car;
+    Or in wide waving wings expanded bear
+    The flying chariot through the field of air."
+
+
+Thus sang the poet prophet, the good Dr. Darwin of Lichfield, in the
+eighteenth century. Newcomen and Watt had not then demonstrated that
+steam was not unconquerable, but the hitching it to the slow barge and
+the rapid car was yet to come. It has come, and although the prophecy is
+yet to be rounded into fulfilment by the driving of the "flying chariot
+through the field of air," that too is to come.
+
+The prophecy of the doctor poet was as suggestive of the practical means
+of carrying it into effect as were all the means proposed during the
+first seventeen centuries of the Christian Era for conquering steam and
+harnessing it as a useful servant to man.
+
+Toys, speculations, dreams, observations, startling experiments, these
+often constitute the framework on which is hung the title of Inventor;
+but the nineteenth century has demanded a better support for that proud
+title. He alone who first transforms his ideas into actual work and
+useful service in some field of man's labor, or clearly teaches others
+to do so, is now recognised as the true inventor. Tested by this rule
+there was scarcely an inventor in the field of steam in all the long
+stretches of time preceding the seventeenth century. And if there were,
+they had no recording scribes to embalm their efforts in history.
+
+We shall never know how early man learned the wonderful power of the
+spirit that springs from heated water. It was doubtless from some sad
+experience in ignorantly attempting to put fetters on it.
+
+The history of steam as a motor generally commences with reference to
+that toy called the aeolipile, described by Hero of Alexandria in a
+treatise on pneumatics about two centuries before Christ, and which was
+the invention of either himself or Ctesibius, his teacher.
+
+This toy consisted of a globe pivoted on two supports, one of which was
+a communicating pipe leading into a heated cauldron of water beneath.
+The globe was provided with two escape pipes on diametrically opposite
+sides and bent so as to discharge in opposite directions. Steam admitted
+into the globe from the cauldron escaped through the side pipes, and its
+pressure on these pipes caused the globe to rotate.
+
+Hero thus demonstrated that water can be converted into steam and steam
+into work.
+
+Since that ancient day Hero's apparatus has been frequently reinvented
+by men ignorant of the early effort, and the principle of the invention
+as well as substantially the same form have been put into many practical
+uses. Hero in his celebrated treatise described other devices, curious
+siphons and pumps. Many of them are supposed to have been used in the
+performance of some of the startling religious rites at the altars of
+the Greek priests.
+
+From Hero's day the record drops down to the middle ages, and still it
+finds progress in this art confined to a few observations and
+speculations. William of Malmesbury in 1150 wrote something on the
+subject and called attention to some crude experiments he had heard of
+in Germany. Passing from the slumber of the middle ages, we are assured
+by some Spanish historians that one Blasco de Garay, in 1543, propelled
+a ship having paddle wheels by steam at Barcelona. But the publication
+was long after the alleged event, and is regarded as apocryphal.
+
+Observations became more acute in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, experiments more frequent, and publications more full and
+numerous.
+
+Cardan Ramelli and Leonardo da Vinci, learned Italians, and the
+accomplished Prof. Jacob Besson of Orleans, France, all did much by
+their writings to make known theoretically the wonderful powers of
+steam, and to suggest modes of its practical operation, in the latter
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+Giambattista della Porta, a gentleman of Naples, possessing high and
+varied accomplishments in all the sciences as they were known at that
+day, 1601, and who invented the magic-lantern and _camera obscura_, in a
+work called _Spiritalia_, described how steam pressure could be employed
+to raise a column of water, how a vacuum was produced by the
+condensation of steam in a closed vessel, and how the condensing vessel
+should be separated from the boiler. Revault in France showed in 1605
+how a bombshell might be exploded by steam.
+
+Salomon de Caus, engineer and architect to Louis XIII, in 1615 described
+how water might be raised by the expansion of steam.
+
+In 1629 the Italian, Branco, published at Rome an account of the
+application of a steam jet upon the vanes of a small wheel to run it,
+and told how in other ways Hero's engine might be employed for useful
+purposes.
+
+The first English publication describing a way of applying steam
+appeared in 1630 in a patent granted to David Ramseye, for a mode of
+raising water thereby. This was followed by patents to Grant in 1632 and
+to one Ford in 1640. During that century these crude machines were
+called "fire engines." It seems to have been common in some parts of
+Europe during the seventeenth century to use a blast of steam to improve
+the draft of chimneys and of blast furnaces. This application of steam
+to smoke and smelting has been frequently revived by modern inventors
+with much flourish of originality.
+
+It is with a certain feeling of delight and relief, after a prolonged
+search through the centuries for some evidence of harnessing this mighty
+agent to man's use, that we come to the efforts of the good Marquis of
+Worcester--Edward Somerset. He it was who in 1655 wrote of the
+_Inventions of the Sixteenth Century_. He afterwards amplified this
+title by calling his book _A Century of Names and Scantlings of such
+Inventions as at present I call to mind to have tried and perfected_,
+etc.
+
+There are about one hundred of these "Scantlings," and his descriptions
+of them are very brief but interesting. Some, if revived now and put to
+use, would throw proposed flying machines into the background, as they
+involved perpetual motion.
+
+But to his honor be it said that he was the first steam-engine builder.
+A patent was issued to him in 1663. It was about 1668 that he built and
+put in successful operation at Raglan Castle at Vauxhall, near London, a
+steam engine to force water upward. He made separate boilers, which he
+worked alternately, and conveyed the steam from them to a vessel in
+which its pressure operated to force the water up. Unfortunately he did
+not leave a description of his inventions sufficiently full to enable
+later mechanics to make and use them. He strove in vain to get capital
+interested and a company formed to manufacture his engines. The age of
+fear and speculation as to steam ceased when the Marquis set his engine
+to pumping water, and from that time inventors went on to put the arm of
+steam to work.
+
+In 1683 Sir Samuel Morland commenced the construction of the Worcester
+engines for use and sale; Hautefeuille of France taught the use of gas,
+described how gas as well as steam engines might be constructed, and was
+the first to propose the use of the piston. The learned writings of the
+great Dutch scientist and inventor, Huygens, on heat and light steam and
+gas, also then came forth, and his assistant, the French physicist and
+doctor, Denis Papin, in 1690, proposed steam as a universal motive
+power, invented a steam engine having a piston and a safety valve, and
+even a crude paddle steamer, which it is said was tried in 1707 on the
+river Fulda. Then in 1698 came Thomas Savery, who patented a steam
+engine that was used in draining mines.
+
+The eighteenth century thus commenced with a practical knowledge of the
+power of steam and of means for controlling and working it.
+
+Then followed the combined invention of Newcomen, Cawley and Savery, in
+1705, of the most successful pumping engine up to that time. In this
+engine a cylinder was employed for receiving the steam from a separate
+boiler. There was a piston in the cylinder driven up by the steam
+admitted below it, aided by a counterpoise at one end of an engine beam.
+The steam was then cut off from the boiler and condensed by the
+introduction beneath the piston of a jet of water, and the condensed
+steam and water drawn off by a pipe. Atmospheric pressure forced the
+piston down. The piston and pump rods were connected to the opposite
+ends of a working beam of a pumping engine, as in some modern engines.
+Gauge cocks to indicate the height of water, and a safety valve to
+regulate the pressure of steam, were employed. Then came the ingenious
+improvement of the boy Humphrey Potter, connecting the valve gear with
+the engine beam by cords, so as to do automatically what he was set to
+do by hand, and the improvement on that of the Beighton plug rod. Still
+further improved by others, the Newcomen engine came into use through
+out Europe.
+
+Jonathan Hulls patented in England in 1736 a marine steam engine, and in
+1737 published a description of a Newcomen engine applied to his system
+for towing ships. William Henry, of Pennsylvania, tried a model
+steamboat on the Conestoga river in 1763.
+
+This was practically the state of the art, in 1763, when James Watt
+entered the field. His brilliant inventions harnessed steam to more than
+pumping engines, made it a universal servant in manifold industries, and
+started it on a career which has revolutionized the trade and
+manufactures of the world.
+
+To understand what the nineteenth century has done in steam motive power
+we must first know what Watt did in the eighteenth century, as he then
+laid the foundation on which the later inventions have all been built.
+
+Taking up the crude but successful working engine of Newcomen, a model
+of which had been sent to him for repairs, he began an exhaustive study
+of the properties of steam and of the means for producing and
+controlling it. He found it necessary to devise a new system.
+
+Watt saw that the alternate heating and cooling of the cylinder made the
+engine work slowly and caused an excessive consumption of steam. He
+concluded that "the cylinder should always be as hot as the steam that
+entered it." He therefore closed the cylinder and provided a separate
+condensing vessel into which the steam was led after it raised the
+piston. He provided an air-tight jacket for the cylinder, to maintain
+its heat. He added a tight packing in the cylinder-head for the
+piston-rod to move through, and a steam-tight stuffing-box on the top of
+the cylinder. He caused the steam to alternately enter below and above
+the piston and be alternately condensed to drive the piston down as well
+as up, and this made the engine double-acting, increasing its power and
+speed. He converted the reciprocating motion of the piston into a rotary
+motion by the adoption of the crank, and introduced the well-known
+parallel motion, and many other improvements. In short, he demonstrated
+for the first time by a practical and efficient engine that the
+expansive force of steam could be used to drive all ordinary machinery.
+He then secured his inventions by patents against piracy, and sustained
+them successfully in many a hard-fought battle. It had taken him the
+last quarter of the 18th century to do all these things.
+
+Watt was the proper precursor of the nineteenth century inventions, as
+in him were combined the power and attainments of a great scientist and
+the genius of a great mechanic. The last eighteen years of his life were
+passed in the 19th century, and he was thus enabled to see his
+inventions brought within its threshold and applied to those arts which
+have made this age so glorious in mechanical achievements.
+
+Watt so fitly represents the class of modern great inventors in his
+character and attainments that the description of him by Sir Walter
+Scott is here pertinent as a tribute to that class, and as a delineation
+of the general character of those benefactors of his race of which he
+was so conspicuous an example:--
+
+Says Sir Walter:--
+
+  "Amidst this company stood Mr. Watt, the man whose genius discovered
+  the means of multiplying our national resources to a degree, perhaps,
+  even beyond his own stupendous powers of calculation and combination;
+  bringing the treasures of the abyss to the summit of the earth--giving
+  to the feeble arm of man the momentum of an Afrite--commanding
+  manufactures to rise--affording means of dispensing with that time and
+  tide which wait for no man--and of sailing without that wind which
+  defied the commands and threats of Xerxes himself. This potent
+  commander of the elements--this abridger of time and space--this
+  magician, whose cloudy machinery has produced a change in the world,
+  the effects of which, extraordinary as they are, are perhaps only
+  beginning to be felt--was not only the most profound man of science,
+  the most successful combiner of powers and calculator of numbers, as
+  adapted to practical purposes, was not only one of the most generally
+  well-informed, but one of the best and kindest of human beings."
+
+The first practical application of steam as a working force was to
+pumping, as has been stated. After Watt's system was devised,
+suggestions and experiments as to road locomotives and carriages were
+made, and other applications came thick and fast. A French officer,
+Cugnot, in 1769 and 1770, was the first to try the road carriage engine.
+Other prominent Frenchmen made encouraging experiments on small
+steamboats--followed in 1784-86 by James Rumsey and John Fitch in
+America in the same line. Watt patented a road engine in 1784. About the
+same time his assistant, Murdock, completed and tried a model locomotive
+driven by a "grasshopper" engine. Oliver Evans, the great American
+contemporary of Watt, had in 1779 devised a high-pressure non-condensing
+steam engine in a form still used. In 1786-7 he obtained in Pennsylvania
+and Maryland patents for applying steam to driving flour mills and
+propelling waggons. Also about this time, Symington, the Scotchman,
+constructed a working model of a steam carriage, which is still
+preserved in the museum at South Kensington, London. Symington and his
+fellow Scotchmen, Miller and Taylor, in 1788-89 also constructed working
+steamboats. In 1796 Richard Trevithick, a Cornish marine captain, was
+producing a road locomotive. The century thus opened with activity in
+steam motive power. The "scantlings" of the Marquis of Worcester were
+now being converted into complete structures. And so great was the
+activity and the number of inventors that he is a daring man who would
+now decide priority between them. The earliest applications in this
+century of steam power were in the line of road engines.
+
+On Christmas eve of 1801, Trevithick made the initial trip with the
+first successful steam road locomotive through the streets of Camborne
+in Cornwall, carrying passengers. In one of his trips he passed into the
+country roads and came to a tollgate through which a frightened keeper
+hastily passed him without toll, hailing him as the devil.
+
+Persistent efforts continued to be made to introduce a practical steam
+road carriage in England until 1827. After Trevithick followed
+Blenkinsop, who made a locomotive which ran ten miles an hour. Then came
+Julius Griffith, in 1821, of Brompton, who patented a steam carriage
+which was built by Joseph Bramah, one of the ablest mechanics of his
+time. Gordon, Brunton and Gurney attempted a curious and amusing steam
+carriage, resembling a horse in action--having jointed legs and feet,
+but this animal was not successful. Walter Hancock, in 1827, was one of
+the most persistent and successful inventors in this line; but bad roads
+and an unsympathetic public discouraged inventors in their efforts to
+introduce steam road carriages, and their attention was turned to the
+locomotive to run on rails or tracks especially prepared for them.
+Wooden and iron rails had been introduced a century before for heavy
+cars and wagons in pulling loads from mines and elsewhere, but when at
+the beginning of the century it had been found that the engines of Watt
+could be used to drag such loads, it was deemed necessary to make a rail
+having its top surface roughened with ridges and the wheels of the
+engine and cars provided with teeth or cogs to prevent anticipated
+slipping.
+
+In England, Blackett and George Stephenson discovered that the adhesion
+of smooth wheels to smooth rails was sufficient. Without overlooking the
+fact that William Hendley built and operated a locomotive called the
+_Puffing Billy_ in 1803, and Hackworth one a little later, yet to the
+genius of Stephenson is due chiefly the successful introduction of the
+modern locomotive. His labours and inventions continued from 1812 for
+twenty years, and culminated at two great trials: the first one on the
+Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829, when he competed with
+Hackworth and Braithwaite and Ericsson, and with the _Rocket_ won the
+race; and the second at the opening of the same road in 1830, when with
+the _Northumbrian_, at the head of seven other locomotives and a long
+train of twenty-eight carriages, in which were seated six hundred
+passengers, he ran the train successfully between the two towns.
+
+On this occasion Mr. Huskisson, Home Secretary in the British Cabinet,
+while the cars were stopping to water the engines, and he was out on the
+track talking with the Duke of Wellington, was knocked down by one of
+the engines and had one of his legs crushed. Placed on board of the
+_Northumbrian_, it was driven at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour by
+Stephenson to Eccles. Mr. Huskisson died there that night. This was its
+first victim, and the greatest speed yet attained by a locomotive.
+
+The year 1829 therefore can be regarded as the commencement of the life
+of the locomotive for transportation of passengers. The steam blast
+thrown into the smokestack by Hackworth, the tubular boiler of Seguin
+and the link motion of Stephenson were then, as they now are, the
+essential features of locomotives.
+
+In the meantime America had not been idle. The James Watt of America,
+Oliver Evans, in 1804 completed a flat-bottomed boat to be used in
+dredging at the Philadelphia docks, and mounting it on wheels drove it
+by its own steam engine through the streets to the river bank. Launching
+the craft, he propelled it down the river by using the same engine to
+drive the paddle wheels. He gave to this engine the strange name of
+_Oruktor Amphibolos_.
+
+John C. Stevens of New Jersey was, in 1812, urging the legislature of
+the State of New York to build railways, and asserting that he could see
+nothing to hinder a steam carriage from moving with a velocity of one
+hundred miles an hour. In 1829 George Stephenson in England had made for
+American parties a locomotive called _The Stourbridge Lion_, which in
+that year was brought to America and used on the Delaware and Hudson R.
+R. by Horatio Allen. Peter Cooper in the same year constructed a
+locomotive for short curves, for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
+
+Returning now to steam navigation:--Symington again entered the field in
+1801-2 and constructed for Lord Dundas a steamboat, named after his
+wife, the _Charlotte Dundas_, for towing on a canal, which was
+successfully operated.
+
+Robert Fulton, an American artist, and subsequently a civil engineer,
+built a steamboat on the Seine in 1803, assisted by R. Livingston, then
+American Minister to France. Then in 1806 Fulton, having returned to the
+United States, commenced to build another steamboat, in which he was
+again assisted by Livingston, and in which he placed machinery made by
+Boulton and Watt in England. This steamboat, named the _Clermont_, was
+130 ft. long, 18 ft. beam, 7 ft. depth and 160 tons burden. It made its
+first trip on the Hudson, from New York to Albany and return, in August,
+1807, and subsequently made regular trips. It was the first commercially
+successful steamboat ever made, as George Stephenson's was the first
+commercially successful locomotive. In the meantime Col. John Stevens of
+New Jersey was also at work on a steamboat, and had in 1804 built such a
+boat at his shops, having a screw propeller and a flue boiler. Almost
+simultaneously with Fulton he brought out the _Ph[oe]nix_, a side-wheel
+steamer having hollow water lines and provided with feathering paddle
+wheels, and as Fulton and Livingston had a monopoly of the Hudson,
+Stevens took his boat by sea from New York around to Delaware bay and up
+the Delaware river. This was in 1808, and was the first sea voyage ever
+made by a steam vessel.
+
+Transatlantic steamship navigation was started in 1819. A Mr.
+Scarborough of Savannah, Ga., in 1818 purchased a ship of about three
+hundred and fifty tons burden, which was named the _Savannah_. Equipped
+with engine and machinery it steamed out of New York Harbour on the 27th
+day of March, 1819, and successfully reached Savannah, Georgia. On the
+20th of May in the same year she left Savannah for Liverpool, making the
+trip in 22 days. From Liverpool she went to Copenhagen, Stockholm, St.
+Petersburg, Cronstadt and Arundel, and from the latter port returned to
+Savannah, making the passage in twenty-five days.
+
+But Scottish waters, and the waters around other coasts of the British
+Islands, had been traversed by steamboats before this celebrated trip of
+the _Savannah_. Bell's steamboat between Glasgow and Greenock in 1812
+was followed by five others in 1814; and seven steamboats plied on the
+Thames in 1817.
+
+So the locomotives and the steamboats and steamships continued to
+multiply, and when the first forty years of the century had been reached
+the Iron Horse was fairly installed on the fields of Europe and America,
+and the rivers and the oceans were ploughed by its sisters, the steam
+vessels.
+
+It was in 1840 that the famous Cunard line of transatlantic steamers was
+established, soon followed by the Collins line and others.
+
+A few years before, John C. Stevens in America and John Ericsson in
+England had brought forward the screw propeller; and Ericsson was the
+first to couple the engine to the propeller shaft. It succeeded the
+successful paddle wheels of Fulton in America and Bell in England.
+
+The nineteenth century is the age of kinetic energy: the energy of
+either solid, liquid, gaseous or electrical matter transformed into
+useful work.
+
+It has been stated by that eminent specialist in steam engineering,
+Prof. R. H. Thurston, that "the steam engine is a machine which is
+especially designed to transform energy originally dormant or potential
+into active and useful available kinetic energy;" and that the great
+problem in this branch of science is "to construct a machine which shall
+in the most perfect manner possible convert the kinetic energy of heat
+into mechanical power, the heat being derived from the combustion of
+fuel, and steam being the receiver and conveyor of that heat."
+
+Watt and his contemporaries regarded heat as a material substance called
+"Phlogiston." The modern kinetic theory of heat was a subsequent
+discovery, as elsewhere explained.
+
+The inventors of the last part of the eighteenth century and of the
+nineteenth century have directed their best labours to construct an
+engine as above defined by Thurston.
+
+First as to the boiler: Efforts were made first to get away from the
+little old spherical boiler of Hero. In the 18th century Smeaton devised
+the horizontal lengthened cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue. Oliver
+Evans followed with two longitudinal flues. Nathan Read of Salem,
+Massachusetts, in 1791, invented a tubular boiler in which the flues and
+gases are conducted through tubes passing through the boiler into the
+smokestack. Such boilers are adapted for portable stationary engines,
+locomotives, fire and marine engines, and the fire is built within the
+boiler frame. Then in the 19th century came the use of sectional
+boilers--a combination of small vessels instead of a large common one,
+increasing the strength while diminishing capacity--to obtain high
+pressure of steam. Then came improved weighted and other safety valves
+to regulate and control this pressure. The compound or double cylinder
+high-pressure engine of Hornblower of England, in 1781, and the
+high-pressure non-condensing steam engine devised by Evans in 1779, were
+reconstructed and improved in the early part of the century.
+
+To give perfect motion and the slightest friction to the piston; to
+regulate the supply of steam to the engine by proper valves; to
+determine such supply by many varieties of governors and thus control
+the speed; to devise valve gear which distributes the steam through its
+cycles of motion by which to admit the steam alternately to each end of
+the steam cylinder as the piston moves backward and forward, and exhaust
+valves to open and close the parts through which the steam escapes; to
+automatically operate such valves; to condense the escaping steam and to
+remove the water of condensation; to devise powerful steam brakes--these
+are some of the important details on which inventors have exercised
+their keenest wits. Then again the extensive inventions of the century
+have given rise to a great classification to designate their forms or
+their uses: condensing and non-condensing, high-pressure or
+low-pressure--the former term being applied to engines supplied with
+steam of 50 lbs. pressure to the square inch and upward, and the latter
+to engines working under 40 lbs. pressure--and the low pressure are
+nearly always the condensing and the high pressure the non-condensing;
+reciprocating and rotary--the latter having a piston attached to a shaft
+and revolving within a cylinder of which the axis is parallel with the
+axis of rotation of the piston.
+
+Direct acting, where the piston rod acts directly upon the connecting
+rod and through it upon the crank, without the intervention of a beam or
+lever; oscillating, in which the piston rods are attached directly to
+the crank pin and as the crank revolves the cylinder oscillates upon
+trunnions, one on each side of it, through which the steam enters and
+leaves the steam chest.
+
+Then as to their use, engines are known as stationary, pumping,
+portable, locomotive or marine.
+
+The best-known engine of the stationary kind is the Corliss, which is
+very extensively used in the United States and Europe.
+
+Among other later improvements is the duplex pumping engine, in which
+one engine controls the valve of the other; compensating devices for
+steam pumping, by which power is accumulated by making the first half of
+the stroke of the steam piston assist in moving the piston the other
+half of the stroke during the expansion of steam; steam or air hand
+hammers on which the piston is the hammer and strikes a tool projecting
+through the head into the cylinder; rock drilling, in which the movement
+of the valves is operated by the piston at any portion of its stroke;
+shaft governors, in which the eccentric for operating the engine valves
+is moved around or across the main or auxiliary shaft; multiple
+cylinders, in which several cylinders, either single or double, are
+arranged to co-operate with a common shaft; impact rotary, known as
+steam turbines, a revival in some respects of Hero's engine. And then,
+finally, the delicate and ingenious bicycle and automobile steam
+engines.
+
+Then there are steam sanding devices for locomotives by which sand is
+automatically fed to the rails at the same time the air brake is
+applied.
+
+Starting valves used for starting compound locomotives on ascending
+steep grades, in which both low and high pressure cylinders are supplied
+with live steam, and when the steam, exhausted from either high or low
+pressure cylinders into the receivers, has reached a predetermined
+pressure, the engine works on the compound principle. Single acting
+compound engines, in which two or more cylinders are arranged tandem,
+the steam acting only in one direction, and the exhaust steam of one
+acting upon the piston in the cylinder next of the series, are arranged
+in pairs, so that while one is acting downward the other is acting
+upward.
+
+Throttle valves automatically closed upon the bursting of a pipe, or the
+breaking of machinery, are operated by electricity, automatically, or by
+hand at a distance.
+
+Napoleon, upon his disastrous retreat from Moscow, anxious to reach
+Paris as soon as possible, left his army on the way, provided himself
+with a travelling and sleeping carriage, and with relays of fresh horses
+at different points managed, by extraordinary strenuous efforts day and
+night, to travel from Smorgoni to Paris, a distance of 1000 miles,
+between the 5th and 10th of December, 1812. This was at the average rate
+of about two hundred miles a day, or eight or nine miles an hour. It was
+a most remarkable ride for any age by horse conveyance.
+
+Within the span of a man's life after that event any one could take a
+trip of that distance in twenty-four hours, with great ease and comfort,
+eating and sleeping on the car, and with convenient telegraph and
+telephone stations along the route by which to comunicate by pen, or
+word of mouth, with distant friends at either end of the journey.
+
+If Napoleon had deemed it best to have continued his journey across the
+Atlantic to America he would have been compelled to pass several weeks
+on an uncomfortable sailing vessel. Now, a floating palace would await
+him which would carry him across in less than six days.
+
+Should mankind be seized with a sudden desire to replace all the
+locomotives in the world by horse power it would be utterly impossible
+to do it. It was recently estimated that there were one hundred and
+fifty thousand locomotives in use on the railroads of the world; and as
+a fair average would give them five hundred horse power each, it will be
+seen that they are the equivalent of seventy-five million horses.
+
+Space and time will not admit of minute descriptions, or hardly a
+mention, of the almost innumerable improvements of the century in steam.
+Having seen the principles on which these inventions have been
+constructed, enumerated the leading ones and glanced at the most
+prominent facts in their history, we must refer the seeker for more
+particulars to those publications of modern patent offices, in which
+each regiment and company of this vast army is embalmed in its own
+especial and ponderous volume.
+
+A survey of the field will call to mind, however, the eloquent words of
+Daniel Webster:--
+
+"And, last of all, with inimitable power, and with a 'whirlwind sound'
+comes the potent agency of steam. In comparison with the past, what
+centuries of improvement has this single agent compressed in the short
+compass of fifty years! Everywhere practicable, everywhere efficient, it
+has an arm a thousand times stronger than that of Hercules, and to which
+human ingenuity is capable of fitting a thousand times as many hands as
+belonged to Briareus. Steam is found triumphant in operation on the
+seas; and under the influence of its strong propulsion, the gallant
+ship,
+
+  'Against the wind, against the tide
+  Still steadies with an upright keel.'
+
+It is on the rivers, and the boatman may repose upon his oars; it is on
+highways, and exerts itself along the courses of land conveyances; it is
+at the bottom of mines, a thousand feet below the earth's surface; it is
+in the mills and in the workshops of the trades. It rows, it pumps, it
+excavates, it carries, it draws, it lifts, it hammers, it spins, it
+weaves, it prints. It seems to say to men, at least to the class of
+artisans: 'Leave off your manual labour, give up your bodily toil;
+bestow but your skill and reason to the directing of my power and I will
+bear the toil, with no muscle to grow weary, no nerve to relax, no
+breast to feel faintness!' What further improvement may still be made in
+the use of this astonishing power it is impossible to know, and it were
+vain to conjecture. What we do know is that it has most essentially
+altered the face of affairs, and that no visible limit yet appears
+beyond which its progress is seen to be impossible."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.
+
+
+The field of service of a civil engineer has thus been eloquently stated
+by a recent writer in _Chambers's Journal_:
+
+"His duties call upon him to devise the means for surmounting obstacles
+of the most formidable kind. He has to work in the water, over the
+water, and under the water; to cause streams to flow; to check them from
+overflowing; to raise water to a great height; to build docks and walls
+that will bear the dashing of waves; to convert dry land into harbours,
+and low water shores into dry land; to construct lighthouses on lonely
+rocks; to build lofty aqueducts for the conveyance of water, and
+viaducts, for the conveyance of railway trains; to burrow into the
+bowels of the earth with tunnels, shafts, pits and mines; to span
+torrents and ravines with bridges; to construct chimneys that rival the
+loftiest spires and pyramids in height; to climb mountains with roads
+and railways; to sink wells to vast depths in search of water. By
+untiring patience, skill, energy and invention, he produces in these
+several ways works which certainly rank among the marvels of human
+power."
+
+The pyramids of Egypt, the roads, bridges and aqueducts built by the
+Chinese and by Rome; the great bridges of the Middle Ages, and
+especially those built by that strange fraternal order known as the
+"Brothers of the Bridge"; the ocean-defying lighthouses of a later
+period--these, and more than these, attest the fact that there were
+great engineers before the nineteenth century.
+
+But the engineering of to-day is the hand-maid of all the Sciences; and
+as they each have advanced during the century beyond all that was
+imagined, or dreamed of as possible in former times, so have the labours
+of engineering correspondingly multiplied. No longer are such labours
+classified and grouped in one field, called Civil Engineering, but they
+have been necessarily divided into great additional new and independent
+fields, known as Steam Engineering, Mining Engineering, Hydraulic
+Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Marine Engineering. Within each
+of these fields are assembled innumerable appliances which are the
+offspring of the inventive genius of the century just closed.
+
+We have seen how one discovery, or the development of a certain art,
+brings in its train and often necessitates other inventions and
+discoveries. The development and dedication of the steam engine to the
+transportation of goods and men called for improvements in the roads and
+rails on which the engine and its load were to travel, and this demand
+brought forth those modern railway bridges which are the finest examples
+in the art of bridge making that the world has ever seen.
+
+The greatest bridges of former ages were built of stone and solid
+masonry. Now iron and steel have been substituted, and these light but
+substantial frameworks span wide rivers and deep ravines with almost the
+same speed and gracefulness that the spider spins his silken web from
+limb to limb. These, too, waited for their construction on that next
+turn in the wheel of evolution, which brought better processes in the
+making of iron and steel, and better tools and appliances for working
+metals, and in handling vast and heavy bodies.
+
+The first arched iron bridge was over the Severn at Coalbrookdale,
+England, erected by Abraham Darby in 1777. In 1793 one was erected by
+Telford at Buildwas, and in the same year Burden completed an arch
+across the weir at Sunderland. The most prominent classes of bridges in
+which the highest inventive and constructive genius of the engineers of
+the century are illustrated are known as the _suspension_, the _tubular_
+and the _tubular arch_, the _truss and cantilever_.
+
+Suspension bridges consisting of twisted vines, of iron chains, or of
+bamboo, or cane, or of ropes, have been known in different parts of the
+world from time immemorial, but they bear only a primitive and
+suggestive resemblance to the great iron cable bridges of the nineteenth
+century. The first notable structure of this kind was constructed by Sir
+Samuel Brown, across the Tweed at Berwick, England, in 1819. Brown was
+born in London in 1776 and died in 1852. He entered the navy at the age
+of 18, was made commander in 1811, and retired as captain in 1842. We
+have alluded to the spider's web, and Smiles, in his _Self Help_,
+relates as an example of intelligent observation that while Capt Brown
+was occupied in studying the character of bridges with the view of
+constructing one of a cheap description to be thrown across the Tweed,
+near which he lived, he was walking in his garden one dewy autumn
+morning when he saw a tiny spider's web suspended across his path. The
+idea immediately occurred to him of a bridge of iron wires. In 1829
+Brown also was the engineer for suspension bridges built over the Esk at
+Montrose and over the Thames at Hammersmith. Before that time, a span in
+a bridge of 100 feet was considered remarkably long. Suspension bridges
+are best adapted for long spans, and have been constructed with spans
+more than twice as long as any other form. Sir Samuel Brown's bridge had
+a span of 449 feet. This class of bridges is usually constructed with
+chains or cables passing over towers, with the roadway suspended
+beneath. The ends of the chains or cables are securely anchored. The
+cables are then passed over towers, on which they are supported in
+movable saddles, so that the towers are not overthrown by the strain on
+the cables. Nice calculations have to be made as to the tension to be
+placed on the cables, the allowance for deflection, and the equal
+distribution of weight. The floor-way in the earlier bridges of this
+type was supported by means of a series of equidistant vertical rods,
+and was lacking stiffness, but this was remedied by trussing the road
+bed, using inclined stays extending from the towers and partially
+supporting the roadway for some distance out from the tower.
+
+The next finest suspension bridge was constructed by Thomas Telford and
+finished in 1826, across the Menai Strait to connect the island of
+Anglesea with the mainland of Wales. Telford was born in Dumfriesshire,
+Scotland, in 1757, and died in Westminster in 1834. Beginning life as a
+stone mason, he rose by his own industry to be a master among architects
+and a prince among builders of iron bridges, aqueducts, canals, tunnels,
+harbours and docks.
+
+The Menai bridge was composed of chains or wire ropes, each nearly a
+third of a mile in length, and which descended 60 feet into sloping pits
+or drifts, where they were screwed to cast-iron frames embedded in the
+rocks. The span of the suspended central arch was 560 feet, and the
+platform was 100 feet above high water. Seven stone arches of 52�
+feet span make up the rest of the bridge.
+
+But a suspension bridge was completed in 1834 by M. Challey of Lyon over
+the Saane at Fribourg, Switzerland, which greatly surpassed the Menai
+bridge. The span is 880 feet from pier to pier, and the roadway is 167
+feet above the river. It is supported by four iron wire cables, each
+consisting of 1056 wires. It was tested by placing 15 pieces of
+artillery, drawn by 50 horses and accompanied by 300 men crowded
+together as closely as possible, first at the centre, and then at each
+extreme, causing a depression of 39� inches, but no sensible
+oscillation was experienced.
+
+Isambard K. Brunel was another great engineer, who constructed a
+suspension bridge at the Isle of Bourbon in 1823, and the Charing Cross
+over the Thames at Hungerford in 1845, which was a footbridge, having a
+span of 675 feet, the longest span of any bridge in England. Then
+followed finer and larger suspension bridges in other parts of the
+world. It was across the Niagara in front of the great falls that in
+1855 British America and the United States were joined by a magnificent
+suspension bridge, one of the finest in the world, and the two English
+speaking countries were then physically and commercially united. At the
+opening of the bridge, one portion of which was for a railway, the
+shriek of the locomotive and the roar of the train mingled with the roar
+of the wild torrent 250 feet below. The bridge, 800 feet long, is a
+single span, supported by four enormous cables of wire stretching from
+the Canadian cliff to the opposite United States cliff. The cables pass
+over the tops of lofty stone towers arising from these cliffs, and each
+cable consists of no less than 4,000 distinct wires. The roadway hangs
+from these cables, suspended by 624 vertical rods.
+
+The engineer of this bridge was John A. Roebling, a native of Prussia,
+born there in 1806, and who died in New York in 1869. He was educated at
+the Polytechnic School in Berlin, and emigrated to America at the age of
+25. His labors were first as a canal and railway engineer, then he
+became the inventor and manufacturer of a new form of wire rope, and
+then turned his attention to the construction of aqueducts and
+suspension bridges. After the Niagara bridge, above described, he
+commenced another bridge of greater dimensions over the same river,
+which was finished within two or three years. His next work was the
+splendid suspension bridge at Cincinnati, Ohio, which has a clear span
+of 1057 feet. In 1869, in connection with his son, Washington A.
+Roebling, he commenced that magnificent suspension bridge to unite the
+great cities of New York and Brooklyn, and which, by its completion,
+resulted in the consolidation of those cities as Greater New York. The
+Roeblings, father and son, were to the engineering of America what
+George Stephenson and his son Robert were to the locomotive and railway
+and bridge engineering of Great Britain.
+
+The Brooklyn bridge, known also as the East River bridge, was formally
+opened to the public on the 24th of May 1883. Most enormous and
+unexpected technical difficulties were met and overcome in its
+construction. Its total length is nearly 6,000 feet. The length of the
+suspended structure from anchorage to anchorage is 3,454 feet. A
+statement of the general features of this bridge indicates the nature of
+the construction of such bridges as a class, and distinguishes them from
+the comparatively simple forms of past ages. This structure is supported
+by two enormous towers, having a height of 276 feet above the surface of
+the water, carrying at their tops the saddles which support the cables,
+and having a span between them of 1,595 feet. The towers are each
+pierced by two archways, 31� feet wide, and 120� feet high,
+through which openings passes the floor of the bridge at the height of
+118 feet above high water mark. There are four supporting cables, each
+16 inches in diameter, and each composed of about 5,000 single wires.
+The wire is one-eighth size; 278 single wires are grouped into a rope,
+and 19 ropes bunched to form a cable. The iron saddles at the top of the
+lofty towers, and on which the cables rest, are made movable to permit
+its expansion and compression--and they glide through minute distances
+on iron rollers in saddle plates embedded and anchored in the towers, in
+response to strains and changes of temperature. The enormous cables pass
+from the towers shoreward to their anchorages 930 feet away, and which
+are solid masses of masonry, each 132 x 119 feet at base and top, 89
+feet high, and weighing 60,000 tons. The bridge is divided into five
+avenues: one central one for foot passengers, two outer ones for
+vehicles, and the others for the street cars. The cost of the bridge was
+nearly $15,000,000.
+
+Twenty fatal and many disabling accidents occurred during the
+construction of the bridge. The great engineer Roebling was the first
+victim to an accident. He had his foot crushed while laying the
+foundation of one of the stone piers, and died of lockjaw.
+
+It was necessary to build up the great piers by the aid of caissons,
+which are water-tight casings built of timber and metal and sunk to the
+river bed and sometimes far below it, within which are built the
+foundations of piers or towers, and into which air is pumped for the
+workmen. A fire in one of the caissons, which necessitated its flooding
+by water, and to which the son, Washington Roebling, was exposed,
+resulted in prostrating him with a peculiar form of caisson disease,
+which destroyed the nerves of motion without impairing his intellectual
+faculties. But, although disabled from active work, Mr. Roebling
+continued to superintend the vast project through the constant mediation
+of his wife.
+
+_Tubular Bridges._--These are bridges formed by a great tube or hollow
+beam through the center of which a roadway or railway passes. The name
+would indicate that the bridge was cylindrical in form, and this was the
+first idea. But it was concluded after experiment that a rectangular
+form was the best, as it is more rigid than either a cylindrical or
+elliptical tube. The adoption of this form was due to Fairbairn, the
+celebrated English inventor and engineer of iron structures. The Menai
+tubular railway bridge, adjacent to the suspension bridge of Telford
+across the same strait, and already described, was the first example of
+this type of bridge. Robert Stephenson was the engineer of this great
+structure, aided by the suggestions of Fairbairn and other eminent
+engineers. This bridge was opened for railway traffic in March, 1850. It
+was built on three towers and shore abutments. The width of the strait
+is divided by these towers into four spans--two of 460 feet each, and
+two of 230 feet. In appearance, the bridge looked like one huge, long,
+narrow iron box, but it consisted really of four bridges, each made of a
+pair of rectangular tubes, and through one set of tubes the trains
+passed in going in one direction, and through the other set in going the
+opposite direction. These ponderous tubes were composed of wrought-iron
+plates, from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick, the
+largest 12 feet in length, riveted together and stiffened by angle
+irons. They varied in height--the central ones being the highest and
+those nearest the shore the lowest. The central ones are 30 feet high,
+and the inner ones about 22 feet. Their width was about 14 feet. They
+were built upon platforms on the Caernarvon shore, and the great problem
+was how to lift them and put them in place, especially the central ones,
+which were 460 feet in length. Each tube weighed 1,800 pounds, and they
+were to be raised 192 feet. This operation has been described as "the
+grandest lift ever effected in engineering." It was accomplished by
+means of powerful hydraulic presses. Another and still grander example
+of this style of bridge is the Victoria at Montreal, Canada. This also
+was designed by Robert Stephenson and built under his direction by James
+Hodges of Montreal. Work was commenced in 1854 and it was completed in
+December, 1859, and opened for travel in 1860. It consists of 24 piers,
+242 feet apart, except the centre one, from which the span is 330 feet.
+The tube is in sections and quadrangular in form. Every plate and piece
+of iron was made and punched in England and brought across the Atlantic.
+In Canada little remained to be done but to put the parts together and
+in position. This, however, was in itself a Herculean task. The enormous
+structure was to be placed sixty feet above the swift current of the
+broad St. Lawrence, and wherein huge masses of ice, each block from
+three to five feet in thickness, accumulated every winter. The work was
+accomplished by the erection of a vast rigid stage of timber, on which
+the tubes were built up plate by plate. When all was completed the great
+staging was removed, and the mighty tube rested alone and secure upon
+its massive wedge-faced piers rising from the bedrock of the flood
+below.
+
+_The Tubular Arch Bridge._--This differs from the tubular bridge proper,
+in that the former consists of a bridge the body of which is supported
+by a tubular archway of iron and steel, whereas in the latter the body
+of the bridge itself is a tube. The tubular arch is also properly
+classed as a girder bridge because the great tube which covers the span
+is simply an immense beam or girder, which supports the superstructure
+on which the floor of the bridge is laid. A fine illustration of this
+style of bridge is seen in what is known as the aqueduct bridge over
+Rock Creek at Washington, D. C., in which the arch consists of two
+cast-iron jointed pipes, supporting a double carriage and a double
+street car way, and through which pipes all the water for the supply of
+the City of Washington passes. General M. C. Meigs was the engineer.
+
+Another far grander illustration of such a structure, in combination
+with the truss system, is that of the Illinois and St. Louis bridge,
+across the Mississippi, of which Captain James B. Eads was the engineer.
+There are three great spans, the central one of which has a length of
+about 520 feet, and the others a few feet less. Four arches form each
+span, each arch consisting of an upper and lower curved member or rib,
+extending from pier to pier, and each member composed of two parallel
+steel tubes.
+
+_Truss and truss arched bridges._--These, for the most part, are those
+quite modern forms of iron or wooden bridges in which a supplementary
+frame work, consisting of iron rods placed obliquely, vertically or
+diagonally, and cemented together, and with the main horizontal beams
+either above or below the same, to produce a stiff and rigid structure,
+calculated to resist strain from all directions.
+
+Previous to the 19th century, the greatest bridges being constructed
+mostly of solid masonry piers and arches, no demand for a bridge of this
+kind existed; but after the use of wrought iron and steel became
+extensive in bridge making, and as these apparently light and airy
+frames may be extended, piece by piece across the widest rivers,
+straits, and arms of the sea, a substitute for the great, expensive, and
+frequent supporting piers became a want, and was supplied by the system
+of trusses and truss arches. The truss system has also been applied to
+the construction of vast modern bridges in places where timber is
+accessible and cheap. Each different system invented bears the name of
+its inventor. Thus, we have the Rider, the Fink, the Bollman, the
+Whipple, the Howe, the Jones, the Linville, the McCallum, Towne's
+lattice and other systems.
+
+What is called the cantilever system has of late years to a great extent
+superseded the suspension construction. This consists of beams or
+girders extending out from the opposite piers at an upward diagonal
+angle, and meeting at the centre over the span, and there solidly
+connected together, or to horizontal girders, in such manner that the
+compression load is thrown on to the supporting piers, upward strains
+received at the centre, and side deflections provided against. It is
+supposed that greater rigidity is obtained by this means than by the
+suspension, and, like the suspension, great widths may be spanned
+without an under supporting frame work. Two fine examples of this type
+are found, one in a bridge across the Niagara adjacent to the suspension
+bridge above described and one across the river Forth at Queens Ferry in
+Scotland. The Niagara Bridge is a combination of cast steel and iron. It
+was designed by C. C. Schneider and Edmund Hayes. It was built for a
+double-track railroad. The total length of the bridge is 910 feet
+between the centres of the anchorage piers. The cantilevers rest on two
+gigantic steel towers, standing on massive stone piers 39 feet high. The
+clear span between the towers is 470 feet, and the height of the bridge,
+from the mad rush of waters to the car track is 239 feet.
+
+Messrs Fowler and Baker were the engineers of the Forth railway bridge.
+It was begun in 1883 and finished in 1890. It is built nearly all of
+steel, and is one of the most stupendous works of the kind. It crosses
+two channels formed by the island of Inchgarvie, and each of the channel
+spans is 1710 feet in the clear and a clear headway of 150 feet under
+the bridge. Three balanced cantilevers are employed, poised on four
+gigantic steel tube legs supported on four huge masonry piers. The
+height of the bridge above the piers is 330 feet. The cantilever portion
+has the appearance of a vast elongated diamond. Steel lattice work of
+girders, forms the upper side of the cantilever, while the under side
+consists of a hollow curve approaching in form a quadrant of a circle
+drawn from the base of the legs or struts to the ends of the cantilever.
+
+Such is the growth of these great bridges with their tremendous spans
+across which man is spinning his iron webs, that when seen at night with
+a fiery engine pulling its thundering train across in the darkness, one
+is reminded of Milton's description, "over the dark abyss whose boiling
+gulf tamely endured a bridge of wondrous length, from Hell continued,
+reaching the utmost orb of this frail world."
+
+The _lighthouses_ of the century, in masonry, do not greatly excel in
+general principles those of preceding ones, as at Eddystone, designed by
+Smeaton. Nicholas Douglass, however, invented a new system of
+dovetailing, and great improvements have been made in the system of
+illuminating.
+
+Lighthouses are also distinguished from those of preceding centuries by
+the substitution of iron and cast steel for masonry. The first cast-iron
+lighthouse was put up at Point Morant, Jamaica, in 1842. Since then they
+have taken the form of iron skeleton towers.
+
+One of the latest and most picturesque of lighthouses is that of
+Bartholdi's statue of Liberty enlightening the world, the gift of the
+French government to the United States, framed by M. Eiffel, the great
+French engineer, and set up by the United States at Bedloe's Island in
+New York harbor. It consists of copper plates on a network of iron.
+Although the statue is larger than any in the world of such composite
+construction, its success as a lighthouse is not as notable as many
+farther seaward.
+
+In _excavating_, _dredging_ and _draining_, the inventions of the
+century have been very numerous, but, like numerous advances in the
+arts, such inventions, so far as great works are concerned, have
+developed from and are closely related to steam engineering.
+
+The making of roads, railroads, canals and tunnels has called forth
+thousands of ingenious mechanisms for their accomplishment. A half dozen
+men with a steam-power excavator or dredger can in one day perform a
+greater extent of work than could a thousand men and a thousand horses
+in a single day a few generations ago.
+
+An excavating machine consisting of steel knives to cut the earth, iron
+scoops, buckets and dippers to scoop it up, endless chains or cranes to
+lift them, actuated by steam, and operated by a single engineer, will
+excavate cubic yards of earth by the minute and at a cost of but a few
+dollars a day.
+
+Dredging machines of a great variety have been constructed. Drags and
+scoops for elevating, and buckets, scrapers and shovels, and rotating
+knives to first loosen the earth, suction pumps and pipes, which will
+suck great quantities of the loosened earth through pipes to places to
+be filled--these and kindred devices are now constantly employed to dig
+and excavate, to deepen and widen rivers, to drain lands, to dig canals,
+to make harbours, to fill up the waste places and to make courses for
+water in desert lands.
+
+Inventions for the excavating of clay, piling and burning it in a crude
+state for ballast for railways, are important, especially for those
+railways which traverse areas where clay is plentiful, and stones and
+gravel are lacking.
+
+Sinking shafts through quicksands by artificially freezing the sand, so
+as to form a firm frozen wall immediately around the area where the
+shaft is to be sunk, is a recent new idea.
+
+Modern countries especially are waking up to the necessity of good
+roads, not only as a necessary means of transportation, but as a
+pre-requisite to decent civilisation in all respects. And, therefore,
+great activity has been had in the last third of a century in invention
+of machines for finishing and repairing roads.
+
+In the matter of sewer construction, regarded now so necessary in all
+civilised cities and thickly-settled communities as one of the means of
+proper sanitation, great improvements have been made in deep sewerage,
+in which the work is largely performed below the surface and with little
+obstruction to street traffic.
+
+In connection with excavating and dredging machines, mention should be
+made of those great works in the construction of which they bore such
+important parts, as drainage and land reclamation, such as is seen in
+the modern extensions of land reclamation in Holland, in the Haarlem
+lake district in the North part of England, the swamps of Florida and
+the drainage of the London district; in modern tunnels such as the
+Hoosac in America and the three great ones through the Alps: the Mont
+Cenis, St. Gothard, and Arlberg, the work in which developed an entirely
+new system of engineering, by the application of newly-discovered
+explosives for blasting, new rock-drilling machinery, new
+air-compressing machines for driving the drill machines and ventilating
+the works, and new hydraulic and pumping machinery for sinking shafts
+and pumping out the water.
+
+The great canals, especially the Suez, developed a new system of canal
+engineering. Thus by modern inventions of devices for digging and
+blasting, dredging and draining and attendant operations, some of the
+greatest works of man on earth have been produced, and evinced the
+exercise of his highest inventive genius.
+
+If one wishes an ocular demonstration of the wonders wrought in the 19th
+century in the several domains of engineering, let him take a Pullman
+train across the continent from New York to San Francisco. The distance
+is 3,000 miles and the time is four days and four nights. The car in
+which the passenger finds himself is a marvel of woodwork and
+upholstery--a description of the machinery and processes for producing
+which belongs to other arts. The railroad tracks upon which the vehicle
+moves are in themselves the results of many inventions. There is the
+width of the track, and it was only after a long and expensive contest
+that countries and corporations settled upon a uniform gauge. The common
+gauge of the leading countries and roads is now 4 feet 8� inches. A
+greater width is known as a broad gauge, a less width as a narrow gauge.
+Then as to the rail: first the wooden, then the iron and now the steel,
+and all of many shapes and weights. The T-rail invented by Birkensaw in
+1820, having two flanges at the top to form a wide berth for the wheels
+of the rolling stock, the vertical portion gripped by chairs which are
+spiked to the ties, is the best known. Then the frogs, a V-shaped device
+by which the wheels are guided from one line of rails to another, when
+they form angles with each other; the car wheel made with a flange or
+flanges to fit the rail, and the railway gates, ingenious contrivances
+that guard railway crossings and are operated automatically by the
+passing trains, but more commonly by watchmen. The car may be lighted
+with electricity, and as the train dashes along at the rate of 30 to 80
+miles an hour, it may be stopped in less than a minute by the touch of
+the engineer on an air brake. Is it midwinter and are mountains of snow
+encountered? They disappear before the railway snow-plough more quickly
+than they came. It passes over bridges, through tunnels, across
+viaducts, around the edges of mountain peaks, every mile revealing the
+wondrous work of man's inventive genius for encompassing the earth with
+speed, safety and comfort. Over one-half million miles of these railway
+tracks are on the earth's surface to-day!
+
+Not only has the railway superseded horse power in the matter of
+transportation to a vast extent, but other modes of transportation are
+taking the place of that useful animal. The old-fashioned stage coach,
+and then the omnibus, were successively succeeded by the street car
+drawn by horses, and then about twenty years ago the horse began to be
+withdrawn from that work and the cable substituted.
+
+_Cable transportation_ developed from the art of making iron wire and
+steel wire ropes or cables. And endless cables placed underground,
+conveyed over rollers and supported on suitable yokes, and driven from a
+great central power house, came into use, and to which the cars were
+connected by ingeniously contrived lever grips--operated by the driver
+on the car. These great cable constructions, expensive as they were,
+were found more economical than horse power. In fact, there is no
+modernly discovered practical motive power but what has been found less
+expensive both as to time and money than horse power. But the cable for
+this purpose is now in turn everywhere yielding to electricity, the
+great motor next to steam. The overhead cable system for the
+transportation of materials of various descriptions in carriers, also
+run by a central motor, is still very extensively used. The cable plan
+has also been tried with some success in the propelling of canal boats.
+
+_Canals_, themselves, although finding a most serious and in some
+localities an entirely destructive rival in the railroad, have grown in
+size and importance, and in appliances that have been substituted for
+the old-style locks. The latest form of this device is what is known as
+the pneumatic balance lock system.
+
+It has been said by Octave Chanute that "Progress in civilisation may
+fairly be said to be dependent upon the facilities for men to get about,
+upon their intercourse with other men and nations, not only in order to
+supply their mutual needs cheaply, but to learn from each other their
+wants, their discoveries and their inventions." Next to the power and
+means for moving people, come the immense and wonderful inventions for
+lifting and loading, such as cranes and derricks, means for coaling
+ships and steamers, for handling and storing the great agricultural
+products, grain and hay, and that modern wonder, the _grain elevator_,
+that dots the coasts of rivers, lakes and seas, receives the vast stores
+of golden grain from thousands of steam cars that come to it laden from
+distant plains and discharges it swiftly in mountain loads into vessels
+and steamers to be carried to the multitudes across the seas, and to
+satisfy that ever-continuing cry, "Give us this day our daily bread."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ELECTRICITY.
+
+
+In 1900 the real nature of electricity appears to be as unknown as it
+was in 1800.
+
+Franklin in the eighteenth century defined electricity as consisting of
+particles of matter incomparably more subtle than air, and which
+pervaded all bodies. At the close of the nineteenth century electricity
+defined as "simply a form of energy which imparts to material substances
+a peculiar state or condition, and that all such substances partake more
+or less of this condition."
+
+These theories and the late discovery of Hertz that electrical energy
+manifests itself in the form of waves, oscillations or vibrations,
+similar to light, but not so rapid as the vibrations of light,
+constitute about all that is known about the nature of this force.
+
+Franklin believed it was a single fluid, but others taught that there
+were two kinds of electricity, positive and negative, that the like
+kinds were repulsive and the unlike kinds attractive, and that when
+generated it flowed in currents.
+
+Such terms are not now regarded as representing actual varieties of this
+force, but are retained as convenient modes of expression, for want of
+better ones, as expressing the conditions or states of electricity when
+produced.
+
+Electricity produced by friction, that is, developed upon the surface of
+a body by rubbing it with a dissimilar body, and called frictional or
+static electricity, was the only kind produced artificially in the days
+of Franklin. What is known as galvanism, or animal electricity, also
+takes its date in the 18th century, to which further reference will be
+made. Since 1799 there have been discovered additional sources, among
+which are voltaic electricity, or electricity produced by chemical
+action, such as is manifested when two dissimilar metals are brought
+near each other or together, and electrical manifestations produced by a
+decomposing action, one upon the other through a suitable medium;
+inductive electricity, or electricity developed or induced in one body
+by its proximity to another body through which a current is flowing;
+magnetic electricity, the conversion of the power of a magnet into
+electric force, and the reverse of this, the production of magnetic
+force by a current of electricity; and thermal electricity, or that
+generated by heat. Electricity developed by these, or other means in
+contra-distinction to that produced by friction, has been called
+dynamic; but all electric force is now regarded as dynamic, in the sense
+that forces are always in motion and never at rest.
+
+Many of the manifestations and experiments in later day fields which, by
+reason of their production by different means, have been given the names
+of discovery and invention, had become known to Franklin and others, by
+means of the old methods in frictional electricity. They are all,
+however, but different routes leading to the same goal. In the midst of
+the brilliant discoveries of modern times confronting us on every side
+we should not forget the honourable efforts of the fathers of the
+science.
+
+We need not dwell on what the ancients produced in this line. It was a
+single fact only:--The Greeks discovered that amber, a resinous
+substance, when rubbed would attract lighter bodies to it.
+
+In 1600 appeared the father of modern electricity--Dr. Gilbert of
+Colchester, physician to Queen Elizabeth. He revived the one experiment
+of antiquity, and added to it the further fact that many substances
+besides amber, when rubbed, would manifest the same electric condition,
+such as sulphur, sapphire, wax, glass and other bodies. And thus he
+opened the field of electrodes. He was the first to use the terms,
+electricity, electric and electrode, which he derived from the word
+_elektron_, the Greek name for amber. He observed the actions of
+magnets, and conjectured the fundamental identity of magnetism and
+electricity. He arranged an electrometer, consisting of an iron needle
+poised on a pivot, by which to note the action of the magnet. This was
+about the time that Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg, Germany, was born.
+He became a "natural" philosopher, and for thirty-five years was
+burgomaster of his native town. He invented the air-pump, and he it was
+who illustrated the force of atmospheric pressure by fitting together
+two hollow brass hemispheres which, after the air within them had been
+exhausted, could not be pulled apart. He also invented a barometer, and
+as an astronomer suggested that the return of comets might be
+calculated. He invented and constructed the first machine for generating
+electricity. It consisted of a ball of sulphur rotated on an axis, and
+which was electrified by friction of the hand, the ball receiving
+negative electricity while the positive flowed through the person to the
+earth. With this machine "he heard the first sound and saw the first
+light in artificially excited electricity." The machine was improved by
+Sir Isaac Newton and others, and before the close of that century was
+put into substantially its present form of a round glass plate rotated
+between insulated leather cushions coated with an amalgam of tin and
+zinc, the positive or vitreous electricity thus developed being
+accumulated on two large hollow brass cylinders with globular ends,
+supported on glass pillars. Gray in 1729 discovered the conductive power
+of certain substances, and that the electrical influence could be
+conveyed to a distance by means of an insulated wire. This was the first
+step towards the electric telegraph.
+
+Dufay, the French philosopher and author, who in 1733-1737 wrote the
+_Memoirs of the French Academy_, was, it seems, the first to observe
+electrical attractions and repulsions; that electrified resinous
+substances repelled like substances while they attracted bodies
+electrified by contact with glass; and he, therefore, to the latter
+applied the term _vitreous_ electricity and to the former the term
+_resinous_ electricity. In 1745 Prof. Muschenbroeck of Leyden University
+developed the celebrated Leyden jar. This is a glass jar coated both
+inside and outside with tinfoil for about four-fifths of its height. Its
+mouth is closed with a cork through which is passed a metallic rod,
+terminating above in a knob and connected below with the inner coating
+by a chain or a piece of tinfoil. If the inner coating be connected with
+an electrical machine and the outer coating with the earth, a current of
+electricity is established, and the inner coating receives what is
+called a positive and the outer coating a negative charge. On connecting
+the two surfaces by means of a metallic discharger having a
+non-conducting handle a spark is obtained. Thus the Leyden jar is both a
+collector and a condenser of electricity. On arranging a series of such
+jars and joining their outer and inner surfaces, and connecting the
+series with an electrical machine, a battery is obtained of greater or
+less power according to the number of jars employed and the extent of
+supply from the machine.
+
+The principle of the Leyden jar was discovered by accident. Cuneus, a
+pupil of Muschenbroeck, was one day trying to charge some water in a
+glass bottle with electricity by connecting it with a chain to the
+sparking knob of an electrical machine. Holding the bottle in one hand
+he arranged the chain with the other, and received a violent shock. His
+teacher then tried the experiment himself, with a still livelier and
+more convincing result, whereupon he declared that he would not repeat
+the trial for the whole Kingdom of France.
+
+When the science of static electricity was thus far developed, with a
+machine for generating it and a collector to receive it, many
+experiments followed. Charles Morrison in 1753, in the _Scots Magazine_,
+proposed a telegraph system of insulated wires with a corresponding
+number of characters to be signalled between two stations. Other schemes
+were proposed at different times down to the close of the century.
+
+Franklin records among several other experiments with frictional
+electricity accumulated by the Leyden jar battery the following results,
+produced chiefly by himself: The existence of an attractive and a
+repulsive action of electricity; the restoration of the equilibrium of
+electrical force between electrified and non-electrified bodies, or
+between bodies differently supplied with the force; the electroscope, a
+body charged with electricity and used to indicate the presence and
+condition of electricity in another body; the production of work, as the
+turning of wheels, by which it was proposed a spit for roasting meat
+might be formed, and the ringing of chimes by a wheel, which was done;
+the firing of gunpowder, the firing of wood, resin and spirits; the
+drawing off a charge from electrified bodies at a near distance by
+pointed rods; the heating and melting of metals; the production of
+light; the magnetising of needles and of bars of iron, giving rise to
+the analogy of magnetism and electricity.
+
+Franklin, who had gone thus far, and who also had drawn the lightning
+from the clouds, identified it as electricity, and taught the mode of
+its subjection, felt chagrined that more had not been done with this
+subtle agent in the service of man. He believed, however, that the
+day-spring of science was opening, and he seemed to have caught some
+reflection of its coming light. Observing the return to life and
+activity of some flies long imprisoned in a bottle of Madeira wine and
+which he restored by exposure to the sun and air, he wrote that he
+should like to be immersed at death with a few friends in a cask of
+Madeira, to be recalled to life a hundred years thence to observe the
+state of his country. It would not have been necessary for him to have
+been embalmed that length of time to have witnessed some great
+developments of his favorite science. He died in 1790, and it has been
+said that there was more real progress in this science in the first
+decade of the nineteenth century than in all previous centuries put
+together.
+
+Before opening the door of the 19th century, let us glance at one more
+experiment in the 18th:
+
+While the aged Franklin was dying, Dr Luigi Galvani of Bologna, an
+Italian physician, medical lecturer, and learned author, was preparing
+for publication his celebrated work, _De viribus Electricitatis in Motu
+Musculari Commentarius_, in which he described his discovery made a few
+years before of the action of the electric current on the legs and
+spinal column of a frog hung on a copper nail. This discovery at once
+excited the attention of scientists, but in the absence of any immediate
+practical results the multitude dubbed him the "frog philosopher." He
+proceeded with his experiments on animals and animal matter, and
+developed the doctrine and theories of what is known as animal or
+galvanic electricity. His fellow countryman and contemporary, Prof.
+Volta of Pavia, took decided issue with Galvani and maintained that the
+pretended animal electricity was nothing but electricity developed by
+the contact of two different metals. Subsequent investigations and
+discoveries have established the fact that both theories have truth for
+their basis, and that electricity is developed both by muscular and
+nervous energy as well as by chemical action. In 1799 Volta invented his
+celebrated pile, consisting of alternate disks of copper and zinc
+separated by a cloth moistened with a dilute acid; and soon after an
+arrangement of cups--each containing a dilute acid and a copper and a
+zinc plate placed a little distance apart, and thus dispensing with the
+cloth. In both instances he connected the end plate of one kind with the
+opposite end plate of the other kind by a wire, and in both arrangements
+produced a current of electricity. To the discoveries, experiments, and
+disputes of Galvani and Volta and to those of their respective
+adherents, the way was opened to the splendid electrical inventions of
+the century, and the discovery of a new world of light, heat, speech and
+power. The discoveries of Galvani and Volta at once set leading
+scientists at work. Fabroni of Florence, and Sir Humphry Davy and
+Wollaston of England, commenced interesting experiments, showing that
+rapid oxidation and chemical decomposition of the metals took place in
+the voltaic pile.
+
+By the discoveries of Galvani the physicians and physiologists were
+greatly excited, and believed that by this new vital power the nature of
+all kinds of nervous diseases could be explored and the remedy applied.
+Volta's discovery excited the chemists. If two dissimilar metals could
+be decomposed and power at the same time produced they contended that
+practical work might be done with the force. In 1800 Nicholson and
+Carlisle decomposed water by passing the electric current through the
+same; Ritter decomposed copper sulphate, and Davy decomposed the
+alkalies, potash and soda. Thus the art of electrolysis--the
+decomposition of substances by the galvanic current, was established.
+Later Faraday laid down its laws. Naturally inventions sprung up in new
+forms of batteries. The pile and cup battery of Volta had been succeeded
+by the trough battery--a long box filled with separated plates set in
+dilute acid. The trough battery was used by Sir Humphry Davy in his
+series of great experiments--1806-1808--in which he isolated the
+metallic bases, calcium, sodium, potassium, etc. It consisted of 2000
+double plates of copper and zinc, each having a surface of 32 square
+inches. With this same trough battery Davy in 1812 produced the first
+electric carbon light, the bright herald of later glories.
+
+Among the most noted new batteries were Daniell's, Grove's and Bunsen's.
+They are called the "two fluid batteries," because in place of a single
+acidulated bath in which the dissimilar metals were before placed, two
+different liquid solutions were employed.
+
+John Frederick Daniell of London, noted for his great work,
+_Meteorological Essays_, and other scientific publications, and as
+Professor of Chemistry in King's College, in 1836, described how a
+powerful and constant current of electricity may be continued for an
+unlimited period by a battery composed of zinc standing in an acid
+solution and a sheet of copper in a solution of sulphate of copper.
+
+Sir William Robert Grove, first an English physician, then an eminent
+lawyer, and then a professor of natural philosophy, and the first to
+announce the great theory of the Correlation of Physical Forces, in 1839
+produced his battery, much more powerful than any previous one, and
+still in general use. In it zinc and platinum are the metals used--the
+zinc bent into cylindrical form and placed in a glass jar containing a
+weak solution of sulphuric acid, while the platinum stands in a porous
+jar holding strong nitric acid and surrounded by the zinc. Among the
+electrical discoveries of Grove were the decomposition by electricity of
+water into free oxygen and hydrogen, the electricity of the flame of the
+blow-pipe, electrical action produced by proximity, without contact, of
+dissimilar metals, molecular movements induced in metals by the electric
+current, and the conversion of electricity into mechanical force.
+
+Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, a German chemist and philosopher and scientific
+writer, who invented some of the most important aids to scientific
+research of the century, who constructed the best working chemical
+laboratory on the continent and founded the most celebrated schools of
+chemistry in Europe, invented a battery, sometimes called the carbon
+battery, in which the expensive pole of platinum in the Grove battery is
+replaced by one of carbon. It was found that this combination gave a
+greater current than that of zinc and platinum.
+
+A great variety of useful voltaic batteries have since been devised by
+others, too numerous to be mentioned here. There is another form of
+battery having for its object the storing of energy by electrolysis, and
+liberating it when desired, in the form of an electric current, and
+known as an accumulator, or secondary, polarization, or storage battery.
+Prof. Ritter had noticed that the two plates of metal which furnished
+the electric current, when placed in the acid liquid and united, could
+in themselves furnish a current, and the inventing of _storage_
+batteries was thus produced. The principal ones of this class are
+Gustave Plant�'s of 1860 and M. Camille Faure's of 1880. These have
+still further been improved. Still another form are the _thermo-electric
+batteries_, in which the electro-motive force is produced by the joining
+of two different metals, connecting them by a wire and heating their
+junctions. Thus, an electric current is obtained directly from heat,
+without going through the intermediate processes of boiling water to
+produce steam, using this steam to drive an engine, and using this
+engine to turn a dynamo machine to produce power.
+
+But let us retrace our steps:--As previously stated, Franklin had
+experimented with frictional electricity on needles, and had magnetised
+and polarised them and noticed their deflection; and Lesage had
+established an experimental telegraph at Geneva by the same kind of
+electricity more than a hundred years ago. But frictional electricity
+could not be transmitted with power over long distances, and was for
+practical purposes uncontrollable by reason of its great diffusion over
+surfaces, while voltaic electricity was found to be more intense and
+could be developed with great power along a wire for any distance. Fine
+wires had been heated and even melted by Franklin by frictional
+electricity, and now Ritter, Pfaff and others observed the same effect
+produced on the conducting wires by a voltaic current; and Curtet, on
+closing the passage with a piece of charcoal, produced a brilliant
+light, which was followed by Davy's light already mentioned.
+
+As early as 1802 an Italian savant, Gian D. Romagnosi of Trent, learning
+of Volta's discovery, observed and announced in a public print the
+deflection of the magnetic needle when placed near a parallel conductor
+of the galvanic current. In the years 1819 and 1820 so many brilliant
+discoveries and inventions were made by eminent men, independently and
+together, and at such near and distant places, that it is hard telling
+who and which was first. It was in 1819 that the celebrated Danish
+physicist, Oersted of Copenhagen, rediscovered the phenomena that the
+voltaic current would deflect a magnetic needle, and that the needle
+would turn at right angles to the wire. In 1820 Prof. S. C. Schweigger
+of Halle discovered that this deflecting force was increased when the
+wire was wound several times round the needle, and thus he invented the
+magnetising helix. He also then invented a galvano-magnetic indicator (a
+single-wire circuit) by giving the insulated wire a number of turns
+around an elongated frame longitudinally enclosing the compass needle,
+thus multiplying the effect of the current upon the sensitive needle,
+and converting it into a practical _measuring_ instrument--known as the
+galvanometer, and used to observe the strength of currents. In the same
+year Arago found that iron filings were attracted by a voltaic charged
+wire; and Arago and Davy that a piece of soft iron surrounded spirally
+by a wire through which such a current was passed would become magnetic,
+attract to it other metals while in that condition, immediately drop
+them the instant the current ceased, and that such current would
+permanently magnetise a steel bar. The elements of the _electro-magnet_
+had thus been produced. It was in that year that Amp�re discovered that
+magnetism is the circulation of currents of electricity at right angles
+to the axis of the needle or bar joining the two poles of the magnet. He
+then laid down the laws of interaction between magnets and electrical
+currents, and in this same year he proposed an electric-magneto
+telegraph consisting of the combination of a voltaic battery, conducting
+wires, and magnetic needles, one needle for each letter of the alphabet.
+
+The discoveries of Amp�re as to the laws of electricity have been
+likened to the discovery of Newton of the law of gravitation.
+
+Still no practical result, that is, no useful machine, had been produced
+by the electro-magnet.
+
+In 1825 Sturgeon of England bent a piece of wire into the shape of a
+horse-shoe, insulated it with a coating of sealing wax, wound a fine
+copper wire around it, thus making a helix, passed a galvanic current
+through the helix, and thus invented the first practical electro-magnet.
+But Sturgeon's magnet was weak, and could not transmit power for more
+than fifty feet. Already, however, it had been urged that Sturgeon's
+magnet could be used for telegraphic purposes, and a futile trial was
+made. In the field during this decade also labored the German professors
+Gauss and Weber, and Baron Schilling of Russia. In 1829 Prof. Barlow of
+England published an article in which he summarised what had been done,
+and scientifically demonstrated to his own satisfaction that an
+electro-magnetic telegraph was impracticable, and his conclusion was
+accepted by the scientific world as a fact. This was, however, not the
+first nor the last time that scientific men had predicted
+impracticabilities with electricity which afterwards blossomed into full
+success. But even before Prof. Barlow was thus arriving at his
+discouraging conclusion, Prof. Joseph Henry at the Albany Institute in
+the State of New York had commenced experiments which resulted in the
+complete and successful demonstration of the power of electro-magnetism
+for not only telegraph purposes but for almost every advancement that
+has since been had in this branch of physics. In March 1829 he exhibited
+at his Institute the magnetic "spool" or "bobbin," that form of coil
+composed of tightly-wound, silk-covered wire which he had constructed,
+and which since has been universally employed for nearly every
+application of electro-magnetism, of induction, or of magneto-electrics.
+And in the same year and in 1830 he produced those powerful magnets
+through which the energy of a galvanic battery was used to lift hundreds
+of tons of weight.
+
+In view of all the facts now historically established, there can be no
+doubt that previous to Henry's experiments the means for developing
+magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and that, as found
+by Prof. Barlow, the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable
+and impracticable for the transmission of power to a distance. Prof.
+Henry was the first to prove that a galvanic battery of "intensity" must
+be employed to project the current through a long conductor, and that a
+magnet of one long wire must be used to receive this current; the first
+to magnetise a piece of soft iron at a distance and call attention to
+its applicability to the telegraph; the first to actually sound a bell
+at a distance by means of the electro-magnet; and the first to show that
+the principles he developed were applicable and necessary to the
+practical operation of an effective telegraph system.
+
+Sturgeon, the parent of the electro-magnet, on learning of Henry's
+discoveries and inventions, wrote: "Professor Henry has been enabled to
+produce a magnetic force which totally eclipses every other in the whole
+annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be found since the miraculous
+suspension of the celebrated oriental impostor in his iron coffin."
+(_Philosophical Magazine and Annals_, 1832.)
+
+The third decade was now prepared for the development of the telegraph.
+As to the telegraph in its broadest sense, as a means for conveying
+intelligence to a distance quickly and without a messenger, successful
+experiments of that kind have existed from the earliest times:--from the
+signal fires of the ancients; from the flag signals between ships at
+sea, introduced in the seventeenth century by the Duke of York, then
+Admiral of the English fleet, and afterwards James II of England; from
+the semaphore telegraph of M. Chappe, adopted by the French government
+in 1794, consisting of bars pivoted to an upright stationary post, and
+made to swing vertically or horizontally to indicate certain signals;
+and from many other forms of earlier and later days.
+
+As to electricity as an agent for the transmission of signals, the idea
+dates, as already stated, from the discovery of Stephen Gray in 1729,
+that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by the
+means of an insulated wire. This was followed by the practical
+suggestions of Franklin and others. But when, as we have seen, voltaic
+electricity entered the field, electricity became a more powerful and
+tractable servant, and distant intelligent signals became one of its
+first labors.
+
+The second decade was also made notable by the discovery and
+establishment by George Simon Ohm, a German professor of Physics, of the
+fundamental mathematical law of electricity: It has been expressed in
+the following terms: (a) the current strength is equal to the
+electro-motive force divided by the resistance; (b) the force is equal
+to the current strength multiplied by the resistance; (c) the resistance
+is equal to the force divided by the current strength.
+
+The historical development and evolution of the telegraph may be now
+summarized:--
+
+1. The discovery of galvanic electricity by Galvani--1786-1790.
+
+2. The galvanic or voltaic battery by Volta in 1800.
+
+3. The galvanic influence on a magnetic needle by Romagnosi (1802)
+Oersted (1820).
+
+4. The galvanometer of Schweigger, 1820--the parent of the needle
+system.
+
+5. The electro-magnet by Arago and Sturgeon--1820-1825--the parent of
+the magnet system.
+
+Then followed in the third decade the important series of steps in the
+evolution, consisting of:--
+
+_First_, and most vital, Henry's discovery in 1829 and 1830 of the
+"intensity" or spool-wound magnet, and its intimate relation to the
+"intensity" battery, and the subordinate use of an armature as the
+signalling device.
+
+_Second_, Gauss's improvement in 1833 (or probably Schilling's
+considerably earlier) of reducing the electric conductors to a single
+circuit by the ingenious use of a dual sign so combined as to produce a
+true alphabet.
+
+_Third_, Weber's discovery in 1833 that the conducting wires of an
+electric telegraph could be efficiently carried through the air without
+any insulation except at their points of support.
+
+_Fourth_, Daniell's invention of a "constant" galvanic battery in 1836.
+
+_Fifth_, Steinheil's remarkable discovery in 1837 that the earth may
+form the returning half of a closed galvanic circuit, so that a single
+conducting wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes.
+
+_Sixth_, Morse's adaptation of the armature and electro-magnet of Henry
+as a recording instrument in 1837 in connection with his improvement in
+1838 on the Schilling, Gauss and Steinheil alphabets by employing the
+simple "dot and dash" alphabet in a single line. He was also assisted by
+the suggestions of Profs. Dana and Gale. To which must be added his
+adoption of Alfred Vail's improved alphabet, and Vail's practical
+suggestions in respect to the recording and other instrumentalities.
+
+To these should be added the efforts in England, made almost
+simultaneously with those of Morse, of Wheatstone and Cook and Davy, who
+were reaching the same goal by somewhat different routes.
+
+Morse in 1837 commenced to put the results of his experiments and
+investigations in the form of caveats, applications and letters patent
+in the United States and in Europe. He struggled hard against
+indifference and poverty to introduce his invention to the world. It was
+not until 1844 that he reduced it to a commercial practical success. He
+then laid a telegraph from Washington to Baltimore under the auspices of
+the United States Government, which after long hesitation appropriated
+$30,000 for the purpose. It was on the 24th day of May, 1844, that the
+first formal message was transmitted on this line between the two cities
+and recorded by the electro-magnet in the dot and dash alphabet, and
+this was immediately followed by other messages on the same line.
+
+Morse gathered freely from all sources of which he could avail himself
+knowledge of what had gone before. He was not a scientific discoverer,
+but an inventor, who, adding a few ideas of his own to what had before
+been discovered, was the first to combine them in a practical useful
+device. What he did as an inventor, and what anyone may do to constitute
+himself an inventor, by giving to the world a device which is useful in
+the daily work of mankind, as distinguished from the scientific
+discoverer who stops short of successful industrial work, is thus stated
+by the United States Supreme Court in an opinion sustaining the validity
+of his patents, after all the previous art had been produced before
+it:--
+
+"Neither can the inquiries he made nor the information or advice he
+received from men of science in the course of his researches impair his
+right to the character of an inventor. No invention can possibly be
+made, consisting of a combination of different elements of power,
+without a thorough knowledge of the properties of each of them, and the
+mode in which they operate on each other. And it can make no difference
+in this respect, whether he derives his information from books, or from
+conversation with men skilled in the science. If it were otherwise, no
+patent in which a combination of different elements is used would ever
+be obtained, for no man ever made such an invention without having first
+obtained this information, unless it was discovered by some fortunate
+accident. And it is evident that such an invention as the
+electro-magnetic telegraph could never have been brought into action
+without it; for a very high degree of scientific knowledge and the
+nicest skill in the mechanic arts are combined in it, and were both
+necessary to bring it into successful operation. The fact that Morse
+sought and obtained the necessary information and counsel from the best
+sources, and acted upon it, neither impairs his rights as an inventor
+nor detracts from his merits."--_O'Reilly vs. Morse, 5 Howard_.
+
+The combination constituting Morse's invention comprised a main wire
+circuit to transmit the current through its whole length whenever
+closed; a main galvanic battery to supply the current; operating keys to
+break and close the main circuit; office circuits; a circuit of
+conductors and batteries at each office to record the message there;
+receiving spring lever magnets to close an office circuit when a current
+passes through the main circuit; adjusting screws to vary the force of
+the main current; marking apparatus, consisting of pointed pieces of
+wire, to indent dots and lines upon paper; clockwork to move the paper
+indented; and magnet sounders to develop the power of the pointer and of
+the armatures to produce audible distinguishable sounds.
+
+It was soon learned by operators how to distinguish the signs or letters
+sent by the length of the "click" of the armature, and by thus reading
+by sound the reading of the signs on paper was dispensed with, and the
+device became an electric-magnetic acoustic telegraph.
+
+What is known as the Morse system has been improved, but its fundamental
+principles remain, and their world-wide use constitute still the daily
+evidence of the immense value of the invention to mankind.
+
+Before the 1844 reduction to practice, Morse had originated and laid the
+first submarine telegraph. This was in New York harbour in 1842. In a
+letter to the Secretary of the United States Treasury, August 10, 1843,
+he also suggested the project of an Atlantic telegraph.
+
+While Henry was busy with his great magnets and Morse struggling to
+introduce his telegraph, Michael Faraday was making those investigations
+and discoveries which were to result in the application of electricity
+to the service of man in still wider and grander fields.
+
+Faraday was a chemist, and Davy's most brilliant pupil and efficient
+assistant. His earliest experiments were in the line of electrolysis.
+This was about 1822, but it was not until 1831 that he began to devote
+his brilliant talents as an experimentalist and lecturer wholly to
+electrical researches, and for a quarter of a century his patient,
+wonderful labours and discoveries continued. It has been said that
+"although Oersted was the discoverer of electro-magnetism and Amp�re its
+expounder, Faraday made the science of magnets electrically what it is
+at the present day."
+
+Great magnetic power having been developed by passing a galvanic current
+around a bar of soft iron, Faraday concluded that it was reasonable to
+suppose that as mechanical action is accompanied by an equal amount of
+reaction, electricity ought to be evolved from magnetism.
+
+"It was in 1831 that Faraday demonstrated before the Royal Society that
+if a magnetized bar of steel be introduced into the centre of a helix of
+insulated wire, there is at the moment of introduction of the magnet a
+current of electricity set up in a certain direction in the insulated
+wire forming the helix, while on the withdrawal of the magnet from the
+helix a current in an opposite direction takes place.
+
+"He also discovered that the same phenomenon was to be observed if for
+the magnet was substituted a coil of insulated wire, through which the
+current from a voltaic element was passing; and further that when an
+insulated coil of wire was made to revolve before the poles of a
+permanent magnet, electric currents were induced in the wires of the
+coil."--_Journal of the Society of Arts._
+
+On these discoveries were based the action of all magneto-dynamo
+electric machines--machines that have enabled the world to convert the
+energy of a steam engine in its stall, or a distant waterfall, into
+electric energy for the performance of the herculean labours of lighting
+a great city, or an ocean-bound lighthouse, or transporting quickly
+heavy loads of people or freight up and down and to and fro upon the
+earth.
+
+As before stated, Faraday was also the first to proclaim the laws of
+electrolysis, or electro-chemical decomposition. He expressed conviction
+that the forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one and the
+same. Subsequently the great Helmholtz, having proved by experiment that
+in the phenomena of electrolysis no other force acts but the mutual
+attractions of the atomic electric charges, came to the conclusion,
+"that the very mightiest among the chemical forces are of electric
+origin."
+
+Faraday having demonstrated by his experiments that chemical
+decomposition, electricity, magnetism, heat and light, are all
+inter-convertible and correlated forces, the inventors of the age were
+now ready to step forward and put these theories at work in machines in
+the service of man. Faraday was a leader in the field of discovery. He
+left to inventors the practical application of his discoveries.
+
+Prof. Henry in America was, contemporaneously with Faraday, developing
+electricity by means of magnetic induction.
+
+In 1832, Pixii, a philosophical instrument-maker of Paris, and Joseph
+Saxton, an American then residing in London, invented and constructed
+magneto-machines on Faraday's principle of rendering magnetic a core of
+soft iron surrounded with insulated wire from a permanent magnet, and
+rapidly reversing its polarity, which machines were used to produce
+sparks, decompose liquids and metals, and fire combustible bodies.
+Saxton's machine was the well-known electric shock machine operated by
+turning a crank. A similar device is now used for ringing telephone call
+bells.
+
+Prof. C. G. Page of Washington and Ruhmkorff of Paris each made a
+machine, well known as the Ruhmkorff coil, by which intense
+electro-magnetic currents by induction were produced. The production of
+electrical illumination was now talked of more than ever. Scientists and
+inventors now had two forms of electrical machines to produce light: the
+voltaic battery and the magneto-electric apparatus. But a period of
+comparative rest took place in this line until 1850, when Prof. Nollet
+of Brussels made an effort to produce a powerful magneto-electric
+machine for decomposing water into its elements of hydrogen and oxygen,
+which gases were then to be used in producing the lime light; and a
+company known as "The Alliance" was organized at Paris to make large
+machines for the production of light.
+
+We have seen that Davy produced a brilliant electric light with two
+pieces of charcoal in the electric circuit of a voltaic battery. Greener
+and Staite revived this idea in a patent in 1845. Shortly after Nollet's
+machine, F. H. Holmes of England improved it and applied the current
+directly to the production of electric light between carbon points. And
+Holmes and Faraday in 1857 prepared this machine for use.
+
+On the evening of December 8, 1858, the first practical electric light,
+the work of Faraday and Holmes, flashed over the troubled sea from the
+South Foreland Lighthouse. On June 6, 1862, this light was also
+introduced into the lighthouse at Dungeness, England. The same light was
+introduced in French lighthouses in December, 1863, and also in the work
+on the docks of Cherbourg. At this time Germany was also awake to the
+importance of this invention, and Dr. Werner Siemens of Berlin was at
+work developing a machine for the purpose into one of less cost and of
+greater use. Inventors were not yet satisfied with the power developed
+from either the voltaic battery or the magneto-electric machine, and
+continued to improve the latter.
+
+In 1867, the same year that Faraday died, and too late for him to
+witness its glory, came out the most powerful magneto-electric machine
+that had yet been produced. It was invented by Wilde of London, and
+consisted of very large electro-magnets, or field magnets, receiving
+their electric power from the "lines of force" discovered by Faraday,
+radiating from the poles of a soft iron magnet, combined with a small
+magneto-electric machine having permanent magnets, and by which the
+current developed in the smaller machine was sent through the coils of
+the larger magnets. By this method the magnetic force was vastly
+multiplied, and electricity was produced in such abundance as to fuse
+thick iron wire fifteen inches long and one-fourth of an inch in
+diameter, and to develop a magnificent arc light. Quickly succeeding the
+Wilde machine came independent inventions in the same direction from
+Messrs. G. Farmer of Salem, Mass., Alfred Yarley and Prof. Charles
+Wheatstone of England, and Dr. Siemens of Berlin, and Ladd of America.
+These inventors conceived and put in practice the great idea of
+employing the current from an electro-magnetic machine to excite its own
+electric magnet. They were thus termed "self-exciting." The idea was
+that the commutator (an instrument to change the direction, strength or
+circuit of the current) should be so connected with the coils of the
+field magnets that all or a part of the current developed in the
+armature would flow through these coils, so that all permanent magnets
+might be dispensed with, and the machine used to excite itself or charge
+its own field magnets without the aid of any outside charging or feeding
+mechanism.
+
+Mr. Z. Gramme, of France, a little later than Wilde made a great
+improvement. Previously, machines furnished only momentary currents of
+varying strength and polarity; and these intermittent currents were hard
+to control without loss in the strength of current and the frequent
+production of sparks. Gramme produced a machine in which, although as in
+other machines the magnetic field of force was created by a powerful
+magnet, yet the armature was a ring made of soft iron rods, and
+surrounded by an endless coil of wire, and made to revolve between the
+poles of the magnet with great rapidity, producing a constant current in
+one direction. By Faraday's discovery, when the coil of the closed
+circuit was moved before the poles of the magnet, the current was
+carried half the time in one direction and half in the other,
+constituting what is called an alternating current. Gramme employed the
+commutator to make the current direct instead of alternating.
+
+Dynamo-electric machines for practical work of many kinds had now been
+born and grown to strength.
+
+In addition to these and many other electrical machines this century has
+discovered several ways by which the electricity developed by such
+machines may be converted into light. I. By means of two carbon
+conductors between which passes a series of intensely brilliant sparks
+which form a species of flame known as the _voltaic arc_, and the heat
+of which is more intense than that from any other known artificial
+source. II. By means of a rod of carbon or kaolin, strip of platinum or
+iridium, a carbon filament, or other substance placed between two
+conductors, the resistance opposed by such rod, strip, or filament to
+the passage of the current being so great as to develop heat to the
+point of incandescence, and produce a steady white and pure light.
+Attempts also have been made to produce illumination by what is called
+stratified light produced by the electric discharge passing through
+tubes containing various gases. These tubes are known as Geissler tubes,
+from their inventor. Still another method is the production of a
+continuous light from a vibratory movement of carbon electrodes to and
+from each other, producing a bright flash at each separation, and
+maintaining the separations at such a rate that the effect of the light
+produced is continuous. But these additional methods do not appear as
+yet to be commercially successful.
+
+It must not be overlooked that before dynamo-magneto-electric machines
+were used practically in the production of the electric light for the
+purposes of illumination, the voltaic battery was used for the same
+purpose, but not economically.
+
+The first private dwelling house ever lighted in America, or doubtless
+anywhere else, by electricity, was that of Moses G. Farmer, in Salem,
+Massachusetts, in the year 1859. A voltaic battery furnished the current
+to conducting wires which led to two electric lamps on the mantel-piece
+of the drawing-room, and in which strips of platinum constituted the
+resisting and lighting medium. A soft, mild, agreeable light was
+produced, which was more delightful to read or sew by than any
+artificial light ever before known. Either or both lamps could be
+lighted by turning a button, and they were maintained for several weeks,
+but were discontinued for the reason that the cost of maintaining them
+was much greater than of gas light.
+
+It was in connection with the effective dynamo-electric apparatus of
+M. Gramme above referred to that the electric candle invented by
+M. Paul Jablochoff became soon thereafter extensively employed for
+electric lighting in Paris, and elsewhere in Europe. This invention,
+like the great majority of useful inventions, is noted for its
+simplicity. It consists of two carbon pencils placed side by side and
+insulated from each other by means of a thin plate of some refractory
+material which is a non-conductor at ordinary temperatures, but which
+becomes a conductor, and consequently a light, when fused by the action
+of a powerful current. Plaster of Paris was found to be the most
+suitable material for this purpose, and the light produced was soft,
+mellow, slightly rose-coloured, and quite agreeable to the eye.
+
+It having been found that carbon was better adapted for lighting
+purposes than platinum or other metals, by reason of its greater
+radiating power for equal temperatures, and still greater infusibility
+at high temperatures, inventors turned their attention to the production
+of the best carbon lamp.
+
+The two pointed pieces of hard conducting carbon used for the separated
+terminals constitute the voltaic arc light--a light only excelled in
+intense brilliancy by the sun itself. It is necessary in order to make
+such a light successful that it should be continuous. But as it is found
+that both carbons waste away under the consuming action of the intense
+heat engendered by their resistance to the electric current, and that
+one electrode, the positive, wastes away twice as fast as the opposite
+negative electrode, the distance between the points soon becomes too
+great for the current longer to leap over it, and the light is then
+extinguished. Many ingenious contrivances have been devised for
+correcting this trouble, and maintaining a continuously uniform distance
+between the carbons by giving to them a self-adjusting automatic action.
+Such an apparatus is called a _regulator_, and the variety of regulators
+is very great. The French were among the first to contrive such
+regulators,--Duboscq, Foucault, Serrin, Houdin, and Lontin invented most
+useful forms of such apparatus. Other early inventors were Hart of
+Scotland, Siemens of Germany, Thompson and Houston of England, and
+Farmer, Brush, Wallace, Maxim, and Weston and Westinghouse of America.
+Gramme made his armature of iron rods to prevent its destruction by
+heat. Weston in 1882 improved this method by making the armature of
+separate and insulated sheets of iron around which the coil is wound.
+The arc light is adapted for streets and great buildings, etc.; but for
+indoor illumination, when a milder, softer light is desirable, the
+_incandescent_ light was invented, and this consists of a curved
+filament of carbon about the size of a coarse horsehair, seated in a
+bulb of glass from which the air has been exhausted. In exhausted air
+carbon rods or filaments are not consumed, and so great ingenuity was
+exercised on that line. Among the early noted inventors of incandescent
+carbon filament lamps were Edison and Maxim of New York, Swan, and
+Lane-Fox of England.
+
+Another problem to be solved arose in the proposed use of arc lamps upon
+an extended scale, or in series, as in street lighting, wherein the
+current to all lamps was supplied by a single wire, and where it was
+found that owing to the unequal consumption of the carbons some were
+burning well, some poorly, and some going out. It was essential,
+therefore, to make each lamp independent of the resistance of the main
+circuit and of the action of the other lamps, and to have its regulating
+mechanism governed entirely by the resistance of its own arc. The
+solution of this difficult problem was the invention by Heffner von
+Alteneck of Germany, and his device came into use wherever throughout
+the world arc lamps were operated. Westinghouse also improved the direct
+alternating system of lighting by one wire by the introduction of two
+conducting wires parallel to each other, and passing an interrupted or
+alternating current through one, thereby inducing a similar and always
+an alternating current through the other. Brush adopted a three-wire
+system; and both obtained a uniform consumption of the carbons.
+
+In a volume like this, room exists for mention only of those inventions
+which burn as beacon lights on the tallest hills--and so we must now
+pass on to others.
+
+Just as Faraday was bringing his long series of experimental researches
+to a close in 1856-59, and introducing the fruits of his labours into
+the lighthouses of England, Cyrus W. Field of New York had commenced his
+trials in the great scheme of an ocean cable to "moor the new world
+alongside the old," as John Bright expressed it. After crossing the
+ocean from New York to England fifty times, and baffled often by the
+ocean, which broke his cables, and by the incredulous public of both
+hemispheres, who laughed at him, and by electricity, which refused to do
+his bidding, he at last overcame all obstacles, and in 1866 the cable
+two thousand miles in length had been successfully stretched and
+communication perfected. To employ currents of great power, the cable
+insulation would have been disintegrated and finally destroyed by heat.
+Therefore only feeble currents could be used. But across that long
+distance these currents for many reasons grew still weaker. The
+inventor, Sir William Thomson, was at hand to provide the remedy. First,
+by his _mirror galvanometer_. A needle in the shape of a small magnet
+and connected to the current wires, is attached to the back of a small
+concave mirror having a hole in its centre; opposite the mirror is
+placed a graduated scale board, having slits through it, and a lighted
+lamp behind it. The light is thrown through the slits across to the hole
+at the center of the mirror and upon the needle. The feeblest imaginable
+current suffices to deflect the needle in one direction, which throws
+back the little beam of light upon it to the graduated front of the
+scale. When the current is reversed the needle and its shadow are
+deflected in the other direction, and so by a combination of right and
+left motions, and pauses, of the spots of light to represent letters,
+the message is spelled out. Second, a more expeditious instrument called
+the _syphon recorder_. In this the galvanometer needle is connected to a
+fine glass syphon tube conducting ink from a reservoir on to a strip of
+paper which is drawn under the point of the tube with a uniform motion.
+The irregular movements given the galvanometer needle by the varying
+current are clearly delineated on the paper. Or in writing very long
+cables the point of the syphon may not touch the paper, but the ink by
+electrical attraction from the paper is ejected from the syphon upon the
+paper in a succession of fine dots. The irregular lines of dots and
+dashes were translated into words in accordance with the principles of
+the Morse telegraph.
+
+An instrument was exhibited at the Centennial International Exhibition
+at Philadelphia in 1876, which was considered by the judges "the
+greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph." Such was
+the language used both by Prof. Joseph Henry and Sir Wm. Thomson, and
+concurred in by the other eminent judges from America, Germany, France,
+Austria and Switzerland. This instrument was the _Telephone_. It
+embodied, for the practical purpose of transmitting articulate speech to
+distances, the union of the two great forces,--sound and electricity. It
+consisted of a method and an apparatus. The apparatus or means consisted
+of an electric battery circuit, a transmitting cone placed at one end of
+the line into which speech and other vocal sounds were uttered, a
+diaphragm against which the sounds were projected, an armature secured
+to or forming a part of the diaphragm, an electro-magnet loosely
+connected to the armature, a wire connecting this magnet with another
+precisely similar arrangement of magnet, armature, diaphragm, and cone,
+at the receiving end. When speech was uttered in the transmitter the
+sound vibrations were received on the diaphragm, communicated to the
+electricised armature, from thence by induction to the magnet and the
+connecting wire current, which, undulating with precisely the same form
+of sound vibrations, carried them in exactly the same form to the
+receiving magnet. They were then carried through the receiving armature
+and reproduced on the receiving diaphragm, with all the same
+characteristics of pitch, loudness and quality.
+
+The inventor was Alexander Graham Bell, by nativity a Scotchman, then a
+resident of Canada, and finally a citizen of the United States. His
+father was a teacher of vocal physiology at Edinburgh, and he himself
+became a teacher of deaf mutes. This occupation naturally led him to a
+thorough investigation of the laws of sound. He acknowledged the aid he
+received from the great work of Helmholtz on the _Theory of Tone_. His
+attention was called to sounds transmitted and reproduced by the
+electric current, especially by the ease with which telegraph operators
+read their messages by the duration of the "click" of their instruments.
+He knew of the old device of a tightly-stretched string or wire between
+two little boxes. He had read the publication of Prof. C. G. Page, of
+America, in 1837, on the _Production of Galvanic Music_, in which was
+described how musical notes were transmitted and reproduced by an
+interrupted magnetic circuit. He became acquainted with the experimental
+musical telephonic and acoustic researches of Reis, and others of
+Germany, and those of celebrated scientists in France, especially the
+phonautograph of Scott, a delicate instrument having a cone membrane and
+pointer, and used to reproduce on smoked glass the waves of sound. He
+commenced his experiments with magneto instruments in 1874, continued
+them in 1875, when he succeeded in reproducing speech, but poorly, owing
+to his imperfect instruments, and then made out his application, and
+obtained a patent in the United States in July, 1876.
+
+Like all the other remarkable inventions recorded in these pages, this
+"marvel" did not spring forth as a sudden creation, but was a slow
+growth of a plant derived from old ideas, although it blossomed out
+suddenly one day when audible sounds were accidentally produced upon an
+apparatus with which he was experimenting.
+
+It is impossible here to narrate the tremendous conflict that Bell now
+encountered to establish his title as first inventor, or to enumerate
+the multitude of improvements and changes made which go to make up the
+successful telephone of to-day.
+
+The messages of the voice are carried on the wings of electricity
+wherever any messages are carried, except under the widest seas, and
+this difficulty inventors are now seeking to overcome.
+
+The story of the marvellous inventions of the century in electricity is
+a fascinating one, but in length and details it is also marvellous, and
+we must hasten unwillingly to a close. Numerous applications of it will
+be mentioned in chapters relating to other arts.
+
+In the generation of this mighty force improvements have been made, but
+those of greatest power still involve the principles discovered by
+Faraday and Henry seventy years ago. The ideas of Faraday of the "lines
+of force"--the magnetic power streaming from the poles of the magnet
+somewhat as the rays of heat issue on all sides from a hot body, forming
+the magnetic field--and that a magnet behaves like an electric current,
+producing an electric wave by its approach to or recession from a coil
+of wire, joined with Henry's idea of increasing the magnetising effect
+by increasing the number of coils around the magnet, enter into all
+powerful dynamo electric machines of to-day. In them the lines of force
+must flow around the frame and across the path of the armature; and
+there must be a set of conductors to cut the lines of force twice in
+every revolution of the cylinder carrying the armature from which the
+current is taken.
+
+When machines had been produced for generating with some economy
+powerful currents of electricity, their use for the world's business
+purposes rapidly increased. Among such applications, and following
+closely the electric lighting, came the _electric railway_. A substitute
+for the slow animal, horse, and for the dangerous, noisy steam horse and
+its lumbering locomotive and train, was hailed with delight. Inventors
+came forward with adaptations of all the old systems they could think of
+for the purpose, and with many new ones. One plan was to adapt the
+storage battery--that silent chemical monster which carries its own
+power and its own machine--and place one on each car to actuate a motor
+connected to the driving wheels. Another plan was to conduct the current
+from the dynamo machine at its station along the rails on one side of
+the track to the motor on the car and the return current on the opposite
+track; another was to carry the current to the car on a third rail
+between the track, using both the other rails for the return; another to
+use an overhead wire for the current from the dynamo, and connect it
+with the car by a rod, one end of which had a little wheel or trolley
+running on the overhead wire, to take up the current, the other end
+being connected by a wire to the car motor; another plan to have a
+trench made leading from the central station underneath the track the
+whole length of the line, and put into this trench conducting wires from
+the dynamo, to one of which the car motor should be connected by a
+trolley rod or "brush," extending down through a central slot between
+the rails of the track to carry the electric supply into the motor. In
+all these cases a lever was supplied to cut off communication between
+the conducting wire and the motor, and a brake lever to stop the car.
+
+All of these plans have been tried, and some of them are still being
+tried with many improvements in detail, but not in principle.
+
+The first electrical railway was constructed and operated at Berlin in
+1879, by Messrs Siemens and Halske. It was two thousand seven hundred
+feet long and built on the third rail system. This was an experiment but
+a successful one. It was followed very soon by another line near Berlin
+for actual traffic; then still another in Saxony. At the Paris
+Exposition in 1881, Sir Wm. Siemens had in operation a road about one
+thousand six hundred feet in length, on which it is estimated
+ninety-five thousand passengers were conveyed in seven weeks. Then in
+the next year in London; and then in the following year one in the
+United States near New York, constructed by Edison. And thus they
+spread, until every important town and city in the world seems to have
+its electric plant, and its electric car system, and of course its
+lighting, telephone and telegraph systems.
+
+In 1882 Prof. Fleeming Jenkin of England invented and has put to use a
+system called _Telpherage_, by which cars are suspended on an overhead
+wire which is both the track and electrical conductor. It has been found
+to be advantageous in the transportation of freight from mines and other
+places to central stations.
+
+With the coming of the electric railway, the slow, much-abused horse,
+the puffing steam engine blowing off smoke and cinders through the
+streets, the great heavy cars, rails and roadbeds, the dangerous
+collisions and accidents, have disappeared.
+
+The great problems to solve have related to generation, form,
+distribution and division of the electric current at the dynamos at the
+central stations for the purposes of running the distant motors and for
+furnishing independent supplies of light, heat, sound and power. These
+problems have received the attention of the keenest inventors and
+electrical engineers and have been solved.
+
+The description of the inventions made by such electrical magicians as
+Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla would fill volumes.
+
+The original plan of sending but one message over a wire at a time has
+also been improved; and duplex, quadruplex and multiplex systems have
+been invented (by Stearns, Farmer, Edison and others) and applied, which
+have multiplied the capacity of the telegraphs, and by which even the
+alleged all-talk-at-the-same-time habit of certain members of the great
+human family can be carried on in opposite directions on the same wire
+at the same time between their gatherings in different cities and
+without a break.
+
+To understand the manner of multiplying messages or signals on the same
+line, and using apparently the same electric current to perform
+different operations, the mind must revert to the theory already
+referred to, that a current of electricity does not consist of a stream
+of matter flowing like water through a conductor in one direction, but
+of particles of subtle ether, vibrating or oscillating in waves from and
+around the conductor which excites them; that the vibration of this line
+of waves proceeds at the rate of many thousand miles per second, almost
+with the velocity of waves of light, with which they are so closely
+related; that this wave current is susceptible of being varied in
+direction and in strength, according to the impulse given by the initial
+pressure of the transmitting and exciting instrument; and that some wave
+currents have power by reason of their form or strength to penetrate or
+pass others coming from an opposite direction. So that in the multiplex
+process, for instance, each transmission having a certain direction or
+strength and its own set of transmitting and receiving instruments, will
+have power to give its own peculiar and independent signal or message.
+Apparently there is but one continuous current, but in reality each
+transmission is separated from the others by an almost inconceivably
+short interval of time.
+
+Among the inventions in the class of Telegraphy should also be mentioned
+the dial and the printing systems. Ever since the electric telegraph was
+invented, attempts have been made to use the electric influence to
+operate either a pointer to point out the letters of the message sent on
+a dial, or to print them on a moving strip of paper; and also to
+automatically reproduce on paper the handwriting of the sender or writer
+of the message. The earliest efforts were by Cooke and Prof. Wheatstone
+of London, in 1836-37; but it was not until 1839, after Prof. Henry had
+succeeded in perfecting the electromagnet, that dial and printing
+telegraphs were successfully produced. Dial telegraphs consist of the
+combination with magnets, armatures and printed dial plate of a
+clock-work and a pointer, means to set the pointer at the communicating
+end (which in some instances has been a piano keyboard) to any letter,
+the current operating automatically to indicate the same letters at the
+receiving end. These instruments have been modified and improved by
+Brequet and Froment of France, Dr. Siemens and Kramer, and Siemens and
+Halske of Germany, Prof. Wheatstone of England, Chester and Hamblet of
+America, and others. They have been used extensively upon private and
+municipal lines both in Europe and the United States.
+
+The type-printing telegraph was coeval with the dial, and originated
+with Morse and Vail as early as 1837. The printing of the characters is
+effected in various ways; sometimes by clockwork mechanism and sometimes
+by the direct action of an electromagnet. Wheatstone exhibited one in
+1841. House of Vermont invented in 1845-1846 the first printing
+telegraph that was brought into any extensive use in the United States.
+Then followed that of David E. Hughes of Kentucky in 1855, aided by his
+co-inventor George M. Phelps of Troy, New York, and which was
+subsequently adopted by the French government, by the United Kingdom
+Telegraph Co. of Great Britain, and by the American Telegraph Co in the
+United States. The system was subsequently greatly improved by Hughes
+and others. Alexander Bain of Edinburgh in 1845-46 originated the modern
+automatic chemical telegraph. In this system a kind of punch was used to
+perforate two rows of holes grouped to represent letters on a strip of
+paper conducted over a metal cylinder and arranged so as to permit
+spring levers to drop through the perforations and touch the cylinder,
+thus forming an electrical contact; and a recording apparatus consisting
+of a strip of paper carried through a chemical solution of an acid and
+potash and over a metal roller, and underneath one or two styles, or
+pens, which pens were connected by live wires with the poles of two
+batteries at the sending station. The operation is such that colored
+marks upon the paper were made by the pens corresponding precisely to
+the perforations in the strip at the sending station. Siemens,
+Wheatstone and others also improved this system; but none of these
+systems have as yet replaced or equalled in extensive use the Morse key
+and sounder system, and its great acoustic advantage of reading the
+messages by the click of the instrument. The type-printing system,
+however, has been recently greatly improved by the inventions of Howe,
+C. L. Buckingham, Fiske and others in the United States. Special
+contrivances and adaptations of the telegraph for printing stock reports
+and for transmitting fire alarm, police, and emergency calls, have been
+invented.
+
+The erection of tall office and other buildings, some to the height of
+more than twenty stories, made practicable by the invention of the
+elevator system, has in turn brought out most ingenious devices for
+operating and controlling the elevators to insure safety and at the same
+time produce economy in the motive power.
+
+The utility of the telephone has been greatly increased by the
+inventions of Hughes and Edison of the _microphone_. This consists, in
+one form, of pieces of carbon in loose contact placed in the circuit of
+a telephone. The very slightest vibrations communicated to the wood are
+heard distinctly in the telephone. By these inventions and certain
+improvements not only every sound and note of an opera or concert has
+been carried to distant places, but the slightest whispers, the minute
+movements of a watch, even the tread of a fly, and the pressure of a
+finger, have been rendered audible.
+
+By the aid of the electric current certain rays of light directed upon
+the mineral selenium, and some other substances, have been discovered to
+emit musical sounds.
+
+So wonderful and mysterious appear these communications along the
+electric wire that each and every force in the universe seems to have a
+voice awaiting utterance to man. The hope is indulged that by some such
+means we may indeed yet receive the "touch of a vanished hand and the
+sound of a voice that is still."
+
+In 1879 that eminent English scientist, Prof. Wm. Crookes, published his
+extensive researches in electrical discharges as manifested in glass
+tubes from which the air had been exhausted. These same tubes have
+already been referred to as Geissler tubes, from the name of a young
+artist of Bonn who invented them. In these tubes are inclosed various
+gases through which the sparks from an induction coil can be passed by
+means of platinum electrodes fused into the glass, and on the passage of
+the current a soft and delicately-tinted light is produced which streams
+through the tube from pole to pole.
+
+In 1895, Wm. Konrad Roentgen, professor of Physics in the Royal
+University of W�rzburg, while experimenting with these Crookes and
+Geissler tubes, discovered with one of them, which he had covered with a
+sort of black cardboard, that the rays emanating from the same and
+impinging on certain objects would render them self-luminous, or
+fluorescent; and on further investigation that such rays, unlike the
+rays of sunlight, were not deflected, refracted or condensed; but that
+they proceeded in straight lines from the point at which they were
+produced, and penetrated various articles, such as flesh, blood, and
+muscle, and thicknesses of paper, cloth and leather, and other
+substances which are opaque to ordinary light; and that thus while
+penetrating such objects and rendering them luminous, if a portion of
+the same were of a character too dense to admit of the penetration, the
+dark shadow of such obstacle would appear in the otherwise luminous
+mass.
+
+Unable to explain the nature or cause of this wonderful revelation,
+Roentgen gave to the light an algebraic name for the unknown--the X
+rays.
+
+This wonderful discovery, at first regarded as a figment of scientific
+magic, soon attracted profound attention. At first the experiments were
+confined to the gratification of curiosity--the interior of the hand was
+explored, and on one occasion the little mummified hand of an Egyptian
+princess folded in death three or four thousand years ago, was held up
+to this light, and the bones, dried blood, and muscle of the ancient
+Pharaohs exhibited to the startled eyes of the present generation. But
+soon surgery and medicine took advantage of the unknown rays for
+practical purposes. The location of previously unreachable bullets, and
+the condition of internal injuries, were determined; the cause of
+concealed disease was traced, the living brain explored, and the
+pulsations of the living heart were witnessed.
+
+Retardation of the strength of the electric current by the inductive
+influence of neighboring wires and earth currents, together with the
+theory that the electric energy pervades all space and matter, gave rise
+to the idea that if the energy once established could be set in motion
+at such point above the ordinary surface of the earth as would free this
+upper current from all inductive disturbance, impulses of such power
+might be conveyed from one high point and communicated to another as to
+produce signals without the use of a conducting wire, retaining only the
+usual batteries and the earth connection. On July 30th, 1872, Mahlen
+Loomis of Washington, D. C., took out a patent for "the utilization of
+natural electricity from elevated points" for telegraphic purposes,
+based on the principle mentioned, and made successful experiments on the
+Blue Ridge mountains in Virginia near Washington, accounts of which were
+published in Washington papers at the time; but being poor and receiving
+no aid or encouragement he was compelled to give it up. Marconi of Italy
+has been more successful in this direction, and has sent electric
+messages and signals from high stations over the English Channel from
+the shores of France to England. So that now wireless telegraphy is an
+established fact.
+
+It is certainly thrilling to realize that there is a mysterious, silent,
+invisible and powerful mechanical agent on every side of us, waiting to
+do our bidding, and to lend a hand in every field of human labour, and
+yet unable to be so used without excitement to action and direction in
+its course by some master, intermediate between itself and man. The
+principal masters for this purpose are steam and water power. A small
+portion of the power of the resistless Niagara has been taken, diverted
+to turn the machinery which excites electricity to action, and this
+energy in turn employed to operate a multitude of the most powerful
+motors and machines of many descriptions.
+
+So great is the might of this willing agent that at a single turn of the
+hand of man it rushes forth to do work for him far exceeding in wonder
+and extent any labour of the gods of mythological renown.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HOISTING, CONVEYING AND STORING.
+
+
+Allusion has been made to the stupendous buildings and works of the
+ancients and of the middle ages; the immense multitude of workers and
+great extent of time and labour employed in their construction; and how
+the awful drudgery involved in such undertakings was relieved by the
+invention of modern engineering devices--the cranes, the derricks, and
+the steam giants to operate them, so that vast loads which required
+large numbers of men and beasts to move, and long periods of time in
+which to move them, can now be lifted with ease and carried to great
+heights and distances in a few minutes by the hands of one or of a few
+men.
+
+But outside of the line of such undertakings there is an immense field
+of labor-saving appliances adapted for use in transportation of smaller
+loads from place to place, within and without buildings, and for
+carrying people and freight from the lower to the upper stories of tall
+structures. In fact the tall buildings which we see now in almost every
+great city towering cloudward from the ground to the height of fifteen,
+twenty and twenty-five stories, would have been extravagant and useless
+had not the invention of the modern elevator rendered their highest
+parts as easy of access as their lowest, and at the same time given to
+the air space above the city lot as great a commercial value in feet and
+inches as the stretch of earth itself.
+
+Many of the "sky-scrapers" so called, are splendid monuments of the
+latest inventions of the century.
+
+It is by means of the modern elevator that the business of a whole town
+may be transacted under a single roof.
+
+In the multiplicity of modern human contrivances by which the sweat and
+drudgery of life are saved, and time economised for worthier objects, we
+are apt to overlook the painful and laborious steps by which they were
+reached, and to regard with impatience, or at least with indifference,
+the story of their evolution; and yet no correct or profound knowledge
+of the growth of humanity to its higher planes can be obtained without
+noting to what extent the minor inventions, as well as the startling
+ones, have aided the upward progress.
+
+For instance, consider how few and comparatively awkward were the
+mechanical means before this century. The innumerable army of men when
+men were slaves, and when blood and muscle and brain were cheap, who,
+labouring with the beast, toiled upward for years on inclined ways to
+lay the stones of the stupendous pyramids, still had their counterpart
+centuries later in the stream of men carrying on their shoulders the
+loads of grain and other freight and burdens from the shore to the holds
+of vessels, from vessels to the shore, from the ground to high buildings
+and from one part of great warehouses to another. Now look at a vessel
+moved to a wharf, capable of holding fifty thousand or one hundred
+thousand bushels of grain and having that amount poured into it in three
+hours from the spouts of an elevator, to which the grain has been
+carried in a myriad buckets on a chain by steam power in about the same
+time; or to those arrangements of carriers, travelling on ropes, cords,
+wires, or cables, by which materials are quickly conveyed from one part
+of some structure or place to another, as hay and grain in barns or
+mows, ores from mines to cars, merchandise of all kinds from one part of
+a great store to another; or shot through pipes underground from one
+section of a city or town to their destination by a current of air.
+
+True, as it has before been stated, the ancients and later generations
+had the wedge, the pulley, the inclined plane, the screw and the
+windlass, and by these powers, modified in form and increased in size as
+the occasion demanded, in the form of cranes, derricks, and operated by
+animal power, materials were lifted and transported; but down to the
+time of the practical and successful application of steam by Watt in the
+latter part of the 18th century, and until a much later period in most
+places in the world, these simple means actuated alone by men or animals
+were the best means employed for elevating and conveying loads, and even
+they were employed to a comparatively limited extent.
+
+The century was well started before it was common to employ cups on
+elevator bands in mills, invented by Oliver Evans in 1780, to carry
+grain to the top of the mill, from whence it was to fall by gravity to
+the grinding and flouring apparatus below. It was not until 1795 that
+that powerful modern apparatus--the hydraulic, or hydrostatic, press was
+patented by Bramah in England. The model he then made is now in the
+museum of the Commissioner of Patents, London. In this a reservoir for
+water is provided, on which is placed a pump having a piston rod worked
+by a hand lever. The water is conveyed from the reservoir to a cylinder
+by a pipe, and this cylinder is provided with a piston carrying at its
+top a table, which rises between guides. The load to be carried is
+placed on this table, and as the machine was at first designed to
+compress materials the load is pressed by the rising table against an
+upper stationary plate. The elevation of the table is proportionate to
+the quantity of water injected, and the power proportionate to the
+receptive areas of the pump and the cylinder. The first great
+application of machines built on this principle was by Robert Stephenson
+in the elevation of the gigantic tubes for the tubular bridge across the
+Menai straits, already described in the chapter on Civil Engineering.
+The century was half through with before it was proposed to use water
+and steam for passenger elevators.
+
+In 1852 J. T. Slade in England patented a device consisting of a drum to
+be actuated by steam, water, or compressed air, around which drum ropes
+were wound, and to which ropes were attached separate cages in separate
+wells, to counterbalance each other, the cages moving in guides, and
+provided with brakes and levers to stop and control the cages and the
+movement of the drum. Louis T. Van Elvean, also of England, in 1858
+invented counterbalance weights for such lifts. Otis, an American,
+invented and patented in America and England in 1859 the first approach
+to the modern passenger elevator for hotels, warehouses, and other
+structures. The motive power was preferably a steam engine; and the
+elevating means was a large screw placed vertically and made to revolve
+by suitable gearing, and a cylinder to which the car was attached,
+having projections to work in the threads of the screw. Means were
+provided to start and to stop the car, and to retard its otherwise
+sudden fall and stoppage.
+
+Elevators, which are now so largely used to raise passengers and freight
+from the lower to the upper stories of high edifices, have for their
+motive power steam, water, compressed air, and electricity. With steam a
+drum is rotated over which a hoisting wire-rope is wound, to which the
+elevator car is attached. The car for passengers may be a small but
+elegantly furnished room, which is carried on guide blocks, and the
+stationary guides are provided with ratchet teeth with which pawls on
+the car are adapted to engage should the hoisting rope give way. To the
+hoisting rope is attached a counterbalance weight to partly meet the
+weight of the car in order to prevent the car from sticking fast on its
+passage, and also to prevent a sudden dropping of the car should the
+rope become slack. A hand rope for the operator is provided, which at
+its lower end is connected with a starting lever controlling the valves
+of the cylinders into which steam is admitted to start the piston shaft,
+which in turn actuates the gear wheels, by which movement the ropes are
+wound around the drums.
+
+In another form of steam elevator the drums are turned in opposite
+directions, by right and left worms driven by a belt.
+
+In the hydraulic form of elevator, a motor worked by water is employed
+to lift the car, although steam power is also employed to raise the
+water. The car is connected to wire cables passing over large sheaves at
+the top of the well room to a counterbalancing bucket. This bucket fits
+closely in a water-tight upright tube, or stand-pipe, about two feet in
+diameter, extending from the basement to the upper story. Near this
+stand-pipe in the upper story is placed a water supply tank. A pipe
+discharges the water from the tank into the bucket, which moves up and
+down in the stand pipe. There is a valve in the tank which is opened by
+stepping on a treadle in the car, and this action admits to the bucket
+just enough weight of water to overbalance the load on the car. As soon
+as the bucket is heavier than the car it descends, and of course draws
+the car upward, thus using the minimum power required to raise each
+load, rather than, when steam is employed, the full power of the engine
+each and every time. The speed is controlled by means of brakes or
+clamps that firmly clasp wrought-iron slides secured to posts on each
+side of the well room, the operator having control of these brakes by a
+lever on the car. When the car has ascended as far as desired, the
+operator steps upon another treadle in the car connected with a valve in
+the bottom of the bucket and thus discharges the water into the
+receiving tank below until the car is heavier than the bucket, when it
+then of course descends. The water is thus taken from the upper tank
+into the bucket, discharged through the stand-pipe into the receiving
+tank under the floor of the basement and then pumped back again to the
+upper tank, so that it is used over and over again without loss.
+
+Various modifications have been made in the hydraulic forms. In place of
+steam, electricity was introduced to control the hydraulic operation.
+Again, an electric motor has been invented to be placed on the car
+itself, with connected gearing engaging rack bars in the well.
+
+Elevators have been contrived automatically controlled by switch
+mechanisms on the landings; and in connection with the electric motor
+safety devices are used to break the motor circuit and thus stop the car
+the moment the elevator door is opened; and there are devices to break
+the circuit and stop the car at once, should an obstruction, the foot
+for instance, be accidentally thrust out into the path of the car frame.
+Columns of water and of air have been so arranged that should the car
+fall the fall will be broken by the water or air cushion made to yield
+gradually to the pressure. So many safety devices have been invented
+that there is now no excuse for accidents. They result by a criminal
+neglect of builders or engineers to provide themselves with such
+devices, or by a most ignorant or careless management and operation of
+simple actuating mechanisms.
+
+Between 1880 and 1890 there was great activity in the invention of what
+is known as store service conveyors. One of the earliest forms, and one
+which had been partly selected from other arts, was to suspend from a
+rigid frame work connected to the floor, roof, or side of the building,
+a long platform in the direction through the building it was desired the
+road to run, giving this platform a slight inclination. On this platform
+were placed tracks, and from the tracks were suspended trucks, baskets,
+or other merchandise receptacles, having wheels resting on and adapted
+to roll on the tracks. Double or single tracks could be provided as
+desired. The cars ran on these tracks by gravity, and considerable
+ingenuity was displayed in the feature alone of providing the out-going
+and returning inclined tracks; in hand straps and levers for raising and
+lowering the carriage, part or all of it, to or from the tracks, and in
+buffers to break the force of the blow of the carriages when arriving at
+their stopping places.
+
+Then about 1882-83 it was found by some inventors if moderately fine
+wires were stretched level, and as tight as possible, they would afford
+such little friction and resistance to light and nicely balanced wheels,
+that no inclination of the tracks was necessary, and that the carriages
+mounted on such wheels and tracks would run the entire length of a long
+building and turn corners not too sharp by a single initial push of the
+hand. In other arrangements a carrier is self-propelled by means of a
+coiled spring on the carrier, which begins its operation as soon as the
+carrier is given a start; and to meet the exhausted strength of such
+spring, coiled springs at different points on the line are arranged to
+engage and give the carrier an additional push. Before the carrier is
+stopped its action is such as to automatically rewind its spring.
+
+A system of pneumatic transmission was invented, by which a carrier is
+caused to travel through a tube by the agency of an air current, created
+therein by an air compressor, blower, or similar device. The device is
+so arranged that the air current is caused to take either direction
+through the tube; and in some instances gravity may be used to assist a
+vacuum formed behind the carrier. The tube is controlled at each end by
+one or more sliding gates or valves, and the carrier is made to actuate
+the gates, and close the one behind it, so that the carrier may be
+discharged without permitting the escape of the air and consequent
+reduction of pressure.
+
+An interesting invention has been made by James M. Dodge of Philadelphia
+in the line of conveyors, whereby pea coal and other quite heavy
+materials introduced by a hopper into a trough are subjected to a
+powerful air blast which pushes the material forward; and as the trough
+is provided with a series of frequently occurring slots or perforations
+open to the outer air and inclined opposite the direction of travel, the
+powerful current from the blower in escaping through such outlets tends
+to lift or buoy the material and carry it forward in the air current,
+thereby greatly reducing frictional contact and increasing the impelling
+operation. The inventor claims that with such an apparatus many tons of
+material per hour may be conveyed with a comparatively small working air
+pressure.
+
+In order that a conveyor carriage may be automatically switched off at a
+certain place or station on the line, one mode adopted was to arrange at
+a gate or station a sort of pin or projection or other deflector to
+engage some recess or corresponding feature on the carriage, so as to
+arrest and turn the carriage in its new direction at that point. Another
+mode was the adoption of electro-magnets, which would operate at a
+certain place to arrest or divert the carriage; and in either case the
+carriage was so constructed that its engaging features would operate
+automatically only in conjunction with certain features at a particular
+place on the line.
+
+Signals have been also adopted, in some cases operated by an electric
+current, by which the operator can determine whether or not the
+controlling devices have operated to stop the carrier at the desired
+place. By electric or mechanical means it is also provided that one or
+more loop branches may be connected with or disconnected from the main
+circuit.
+
+The "lazy tongs" principle has been introduced, by which a long
+lazy-tongs is shot forth through a tube or box to carry forward the
+carriage; and the same principle is employed in fire-escapes to throw up
+a cage to a great height to a window or other point, which cage is
+lowered gently and safely by the same means to the ground. Buffers of
+all kinds have been devised to effect the stoppage of the carrier
+without injury thereto under the different degrees of force with which
+it is moved upon its way, to prevent rebounding, and to enable the
+carrier to be discharged with facility at the end of its route.
+
+Among the early mechanical means of transporting the carriage was an
+endless cable moved continuously by an engine, and this adoption of
+cable principle in store service was co-eval with its adoption for
+running street cars. Also the system of switching the cars from the main
+line to a branch, and in different parts of a city, at the same time
+that all lines are receiving their motive power from the main line,
+corresponds to the manner of conveying cash to all parts of a building
+at the same time from many points.
+
+To the great department store or monstrous building wherein, as we have
+said, the whole business of a town may be transacted, the assemblage and
+conjoint use of elevators and conveyors seem to be actually necessary.
+
+A very useful and important line of inventions consists in means for
+forming connections between rotary shafts and their pulleys and
+mechanisms to be operated thereby, by which such mechanism can be
+started or stopped at once, or their motion reversed or retarded; or by
+which an actuating shaft may be automatically stopped. These means are
+known as _clutches_.
+
+They are designed often to afford a yielding connection between the
+shaft and a machine which shall prevent excessive strain and wear upon
+starting of the shaft. They are also often provided with a spring
+connection, which, in the rotation of the shaft in either direction,
+will operate to relieve the strain upon the shaft, or shafts, and its
+driving motor. Safety clutches are numerous, by which the machine is
+quickly and automatically stopped by the action of electro-magnets
+should a workman or other obstruction be caught in the machinery.
+
+Electric auxiliary mechanism has also been devised to start or stop the
+main machine slowly, and thus prevent injury to small or delicate parts
+of complicated machines, like printing presses for instance. Clutches
+are arranged sometimes in the form of weights, resembling the action of
+the weights in steam governors, whereby centrifugal action is relied
+upon for swinging the weights outward to effect a clutching and coupling
+of the shaft, or other mechanism, so that two lines of shafting are
+coupled, or the machine started, or speeded, at a certain time during
+the operation. In order to avoid the great mischief arising sometimes
+from undue strain upon and the breaking of a shaft, a weak coupling
+composed of a link is sometimes employed between the shaft and the
+driven machine, whereby, should the force become suddenly too great, the
+link of weaker metal is broken, and the connection between the shaft
+thereby destroyed and the machine stopped.
+
+To this class of inventions, as well as to many others, the phrase,
+"labour-saving", is applied as a descriptive term, and as it is a
+correct one in most instances, since they save the labour of many human
+hands, they are regarded by many as detrimental to a great extent, as
+they result in throwing out of employment a large number of persons.
+
+This derangement does sometimes occur, but the curtailment of the number
+of labourers is but temporary after all.
+
+The increased production of materials, resulting from cheaper and better
+processes, and from the reduced cost of handling them, necessitates the
+employment of a larger number of persons to take care of, in many ways,
+the greater output caused by the increased demand; the new machinery
+demands the labour of additional numbers in its manufacture; the
+increase in the size and heights of buildings involves new modes of
+construction and a greater number of artisans in their erection; new
+forms of industry springing from every practical invention which
+produces a new product or results in a new mode of operation,
+complicates the systems of labour, and creates a demand for a large
+number of employers and employees in new fields. Hence, it is only
+necessary to resort to comparative, statistics (too extensive to cite
+here) to show that the number of unemployed people in proportion to
+the populations, is less in the present age than in any previous
+one. In this sense, therefore, inventions should be classed as
+labour-_increasing_ devices.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+
+The science of Hydraulics appears to be as old as the thirst of man.
+
+When prehistoric men had only stone implements, with which to do their
+work, they built aqueducts, reservoirs and deep wells which rival in
+extent many great similar works that are the boast of their modern
+descendants. Modern inventors have also produced with a flourish nice
+instrumentalities for raising water, agencies which are covered with the
+moss of untold centuries in China.
+
+It was more than an ancient observation that came down to Pliny's time
+for record, that water would rise to a level with its source. The
+observation, however, was put into practical use in his time and long
+before without a knowledge of its philosophical cause.
+
+Nothing in Egyptian sculpture portraying the arts in vogue around the
+cradle of the human race is older than the long lever rocking upon a
+cleft stick, one arm of the lever carrying a bracket and the other arm
+used to raise a bucket from a well. Forty centuries and more have not
+rendered this device obsolete.
+
+Among other machines of the Egyptians, the Carthaginians, the Greeks,
+and the Romans for raising water was the _tympanum_, a drum-shape wheel
+divided into radial partitions, chambers, or pockets, which were open to
+a short depth on the periphery of the wheel, and inclined toward the
+axis, and which was driven by animal or manual power. These pockets
+scooped up the water from the stream or pond in which the wheel was
+located as the wheel revolved, and directed it toward the axis of the
+wheel, where it ran out into troughs, pipes, or gutters. The _Noria_, a
+chain of pots, and the screw of Archimedes were other forms of ancient
+pumps. The bucket pumps with some modifications are known in modern
+times as scoop wheels, and have been used extensively in the drainage of
+lands, especially by the Dutch, who at first drove them by windmills and
+later by steam.
+
+The division of water-wheels into overshot, undershot and breast wheels
+is not a modern system.
+
+In the _Pneumatics of Hero_, which compilation of inventions appeared in
+225 B. C., seventy-nine illustrations are given and described of simple
+machines, between sixty and seventy of which are hydraulic devices.
+Among these, are siphon pumps, the force pump of Ctesibius, a
+"fire-pump," having two cylinders, and two pistons, valves, and levers.
+We have in a previous chapter referred to Hero's steam engine. The fact
+that a vacuum may be created in a pump into which water will rise by
+atmospheric pressure appears to have been availed of but not explained
+or understood.
+
+The employment of the rope, pulley and windlass to raise water was known
+to Hero and his countrymen as well as by the Chinese before them. The
+chain pump and other pumps of simple form have only been improved since
+Hero's day in matters of detail. The screw of Archimedes has been
+extended in application as a carrier of water, and converted into a
+conveyor of many other materials.
+
+Thus, aqueducts, reservoirs, water-wheels (used for grinding grain),
+simple forms of pumps, fountains, hydraulic organs, and a few other
+hydraulic devices, were known to ancient peoples, but their limited
+knowledge of the laws of pneumatics and their little mechanical skill
+prevented much general progress or extensive general use of such
+inventions.
+
+It is said that Frontinus, a Roman Consul, and inspector of public
+fountains and aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan, and who wrote
+a book, _De Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae Commentarius_, describing the
+great aqueducts of Rome, was the first and the last of the ancients to
+attempt a scientific investigation of the motions of liquids.
+
+In 1593 Serviere, a Frenchman, born in Lyons, invented the rotary pump.
+In this the pistons consisted of two cog wheels, their leaves
+intermeshing, and rotated in an elliptical shaped chamber. The water
+entered the chamber from a lower pipe, and the action of the wheels was
+such as to carry the water around the chamber and force it out through
+an opposite upper pipe. Subsequent changes involved the rotating of the
+cylinder instead of the wheels and many modifications in the form of the
+wheels. The same principle was subsequently adopted in rotary steam
+engines.
+
+In 1586, a few years before this invention of Serviere, Stevinus, the
+great engineer of the dikes of Holland, wrote learnedly on the
+_Principles of Statics and Hydrostatics_, and Whewell states that his
+treatment of the subject embraces most of the elementary science of
+hydraulics and hydrostatics of the present day. This was followed by the
+investigations and treatises of Galileo, his pupil Torricelli, who
+discovered the law of air pressure, the great French genius, Pascal, and
+Sir Isaac Newton, in the 17th century; and Daniel Bernoulli, d'Alembert,
+Euler, the great German mathematician and inventor of the centrifugal
+pump, the Abb� Bossut, Venturi, Eylewein, and others in the 18th
+century.
+
+It was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that mankind departed much
+from the practice of supplying their towns and cities with water from
+distant springs, rivers and lakes, by pipes and aqueducts, and resorted
+to water distribution systems from towers and elevated reservoirs.
+Certain cities in Germany and France were the first to do this, followed
+in the 18th century by England. This seems strange, as to England, as in
+1582 one Peter Maurice, a Dutch engineer, erected at London, on the old
+arched bridge across the Thames, a series of forcing pumps worked by
+undershot wheels placed in the current of the river, by which he forced
+a supply of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty buildings adjacent to
+the bridge. Before the inventions of Newcomen and Watt in the latter
+part of the 18th century of steam pumps, the lift and force pumps were
+operated by wheels in currents, by horses, and sometimes by the force of
+currents of common sewers.
+
+When the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and cities thus began to be
+pumped for drinking purposes, _strainers_ and _filters_ of various kinds
+were invented of necessity. The first ones of which there is any printed
+record made their appearance in 1776.
+
+After the principles of hydraulics had thus been reviewed and discussed
+by the philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries and applied, to the
+extent indicated, further application of them was made, and especially
+for the propelling of vessels. In 1718 La Hire revived and improved the
+double-acting pump of Ctesibius, but to what extent he put it into use
+does not appear. However, it was the double-acting pump having two
+chambers and two valves, and in which the piston acted to throw the
+water out at each stroke.
+
+In 1730 Dr. John Allen of England designed a vessel having a tunnel or
+pipe open at the stern thereof through which water was to be pumped into
+the air or sea--the reaction thus occasioned driving the vessel forward.
+He put such a vessel at work in a canal, working the pumps by manual
+labor, and suggested the employment of a steam engine. A vessel of this
+kind was patented by David Ramsey of England in 1738. Rumsey of America
+in 1782 also invented a similar vessel, built one 50 feet long, and ran
+it experimentally on the Potomac river. Dr. Franklin also planned a boat
+of this kind in 1785 and illustrated the same by sketches. His plan has
+since been tried on the Scheldt, but two turbines were substituted for
+his simple force pump. Further mention will be made later on of a few
+more elaborate inventions of this kind.
+
+It also having been discovered that the fall of a column of water in a
+tube would cause a portion of it to rise higher than its source by
+reason of the force of momentum, a machine was devised by which
+successive impulses of this force were used, in combination with
+atmospheric pressure, to raise a portion of the water at each impulse.
+This was the well-known _ram_, and the first inventor of such a machine
+was John Whitehurst of Cheapside, England, who constructed one in 1772.
+From a reservoir, spring, or cistern of water, the water was discharged
+downward into a long pipe of small diameter, and from thence into a
+shorter pipe governed by a stop-cock. On the opening of the stop-cock
+the water was given a quick momentum, and on closing the cock water was
+forced by the continuing momentum through another pipe into an air
+chamber. A valve in the latter-mentioned pipe opened into the air
+chamber. The air pressure served to overcome the momentum and to close
+the chamber and at the same time forced the water received into the air
+chamber up an adjacent pipe. Another impulse was obtained and another
+injection of water into the chamber by again opening the stop-cock, and
+thus by successive impulses water was forced into the chamber and
+pressed by the air up through the discharge pipe and thence through a
+building or other receptacle. But the fact that the stop-valve had to be
+opened and closed by hand to obtain the desired number of lifts rendered
+the machine ineffective.
+
+In 1796 Montgolfier, a Frenchman and one of the inventors of the
+balloon, substituted for the stop-cock of the Whitehurst machine a loose
+impulse valve in the waste pipe, whereby the valve was raised by the
+rush of the water, made to set itself, check the outflow and turn the
+current into the air chamber. This simple alteration changed the
+character of the machine entirely, rendered it automatic in action and
+converted it into a highly successful water-raising machine. For this
+invention Montgolfier obtained a Gold Medal from the French Exposition
+of 1802. Where a head can be had from four to six feet, water can be
+raised to the height of 30 feet. Bodies of water greater in amount than
+is desired to be raised can thus be utilised, and this simple machine
+has come into very extensive use during the present century.
+
+Allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful hydraulic press of
+Joseph Bramah invented in 1795-1800, its practical introduction in this
+century and improvements therein of others. After the great improvements
+in the steam engine made by Watt, water, steam and air pressure joined
+their forces on the threshold of this century to lift and move the
+world, as it had never been moved before.
+
+The strong hands of hydraulics are pumps. They are divided into classes
+by names indicating their purpose and mode of operation, such as single,
+double-acting, lift or force, reciprocating or rotary, etc.
+
+Knight, in his celebrated _Mechanical Dictionary_, enumerates 100
+differently constructed pumps connected with the various arts. In a
+broader enumeration, under the head of _Hydraulic Engineering and
+Engineering Devices_, he gives a list of over 600 species. The number
+has since increased. About nine-tenths of these contrivances have been
+invented during the 19th century, although the philosophical principles
+of the operation of most of them had been previously discovered.
+
+The important epochs in the invention of pumps, ending with the 18th
+century, were thus the single-acting pump of Ctesibius, 225 B. C., the
+double-acting of La Hire in 1718, the hydraulic ram of Whitehurst, 1772,
+and the hydraulic press of Bramah of 1795-1802.
+
+Bramah's press illustrates how the theories of one age often lie
+dormant, but if true become the practices of a succeeding age. Pascal,
+150 years before Bramah's time, had written this seeming hydraulic
+paradox: "If a vessel closed on all sides has two openings, the one a
+hundred times as large as the other, and if each be supplied with a
+piston which fits it exactly, then a man pushing the small piston will
+equilibrate that of 100 men pushing the piston which is 100 times as
+large, and will overcome the other 99." This is the law of the hydraulic
+press, that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same.
+
+The next important epoch was the invention of Forneyron in 1823, of the
+water-wheel known as the Turbine and also as the Vortex Wheel. If we
+will return a moment to the little steam engine of the ancient Hero of
+Alexandria, called the Eolipile, it will be remembered that the steam
+admitted into a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite
+pipes, having bent exits turned in contrary directions, caused the
+vessel to rotate by reason of the reaction of the steam against the
+pipes. In what is called Barker's mill, brought out in the 18th century,
+substantially the same form of engine is seen with water substituted for
+the steam.
+
+A turbine is a wheel usually placed horizontally to the water. The wheel
+is provided with curved internal buckets against which the water is led
+by outer curved passages, the guides and the buckets both curved in such
+manner that the water shall enter the wheel as nearly as possible
+without shock, and leave it with the least possible velocity, thereby
+utilising the greatest possible amount of energy.
+
+In the chapter on Electrical inventions reference is made to the mighty
+power of Niagara used to actuate a great number of electrical and other
+machines of vast power. This utilisation had long been the dream of
+engineers. Sir William Siemens had said that the power of all the coal
+raised in the world would barely represent the power of Niagara. The
+dream has been realised, and the turbine is the apparatus through which
+the power of the harnessed giant is transmitted. A canal is dug from the
+river a mile above the falls. It conducts water to a power house near
+the falls. At the power house the canal is furnished with a gate, and
+with cribs to keep back the obstructions, such as sticks. At the gate is
+placed a vertical iron tube called a penstock, 7� feet in diameter
+and 160 feet deep. At the bottom of the penstock is placed a turbine
+wheel fixed on a shaft, and to which shaft is connected an electric
+generator or other power machine. On opening the gate a mass of water
+7� feet in diameter falls upon the turbine wheel 160 feet below. The
+water rushing through the wheel turns it and its shaft many hundred
+revolutions a minute. All the machinery is of enormous power and
+dimensions. One electric generator there is 11 feet 7 inches in diameter
+and spins around at the rate of 250 revolutions a minute. Means are
+provided by which the speed of each wheel is regulated automatically.
+Each turbine in a penstock represents the power of 5,000 horses, and
+there are now ten or more employed.
+
+After the water has done its work on the wheels it falls into a tunnel
+and is carried back to the river below the falls. Not only are the
+manufactures of various kinds of a large town at the falls thus supplied
+with power, but electric power is transmitted to distant towns and
+cities.
+
+Turbine pumps of the Forneyron type have an outward flow; but another
+form, invented also by a Frenchman, Jonval, has a downward discharge,
+and others are oblique, double, combined turbine, rotary, and
+centrifugal, embodying similar principles. The term _rotary_, broadly
+speaking, includes turbine and centrifugal pumps. The centrifugal pump,
+invented by Euler in 1754, was taken up in the nineteenth century and
+greatly improved.
+
+In the centrifugal pump of the ordinary form the water is received at
+the centre of the wheel and diverted and carried out in an upward
+direction, but in most of its modern forms derived from the turbine, the
+principle is adopted of so shaping the vanes that the water, striking
+them in the curved direction, shall not have its line of curvature
+suddenly changed.
+
+Among modern inventions of this class of pumps was the "Massachusetts"
+of 1818 and McCarty's, in 1830, of America, that of some contemporary
+French engineers, and subsequently in France the Appold system, which
+latter was brought into prominent notice at the London Exposition of
+1851. Improvements of great value were also made by Prof. James Thompson
+of England.
+
+Centrifugal pumps have been used with great success in lifting large
+bodies of water to a moderate height, and for draining marshes and other
+low lands.
+
+Holland, Germany, France, England and America have, through some of
+their ablest hydraulic engineers and inventors, produced most remarkable
+results in these various forms of pumps. We have noted what has been
+done at Niagara with the turbines; and the drainage of the marshes of
+Italy, the lowlands of Holland, the fens of England and the swamps of
+Florida bear evidence of the value of kindred inventions.
+
+That modern form of pump known as the _injector_, has many uses in the
+arts and manufactures. One of its most useful functions is to
+automatically supply steam boilers with water, and regulate the supply.
+It was the invention of Giffard, patented in England in 1858, and
+consists of a steam pipe leading from the boiler and having its nozzle
+projecting into an annular space which communicates with a feed pipe
+from a water supply. A jet of steam is discharged with force into this
+space, producing a vacuum, into which the water from the feed pipe
+rushes, and the condensed steam and water are driven by the momentum of
+the jet into a pipe leading into the boiler. This exceedingly useful
+apparatus has been improved and universally used wherever steam boilers
+are found. This idea of injecting a stream of steam or water to create
+or increase the flow of another stream has been applied in
+_intensifiers_, to increase the pressure of water in hydraulic mains,
+pipes, and machines, by additional pressure energy. Thus the water from
+an ordinary main may be given such an increased pressure that a jet from
+a hydrant may be carried to the tops of high houses.
+
+In connection with pumping it may be said that a great deal has been
+discovered and invented during this century concerning the force and
+utilisation of jets of water and the force of water flowing through
+orifices. In the art of mining, a new system called _hydraulicising_ has
+been introduced, by which jets of water at high pressure have been
+directed against banks and hills, which have crumbled, been washed away,
+and made to reveal any precious ore they have concealed.
+
+To assist this operation _flexible nozzles_ have been invented which
+permit the stream to be easily turned in any desired direction.
+
+Returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic pressure, mention
+must be made of the recent invention of the _hydraulic jack_, a portable
+machine for raising loads, and which has displaced the older and less
+efficient screw jack. As an example of the practical utility of the
+hydraulic jack, about a half century ago it required the aid of 480 men
+working at capstans to raise the Luxor Obelisk in Paris, whilst within
+30 years thereafter Cleopatra's Needle, a heavier monument, was raised
+to its present position on the Thames embankment by four men each
+working one hydraulic jack.
+
+By the high pressures, or stresses given by the hydraulic press it was
+learned that cold metals have plasticity and can be moulded or stretched
+like other plastic bodies. Thus in one modification a machine is had for
+making lead pipes:--A "container" is filled with molten lead and then
+allowed to cool. The container is then forced by the pump against an
+elongated die of the size of the pipe required. A pressure from one to
+two tons per square inch is exerted, the lead is forced up through the
+die, and the pipe comes out completed. Wrought iron and cold steel can
+be forced like wax into different forms, and a rod of steel may be drawn
+through a die to form a piano wire.
+
+By another modification of the hydraulic press pipes and cables are
+covered with a coating of lead to prevent deterioration from rust and
+other causes.
+
+Not only are cotton and other bulky materials pressed into small compass
+by hydraulic machines, but very valuable oils are pressed from cotton
+seed and from other materials--the seed being first softened, then made
+into cakes, and the cakes pressed.
+
+If it is desired to line tunnels or other channels with a metal lining,
+shield or casing, large segments of iron to compose the casing are put
+in position, and as fast as the tunnel is excavated the casing is
+pressed forward, and when the digging is done the cast-iron tunnel is
+complete.
+
+If the iron hoops on great casks are to be tightened the cask is set on
+the plate of a hydraulic press, the hoops connected to a series of steel
+arms projecting from an overhanging support, and the cask is pressed
+upward until the proper degree of tightness is secured.
+
+In the application of hydraulic power to machine tools great advances
+have been made. It has become a system, in which Tweddle of England was
+a pioneer. The great force of water pressure combined with comparatively
+slow motion constitutes the basis of the system. Sir William Fairbairn
+had done with steam what Tweddle and others accomplished with water.
+Thus the enormous force of men and the fearful clatter formerly
+displayed in these huge works where the riveting of boilers was carried
+on can now be dispensed with, and in place of the noisy hammer with its
+ceaseless blows has come the steam or the hydraulic riveting machine,
+which noiselessly drives the rivet through any thickness of metal,
+clinches the same, and smooths the jointed plate. The forging and the
+rolling of the plates are performed by the same means.
+
+William George Armstrong of England, afterward Sir William, first a
+lawyer, but with the strongest bearing toward mechanical subjects,
+performed a great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering. It
+is claimed that he did for hydraulic machinery, in the storage and
+transmission of power thereby, what Watt did for the steam engine and
+Bessemer did for steel. In 1838 he produced his first invention, an
+important improvement in the hydraulic engine. In 1840, in a letter to
+the _Mechanics' Magazine_, he calls attention to the advantages of water
+as a mechanical agent and a reservoir of power, and showed how water
+pumped to an elevated reservoir by a steam engine might have the
+potential energy thus stored utilised in many advantageous ways. How,
+for instance, a small engine pumping continuously could thus supply many
+large engines working intermittently. In illustration of this idea he
+invented a crane, which was erected on Newcastle quay in 1846; another
+was constructed on the Albert dock at Liverpool, and others at other
+places. These cranes, adapted for the lifting and carrying of enormous
+loads, were worked by hydraulic pressure obtained from elevated tanks or
+reservoirs, as above indicated. But as a substitute for such tanks or
+reservoirs he invented the _Accumulator_. This consists of a large
+cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger, which is made to work
+water-tight therein by means of suitable packing. To this plunger is
+attached a weighted case filled with one or many tons of metal or other
+coarse material. Water is pumped into the cylinder until the plunger is
+raised to its full height within the cylinder, when the supply of water
+is cut off by the automatic operation of a valve. When the cranes or
+other apparatus to be worked thereby are in operation, water is passed
+from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates the crane through
+hydraulic pressure. This pressure of course depends upon the weight of
+the plunger. Thus a pressure of from 500 to 1,000 pounds per square inch
+may be obtained. The descending plunger maintains a constant pressure
+upon the water, and the water is only pumped into the cylinder when it
+is required to be filled. With sensitive accumulators of this character
+hydraulic machinery is much used on board ships for steering them, and
+for loading, discharging and storing cargoes.
+
+_Water Pressure Engines_ or _Water Motors_ of a great variety as to
+useful details have been invented to take advantage of a natural head of
+water from falls wherever it exists, or from artificial accumulators or
+from street mains. They resemble steam engines, in that the water under
+pressure drives a piston in a cylinder somewhat in the manner of steam.
+The underlying principle of this class of machinery is the admission of
+water under pressure to a cylinder which moves the piston and is allowed
+to escape on the completion of the stroke. They are divided into two
+great classes, single and double acting engines, accordingly as the
+water is admitted to one side of the piston only, or to both sides
+alternately. Both kinds are provided with a regulator in the form of a
+turn-cock, weight, or spring valve to regulate and control the flow of
+water and to make it continuous. They are used for furnishing a limited
+amount of power for working small printing presses, dental engines,
+organs, sewing machines, and for many other purposes where a light motor
+is desired.
+
+The nineteenth century has seen a revolution in _baths_ and accompanying
+_closets_. However useful, luxurious, and magnificent may have been the
+patrician baths of ancient Rome, that system, which modern investigators
+have found to be so complete to a certain extent, was not nor ever has
+been in the possession of the poor. It is within the memory of many now
+living everywhere how wretched was the sanitary accommodations in every
+populous place a generation or two ago. Now, with the modern water
+distribution systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which can be brought
+to the homes of all, with plunger, valved siphon and valved and washout
+closets, air valve, liquid seal, pipe inlet, and valve seal traps, and
+with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning systems for drains and
+cesspools, little excuse can be had for want of proper sanitary
+regulations in any intelligent community. The result of the adoption of
+these modern improvements in this direction on the health of the people
+has been to banish plagues, curtail epidemics, and prolong for years the
+average duration of human life.
+
+How multiplied are the uses to which water is put, and how completely it
+is being subjected to the use of man!
+
+Rivers and pipes have their metres, so that now the velocity and volume
+of rivers and streams are measured and controlled, and floods prevented.
+The supplies for cities and for families are estimated, measured and
+recorded as easily as are the supplies of illuminating gas, or the flow
+of food from elevators.
+
+Among the minor, but very useful inventions, are _water scoops_ for
+picking up water for a train while in motion, consisting of a curved
+open pipe on a car, the mouth of which strikes a current of water in an
+open trough between the tracks and picks up and deposits in a minute a
+car load of water for the engine. _Nozzles_ to emit jets of great
+velocity, and ball nozzles terminating in a cup in which a ball is
+loosely seated, and which has the effect, as it is lifted by the jet, to
+spread it into an umbrella-shaped spray, are of great value at fires in
+quenching flame and smoke.
+
+Next to pure air to breathe we need pure water to drink, and modern
+discoveries and inventions have done and are doing much to help us to
+both. Pasteur and others have discovered and explained the germ theory
+of disease and to what extent it is due to impure water. Inventors have
+produced _filters_, and there is a large class of that character which
+render the water pure as it enters the dwelling, and fit for all
+domestic purposes. A specimen of the latter class is one which is
+attached to the main service pipe as it enters from the street. The
+water is first led into a cylinder stored with coarse filtering material
+which clears the water of mud, sediment and coarser impurities, and then
+is conducted into a second cylinder provided with a mass of fine grained
+or powdered charcoal, or some other material which has the quality of
+not only arresting all remaining injurious ingredients, but destroys
+organisms, neutralises ammonia and other deleterious matter. From thence
+the water is returned to the service pipe and distributed through the
+house. The filter may be thoroughly cleansed by reversing the movement
+of the water, and carrying it off through a drain pipe until it runs
+clear and sweet, whereupon the water is turned in its normal course
+through the filter and house.
+
+In a very recent report of General J. M. Wilson, Chief of Engineers,
+U.S.A., the subject of filtration of water, and especially of public
+water supplies in England, the United States, and on the Continent, is
+very thoroughly treated, and the conclusion arrived at there is that the
+system termed "the American," or mechanical system, is the most
+successful one.
+
+This consists, first, in leading the water into one or more reservoirs,
+then coagulating suspended matter in the water by the use of the
+sulphate of alumina, and then allowing the water to flow through a body
+of coarse sand, by which the coagulated aluminated matter is caught and
+held in the interstices of the sand, and the bacteria arrested. All
+objectionable matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of the sand
+body, which portion is from time to time scraped off, and the whole sand
+mass occasionally washed out by upward currents of water forced through
+the same.
+
+By this system great rapidity of filtration is obtained, the rate being
+120,000,000 gallons a day per acre.
+
+The English system consists more in the use of extended and successive
+reservoirs or beds of sand alone, or aided by the use of the sulphate.
+This also is extensively used in many large cities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
+
+
+"The march of the human mind is slow," exclaimed Burke in his great
+speech on "Conciliation with the Colonies." It was at the beginning of
+the last quarter of the 18th century that he was speaking, and he was
+referring to the slow discovery of the eternal laws of Providence as
+applied in the field of political administration to distant colonies.
+The same could then have been said of the march of the human mind in the
+realms of Nature. How slow had been the apprehension of the forces of
+that kind but silent Mother whose strong arms are ever ready to lift and
+carry the burdens of men whenever her aid is diligently sought! The
+voice of Burke was, however, hardly silent when the human mind suddenly
+awoke, and its march in the realms of government and of natural science
+since then cannot be regarded as slow.
+
+More than fifteen centuries before Burke spoke, not only had Greece
+discovered the principles of political freedom for its citizens and its
+colonies, but the power of steam had been discovered, and experimental
+work been done with it.
+
+Yet when the famous orator made his speech the Grecian experiment was a
+toy of Kings, and the steam engine had just developed from this toy into
+a mighty engine in the hands of Watt. The age of mechanical inventions
+had just commenced with the production of machines for spinning and
+weaving. And yet, in view of the rise of learning, and the appearance
+from time to time of mighty intellects in the highest walks of science,
+the growth of the mind in the line of useful machinery had indeed been
+strangely slow. "Learning" had revived in Italy in the 12th and 13th
+centuries and spread westward in the 14th. In the 15th, gunpowder and
+printing had been discovered, and Scaliger, the famous scholar of Italy,
+and Erasmus, the celebrated Dutch philosopher, were the leading
+restorers of ancient literature. Science then also revived, and
+Copernicus, the Pole, gave us the true theory of the solar system. The
+16th century produced the great mathematicians and astronomers Tycho
+Brahe, the Dane, Cardan and Galileo, the illustrious Italians, and
+Kepler, the German astronomer, whose discovery of the laws of planetary
+motion supplemented the works of Copernicus and Galileo and illuminated
+the early years of the 17th century.
+
+In the 17th century appeared Torricelli, the inventor of the barometer;
+Guericke, the German, inventor of the air pump; Fahrenheit, the inventor
+of the mercurial thermometer bearing his name; Leibnitz, eminent in
+every department of science and philosophy; Huygens, the great Dutch
+astronomer and philosopher; Pascal of France and Sir Isaac Newton of
+England, the worthy successors of Kepler, Galileo and Copernicus; and
+yet, with the exception of philosophical discoveries and a few
+experiments, the field of invention in the way of motor engines still
+remained practically closed. But slight as had been the discoveries and
+experiments referred to, they were the mine from which the inventions of
+subsequent times were quarried.
+
+One of the earliest, if not the first of pneumatic machines, was the
+bellows. Its invention followed the discovery of fire and of metals. The
+bladders of animals suggested it, and their skins were substituted for
+the bladders.
+
+The Egyptians have left a record of its use, thirty-four centuries ago,
+and its use has been continuous ever since.
+
+Mention has been made of the cannon. It was probably the earliest
+attempt to obtain motive power from heat. The ball was driven out of an
+iron cylinder by the inflammatory power of powder. Let a piston be
+substituted for the cannon ball, as was suggested by Huygens in 1680 and
+by Papin in 1690, and the charge of powder so reduced that when it is
+exploded the piston will not be thrown entirely out of the cylinder,
+another small explosive charge introduced on the other side of the
+piston to force it back, or let the cylinder be vertical and the piston
+be driven back by gravity, means provided to permit the escape of the
+gas after it has done its work, and means to keep the cylinder cool, and
+we have the prototype of the modern heat engines. The gunpowder
+experiments of Huygens and Papin were not successful, but they were the
+progenitors of similar inventions made two centuries thereafter.
+
+Jan Baptista van Helmont, a Flemish physician (1577-1644), was the first
+to apply the term, _gas_ to the elastic fluids which resemble air in
+physical properties. Robert Boyle, the celebrated Irish scholar and
+scientist, and improver of the air pump, and Edwin Mariotte, the French
+physicist who was first to show that a feather and a coin will drop the
+same distance at the same time in a reservoir exhausted of air, were the
+independent discoverers of Boyle's and Mariotte's law of
+gases(1650-1676). This was that at any given temperature of a gas which
+is at rest its volume varies inversely with the pressure put upon it. It
+follows from this law that the density and tension, and therefore the
+expansive force of a gas, are proportional to the compressing force to
+which it is subjected. It is said that Abb� Hauteville, the son of a
+baker of Orleans, about 1678 proposed to raise water by a powder motor;
+and that in 1682 he described a machine based on the principle of the
+circulation of the blood, produced by the alternate expansion and
+contraction of the heart.
+
+The production of heat by concentrating the rays of the sun, and for
+burning objects had been known from the time of Archimedes, and been
+repeated from time to time.
+
+Thus stood this art at the close of the 17th century, and thus it
+remained until near the close of the 18th.
+
+In England Murdock, the Cornish Steam Engineer, was the first to make
+and use coal gas for illuminating purposes, which he did in 1792 and
+1798. Its utilisation for other practical purposes was then suggested.
+
+Gas engines as motive powers were first described in the English patent
+to John Barber, in 1791, and then in one issued to Robert Street in
+1794. Barber proposed to introduce a stream of carbonated hydrogen gas
+through one port, and a quantity of air at another, and explode them
+against the piston. Street proposed to drive up the piston by the
+expansive force of a heated gas, and anticipated many modern ideas.
+Phillipe Lebon, a French engineer, in 1799 and in 1801 anticipated in a
+theoretical way many ideas since successfully reduced to practice. He
+proposed to use coal gas to drive a piston, which in turn should move
+the shaft that worked the pumps which forced in the gas and air, and
+thus make the machine double-acting; to introduce a charge of
+inflammable gas mixed with sufficient air to ignite it; to compress the
+air and gas before they entered the motor cylinder; to introduce the
+charge alternately on each side of the piston; and he also suggested the
+use of the electric spark to fire the mixture. But Lebon was
+assassinated and did not live to work out his ideas.
+
+At the very beginning of the 19th century John Dalton in England,
+1801-1807, and Gay-Lussac in France began their investigations of gases
+and vapours. Dalton was not only the author of the atomic theory, but
+the discoverer of the leading ideas in the "Constitution of Mixed
+Gases." These features were the diffusion of gases, the action of gases
+on each other in vacuum--the influence of different temperatures upon
+them, their chemical constituents and their relative specific gravity.
+
+Gay-Lussac, continuing his investigations as to expansion of air and
+gases under increased temperatures, in 1807-10, established the law that
+when free from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to equal amounts
+for all equal increments of temperature. He also showed that the gases
+combine, as to volume, in simple proportions, and that several of them
+on being compounded contracted always in such simple proportions as
+one-half, one-third, or one-quarter, of their joint bulk. By these laws
+all forms of engines which were made to work through the agency of heat
+are classed as heat engines--so that under this head are included steam
+engines, air engines, gas engines, vapour engines and solar engines. The
+tie that binds these engines into one great family is temperature. It is
+the heat that does the work. Whether it is a cannon, the power of which
+is manifested in a flash, or the slower moving steam engine, whose
+throbbing heart beats not until water is turned to steam, or the sun,
+the parent of them all, whose rays are grasped and used direct, the
+question in all cases is, what is the amount of heat produced and how
+can it be controlled?
+
+It, then, can make no difference what the agent is that is employed,
+whether air, or gas, or steam, or the sun, or gunpowder explosion, but
+what is the temperature to be attained in the cylinder or vessel in
+which they work. Power is the measure of work done in a given time.
+Horse power is the unit of such measurement, and it consists of the
+amount of power that is required to raise one pound through a vertical
+distance of one foot. This power is pressure and the pressure is heat.
+The unit of heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
+of a pound of distilled water one degree--from 39 degrees to 40 degrees
+F. Its amount or measurement is determined in any instance by a
+dynamometer.
+
+These were the discoveries with which Philosophy opened the nineteenth
+century so brilliantly in the field of Pneumatics.
+
+Before that time it seemed impossible that explosive gases would ever be
+harnessed as steam had been and made to do continual successful work in
+a cylinder and behind a piston. As yet means were to be found to make
+the engine efficient as a double-acting one--to start the untamed steed
+at the proper moment and to stop him at the moment he had done his work.
+
+As Newcomen had been the first in the previous century to apply the
+steam engine to practical work--pumping water from mines--so Samuel
+Brown of England was the first in this century to invent and use a gas
+engine upon the water.
+
+Brown took out patents in 1823 and 1826. He proposed to use gunpowder
+gas as the motive power. His engine was also described in the
+_Mechanics' Magazine_ published in London at that time. In the making of
+his engine he followed the idea of a steam engine, but used the flame of
+an ignited gas jet to create a vacuum within the cylinder instead of
+steam. He fitted up an experimental boat with such an engine, and means
+upon the boat to generate the gas. The boat was then operated upon the
+Thames. He also succeeded experimentally in adapting his engine to a
+road carriage. But Brown's machines were cumbrous, complicated, and
+difficult to work, and therefore did not come into public use.
+
+About this time (1823), Davy and Faraday reawakened interest in gas
+engines by their discovery that a number of gases could be reduced to a
+liquid state, some by great pressure, and others by cold, and that upon
+the release of the pressure the gases would return to their original
+volume. In the condensation heat was developed, and in re-expansion it
+was rendered latent.
+
+Then Wright in 1833 obtained a patent in which he expounded and
+illustrated the principles of expansion and compression of gas and air,
+performed in separate cylinders, the production of a vacuum by the
+explosion and the use of a water jacket around the cylinder for cooling
+it.
+
+For William Burdett, in 1838, is claimed the honour of having been the
+first to invent the means of compressing the gas and air previous to the
+explosion, substantially the same as adopted in gas engines of the
+present day.
+
+The defects found in gas engines thus far were want of proper
+preliminary compression, then in complete expansion, and finally loss of
+heat through the walls.
+
+Some years later, Lenoir, a Frenchman, invented a gas engine of a
+successful type, of which three hundred in 1862 were in use in France.
+It showed what could be accomplished by an engine in which the fuel was
+introduced and fired directly in the piston cylinder. Its essential
+features were a cylinder into which a mixture of gas and air was
+admitted at atmospheric pressure, which was maintained until the piston
+made half its stroke, when the gas was exploded by an electric spark. A
+wheel of great weight was hung upon a shaft which was connected to the
+piston, and which weight absorbed the force suddenly developed by the
+explosion, and so moderated the speed. Another object of the use of the
+heavy wheel was to carry the machine over the one-half of the period in
+which the driving power was absent.
+
+Hugon, another eminent French engineer, invented and constructed a gas
+engine on the same principle as Lenair's.
+
+About this time (1850-60) M. Beau de Rohes, a French engineer,
+thoroughly investigated the reasons of the uneconomical working of gas
+motors, and found that it was due to want of sufficient compression of
+the gas and air previous to explosion, incomplete expansion and loss of
+heat through the walls of the cylinder, and he was the first to
+formulate a "cycle" of operations necessary to be followed in order to
+render a gas engine efficient. They related to the size and dimensions
+of the cylinder; the maximum speed of the piston; the greatest possible
+expansion, and the highest pressure obtainable at the beginning of the
+act of expansion. The study and application of these conditions created
+great advancements in gas engines.
+
+With the discovery and development of the oil wells in the United States
+about 1860 a new fuel was found in the crude petroleum, as well as a
+source of light. The application of petroleum to engines, either to
+produce furnace heat, or as introduced directly into the piston cylinder
+mixed with inflammable gas to produce flame heat and expansion, has
+given a wonderful impetus to the utilisation of gas engines.
+
+G. H. Brayton of the United States in 1873 invented a very efficient
+engine in which the vapour of petroleum mixed with air constituted the
+fuel. Adolf Spiel of Berlin has also recently invented a petroleum
+engine.
+
+Principal among those to whom the world is indebted for the revolution
+in the construction of gas engines and its establishment as a successful
+rival to the steam engine is Nicolaus A. Otto of Deutz on the Rhine.
+
+In the Lenair and Hugon system the expansive force of the exploded gas
+was used directly upon the piston, and through this upon the other
+moving parts. A great noise was produced by these constant explosions.
+In the Otto system the explosion is used indirectly and only to produce
+a vacuum below the piston, when atmospheric pressure is used to give the
+return stroke of the piston and produce the effective work. The Otto
+engine is noiseless. This is accomplished by his method of mixing and
+admitting the gases. He employs two different mixtures, one a "feebly
+explosive mixture," and the other "a strongly explosive mixture," used
+to operate on the piston and thus prolong the explosions.
+
+The mode of operation of one of Otto's most successful engines is as
+follows: The large fly wheel is started by hand or other means, and as
+the piston moves forward it draws into the cylinder a light charge of
+mixed coal gas and air, and the gas inlet is then cut off. As the piston
+returns it compresses this mixture. At the moment the down stroke is
+completed the compressed mixture is ignited, and, expanding, drives the
+piston before it. In the second return stroke the burnt gases are
+expelled from the cylinder and the whole made ready to start afresh.
+Work is actually done in the piston only during one-quarter of the time
+it is in motion. The fly-wheel carries forward the work at the outset
+and the gearing the rest of the time.
+
+Otto was associated with Langen in producing his first machine, and its
+introduction at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876
+excited great attention. Otto and E. W. and W. J. Crossley jointly, and
+then Otto singly, subsequently patented notable improvements.
+
+Simon Bischof and Clark, Hurd and Clayton in England; Daimler of Deutz
+on the Rhine, Riker and Wiegand of the United States, and others, have
+made improvements in the Otto system.
+
+Ammoniacal gas engines have been successfully invented. _Aqua ammonia_
+is placed in a generator in which it is heated. The heat separates the
+ammonia gas from the water, and the gas is then used to operate a
+suitable engine. The exhaust gas is cooled, passed into the previously
+weakened solution, reabsorbed and returned to the generator. In 1890
+Charles Tellier of France patented an ammoniacal engine, also means for
+utilising solar heat and exhaust steam for the same purpose; and in the
+same year De Susini, also of France, patented an engine operated by the
+vapour of ether; A. Nobel, another Frenchman, in 1894, patented a
+machine for propelling torpedoes and other explosive missiles, and for
+controlling the course of balloons, the motive power of which is a gas
+developed in a closed reservoir by the chemical reaction of metallic
+sodium or potassium in a solution of ammonia. These vapour engines are
+used for vapour launches, bicycles and automobiles.
+
+In 1851 the ideas of Huygens and Papin of two hundred years before were
+revived by W. M. Storm, who in that year took out a gunpowder engine
+patent in the United States, in which the air was compressed by the
+explosions of small charges of gunpowder. About fifteen other patents
+have been taken out in America since that time for such engines. In some
+the engines are fed by cartridges which are exploded by pulling a
+trigger.
+
+As to gas and vapor engines generally, it may now be said, in comparison
+with steam, that although the steam engine is now regarded as almost
+perfect in operation, and that it can be started and stopped and
+otherwise controlled quietly, smoothly, instantaneously, and in the most
+uniform and satisfactory manner, yet there is the comparatively long
+delay in generating the steam in the boiler, and the loss of heat and
+power as it is conducted in pipes to the working cylinder, resulting in
+the utilisation of only ten per cent of the actual power generated,
+whereas gas and vapour engines utilise twenty-five per cent of the power
+generated, and the flame and explosions are now as easily and
+noiselessly controlled as the flow of oil or water. The world is coming
+to agree with Prof. Fleeming Jenkins that "Gas engines will ultimately
+supplant the steam."
+
+The smoke and cinder nuisance with them has been solved.
+
+The sister invention of the gas engine is the air engine. There can be
+no doubt about the success of this busy body, as it is now a swift and
+successful motor in a thousand different fields. Machines in which air,
+either hot or cold, is used in place of steam as the moving power to
+drive a piston, or to be driven by a piston, are known generally as air,
+caloric, or hot-air engines, air compressors, or compressed air engines,
+and are also classed as pneumatic machines, air brakes, or pumps. They
+are now specifically known by the name of the purpose to which they are
+applied, as air ship, ventilator, air brake, fan blower, air pistol, air
+spring, etc.
+
+The attention of inventors was directed towards compressed and heated
+air as a motor as soon as steam became a known and efficient servant;
+but the most important and the only successful air machine existing
+prior to this century was the air pump, invented by Guericke in 1650,
+and subsequently perfected by Robert Boyle and others. The original pump
+and the Magdeburg hemispheres are still preserved.
+
+It is recorded that Amontons of France, in 1699, had an atmospheric fire
+wheel or air engine in which a heated column of air was made to drive a
+wheel.
+
+It has already been noted what Papin (1680-1690) proposed and did in
+steam. His last published work was a Latin essay upon a new system for
+raising water by the action of fire, published in 1707.
+
+The action of confined and compressed steam and gases, and air, is so
+nearly the same in the machines in which they constitute the motive
+power that the history, development, construction, and operation of the
+machines of one class are closely interwoven with those of the others.
+
+Taking advantage of what had been taught them by Watt and others as to
+steam and steam engines, and of the principles and laws of gases as
+expounded by Boyle, Mariotte, Dalton, and Gay-Lussac, that many of the
+gases, such as air, preserve a permanent expansive gaseous form under
+all degrees of temperature and compression to which they had as yet been
+subjected, that when compressed and released they will expand, and exert
+a pressure in the contrary direction until the gas and outside
+atmospheric pressure are in equilibrium, that this compressed gas
+pressure is equal, and transmitted equally in all directions, and that
+the weight of a column of air resting on every horizontal square inch at
+the sea level is very nearly 14.6 pounds, the inventors of the
+nineteenth century were enabled by this supreme illumination to enter
+with confidence into that work of mechanical contrivances which has
+rendered the age so marvellous.
+
+It was natural that in the first development of mechanical appliances
+they should be devoted to those pursuits in which men had the greatest
+practical interest. Thus as to steam it was first applied to the raising
+of water from mines and then to road vehicles. And so in 1800 Thos.
+Parkinson of England invented and patented an "hydrostatic engine or
+machine for the purpose of drawing beer or any other liquid out of a
+cellar or vault in a public house, which is likewise intended to be
+applied for raising water out of mines, ships or wells. By the use of a
+sort of an air pump he maintained an air pressure on the beer in an
+air-tight cask situated in the cellar, which was connected with pipes
+having air-tight valves, with the upper floor. The liquid was forced
+from the cellar by the air pressure, and when turned off, the air
+pressure was resumed in the cask, which "preserved the beer from being
+thrown into a state of flatness." Substantially the same device in
+principle has been reinvented and incorporated in patents numerous times
+since.
+
+In the innumerable applications of the pneumatic machines and air tools
+of the century, especially of air-compressing devices, to the daily uses
+of life, we may, by turning first to our home, find its inner and outer
+walls painted by a pneumatic paint-spraying machine, for such have been
+made that will coat forty-six thousand square feet of surface in six
+hours; and it is said that paint can be thus applied not only more
+quickly, but more thoroughly and durably than by the old process. The
+periodical and fascinating practice of house cleaning is now greatly
+facilitated by an air brush having a pipe with a thin wide end in which
+are numerous perforations, and through which the air is forced by a
+little pump, and with which apparatus a far more efficient cleaning
+effect upon carpets, mattresses, curtains, clothes, and furniture can be
+obtained than by the time-honoured broom and duster.
+
+Is the home uncomfortable by reason of heat and summer insects? A
+compressor having tanks or cisterns in the cellar filled with cool or
+cold air may be set to work to reduce the temperature of the house and
+fan the inmates with a refreshing breeze.
+
+Air engines have been invented which can be used to either heat or cool
+the air, or do one or the other automatically. The heating when wanted
+is by fuel in a furnace forced up by a working cylinder, and the cooling
+by the circulation of water around small, thin copper tubes through
+which the air passes to the cylinder.
+
+Do the chimes of the distant church bells lead one to the house of
+worship? The worshipper goes with the comforting assurance that the
+chimes which send forth such sweet harmonies are operated not by
+toiling, sweating men at ropes, but by a musician who plays as upon an
+organ, and works the keys, valves and stops by the aid of compressed
+air, and sometimes by the additional help of electricity.
+
+Mention has already been made of office and other elevators, in which
+compressed air is an important factor in operating the same and for
+preventing accidents.
+
+If a waterfall is convenient, air is compressed by the body of
+descending water, and used to ventilate tunnels, and deep shafts and
+mines, or drive the drills or other tools.
+
+The pneumatic mail tube despatch system, by which letters, parcels,
+etc., are sent from place to place by the force of atmospheric pressure
+in an air-exhausted tube, is a decidedly modern invention, unknown in
+use even by those who are still children. Tubes as large as eight inches
+in diameter are now in use in which cartridge boxes are placed, each
+holding six hundred or more letters, and when the air is exhausted the
+cartridge is forced through the tubes to the distance sometimes of three
+miles and more in a few minutes.
+
+In travelling by rail the train is now guided in starting or in stopping
+on to the right track, which may be one out of forty or fifty, by a
+pneumatic switch, the switches for the whole number of tracks being
+under the control of a single operator. The fast-moving train is stopped
+by an air brake, and the locomotive bell is rung by touching an air
+cylinder. The "baggage smashing," a custom more honoured in the breach
+than in the observance, is prevented by a pneumatic baggage arrangement
+consisting of an air-containing cylinder, and an arm on which to place
+the baggage, and which arm is then quickly raised by the cylinder piston
+and is automatically swung around by a cam action carrying the baggage
+out of or into the car.
+
+Bridge building has been so facilitated by the use of pneumatic machines
+for raising heavy loads of stone and iron, and for riveting and
+hammering, and other air tools, aided by the development in the art of
+quick transportation, that a firm of bridge builders in America can
+build a splendid bridge in Africa within a hundred days after the
+contract has been entered upon.
+
+Ship building is hastened by these same air drilling and riveting
+machines.
+
+The propelling of cars, road vehicles, boats, balloons, and even ships,
+by explosive gases and compressed air is an extensive art in itself, yet
+still in its infancy, and will be more fully described in the chapter on
+carrying machines.
+
+The realm of Art has received a notable advancement by the use of a
+little blow-pipe or atomiser by which the pigments forming the
+background on beautiful vases are blown with just that graduated force
+desired by the operator to produce the most exquisitely smooth and
+blended effects, while the varying colours are made to melt
+imperceptibly into one another as delicately as the mingled shade and
+coloured sunlight fall on a forest brook.
+
+But to enumerate the industrial arts to which air and other pneumatic
+machines have been adapted would be to catalogue them all. Mention is
+made of others in chapters in which those special arts are treated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATION AND LIGHTING.
+
+
+That Prometheus stole fire from heaven to give it to man is perhaps as
+authentic an account of the invention of fire as has been given. It is
+also reported that he brought it to earth in a hollow tube. If a small
+stick or twig had then been dipped into the divine fire the suggestion
+of the modern match may be supposed to have been made.
+
+But men went on to reproduce the fire in the old way by rubbing pieces
+of wood together, or using the flint, the steel and the tinder until
+1680, when Godfrey Hanckwitz of London, learning of the recent discovery
+of phosphorus and its nature, and inspired by the Promethean idea,
+wrapped the phosphorus in folds of brown paper, rubbed it until it took
+fire, and then ignited thereat one end of a stick which he had dipped in
+sulphur; and this is commonly known as the first invented match. There
+followed the production of a somewhat different form of match, sticks
+first dipped in sulphur, and then in a composition of chlorate potash,
+sulphur, colophony, gum of sugar, and cinnabar for coloring. These were
+arranged in boxes, and were accompanied by a vial containing sulphuric
+acid, into which the match was dipped and thereby instantly ignited.
+These were called chemical matches and were sold at first for the high
+price of fifteen shillings a box.
+
+They were too costly for common use, and so our fathers went on to the
+nineteenth century using the flint, the steel and the tinder, and
+depending on the coal kept alive upon their own or their neighbour's
+hearth.
+
+Prometheus, however, did reappear about 1820-25, when a match bearing
+the name "Promethean" was invented. It consisted of a roll of paper
+treated with sugar and chlorate of potash and a small cell containing
+sulphuric acid. This cell was broken by a pair of pliers and the acid
+ignited the composition by contact therewith.
+
+It was not until 1827-29 that John Walker, chemist, at
+Stockton-upon-Tees, improved upon the idea of Prometheus and Hanckwitz
+of giving fire to men in a hollow tube. He used folded sanded paper--it
+may have been a tube--and through this he drew a stick coated with
+chlorate of potash and phosphorus. This successful match was named
+"Lucifer," whose other name was Phosphor, the Morning Star, and the King
+of the Western Land. Faraday, to whom also was given Promethean
+inspiration, procured some of Walker's matches and brought them to
+public notice.
+
+In many respects the mode of their manufacture has been improved, but in
+principle of composition and ignition they remain the same as Walker's
+to-day. In 1845, Schrotter of Vienna discovered amorphous or allotropic
+phosphorus, which rendered the manufacture of matches less dangerous to
+health and property. Tons of chemicals and hundreds of pine trees are
+used yearly in the making of matches, and many hundreds of millions of
+them are daily consumed.
+
+But this vast number of matches could not be supplied had it not been
+for the invention of machines for making and packing them. Thus in 1842
+Reuben Partridge of America patented a machine for making splints.
+Others for making splints and the matches separately, quickly followed.
+Together with these came match dipping and match box machines. The
+splint machines were for slitting a block of wood of the proper height
+downward nearly the whole way into match splints, leaving their butts in
+the solid wood. These were square and known as block matches. Other
+mechanisms cut and divided the block into strips, which were then dipped
+at one end, dried and tied in bundles. By other means, a swing blade,
+for instance, the matches were all severed from the block. Matches are
+made round by one machine by pressing the block against a plate having
+circular perforations, and the interspaces are beveled so as to form
+cutting edges.
+
+Poririer, a Frenchman, invented a machine for making match boxes of
+pasteboard. Suitable sized rectangular pieces of pasteboard rounded at
+the angles for making the body of the box are first cut, then these
+pieces are introduced into the machine, where by the single blow of a
+plunger they are forced into a matrix or die and pressed, and receive by
+this single motion their complete and final shape. The lid is made in
+the same way.
+
+By one modern invention matches after they are cut are fed into a
+machine at the rate of one hundred thousand an hour, on to a horizontal
+table, each match separated from the other by a thin partition. They are
+thus laid in rows, one row over another, and while being laid, the
+matches are pushed out a little way beyond the edge of the table, a
+distance far enough to expose their ends and to permit them to be
+dipped. When a number of these rows are completed they are clamped
+together in a bundle and then dipped--first, into a vessel of hot
+sulphur, and then into one of phosphorus, or other equivalent
+ingredients may be used or added. After the dipping they are subjected
+to a drying process and then boxed. Processes differ, but all are
+performed by machinery.
+
+In many factories where phosphorus is used without great care workmen
+have been greatly affected thereby. The fumes of the phosphorus attack
+the teeth, especially when decayed, and penetrate to the jaw, causing
+its gradual destruction, but this has been avoided by proper
+precautions.
+
+The greatly-increased facility of kindling a fire by matches gave an
+impetus to the invention of _cooking and heating stoves_. Of course
+stoves, generically speaking, are not a production of the nineteenth
+century. The Romans had their _laconicum_ or heating stove, which from
+its name was an invention from Laconia. It probably was made in most
+cases of brick or marble, but might have been of beaten iron, was
+cylindrical in shape, with an open cupola at the top, and was heated by
+the flames of the _hypocaust_ beneath. The _hypocaust_ was a hot-air
+furnace built in the basement or cellar of the house and from which the
+heat was conducted by flues to the bath rooms and other apartments. The
+Chinese ages ago heated their hollow tiled floors by underground furnace
+fires. We know of the _athanor_ of the alchemists of the middle ages.
+Knight calls it the "original base-burning furnace." A furnace of iron
+or earthenware was provided on one side with an open stack or tower
+which opened at the bottom into the furnace, and which stack was kept
+filled with charcoal, or other fuel, which fed itself automatically into
+the furnace as the fuel on the bed thereof burned away. Watt introduced
+an arrangement on the same principle in his steam boiler furnace in
+1767, and thousands of stoves are now constructed within England and the
+United States also embodying the same principle.
+
+The earthenware and soapstone stoves of continental Europe were used
+long before the present century.
+
+In Ben Franklin's time in the American Colonies there was not much of a
+demand for stoves outside of the largest cities, where wood was getting
+a little scarce and high, but the philosopher not only deemed it proper
+to invent an improvement in chimneys to prevent their smoking and to
+better heat the room, but also devised an improved form of stove, and
+both inventions have been in constant use unto this day. Franklin
+invented and introduced his celebrated stove, which he called the
+Pennsylvania Fire Place, in 1745, having all the advantages of a
+cheerful open fireplace, and a heat producer; and which consisted of an
+iron stove with an open front set well into the room, in which front
+part the fire was kindled, and the products of combustion conducted up a
+flue, and thence under a false back and up the chimney. Open heat spaces
+were left between the two flues. Air inlets and dampers were provided.
+In his description of this stove at that time Franklin also referred to
+the iron box stoves used by the Dutch, the iron plates extending from
+the hearths and sides, etc., chimneys making a double fireplace used by
+the French, and the German stove of iron plates, and so made that the
+fuel had to be put into it from another room or from the outside of the
+house. He dwells upon the pleasure of an open fire, and the destruction
+of this pleasure by the use of the closed stoves. He also describes the
+discomforts of the fireplace in cold weather--of the "cold draught
+nipping one's back and heels"--"scorched before and frozen behind"--the
+sharp draughts of cold from crevices from which many catch cold and from
+"whence proceed coughs, catarrhs, toothaches, fevers, pleurisies and
+many other diseases." Added to the pleasure of seeing the crackling
+flames, feeling the genial warmth, and the diffusion of a spirit of
+sociability and hospitality, is the fact of increased purity of the air
+by reason of the fireplace as a first-class ventilator. Hence it will
+never be discarded by those who can afford its use; but it alone is
+inadequate for heating and cooking purposes. It is modernly used as a
+luxury by those who are able to combine with it other means for heating.
+
+The great question for solution in this art at all times has been how to
+produce through dwelling houses and larger buildings in cold and damp
+weather a uniform distribution and circulation of pure heated air. The
+solution of this question has of course been greatly helped in modern
+times by a better knowledge of the nature of air and other gases, and
+the laws which govern their motions and combinations at different
+temperatures.
+
+The most successful form of heating coal stove of the century has been
+one that combined in itself the features of base-burning: that is, a
+covered magazine at the centre or back of the stove open at or near the
+top of the stove into which the coal is placed, and which then feeds to
+the bottom of the fire pot as fast as the coal is consumed, a heavy open
+fire pot placed as low as possible, an ash grate connected with the
+bottom of the pot which can be shaken and dumped to an ash box beneath
+without opening the stove, thus preventing the escape of the dust, an
+illuminating chamber nearly or entirely surrounding the fire pot,
+provided with mica windows, through which the fire is reflected and the
+heat radiated, a chamber above the fire pot and surrounding the fuel
+chamber and into which the heat and hot gases arise, producing
+additional radiating surface and permitting the gases to escape through
+a flue in the chimney, or, leading them first through another chamber to
+the base of the stove and thence out, and dampers to control and
+regulate the supply of air to the fuel, and to cut off the escape or
+control the course of the products of combustion.
+
+The cheerful stove fireplace and stove of Franklin and the French were
+revived, combined and improved some years ago by Capt. Douglas Galton of
+the English army for use in barracks, but this stove is also admirably
+adapted for houses. It consists of an open stove or grate set in or at
+the front of the fireplace with an air inlet from without, the throat of
+the fireplace closed and a pipe extending through it from the stove into
+the chimney. Although a steady flow of heat, desirable regulation of
+temperature and great economy in the consumption of fuel, by reason of
+the utilisation of so much of the heat produced, were obtained by the
+modern stove, yet the necessity of having a stove in nearly every room,
+the ill-ventilation due to the non-supply of pure outer air to the room,
+the occasional diffusion of ash dust and noxious gases from the stove,
+and inability to heat the air along the floor, gave rise to a revival of
+the hot-air furnace, placed under the floor in the basement or cellar,
+and many modern and radical improvements therein.
+
+The heat obtained from stoves is effected by radiation--the throwing
+outward of the waves of heat from its source, while the heat obtained
+from a hot-air furnace is effected by convection--the moving of a body
+of air to be heated to the source of heat, and then when heated bodily
+conveyed to the room to be warmed. Hence in stoves and fireplaces only
+such obstruction is placed between the fire and the room as will serve
+to convey away the obnoxious smoke and gases, and the greatest facility
+is offered for radiation, while in hot-air furnaces, although provision
+is also made to carry away the smoke and impure gases, yet the radiation
+is confined as closely as possible to chambers around the fire space,
+which chambers are protected by impervious linings from the outer air,
+and into which fresh outdoor air is introduced, then heated and conveyed
+to different apartments by suitable pipes or flues, and admitted or
+excluded, as desired, by registers operated by hand levers.
+
+There are stationary furnaces and portable furnaces; the former class
+enclose the heating apparatus in walls of brick or other masonry, while
+in the latter the outer casing and the inner parts are metal structures,
+separable and removable. In both classes an outer current of pure air is
+made to course around the fire chamber and around among other flues and
+chambers through which the products of combustion are carried, so that
+all heat possible is utilised. Vessels of water are supplied at the most
+convenient place in one of the hot-air chambers to moisten and temper
+the air, and dampers are placed in the pipes to regulate and guide the
+supply of heat to the rooms above.
+
+After Watt had invented his improvements on the steam engine the idea
+occurred to him of using steam for heating purposes. Accordingly, in
+1784, he made a hollow sheet-iron box of plates, and supplied it with
+steam from the boiler of the establishment. It had an air-escape cock,
+and condensed-water-escape pipe; and in 1799 Boulton and Watt
+constructed a heating apparatus in Lee's factory, Manchester, in which
+the steam was conducted through cast-iron pipes, which also served as
+supports to the floor. Patents were also taken out by others in England
+for steam-heating apparatuses during the latter part of the 18th
+century.
+
+Heating by the circulation of hot water through pipes was also
+originated or revived during the 18th century, and a short time before
+Watt's circulation of steam. It is said that Bonnemain of England, in
+1777, desiring to improve the ancient methods of hatching poultry by
+artificial heat--practised by both ancient and modern Egyptians ages
+before it became a latter day wonder, and taught the Egyptians by the
+ostriches--conceived the idea of constructing quite a large incubator
+building with shelves for the eggs, coops for holding the chickens, and
+a tube for circulating hot water leading from a boiler below and above
+each shelf, and through the coops, and back to the boiler. This
+incubator contains the germs of modern water heaters. In both the steam
+and water heating systems the band or collection of pipes in each room
+may be covered with ornamental radiating plates, or otherwise treated or
+arranged to render them sightly and effective. In one form of the
+hot-water system, however, the collection of a mass of pipes in the
+rooms is dispensed with, and the pipes are massed in an air chamber over
+or adjacent to the furnace, where they are employed to heat a current of
+air introduced from the outside, and which heated pure air is conveyed
+through the house by flues and registers as in the hot-air furnace
+system.
+
+The hanging of the crane, the turning of the spit, the roasting in ashes
+and on hot stones, the heating of and the baking in the big "Dutch"
+ovens, and some other forms of cooking by our forefathers had their
+pleasures and advantages, and still are appreciated under certain
+circumstances, and for certain purposes, but are chiefly honoured in
+memory alone and reverenced by disuse; while the modern cooking stove
+with its roasting and hot water chambers, its numerous seats over the
+fire for pots, pans, and kettles, its easy means of controlling and
+directing the heat, its rotating grate, and, when desired, its rotating
+fire chamber, for turning the hot fire on top to the bottom, and the
+cold choked fire to the top, its cleanliness and thorough heat, its
+economy in the use of fuel, is adopted everywhere, and all the glowing
+names with which its makers and users christen it fail to exaggerate its
+qualities when rightly made and used.
+
+It would appear that the field of labour and the number of labourers,
+chiefly those who toiled with brick and mortar, were greatly reduced
+when those huge fireplaces were so widely discarded. This must have
+seemed so especially in those regions where the houses were built up to
+meet the yearning wants of an outside chimney, but armies of men are
+engaged in civilised countries in making stoves and furnaces, where
+three-quarters of a century ago very few were so employed. As in every
+industrial art old things pass away, but the new things come in greater
+numbers, demand a greater number of workers, develop new wants, new
+fields of labour, and the new and increasing supply of consumers refuse
+to be satisfied with old contrivances.
+
+In the United States alone there are between four and five hundred stove
+and furnace foundries, in which about ten thousand people are employed,
+and more than three million stoves and furnaces produced annually, which
+require nearly a million tons of iron to make, and the value of which is
+estimated as at least $100,000,000.
+
+The matter of _ventilation_ is such a material part of heating that it
+cannot escape attention. There can be no successful heating without a
+circulation of air currents, and fortunately for man in his house no
+good fire can be had without an outflow of heat and an inflow of cooler
+air. The more this circulation is prevented the worse the fire and the
+ventilation.
+
+It seems to many such a simple thing, this change of air--only to keep
+open the window a little--to have a fireplace, and convenient door. And
+yet some of the brightest intellects of the century have been engaged in
+devising means to accomplish the result, and all are not yet agreed as
+to which is the best way.
+
+How to remove the heated, vitiated air and to supply fresh air while
+maintaining the same uniform temperature is a problem of long standing.
+The history of the attempts to heat and ventilate the Houses of
+Parliament since Wren undertook it in 1660 has justly been said to be
+history of the Art of Ventilation since that time, as the most eminent
+scientific authorities in the world have been engaged or consulted in
+it, and the most exhaustive reports on the subject have been rendered by
+such men as Gay-Lussac, Sir Humphry Davy, Faraday and Dr. Arnott of
+England and Gen. Morin of France. The same may be said in regard to the
+Houses of Congress in the United States Capitol for the past thirty-five
+years. Prof. Henry, Dr. Billings, the architect, Clark, of that country,
+and many other bright inventors and men of ability have given the
+subject devoted attention. Among the means for creating ventilation are
+underground tunnels leading to the outer air, with fans in them to force
+the fresh air in or draw the poor air out, holes in the ceiling, fire
+places, openings over the doors, openings under the eaves, openings in
+the window frames, shafts from the floor or basement with fires or gas
+jets to create an upward draught, floors with screened openings to the
+outer air, steam engines to work a suction pipe in one place and a blow
+pipe in another, air boxes communicating with the outer air, screens,
+hoods, and deflectors at these various openings,--all these, separately
+or in combination, have been used for the purpose of drawing the
+vitiated air out and letting the pure air in without creating draughts
+to chill the sensitive, or overheating to excite the nervous.
+
+There seems to have been as many devices invented to keep a house or
+building closed up tight while highly heating it, as to ventilate the
+same and preserve an even, moderate temperature.
+
+The most approved system of ventilation recognises the fact that air is
+of the same weight and is possessed of the same constituents in one part
+of a room as at another, and to create a perfect ventilation a complete
+change and circulation must take place. It therefore creates a draught,
+arising from the production of a vacuum by a current of heat or by
+mechanical means, or by some other way, which draws out of a room the
+used up, vitiated air through outlets at different places, while pure
+outer air is admitted naturally, or forced in if need be, through
+numerous small inlets, such outlets and inlets so located and
+distributed and protected as not to give rise to sensible draughts on
+the occupants.
+
+The best system also recognises the fact that all parts of a house, its
+cellars and attic, its parlours and kitchens, its closets, bathrooms and
+chambers, should be alike clean and well ventilated, and that if one
+room is infected all are infected.
+
+The laurels bestowed on inventors are no more worthily bestowed than on
+those who have invented devices which give to our homes, offices,
+churches and places of amusement a pure and comfortable atmosphere.
+
+_Car Heaters._--The passing away of the good old portable foot stove for
+warming the feet, especially when away from home, and while travelling,
+is not to be regretted, although in some instances it was not at first
+succeeded by superior devices. For a long time after the introduction of
+steam, railroad cars and carriages, in which any heat at all was used,
+were heated by a stove in each car--generally kept full of red hot coal
+or wood--an exceedingly dangerous companion in case of accident. Since
+1871 systems have been invented and introduced, the most successful of
+which consists of utilising the heat of the steam from the locomotive
+for producing a hot-water circulation through pipes along the floor of
+each car, and in providing an emergency heater in each car for heating
+the water when steam from the locomotive is not available.
+
+_Grass-burning Stoves._--There are many places in this world where
+neither wood nor coal abound, or where the same are very scarce, but
+where waste grass and weeds, waste hay and straw, and similar
+combustible refuse are found in great abundance. Stoves have been
+invented especially designed for the economical consumption of such
+fuel. One requisite is that such light material should be held in a
+compressed state while in the stove to prevent a too rapid combustion.
+Means for so holding the material under compression appear to have been
+first invented and patented by Hamilton of America in 1874.
+
+Some means besides the sickle and scythe, hoe and plough, were wanted to
+destroy obnoxious standing grass and weeds. A weed like the Russian
+thistle, for instance, will defy all usual means for its extermination.
+A fire chamber has been invented which when drawn over the ground will
+burn a swath as it advances, and it is provided with means, such as a
+wide flange on the end of the chamber, which extinguishes the fire and
+prevents its spreading beyond the path. A similar stove with jets of
+flame from vapour burners has been used to soften hard asphalt pavement
+when it is desired to take it up.
+
+The art of heating and cooking by oil, vapour and gas stoves is one that
+has arisen during the latter half of this century, and has become the
+subject of a vast number of inventions and extensive industries. Stoves
+of this character are as efficient and economical as coal stoves, and
+are in great demand, especially where coal and wood are scarce and
+high-priced.
+
+_Oil stoves_ as first invented consisted of almost the ordinary lamp,
+without the glass shade set in the stove and were similar to gas stoves.
+But these were objectionable on account of the fumes emitted. By later
+inventions the lamp has been greatly improved. The wick is arranged
+within tubular sliding cylinders so as to be separated from the other
+parts of the stove when it is not lit, and better regulating devices
+adopted, whereby the oil is prevented from spreading from the wick on to
+the other parts of the stove, which give rise to obnoxious fumes by
+evaporation and heating. Some recent inventors have dispensed with the
+wick altogether and the oil is burned practically like vapour.
+_Gasoline_, and other heavy oily vapours are in many stoves first
+vapourised by a preliminary heating in a chamber before the gas is
+ignited for use. These vapours are then conducted by separate jets to
+different points in the stove where the heat is to be applied. The
+danger and unpleasant flame and smoke arising from this vapourising in
+the stove have been obviated by inventions which vapourise the fuel by
+other means, as by carbonating, or loading the air with the vapour in an
+elevated chamber and conducting the saturated air to the burners; or by
+agitation, by means of a quick-acting, small, but powerful fan.
+
+_Sterilising._--The recent scientific discoveries and investigations of
+injurious bacteria rendered it desirable to purify water by other means
+than filtering, especially for the treatment of disease-infected
+localities; and this gave rise to the invention of a system of heat
+sterilising and filtering the water, in one process, and out of contact
+with the germ-laden air, thus destroying the bacteria and delivering the
+water in as pure and wholesome condition as possible. West in 1892
+patented such a system.
+
+_Electric Heating and Cooking._--Reference has already been made in the
+Chapter on Electricity to the use of that agent in heating and cooking.
+The use of the electric current for these purposes has been found to be
+perfectly practical, and for heating cars especially, where electricity
+is the motive power, a portion of the current is economically employed.
+
+The art of heating and cooking naturally suggests the other end of the
+line of temperature--_Refrigeration_.
+
+A refrigeration by which ordinary ice is artificially produced,
+perishable food of all kinds preserved for long times, and transported
+for great distances, which has proved an immense advantage to mankind
+everywhere and is still daily practised to the gratification and comfort
+of millions of men, must receive at least a passing notice. The Messrs.
+E. and F. Carr� of France invented successful machines about 1870 for
+making ice by the rapid absorption and evaporation of heat by the
+ammonia process. The discoveries and inventions of others in the
+artificial production of cold by means of volatile liquids, whether for
+the making of ice or other purposes, constituted a great step in the art
+of refrigeration.
+
+Vaporisation, absorption, compression or reduction of atmospheric
+pressure are the principal methods of producing cold. By vaporisation,
+water, ether, sulphuric acid, ammonia, etc., in assuming the vaporous
+form change sensible heat to latent heat and produce a degree of cold
+which freezes an adjacent body of water. The principle of making ice by
+evaporation and absorption may be illustrated by two examples of the
+Carr� methods:--It is well known what a great attraction sulphuric acid
+has for water. Water to be frozen is placed in a vessel connected by a
+pipe to a reservoir containing sulphuric acid. A vacuum is produced in
+this reservoir by the use of an air pump, while the acid is being
+constantly stirred. Lessening of the atmospheric pressure upon water
+causes its evaporation, and as the vapour is quietly absorbed by the
+sulphuric acid the water is quickly congealed. It is known that ammonia
+can be condensed into liquid form by pressure or cold, and is absorbed
+by and soluble in water to an extraordinary degree. A generator
+containing a strong solution of ammonia is connected by a pipe to an
+empty receiver immersed in cold water. The ammonia generator is then
+heated, its vapour driven off and conducted to a jacket around the
+centre of the receiver and is there condensed by pressure of an air
+pump. The central cylindrical space in the receiver is now filled with
+water, and the operation is reversed. The generator is immersed in cold
+water and pressure on the liquid ammonia removed. The liquid ammonia now
+passes into the gaseous state, and is conducted to and reabsorbed by the
+water in the generator. But in this evaporation great cold is produced
+and the water in the receiver is soon frozen.
+
+Twining's inventions in the United States in 1853 and 1862 of the
+compression machine, followed by Pictet of France, and a number of
+improvements elsewhere have bid fair to displace the absorption method.
+In dispensing with absorption these machines proceed on the now
+well-established theory that air and many other gases become heated when
+compressed; that this heat can then be drawn away, and that when the gas
+is allowed to re-expand it will absorb a large amount of heat from any
+solid or fluid with which it is brought in contact, and so freeze it.
+Accordingly such machines are so constructed that by the operation of a
+piston, or pistons, in a cylinder, and actuated by steam or other motive
+power, the air or gas is compressed to the desired temperature, the heat
+led off and the cold vapour conducted through pipes and around chambers
+where water is placed and where it is frozen. By the best machines from
+five hundred to one thousand pounds of ice an hour are produced.
+
+The art of refrigeration and of modern transportation have brought the
+fruits of the tropics in great abundance to the doors of the dwellers of
+the north, and from the shores of the Pacific to the Atlantic and across
+the Atlantic to Europe. A train of refrigerator cars in California laden
+with delicious assorted fruits, and provided with fan blowers driven by
+the car axles to force the air through ice chambers, from whence it is
+distributed by perforated pipes through the fruit chambers, and wherein
+the temperature is maintained at about 40� Fah., can be landed in New
+York four days after starting on its journey of 3,000 miles, with the
+fruits in perfect condition.
+
+But the public is still excited and wondering over the new king of
+refrigeration--_liquid air_.
+
+As has been stated, the compression of air to produce cold is a modern
+discovery applied to practical uses, and prominent among the inventors
+and discoverers in this line have been Prof. Dewar and Charles E.
+Tripler.
+
+Air may be compressed and heat generated in the process withdrawn until
+the temperature of the air is reduced to 312� below zero, at which point
+the air is visible and to a certain extent assumes a peculiar material
+form, in which form it can be confined in suitable vessels and used as a
+refrigerant and as a motor of great power when permitted to re-expand.
+It is said that it was not so long ago when Prof. Dewar produced the
+first ounce of liquid air at a cost of $3,000, but that now Mr. Tripler
+claims that he can produce it by his apparatus for five cents a gallon.
+
+Refrigeration is at present its most natural and obvious use, and it is
+claimed that eleven gallons of the material when gradually expanded has
+the refrigerating power of one ton of ice. Its use of course for all
+purposes for which cold can be used is thus assured. It is also to be
+used as a motor in the running of various kinds of engines. It is to be
+used as a great alleviator of human suffering in lowering and regulating
+the temperature of hospitals in hot weather, and in surgical operations
+as a substitute for an�sthetics and cauterising agents.
+
+It was one of the marvellous attractions at the great Paris Exposition
+of 1900.
+
+Lighting is closely allied to the various subjects herein considered,
+but consideration of the various modes and kinds of lamps for lighting
+will be reserved for the Chapter on Furniture for Houses, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+    "Nigh on the plain, in many cells prepared,
+    That underneath had veins of liquid fire
+    Sluiced from the lake, a second multitude
+    With wondrous art founded the massy ore;
+    Severing each kind, and scumm'd the bullion dross;
+    A third as soon had formed within the ground
+    A various mould, and from the boiling cells
+    By strange conveyance fill'd each hollow nook;
+    As in an organ, from one blast of wind,
+    To many a row of pipes the sound board breathes."
+                                                  --_Paradise Lost._
+
+
+Ever since those perished races of men who left no other record but that
+engraven in rude emblems on the rocks, or no other signs of their
+existence but in the broken tools found buried deep among the solid
+leaves of the crusted earth, ever since Tubal Cain became "an instructor
+of every artificer in brass and iron," the art of smelting has been
+known. The stone age flourished with implements furnished ready-made by
+nature, or needing little shaping for their use, but the ages of metal
+which followed required the aid of fire directed by the hand of man to
+provide the tool of iron or bronze.
+
+The Greeks claimed that the discovery of iron was theirs, and was made
+at the burning of a forest on the mountains of Ida in Crete, about 1500
+B. C., when the ore contained in the rocks or soil on which the forest
+stood was melted, cleansed of its impurities, and then collected and
+hammered. Archeologists have deprived the Greeks of this gift, and
+carried back its origin to remoter ages and localities.
+
+Man first discovered by observation or accident that certain stones were
+melted or softened by fire, and that the product could be hammered and
+shaped. They learned by experience that the melting could be done more
+effectually when the fuel and the ore were mixed and enclosed by a wall
+of stone; that the fire and heat could be alone started and maintained
+by blowing air into the fuel--and they constructed a rude bellows for
+this purpose. Finding that the melted metal sank through the mass of
+consumed fuel, they constructed a stone hearth on which to receive it.
+Thus were the first crude furnace and hearth invented.
+
+As to gold, silver and lead, they doubtless were found first in their
+native state and mixed with other ores and were hammered into the
+desired shapes with the hardest stone implements.
+
+That copper and tin combined would make bronze was a more complex
+proceeding and probably followed instead of preceding, as has sometimes
+been alleged, the making of iron tools. That bronze relics were found
+apparently of anterior manufacture to any made of iron, was doubtless
+due to the destruction of the iron by that great consumer--oxygen.
+
+What was very anciently called "brass" was no doubt gold-coloured
+copper; for what is modernly known as brass was not made until after the
+discovery of zinc in the 16th century and its combination with copper.
+
+Among the "lost arts" re-discovered in later ages are those which
+supplied the earliest cities with ornamented vessels of gold and copper,
+swords of steel that bent and sprung like whalebones, castings that had
+known no tool to shape their contour and embellishments, and monuments
+and tablets of steel and brass which excite the wonder and admiration of
+the best "artificers in brass and iron" of the present day.
+
+To understand and appreciate the advancements that have been made in
+metallurgy in the nineteenth century, it is necessary to know, in
+outline at least, what before had been developed.
+
+The earliest form of a smelting furnace of historic days, such as used
+by the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and probably by the Hindoos and other
+ancient peoples, and still used in Asia, is thus described by Dr Ure:
+
+"The furnace or bloomary in which the ore is smelted is from 4 to 5 feet
+high; it is somewhat pear-shaped, being about 5 feet wide at bottom and
+1 at top. It is built entirely of clay. There is an opening in front
+about a foot or more in height which is filled with clay at the
+commencement, and broken down at the end of each smelting operation. The
+bellows are usually made of two goatskins with bamboo nozzles, which are
+inserted into tubes of clay that pass into the furnace. The furnace is
+filled with charcoal, and a lighted coal being introduced before the
+nozzle, the mass in the interior is soon kindled. As soon as this is
+accomplished, a small portion of the ore previously moistened with water
+to prevent it from running through the charcoal, but without any flux
+whatever, is laid on top of the coals, and covered with charcoal to fill
+up the furnace. In this manner ore and fuel are supplied and the bellows
+urged for three or four hours. When the process is stopped and the
+temporary wall in front broken down the bloom is removed with a pair of
+tongs from the bottom of the furnace."
+
+This smelting was then followed by hammering to further separate the
+slag, and probably after a reheating to increase the malleability.
+
+It will be noticed that in this earliest process pure carbon was used as
+a fuel, and a blast of air to keep the fire at a great heat was
+employed. To what extent this carbon and air blast, and the mixing and
+remixing with other ingredients, and reheating and rehammering, may have
+been employed in various instances to modify the conditions and render
+the metal malleable and more or less like modern steel, is not known,
+but that an excellent quality of iron resembling modern steel was often
+produced by this simple mode of manufacture by different peoples, is
+undoubtedly the fact. Steel after all is iron with a little more carbon
+in it than in the usual iron in the smelting furnace, to render it
+harder, and a little less carbon than in cast or moulded iron to render
+it malleable, and in both conditions was produced from time immemorial,
+either by accident or design.
+
+It was with such a furnace probably that India produced her keen-edged
+weapons that would cut a web of gossamer, and Damascus its flashing
+blades--the synonym of elastic strength.
+
+Africa, when its most barbarous tribes were first discovered, was making
+various useful articles of iron. Its earliest modes of manufacture were
+doubtless still followed when Dr Livingstone explored the interior, as
+they now also are. He thus describes their furnaces and iron: "At every
+third or fourth village (in the regions near Lake Nyassa) we saw a
+kiln-looking structure, about 6 feet high and 2� feet in diameter. It
+is a clay fire-hardened furnace for smelting iron. No flux is used,
+whether with specular iron, the yellow hematite, or magnetic ore, and
+yet capital metal is produced. Native manufactured iron is so good that
+the natives declare English iron "rotten" in comparison, and specimens
+of African hoes were pronounced at Birmingham nearly equal to the best
+Swedish iron." The natives of India, the Hottentots, the early Britons,
+the Chinese, the savages of North and South America, as discovery or
+research brought their labours to light, or uncovered the monuments of
+their earliest life, were shown to be acquainted with similar simple
+forms of smelting furnaces.
+
+Early Spain produced a furnace which was adopted by the whole of Europe
+as fast as it became known. It was the Catalan furnace, so named from
+the province of Catalonia, where it probably first originated, and it is
+still so known and extensively used. "It consists of a four-sided cavity
+or hearth, which is always placed within a building and separated from
+the main wall thereof by a thinner interior wall, which in part
+constitutes one side of the furnace. The blast pipe comes through the
+wall, and enters the fire through a flue which slants downward. The
+bottom is formed of a refractory stone, which is renewable. The furnace
+has no chimneys. The blast is produced by means of a fall of water
+usually from 22 to 27 feet high, through a rectangular tube, into a
+rectangular cistern below, to whose upper part the blast pipe is
+connected, the water escaping through a pipe below. This apparatus is
+exterior to the building, and is said to afford a continuous blast of
+great regularity; the air, when it passes into the furnace, is, however,
+saturated with moisture."--_Knight._
+
+No doubt in such a heat was formed the metal from which was shaped the
+armour of Don Quixote and his prototypes.
+
+Bell in his history of Metallurgy tells us that the manufacture of
+malleable iron must have fallen into decadence in England, especially
+before the reign of Elizabeth and Charles I., as no furnaces equal even
+to the Catalan had for a long time been in use; and the architectural
+iron column found in ancient Delhi, 16 inches in diameter, about 48 feet
+long and calculated to weigh about 17 tons, could not have been formed
+by any means known in England in the sixteenth century. This decadence
+was in part due to the severe laws enacted against the destruction of
+forests, and most of the iron was then brought to England from Germany
+and other countries.
+
+From time immemorial the manufacture of iron and steel has been followed
+in Germany, and that country yet retains pre-eminence in this art both
+as to mechanical and chemical processes. It was in the eighteenth
+century that the celebrated Freiberg Mining Academy was founded, the
+oldest of all existing mining schools; and based on developing mining
+and metallurgy on scientific lines, it has stood always on the battle
+line in the fight of progress.
+
+The early smelting furnaces of Germany resembled the Catalan, and were
+called the "St�ckofen," and in Sweden were known as the "Osmund." In
+these very pure iron was made.
+
+The art of making cast iron, which differs from the ordinary smelted
+iron in the fact that it is _melted_ and then run into moulds, although
+known among the ancients more than forty centuries ago, as shown by the
+castings of bronze and brass described by their writers and recovered
+from their ruins, appears to have been forgotten long before the
+darkness of the middle ages gathered. There is no record of its practice
+from the time the elder Pliny described its former use (40-79 A. D.), to
+the sixteenth century. It is stated that then the lost art was
+re-invented by Ralph Page and Peter Baude of England in 1543--who in
+that year made cast-iron in Sussex.
+
+The "St�ckofen" furnace above referred to was succeeded in Germany by
+higher ones called the "Flossofen," and these were followed by still
+higher and larger ones called "Blauofen," so that by the middle of the
+eighteenth century the furnaces were very capacious, the blast was good,
+and it had been learned how to supply the furnaces with ore, coal and
+lime-stone broken into small fragments. The lime was added as a flux,
+and acted to unite with itself the sand, clay and other impurities to
+form a slag or scoria. The melted purified iron falling to the bottom
+was drawn off through a hole tapped in the furnace, and the molten metal
+ran into channels in a bed of sand called the "Sow and pigs." Hence the
+name, "pig iron."
+
+The smelting of ore by charcoal in those places where carried on
+extensively required the use of a vast amount of wood, and denuded the
+surrounding lands of forests. So great was this loss felt that it gave
+rise to the prohibitory laws and the decadence in England of the
+manufacture of iron, already alluded to. This turned the attention of
+iron smelters to coal as a substitute. Patents were granted in England
+for its use to several unsuccessful inventors. Finally in 1619 Dud
+Dudley, a graduate of Oxford University, and to whom succeeded his
+father's iron furnaces in Worcestershire, obtained a patent and
+succeeded in producing several tons of iron per week by the use of the
+pitcoal in a small blast furnace.
+
+This success inflamed the wood owners and the charcoal burners and they
+destroyed Dudley's works. He met with other disasters common to worthy
+inventors and discontinued his efforts to improve the art.
+
+It is said that in 1664 Sir John Winter of England made coke by burning
+sea coal in closed pots. But this was not followed up, and the use of
+charcoal and the destruction of the forests went on until 1735, when
+Abraham Darby of the Coalbrookdale Iron Works at Shropshire, England,
+commenced to treat the soft pit coal in the same way as wood is treated
+in producing charcoal. He proposed to burn the coal in a smouldering
+fire, to expel the sulphur and other impurities existing in the form of
+phosphorus, hydrogen and oxygen, etc. while saving the carbon. The
+attempt was successful, and thus _coke_ was made. It was found cheaper
+and superior to either coal or charcoal, and produced a quicker fire and
+a greater heat. This was a wonderful discovery, and was preserved as a
+trade secret for a long time. It was referred to as a curiosity in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ in 1747. In fact it was not introduced in
+America until a century later, when in 1841 the soft coal abounding
+around Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and in the neighbouring regions of
+Ohio was thus treated. Even its use then was experimental, and did not
+become a practical art in the United States until about 1860.
+
+With the invention of coke came also the revival of cast iron.
+
+The process of making cast steel was reinvented in England by Benjamin
+Huntsman of Attercliff, near Sheffield, about 1740. Between that time
+and 1770 he practised melting small pieces of "blistered" steel (iron
+bars which had been carbonised by smelting in charcoal) in closed clay
+crucibles.
+
+In 1784 Henry Cort of England introduced the puddling process and
+grooved rolls. Puddling had been invented, but not successfully used
+before. The term "puddling" originated in the covering of the hearth of
+stones at the bottom of the furnace with clay, which was made plastic by
+mixing the clay in a puddle of water; and on which hearth the ore when
+melted is received. When in this melted condition Cort and others found
+that the metal was greatly improved by stirring it with a long iron bar
+called a "rabble," and which was introduced through an opening in the
+furnace. This stirring admitted air to the mass and the oxygen consumed
+and expelled the carbon, silicon, and other impurities. The process was
+subsequently aided by the introduction of pig iron broken into pieces
+and mixed with hammer-slag, cinder, and ore. The mass is stirred from
+side to side of the furnace until it comes to a boiling point, when the
+stirring is increased in quickness and violence until a pasty round mass
+is collected by the puddler. As showing the value of Cort's discovery
+and the hard experience inventors sometimes have, Fairbairn states that
+Cort "expended a fortune of upward of �20,000 in perfecting his
+invention for puddling iron and rolling it into bars and plates; that he
+was robbed of the fruits of his discoveries by the villainy of officials
+in a high department of the government; and that he was ultimately left
+to starve by the apathy and selfishness of an ungrateful country. His
+inventions conferred an amount of wealth on the country equivalent to
+�600,000,000, and have given employment to 600,000 of the working
+population of our land for the last three or four generations." This
+process of puddling lasted for about an hour and a half and entailed
+extremely severe labour on the workman.
+
+The invention of mechanical puddlers, hereinafter referred to,
+consisting chiefly of rotating furnaces, were among the beneficent
+developments of the nineteenth century.
+
+Prior to Cort's time the plastic lump or ball of metal taken from the
+furnace was generally beaten by hammers, but Cort's grooved rollers
+pressed out the mass into sheets.
+
+The improvements of the steam engine by Watt greatly extended the
+manufacture of iron toward the close of the 18th century, as powerful
+air blasts were obtained by the use of such engines in place of the
+blowers worked by man, the horse, or the ox.
+
+So far as the art of refining the precious metals is concerned, as well
+as copper, tin and iron, it had not, previous to this century, proceeded
+much beyond the methods described in the most ancient writings; and
+these included the refining in furnaces, pots, and covered crucibles,
+and alloying, or the mixture and fusion with other metals. Furnaces to
+hold the crucibles, and made of iron cylinders lined with fire brick,
+whereby the crucibles were subjected to greater heat, were also known.
+
+The amalgamating process was also known to the ancients, and Vitruvius
+(B. C. 27) and Pliny (A. D. 79), describe how mercury was used for
+separating gold from its impurities. Its use at gold and silver mines
+was renewed extensively in the sixteenth century.
+
+Thus we find that the eighteenth century closed with the knowledge of
+the smelting furnaces of various kinds, of coke as a fuel in place of
+charcoal, of furious air blasts driven by steam and other power, of cast
+iron and cast steel, and of refining, amalgamating, and compounding
+processes.
+
+Looking back, now, from the threshold of the nineteenth century over the
+path we have thus traced, it will be seen that what had been
+accomplished in metallurgy was the result of the use of ready means
+tested by prolonged trials, of experiments more or less lucky in fields
+in which men were groping, of inventions without the knowledge of the
+real properties of the materials with which inventors were working or of
+the unvarying laws which govern their operations. They had accomplished
+much, but it was the work mainly of empirics. The art preceding the
+nineteenth century compared with what followed is the difference between
+experience simply, and experience when combined with hard thinking,
+which is thus stated by Herschel: "Art is the application of knowledge
+to a practical end. If the knowledge be merely accumulated experience
+the art is empirical; but if it is experience reasoned upon and brought
+under general principles it assumes a higher character and becomes a
+scientific art."
+
+With the developments, discoveries and inventions in the lines of steam,
+chemistry and electricity, as elsewhere told, the impetus they gave to
+the exercise of brain force in every field of nature at the outset of
+the century, and with their practical aid, the art of metallurgy soon
+began to expand to greater usefulness, and finally to its present
+wonderful domain.
+
+The subject of metallurgy in this century soon became scientifically
+treated and its operations classified.
+
+Thus the physical character and metallic constituents of ores received
+the first consideration; then the proper treatment to which the ores
+were to be subjected for the purpose of extracting the metal--which are
+either mechanical or chemical. The mechanical processes designed to
+separate the ore from its enclosing rock or other superfluous earthy
+matter called _gangue_ became known as _ore dressing_ and _ore
+concentrating_. These included mills with rollers, and stamps operated
+by gravity, or steam, for breaking up the ore rocks; abrasion apparatus
+for comminuting the ore by rubbing the pieces of ore under pressure; and
+smelting, or an equivalent process, for melting the ore and driving off
+the impurities by heat, etc. The chemical processes are those by which
+the metal, whatever it may be, is either dissolved or separated from
+other constituents by either the application to the ore of certain
+metallic solutions of certain acids, or by the fusion of different ores
+or metals in substantially the old styles of furnaces; or its
+precipitation by amalgamating, or by electrolysis--the art of
+decomposing metals by electricity.
+
+In the early decades of the century, by the help of chemistry and
+physics, the nature of heat, carbon, and oxygen, and the great affinity
+iron has for oxygen, became better known; and particularly how in the
+making of iron its behaviour is influenced by the presence of carbon and
+other foreign constituents; also how necessary to its perfect separation
+was the proper elimination of the oxygen and carbon. The use of
+manganese and other highly oxidisable metals for this purpose was
+discovered.
+
+Among the earliest most notable inventions in the century, in the
+manufacture of iron, was that of Samuel B. Rogers of Glamorganshire,
+Wales, who invented the iron floor for furnaces with a refractory
+lining--a great improvement on Cort's sand floor, which gave too much
+silicon to the iron; and the _hot air blast_ by Neilson of Glasgow,
+Scotland, patented in 1828. The latter consisted in the use of heated
+air as the blast instead of cold air--whereby ignition of the fuel was
+quickened, intensity of the heat and the expulsion of oxygen and carbon
+from the iron increased, and the operation shortened and improved in
+every way. The patent was infringed and assailed, but finally sustained
+by the highest courts of England. It produced an immense forward stride
+in the amount and quality of iron manufactured.
+
+By the introduction of the hot air blast it became practicable to use
+the hard anthracite coal as a fuel where such coal abounded; and to use
+pig iron, scrap iron, and refractory ore and metals with the fuel to
+produce particular results. Furnaces were enlarged to colossal
+dimensions, some being a hundred feet high and capable of yielding 80 or
+100 tons of metal per day.
+
+The forms of furnaces and means for lining and cooling the hearth and
+adjacent parts have received great attention.
+
+The discovery that the flame escaping from the throat of the blast
+furnace was nothing else than burning carbon led Faber du Faur at
+Wasseralfugen in 1837 to invent the successful and highly valuable
+method of utilising the unburnt gas from the blast furnace for heating
+purposes, and to heat the blast itself, and drive the steam engine that
+blew the blast into the furnace, without the consumption of additional
+fuel. This also led to the invention of separate gas producers. Bunsen
+in 1838 made his first experiments at Hesse in collecting the gases from
+various parts of the furnace, revealing their composition and showing
+their adaptability for various purposes. Thus, from a scientific
+knowledge of the constituents of ores and of furnace gases, calculations
+could be made in advance as to the materials required to make pig iron,
+cast iron, and steel of particular qualities.
+
+In the process of puddling difficulty had been experienced in handling
+the bloom or ball after it was formed in the furnace. A sort of
+squeezing apparatus, or tongs, called the alligator, had been employed.
+
+In 1840 Henry Burden of America invented and patented a method and means
+for treating these balls, whereby the same were taken directly from the
+furnace and passed between two plain converging metal surfaces, by which
+the balls were gradually but quickly pressed and squeezed into a
+cylindrical form, while a large portion of the cinders and other foreign
+impurities were pressed out.
+
+We have described how by Cort's puddling process tremendous labour was
+imposed on the workmen in stirring the molten metal by hand with
+"rabbles." A number of mechanical puddlers were invented to take the
+place of these hand means, but the most important invention in this
+direction was the revolving puddlers of Beadlestone, patented in 1857 in
+England, and of Heaton, Allen and Yates, in 1867-68. The most
+successful, however, was that of Danks of the United States in 1868-69.
+The Danks rotary puddler is a barrel-shaped, refractory lined vessel,
+having a chamber and fire grate and rotated by steam, into which pig
+iron formed by the ordinary blast furnaces, and then pulverised, is
+placed, with the fuel. Molten metal from the furnace is then run in,
+which together with the fuel is then subjected to a strong blast.
+Successive charges may be made, and at the proper time the puddler is
+rotated, slowly at some stages and faster at others, until the operation
+is completed. A much more thorough and satisfactory result in the
+production of a pure malleable iron is thus obtained than is possible by
+hand puddling.
+
+But the greatest improvements in puddling, and in the production of
+steel from iron, and which have produced greater commercial results than
+any other inventions of the century relating to metallurgy, were the
+inventions of Henry Bessemer of Hertfordshire, England, from 1855 to
+1860. In place of the puddling "rabbles" to stir the molten metal, or
+_matte_, as it is called, while the air blast enters to oxidise it, he
+first introduced the molten metal from the furnace into an immense
+egg-shaped vessel lined with quartzose, and hung in an inclined position
+on trunnions, or melted the metal in such vessel, and then dividing the
+air blast into streams forced with great pressure each separate stream
+through an opening in the bottom of the vessel into the molten mass,
+thus making each stream of driven air a rabble; and they together blew
+and lifted the white mass into a huge, surging, sun-bright fountain. The
+effect of this was to burn out the impurities, silicon, carbon, sulphur,
+and phosphorus, leaving the mass a pure soft iron. If steel was wanted a
+small amount of carbon, usually in the form of spiegeleisen, was
+introduced into the converter before the process was complete.
+
+A. L. Holley of the United States improved the Bessemer apparatus by
+enabling a greater number of charges to be converted into steel within a
+given time.
+
+Sir Henry Bessemer has lived to gain great fortunes by his inventions,
+to see them afford new fields of labour for armies of men, and to
+increase the riches of nations, from whom he has received deserved
+honours.
+
+The Bessemer process led to renewed investigations and discoveries as to
+heat and its utilisation, the constituents of different metals and their
+decomposition, and as to the parts played by carbon, silicon, and
+phosphorus. The carbon introduced by the charge of pig iron in the
+Bessemer process was at first supposed to be necessary to produce the
+greatest heat, but this was found to be a mistake; and phosphorus, which
+had been regarded as a great enemy of iron, to be eliminated in every
+way, was found to be a valuable constituent, and was retained or added
+to make phosphorus steel.
+
+The Bessemer process has been modified in various ways: by changing the
+mode of introducing the blast from the bottom of the converter to the
+sides thereof, and admitting the blast more slowly at certain stages; by
+changing the character of the pig iron and fuel to be treated; and by
+changing the shape and operation of the converters, making them
+cylindrical and rotary, for instance.
+
+The Bessemer process is now largely used in treating copper. By this
+method the blowing through the molten metal of a blast of air largely
+removes sulphur and other impurities.
+
+The principles of reduction by the old style furnaces and methods we
+have described have been revived and combined with improvements. For
+instance, the old Catalan style of furnace has been retained to smelt
+the iron, but in one method the iron is withdrawn before it is reduced
+completely and introduced into another furnace, where, mixed with
+further reducing ingredients, a better result by far is produced with
+less labour.
+
+It would be a long list that would name the modern discoverers and
+inventors of the century in the manufacture of iron and steel. But
+eminent in the list, in addition to Davy and Bessemer, and others
+already mentioned, are Mushet, Sir L. Bell, Percy, Blomfield, Beasley,
+Giers and Snellus of England; Martin, Chennot, Du Motay, Pernot and
+Gruner of France; Lohage, Dr. C. L. Siemens and H�pfer of Germany; Prof
+Sarnstrom and Akerman of Sweden; Turner of Austria; and Holley, Slade,
+Blair, Jones, Sellers, Clapp, Griffiths and Eames of the United States.
+
+Some of the new metals discovered in the last century have in this
+century been combined with iron to make harder steel. Thus we have
+nickel, chromium, and tungsten steel. Processes for hardening steel, as
+the "Harveyized" steel, have given rise to a contest between
+"irresistible" projectiles and "impenetrable" armour plate.
+
+If there are some who regard modern discoveries and inventions in iron
+and steel as lessening the number of workmen and cheapening the product
+too much, thus causing trouble due to labour-saving machinery, let them
+glance, among other great works in the world, at Krupp's at Essen, where
+on January 1st, 1899, 41,750 persons were employed, and at which works
+during the previous year 1,199,610 tons of coal and coke were consumed,
+or about 4000 tons daily. Workers in iron will not be out of employment
+in the United States, where 16,000,000 tons of coke are produced
+annually, 196,405,953 tons of coal mined, 11,000,000 tons of pig iron
+and about 9,000,000 tons of steel made. The increase of population
+within the last hundred years bears no comparison with this enormous
+increase in iron and fuel. It shows that as inventions multiply, so does
+the demand for their better and cheaper products increase.
+
+As the other metals, gold, silver, copper and lead often occur together,
+and in the same deposits with iron, the same general modes of treatment
+to extract them are often applied. These are known as the dry and the
+wet methods, and electro-reduction.
+
+Ever since Mammon bowed his head in search for gold, every means that
+the mind of man could suggest to obtain it have been tried, but the
+devices of this century have been more numerous and more successful than
+any before. The ancient methods of simply melting and "skimming the
+bullion dross" have been superseded. Modern methods may be divided into
+two general classes, the mechanical and the chemical. Of the former
+methods, when gold was found loose in sand or gravel, washing was the
+earliest and most universally practised, and was called panning. In this
+method mercury is often used to take up and secure the fine gold.
+Rockers like a child's cradle, into which the dirt is shovelled and
+washed over retaining riffles, were used; coarse-haired blankets and
+hides; sluices and separators, with or without quicksilver linings to
+catch the gold; and powerful streams of water worked by compressed air
+to tear down the banks. Where water could not be obtained the ore and
+soil were pulverised and dried, and then thrown against the wind or a
+blast of air, and the heavier gold, falling before the lighter dust, was
+caught on hides or blankets. For the crushing of the quartz in which
+gold was found, innumerable inventions in stamp mills, rollers,
+crushers, abraders, pulverisers and amalgamators have been invented; and
+so with roasters, and furnaces, and crucibles to melt the precious
+metal, separate the remaining impurities and convert it to use.
+
+As to chemical methods for the precious metals, the process of
+_lixiviation_, or _leaching_, by which the ore is washed out by a
+solution of potash, or with dilute sulphuric acid, or boiling with
+concentrated sulphuric acid, is quite modern. About 1889 came out the
+great cyanide process, also known as the MacArthur-Forrest process (they
+being the first to obtain patents and introduce the invention),
+consisting of the use of cyanide potassium in solution, which dissolves
+the gold, and which is then precipitated by the employment of zinc. This
+process is best adapted to what are known as free milling or porous
+ores, where the gold is free and very fine and is attracted readily by
+mercury.
+
+In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the metal potassium by subjecting
+moistened potash to the action of a powerful voltaic battery; the
+positive pole gave off oxygen and the metallic globules of pure
+potassium appeared at the negative pole. It is never found uncombined in
+nature. Now if potassium is heated in cyanogen gas (a gas procured by
+heating mercury) or obtained on a large scale by the decomposition of
+yellow prussiate of potash, a white crystalline body very soluble in
+water, and exceedingly poisonous, is obtained. When gold, for instance,
+obtained by pulverising the ore, or found free in sand, is treated to
+such a solution it is dissolved from its surrounding constituents and
+precipitated by the zinc, as before stated.
+
+Chlorine is another metal discovered by Scheele in 1774, but not known
+as an elementary element until so established by Davy's investigations
+in 1810, when he gave it the name it now bears, from the Greek
+_chloras_, yellowish green. It is found abundantly in the mineral world
+in combination with common salt. Now it was found that chlorine is one
+of the most energetic of bodies, surpassing even oxygen under some
+circumstances, and that a chlorine solution will readily dissolve gold.
+
+These, the cyanide and chlorination processes, have almost entirely
+superseded the old washing and amalgamating methods of treating free
+gold--and the cyanide seems to be now taking the lead.
+
+_Alloys._--The art of fusing different metals to make new compounds,
+although always practised, has been greatly advanced by the discoverers
+and inventors of the century. As we have seen, amalgamating to extract
+gold and silver, and the making of bronze from tin and copper were very
+early followed. One of the most notable and useful of modern inventions
+or improvements of the kind was that of Isaac Babbitt of Boston in 1839,
+who in that year obtained patents for what ever since has been known as
+"babbitting." The great and undesirable friction produced by the rubbing
+of the ends of journals and shafts in their bearings of the same metal,
+cast or wrought iron, amounting to one-fifth of the amount of power
+exerted to turn them, had long been experienced. Lubricants of all kinds
+had been and are used; but Babbitt's invention was an anti-friction
+metal. It is composed of tin, antimony, and copper, and although the
+proportions and ingredients have since been varied, the whole art is
+still known as babbitting.
+
+Other successful alloys have been made for gun metal, sheathing of
+ships, horseshoes, organ pipes, plough shares, roofing, eyelets,
+projectiles, faucets, and many and various articles of hardware,
+ornamental ware, and jewelry.
+
+Valuable metals, such as were not always rare or scarce, but very hard
+to reduce, have been rendered far less in cost of production and more
+extensive in use by modern processes. Thus, aluminium, an abundant
+element in rocks and clay, discovered by the German chemist W�hler, in
+1827, a precious metal, so light, bright, and tough, non-oxidizing,
+harder than zinc, more sonorous than silver, malleable and ductile as
+iron, and more tenacious, has been brought to the front from an
+expensive and mere laboratory production to common and useful purposes
+in all the arts by the processes commencing in 1854 with that of St.
+Clair Deoville, of France, followed by those of H. Rose, Morin, Castner,
+Tissier, Hall, and others.
+
+_Electro-metallurgy_, so far, has chiefly to do with the decomposition
+of metals by the electric current, and the production of very high
+temperatures for furnaces, by which the most refractory ores, metals,
+and other substances may be melted, and results produced not obtainable
+in any other way. By placing certain mixtures of carbon and sand, or of
+carbon and clay, between the terminals of a powerful current, a material
+resembling diamonds, but harder, has been produced. It has been named
+carbonundrum. The production of diamonds themselves is looked for. Steel
+wire is now tempered and annealed by electricity, as well as welding
+done, of which mention further on will be made.
+
+Thus we have seen how the birth of ideas of former generations has given
+rise in the present age to children of a larger growth. Arts have grown
+only as machinery for the accomplishment of their objects has developed,
+and machinery has waited on the development of the metals composing it.
+The civilisation of to-day would not have been possible if the
+successors of Tubal Cain had not been like him, instructors "of every
+artificer in brass and iron."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+METAL WORKING.
+
+
+We referred in the last chapter to the fact that metal when it came from
+the melting and puddling furnace was formerly rolled into sheets; but,
+when the manufacturers and consumers got these sheets then came the
+severe, laborious work by hand of cutting, hammering, boring, shaping
+and fitting the parts for use and securing them in place.
+
+It is one of the glories of this century that metal-working tools and
+machinery have been invented that take the metal from its inception,
+mould and adapt it to man's will in every situation with an infinite
+saving of time and labour, and with a perfection and uniformity of
+operation entirely impossible by hand.
+
+Although the tools for boring holes in wood, such as the gimlet, auger,
+and the lathe to hold, turn and guide the article to be operated on by
+the tool, are common in some respects with those for drilling and
+turning metal, yet, the adaptation to use with metal constitutes a class
+of metal-working appliances distinct in themselves, and with some
+exceptions not interchangeable with wood-working utensils. The
+metal-working tools and machines forming the subject of this chapter are
+not those which from time immemorial have been used to pierce, hammer,
+cut, and shape metals, directed by the eye and hand of man, but rather
+those invented to take the place of the hand and eye and be operated by
+other powers.
+
+It needs other than manual power to subdue the metals to the present
+wants of man, and until those modern motor powers, such as steam,
+compressed air, gas and electricity, and modern hydraulic machinery,
+were developed, automatic machine tools to any extent were not invented.
+So, too, the tools that are designed to operate on hard metal should
+themselves be of the best metal, and until modern inventors rediscovered
+the art of making cast steel such tools were not obtainable. The
+monuments and records of ancient and departed races show that it was
+known by them how to bore holes in wood, stone and glass by some sharp
+instruments turned by hand, or it may be by leather cords, as a top is
+turned.
+
+_The lathe_, a machine to hold an object, and at the same time revolve
+it while it is formed by the hand, or cut by a tool, is as old as the
+art of pottery, and is illustrated in the oldest Egyptian monuments, in
+which the god Ptah is shown in the act of moulding man upon the throwing
+wheel. It is a device as necessary to the industrial growth of man as
+the axe or the spade. Its use by the Egyptians appears to have been
+confined to pottery, but the ancient Greeks, Chinese, Africans, and
+Hindoos used lathes, for wood working in which the work was suspended on
+horizontal supports, and adapted to be rotated by means of a rope and
+treadle and a spring bar, impelled by the operator as he held the
+cutting tool on the object. Joseph Holtzapffel in his learned work on
+_Turning and Mechanical Manipulation_, gives a list of old publications
+describing lathes for turning both wood and metal. Among these is
+Hartman Schapper's book published at Frankfort, in 1548. A lathe on
+which was formed wood screws is described in a work of Jacques Besson,
+published at Lyons, France, in 1582.
+
+It is stated that there is on exhibition in the Abbott museum of the
+Historical Society, New York, a bronze drinking vessel, five inches in
+diameter, that was exhumed from an ancient tomb in Thebes, and which
+bears evidence of having been turned on a lathe. It is thought by those
+skilled in the art that it was not possible to have constructed the
+works of metal in Solomon's Temple without a turning lathe. One of the
+earliest published descriptions of a metal turning lathe in its leading
+features is that found in a book published in London, in 1677-83, by
+Joseph Moxon, "hydographer" to King Charles II., entitled, _Mechanical
+Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handy Works_. He therein also described a
+machine for planing metal. Although there is some evidence that these
+inventions of the learned gentleman were made and put to some use, yet
+they were soon forgotten and were not revived until a century later,
+when, as before intimated, the steam engine had been invented and
+furnished the power for working them.
+
+Wood-working implements in which the cutting tool was carried by a
+sliding block were described in the English patents of General Sir
+Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah, in 1793-94. But until this century,
+and fairly within its borders, man was content generally to use the
+metal lathe simply as a holding and turning support, while he with such
+skill and strength as he could command, and with an expenditure of time,
+labour and patience truly marvellous, held and guided with his hands the
+cutting tool with which the required form was made upon or from the
+slowly turning object before him. The contrivance which was to take the
+place of the hand and eye of man in holding, applying, directing and
+impelling a cutting tool to the surface of the metal work was the
+_slide-rest_. In its modern successful automatic form Henry Maudsley, an
+engineer in London, is claimed to be the first inventor, in the early
+part of the century. The leading feature of his form of this device
+consists of an iron block which constitutes the rest, cut with grooves
+so as to adapt it to slide upon its iron supports, means to secure the
+cutting tool solidly to this block, and two screw handles, one to adjust
+the tool towards and against the object to be cut in the lathe, and the
+other to slide the rest and tool lengthwise as the work progresses,
+which latter motion may be given by the hand, or effected automatically
+by a connection of the screw handle of the slide and the rotating object
+on the lathe.
+
+A vast variety of inventions and operations have been effected by
+changes in these main features. Of the value of this invention, Nasmyth,
+a devoted pupil of Maudsley and himself an eminent engineer and
+inventor, thus writes:--"It was this holding of a tool by means of an
+iron hand, and constraining it to move along the surface of the work in
+so certain a manner, and with such definite and precise motion, which
+formed the great era in the history of mechanics, inasmuch as we
+thenceforward became possessed, by its means, of the power of operating
+alike on the most ponderous or delicate pieces of machinery with a
+degree of minute precision, of which language cannot convey an adequate
+idea; and in many cases we have, through its agency, equal facility in
+carrying on the most perfect workmanship in the interior parts of
+certain machines where neither the hand nor the eye can reach, and
+nevertheless we can give to these parts their required form with a
+degree of accuracy as if we had the power of transforming our-selves
+into pigmy workmen, and so apply our labour to the innermost holes and
+corners of our machinery."
+
+The scope of the lathe, slide-rest and operating tool, by its adaptation
+to cut out from a vast roll of steel a ponderous gun, or by a change in
+the size of parts to operate in cutting or drilling the most delicate
+portions of that most delicate of all mechanisms, a watch, reminds one
+of that other marvel of mechanical adaptation, the steam hammer, which
+makes the earth tremble with its mighty blows upon a heated mass of
+iron, or lightly taps and cracks the soft-shelled nut without the
+slightest touch of violence upon its enclosed and fragile fruit.
+
+The adaptation of the lathe and slide to wood-working tools will be
+referred to in the chapter relating to wood-working.
+
+Following the invention of the lathe and the slide-rest, came the
+_metal-planing_ machines. It is stated in Buchanan's _Practical Essays_,
+published in 1841, that a French engineer in 1751, in constructing the
+Marly Water Works on the Seine in France, employed a machine for planing
+out the wrought iron pump-barrels used in that work, and this is thought
+to be the first instance in which iron was reduced to a plane surface
+without chipping or filing. But it needed the invention of the
+slide-rest and its application to metal-turning lathes to suggest and
+render successful metal-planing machines. These were supplied in England
+from 1811 to 1840 by the genius of Bramah, Clement, Fox, Roberts,
+Rennie, Whitworth, Fletcher, and a few others. When it is considered how
+many different forms are essential to the completion of metal machines
+of every description, the usefulness of machinery that will produce them
+with the greatest accuracy and despatch can be imagined. The many
+modifications of the planing machine have names that indicate to the
+workman the purpose for which they are adapted--as the _jack_, a small
+portable machine, quick and handy; the _jim crow_, a machine for planing
+both ways by reversal of the movement of the bed, and it gets its name
+because it can "wheel about and turn about and do just so"; the key
+groove machine, the milling machine with a serrated-faced cutter bar,
+shaping machine and shaping bar, slotting machine, crank planer, screw
+cutting, car-wheel turning, bolt and nut screwing, etc.
+
+As to the mutual evolution and important results of these combined
+inventions, the slide-rest and the planer, we again quote Nasmyth:--
+
+"The first planing machine enabled us to produce the second still
+better, and that a better still, and then slide rests of the most
+perfect kind came streaming forth from them, and they again assisted in
+making better still, so that in a very short time a most important
+branch of engineering business, namely, tool-making, arose, which had
+its existence not merely owing to the pre-existing demand for such
+tools, but in fact raised a demand of its own creating. One has only to
+go into any of these vast establishments which have sprung up in the
+last thirty years to find that nine-tenths of all the fine mechanisms in
+use and in process of production are through the agency, more or less
+direct, of the _slide rest and planing machine_."
+
+Springing out of these inventions, as from a fruitful soil, came the
+metal-boring machines, one class for turning the outside of cylinders to
+make them true, and another class for boring and drilling holes through
+solid metal plates. The principle of the lathe was applied to those
+machines in which the shaft carrying the cutting or boring tool was held
+either in a vertical or in a horizontal position.
+
+Now flowed forth, as from some Vulcan's titanic workshop, machines for
+making bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, chains, staples, car wheels, shafts,
+etc., and other machines for applying them to the objects with which
+they were to be used.
+
+The progress of screw-making had been such that in 1840, by the machines
+then in use for cutting, slotting, shaving, threading, and heading,
+twenty men and boys were enabled to manufacture 20,000 screws in a day.
+Thirty-five years later two girls tending two machines were enabled to
+manufacture 240,000 screws a day. Since then the process has proceeded
+at even a greater rate. So great is the consumption of screws that it
+would be utterly impossible to supply the demand by the processes in
+vogue sixty years ago.
+
+In England's first great International Fair, in 1851, a new world of
+metallurgical products, implements, processes, and metal-working tools,
+were among the grand results of the half century's inventions which were
+exhibited to the assembled nations. The leading exhibitor in the line of
+self-acting lathes, planing, slotting, drilling and boring machines was
+J. Whitworth & Co., of Manchester, England. Here were for the first time
+revealed in a compact form those machines which shaped metal as wood
+alone had been previously shaped. But another quarter of a century
+brought still grander results, which were displayed at the Centennial
+Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876.
+
+As J. Whitworth & Co. were the leading exhibitors at London in 1851, so
+were William Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, the leading exhibitors in
+the 1876 exhibition. As showing the progress of the century, the
+official report, made in this class by citizens of other countries than
+America, set forth that this exhibit of the latter company, "in extent
+and value, in extraordinary variety and originality, was probably
+without parallel in the past history of international exhibitions."
+Language seemed to be inadequate to enable the committee to describe
+satisfactorily the extreme refinement in every detail, the superior
+quality of material and workmanship, the mathematical accuracy, the
+beautiful outlines, the perfection in strength and form, and the
+scientific skill displayed in the remarkable assemblage of this class of
+machinery at that exhibition.
+
+An exhibit on that occasion made by Messrs. Hoopes & Townsend of
+Philadelphia attracted great attention by the fact that the doctrine of
+the flow of solid metal, so well expounded by that eminent French
+scientist, M. Tresca, was therein well illustrated. It consisted of a
+large collection of bolts and screws which had been _cold-punched_, as
+well as of elevator and carrier chains, the links of which had been so
+punched. This punching of the cold metal without cutting, boring,
+drilling, hammering, or otherwise shaping the metal, was indeed a
+revelation.
+
+So also at this Exhibition was a finer collection of machine-made
+horseshoes than had ever previously been presented to the world. A
+better and more intelligent and refined treatment of that noble animal,
+the horse, and especially in the care of his feet, had sprung up during
+the last half century, conspicuously advocated by Mr. Fleming in
+England, and followed promptly in America and elsewhere. Within the last
+forty years nearly two hundred patents have been taken out in the United
+States alone for machines for making horseshoes. Prejudices, jealousies
+and objections of all kinds were raised at first against the
+machine-made horseshoe, as well as the horseshoe nail, but the horses
+have won, and the blacksmiths have been benefited despite their early
+objections. The smiths make larger incomes in buying and applying the
+machine-made shoes. The shoes are not only hammered into shape on the
+machine, but there are machines for stamping them out from metal at a
+single blow; for compressing several thicknesses of raw hide and
+moulding them in a steel mould, producing a light, elastic shoe, and
+without calks; furnishing shoes for defective hoofs, flexible shoes for
+the relief and cure of contracted or flat feet, shoes formed with a
+joint at the toe, and light, hard shoes made of aluminium.
+
+_Tube Making._--Instead of heating strips of metal and welding the edges
+together, tubes may now be made seamless by rolling the heated metal
+around a solid heated rod; or by placing a hot ingot in a die and
+forcing a mandrel through the ingot. And as to tube and metal bending,
+there are wonderful machines which bend sheets of metal into great
+tubes, funnels, ship masts and cylinders.
+
+_Welding._--As to welding--the seams, instead of being hammered, are now
+formed by melting and condensing the edges, or adjoining parts, by the
+electric current.
+
+_Annealing and Tempering._--Steel wire and plates are now tempered and
+annealed by electricity. It is found that they can be heated to a high
+temperature more quickly and evenly by the electric current passed
+through them than by combustion, and the process is much used in making
+clock and watch springs.
+
+One way of hardening plates, especially armour plates, by what is called
+the Harveyized process, is by embedding the face of the plate in carbon,
+protecting the back and sides with sand, heating to about the melting
+point of cast iron, and then hardening the face by chilling, or
+otherwise.
+
+_Coating with Metal._--Although covering metal with metal has been
+practised from the earliest times, accomplished by heating and
+hammering, it was not until this century that electro-plating, and
+plating by chemical processes, as by dipping the metal into certain
+chemical solutions, and by the use of automatic machinery, were adopted.
+It was in the early part of the century that Volta discovered that in
+the voltaic battery certain metallic salts were reduced to their
+elements and deposited at the negative pole; and that Wollaston
+demonstrated how a silver plate in bath of sulphate of copper through
+which a current was passed became covered with copper. Then in 1838,
+Spencer applied these principles in making casts, and Jacobi in Russia
+shortly after electro-gilded a dome of a cathedral in St. Petersburg.
+Space will not permit the enumeration of the vast variety of processes
+and machines for coating and gilding that have since followed.
+
+_Metal Founding._--The treatment of metal after it flows from the
+furnaces, or is poured from the crucibles into moulds, by the operations
+of facing, drying, covering, casting and stripping, has given rise to a
+multitude of machines and methods for casting a great variety of
+objects. The most interesting inventions in this class have for their
+object the chilling, or chill hardening, of the outer surfaces of
+articles which are subject to the most and hardest wear, as axle boxes,
+hammers, anvils, etc., which is effected by exposing the red-hot metal
+to a blast of cold air, or by introducing a piece of iron into a mould
+containing the molten metal.
+
+In casting steel ingots, in order to produce a uniform compact
+structure, Giers of England invented "soaking pits of sand" into which
+the ingot from the mould is placed and then covered, so that the heat
+radiating outward re-heats the exterior, and the ingot is then rolled
+without re-heating.
+
+_Sheet Metal Ware._--Important improvements have been made in this line.
+Wonderful machines have been made which, receiving within them a piece
+of flat metal, will, by a single blow of a plunger in a die, stamp out a
+metal can or box with tightly closed seams, and all ready for the cover,
+which is made in another similar machine; or by which an endless chain
+of cans are carried into a machine and there automatically soldered at
+their seams; and another which solders the heads on filled cans as fast
+as they can be fed into the machine.
+
+_Metal Personal Ware._--Buckles, clasps, hooks and eyelets, shanked
+buttons, and similar objects are now stamped up and out, without more
+manual labour than is necessary to supply the machines with the metal,
+and to take care of the completed articles.
+
+_Wire Working._--Not only unsightly but useful barbed wire fences, and
+the most ornamental wire work and netting for many purposes, such as
+fences, screens, cages, etc., are now made by ingenious machines, and
+not by hand tools.
+
+In stepping into some one of the great modern works where varied
+industries are carried on under one general management, one cannot help
+realising the vast difference between old systems and the new. In one
+portion of the establishment the crude ores are received and smelted and
+treated, with a small force and with ease, until the polished metal is
+complete and ready for manipulation in the manufacture of a hundred
+different objects. In another part ponderous or smaller lathes and
+planing machines are turning forth many varied forms; in quiet corners
+the boring, drilling, and riveting machines are doing their work without
+the clang of hammers; in another, an apparently young student is
+conducting the scientific operation of coating or gilding metals; in
+another, girls may be seen with light machines, stamping, or burnishing,
+or assembling the different parts of finished metal ware; and the motive
+power of all this is the silent but all-powerful electric current
+received from the smooth-running dynamo giant who works with vast but
+unseen energy in a den by himself, not a smoky or a dingy den, but
+light, clean, polished, and beautiful as the workshop of a god.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ORDNANCE, ARMS AND EXPLOSIVES.
+
+
+Although the progress in the invention of fire-arms of all descriptions
+seems slow during the ages preceding the 19th century, yet it will be
+found on investigation that no art progressed faster. No other art was
+spurred to activity by such strong incentives, and none received the
+same encouragement and reward for its development. The art of war was
+the trade of kings and princes, and princely was the reward to the
+subject who was the first to invent the most destructive weapon. Under
+such high patronage most of the ideas and principles of ordnance now
+prevailing were discovered or suggested, but were embodied for the most
+part in rude and inefficient contrivances.
+
+The art waited for its success on the development of other arts, and on
+the mental expansion and freedom giving rise to scientific investigation
+and results.
+
+The cannon and musket themselves became the greatest instruments for the
+advancement of the new civilisation, however much it was intended
+otherwise by their kingly proprietors, and the new civilisation returned
+the compliment through its trained intellects by giving to war its
+present destructive efficiency.
+
+To this efficiency, great as the paradox may seem, Peace holds what
+quiet fields it has, or will have, until most men learn to love peace
+and hate the arts of war.
+
+As to the Chinese is given the credit for the invention of gunpowder, so
+they must also be regarded as the first to throw projectiles by its
+means. But their inventions in these directions may be classed as
+fireworks, and have no material bearing on the modern art of Ordnance.
+It is supposed that the word "cannon," is derived from the same root as
+"cane," originally signifying a hollow reed; and that these hollow reeds
+or similar tubes closed at one end were used to fire rockets by powder.
+
+It is also stated that the practice existed among the Chinese as early
+as 969 A. D. of tying rockets to their arrows to propel them to greater
+distances, as well as for incendiary purposes.
+
+This basic idea had percolated from China through India to the Moors and
+Arabs, and in the course of a few centuries had developed into a crude
+artillery used by the Moors in the siege of Cordova in 1280. The
+Spaniards, thus learning the use of the cannon, turned the lesson upon
+their instructors, when under Ferdinand IV. they took Gibraltar from the
+Moors in 1309. Then the knowledge of artillery soon spread throughout
+Europe. The French used it at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and
+the English had three small guns at Crecy in 1346. These antique guns
+were made by welding longitudinal bars of iron together and binding them
+by iron rings shrunk on while hot. Being shaped internally and
+externally like an apothecary's mortar, they were called mortars or
+bombards. Some were breech-loaders, having a removable chamber at the
+breech into which the charge of powder was inserted behind the ball. The
+balls were stone. These early cannon, bombards, and mortars were mounted
+on heavy solid wooden frames and moved with great difficulty from place
+to place. Then in the fifteenth century they commenced to make
+wrought-iron cannon, and hollow projectiles, containing a bursting
+charge of powder to be exploded by a fuse lit before the shell was
+fired. In the next century cannon were cast.
+
+The Hindoos, when their acquaintance was made by the Europeans, were as
+far advanced as the latter in cannon and fire-arms. One cannon was found
+at Bejapoor, in India, cast of bronze, bearing date 1548, and called the
+"Master of the Field," which weighed 89,600 pounds, and others of
+similar size of later dates. Great cast bronze guns of about the same
+weight as the Hindoo guns were also produced at St. Petersburg, Russia,
+in the sixteenth century.
+
+Many and strange were the names given by Europeans to their cannon in
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to denote their size and the
+weight of the ball they carried: such as the Assick, the Bombard, the
+Basilisk, the cannon Royal, or Carthoun, the Culverin, Demi-culverin,
+Falcon, Siren, Serpentine, etc.
+
+The bombards in the fifteenth century were made so large and heavy,
+especially in France, that they could not be moved without being taken
+apart.
+
+When the heavy, unwieldy bombards with stone balls were used, artillery
+was mostly confined to castles, towns, forts, and ships. When used in
+the field they were dragged about by many yokes of oxen. But in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century, when France under Louis XI. had
+learned to cast lighter brass cannon, to mount them on carriages that
+could be drawn by four or six horses, and which carriages had trunnions
+in which the cannon were swung so as to be elevated or depressed, and
+cast-iron projectiles were used instead of stones, field artillery took
+its rise, and by its use the maps of the world were changed. Thus with
+their artillery the French under Charles VIII., the successor of Louis
+XI., conquered Italy.
+
+In the sixteenth century Europe was busy in adopting these and other
+changes. Cannon were made of all sizes and calibres, but were not
+arranged in battle with much precision. Case shot were invented in
+Germany but not brought into general use. Shells were invented by the
+Italians and fired from mortars, but their mode of construction was
+preserved in great secrecy. The early breech-loaders had been discarded,
+as it was not known how to make the breech gas-tight, and the explosions
+rendered the guns more dangerous to their users than to the enemy.
+
+In the seventeenth century Holland began to make useful mortar shells
+and hand grenades. Maurice and Henry Frederick of Nassau, and Gustave
+Adolphus, made many improvements in the sizes and construction of
+cannon. In 1674, Coehorn, an officer in the service of the Prince of
+Orange, invented the celebrated mortar which bears his name, and the use
+of which has continued to the present time. The Dutch also invented the
+howitzer, a short gun in which the projectiles could be introduced by
+hand. About the same time Comminges of France invented mortars which
+threw projectiles weighing 550 pounds. In this part of that century also
+great improvements were made under Louis XIV. Limbers, by which the
+front part of the gun carriage was made separable from the cannon part
+and provided with the ammunition chest; the prolonge, a cord and hook by
+which the gun part could be moved around by hand; and the elevating
+screw, by which the muzzle of the gun could be raised or
+depressed,--were invented.
+
+In the early part of the eighteenth century it was thought by
+artillerists in England that the longer the gun the farther it would
+carry. One, called "Queen Ann's Pocket Piece" still preserved at Dover,
+is twenty-five feet long and carries a ball only twenty-five pounds in
+weight. It was only after repeated experiments that it was learned that
+the shorter guns carried the projectile the greatest distance.
+
+The greatest improvements in the eighteenth century were made by
+Gribeauval, the celebrated French artillerist, about 1765. He had guns
+made of such material and of such size as to adapt them to the different
+services to which they were to be put, as field, siege, garrison, and
+sea coast. He gave greater mobility to the system by introducing
+six-pound howitzers, and making gun carriages lighter; he introduced the
+system of fixed ammunition, separate compartments in the gun carriages
+for the projectiles, and the charges of powder in paper or cloth bags or
+cylinders; improved the construction of the elevating screw, adapted the
+tangent scale, formed the artillery into horse batteries, and devised
+new equipments and a new system of tactics.
+
+It was with Gribeauval's improved system that "Citizen Bonaparte, young
+artillery officer," took Toulon; with which the same young "bronze
+artillery officer" let go his great guns in the Cul-de-Sac Dauphin
+against the church of St. Roch; on the Port Royal; at the Theatre de la
+Republique; "and the thing we specifically call French Revolution is
+blown into space by it, and became a thing that was."
+
+It was with this system that this same young officer won his first
+brilliant victories in Italy. When the fruit of these victories had been
+lost during his absence he reappeared with his favorite artillery, and
+on the threshold of the century, in May 1800, as "First Consul of the
+Republic" re-achieved at Marengo the supremacy of France over Austria.
+
+As to _small arms_, as before suggested, they doubtless had their origin
+in the practice of the Chinese in throwing fire balls from bamboo
+barrels by the explosion of light charges of powder, as illustrated to
+this day in what are known as "Roman Candles." Fire-crackers and
+grenades were also known to the Chinese and the Greeks.
+
+Among ancient fire-arms the principal ones were the arquebus, also
+bombardelle, and the blunderbuss. They were invented in the fourteenth
+century but were not much used until the fifteenth century. These guns
+for the most part were so heavy that they had to be rested on some
+object to be fired. The soldiers carried a sort of tripod for this
+purpose. The gun was fired by a slow-burning cord, a live coal, a lit
+stick, or a long rod heated at one end, and called a match. The
+blunderbuss was invented in Holland. It was a large, short,
+funnel-shaped muzzle-loader, and loaded with nails, slugs, etc. The
+injuries and hardships suffered by the men who used it, rather than by
+the enemy, rendered its name significant. Among the earliest fire-arms
+of this period one was invented which was a breech-loader and revolver.
+The breech had four chambers and was rotated by hand on an arbour
+parallel to the barrel. The extent of its use is not learned. To ignite
+the powder the "wheel-lock" and "snap-haunce" were invented by the
+Germans in the sixteenth century. The wheel lock consisted of a furrowed
+wheel and was turned by the trigger and chain against a fixed piece of
+iron on the stock to excite sparks which fell on to the priming. The
+snap-haunce, a straight piece of furrowed steel, superseded the
+wheel-lock. The sixteenth century had got well started before the
+English could be induced to give up the cross-bow and arrow, and adopt
+the musket. After they had introduced the musket with the snap-haunce
+and wooden ramrod, it became known, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, as
+the "Brown Bess."
+
+The "old flint-lock" was quite a modern invention, not appearing until
+the seventeenth century. It was a bright idea to fix a piece of flint
+into the cock and arrange it to strike a steel cap on the priming pan
+when the trigger was fired; and it superseded the old match, wheel-lock,
+and snap-haunce. The flint-lock was used by armies well into the
+nineteenth century, and is still in private use in remote localities. As
+the arquebus succeeded the bow and arrow, so the musket, a smooth and
+single-barrel muzzle-loader with a flint-lock and a wooden ramrod,
+succeeded the arquebus. Rifles, which were the old flint-lock muskets
+with their barrels provided with spiral grooves to give the bullet a
+rotary motion and cause it to keep one point constantly in front during
+its flight, is claimed as the invention of Augustin Kutler of Germany in
+1520, and also of Koster of Birmingham, England, about 1620. Muskets
+with straight grooves are said to have been used in the fifteenth
+century.
+
+The rifle with a long barrel and its flint-lock was a favourite weapon
+of the American settler. It was made in America, and he fought the
+Indian wars and the war of the Revolution with it.
+
+It would not do to conclude this sketch of antique cannon and fire-arms
+without referring to Puckle's celebrated English patent No. 418, of May
+15, 1718, for "A Defence." The patent starts out with the motto:
+
+  "Defending King George, your Country, and Lawes,
+  Is defending Yourselves and Protestant Cause."
+
+It proceeds to describe a "Portable Gun or Machine" having a single
+barrel, with a set of removable chambers which are charged with bullets
+before they are placed in the gun, a handle to turn the chambers to
+bring each chamber in line with the barrel, a tripod on which the gun is
+mounted and on which it is to be turned, a screw for elevating and
+turning the gun in different directions, a set of square chambers "for
+shooting square bullets against Turks," a set of round chambers "for
+shooting round bullets against the Christians;" and separate drawings
+show the square bullets for the Turks and the round bullets for the
+Christians. History is silent as to whether Mr. Puckle's patent was put
+in practice, but it contained the germs of some modern inventions.
+
+Among the first inventions of the century was a very important one made
+by a clergyman, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth, a Scotchman, who in 1803 invented
+the percussion principle in fire-arms. In 1807 he patented in England
+detonating powder and pellets which were used for artillery. About 1808
+General Shrapnel of the English army invented the celebrated shell known
+by his name. It then consisted of a comparatively thin shell filled with
+bullets, having a fuse lit by the firing of the gun, and adapted to
+explode the shell in front of the object fired at. This fuse was
+superseded by one invented by General Bormann of Belgium, which greatly
+added to the value of case shot.
+
+In 1814 Joshua Shaw of England invented the percussion cap. Thus, by the
+invention of the percussion principle by Forsyth, and that little copper
+cylinder of Shaw, having a flake of fulminating powder inside and
+adapted to fit the nipple of a gun and be exploded by the fall of the
+hammer, was sounded the death knell of the old flint-locks with which
+the greatest battles of the world had been and were at that time being
+fought. The advantages gained by the cap were the certain and
+instantaneous fire, the saving in time, power, and powder obtained by
+making smaller the orifice through which the ignition was introduced,
+and the protection from moisture given by the covering cap. And yet so
+slow is the growth of inventions sometimes that all Europe continued to
+make the flint-locks for many years after the percussion cap was
+invented; and General Scott, in the war between the United States and
+Mexico in 1847, declined to give the army the percussion cap musket. The
+cap suggested the necessity and invention of machines for making them
+quickly and in great quantities.
+
+The celebrated "Colt's" revolver was invented by Colonel Samuel Colt of
+the United States, in 1835. He continued to improve it, and in 1851
+exhibited it at the World's Fair, London, where it excited great
+surprise and attention. Since then the revolver has become a great
+weapon in both private and public warfare. The next great inventions in
+small arms were the readoption and improvement of the breech-loader, the
+making of metallic cartridges, the magazine gun, smokeless powder and
+other explosives, to which further reference will be made.
+
+To return to cannons:--In 1812 Colonel Bomford, an American officer,
+invented what is called the "Columbiad," a kind of cannon best adapted
+for sea-coast purposes. They are long-chambered pieces, combining
+certain qualities of the gun, howitzer and mortar, and capable of
+projecting shells and solid shot with heavy charges of powder at high
+angles of elevation, and peculiarly adapted to defend narrow channels
+and sea-coast defences. A similar gun was invented by General Paixhans
+of the French army in 1822. The adoption of the Paixhans long-chambered
+guns, designed to throw heavy shells horizontally as well as at a slight
+elevation and as easily as solid shot, was attended with great results.
+Used by the French in 1832, in the quick victorious siege of Antwerp, by
+the allies at Sebastopol, where the whole Russian fleet was destroyed in
+about an hour, and in the fight of the Kearsarge and the doomed Alabama
+off Cherbourg in the American civil war, it forced inventors in the
+different countries to devise new and better armour for the defence of
+ships. This was followed by guns of still greater penetrative power.
+Then as another result effected by these greater guns came the passing
+away of the old-fashioned brick and stone forts as a means of defence.
+
+In an interesting address by Major Clarence E. Dutton of the Ordnance
+Department, U.S.A., at the Centennial Patent Congress at Washington in
+1891, he thus stated what the fundamental improvements were that have
+characterised the modern ordnance during the century:
+
+1. The regulation and control of the action of gunpowder in such a
+manner as to exert less strain upon the gun, and to impart more energy
+to the projectile.
+
+2. To so construct the gun as to transfer a portion of the strain from
+the interior parts of the walls which had borne too much of it, to the
+exterior parts which had borne too little, thus nearly equalising the
+strain throughout the entire thickness of the walls.
+
+3. To provide a metal which should be at once stronger and safer than
+any which had been used before.
+
+In the United States General Rodman, "one of the pioneers of armed
+science," commenced about 1847 a series of investigations and
+experiments on the power and action of gunpowder and the strains
+received by every part of the gun by the exploding gases, of very great
+importance; and in this matter he was assisted greatly by Dr. W. E.
+Woodbridge, who invented an ingenious apparatus termed a "piezometer,"
+or a pressure measurer, by which the pressure of the gases at the
+various parts of the gun was determined with mathematical certainty.
+
+Dr. Woodbridge also added greatly to the success of rifled cannon. The
+success in rifling small arms, by which an elongated ball is made to
+retain the same end foremost during its flight, led again to the
+attempts of rifling cannon for the same purpose, which were finally
+successful. But this success was due not to the spiral grooves in the
+cannon bore, but in attachments to the ball compelling it to follow the
+course of the grooves and giving it the proper initial movement. The
+trouble with these attachments was that they were either stripped off,
+or stripped away, by the gun spirals. Woodbridge in 1850 overcame the
+difficulty by inventing an improved _sabot_, consisting of a ring
+composed of metal softer than the projectile or cannon, fixed on the
+inner end of the projectile and grooved at its rear end, so that when
+the gun is fired and the ball driven forward these grooves expand,
+acting valvularly to fill the grooves in the gun, thus preventing the
+escape of the gases, while the ring at the same time is forced forward
+on to the shell so tightly and forcibly that the projectile is
+invariably given a rotary motion and made to advance strictly in the
+line of axis of the bore, and in the same line during the course of its
+flight. This invention in principle has been followed ever since,
+although other forms have been given the sabot, and it is due to this
+invention that modern rifled cannon have been so wonderfully accurate in
+range and efficient in the penetrating and destructive power both on sea
+and land.
+
+Woodbridge also invented the _wire-wound cannon_, and a machine for
+winding the wire upon the gun, thus giving the breach part, especially,
+immense strength.
+
+In England, among the first notable and greater inventors in ordnance
+during the latter half of the century, a period which embraces the
+reduction to practice of the most wonderful and successful inventions in
+weapons of war which the world had up to that time seen, are Lancaster,
+who invented the elliptical bore; Sir William Armstrong, who, commencing
+in 1885, constructed a gun built of wrought-iron bars twisted into coils
+and applied over a steel core and bound by one or more wrought-iron
+rings, all applied at white heat and shrunk on by contraction due to
+cooling, by which method smooth-bore, muzzle-loading cannon of immense
+calibre, one weighing one hundred tons, were made. They were followed by
+Armstrong, inventor of breech-loaders; Blakely, inventor of cannon made
+of steel tubes and an outer jacket of cast iron; and Sir Joseph
+Whitworth, inventor of most powerful steel cannon and compressed steel
+projectiles.
+
+In Germany, Friedrich Krupp at Essen, Prussia, invented and introduced
+such improvements in breech-loading cannon as revolutionised the
+manufacture of that species of ordnance, and established the foundation
+of the greatest ordnance works in the world. The first of his great
+breech-loading steel guns was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867.
+A Krupp gun finished at Essen in the 70's was then the largest steel gun
+the world had ever seen. It weighed seventy-two tons, and was thirty-two
+feet long. The charge consisted of 385 pounds of powder, the shell
+weighed 1,660 pounds, having a bursting charge of powder of 22 pounds,
+and a velocity of 1,640 feet per second. It was estimated that if the
+gun were fired at an angle of 43� the shell would be carried a distance
+of fifteen miles. It was in the Krupp guns, and also in the Armstrong
+breech-loaders, that a simple feature was for the first time introduced
+which proved of immense importance in giving great additional expansive
+force to the explosion of the powder. This was an increase in the size
+of the powder chamber so as to allow a vacant space in it unfilled with
+powder.
+
+In the United States, Rodman, commencing in 1847, and Dahlgren in 1850,
+and Parrott in 1860, invented and introduced some noticeable
+improvements in cast-iron, smooth-bore, and rifled cannon.
+
+In France General Paixhans and Colonel Treuille de Beaulieu improved the
+shells and ordnance.
+
+The latest improvements in cannon indicate that the old smooth-bore
+muzzle-loader guns are to be entirely superseded by breech-loaders, just
+as in small arms the muzzle-loading musket has given way to the
+breech-loading rifle.
+
+A single lever is now employed, a single turn of which will close or
+open the breech, and when opened expel the shell by the same movement.
+Formerly breech-loaders were confined to the heaviest ordnance; now they
+are a part of the lightest field pieces.
+
+As to the operation of those immense guns above referred to, which
+constitute principally sea-coast defences and the heavy armament for
+forts, gun carriages have been invented whereby the huge guns are
+quickly raised from behind immense embrasures by pneumatic or hydraulic
+cylinders, quickly fired (the range having been before accurately
+ascertained) and then as quickly lowered out of sight, the latter
+movement being aided by the recoil action of the gun.
+
+It is essential that the full force of the gases of explosion shall be
+exerted against the base of the projectile, and therefore all escape of
+such gases be prevented. To this end valuable improvements in _gas
+checks_ have been made,--one kind consisting of an annular canvas sack
+containing asbestos and tallow placed between the front face of the
+breech block and a mushroom-shaped piece, against which the explosion
+impinges.
+
+As among projectiles and shells for cannon those have been invented
+which are loaded with dynamite or other high explosive, a new class of
+_Compressed air ordnance_ has been started, in which air or gas is used
+for the propelling power in place of powder, whereby the chances of
+exploding such shells in the bore of the gun are greatly lessened.
+
+The construction of metals, both for cannon to resist most intense
+explosives and for plates to resist the penetration of the best
+projectiles, have received great attention. They are matters pertaining
+to metallurgy, and are treated of under that head. The strife still
+continues between impenetrable armour plate and irresistible
+projectiles. Within the last decade or so shells have been invented with
+the design simply to shatter or fracture the plate by which the way is
+broken for subsequent shots. Other shells have been invented carrying a
+high explosive and capable of penetrating armour plates of great
+thickness, and exploding after such penetration has taken place.
+
+A great accompaniment to artillery is "The Range Finder," a telescopic
+apparatus for ascertaining accurately the location and distance of
+objects to be fired at.
+
+Returning to _small arms_,--at the time percussion caps were invented in
+England, 1803-1814, John H. Hall of the United States invented a
+breech-loading rifle. It was in substance an ordinary musket cut in two
+at the breech, with the rear piece connected by a hinge and trunnion to
+the front piece, the bore of the two pieces being in line when clamped,
+and the ball and cartridge inserted when the chamber was thrown up. A
+large number were at once manufactured and used in the U.S. Army. A
+smaller size, called _carbines_, were used by the mounted troops. After
+about twenty years' use these guns began to be regarded as dangerous in
+some respects, and their manufacture and use stopped, although the
+carbines continued in use to some extent in the cavalry. A
+breech-loading rifle was also invented by Colonel Pauly of France in
+1812, and improved by Dreyse in 1835; also in Norway in 1838, and in a
+few years adopted by Sweden as superior to all muzzle-loading arms.
+About 1841 the celebrated "Needle Gun" was invented in Prussia, and its
+superiority over all muzzle-loaders was demonstrated in 1848 in the
+first Schleswig-Holstein war.
+
+_Cartridges_, in which the ball and powder were secured together in one
+package, were old in artillery, as has been shown, but their use for
+small arms is a later invention. _Metallic_ cartridges, made of sheet
+metal with a fulminate cap in one end and a rim on the end of the shell
+by which it could be extracted after the explosion, were invented by
+numerous persons in Europe and America during the evolution of the
+breech-loader. Combined metal case and paper patented in England in
+1816, and numerous wholly metallic cartridge shells were patented in
+England, France, and United States between 1840 and 1860. M. Lefaucheux
+of France, in the later period, devised a metal _gas check_ cartridge
+which was a great advance.
+
+A number of inventors in the United States besides Hall had produced
+breech-loading small arms before the Civil War of 1861, but with the
+exception of Colt's revolver and Sharp's carbine, the latter used by the
+cavalry to a small extent, none were first adopted in that great
+conflict. Later, the Henry or Winchester breech-loading rifle and the
+Spencer magazine gun were introduced and did good service. But the whole
+known system of breech-loading small arms was officially condemned by
+the U.S. Military authorities previous to that war. The absence of
+machines to make a suitable cartridge in large quantities and vast
+immediate necessities compelled the authorities to ignore the tested
+Prussian and Swedish breech-loaders and those of their own countrymen
+and to ransack Europe for muskets of ancient pattern. These were worked
+by the soldiers under the ancient tactics, of load, ram, charge and
+fire, until a stray bullet struck the ramrod, or the discharge of a few
+rammed cartridges so over-heated the musket as to thereby dispense with
+the soldier and his gun for further service in that field. However,
+private individuals and companies continued to invent and improve, and
+the civil war in America revolutionised the systems of warfare and its
+weapons. The wooden walls of the navies disappeared as a defence after
+the conflict between the Monitor and the Merrimac, and muzzle-loading
+muskets became things of the past.
+
+Torpedoes, both stationary and movable, then became a successful weapon
+of warfare. Soon after that war, and when the United States had adopted
+the Springfield breech-loading rifle, the works at Springfield were
+equipped with nearly forty different machines, each for making a
+separate part of a gun in great quantities. Many of these had been
+invented by Thomas Blanchard forty years before. That great inventor of
+labour-saving machinery had then designed machines for the shaping and
+making of gun stocks and for forming the accompanying parts. Blanchard
+was a contemporary of Hall, and Hall, to perfect his breech-loader, was
+the first to invent machines for making its various parts. His was the
+first interchangeable system in the making of small arms.
+
+Army officers had come to regard "the gun as only the casket while the
+cartridge is the jewel;" and to this end J. G. Gill at the U.S. Arsenal
+at Frankford, Philadelphia, devised a series of cartridge-making
+machines which ranked among the highest triumphs of American invention.
+
+The single breech-loader is now being succeeded by the magazine gun, by
+which a supply of cartridges in a chamber is automatically fed into the
+barrel. The Springfield, has been remodelled as a magazine loader. Among
+later types of repeating rifles, known from the names of their
+inventors, are the "Krag-Jorgensen," and the "Mauser," and the crack of
+these is heard around the world. Modern rifles are rendered more deadly
+by the fact that they can be loaded and fired in a recumbent position,
+and with smokeless powder, by which the soldier and his location remain
+concealed from his foe.
+
+The recoil of the gun in both large and small arms is now utilised to
+expel the fired cartridge shell, and to withdraw a fresh one from its
+magazine and place it in position in the chamber. _Compressed air and
+explosive gases_ have been used for the same purpose. A small _electric
+battery_ has been placed in the stock to explode the cartridge when the
+trigger is pulled.
+
+Sporting guns have kept pace with other small arms in improvements, and
+among modern forms are those which discharge in alternative succession
+the two barrels by a single trigger. Revolvers have been improved and
+the Smith and Wesson is known throughout the world.
+
+The idea of _Machine Guns_, or _Mitrailleuses_, was not a new one, as we
+have seen from Puckle's celebrated patent of 1718. Also history mentions
+a gun composed of four breech-loading tubes of small calibre, placed on
+a two-wheeled cart used in Flanders as early as 1347, and of four-tubed
+guns used by the Scotch during the civil war in 1644. The machine gun
+invented by Dr. Gatling of the United States during the Civil War and
+subsequently perfected, has become a part of the armament of every
+civilised nation. The object of the gun is to combine in one piece the
+destructive effect of a great many, and to throw a continuous hail of
+projectiles. The gun is mounted on a tripod; the cartridges are
+contained in a hopper mounted on the breech of the gun and are fed from
+locks into the barrels (which are usually five or ten in number) as the
+locks and barrels are revolved by a hand crank. As the handle is turned
+the cartridges are first given a forward motion, which thrusts them into
+the barrels, closes the breech and fires the cartridges in succession,
+and then a backward motion which extracts the empty shells. The gun
+weighs one hundred pounds and firing may be kept up with a ten-barreled
+gun at one thousand shots a minute.
+
+The _Hotchkiss_ revolving cannon is another celebrated American
+production named from its inventor, and constructed to throw heavier
+projectiles than the Gatling. It also has revolving barrels and great
+solidity in the breech mechanism. It has been found to be of great
+service in resisting the attacks of torpedo boats. It is adapted to fire
+long-range shells with great rapidity and powerful effect, and is
+exceedingly efficient in defence of ditches and entrenchments.
+
+_Explosives._--The desire to make the most effective explosives for
+gunnery led to their invention not only for that purpose but for the
+more peaceful pursuit of blasting. _Gun Cotton_, that mixture of nitric
+acid and cotton, made by Sch�nbein in 1846, and experimented with for a
+long time as a substitute for gunpowder in cannon and small arms and
+finally discarded for that purpose, is now being again revived, but used
+chiefly for blasting. This was followed by the discovery of
+nitro-glycerine, a still more powerful explosive agent--too powerful and
+uncontrollable for guns as originally made. They did not supersede
+gunpowder, but smokeless powders have come, containing nitro-cellulose,
+or nitro-glycerine rendered plastic, coherent and homogeneous, and
+converted into rods or grains of free running powder, to aid the
+breech-loaders and magazine guns, while the high explosives, gun-cotton,
+nitro-glycerine, dynamite, dualine, etc., have become the favorite
+agencies for those fearful offensive and defensive weapons, the
+_Torpedoes_. From about the time of the discovery of gunpowder,
+stationary and floating chambers and mines of powder, to be discharged
+in early times by fuses (later by percussion or electricity), have
+existed, but modern inventions have rendered them of more fearful
+importance than was ever dreamed of before this century. The latest
+invention in this class is the _submarine torpedo boat_, which, moving
+rapidly towards an enemy's vessel, suddenly disappears from sight
+beneath the water, and strikes the vessel at its lowest or most
+vulnerable point.
+
+To the inquiry as to whether all this vast array of modern implements of
+destruction is to lessen the destruction of human life, shorten war,
+mitigate its horrors and tend toward peace, there can be but one answer.
+All these desirable results have been accomplished whenever the new
+inventions of importance have been used. "Warlike Tribes" have been put
+to flight so easily by civilised armies in modern times that such tribes
+have been doubted as possessing their boasted or even natural courage.
+Nations with a glorious past as to bravery but with a poor armament have
+gone down suddenly before smaller forces armed with modern ordnance. The
+results would have been reversed, and the derision would have proceeded
+from the other side, if the conditions had been reversed, and those
+tribes and brave peoples been armed with the best weapons and the
+knowledge of their use. The courage of the majority of men on the
+battle-field is begot of confidence and enthusiasm, but this confidence
+and enthusiasm, however great the cause, soon fail, and discretion
+becomes the better part of valour, if men find that their weapons are
+weak and useless against vastly superior arms of the enemy. The
+slaughter and destruction in a few hours with modern weapons may not be
+more terrible than could be inflicted with the old arms by far greater
+forces at close quarters in a greater length of time in the past, but
+the end comes sooner; and the prolongation of the struggle with renewed
+sacrifices of life, and the long continued and exhausting campaigns,
+giving rise to diseases more destructive than shot or shell, are thereby
+greatly lessened, if not altogether avoided.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PAPER AND PRINTING.
+
+
+_Paper-making._--"The art preservative of all arts"--itself must have
+means of preservation, and hence the art of paper-making precedes the
+art of printing.
+
+It was Pliny who wrote, at the beginning of the Christian era, that "All
+the usages of civilised life depend in a remarkable degree upon the
+employment of paper. At all events the remembrance of past events."
+
+Naturally to the Chinese, the Hindoo, and the Egyptian, we go with
+inquiries as to origin, and find that as to both arts they were making
+the most delicate paper from wood and vegetable fibres and printing with
+great nicety, long before Europeans had even learned to use papyrus or
+parchment, or had conceived the idea of type.
+
+So far as we know the wasp alone preceded the ancient Orientals in the
+making of paper. Its gray shingled house made in layers, worked up into
+paper by a master hand from decayed wood, pulped, and glutinised,
+waterproofed, with internal tiers of chambers, a fortress, a home, and
+an airy habitation, is still beyond the power of human invention to
+reproduce.
+
+Papyrus--the paper of the Egyptians: Not only their paper, but its pith
+one of their articles of food, and its outer portions material for
+paper, boxes, baskets, boats, mats, medicines, cloths and other articles
+of merchandise.
+
+Once one of the fruits of the Nile, now no longer growing there. On its
+fragile leaves were recorded and preserved the ancient literatures--the
+records of dynasties--the songs of the Hebrew prophets--the early annals
+of Greece and Rome--the vast, lost tomes of Alexandria. Those which were
+fortunately preserved and transferred to more enduring forms now
+constitute the greater part of all we have of the writings of those
+departed ages.
+
+In making paper from papyrus, the inner portion next to the pith was
+separated into thin leaves; these were laid in two or more layers,
+moistened and pressed together to form a leaf; two or more leaves united
+at their edges if desired, or end to end, beaten smooth with a mallet,
+polished with a piece of iron or shell, the ends, or sides, or both, of
+the sheet sometimes neatly ornamented, and then rolled on a wooden
+cylinder. The Romans and other ancient nations imported most of their
+papyrus from Egypt, although raising it to considerable extent in their
+own swamps.
+
+In the seventh century, the Saracens conquered Egypt and carried back
+therefrom, papyrus, and the knowledge of how to make paper from it to
+Europe.
+
+Parchment manufactured from the skins of young calves, kids, lambs,
+sheep, and goats, was an early rival of papyrus, and was known and used
+in Europe before papyrus was there introduced.
+
+The softening of vegetable and woody fibre of various kinds, flax and
+raw cotton and rags, and reducing it into pulp, drying, beating, and
+rolling it into paper, seem to have been suggested to Europe by the
+introduction of papyrus, for we learn of the first appearance of such
+paper by the Arabians, Saracens, Spaniards and the French along through
+the eighth, ninth, and tenth and eleventh centuries. Papyrus does not,
+however, appear to have been superseded until the twelfth century.
+
+Public documents are still extant written in the twelfth century on
+paper made from flax and rags; and paper mills began to put in an
+appearance in Germany in the fourteenth century, in which the fibre was
+reduced to pulp by stampers. England began to make paper in the next
+century. Pulping the fibre by softening it in water and beating the same
+had then been practised for four centuries. Rollers in the mills for
+rolling the pulp into sheets were introduced in the fifteenth century,
+and paper makers began to distinguish their goods from those made by
+others by water marks impressed in the pulp sheets. The jug and the pot
+was one favourite water mark in that century, succeeded by a fool's cap,
+which name has since adhered to paper of a certain size, with or without
+the cap. So far was the making of paper advanced in Europe that about
+1640 wall paper began to be made as a substitute for tapestry; although
+as to this fashion the Chinese were still ahead some indefinite number
+of centuries.
+
+Holland was far advanced in paper-making in the seventeenth century. The
+revolution of 1688 having seriously interrupted the art in England, that
+country imported paper from Holland during that period amounting to
+�100,000. It was a native of Holland, Rittenhouse, who introduced
+paper-making in America and erected a mill near Philadelphia in the
+early years of the eighteenth century, and there made paper from linen
+rags.
+
+The Dutch also had substituted cylinders armed with blades in place of
+stampers and used their windmills to run them. The Germans and French
+experimented with wood and straw.
+
+In the latter part of the eighteenth century some manufacturers in
+Europe had learned to make white paper from white rags, and as good in
+quality, and some think better, than is made at the present day. The
+essentials of paper making by hand from rags and raw vegetable fibres,
+the soaking of fibres in water and boiling them in lyes, the beating,
+rolling, smoothing, sizing and polishing of the paper, were then known
+and practised. But the best paper was then a dear commodity. The art of
+bleaching coloured stock was unknown, and white paper was made alone
+from stock that came white into the mill. The processes were nearly all
+hand operations. "Beating" was pounding in a mortar. The pulp was laid
+by hand upon moulds made of parallel strands of coarse brass wire; and
+the making of the pulp by grinding wood and treating it chemically to
+soften it was experimental.
+
+The nineteenth century produced a revolution. It introduced the use of
+modern machinery, and modern chemical processes, by which all known
+varieties and sizes of paper, of all colours, as well as paper vessels,
+are made daily in immense quantities in all civilised countries, from
+all sorts of fibrous materials.
+
+Knight, in his _Mechanical Dictionary_, gives a list of nearly 400
+different materials for paper making that had been used or suggested,
+for the most part within the century and up to twenty years ago, and the
+number has since increased.
+
+The modern revolution commenced in 1799, when Louis Robert, an employee
+of Fran�ois Didot of Essones, France, invented and patented the first
+machine for making paper in a long, wide, continuous web. The French
+government in 1800 granted him a reward of 8,000 francs. The machine was
+then exhibited in England and there tested with success. It was there
+that Messrs. Fourdrinier, a wealthy stationery firm, purchased the
+patents, expended �60,000 for improvements on the machine, and first
+gave to the world its practical benefits. This expenditure bankrupted
+them, as the machines were not at once remunerative, and parliament
+refused to grant them pecuniary assistance. Gamble, Donkin, Koops, the
+Fourdriniers, Dickenson, and Wilkes, were the first inventors to improve
+the Robert machine, and to give it that form which in many essential
+features remains to-day. They, together with later inventors, gave to
+the world a new system of paper making.
+
+By 1872 two hundred and ninety-nine Fourdrinier machines were running in
+the United States alone. In the improved Fourdrinier machine or system,
+rags, or wood, or straw are ground or otherwise reduced to pulp, and
+then the pulp, when properly soaked and drained, is dumped into a
+regulating box, passing under a copper gate to regulate the amount and
+depth of feed, then carried along through strainers, screeners or
+dressers, to free the mass from clots and reduce it to the proper
+fineness, over an endless wire apron, spread evenly over this apron by a
+shaking motion, subjected to the action of a suction box by which the
+water is drawn off by air-suction pumps, carried between cloth-covered
+rollers which press and cohere it, carried on to a moving long felt
+blanket to further free it from moisture, and which continues to hold
+the sheet of pulp in form; then with the blanket through press rolls
+adjustable to a desired pressure and provided with means to remove
+therefrom adhering pulp and to arrest the progress of the paper if
+necessary; then through another set of compression rollers, when the
+condensed and matted pulp, now paper, is carried on to a second blanket,
+passed through a series of steam cylinders, where the web is partially
+dried, and again compressed, thence through another series of rollers
+and drying cylinders, which still further dry and stretch it, and now,
+finally completed, the sheet is wound on a receiving cylinder. The
+number of rollers and cylinders and the position and the length of the
+process to fully dry, compact, stretch and finish the sheet, may be, and
+are, varied greatly. If it is desired to impress on or into the paper
+water marks, letters, words, or ornamental matter, the paper in its
+moist stage, after it passes through the suction boxes, is passed under
+a "dandy" or fancy scrolled roll provided on its surface with the
+desired design. When it is desired to give it a smooth, glossy surface,
+the paper, after its completion, is passed through animal sizing
+material, and then between drying and smoothing rollers. Or this sizing
+may be applied to the pulp at the outset of the operation. Colouring
+material, when desired, is applied to the pulp, before pressing. By the
+use of machines under this system, a vast amount of material, cast-off
+rags, etc., before regarded as waste, was utilised for paper making.
+
+The modern discoveries of the chemists of the century as to the nature
+of fibres, best modes and materials for reducing them to pulp, and
+bleaching processes, have brought the art of paper making from wood and
+other fibrous materials to its present high and prosperous condition.
+
+What are known as the soda-pulp and the sulphite processes are examples
+of this. The latter and other acid processes were not successful until
+cement-lined digesters were invented to withstand their corroding
+action. But now it is only necessary to have a convenient forest of
+almost any kind of wood to justify the establishment of a paper mill.
+
+It was the scarcity of rags, especially of linen rags, that forced
+inventors to find other paper-producing materials.
+
+It would be impossible and uninteresting in a work of this character to
+enumerate the mechanical details constituting the improvements of the
+century in paper-making machinery of all kinds. Thousands of patents
+have been granted for such inventions. With one modern Fourdrinier
+machine, and a few beating engines, a small paper mill will now turn out
+daily as much paper as could be made by twelve mills a hundred years
+ago.
+
+In moulding pulp into articles of manufacture, satisfactory machines
+have been invented, not only for the mere forming them into shape, but
+for water-proofing and indurating the same. From the making of a
+ponderous paper car wheel to a lady's delicate work basket, success has
+been attained.
+
+_Paper bag machines_, machines for making _paper boxes_, applying and
+staying corners of such boxes, for making _cell cases_ used in packing
+eggs and fruit, and for wrapping fruit; machines for affixing various
+forms of labels and addresses, are among the wonders of modern
+inventions relating to paper. It is wonderful how art and ingenuity
+united about thirty years ago to produce attractive _wall papers_.
+Previous to that time they were dull and conventional in appearance. Now
+beautiful designs are rolled out from machines.
+
+_Printing._--We have already seen how paper making and printing grew up
+together an indefinite number of centuries ago in the Far East. Both
+block printing and movable types were the production of the Chinese,
+with which on their little pages of many-coloured paper they printed
+myriads of volumes of their strange literature in stranger characters
+during centuries when Europeans were painfully inscribing their thoughts
+with the stylus and crude pens upon papyrus and the dried skins of
+animals.
+
+But the European and his descendants delight to honour most the early
+inventors of their own countries. Italy refers with pride to the
+printing from blocks practised by the Venetians, and at Ravenna, from
+1280 to 1300; from type at Subiaco in the Roman territory in 1465, and
+to the first Roman book printed in 1470; the Dutch to Laurens Coster,
+whom they allege invented movable type in 1423. Some of the Dutch have
+doubted this, and pin their faith on Jacob Bellaert, as the first
+printer, and Gerard Leeu, his workman, who made the types at Haarlem, in
+1483. The Germans rely with confidence on John Guttenberg, who at
+Strasburg, as early as 1436, had wooden blocks, and wooden movable
+types, and who, two or three years after, printed several works; on the
+partnership of Faust and Guttenberg in 1450 at Mentz, and their Bible in
+Latin printed in 1456 on vellum with types imitating manuscript in form,
+and illustrated by hand; and, finally, on Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim,
+who then made matrices in which were cast the letters singly, and who
+thereby so pleased his master, Faust, that the latter gave him his
+daughter, Christina, in marriage.
+
+From Germany the art spread to Paris and thence to England. About 1474
+Caxton was printing his black-letter books in England. Spain followed,
+and it is stated that in 1500 there were two hundred printing offices in
+Europe. The religious and political turmoils in Germany in the sixteenth
+century gave an immense impetus to printing there. The printing press
+was the handmaid of the Reformation. In America the first printing press
+was set up in Mexico in 1536, and in Lima, Brazil, in 1586. In 1639,
+nineteen years after the landing of the Pilgrims on the bleak rock at
+Plymouth, they set up a printing press at Cambridge, Mass.
+
+The art of printing soon resolved itself into two classes: first,
+_composition_, the arranging of the type in the proper order into words
+and pages; and second, _press work_; the taking of impressions from the
+types, or from casts of types in plates--being a _facsimile_ of a type
+bed. This was _stereotyping_--the invention of William Ged, of
+Edinburgh, in 1731.
+
+Types soon came to be made everywhere of uniform height; that of England
+and America being 92-100 of an inch, and became universally classified
+by names according to their sizes, as pica, small pica, long primer,
+minion, nonpareil, etc.
+
+After movable types came the invention of _Presses_. The earliest were
+composed of a wooden frame on which were placed the simple screw and a
+lever to force a plate down upon a sheet of paper placed on the bed of
+type which had been set in the press, with a spring to automatically
+raise the screw and plate after the delivery of the impression. This was
+invented by Blaew of Amsterdam in 1620. Such, also, was the Ramage
+press, and on such a one Benjamin Franklin worked at his trade as a
+printer, both in America and in London. His London press, on which he
+worked in 1725, was carried to the United States, and is now on
+exhibition in Washington. This was substantially the state of the art at
+the beginning of the century.
+
+Then Earl Stanhope in England invented a press entirely of iron, and the
+power consisted of the combination of a toggle joint and lever. The
+first American improvement was invented by George Clymer, of
+Philadelphia, in 1817, the power being an improved lever consisting of
+three simple levers of the second order. This was superseded by the
+"Washington" press invented by Samuel Rust in 1829. It has as essential
+parts the toggle joint and lever, and in the frame work, as in the
+Stanhope, type bed, rails on which the bed was moved in and out, means
+to move the bed, the platen, the tympan on which the sheet is placed,
+the frisket, a perforated sheet of paper, to preserve the printed sheet,
+an inking roller and frame. In this was subsequently introduced an
+automatic device for inking the roller, as it was moved back from over
+the bed of type on to an inking table. This, substantially, has been the
+hand press ever since.
+
+With one of these hand-presses and the aid of two men about two hundred
+and fifty sheets an hour could be printed on one side. The increase in
+the circulation of newspapers before the opening of the 19th century
+demanded greater rapidity of production and turned the attention of
+inventors to the construction of power or machine presses. Like the
+paper-making machine, the power press was conceived in the last decade
+of the eighteenth century, and like that art was also not developed
+until the nineteenth century. William Nicholson of England is believed
+to have been the first inventor of a machine printing press. He obtained
+an English patent for it in 1720. The type were to be placed on the face
+of one cylinder, which was designed to be in gear, revolved with, and
+press upon another cylinder covered with soft leather, the type cylinder
+to be inked by a third cylinder to which the inking apparatus, was
+applied, and the paper to be printed by being passed between the type
+and the impression cylinder. These ideas were incorporated into the best
+printing machines that have since been made. But the first successful
+machine printing press was the invention of two Saxons, K�nig and Bauer,
+in 1813, who introduced their ideas from Germany, constructed the
+machine in London, and on which on the 28th of November, 1814, an issue
+of the _London Times_ was printed. The _Times_ announced to its readers
+that day that they were for the first time perusing a paper printed upon
+a machine driven by steam power. What a union of mighty forces was
+heralded in this simple announcement! The union of the steam engine, the
+printing press, and a great and powerful journal! An Archimedean lever
+had been found at last with which to move the world.
+
+The production of printed sheets per hour over the hand-press was at
+once quadrupled, and very shortly 1800 sheets per hour were printed.
+This machine was of that class known as cylinder presses. In this
+machine ordinary type was used, and the type-form was flat and passed
+beneath a large impression cylinder on which the paper was held by
+tapes. The type-form was reciprocated beneath an inking apparatus and
+the paper cylinder alternately. The inking apparatus consisted of a
+series of rollers, to the first of which the ink was ejected from a
+trough and distributed to the others. In 1815 Cowper patented in England
+electrotype plates to be affixed to a cylinder. Applegath and Cowper
+improved the K�nig machine in the matter of the ink distributing
+rollers, and in the adaptation of four printing cylinders to the
+reciprocating type bed, whereby, with some other minor changes, 5000
+impressions on one side were produced per hour. Again Applegath greatly
+changed the arrangement of cylinders and multiplied their number, and
+the number of the other parts, so that in 1848 the sheets printed on one
+side were first 8000 and then 12,000 an hour.
+
+In the United States, Daniel Treadwell of Boston invented the first
+power printing machine in 1822. Two of these machines were at that time
+set up in New York city. It was a flat bed press and was long used in
+Washington in printing for the government. David Bruce of New York, in
+1838, invented the first successful type-casting machine, which, when
+shortly afterward it was perfected, became the model for type-casting
+machines for Europe and America. Previous to that time type were
+generally made by casting them in hand-moulds--the metal being poured in
+with a spoon.
+
+Robert Hoe, an English inventor, went to New York in 1803, and turned
+his attention to the making of printing presses. His son, Richard March
+Hoe, inherited his father's inventive genius. While in England in
+1837-1840, obtaining a patent on and introducing a circular saw, he
+became interested in the printing presses of the London Times. Returning
+home, he invented and perfected a rotary machine which received the name
+of the "Lightning Press." It first had four and then ten cylinders
+arranged in a circle. As finally completed, it printed from a continuous
+roll of paper several miles in length, and on both sides at the same
+time, cutting off and folding ready for delivery, 15,000 to 20,000
+newspapers an hour, the paper being drawn through the press at the rate
+of 1,000 feet in a minute. Before it was in this final, completed shape,
+it was adopted by the _London Times_. John Walter of London in the
+meantime invented a machine of a similar class. He also used a sheet of
+paper miles long. It was first damped, passed through blotting rolls,
+and then to the printing cylinders. It gave out 11,000 perfected sheets,
+or 22,000 impressions an hour, and as each sheet was printed, it was cut
+by a knife on the cylinder, and the sheets piled on the paper boards. It
+was adopted by the London _Times_ and the New York _Times_.
+
+A German press at Augsburg, and the Campbell presses of the United
+States, have also become celebrated as web perfecting presses, in which
+the web is printed, the sheets cut, associated, folded, and delivered at
+high speed. One of the latest quadruple stereotype perfecting presses
+made by Hoe & Co. of New York has a running capacity of 48,000 papers
+per hour. On another, a New York paper has turned off nearly six hundred
+thousand copies in a single day, requiring for their printing
+ninety-four tons of paper. Among other celebrated inventors of printing
+presses in the United States were Isaac Adams, Taylor, Gordon, Potter,
+Hawkins, Bullock, Cottrell, Campbell, Babcock, and Firm.
+
+_Mail-marking Machines_, in which provision is made for holding the
+printing mechanism out of operative position in case a letter is not in
+position to be stamped; address-printing machines, including machines
+for printing addresses by means of a stencil; machines for automatically
+setting and distributing the type, including those in which the
+individual types are caused to enter the proper receptacle by means of
+nicks in the type, which engage corresponding projections on a
+stationary guard plate, and automatic type justifying machines. All such
+have been invented, developed, and perfected in the last half century.
+
+Another invention which has added wonderfully to push the century along,
+is the _Typewriter_. It has long been said that "The pen is mightier
+than the sword," but from present indications, it is proper to add that
+the typewriter is mightier than the pen.
+
+A machine in which movable types are caused to yield impressions on
+paper to form letters by means of key levers operated by hand, has been
+one of slow growth from its conception to its present practical and
+successful form.
+
+Some one suggested the idea in England in a patent in 1714. The idea
+rested until 1840, when a French inventor revived it in a patent. At the
+same time patents began to come out in England and the United States;
+and about forty patents in each of these two countries were granted from
+that time until 1875. Since that date about 1400 patents more have been
+issued in the United States, and a large number in other countries. It
+was, however, only that year and before 1880, that the first popular
+commercially successful machines were made and introduced.
+
+The leading generic idea of all subsequent successful devices of this
+kind was clearly set forth in the patent of S. W. Francis of the United
+States in 1857. This feature is the arranging of a row of hammers in a
+circle so that when put in motion they will all strike the same place,
+which is the centre of that circle. The arrangement of a row of pivoted
+hammers or type levers, each operated by a separate key lever to strike
+an inked ribbon in front of a sheet of paper, means to automatically
+move the carriage carrying the paper roll from right to left as the
+letters are successfully printed, leaving a space between each letter
+and word, and sounding a signal when the end of a line is reached, so
+that the carriage may be returned to its former position--all these and
+some other minor but necessary operations may seem simple enough when
+stated, but their accomplishment required the careful study of many
+inventors for years.
+
+One of the most modern of typewriters has a single electro-magnet to
+actuate all the type bars of a set, and to throw each type from its
+normal position to the printing centre. By an extremely light touch
+given to each key lever the circuit is closed and causes the lever to
+strike without the necessity of pressing the key down its whole extent
+and releasing it before the next key strikes. By this device, the
+operator is relieved of fatigue, as his fingers may glide quickly from
+one key to another, the printing is made uniform, and far greater speed
+attained by reason of the quick and delicate action. Mr. Thaddeus Cahill
+of Washington appears to be the first to have invented the most
+successful of this type of machines.
+
+_Book-binding Machinery_ is another new production of the century. It
+may be that the old hand methods would give to a book a stronger binding
+than is found on most books to-day, but the modern public demands and
+has obtained machinery that will take the loose sheets and bind them
+ready for delivery, at the rate of ten or fifteen thousand volumes a
+day.
+
+The "quaint and curious volumes of forgotten lore," the Latin folios in
+oak or ivory boards with brass clasps, or bound in velvet, or in crimson
+satin, ornamented with finest needlework or precious stones, or the more
+humble beech boards, and calf and sheep skins with metal edges and iron
+clasps, in all of which the sheets were stoutly sewed together and
+glued, when glue was known, to the covers, are now but relics of the
+past. Machinery came to the front quite rapidly after 1825, at which
+time cloth had been introduced as cheaper than leather, and as cheap and
+a more enduring binder than paper. The processes in book-binding are
+enumerated as follows; and for each process a machine has been invented
+within the last sixty years to do the work:
+
+  Folding the sheets;
+  Gathering the consecutive sheets;
+  Rolling the backs of folded sheets;
+  Saw cutting the backs for the combs;
+  Sewing;
+  Rounding the back of the sewed sheets.
+  Edge cutting;
+  Binding, securing the books to the sides, covering with muslin,
+    leather or paper. Tooling and lettering.
+  Edge gilting.
+
+One of the best modern illustrations of human thought and complicated
+manual operations contained in automatic machinery is the _Linotype_.
+
+It is a great step from the humble invention of Schoeffer five hundred
+and fifty years ago of cast movable type to that of another German,
+Mergenthaler, in 1890-92.
+
+The Linotype (a line of type) was pronounced by the _London Engineering_
+"as the most remarkable machine of this century." It was the outcome of
+twelve years of continuous experiment and invention, and the expenditure
+of more than a million dollars. A brief description of this invention is
+given in the report of the United States commissioner of patents for
+1895 as follows: "In the present Mergenthaler construction there is a
+magazine containing a series of tubes for the letter or character
+moulds, each of which moulds is provided with a single character. There
+are a number of duplicates of each character, and the moulds containing
+the same character are all arranged in one tube. The machine is provided
+with a series of finger keys, which, when pressed like the keys of a
+typewriter, cause the letter moulds to assemble in a line in their
+proper order for print. A line mould and a melting pot are then brought
+into proper relation to the assembled line of letter moulds and a cast
+is taken, called the linotype, which represents the entire line, a
+column wide, of the matter to be printed. The letter moulds are then
+automatically returned to their proper magazine tube. The Mergenthaler
+machine is largely in use in the principal newspaper offices, with the
+result that a single operator does at least the work of four average
+compositors."
+
+Mr Rogers obtained a United States patent, September 23, 1890, for a
+machine for casting lines of type, the principal feature of which is
+that the letter moulds are strung on wires secured on a hinged frame.
+"When the frame is in one position, the letter moulds are released by
+the keys, slide down the wires by gravity and are assembled in line at
+the casting point. After the cast is taken, the lower ends of the guide
+wires are elevated, which causes the letter moulds to slide back on the
+wires to their original position, when the operation is repeated for the
+next line." Operated by a single person, the Mergenthaler produces and
+assembles linotypes ready for the press or stereotyping table at the
+rate of from 3,600 to 7,000 ems (type characters) per hour. It permits
+the face or style of type to be changed at will and it permits the
+operator to read and correct his matter as he proceeds.
+
+To the aid of the ordinary printing press came _electrotyping_,
+stenographic colour printing, engraving, and smaller job and card
+presses, all entirely new creations within the century, and of infinite
+variety, each in itself forming a new class in typographic art, and a
+valuable addition to the marvellous transformation.
+
+The introduction of the linotype and other modern machines into printing
+offices has without doubt many times reduced and displaced manual
+labour, and caused at those times at least temporary suffering among
+employees. But statistics do not show that as a whole there are fewer
+printers in the land. On the contrary, the force seems to increase, just
+as the number of printing establishments increase, with the
+multiplication of new inventions. As in other arts, the distress caused
+by the displacement of hand-labour by machinery is local and temporary.
+The whole art rests for its development on the demand for reading
+matter, and the demand never seems to let up. It increases as fast as
+the means of the consumers increase for procuring it. One hundred years
+ago a decent private library, consisting of a hundred or so volumes, one
+or two weekly newspapers, and an occasional periodical, was the badge
+and possession alone of the wealthy few. Now nearly every reading
+citizen of every village has piled up in some corner of his house a
+better supply than that, of bound or unbound literature, and of a far
+superior quality. Besides the tons of reading matter of all kinds turned
+out daily by the city presses, every village wants its own paper and its
+town library, and every one of its business men has recourse to the
+typewriter and the printer for his letters, his cards, and his
+advertisements.
+
+To supply the present demand for printed matter with the implements of a
+hundred years ago, it would be necessary to draw upon and exhaust the
+supply of labourers in nearly every other occupation. Printing would
+become the one universal profession.
+
+The roar of the guns at Waterloo and the click of the first power
+printing press in London were nearly simultaneous. The military Colossus
+then tumbled, and the Press began to lead mankind. Wars still continue,
+and will, until men are civilised; but the vanguard of civilisation are
+the printers, and not the warriors. The marvellous glory of the
+nineteenth century has proceeded from the intelligence of the people,
+awakened, stimulated, and guided by the press. But the press itself, and
+its servitors and messengers, speeding on the wings of electricity, are
+the children of the inventors.
+
+These inventions have made the book and the newspaper the poor man's
+University. They are mirrors which throw into his humble home
+reflections of the scenes of busy life everywhere. By them knowledge is
+spread, thought aroused, and universal education established.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+TEXTILES.
+
+
+_Spinning_:--A bunch of combed fibre fixed in the forked end of a stick
+called a distaff, held under the left arm, while with the right
+forefinger and thumb the housewife or maiden deftly drew out and twisted
+a thread of yarn of the fibre and wound it upon a stick called a
+spindle, was the art of spinning that came down to Europe from Ancient
+Egypt or India without a change through all the centuries to at least
+the middle of the fourteenth century, and in England to the time of
+Henry VIII. Then the spinning wheel was introduced, which is said to
+have also been long in use in India. By the use of the wheel the spindle
+was no longer held in the hand, but, set upon a frame and connected by a
+cord or belt to the wheel, was made to whirl by turning the wheel by
+hand, or by a treadle. The spindle was connected to the bunch of cotton
+by a cord, or by a single roving of cotton or wool attached to the
+spindle, which was held between the finger and thumb, and as the spindle
+revolved the thread was drawn out and twisted and wound by the spindle
+upon itself.
+
+In the cloth of the ancient East the warp and weft were both of cotton.
+In England the warp was linen and the weft was cotton. The warp was made
+by the cloth and linen manufacturers, and the weft yarns furnished by
+the woman spinsters throughout the country. By both these methods only a
+single thread at a time was spun. The principle of the spinning
+operation, the drawing out and twisting a thread or cord from a bunch or
+roll of fibre, has remained the same through all time.
+
+The light and delicate work, the pure and soft material, and the beauty
+and usefulness of raiments produced, have all through time made woman
+the natural goddess, the priestess, the patroness, and the votary of
+this art. The object of all modern machinery, however complicated or
+wonderful, has simply been to increase the speed and efficiency of the
+ancient mode of operation and to multiply its results. The loom, that
+antique frame on which the threads were laid in one direction to form
+the warp, and crossed by the yarns in the opposite direction, carried
+through the warp by the shuttle thrown by hand, to form the woof, or
+weft, comprised a device as old as, if not older than, the distaff and
+spindle.
+
+The ancient and isolated races of Mexico had also learned the art of
+spinning and weaving. When the Spaniards first entered that country they
+found the natives clothed in cotton, woven plain, or in many colours.
+
+After forty centuries of unchanged life, it occurred to John Kay of
+Bury, England, that the weaving process might be improved. In 1733 he
+had succeeded in inventing the picker motion, "picker peg," or "fly."
+This consisted of mechanical means for throwing the shuttle across the
+web by a sudden jerk of a bar--one at each side--operated by pulling a
+cord. He could thus throw the shuttle farther and quicker than by
+hand--make wider cloth, and do as much work in the same time as two men
+had done before. This improvement put weaving ahead of spinning, and the
+weavers were continually calling on the spindlers for more weft yarns.
+This set the wits of inventors at work to better the spinning means.
+
+At the same time that Kay was struggling with his invention of the
+flying shuttle, another poor man, but with less success, had conceived
+another idea, as to spinning. John Wyatt of Lichfield thought it would
+be a good thing to draw out the sliver of cotton or wool between two
+sets of rollers, one end of the sliver being held and fed by one set of
+rollers, while the opposite end was being drawn by the other set of
+rollers moving at a greater speed. His invention, although not then
+used, was patented in 1738 by Lewis Paul, who in time won a fortune by
+it, while Wyatt died poor, and it was claimed that Paul and not Wyatt
+was the true inventor.
+
+About 1764 a little accident occurring in the home of James Hargreaves,
+an English weaver of Blackburn, suggested to that observant person an
+invention that was as important as that of Kay. He was studying hard how
+to get up a machine to meet the weavers' demands for cotton yarns. One
+day while Hargreaves was spinning, surrounded by his children, one of
+them upset the spinning wheel, probably in a children's frolic, and
+after it fell and while lying in a horizontal position, with the spindle
+in a vertical position, and the wheel and the spindle still running, the
+idea flashed into Hargreaves' mind that a number of spindles might be
+placed upright and run from the same power. Thus prompted he commenced
+work, working in secret and at odd hours, and finally, after two or
+three years, completed a crude machine, which he called the spinning
+jenny, some say after his wife, and others that the name came from
+"gin," the common abbreviated name of an engine. This machine had eight
+or ten spindles driven by cords or belts from the same wheel, and
+operated by hand or foot. The rovings at one end were attached to the
+spindles and their opposite portions held together and drawn out by a
+clasp held in the hand. When the thread yarn was drawn out sufficiently
+it was wound upon the spindles by a reverse movement of the wheel. Thus
+finally were means provided to supply the demand for the weft yarns. One
+person with one of Hargreaves' machines could in the same time spin as
+much as twenty or thirty persons with their wheels. But those who were
+to be most benefited by the invention were the most alarmed, for fear of
+the destruction of their business, and they arose in their wrath, and
+demolished Hargreaves' labours. It was a hard time for inventors. The
+law of England then was that patents were invalid if the invention was
+made known before the patent was applied for, and part of the public
+insisted on demolishing the invention if it was so made known, so that
+to avoid the law and the lawless the harassed inventors kept and worked
+their inventions in secret as long as they could. Hargreaves fled to
+Nottingham, where works were soon started with his spinning jennys. The
+ideas of Kay, Wyatt and Hargreaves are said to have been anticipated in
+Italy. There were makers of cloths at Florence, and also in Spain and
+the Netherlands, who were far in advance of the English and French in
+this art, but the descriptions of machinery employed by them are too
+vague and scanty to sustain the allegation.
+
+And now the long ice age of hand working was breaking up, and the age of
+machine production was fast setting in. Hargreaves was in the midst of
+his troubles and his early triumphs, in 1765-1769, when Richard
+Arkwright entered the field. Arkwright, first a barber, and then a
+travelling buyer of hair, and finally a knight, learned, as he travelled
+through Lancashire, Lichfield, Blackburn and Nottingham, of the
+inventions and labours of Wyatt, Kay and Hargreaves. Possessed as he was
+of some mechanical skill and inventive genius, and realising that the
+harvest was ripe and the labourers few, entered the field of inventions,
+and with the help of Kay, revived the old ideas of John Wyatt and Lewis
+Paul of spinning by rollers, which had now slumbered for thirty years.
+Kay and Arkwright constructed a working model, and on this Arkwright by
+hard pushing and hard work obtained capital, and improved, completed and
+patented his machine. The machine was first used by him in a mill
+erected at Nottingham and worked by horses; then at Cromford, and in
+this mill the power used to drive the spinning machine was a water
+wheel. His invention was therefore given the name of the _water_ frame,
+which it retained long after steam had been substituted for water as the
+driving power. It was also named the _throstle_, from the fact that it
+gave a humming or singing sound while at work; but it is commonly known
+as the _drawing_ frame. Arkwright patented useful improvements. He had
+to contend with mobs and with the courts, which combined to destroy his
+machines and his patent, but he finally succeeded in establishing mills,
+and in earning from the Government, manufacturers, and the public a
+great and well-merited munificence.
+
+It is a remarkable coincidence that Watt's steam engine patent and
+Arkwright's first patent for his spinning machine were issued in the
+same year--1769. The new era of invention was dawning fast.
+
+Then, in 1776, came Samuel Crompton of Bolton, who invented a
+combination of the jenny of Hargreaves and the roller water frame of
+Arkwright, and to distinguish his invention from the others he named it
+the "mule." The mule was a carriage on wheels to which the spindles were
+attached. When the mule was drawn out one way on its frame the rovings
+were drawn from bobbins through rollers on a stationary frame, stretched
+and twisted into threads, and then as the mule was run back the spun
+threads were wound on spools on the spindles. The mule entirely
+superseded the use of the jenny. Notwithstanding the advantage in names
+the mule did more delicate work than the jenny. It avoided the
+continuous stretch on the thread of the jenny by first completing the
+thread and then winding it. Crompton's mule was moved back and forth by
+hand. Roberts subsequently made it self-acting. Next, followed in
+England the Rev. Edward Cartwright, who, turning his attention to
+_looms_, invented the first loom run by machinery, the _first power
+loom_, 1784-85. Then the rioters turned on him, and he experienced the
+same attentions received by Hargreaves and Arkwright. The ignorance of
+ages died in this branch of human progress, as it often dies in others,
+with a violent wrench. But the age of steam had at last come, and with
+it the spinning machine, the power loom, the printing press, and the
+discovery among men of the powers of the mind, their freedom to exercise
+such powers, and their right to possess the fruits of their labours.
+
+The completed inventions of Arkwright and others, combined with Watt's
+steam engine, revolutionised trade, and resulted in the establishment of
+mills and factories. A thousand spindles whirled where one hummed
+before. The factory life which drew the women and girls from their
+country homes to heated, and closely occupied, ill ventilated buildings
+within town limits, was, however, not regarded as an improvement in the
+matter of health; and it was a long time before mills were constructed
+and operated with the view to the correction of this evil.
+
+The great increase in demand for cotton produced by these machine
+inventions could not have been met had it not been for Eli Whitney's
+invention of the saw gin in America in 1793. The cleaning of the seed
+from the cotton accomplished by this machine produced as great a
+revolution in the culture of cotton in America as the inventions of
+Arkwright and others accomplished in spinning and weaving in England.
+America had also learned of Arkwright's machinery. Samuel Slater, a
+former employee of Arkwright, introduced it to Rhode Island in 1789, and
+built a great cotton mill there in 1793. Others followed in
+Massachusetts. Within twenty years after the introduction of Arkwright's
+machines in the United States there were a hundred mills there with a
+hundred thousand spindles.
+
+As has been said, it was customary for weavers to make the warp on their
+looms at one place, and the spinners to furnish the yarns for the weft
+from their homes, and even after the spinning machines were invented the
+spinning and weaving were done at separate places. It remained for
+Francis C. Lowell of Boston, who had been studying the art of spinning
+and weaving in England and Scotland and the inventions of Arkwright and
+Crompton, to establish in 1813 at Waltham, Mass., with the aid of Paul
+Moody, machinist, the first factory in the world wherein were combined
+under one roof all the processes for converting cotton into cloth.
+
+The task of the century in this art has been to greatly extend the
+dominion of machinery in the treatment of cotton and wool in all stages,
+from the reception of the raw material at the door of the factory to its
+final completion in the form of the choicest cloth, and to increase the
+capacity of machines sufficiently to meet an ever-increasing and
+enormous consumption. There are from twenty to forty separate and
+distinct operations performed both in spinning and weaving and the
+completion of a piece of cloth from cotton or wool, and nearly all of
+these operations are accomplished by machinery.
+
+The century's improvements and inventions in machines for treating and
+spinning cotton comprise machines for first opening and tearing the
+matted mass apart as it is taken from the bales, then cleaning, carding,
+drawing, roving, stretching, spinning, winding, doubling, dressing,
+warping, weaving, etc. Formerly, the opening machines were simply
+cylinders armed with spikes, to which the cotton was led through nipping
+rollers, and then delivered in a loose, fluffy condition. When such a
+machine was associated with a blowing machine to blow out the dust and
+cleanse the fibre, the loose and scattered condition in which the cotton
+was left gave rise to a great danger from fire, and destructive fires
+often occurred. The object of the later opening machinery is to confine
+the cotton within a casing in its passage through the machine, during
+which passage it is thoroughly stretched, beaten and blown and then
+rolled into a continuous sheet or lap. At the same time, by nice
+devices, it is evened, that is, freed from all knots, and made of
+uniform thickness, while a certain quantity only of cotton of known
+weight is allowed to pass through to constitute the required lap.
+Finally the lap is wound upon a roller, which when filled is removed to
+the carder. Although the cotton is now a white, soft, clean, downy
+sheet, still the fibres cross each other in every direction, and they
+require to be straightened and laid parallel before the spinning. This
+is done by carding. Paul, Hargreaves, Robert Peel, and Arkwright had
+worked in constructing a machine to take the place of hand carding, and
+it was finally reduced by Arkwright, towards the close of the 18th
+century, to its present form and principle.
+
+But to make those narrow, ribbon-like, clean, long lines of rolled
+cotton, known as slivers, by machinery with greater precision and
+uniformity than is possible by hand, and with a thousand times greater
+rapidity, has been the work of many inventors at different times and in
+different countries. The machine cards are cylinders clothed with
+leather and provided with separate sets of slender, sharp, bent fingers.
+The different cards are arranged to move past each other in opposite
+directions, so as to catch and disentangle the fibres. Flat, overhead
+stationary cards are also used through which the cotton is carried. As
+one operation of carding is not sufficient for most purposes the cotton
+is subjected to one or more successive cardings. So ingenious is the
+structure in some of its parts that as the stream of cotton passes on,
+any existing knots do not fail to excite the attention of the machine,
+which at once arrests them and holds them until disentangled. In
+connection with the cards, combers and strippers are used to assist in
+further cleaning and straightening the fibre, which is finally removed
+from the cards and the combs by the doffer. The cotton is stripped from
+the doffer by the doffer knife and in the form of delicate, flat narrow
+ribbons, which are drawn through a small funnel to consolidate them, and
+finally delivered in a coiled form into a tall tin can. The material is
+then carried to a drawing frame, which takes the spongy slivers, and,
+carrying them through successive sets of rollers moving at increased
+speed, elongates, equalises, straightens and "doubles" them, and finally
+condenses them into two or more rolls by passing the same through a
+trumpet-shaped funnel. As the yarns still need to be twisted, they are
+passed through a roving frame similar to a drawing frame. An ingenious
+device connected with the winding of the roving yarns upon bobbins may
+be here noted. Formerly the bobbins on which the yarns were wound
+increased in speed as they were filled, thus endangering and often
+breaking the thread, and at all times increasing the tension. In 1823
+Asa Arnold of Rhode Island invented "a differential motion" by which the
+velocity of the bobbin is kept uniform. The roving having been reduced
+to proper size for the intended number of yarns, now goes to the
+spinning machine, to still further draw out the threads and give to them
+a more uniform twist and tenuity. The spinning machine is simply an
+improved form of Crompton's mule, already described.
+
+Great as have been the improvements in many matters in spindle
+structure, the drawing, the stretching and the twisting still remain
+fundamentally the same in principle as in the singing throstle of
+Arkwright and the steady mule of Crompton. And yet so great and rapid
+has been the advancement of inventions as to details and to meet the
+great demand, that the machinery of half a century ago has been almost
+entirely discarded and supplanted by different types. A great
+improvement on the spinning frame of the 18th century is the ring frame
+invented by Jenks. In this the spindles, arranged vertically in the
+frame, are driven by bands from a central cylinder, and project through
+apertures in a horizontal bar. A flanged ridge around each aperture
+forms a ring and affords a track for a little steel hoop called a
+traveller, which is sprung over the ring. The traveller guides the
+thread on to the spool. As the spindles revolve, the thread passing
+through the traveller revolves it rapidly, and the horizontal bar rising
+and falling has the effect of winding the yarn alternately and regularly
+upon the spools.
+
+The bobbins of the spindle frame were found not large enough to contain
+a sufficient amount of yarn to permit of a long continuous operation
+when the warp came to be applied, and besides there were occasional
+defects in the thread which could not be detected until it broke, if the
+yarn was used directly from the bobbins. So to save much time and
+trouble spooling machines were invented which wind the yarn from the
+bobbins holding 1200 to 1800 yards, to large spools, each holding 18,000
+to 20,000 yards; and then by passing the yarn through fine slots in
+guides which lead to the spool, lumps or weak places, which would break
+the yarns at the guide, could at once be discovered and the yarn retied
+firmly, so that there would be no further breaking in the warper. After
+the yarn is finally spooled it is found that its surface is still rough
+and covered with fuzz. It is desirable, therefore, that it shall be
+smoothed out and be given somewhat of a lustre before weaving. These
+final operations are performed by the warping and dressing machines. In
+the warping machine the threads are drawn between rollers, the tension
+of which can be regulated, and then through a "reed," a comb-shaped
+device which separates the threads, and then finally wound upon a large
+cylinder. In this machine a device is also arranged which operates to
+stop the machine at once if any thread is broken. When the cylinder is
+filled it is then taken to the dresser, which in its modern and useful
+form is known as the "slusher," by which the yarns are drawn through hot
+starch, the superfluous starch squeezed out, and the yarns, kept
+separated all the time, dried by passing them around large drying
+cylinders, or through a closed box heated by steam pipes, and then wound
+upon the loom beam or cylinder.
+
+In weaving, as in spinning, however advanced, complicated and improved
+the means may be beyond the hand methods and simple looms of past ages,
+the general principles in the process are still the same. These means,
+generally and broadly speaking, consist of a frame for two sets of
+threads, a roller, called the warp beam, for receiving and holding the
+threads which form the warp, a cloth beam upon which the cloth is wound
+as it is woven, the warp threads, being first laid parallel, carried
+from the warp beam and attached to the cloth beam; means called heddles,
+which with their moving frames constitute "a harness," consisting of a
+set of vertical strings or rods having central loops through which the
+threads are passed, two or more sets of which receive alternate threads,
+and by the reciprocation of which the threads are separated into sets,
+_decussated_, forming between them what is called a shed through which
+the shuttle is thrown; means for throwing the shuttle; and means, called
+the batten, lay or lathe, for forcing or packing the weft tight into the
+angle formed by the opened warp and so rendering the fabric tight and
+compact, and then the motive power for turning the cloth beam and
+winding the cloth as fast as completed. It is along these lines that the
+inventors have wrought their marvellous changes from hand to power
+looms.
+
+Prior to 1800, in the weaving of figures into cloths, it was customary
+to employ boys to pull the cords in the loom harness in order to arrange
+the coloured threads in their relative positions. In that year appeared
+at the front Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French mechanician and native of
+Lyons, whose parents were weavers, a prolific inventor in his youth, a
+wayward wanderer after fortune and a wife, a soldier in the Revolution,
+losing a son fighting by his side, eking out a poor living with his
+wife's help at straw weaving, finally employed by a silk manufacturer,
+and while thus engaged, producing that loom which has ever since been
+known by his name. This loom was personally inspected by Napoleon, who
+rewarded the inventor with honours and a pension. It was then demolished
+by a mob and its inventor reviled, but it afterward became the pride of
+Lyons and the means of its renown and wealth in the weaving of silks of
+rich designs.
+
+The leading feature of the Jacquard loom consists of a chain of
+perforated pattern cards made to pass over a drum, through which cards
+certain needles pass, causing certain threads of the warp to rise and
+fall, according to the holes in the cards, and thus admitting at certain
+places in the warp coloured weft threads thrown by the shuttle, and
+reproducing the pattern which is perforated in the cards. The Jacquard
+device could be applied to any loom, and it worked a revolution in the
+manufacture of figured goods. The complexity and expensiveness of
+Jacquard's loom were greatly reduced by subsequent improvements. In 1854
+M. Bonelli constructed an electric loom in which the cards of the
+Jacquard apparatus are superseded by an endless band of tin-foiled
+paper, which serves as an electrical conductor to operate the warp
+thread needles, which before had each been actuated by a spiral spring.
+The Jacquard loom was also greatly improved by the English inventors,
+Barlow, Taylor, Martain and others.
+
+Radcliffe and Johnson, also of England, had invented and introduced the
+machines for dressing the yarns in one operation before the weaving;
+Horrocks and Marsland of Stockport greatly improved the adaptation of
+steam to the driving of looms, and Roberts of Manchester made striking
+advances in their mechanical parts and in bringing them to their present
+state of wonderful efficiency.
+
+In America, in 1836, George Crompton of Taunton, Massachusetts,
+commenced a series of inventions in power looms for the manufacture of
+fancy woollen goods, and in the details of such looms generally,
+particularly in increasing the speed of the shuttle, which vastly
+increased the production of such goods and gave to his looms a
+world-wide reputation.
+
+E. B. Bigelow of Massachusetts in 1848 invented a power loom, which was
+exhibited at the Exhibition at London in 1851, and astonished the world
+by his exhibition of carpets superior to any woven by hand. By the later
+improvements, and the aid of steam power, a single American Bigelow
+carpet loom can turn out now one hundred yards of Brussels carpet in a
+day, far superior in quality to any carpet which could possibly be made
+by hand, when a man toiled painfully to produce five yards a day. Mr.
+Bigelow was also a pioneer inventor of power machines for weaving coach
+lace, and cotton checks and ginghams. James Lyall of New York invented a
+power loom applicable either to the weaving of very wide and heavy
+fabrics, such as jute canvas for the foundation of floor oil cloth, or
+to fabrics made of the finest and most delicate yarns.
+
+It would be interesting, if space permitted, to describe the great
+variety of machines that have been invented for dressing, finishing and
+treating cloths after they are woven: The _teasling_ machine, by which
+the nap of woollen cloth is raised; the cloth _drying_ machine, with
+heated rollers, over which the cloth is passed to drive off the moisture
+acquired in dyeing, washing, etc., the cloth _printing_, _figuring_,
+_colouring_ and _embossing_ machines, with engraved cylinders; cloth
+pressing and _creasing_ machines, and the _cloth_ cutting machines for
+cutting the cloth into strips of all lengths, or for cutting piles of
+cloth in a single operation into parts of garments corresponding to the
+prearranged pattern; machines for making _felt_ cloth, and stamping or
+moulding different articles of apparel from felt, etc., etc.
+
+For the making of ribbons and other kind of narrow ware, the needle
+power loom has been invented, in which the fine weft thread is carried
+through the web by a needle instead of a shuttle. This adaptation of the
+needle to looms has placed ribbons within the reach of the poor as well
+as the rich girl.
+
+What a comparison between the work of the virtuous Penelopes and the
+weavers of a century ago and to-day! Then with her wheel, and by walking
+to and from it as the yarn was drawn out, and wound up, a maiden could
+spin twelve skeins of thread in ten hours, producing a thread a little
+more than three miles in length, while the length of her walk to and fro
+was about five miles. Now one Penelope can attend to six or eight
+hundred spindles, each of which spins five thousand yards of thread a
+day, or, with the eight hundred spindles, four million yards, or nearly
+twenty-one hundred miles of thread in a day, while she need not walk at
+all.
+
+It was when the weaver threw the shuttle through the warp by hand that
+Job's exclamation, "My days are like a weaver's shuttle" was an
+appropriate text on the brevity of human life. It may be just as
+appropriate now, but far more striking, when it is realised that
+machines now throw the shuttle one hundred and eighty times a minute, or
+three times a second. Flying as fast as it does, when the shuttle
+becomes exhausted of yarn a late invention presents a new bobbin and a
+new supply of yarn to the shuttle without stopping the machine.
+
+As to _knitting_, the century has seen the day pass when all hosiery was
+knit by hand. First, machines were invented for knitting the leg or the
+foot of the stocking, which were then joined by hand, and then came
+machines that made the stocking complete. The social industry so quietly
+but slowly followed by the good women in their chimney corners with
+their knitting needles, by which a woman might possibly knit a pair a
+day, was succeeded a quarter of a century ago by machines, twelve of
+which could be attended to by a boy, which would knit and complete five
+thousand pairs a week. Such a machine commences with the stocking at the
+top, knits down, widening and narrowing, changes the stitch as it goes
+on to the heel, shapes the heel, and finishes at the end of the toe, all
+one thread, and then it recommences the operation and goes on with
+another and another. Fancy stockings, with numerous colours blended, are
+so knit, and if the yarn holds out a mile of stockings may be thus knit,
+without a break and without an attendant. By these machines the
+astounding result was reached of making the stockings at the cost of
+one-sixth of a mill per pair.
+
+The wonderful reduction in the cost of all kinds of textile fabrics due
+to the perfection of spinning and loom mechanisms, and its power to meet
+the resulting enormous increase in demand, has enabled the poor of
+to-day to be clad better and with a far greater variety of apparel than
+it was possible for the rich a hundred years ago; and the increased
+consumption and demand have brought into these fields of labour, and
+into other fields of labour created by these, great armies of men and
+women, notwithstanding the labour-saving devices.
+
+The wants of the world can no longer be supplied by skilled hand labour.
+And it is better that machines do the skilled labour, if the product is
+increased while made better and cheaper, and the number of labourers in
+the end increased by the development and demands of the art.
+
+Among the recent devices is one which dispenses with the expensive and
+skilful work by hand of drawing the warp threads into the eyes of the
+heddles and through the reed of the loom.
+
+Cane-backed and bottomed chairs and lounges only a few years ago were a
+luxury of the rich and made slowly by hand. Now the open mesh cane
+fabric, having diagonal strands, and other varieties, are made rapidly
+by machinery. Turkish carpets are woven, and floors the world over are
+carpeted with those rich materials the sight of which would have
+astonished the ordinary beholder a half century ago. Matting is woven;
+wire, cane, straw, spun glass; in fact, everything that can be woven by
+hand into useful articles now finds its especially constructed machine
+for weaving it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GARMENTS.
+
+
+"Man is a tool-using animal. Weak in himself, and of small stature, he
+stands on a basis, at most for the flattest-soled, of some half square
+foot, insecurely enough; has to straddle out his legs lest the very wind
+supplant him. Feeblest of bipeds! Three quintals are a crushing load for
+him; the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft, like a waste rag.
+Nevertheless he can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite
+mountain melts into light dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if
+it were paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his
+unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him without tools; without tools
+he is nothing, with tools he is all.... Man is a tool-using animal, of
+which truth, clothes are but one example."--_Sartor Resartus._
+
+In looking through the records of man's achievements to find the
+beginnings of inventions, we discover the glimmering of a change in the
+form of the immemorial needle, in an English patent granted to Charles
+F. Weisenthal, June 24, 1775. It was a needle with a centrally located
+eye, and with both ends pointed, designed for embroidery work by hand,
+and the object of the two points was to prevent the turning of the
+needle end for end after its passage through the cloth. But it was not
+until the 19th century that the idea was reduced to practice in sewing
+machines.
+
+To Thomas Saint, a cabinet maker by trade, of Greenhills Rents, in the
+Parish of St. Sepulchre, Middlesex County, England, the world is
+indebted for the first clear conception of a sewing machine. Saint's
+attention was attracted to the slow way of sewing boots and shoes and
+other leather work, so he determined to improve the method. He took out
+a patent September 17, 1790, and although the germs of some of the
+leading parts of the modern sewing machine are there described, it does
+not appear that his patent was applied to practice. In fact, it
+slumbered in the archives of the British patent office for two
+generations, and after the leading sewing machines of the century had
+been invented and introduced, before it was rediscovered, and its
+contents appreciated in the light of more recent developments. Probably
+Saint's machine, if constructed in accordance with his plans, would not
+have done much good work, certainly not with woven cloth, as he proposed
+to employ a hooked needle to carry a loop through the material, which
+would have been snarled by the cloth threads; but from his drawings and
+description it is clearly established that he was first to conceive of a
+vertically reciprocating needle for forming a seam from a continuous
+thread drawn from a spool; a seam in which each loop is locked, or
+enchained with a subsequent loop, to form what is known as the chain, or
+single thread stitch; and a horizontal sliding plate, to support the
+material to be sewed, and by which the material was also moved sideways
+after each stitch.
+
+May 30, 1804, John Duncan received an English patent for "tamboring on
+cloth." He proposed to employ a series of hooked needles attached in a
+straight line to a horizontal bar, which, when threaded, were first
+thrust forward and their hooked ends carried through the cloth, where
+each needle hook was supplied with a thread by a thread carrier. Then
+the motion of the bar was reversed, which drew the thread back through
+the cloth in the form of loops, and through the loops first formed, thus
+producing a chain stitch. The cloth was automatically shifted to
+correspond to the pattern to be produced, and thus was chain stitch
+embroidery first manufactured. From this point of time successful
+embroidery machines were made.
+
+In 1807 another Englishman patented a machine for making a sort of rope
+matting, in which he describes two eye-pointed, thread-carrying,
+perforating needles, each held in a reciprocating needle bar, and
+designed to unite several small ropes laid parallel, by a reciprocating
+movement.
+
+A German publication, the _Kunst_ and _Generbe Blatt_, for 1817, and
+_Karmarsch's History of Technology_, made mention of a sewing machine
+invented by one Mr. Joseph Madersperger of Vienna, formerly from
+Kuefstein in the Tyrol, and for which he received royal letters patent
+in 1814. From these descriptions it appears Madersperger used a needle
+pointed at both ends, and the eye in the centre, invented many years
+before by Weisenthal, as above stated, which was moved vertically up and
+down, piercing alternately the top and bottom of the stuff, and which
+carried a short thread, enough to make about one hundred and thirty
+stitches, which machine was driven by a crank and handle, on which
+sewing was made of many different shaped forms, by slight changes, and
+which sewed with far greater accuracy and rapidity than hand work. The
+inventor was striving to simplify the machine, but to what extent it had
+been used or had been improved, or what finally became of it, does not
+appear. Yet it is a bit of evidence showing that Germany came next to
+England in the earlier ideas, conceptions of, and struggles after a
+sewing machine.
+
+France then entered the list, and it was in 1830 that Barthelmy
+Thimonnier there produced and patented a sewing machine, which he
+continued to improve and to further patent in 1848 and in 1850 in
+France, England, and the United States. The Thimonnier resembled in some
+prominent respects the machine that had been described in the Saint
+patent, but unlike Saint's, it was reduced to successful practice, and
+possessed some points in common with more modern machines. These were
+the flat cloth plate, vertical post, overhung arm, vertically
+reciprocating needle, and continuous thread. The crochet or barbed
+needle was worked by a treadle, and upon pushing the needle down through
+the cloth, it there caught a thread from a carrier, carried the loop to
+and laid it upon the upper surface of the cloth. Again descending, it
+brought up another loop, enchained it with the one last made, making a
+chain stitch, consisting of a series of loops on the upper side.
+
+Thimonnier made quite a large number of machines, constructed mostly of
+wood, and which were used to make army clothing at Paris. They were best
+adapted to work on leather and in embroidering. They were so far
+successful as to arouse the jealousy and fear of the workmen and working
+women, and, as in the case of Hargreaves, Jacquard, and others, a mob
+broke into his shop, destroyed his machines, ruined his business, and he
+died penniless in 1857.
+
+In the meantime an English patent, No. 8948, of May 4, 1841, had been
+issued to Newton and Archbold for a machine for embroidering the backs
+of gloves, having an eye-pointed needle, worked by a vibrating lever,
+and adapted to carry a thread through the back of the glove, held on a
+frame--the frame and glove moving together after each stitch.
+
+The germs of inventions often develop and fructify simultaneously in
+distant places, without, so far as any one can ascertain, the slightest
+mutual knowledge or co-operation on the part of the separate inventors.
+Between 1832 and 1834, while Thimonnier was in the midst of his early
+struggles in Paris, Walter Hunt was inventing a sewing machine in New
+York, which he completed at that time and on which he sewed one or two
+garments. But as it was experimental in form, and Hunt was full of other
+inventions and schemes, he put it aside, and it probably would never
+have been heard of had not Elias Howe of Massachusetts, ten years after
+Hunt had abandoned his invention, but without knowledge of Hunt's
+efforts, made the first practical successful sewing machine for
+commercial purposes the world had ever seen, obtained his patent, and
+made claims therein which covered not only his special form of
+improvements, but Hunt's old device as well.
+
+Howe's patent was issued September 10, 1846. In that he claimed to be
+the first and original inventor of "A sewing machine, constructed and
+operated to form a seam, substantially as described."
+
+Also "The combination of a needle and a shuttle, or equivalent, and
+holding surfaces, constructed and operating substantially as described."
+
+Also "The combination of holding surfaces with a baster plate or
+equivalent, constructed and operating substantially as described."
+
+Also "A grooved and eye-pointed needle, constructed and adapted for
+rapid machine sewing substantially as described."
+
+When the machine commenced to be a practical success this patent was
+infringed, and when Howe sued upon it a few years after its issue, it
+woke up Hunt and all other alleged prior inventors; and all prior
+patents and publications the world over, relating to sewing machines,
+were raked up to defeat Howe's claims.
+
+But the courts, after long deliberation, held that although, so far as
+Hunt was concerned he had without doubt made a machine in many respects
+like Howe's machine, that it had a curved, eye-pointed needle similar to
+Howe's operated by a vibrating arm and going through the cloth, a
+shuttle carrying the thread that passed through the loop made by the
+needle thread, thus making a lock stitch by drawing it up to one side of
+the cloth, and that this machine did, to a certain extent, sew, yet that
+it ended in an experiment, was laid aside, destroyed, and never
+perfected nor used so as to give to the public the knowledge and benefit
+of a completed invention, and was not therefore an anticipation in the
+eye of the law of Howe's completed, more successful and patented
+machine.
+
+Public successful use is the fact in many cases which alone establishes
+the title of an inventor, when all other tests fail. And this is right
+in one sense, as the laws of all countries in respect to protection by
+patents for inventions are based upon the primary condition of benefit
+to society. This benefit is not derived from the inventor who hides his
+completed invention for years in his closet, or throws it on a dust
+heap. As to previous patents and publications, some were not published
+before Howe's inventions were made, and others were insufficient in
+showing substantially the same machine and mode of operation. And as to
+prior use abroad, it was not regarded under the law of his country as
+competent evidence.
+
+Seldom have the lives of great inventors presented a more striking
+example of the vicissitudes, the despair, and the final triumphs of
+fortune, which are commonly their lot, than is shown in the case of
+Howe. A machinist with a wife and children to support, his health too
+feeble to earn hardly a scanty living, he watches his faithful wife ply
+her constant needle, and wonders why a machine cannot be made to do the
+work. The idea cannot be put aside, and with such poor aids as he can
+command he commences his task.
+
+At last, amid the trials of bitter poverty, he brings his invention to
+that stage in which he induces a friend to advance some money, by the
+promise of a share in the future patent, and thereby gains a temporary
+home for his family and a garret for his workshop. Day after day and
+night after night he labours, and finally, in April, 1845, the rather
+crude machine is completed, and two woollen suits of clothing are sewed
+thereon, one for a friend, and one for himself.
+
+Then came the effort to make more machines and place them on the market.
+People admired the machines as a curiosity, but none were induced to buy
+them or help him pecuniarily. Finally, in September, 1846, he obtained
+his patent, but by that time his best friends had become discouraged,
+and he was compelled to return with his family to his father's house in
+Cambridge, Mass. To earn his bread he sought and found employment on a
+railway locomotive. By some means his brother sold one of his machines
+to Mr. William Thomas, a corset maker of London, and Howe was induced to
+go there to make stays, and his machines. He took his wife and children
+with him. The arrangement made with his employer was not such as to
+enable him to keep his family there, and he soon sent them home.
+
+Unable to sell his machines, he was soon reduced to want. He pawned his
+patent and his last machine, and procured money to return to New York,
+where he arrived penniless in 1849. He then learned that his wife was
+dying of consumption at Cambridge. He was compelled to wait until money
+could be sent him to pay his passage home, and reached there just before
+his wife's death.
+
+He then learned that during his absence his patent and machine had
+attracted attention, that others had taken the matter up, added their
+improvements to his machines, and that many in various places were being
+made and sold which were infringements of his patent. A great demand for
+sewing machines had sprung up. He induced friends to again help him.
+Suits were commenced which, although bitterly fought for six years, were
+finally successful.
+
+Now fortune turned her smiling face upon him. Medals and diplomas, the
+Cross of the Legion of Honour, and millions of money became his. When
+the great civil war broke out in 1861, he entered the army as a private
+soldier, and advanced the money to pay the regiment to which he
+belonged, when the Government paymaster had been long delayed. His life
+was saddened by the fact that his wife had not lived to share his
+fortune. He died in Brooklyn, New York, October 3, 1867, in the midst of
+life, riches, and honour, at the comparatively early age of forty-eight.
+
+In referring to the early inventors of sewing machines in America who
+entered the field about the same time with Howe, mention should be made
+of J. J. Greenough and George Corliss, who had machines patented
+respectively in 1842 and 1843, for sewing leather, with double pointed
+needles; and the running stitch sewing machine used for basting, made
+and patented by B. W. Bean in 1843. About this time, both in England and
+America, machines had been devised for sewing lengths of calico and
+other cloths together, previous to bleaching, dyeing or printing. The
+edges of the cloths were first crimped or fluted and then sewed by a
+running stitch.
+
+The decade of 1849-1859, immediately following the development of the
+Howe machine, was the greatest in the century for producing those
+successful sewing machines which were the foundation of the art,
+established a new industrial epoch, and converted Hood's "Song of the
+Shirt" into a lament commemorative of the miseries of a slavish but
+dying industry.
+
+It was during that decade that, in the United States, Batcheller
+invented the perpetual feed for moving the cloth horizontally under and
+past the needle. In Howe's the cloth could be sewed but a certain
+distance at a time, and then the machine must be readjusted for a new
+length. Then Blodgett and Lerow imparted to the eye-pointed needle what
+is called the "dip motion,"--the needle being made to descend completely
+through the material, then to rise a little to form a loop; the shuttle
+then entered the loop, the needle descended again a short distance,
+while the shuttle passed through the loop of the needle thread, and then
+the needle was raised above the cloth.
+
+It was then that Allen B. Wilson invented the still more famous
+"four-motion feed" for feeding the cloth forward. He employed a bar
+having saw like teeth on one edge which projected up through a slotted
+plate and engaged the cloth. He then first moved the bar forward
+carrying the cloth; second, dropped the bar; third, moved it back under
+the plate; and fourth, raised it to its first position to again engage
+the cloth. These motions were so timed with the movement of the needle
+and so quickly done that the cloth was carried forward while the needle
+was raised, the passage and quick action of the needle was not
+interfered with, and the feeding and the sewing seem to be simultaneous.
+The intermittent grasp and feed of the cloth were hardly perceptible,
+and yet it permitted the cloth to be turned to make a curved seam.
+Wilson also invented the rotating hook which catches the loop of the
+upper thread, and drops a disk bobbin through it to form the stitch. The
+shuttle was thus dispensed with, and an entirely new departure was made
+in the art. These with other improvements made up the celebrated
+"Wheeler and Wilson" machine.
+
+Now also appeared "the Singer," consisting chiefly of the invention of
+T. M. Singer. He improved the operation of the needle bar, devised a
+roughened feed wheel, as a substitute for Wilson's serrated bar,
+introduced a spring presser foot, alongside the needle, to hold the work
+down in proper position while permitting it to be moved forward or in
+any other direction. A "friction pad" was also placed between the cloth
+seam and the spool, to prevent the thread from kinking or twisting under
+the point of the descending needle. He was the first to give the shuttle
+an additional forward movement after it had once stopped, to draw the
+stitch tight,--such operation being taken while the feed moved the cloth
+in the reverse direction, and while, the needle completed its upward
+motion, so that the two threads were simultaneously drawn, and finally a
+spring guide upon the shuttle to control the slack of the thread, and
+prevent its catching by the needle.
+
+By reason of these improvements it is thought by many that Singer was
+the first to furnish the people with a successful operating and
+practical sewing machine. At any rate, the world at last so highly
+appreciated his machines, that it lifted him from poverty to an estate
+which was valued at between eight and ten millions of dollars at the
+time of his death in 1875. Singer was also the first to invent the
+"ruffler," a machine for ruffling or gathering cloth, and a device which
+laid an embroidering thread upon the surface of the cloth under the
+needle thread.
+
+The "Grover and Baker" another celebrated American machine, was invented
+by William O. Grover and William E. Baker in 1851. By certain changes
+they made in the thread carrier and connections, they were enabled to
+make a double looped stitch. This required more thread, but the stitch
+made was unexcelled in strength.
+
+And so the work went on, from step to step, and from the completion of
+one machine after another, until when the Centennial Exhibition came to
+be held in Philadelphia in 1876, a fine array of excellent sewing
+machines was had, from the United States, principally, but also those of
+inventors and manufacturers in Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany,
+Belgium, Sweden and Denmark.
+
+Up to that time about twenty-two hundred patents had been granted in the
+United States, all of which, with the exception of a very few, were for
+inventions made within the preceding quarter of a century. And during
+the last quarter of the century about five thousand more United States
+patents have been issued for devices in this art. This number includes
+many, of course, to inventors of other countries. When it is remembered
+that these patents were issued only after an examination in each case as
+to its novelty, and although slight as may have been the changes or
+additions, yet substantially different they must have been in nearly all
+respects, it may to some extent be realized how great and incessant has
+been the exercise of invention in this useful class of machines.
+
+On this point of the exercise of invention in sewing machines, as well
+as on some others growing out of the subject, Knight, writing in his
+_Mechanical Dictionary_, about twenty years ago, remarks: "If required
+to name the three subjects on which the most extraordinary versatility
+of invention has been expended, the answer would be without hesitation,
+the _sewing machine_, _reaping machine_ and _breech-loading firearm_.
+Each of these has thousands of patents, and although each is the growth
+of the last forty years, it is only during the last twenty-five years
+that they have filled any notable place in the world. It was then only
+by a combination of talents that any of these three important inventions
+was enabled to achieve remarkable success. The sewing machine previous
+to 1851, made without the admirable division of labour which is a
+feature in all well conducted factories, was hard to make, and
+comparatively hard to run. The system of _assembling_, first introduced
+in the artillery service of France by General Gribeauval in 1765 and
+brought to proximate perfection by Colonel Colt in the manufacture of
+the revolver at Hartford, Connecticut, has economised material and time,
+improved the quality as well as cheapened the product. There is to-day,
+and in fact has been for some years, more actual invention in the
+special machines for _making_ sewing machines than in the machines
+themselves. The assembling system, that is, making the component parts
+of an article in distinct pieces of pattern, so as to be
+interchangeable, and the putting them together, is the only system of
+order. How else should the Providence Tool Company execute their order
+for 600,000 rifles for the Turkish Government? How otherwise could the
+Champion Harvesting Machine Company of Springfield, Ohio, turn out an
+equipped machine every four minutes each working day of ten hours? Or,
+to draw the illustration from the subject in hand, how by any other than
+the nicest arrangement of detail can the Singer Sewing Machine Company
+make 6,000 machines per week at Elizabethport, New Jersey?"
+
+When sewing machines were so far completed as to be easily run by a hand
+crank, or treadle, the application of power to run them singly, or in
+series, and to run machines of a larger and more powerful description,
+soon naturally followed--so that garment-making factories of all kinds,
+whether of cloth or leather, have been established in many countries--in
+which steam or electric power is utilised as the motor, and thus human
+strain and labour saved, while the amount of production is increased.
+
+No radical changes in the principle or mode of operation of sewing
+machines have been made in the last twenty-five years; but the efforts
+of inventors have been directed to improve the previously established
+types, and to devise attachments of all kinds, by the aid of which
+anything that can be sewed, can be sewed upon a machine. Tucking,
+ruffling, braiding, cording, hemming, turning, plaiting, gaging, and
+other attachment devices are numerous. Inventors have rivalled one
+another in originating new forms of stitches. About seventy-five
+distinct stitches have been devised, each of which must of course be
+produced by a change in mechanism.
+
+When sewing machines were in their infancy, and confined to sewing
+straight seams and other plain sewing, it was predicted that it was not
+possible to take from the hands of women the making of fine embroidery
+from intricate patterns, or the working of button-holes, and the
+destruction of the quilting party was not apprehended. Nor was it
+expected that human hands could be dispensed with in the cutting out of
+garments. And yet these things have followed. Machines, by a beautiful
+but complex system of needles, working to some extent on the Jacquard
+system of perforated card boards, and by the help of pneumatic or
+electrical power, will work out on most delicate cloths embroidery of
+exquisite patterns.
+
+The button-hole machines will take the garment, cut the button-hole at
+the desired point, and either, as in one class of machines, by moving
+the fabric about the stitch-forming mechanism, or, as in another class,
+moving the stitch-forming mechanism about the button-hole, complete the
+delicate task in the nicest and most effective manner.
+
+Quilting machines have their own bees, consisting of a guide which
+regulates the spaces between the seams, and adjusts them to any width,
+and a single needle, or gang of needles, the latter under the control of
+cams which force the needles to quilt certain desired patterns.
+
+And as to cutting, it is only necessary to place the number of pieces of
+fabric desired to be cut in cutting dies, or upon a table, and over them
+an "over-board" cutter, which comprises a reciprocating band-saw, or a
+rotary knife, all quick, keen and delicate, in an apparatus guided by
+hand, in order to produce in the operation a great pile of the parts
+formerly so slowly produced, one at a time, by scissors or shears.
+
+If men were contented with that single useful garment of some savages, a
+blanket with a slit cut in it for the passage of the head and neck, not
+only would a vast portion of the joys and sorrows of social philosophy
+have been avoided, but an immense strain and trouble on the part of
+inventors of the century would have been obviated.
+
+But man's propensity for wearing clothes has led to the invention of
+every variety of tools for making them faster, cheaper, and better.
+
+No machine has yet been invented that will take the place of the deft
+fingers of women in certain lines of ornamentation, as in final
+completion and trimming of their hats. The airy and erratic demands of
+fashion are too nimble to be supplied by the slow processes of
+machinery, although the crude ground-work, the frame, has been shaped,
+moulded and sewed by machines; and women themselves have invented and
+patented _bonnet frames_ and _patterns_.
+
+But no such difficulty in invention has occurred in _hat-making_ for
+men. From the treating and cutting of the raw material, from the outer
+bound edge, and the band about the body, to the tip of the crown, a
+machine may be found for performing each separate step. Especially is
+this the case with the hard felt and the high silk hats.
+
+Seventy-five years ago the making of hats was by hand processes. Now in
+all hat factories machines are employed, and the ingenuity displayed in
+the construction of some of them is marvellous. It is exceedingly
+difficult to find many of the old hand implements existing even as
+relics.
+
+Wool and fur each has its special machines for turning it into a hat.
+The operations of cleaning and preparing the material, felting the fur,
+when fur is used, shaping the hat body, and then the brim, washing,
+dying, hardening and stiffening it, stretching, smoothing, finishing,
+sizing, lining, trimming, all are now done by machines devised for each
+special purpose. A description of these processes would be interesting,
+but even in an abbreviated form would fill a book.
+
+The wonderful things done in the manufacture of boots and shoes and
+rubber goods will be referred to in subsequent chapters.
+
+Although it was old from time immemorial to colour cotton goods, and the
+calico power printing cylinder was invented and introduced into England
+in the latter part of the 18th century and began to turn out at once
+immense quantities of decorated calicoes and chintz, yet _figured_ woven
+goods were a novelty sixty years ago.
+
+In 1834, Mr. Bonjeau, a prominent wool manufacturer in Sedan, France,
+and an _�l�ve_ of the Polytechnic School, conceived the idea of
+modifying the plain cloths, universally made, by the union of different
+tints and patterns. This he was enabled to do by the Jacquard loom. The
+manufacture of fancy woven cloths, cassimeres, worsted coatings, etc.,
+of great beauty, combined with strength of fabrication, followed in all
+civilised countries, but their universal adoption as wearing apparel was
+due in part to the lessening of the expense in the making them into
+garments by the sewing machine.
+
+As to the effect of modern inventions on wearing apparel, it is not
+apparent that they were necessary to supply the wardrobes of the rich.
+The Solomons and the Queen of Sheba of ancient days, and all their small
+and great successors in the halls of Fortune, have had their rich robes,
+their purple and their fine linen, whether made in one way or another;
+but modern inventions have banished the day when the poor man's hard
+labour of a long day will not suffice to bring his wife a yard of
+cheapest cloth. Toil, then, as hard as he and his poor wife and children
+might, their united labours would hardly suffice to clothe them in more
+than the poorly-dressed skins of animals and the coarsest of homespun
+wool.
+
+Now, cottons and calicoes are made and sold at a profit for three cents
+a yard; and the poorest woman in the land may appear in neat,
+comfortable and tasteful dress, the entire cost of material and labor of
+which need not exceed fifty cents. The comfort, respectability and
+dignity of a large family, which depend so much on clothes, may be
+ensured at the cost of a few dollars.
+
+And as to the condition of the sewing woman, trying and poor as it is in
+many instances, yet she can earn more money with less physical
+exhaustion than under the old system.
+
+The epoch of good clothes for the people, with all that it means in the
+fight upward from degradation, began in this century, and it was due to
+the inventions which have been above outlined.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.
+
+
+One invention engenders another, or co-operates with another. None
+lives, or stands, or dies, alone.
+
+So, in the humble but extensive art of _broom-making_, men and women
+worked along through ages binding with their hands the supple twigs of
+trees or bushes, or of corn, by thongs, or cords, or wire, upon the
+rudely-formed collar of a hand-smoothed stick, until the modern lathe
+and hollow mandrel armed with cutters, the power-driven shuttle, and the
+sewing machine, were invented.
+
+The lathe and mandrel to hold the stick while it was cut was used
+before, but it was long within the century that a hollow mandrel was
+first invented, which was provided internally with cutting bevelled
+knives, and into which the stick was placed, carried through
+longitudinally, and during its passage cut smooth and finished. As broom
+corn became the chief product from which brooms are made, it became
+desirable to have a machine, after the corn had been scraped of its
+seed, to size and prepare the stems in regular lengths for the various
+sizes of brooms, and accordingly such a machine was invented. Then a
+machine was needed and invented to wind the corn-brush with the cord or
+wire and tie it in a round bunch, preparatory to flattening and sewing
+it.
+
+Then followed different forms of broom-sewing machines. Among the
+pioneers was one which received the round bunch between two compressing
+jaws, and pressed it flat. While so held a needle with its coarse thread
+was forced through the broom above the binding and the cord twined
+around it. Then a shuttle, also carrying a stout thread, was thrown over
+the cord, the needle receded and was then forced through the broom again
+_under_ the binding cord. Thus in conjunction with the shuttle the
+stitches were formed alternately above and below the binding twine, the
+holding jaws being raised intermittently for that purpose. As each
+stitch was formed the machine fed the broom along laterally and
+intermittently. By another ingenious device the cord was tied and cut,
+when the sewing was completed.
+
+It is only by such machines which treat the entire article from the
+first to the last step, that the immense number of brooms now necessary
+to supply the market are made. True it is that at first labour was
+displaced. At one time seventeen skilled workmen would manufacture five
+hundred dozen brooms per week.
+
+They had reduced the force of earlier times by making larger quantities
+by better processes. Then when the broom-sewing machines and other
+inventions got fairly to work, nine men would turn out twelve hundred
+dozen brooms per week. Thus, while the force was reduced nearly
+one-half, the quantity of product was more than doubled. But as the cost
+of labour decreased and the product increased, the product became more
+plentiful and cheaper, the demand and use became greater, more
+broom-corn was raised, more broom-factories started, and soon the
+temporary displacement of labour was succeeded by a permanent increase
+in manufacture and in labourers, an increase in their wages, and an
+improvement in their condition.
+
+Useful and extensive as is its use, the broom does not compare in
+variety and wide application to the _brush_. The human body, cloth,
+leather, metals, wood and grains, everything that needs rubbing,
+cleaning, painting and polishing, meets the acquaintance of the brush.
+Nearly a hundred species of brushes might be enumerated, each having an
+especial construction for a particular use.
+
+Although the majority of brushes are still made by hand, yet a few most
+ingenious machines have been made which greatly facilitate and speed the
+operation, and many mechanical appliances have been invented in aid of
+hand-work. These machines and appliances, together with those which cut,
+turn, bore, smooth, and polish the handles and backs, to which the brush
+part is secured, have greatly changed and improved the art of
+brush-making during the last fifty years.
+
+The first machine which attracted general attention was invented by
+Oscar D. and E. C. Woodbury of New York, and patented in 1870. As in
+hand-making and before subjected to the action of the machine, the
+bristles are sorted as to length and color. A brush-back, bored with
+holes by a gang of bits, which holes do not extend, however, all the way
+through the back, is placed in the machine under a cone-jointed plunger,
+adapted to enter the hole in the brush-back. A comb-shaped slitted plate
+in the machine has then each slit filled with bristles, sufficient in
+number to form a single tuft. When the machine is started, the bristles
+in a slit are forced out therefrom through a twisted guideway, which
+forms them into a round tuft, and which is laid horizontally beneath a
+plunger, which, descending, first doubles the tuft, and as the plunger
+continues to descend, forces the double end down into the hole. The
+plunger is supplied with a wire from a reel, turns as it descends, and
+twists the wire around the lower end of the tuft, the wire being
+directed in that way by a spiral groove within the plunger. The
+continuing action of the plunger is such as to screw the wire into the
+back. The wire is cut when the rotary plunger commences its descent, and
+when the tuft is thus secured the plunger ascends, the block is moved
+for another hole, and another set of bristles is presented for
+manipulation. Brushes with 70 holes can be turned out by this machine at
+the rate of one a minute.
+
+Another most ingenious machine for this purpose is that of Kennedy,
+Diss, and Cannan, patented in the United States in 1892. In this, brush
+blocks of varying sizes, but of the same pattern, are bored by the same
+machine which receives the bristles, and the tufts are inserted as fast
+as the holes are bored. Both machines are automatic in operation.
+
+_Street-sweeping machines_ began to appear about 1831 in England,
+shortly after in France, and then in cities in other countries.
+
+The simplest form and most effective sweeper comprises a large cylinder
+armed with spiral rows of splints and hung diagonally on the under side
+and across a frame having two or four wheels. This cylinder is connected
+by bevelled gearing with the wheels, and in revolving throws the dirt
+from the street into a ridge on one side thereof, where it is swept into
+heaps by hand sweepers, and is then carted off. King of the United
+States was the inventor.
+
+A more recent improvement consists in the use of pneumatic means for
+removing the dust that is caused by the use of revolving brooms or
+brushes, such removal being effected by means of a hood that covers the
+area of the street beneath the body of the machine, and incloses an air
+exhaust, the sweepings being drawn through the exhaust mechanism and
+deposited in a receptacle for the purpose, or in some instances
+deposited in a furnace carried by the machine and there burned.
+
+In cities having hard, smooth, paved streets and sufficient municipal
+funds, the most effective, but most expensive way, has been found to
+keep a large force of men constantly at work with hoes, shovels, brooms,
+bags and carts, removing the dirt as fast as it accumulates.
+
+
+_Abrading Machines._
+
+One of the most striking inventions of the century is the application of
+the sand-blast to industrial and artistic purposes.
+
+For ages the sands of the desert and wild mountain plains, lifted and
+driven by the whirling winds, had sheared and polished the edges and
+faces of rocks, and cut them into fantastic shapes, and the sands of the
+shore, tossed by the winds of the sea, had long scratched and bleared
+the windows of the fisherman's hut, before it occurred to the mind of
+man that here were a force and an agent which could be harnessed into
+his service.
+
+It was due finally to the inventive genius of B. F. Tilghman of
+Philadelphia, Pa., who, in 1870, patented a process by which common
+sand, powdered quartz, emery, or other comminuted sharp cutting
+material, may be blown or driven with such force upon the surface of the
+hardest materials, as to cut, clean, engrave, and otherwise abrade them,
+in the most wonderful and satisfactory manner.
+
+Diamonds are abraded; glass depolished, or engraved, or bored; metal
+castings cleaned; lithographic zinc plates grained; silverware frosted;
+stone and glass for jewelry shaped and figured; the inscriptions and
+ornaments of monuments and tombstones cut thereon; engravings and
+photographs copied; steel files cleaned and sharpened, and stones and
+marble carved into forms of beauty with more exactness and in far less
+time than by the chisel of the artisan.
+
+The gist of the process is the employment of a jet of sand or other hard
+abrading material, driven at a high velocity by a blast of air or steam,
+under a certain pressure, in accordance with the character of the work
+to be done. The sand is placed in a box-like receptacle into which the
+air or steam is forced, and the sand flowing into the same chamber is
+driven through a narrow slit or slits in the form of a thin sheet,
+directly on to the object to be abraded.
+
+By one method the surface of the object is first coated with tinfoil on
+which the artist traces his design, and this is then coated with melted
+transparent wax. Then when the wax is hardened it is cut away along the
+lines already indicated, and seen through the wax. The object now is
+subjected to the blast, and as the sand will not penetrate a softened
+material sufficient to abrade a surface beneath, the exposed portions
+alone will be cut away. The sand after it strikes is carried off by a
+blast to some receptacle, from which it is returned to its former place
+for further use. Other means may be used in the place of a slitted box,
+as a small or larger blow-pipe; but the driving of the sand, or similar
+abrading material, with great force by the steam or air blast, is the
+essential feature of the process.
+
+_Emery_, that variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of crystalline
+alumina, resembling in appearance dark, fine-grained iron ore, ranking
+next to the diamond in hardness, and a sister of the sapphire and the
+ruby, has long been used as an abradant. The Eastern nations have used
+corundum for this purpose for ages. Turkey and Greece once had a
+monopoly of it. Knight says: "The corundum stone used by the Hindoos and
+Chinese is composed of corundum powdered, two parts; lac resin, one
+part. The two are intimately mixed in an earthen vessel, kneaded and
+flattened, shaped and polished. A hole in the stone for the axis is made
+by a heated copper rod."
+
+However ancient the use of artificial stones for grinding and polishing,
+nevertheless it is true that the solid emery wheel in the form that has
+made it generally useful, in machines known as _emery grinders_, is a
+modern invention, and of American origin.
+
+In the manufacture of such machines great attention and the highest
+scientific skill has been paid, first, to the material composing the
+wheel, and to the cementing substances by which the emery is compacted
+and bound in the strongest manner, to prevent bursting when driven at
+great speed; secondly, to the construction of machines and wheels of a
+composition varying from the finest to the coarsest; and thirdly, to the
+proper balancing of the wheels in the machines, an operation of great
+nicety, in order that the wheel may be used on delicate tools, when
+driven at high speed, without producing uneven work, marking the
+objects, or endangering the breaking, or bursting of the wheel.
+
+Such machines, when properly constructed, although not adapted to take
+the place of the file, other steel-cutting tools, and the grindstone for
+many purposes, yet have very extensively displaced those tools for
+cutting edges, and the grinding and polishing of hardened metals, by
+reason chiefly of their greater convenience, speed, and general
+adaptability. Not only tools of all sizes are ground and polished, but
+ploughshares, stove and wrought-iron plates, iron castings, the inner
+surfaces of hollow ironware, the bearings of spindles, arbours, and the
+surfaces of steel, chilled or cast-iron rolls, etc.
+
+In the great class of Industrial Mechanics, no machines of the century
+have contributed more to the comfort and cleanliness of mankind than
+those by which wearing apparel in its vast quantities is washed and
+ironed more thoroughly, speedily, and satisfactorily in every way than
+is possible by the old hand systems. When it is remembered how under the
+old system such a large part of humanity, and this the weaker part,
+devoted such immense time and labour to the universal washing and
+ironing days, the invention of these machines and appliances must be
+regarded as among the great labour-saving blessings of the century.
+
+True, the individual washerwoman and washerman, and ironers, have by no
+means disappeared, and are still in evidence everywhere, yet the
+universal and general devotion of one-half the human race to the
+wash-tub and ironing-table for two or more days in the week is no longer
+necessary. And even for the individual worker, the convenient appliances
+and helps that have been invented have greatly relieved the occupation
+of pain and drudgery.
+
+Among modern devices in the laundry, worked by hand, is, first, the
+_washing-machine_, in which the principle is adapted of rolling over or
+kneading the clothes. By moving a lever by hand up and down, the clothes
+are thoroughly rubbed, squeezed and lifted at each stroke. Then comes
+the _wringer_, a common form of which consists of two parallel rolls of
+vulcanized and otherwise specially treated rubber, fitted to shafts
+which, by an arrangement of cog-wheels, gearing and springs in the
+framework at the ends of rolls, and a crank handle, are made to roll on
+each other. The clothes are passed between the rollers, the springs
+permit the rollers to yield and part more or less, according to the
+thickness of the clothes.
+
+Then the old-fashioned, or the new-fashioned mangle is brought into
+play. The old-style mangle had a box, weighted with stone, which was
+reciprocated on rollers, and was run back and forth upon the clothes
+spread upon a polished table beneath. One of the more modern styles is
+on the principle of the wringer above described, or a series of rollers
+arranged around a central drum, and each having a rubber spring
+attached, by which means the clothes are not subjected to undue pressure
+at one or two points, as in the first mentioned kind.
+
+Starch is also applied by a similar machine. The cloth is dipped into a
+body of starch, or the same is applied by hand, and then the superfluous
+starch squeezed out as the clothes are passed through the rollers.
+
+But for hotels and other large institutions washing is now done by
+steam-power machinery.
+
+It is an attractive sight to step into a modern laundry, operated with
+the latest machinery on the largest scale. The first thing necessary in
+many localities is to clarify the water. This is done by attaching to
+the service pipe tanks filled with filtering material, through which the
+water flows before reaching the boiler. The driving engine and shafting
+are compactly placed at one end or side of the room, with boilers and
+kettles conveniently adjacent. The water and clothes are supplied to the
+washing-machine, and operated by the engine. Steam may be used in
+addition to the engine to keep it boiling hot, or steam may be
+substituted entirely for the water.
+
+The machine may be one of several types selected especially for the
+particular class of goods to be washed. There is the dash-wheel,
+constructed on the principle of the cylinder churn; the outer case being
+stationary and the revolving dash-wheel water-tight, or perforated,
+which is the preferred form for collars and cuffs. In place of the
+dash-wheel cylinders are sometimes used, having from sixty to seventy
+revolutions a minute. Another form has vibrating arms or beaters, giving
+between four hundred and five hundred strokes a minute, and by which the
+clothes are squeezed between rubbing corrugated boards. The rubbing
+boards also roll the clothes over and over until they are thoroughly
+washed. In another form a rotating cylinder for the clothes is provided
+with an arrangement of pipes by which either steam, water or blueing can
+be introduced as desired, into the cylinder, through its hollow
+journals, so that the clothes can be washed, rinsed, and blued without
+removal from the machine.
+
+Another type has perforated, reciprocating pistons, between which the
+clothes are alternately squeezed and released, a supply of fresh water
+being constantly introduced through one of the hollow cylinder journals,
+while the used water is discharged through the opposite journal; and in
+still another the clothes are placed in a perforated cylinder within an
+outer casing, and propeller blades, assisted by other spiral blades,
+force a continuous current of water through the clothes.
+
+In ironing, hollow polishing rolls of various sizes are used, heated
+either by steam or gas. The articles to be ironed are placed in proper
+position upon a table and carried under and in contact with the rolls.
+Or the goods are ironed between a heated cylinder and a revolving drum
+covered with felting, and the polishing effected by the cylinder
+revolving faster than the drum. Ingenious forms of hand-operated ironing
+machines for turning over and ironing the edges of collars, and other
+articles, are in successful use.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+WOOD-WORKING.
+
+
+In surveying the wonderful road along which have travelled the toiling
+inventors, until the splendid fields of the present century have been
+reached, the mind indulges in contrasts and reverts to the far gone
+period of man's deprivations, when man, the animal, was fighting for
+food and shelter.
+
+  "Poor naked wretches, wheresoe'er you are,
+  That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,
+  How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,
+  Your loop'd and window'd raggedness, defend you
+  From seasons such as these?"
+                                      --_King Lear III, IV._
+
+When the implements of labour and the weapons of war were chiefly made
+of stone, or bronze, or iron, such periods became the "age" of stone, or
+bronze, or iron; and we sometimes hear of the ages of steam, steel and
+electricity. But the age of wood has always existed, wherever forests
+abounded. It was, doubtless, the earliest "age" in the industries of
+man, but is not likely to be the latest, as the class of inventions we
+are about to consider, although giving complete dominion to man over the
+forests, are hastening their destruction.
+
+As in every other class of inventions, there had been inventions in the
+class of wood-working through the ages preceding this century, in tools,
+implements and machines; but not until near the close of the eighteenth
+century had there been much of a break in the universal toil by hand.
+The implements produced were, for the most part, the result of the slow
+growth of experience and mechanical skill, rather than the product of
+inventive genius.
+
+True, the turning-lathe, the axe, the hammer, the chisel, the saw, the
+auger, the plane, the screw, and cutting and other wood-shaping
+instruments in simple forms existed in abundance. The Egyptians used
+their saws of bronze. The Greeks deified their supposed inventor of the
+saw, Talus, or Perdix, and they claimed Theodore of Lamos as the
+inventor of the turning-lathe; although the main idea of pivoting an
+object between two supports, so that it could be turned while the hands
+were free to apply a tool to its shaping, was old in the potter's wheel
+of the Egyptians, which was turned while the vessel resting upon it was
+shaped and ornamented by the hand and tools. It appears also to have
+been known by the Hindoos and the Africans.
+
+Pliny refers to the curled chips raised by the plane, and Ansonius
+refers to mills driven by the waters of the Moselle for sawing marble
+into slabs. Early records mention saw-mills run by water-power in the
+thirteenth century in France, Germany and Norway; and Sweden had them in
+the next century. Holland had them one hundred years at least before
+they were introduced into England.
+
+Fearful of the entire destruction of the forests by the wood used in the
+manufacture of iron, and incited by the opposition and jealousy of hand
+sawyers, England passed some rigid laws on the subject in the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries, which, although preserving the forests, gave
+for a long time the almost exclusive manufacture of iron and lumber to
+Germany and Holland. Even as late as 1768, a saw-mill, built at
+Limehouse, under the encouragement of the Society of Arts, by James
+Stansfield, was destroyed by a mob. Saw-mills designed to be run by
+water-power had been introduced into the American colonies by the Dutch
+more than a century before they made their appearance in England.
+William Penn found that they had long been at work on the Delaware when
+he reached its shores in 1682.
+
+It was nothing indigenous to the climate or race that rendered the
+Americans inventors. The early colonists, drawn from the most civilised
+countries of Europe, carried to the new world knowledge of the latest
+and best appliances known to their respective countries in the various
+arts. With three thousand miles of water between them and the source of
+such appliances, and between them and the source of arbitrary power and
+laws to hamper efforts and enterprise, with stern necessity on every
+hand prompting them to avail themselves of every means to meet their
+daily wants, all known inventions were put to use, and brains were
+constantly exercised in devising new means to aid, or take the place of,
+manual labour, which was scarce. Surrounded, too, by vast forests, from
+which their houses, their churches and their schools must be
+constructed, these pioneers naturally turned their thoughts toward
+wood-working machinery. The attention to this art necessarily created
+interest in and developed other arts. Thus constant devotion to pursuits
+strenuously demanding labour-saving devices evolved a race of keen
+inventors and mechanics. So that when Watt had developed his wonderful
+application of steam to industrial purposes, America was ready to
+substitute steam for water-power in the running of saw-mills.
+
+Steam saw-mills commenced to buzz with the opening of the century.
+
+As to the relation of that humble machine, the saw-mill, to the progress
+of civilisation, it was once said: "The axe produces the log hut, but
+not until the saw-mill is introduced do framed dwellings and villages
+arise; it is civilisation's pioneer machine; the precursor of the
+carpenter, wheelwright and turner, the painter, the joiner, and legions
+of other professions. Progress is unknown where it is not. Its
+comparative absence in the Southern American continent was not the least
+cause of the trifling advancement made there during three centuries and
+a half. Surrounded by forests of the most valuable and variegated
+timber, with water-power in mountain streams, equally neglected, the
+masses of the people lived in shanties and mud hovels, not more
+commodious than those of the aborigines, nor more durable than the
+annual structures of birds. Wherever man has not fixed and comfortable
+homes, he is, as regards civilisation, stationary; improvement under
+such circumstances has never taken place, nor can it."
+
+Miller, in England, in 1777, had described in his patent a circular saw,
+and Hatton, in 1776, had vaguely described a planing machine; but the
+inception of the marvellous growth in wood-working machinery in the
+nineteenth century occurred in England during the last decade of the
+eighteenth. It was due to the splendid efforts of General Samuel
+Bentham, and of Bramah and Branch, both as to metal-working and
+wood-working machinery.
+
+General Bentham, a brother of the celebrated jurist, Jeremy Bentham, had
+his attention drawn to the slow, laborious, and crude methods of working
+in wood, while making a tour of Europe, and especially in Russia, and
+engaged in inspecting the art of ship-building in those countries, in
+behalf of the British Admiralty. On his return, 1791-1792, he converted
+his home into a shop for making wood-working machines. These included
+"Planing, moulding, rabbeting, grooving, mortising, and sawing, both in
+coarse and fine work, in curved, winding, and transverse directions, and
+shaping wood in complicated forms."
+
+Of the amount of bills presented to and paid for by the Admiralty for
+these machines, General Bentham received about �20,000.
+
+These machines were developed and in use just as the new century
+approached. Thus, with the exception of the saw-mill, it may be again
+said that prior to this century the means mankind had to aid them in
+their work in metals and in wood were confined to hand tools, and these
+were for the most part of a simple and crude description.
+
+The ground-work now being laid, the century advanced into a region of
+invention in tools and machinery for wood-working of every description,
+far beyond the wildest dreams of all former carpenters and joiners. Not
+only were the machines themselves invented, but they gave rise in turn
+to a host of inventions in metal-working for making them.
+
+In the same line of inventions there appeared in the first decade of the
+century one of the most ingenious of men, and a most fitting type of
+that great class of Yankee inventors who have carved their way to renown
+with all implements, from the jack-knife to the electrically-driven
+universal shaping machine.
+
+Thomas Blanchard, born in Massachusetts in 1788, while a boy, was
+accustomed to astonish his companions by the miniature wind-wheels and
+water-wheels that he whittled out with his knife. While attending the
+parties of young people who gathered on winter evenings at different
+homes in the country to pare apples, the idea of a paring machine
+occurred to him, and when only thirteen years of age, he invented and
+made the first apple-paring machine, with which more apples could be
+pared in a given time than any twelve of his girl acquaintances could
+pare with a knife.
+
+At eighteen, while working in a shop, driving the heads down on tacks,
+on an anvil, with a hammer, he invented the first tack-forming machine,
+which, when perfected by him, made five hundred tacks a minute, and
+which has never since been improved in principle. He improved the steam
+engine, and invented one of the first envelope machines. He made the
+first metal lathe for cutting out the butts of gun-barrels. But his
+greatest triumphs were in wood-working machinery.
+
+Challenged to make a machine that would make a gun stock, always before
+that time regarded an impossible task, its every part being so irregular
+in form, he secluded himself in his workshop for six months, and after
+constant labour and experiments he at the end of that time had produced
+a machine that more than astonished the entire world, and which worked a
+revolution in the making of all irregular forms from wood. This was in
+1819. This machine would not only make a perfect gun-stock, but shoe
+lasts, and ships' tackle-blocks, axe-handles, and a multitude of
+irregular-shaped blocks which before had always required the most expert
+hand operatives to produce. This machine became the subject of
+parliamentary inquiry on the part of England, and so great were the
+doubts concerning it, that successive commissions were appointed to
+examine and report upon it. Finally the English government ordered eight
+or ten of such machines for the making of gun-stocks for its army, and
+paid Blanchard about $40,000 for them. He was once jestingly asked at
+the navy department at Washington if he could turn a seventy-four? He at
+once replied, "Yes, if you will furnish me the block." Of course
+infringers appeared, but he maintained his rights and title as first and
+original inventor after the most searching trials in court.
+
+The generic idea of Blanchard's lathe for turning irregular forms
+consists in the use of a pattern of the device which is to be shaped
+from the rough material, placing such pattern in a lathe, alongside of
+the rough block, and having a guide wheel which has an arm having
+cutters, and which guide follows all the lines of the pattern, and which
+cutters, extending to the rough material, chip it away to the depth and
+in the direction imparted by the pattern lines to the guide, thus
+producing from the rough block a perfect representation of the pattern.
+
+In the midst of his studies in the construction of his inventions
+Blanchard's attention was drawn to the operations of a boring worm upon
+an old oak log. Closely examining and watching the same by the aid of a
+microscope, he gained valuable ideas from the work of his humble
+teacher, which he incorporated into his new cutting and boring machines.
+
+His series of machines in gun-making were designed to make and shape
+automatically every part of the gun, whether of wood or metal. His
+machines, and subsequent improvements by others, for boring, mortising
+and turning, display wonderful ingenuity. A modern mortising machine,
+for instance, is adapted to quickly and accurately cut a square or
+oblong hole to any desired depth, width, and length by cutting blades;
+to automatically reciprocate the cutters both vertically and
+horizontally in order to cut the mortise, both as to length and depth,
+at one time, and to automatically withdraw the cutters when they have
+finished cutting the mortise. They are provided with simple means for
+setting and feeding the cutters to do this work, and while giving the
+cutters a positive action, ample clearance is provided for the removal
+of the chips as fast as they are cut.
+
+From what such inventions will produce in the way of complicated and
+ornamental workmanship we may conclude that it is a law of invention
+that whatever can be made by hand may be made by a machine, and made
+better.
+
+_Carving Machines_ made their appearance early in the century. In 1800 a
+Mr. Watt of London produced one, on which he carved medallions and
+figures in ivory and ebony. Also subsequently, John Hawkins of the same
+city, and a Mr. Cheverton, invented machines for the same purpose.
+Another Englishman, Braithwaite, in 1840, invented a most attractive
+carving process in which, instead of cutting tools, he employed
+_burning_ as his agent. Heated casts of previously carved models were
+pressed into or on to wet wood, and the charcoal surfaces then brushed
+off with hard brushes.
+
+After Blanchard's turning-lathes and boring apparatus, appeared machines
+in which a series of cutters were employed, guided by a tracing lever
+attached to a carved model, and actuating the cutter to reproduce on
+material placed upon an adjusting table a copy of the model.
+
+Machines have been invented which consist of hard iron or steel rollers
+on the surface of which are cut beautiful patterns, and between which
+wood previously softened by steam is passed, and designs thus impressed
+thereon. A similar process of embossing, was devised in Paris and called
+Xyloplasty, by which steam-softened wood is compressed in carved moulds,
+which give it bas-relief impressions.
+
+But in the carving of wood by hand, a beautiful art, which has been
+revived within the past generation, there are touches of sentiment,
+taste and human toil, which, like the touches of the painter and the
+master of music, appeal to cultivated minds in a higher than mechanical
+sense. The mills of the modern gods, the inventors, grind with exceeding
+and exact fineness, but the work of a human hand upon a manufactured
+article still appeals to human sympathy.
+
+The bending of wood when heated by fire or steam had been known and
+practised to a limited extent, but Blanchard invented a _clamping
+machine_, to which improvements have been added, and by which ship
+timbers, furniture, ploughs, piano frames, carriage bows, stair and
+house banisters and balusters, wheel rims, staves, etc., etc., are bent
+to the desired forms, and without breaking. Bending to a certain extent
+does not weaken wood, but stretching the same has been found to impair
+and destroy its strength.
+
+The principal problems which the inventors of the century have solved in
+the class of wood-working have been the adaptation to rapid-working
+machinery of the saw and other blades, to sever; the plane to smooth,
+the auger, the bit and the gimlet to bore, the hammer to drive, and a
+combination of all or a part of these to shape and finish the completed
+article.
+
+It was a great step from the reciprocating hand saw, worked painfully by
+one or two men, to the band saw, invented by a London mechanic, William
+Newbury, in 1808. This was an endless steel belt serrated on one edge,
+mounted on pulleys, and driven continuously by the power of steam
+through the hardest and the heaviest work. Pliable, to conform to the
+faces of the wheels over which it is carried, it will bend with all the
+sinuosities of long timber, no time is lost in its operation, and no
+labour of human hands is necessary to guide it or the object on which it
+works.
+
+At the Vienna Exposition in 1873, the first mammoth saw of this
+description was exhibited. The saw itself was made by the celebrated
+firm of Perin & Co., of Paris, upon machinery the drawings of which were
+made by Mr. Van Pelt of New York, and constructed by Richards, Loudon
+and Kelly of Philadelphia. The saw was fifty-five feet long, and sawed
+planks from a pine log three feet thick, at the rate of sixty
+superficial feet per minute. The difficulty of securing a perfectly
+reliable weld in the endless steel band was overcome by M. Perin, who
+received at the Paris Exhibition in 1867 the Grand Cross of the Legion
+of Honour. Now gangs of such saws may be found in America and elsewhere,
+and circular saws have also been added. Saws that both cut, form, and
+_plane_ the boards at the same time are now known.
+
+_Boring tools_, both for hand and machinery, demanded improvement.
+Formerly augers and similar boring tools had merely a curved sharpened
+end and a concavity to hold the chips, and the whole tool had to be
+withdrawn to empty the chips. It was known as a _pod_ auger. In 1809,
+L'Hommedieu, a Frenchman, invented an auger with two pods and cutting
+lips, a central screw and a twisted shank. About the same time Lilley of
+Connecticut made a twisted auger, and these screw-form, twisted, cutting
+tools of various kinds, with their cutting lips, and by which the
+shavings or chips were withdrawn continuously from the hole as the
+cutting proceeded, became so improved in the United States that they
+were known as the American augers and bits. The planing machines of
+General Bentham were improved by Bramah, and he and Maudsley also
+greatly improved other wood-working machines and tools in
+England--1802-1810.
+
+We have before, in the chapter on metal-working, shown the importance of
+the _slide-rest_, _planer_ and _lathe_, _when combined_, and which also
+are extensively adapted to wood-working. In Bramah's machine, a vertical
+spindle carried at its lower extremity a horizontal wheel having
+twenty-eight cutter blades, followed by a plane also attached to a
+wheel. A board was by these means perfectly trimmed and smoothed from
+end to end, as it was carried against the cutters by suitable moving
+means. William Woodworth of New York, in 1828, patented a celebrated
+planing machine which became so popular and its use was regarded so
+necessary in the wood-working trades, that the patent was looked upon as
+an odious monopoly. It consisted of a combination of rollers armed with
+cutters, attached to a horizontal shaft revolving at a great speed, and
+of means for feeding the boards to the cutters. With Bentham's,
+Bramah's, Blanchard's, and Woodworth's ideas for a basis, those
+innumerable improvements have been made in machinery, by which wood is
+converted with almost lightning rapidity into all the forms in which we
+see it, whether ornamental or useful, in modern homes and other
+structures.
+
+Some machines are known as "Universal Wood Workers." In these a single
+machine is provided with various tools, and adapted to perform a great
+variety of work by shifting the position of the material and the tools.
+The following operations can be performed on such a machine:--Planing,
+bevelling, tapering, tenoning, tongueing and grooving (grooves straight,
+circular or angular), making of joints, twisting and a number of other
+operations.
+
+The later invention by Stow of Philadelphia of a _flexible_ shaft, made
+up of a series of coils of steel wire, given a leather covering, and to
+which can be attached augers, bits, or metal drills, the tool applied to
+its work from any direction, and its direction varied while at work, has
+excited great attention.
+
+_Shingles_ are as old in the art as the framework of buildings. Rome was
+roofed with shingles for centuries, made of oak or pine.
+
+Tiles, plain and fancy, and slates, have to a certain extent superseded
+wood shingling, but the wood will always be used where it can be found
+in plenty, as machines will now turn them out complete faster than they
+can be hauled away. A shingle is a thin piece of wood, thicker at one
+end than at the other, having parallel sides, about three times as long
+as it is wide, having generally smooth surfaces and edges. All these
+features are now given to the shingle by modern machines.
+
+A great log is rolled into a mill at one end and soon comes out at the
+other in bundles of shingles; the logs sawed into blocks, the blocks
+split or sawed again into shingle sizes, tapered, planed in the
+direction of the grain of the wood, the complete shingles collected and
+bound in bundles, each operation by a special machine, or by a series of
+mechanisms.
+
+_Veneering_, that art of covering cheap or ordinary wood with a thin
+covering of more ornamental and valuable wood, known from the days of
+the Egyptians, has been vastly extended by modern machinery. The
+practice, however, so emphatically denounced centuries ago by Pliny, as
+"the monstrous invention of paint and dyes applied to the woods or
+veneers, to imitate other woods," has yet its practitioners and
+admirers.
+
+T. M. Brunel, in 1805-1808, devised a set of circular saws run by a
+steam engine, which cut sheets of rosewood and mahogany, one-fourteenth
+of an inch thick, with great speed and accuracy. Since that day the
+veneer planing machine, for delicately smoothing the sheets, the
+straightening machine, for straightening scrolls that have been cut from
+logs, the polishing machines for giving the sheets their bright and
+glossy appearance, the pressing machine for applying them to the
+surfaces to which they are to be attached, the hammering machine for
+forcing out superfluous glue from between a veneer and the piece to
+which it is applied; all of these and numerous modifications of the same
+have been invented, and resulted in placing in the homes everywhere many
+beautiful ornamental articles of furniture, which before the very rich
+only could afford to have.
+
+Special forms of machinery for making various articles of wood are about
+as numerous as the articles themselves.
+
+We appear before the house and know before entering that its doors and
+sills, clapboards and window frames, its sashes and blinds, its
+cornices, its embrasures and pillars, and shingles, each or all have had
+a special machine invented for its manufacture. We enter the house and
+find it is so with objects within--the flooring may be adorned with the
+beautiful art of marquetry and parquetry, wood mosaic work, the
+wainscoting and the frescoes and ceilings, the stairs and staircases,
+its carved and ornamental supporting frames and balusters, the charming
+mantel frames around the hospitable fireplaces, and every article of
+furniture we see in which wood is a part. So, too, it is with every
+useful wooden implement and article within and without the house,--the
+trays, the buckets, the barrels, the tubs, the clothes-pins, the
+broom-handles, the mops, the ironing and bread boards; and outside the
+house, the fences, railings and posts--many of these objects entirely
+unknown to the poor of former generations, uncommon with the rich, and
+the machinery for making them unknown to all.
+
+It was a noble array of woodwork and machinery with which the nations
+surprised and greeted the world, at each of its notable international
+Expositions during the century. Each occasion surpassed its predecessor
+in the beauty of construction of the machines displayed and efficiency
+of their work. The names of the members of this array were hard and
+uncouth, such as the axe, the adze, and the bit, the auger, bark-cutting
+and grinding machines, blind-slat boring, and tenoning, dovetail,
+mortising, matching and planing, wood splitting, turning, wheeling and
+planing, wood-bending, rim-boring dowelling, felly-jointing, etc., etc.
+These names and the clamour of the machines were painful to the ear, but
+to the thoughtful, they were converted into sweeter music, when
+reflection brought to mind the hard toil of human hands they had saved,
+the before unknown comforts and blessings of civilisation they had
+brought and were bringing to the human race, and the enduring forms of
+beauty they had produced.
+
+To the invention of wood-working machinery we are also indebted for the
+awakening of interest in the qualities of wood for a vast number of
+artistic purposes. It was a revelation, at the great Philadelphia
+Exposition of 1876, to behold the specimens of different woods from all
+the forests of the earth, selected and assembled to display their
+wonderful grain and other qualities, and showing how well nature was
+storing up for us in its silent shades those growths which were waiting
+the genius of invention to convert into forms of use and beauty for
+every home.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+
+So far as machinery is concerned for converting wood into furniture, the
+same has been anticipated in the previous chapter, but much remains to
+be said about the articles of furniture themselves.
+
+Although from ancient days the most ancient countries provided by hand
+elaborate and beautiful articles of furniture of many descriptions, yet
+it has been left for modern advances in machinery and kindred arts to
+yield that universal supply of convenient and ornamental furniture which
+now prevails.
+
+The Egyptians used chairs and tables of a more modern form than the
+Greeks or Romans, who lolled about on couches even at their meals; but
+the Egyptians did not have the convenient section tables built in
+sliding sections, which permit the table to be enlarged to accommodate
+an increased number of guests. And now recently this modern form of
+table has been improved, by arranging the sections and leaves so that
+when the sections are slid out the leaves are automatically raised and
+placed in position, which is done either by lazy-tongs mechanism, or by
+a series of parallel links: Tables constructed with folding detachable
+and adjustable legs, tables constructed for special purposes as sewing
+machines, and typewriting machine tables, by which the machine head may
+be dropped beneath the table top when not in use; tables combined with
+desks wherein the table part may be slid into the desk part when not in
+use and the sliding cover pulled down to cover and lock from sight both
+the table and desk; surgical tables, adapted to be raised or lowered at
+either end or at either side and to be extended; "knock down" tables,
+adapted to be taken all apart for shipment or storage; tables combined
+with chairs to be folded down by the side of the chair when not in use;
+and many other useful forms have been added to the list.
+
+Much ingenuity has been displayed in the construction of desks, to save
+and economise space. Mention has been made of a combined folding desk
+and extensible table. Another form is an arrangement of desk drawers,
+whereby when one drawer is locked or unlocked all the rest are locked or
+unlocked automatically. Whatever shape or function anyone desires in a
+desk may be met, except, perhaps, the performance of the actual work of
+the occupant.
+
+In the matter of _beds_, the principal developments have been due to the
+advancement of wood-working machinery, and the manufacture of iron,
+steel, and brass. The old-fashioned ponderous bedsteads, put together by
+heavy screws, have given way to those mortised and tenoned, joined and
+matched, and by which they can easily be put up and taken down; and to
+iron and brass bedsteads, which are both ornamental and more healthful.
+No bed may be without an inexpensive steel spring frame or mattress for
+the support of the bedding. Folding beds made to economise space, and
+when folded upright become an ornamental bureau; and invalid bedsteads,
+designed for shifting the position of the invalid, are among the many
+modern improvements.
+
+_Kitchen Utensils._--A vast amount of drudgery in the kitchen has been
+relieved by the convenient inventions in labor-saving appliances: coffee
+and spice mills, can-openers, stationary washtubs, stopper extractors,
+superseding the old style of hand-corkscrews where large numbers of
+bottles are to be uncorked; refrigerators and provision safes, attaching
+and lifting devices and convenient culinary dishes and utensils of great
+variety.
+
+_Curtains_, _shades_ and _screens_ have been wonderfully improved and
+their use made widely possible by modern inventions and new adaptation
+of old methods. Wood, cotton, silk, paper, combined or uncombined with
+other materials, in many novel ways unknown to our ancestors, have
+rendered these articles available in thousands of homes where their use
+was unknown and impossible a century ago. Among the most convenient
+attachments to shades is the spring roller, invented by Hartshorn of
+America, in 1864, whereby the shade is automatically rolled upon its
+stick to raise or lower it.
+
+Window screens for the purpose of excluding flies, mosquitoes, and other
+insects, while freely admitting the air, are now made extensible and
+adjustable in different ways to fit different sizes of windows. Curtains
+and shades are provided with neat and most attractive supporting rods,
+to which they are attached by brass or wooden rings, and provided with
+easily manipulated devices to raise and securely hold them in any
+desired position.
+
+The art of steaming wood and bending it, by iron pattern forms
+adjustable to the forms desired, as particularly devised in principle by
+Blanchard in America in 1828-1840, referred to in Wood-working, has
+produced great changes in the art of furniture making, especially in
+chairs. A particularly interesting illustration of the results of this
+art occurred in Austria. About forty years ago the manufacture in
+Germany and Austria of furniture by machinery, especially of bent
+wood-ware, became well established there; and by the time of the Vienna
+Exposition in 1873, factories on a most extensive scale for the
+construction of bed furniture were in operation among the vast mountain
+beech forests of Moravia and Hungary. The greatest of these works were
+located in Great Urgroez, Hungary, and Bisritz, Moravia, with twenty or
+more auxiliary establishments. Between five and six thousand work people
+were employed, the greater part of whom were females, and it was
+necessary to use steam and water motors, to the extent of many hundred
+horse power.
+
+The forests were felled, and the tree-tops removed and made into
+charcoal for use in the glass works of Bohemia. The trunks were hauled
+to the mills and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws.
+The planks in turn were cut with circular saws into square pieces for
+turning, and then the pieces turned and cut on lathes, to give them the
+size required and the rounded shape; the pieces then steamed while in
+their green state for twenty-four hours in suitable boilers, then taken
+out and bent to the desired shape on a cast-iron frame by hand, then
+subjected, with the desired pattern, to the pattern-turning table, and
+cut; then kept locked in the pattern's iron embrace until the pieces
+were dried and permanently set in shape, then clamped to a bench, filed,
+rasped, stained, and French polished by the deft hands of the women;
+then assembled in proper position in frames of the form of the chair or
+other article to be made, their contact surface sawed to fit at the
+joints, and then finally the parts glued together and further secured by
+the addition of a few screws or balls.
+
+Chairs, lounges and lighter furniture were thus made from bent pieces of
+wood with very few joints, having a neat and attractive appearance, and
+possessing great strength. The art has spread to other forests and other
+countries, and the turned, bent, highly polished and beautiful furniture
+of this generation would have been but a dream of beauty to the
+householder of a century ago.
+
+Children's chairs are made so that the seat may be raised or lowered, or
+the chair converted into a perambulator. Dentist's chairs have been
+developed until it is only necessary for the operator to turn a valve
+governing a fluid, generally oil, under pressure to raise or lower the
+chair and the patient. In the more agreeable situation at the theatre or
+concert one may hang his hat on the bottom of the chair, upturned to
+afford access to it through a crowded row, and turning down the chair,
+sit with pleasure, as the curtain is rolled up by compressed air, or
+electricity, at the touch of a button.
+
+To the unthinking and unobserving, the subject of _bottle stoppers_ is
+not entrancing, but those acquainted with the art know with what long,
+continuous, earnest efforts, thousands of inventors have sought for the
+best and cheapest bottle stopper to take the place of corks--the
+enormous demand for which was exhausting the supply and rendering their
+price almost prohibitive.
+
+One of the most successful types is a stopper of rubber combined with a
+metal disk, and hung by a wire on the neck of the bottle, so that the
+stopper can be used over and over again; another form composed of glass,
+or porcelain, and cork; another is a thin disk of cork placed in a thin
+metal cap which is crimped over a shoulder on the neck of the bottle,
+and still another is a thin disk of pasteboard adapted for milk bottles
+and pressed tightly within a rim on the inside of the neck of the
+bottle.
+
+In this connection should be mentioned that self-sealing fruit jar,
+known from its inventor as "Mason's fruit jar," which came into such
+universal use--that combination of screw cap, screw-threaded jar-neck
+and the rubber ring, or gasket, on which the cap was screwed so tightly
+as to seal the jar hermetically.
+
+In lamplighting, what a wonderful change from the old oil lamps of
+former ages! The modern lamp may be said to be an improved means of
+grace, as it will hold out much longer, and shed a far more attractive
+light for the sinner, whose return, by its genial light, is, even to the
+end, so greatly desired.
+
+The discovery of petroleum and its introduction as a light produced a
+revolution in the construction of lamps. Wicks were not discarded, but
+changed in shape from round to flat, and owing to the coarseness and
+disagreeable odour of coal oil, especially in its early unrefined days,
+devices first had for their object the easy feeding of the wick, and
+perfect combustion. To this end the burner portion through which the
+wick passed was perforated at its base to create a proper draft, and
+later the cap over the base was also perforated. But with refined oil
+the disagreeable odour continued. It was found that this was mainly due
+to the fact that both in lamps and stoves the oil would ooze out of the
+wick on to the adjacent parts of the lamps or stove, and when the wick
+was lit the heat would burn or heat the oil and thus produce the odour.
+Inventors therefore contrived to separate the oil reservoir and wick
+part when the lamp or stove were not in use; and finally, in stoves, to
+dispense with the wick altogether. As wickless oil stoves are now in
+successful use the wickless lamp may be expected to follow.
+
+The lamp, however, that throws all others into the shade is that
+odourless, heatless, magic, mellow, tempered light of electricity, that
+springs out from the little filament, in its hermetically sealed glass
+cage, and shines with unsurpassed loveliness on all those fortunate
+enough to possess it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+LEATHER.
+
+
+It is interesting to speculate how prehistoric man came to use the skin
+of the beasts of the field for warmth and shelter. Originally no doubt,
+and for untold centuries, the use was confined to the hairy, undressed,
+fresh, or dried skins, known as pelts. Then came the use of better
+tools. The garments have perished, but the tools of stone and of bronze
+survived, which, when compared with those employed among the earliest
+historic tribes of men, were found to be adapted to cut and strip the
+hairy covering from the bodies of animals, and clean, pound, scrape and
+otherwise adapt them to use.
+
+And ever since the story of man began to be preserved in lasting records
+from farthest Oriental to the northernmost limits of Europe and America,
+memorials of the early implements of labour in the preparation of hides
+for human wear have been found. The aborigines knew how to sharpen bones
+of the animals they killed to scrape, clean, soften or roughen their
+skins. They knew how to sweat, dry, and smoke the skins, and this crude
+seasoning process was the forerunner of modern tanning. But leather as
+we know it now, that soft, flexible, insoluble combination of the
+gelatine and fibrine of the skin with tannic acid, producing a durable
+and imputrescible article, that will withstand decay from the joint
+attack of moisture, warmth and air, was unknown to the earlier races of
+men, for its production was due to thorough tanning, and thorough
+tanning was a later art.
+
+When men were skin-dressed animals they knew little or nothing of
+tanning. Tannic acid is found in nearly every plant that grows, and its
+combination with the fresh skins spread or thrown thereon, may have
+given rise to the observation of the beneficial result and subsequent
+practice. But whether discovered by chance, accident or experience, or
+invented from necessity, the art of tanning should have rendered the
+name of the discoverer immortal. The earliest records, however, describe
+the art, but not the inventor.
+
+From the time the Hebrews covered the altars of their tabernacles with
+rams' skins dyed red, as recorded in Exodus; when they and the Egyptians
+worked their leather, currying and stretching it with their knives,
+awls, stones, and other implements, making leather water buckets,
+resembling very much those now made by machinery, covering their harps
+and shields with leather, ornamental and embossed; from the days of the
+early Africans, famous for their yellow, red and black morocco; from the
+days of the old national dress of the Persians with their leather
+trousers, aprons, helmets, belts and shirts; from the time that the
+ancient Scythians utilised the skins of their enemies, and Herodotus
+described the beauty and other good qualities of the human hide; from
+the early days of that peculiar fine and agreeable leather of the
+Russians, fragrant with the oil of the birch; from the days of the white
+leather of the Hungarians, the olive-tanned leather of the Saracens;
+from the time of the celebrated Cordovan leather of the Spaniards; from
+the ancient cold periods of the Esquimaux and the Scandinavians, who,
+clad in the warm skins of the Arctic bears, stretched tough-tanned
+sealskin over the frame work of their boats; from the time of the
+introduction of the art of the leather worker to the naked Briton, down
+to almost the nineteenth century, substantially the same hand tools,
+hard hand labour, and the old elbow lubricant were known and practised.
+
+Hand tools have improved, of course, as other arts in wood and iron
+making have developed, but the operations are about the same. There were
+and must be fleshing knives to scrape from off the hide the adherent
+flesh and lime,--for this the hide is placed over the convex edge of an
+inclined beam and the work is called beaming; the curriers' knife for
+removing the hair; skiving, or the cutting off the rough edges and
+fleshy parts on the border of the hide; shaving and flattening; the
+cutting away of the inequalities left after skiving; _stoning_, the
+rubbing of the leather by a scouring stone to render it smooth;
+_slicking_, to remove the water and grease; or to smooth and polish, by
+a rectangular sharpened stone, steel or glass tool; _whitening_, to
+shave off thin strips of the flesh, leaving the leather thinner, whiter
+and more pliable; _stuffing_, to soften the scraped and pounded hides
+and make them porous; _graining_, the giving to the hair or grain side a
+granular appearance by rubbing with a grooved or roughened piece of
+wood; _bruising_ or boarding to make the leather supple and pliable by
+bringing the two flesh sides together and rubbing with a graining board;
+_scouring_, by aid of a stream of water to whiten the leather by rubbing
+with a slicking stone or steel.
+
+The inventions of the century consist in labour-saving machinery for
+these purposes, new tanning and dressing processes, and innumerable
+machines for making special articles of leather.
+
+As before stated, the epoch of modern machinery commenced with the
+practical application of water power to other than grinding mills, and
+of steam in place of water, contemporaneously with the invention of
+spinning and weaving machinery in the last half of the eighteenth
+century. These got fairly to work at the beginning of the century, and
+the uses of machinery spread to the treatment of leather. John Bull was
+the appropriate name of the man who first patented a scraping machine in
+England, about 1780, and Joseph Weeks the next one, some years later.
+
+One of the earliest machines of the century was the hide mill, which,
+after the hand tools had scraped and stoned, shaved and hardened the
+hides, was used to rub and dub them, and soften and swell them for
+tanning. Pegged rollers were the earliest form for this purpose, and
+later corrugated rollers and power-worked hammers were employed.
+Hundreds of hides could be softened daily by these means.
+
+Then came ingenious machines to take the place of the previous
+operations of the hand tools,--the fleshing machine, in one form of
+which the hides are placed on a curved bed, and the fleshy parts scraped
+off or removed by revolving glass blades, or by curved teeth of steel
+and wood in a roller under which a table is given a to-and-fro movement;
+tanning apparatus of a great variety, by which hides, after they are
+thoroughly washed and softened, and the pores opened by swelling, are
+subjected to movements in the tanning liquor vats, such as rocking or
+oscillating, rotary, or vertical; or treated by an air exhaust, known as
+the vacuum process; in all of which the object is to thoroughly
+impregnate in the shortest time all the interstices and pores of the
+skin with the tannic acid, by which the fibrous and gelatinous matter is
+made to combine to form leather, and by which process, also, the hide is
+greatly increased in weight.
+
+Reel machines are then employed to transfer the hides from one vat to
+another, thus subjecting them to liquors of increasing strength. Soaking
+in vats formerly occupied twelve or eighteen months, but under the new
+methods the time has been greatly reduced. And now since 1880, the
+chemists are pushing aside the vegetable processes, and substituting
+mineral processes, by which tanning is still further shortened and
+cheapened. The new processes depend chiefly on the use of chromium
+compounds.
+
+Then came scouring machines, in which a rapidly revolving stiff brush is
+used to scour the grain or hair side, removing the superfluous colouring
+matter, called the bloom, and softening and cleansing the hide; the
+slicking or polishing machines to clean, stretch and smooth the leather
+by glass, stone, or copper blades on a rapidly-moving belt carried over
+pulleys; whitening, buffing, skiving, fleshing and shaving machines, all
+for cutting off certain portions and inequalities of the leather, and
+reducing its thickness.
+
+In one form of this class of machines an oscillating pendulum lever is
+employed, carrying at its end a revolving cylinder having thirty or more
+spiral blades. The pendulum swings to and fro at the rate of ninety
+movements a minute, while the cylinder rolls over the leather at the
+rate of 2780 revolutions per minute. Scarfing, skiving, chamfering,
+bevelling, feather-edging, appear to be synonymous terms for a variety
+of machines for cutting the edges of leather obliquely, for the purpose
+chiefly of making lap seams, scarf-joints, and reducing the thickness
+and stiffness of leather at those and certain other points.
+
+Then there are leather-splitting machines, consisting of one or more
+rollers and a pressure bar, which draw and press the leather against a
+horizontally arranged and adjustable knife, which nicely splits the
+leather in two parts, and thus doubles the quantity. This thin split
+leather is much used in making a cheap quality of boots and shoes and
+other articles.
+
+There are also corrugating, creasing, fluting, pebbling, piercing and
+punching machines; machines for grinding the bark and also for grinding
+the leather; machines for gluing sections of leather together, and
+machines for sewing them; machines for rounding flat strips of leather,
+for the making of whips and tubes; machines for scalloping the edges;
+and a very ingenious machine for assorting leather strips or strings
+according to their size or thickness.
+
+The most important improvements of the century in leather working relate
+to the manufacture of boots and shoes. It could well be said of boots
+and shoes, especially those made for the great mass of humanity, before
+the modern improvements in means and processes had been invented: "Their
+feet through faithless leather met the dirt."
+
+It is true that in the eighteenth century, both in Europe and America,
+the art of leather and boot and shoe making had so far advanced that
+good durable foot wear was produced by long and tedious processes of
+tanning, and by careful making up of the leather into boots and shoes by
+hand; the knife, the awl, the waxed thread, the nails and hammer and
+other hand tools of the character above referred to being employed. But
+the process was a tedious and costly one and the articles produced were
+beyond the limits of the poor man's purse. Hence the wooden shoes, and
+those made of coarse hide and dressed and undressed skins, and of coarse
+cloth, mixed or unmixed with leather.
+
+In 1809, David Mead Randolph of England patented machinery for riveting
+soles and heels to the uppers instead of sewing them together.
+
+The celebrated civil engineer, Isambard M. Brunel, shortly thereafter
+added several machines of his own invention to Randolph's method, and he
+established a large manufactory for the making chiefly of army shoes.
+The various separate processes performed by his machines involved the
+cutting out of the leather, hardening it by rolling, securing the welt
+on to the inner sole by small nails, and studding the outer sole with
+larger nails. Divisions of men were employed to work each separate step,
+and the shoes were passed from one process to another until complete.
+
+Large quantities of shoes were made at reduced prices, but complaints
+were made as to the nails penetrating into the shoe and hurting the
+feet. The demand for army shoes fell off, and the system was abandoned;
+but it had incited invention in the direction of machine-made shoes and
+the day of exclusive hand labour was doomed.
+
+About 1818 Joseph Walker of Hopkinston, Massachusetts invented the
+wooden peg. Making and applying pegs by hand was too slow work, and
+machines were at once contrived for making them. As one invention
+necessitates and begets others, so special forms of machines for sawing
+and working up wood into pegs were devised.
+
+Such machinery was for first sawing the selected log of wood into slices
+across the grain a little thicker than the length of a peg and cutting
+out knots in the wood; then planing the head of the block smooth;
+grooving the block with a V-shaped cutting tool; splitting the pegs
+apart, and then bleaching, drying, polishing and winnowing them.
+
+It took forty or fifty years to perfect these and kindred machines, but
+at the end of that time there was a factory at Burlington, Vermont,
+which from four cords of wood, made every day four hundred bushels of
+shoe pegs.
+
+About 1858 B. F. Sturtevant of Massachusetts made a great improvement in
+this line. He was a very poor man, getting a living by pegging on the
+soles of a few pair of shoes each day. He devised a pegging machine, and
+out of his scanty earnings and at odd hours, with much pain and labour,
+and by borrowing money, he finally completed it. The machine made what
+was called "peg wood," a long ribbon strip of seasoned wood, sharpened
+on one edge and designed to be fed into the machine for pegging shoes.
+The shoes were punctured by awls driven by machinery, and then as the
+peg strip was carried to it the machine severed the strip into
+chisel-edged pegs, and peg-driving mechanism drove them into the holes.
+Nine hundred pegs a minute were driven. It soon almost supplanted all
+other peg-driving machines, and after the machines were quite generally
+introduced, there were made in one year alone in New England fifty-five
+million pairs of boots and shoes pegged by the Sturtevant machines.
+
+Other forms of pegs followed, such as the metal screw pegs, and machines
+to cut them off from a continuous spiral wire from which they were made.
+Lasts on which the shoes were made had been manufactured by the hundred
+thousand on the wood-turning lathes invented by Blanchard, described in
+the chapter on Wood-Working.
+
+In 1858 also, about the same time the Sturtevant pegging machine was
+introduced, the shoe-sewing machine was developed. The McKay Shoe-Sewing
+Machine Co. of Massachusetts after an expenditure of $130,000, and three
+years' time in experiments, were enabled to put their machines in
+practical operation. The pegging machines and sewing machines worked a
+revolution in shoemaking.
+
+A revolution in the art of shoemaking thus started was followed up by
+wondrous machines invented to meet every part of the manufacture.
+Lasting machines for drawing and fitting the leather over lasts, in
+which the outer edges of the leather are drawn over the bottom of the
+last and tacked thereto by the hands and fingers of the machine instead
+of those of the human hand, were invented.
+
+_Indenting machines_:--The welt is known as that strip of leather around
+the shoe between the upper and the sole, and machines were invented for
+cutting and placing this, indenting it for the purpose of rendering it
+flexible and separating the stitches, all a work until recently entirely
+done by hand. Machines for twining the seams in the uppers, and forming
+the scallops; machines especially adapted to the making of the heel, as
+heel trimming and compressing, rounding and polishing, and for nailing
+the finished heel to the boot or shoe; machines for treating the sole in
+every way, rolling it, in place of the good old way of pounding it on a
+lap stone; trimming, rounding, smoothing, and polishing it; machines for
+cutting out gores; machines for marking the uppers so that at one
+operation every shoe will be stamped by its size, number, name of
+manufacture, number of case, and any other convenient symbols; machines
+for setting the buttons and eyelets; all these are simply members in the
+long line of inventions in this art.
+
+The old style of boot has given way to the modern shoe and gaiter, but
+for the benefit of those who still wear them, special machines for
+shaping the leg, called boot trees, have been contrived.
+
+So far had the art advanced that twenty years ago one workingman with
+much of this improved machinery combined in one machine called the
+"bootmaker," could make three hundred pairs of boots or shoes a day.
+Upward of three thousand such machines were then at work throughout the
+world; and one hundred and fifty million pairs of boots were then being
+made annually thereon. Now the number of machines and pairs of boots and
+shoes has been quadrupled.
+
+And the world is having its feet clothed far more extensively, better
+and at less cost than was ever possible by the hand system. The number
+of workers in the art, both men and women, has vastly increased instead
+of being diminished, while their wages have greatly advanced over the
+old rates.
+
+As an illustration of how rapidly modern enterprise and invention
+proceeds in Yankeeland, it has been related that some years ago in
+Massachusetts, after many of these shoe-making machines had got into
+use, a factory which was turning out 2400 pairs of shoes every day was
+completely destroyed by fire on a Wednesday night. On Thursday the
+manufacturer hired a neighbouring building and set carpenters at work
+fitting it up. On Friday he ordered a new and complete outfit of
+machinery from Boston; on Saturday the machinery arrived and the men set
+it up; on Monday work was started, and on Tuesday the manufacturer was
+filling his orders to the full number of 2400 pairs a day.
+
+There are very many people in the world who still prefer the hand-made
+shoe, and there is nothing to prevent the world generally from going
+back to that system if they choose; but St. Crispin's gentle art has
+blossomed into a vaster field of blessings for mankind under the
+fruitful impetus of invention than if left to vegetate under the simple
+processes of primitive man.
+
+Horses, no less than man, have shared in the improvement in leather
+manufacture. The harnesses of the farmer's and labouring man's horses a
+century ago, when they were fortunate enough to own horses, were of the
+crudest description. Ropes, cords, coarse bands of leather were the
+common provisions. Now the strength and cheapness of harnesses enable
+the poor man to equip his horse with a working suit impossible to have
+been produced a hundred years ago.
+
+To the beautiful effects produced by the use of modern embossing
+machines on paper and wood have been added many charming patterns in
+_embossed_ leather. Books and leather cases, saddlery and household
+ornamentation of various descriptions have been either moulded into
+forms of beauty, or stamped or rolled by cameo and intaglio designs cut
+into the surface of fast-moving cylinders.
+
+The leather manufactures have become so vastly important and valuable in
+some countries, especially in the United States--second, almost to
+agricultural products--that it would be very interesting to extend the
+description to many processes and machines, and to facts displaying the
+enormous traffic in leather, now necessarily omitted for want of space.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+MINERALS--WELLS.
+
+    Dost thou hear the hammer of Thor,
+    Wielded in his gloves of iron?
+
+
+As with leather, so with stone, the hand tools and hard labour have not
+changed in principle since the ancient days. The hammer for breaking,
+the lever for lifting, the saw for cutting, rubbing-stones and irons for
+smoothing and polishing, sand and water for the same purpose, the mallet
+and chisel, and other implements for ornamenting, the square, the level,
+and the plumb for their respective purposes, all are as old as the art
+of building.
+
+And as for buildings and sculpture of stone and marble made by hand
+tools, we have yet to excel the pyramids, the Parthenon of Athens, which
+"Earth proudly wears as the best gem upon her zone," the palaces,
+coliseums, and aqueducts of Rome, the grand and polished tombs of India,
+the exquisite halls of the Alhambra, and the Gothic cathedrals.
+
+But the time came when human blood and toil became too dear to be the
+possession solely of the rulers and the wealthy, and to be used alone to
+perpetuate and commemorate riches, power and glory.
+
+Close on the expansion of men's minds came the expansion of steam and
+the development of modern inventions. The first application of the steam
+engine in fields of human labour was the drawing of water from the coal
+mines of England; then in drawing the coal itself.
+
+It was only a step for the steam engine into a new field of labour when
+General Bentham introduced his system of wood-sawing machinery in 1800;
+and from sawing wood to sawing stone was only one more step. We find
+that taken in 1803 in Pennsylvania, when Oliver Evans of Philadelphia
+drove with a high-pressure steam engine, "twelve saws in heavy frames,
+sawing at the rate of one hundred feet of marble in twelve hours." How
+long would it have taken hand sawyers of marble at ancient Paros and
+Naxos to have done the same?
+
+_Stone-cutting_ machines of other forms than sawing then followed.
+
+It was desired to divide large blocks generally at the quarries to
+facilitate transportation. Machines for this purpose are called
+stone-channelling machines. They consist of a gang of chisels bound
+together and set on a framework which travels on a track adjacent to the
+stone to be cut, and so arranged that the cutters may be set to the
+stone at desired angles, moved automatically forward and back in the
+grooves they are cutting, be fed in or out, raised or lowered, detached,
+and otherwise manipulated in the operation.
+
+Other stone-cutting machines had for their objects the cutting and
+moulding the edges of tables, mantels and slabs; and the cutting of
+circular and other curved work. In the later style of machine the cutter
+fixed on the end of a spindle is guided in the desired directions on the
+surface of the stone by a pointer, which, attached to the cutter
+spindle, moves in the grooves of a pattern also connected to the
+rotating support carrying the cutter.
+
+Other forms of most ingenious stone-dressing and carving machines have
+been devised for cutting mouldings, and ornamental figures and devices,
+in accordance with a model or pattern fixed to the under side of the
+table which carries the stone or marble to be dressed; and in which, by
+means of a guide moving in the pattern, the diamond cutter or cutters,
+carried in a circular frame above the work and adjusted to its surface,
+are moved in the varying directions determined by the pattern. A stream
+of water is directed on the stone to clear it of the dust during the
+operations. The carving of stone by machinery is now a sister branch of
+wood carving. Monuments, ornamentation, and intricate forms of figures
+and characters are wrought with great accuracy by cutting and dressing
+tools guided by the patterns, or directed by the hand of the operator.
+
+For the dressing of the faces of grindstones, special forms of cutting
+machines have been devised.
+
+It was a slow and tedious task to drill holes through stone by hand
+tools; and it was indeed a revolution in this branch of the art when
+steam engines were employed to rotate a rod armed at its end with
+diamond or other cutters against the hardest stone. This mode of
+drilling also effected a revolution in the art of blasting. Then,
+neither height, nor depth, nor thickness of the stone could prevent the
+progress of the drill rod. Tunnels through mountain walls, and wells
+through solid quartz are cut to the depth of thousands of feet.
+
+One instance is related of the wonderful efficiency on a smaller scale
+of such a machine: The immense columns of the State Capitol at Columbus,
+Ohio, were considered too heavy for the foundation on which they rested.
+The American Diamond Rock Boring Company of Providence, Rhode Island,
+bored out a twenty-four inch core from each of the great pillars, and
+thus relieved the danger.
+
+In the most economical and successful stone drills _compressed air_ is
+employed as the motive power to drive the drills, which may be used
+singly or in gangs, and which may be adjusted against the rock or quarry
+in any direction. When in position and ready for work a few moments will
+suffice to bore the holes, apply the explosive and blast the ledge. The
+cleaning away of submarine ledges in harbours, such as the great work at
+Hell Gate in the harbour of New York, has thus been effected.
+
+_Crushing_:--Among the most useful inventions relating to stone working
+are machines for crushing stones and ores, and assorting them. The old
+way of hammering by hand was first succeeded by powerful stamp hammers
+worked by steam. Both methods of course are still followed, but they
+demand too great an expenditure of force and time.
+
+About a third of a century ago, Eli Whitney Blake of New Haven,
+Connecticut, was a pioneer inventor of a new and most successful type of
+stone breaking machine, which ever since has been known as the "Blake
+Crusher." This crusher consists of two ponderous upright jaws, one fixed
+and the other movable, between which the stones or ores to be crushed
+are fed. Each of the jaws is lined with the hardest kind of chilled
+steel. The movable jaw is inclined from its lower end from the fixed jaw
+and at its upper end is pivoted to swing on a heavy round iron bar. The
+movable jaw is forced toward the fixed jaw by two opposite toggle levers
+set, in one form of the crusher, at their inner ends in steel bearings
+of a vertical vibrating, rocking lever, one of the toggles bearing at
+its outer end against the movable jaw and the outer toggle against a
+solid frame-work. The rocking lever is operated through a crank by a
+steam engine, and as it is vibrated, the toggle joint forces the lever
+end of the movable jaw towards the fixed jaw with immense force,
+breaking the hardest stone like an eggshell.
+
+The setting of the movable jaw at an incline enables the large stone to
+be first cracked, the movable jaw then opens, and as the stone falls
+lower between the more contracted jaws, it is broken finer, until it is
+finally crushed or pulverized and falls through at the bottom. The
+movable jaw is adjustable and can be set to crush stones to a certain
+size.
+
+As the rock drill made a revolution in blasting and tunnelling, so the
+Blake crusher revolutionised the art of road making. "Road metal," as
+the supply of broken stones for roads is now called, is the fruit of the
+crusher. Hundreds of tons of stone per day can be crushed to just the
+size desired, and the machine may be moved from place to place where
+most convenient to use.
+
+Other crushers have been invented, formed on the principle of abrasion.
+The stones, or ore, fall between two great revolving disks, having
+corrugated steel faces, which are set the desired distance apart, and
+between which the stones are crushed by the rubbing action. In this
+style of machine the principle of a gradual breaking from a coarse to a
+finer grade, is maintained by setting the disks farther apart at the
+centre where the stone enters, and nearer together at their peripheries
+where the broken stone is discharged. Large smooth or corrugated
+rollers, conical disks, concentric rollers armed with teeth of varying
+sizes, and yet so arranged as to preserve the feature of the narrowing
+throat at the bottom or place of discharge, have also been devised and
+extensively used.
+
+A long line of inventions has appeared especially adapted to break up
+and separate coal into different sizes. To view the various monstrous
+heaps of assorted coals at the mouth of a coal mine creates an
+impression that some great witch had imposed on a poor victim the
+gigantic and seemingly impossible task of breaking and assorting a vast
+heap of coal into these separate piles within a certain time--a task
+which also seems to have been miraculously and successfully performed
+within such an exceedingly short time as to either satisfy or confuse
+the presiding evil genius.
+
+Modern civilisation has been developed mostly from steam and coal, and
+they have been to each other as strong brothers, growing more and more
+mutually dependent to meet the demands made upon them.
+
+The mining of coal, and its subsequent treatment for burning, before the
+invention of the steam engine, were long, painful, and laborious tasks,
+and the steam engine could never have had its modern wants supplied if
+its power had not been used to supplement, with a hundredfold increased
+effect, the labour of human hands.
+
+It being impracticable to carry steam or the steam engine to the bottom
+of the mine for work there, compressed air is there employed, which is
+compressed by a steam engine up at the mouth. By this compressed air
+operated in a cylinder to drive a piston, and a connecting rod and a
+pick, a massive steel pick attached to the rod may be driven in any
+direction against the wall of coal at the rate of from ninety to one
+hundred and twenty blows per minute; and at the same time the discharged
+compressed, cold, pure, fresh air flows into and through the mine,
+affording ventilation when and where most needed.
+
+In addition to these great drills, more recent inventors have brought
+out small machines for single operators, worked by the electric motor.
+
+After the coal is lifted out, broken and assorted, it needs to be washed
+free of the adhering dust and dirt; and for this purpose machines are
+provided, as well as for screening, loading and weighing. The operations
+of breaking, assorting and washing are often combined in one machine,
+while an intermediate hand process for separating the pieces of slate
+from the coal may be employed; but additional automatic means for
+separating the coal and slate are provided, consisting in forcing with
+great power water through the coal as it falls into a chamber, which
+carries the lighter slate to the top of the chamber, where it is at once
+drawn off.
+
+The chief of machines with _ores_ is the _ore mill_, which not only
+breaks up the ore but grinds or pulverises it.
+
+Some chemical and other processes for reducing ores have been referred
+to in the Chapter on Metallurgy.
+
+Other mechanical processes consist of _separators_ of various
+descriptions--a prominent one of which acts on the principal of
+centrifugal force. The crushed material from a spout being led to the
+centre of a rapidly rotating disk is thrown off by centrifugal force;
+and as the lighter portions are thrown farther from the disk, and the
+heavier portions nearer to the same, the material is automatically
+assorted as to size and weight. As the disk revolves these assorted
+portions fall through properly graded apertures into separate channels
+of a circular trough, from whence they are swept out by brushes secured
+to a support revolving with the disk.
+
+Many forms of ore washing machines have been invented to treat the ore
+after it has been reduced to powder. These are known by various names,
+as jiggers, rifflers, concentrators, washing frames, etc. A stream of
+water is directed on, into, and through the mass of pulverised ore and
+dirt, the dirt and kindred materials, lighter than the ore, are raised
+and floated towards the top of the receptacle and carried away, while
+the ore settles.
+
+This operation is frequently carried on in connection with amalgamated
+surfaces over which the metal is passed to still further attract and
+concentrate the ore. An endless apron travelling over cylinders is
+sometimes employed, composed of slats the surface of each of which is
+coated with an amalgam, and on this belt the powdered ore is spread
+thinly and carried forward. The vibrations of the belt tend to shake and
+distribute the ore particles, the amalgam attracts them, the refuse is
+thrown off as the belt passes down over the cylinder, while the ore
+particles are retained and brushed off into a proper receptacle.
+_Amalgamators_ themselves form a large class of inventions. They are
+known as electric, lead, mercury, plate, vacuum, vapour, etc.
+
+By the help of these and a vast number of other kindred inventions, the
+business of mining in all its branches has been revolutionised and
+transformed, even within the last half century. With the vast increase
+in the output of coal, and of ores, and the incalculable saving of hand
+labour, the number of operators has been increased in the same
+proportion, their wages increased, their hours of labour shortened, and
+their comforts multiplied in variety and quantity, with a diminished
+cost. The whole business of mining has been raised from ceaseless
+darkness and drudgery to light and dignity. Opportunity has been created
+for miners to become men of standing in the community in which they
+live; and means provided for educating their children and for obtaining
+comfortable homes adorned with the refinements of civilisation.
+
+_Well boring_ is an ancient art--known to the Egyptians and the Chinese.
+Wells were coeval with Abraham when his servant had the celebrated
+interview with Rebecca. "Jacob's well at Sychar--the ancient
+Shechim--has been visited by travellers in all ages and has been
+minutely described. It is nine feet in diameter and one hundred and five
+feet deep, made entirely through rock. When visited by Maundrel it
+contained fifteen feet of water."--_Knight._ Some kind of a drill must
+have been used to have cut so great a depth through rock. The Chinese
+method of boring wells from time immemorial has been by the use of a
+sharp chisel-like piece of hard iron on the end of a heavy iron and wood
+frame weighing four or five hundred pounds, lifted by a lever and turned
+by a rattan cord operated by hand, and by which wells from fifteen
+hundred to eighteen hundred feet in depth and five or six inches in
+diameter have been bored.
+
+This method has lately been improved by attaching the chisel part, which
+is made very heavy, to a rope of peculiar manufacture, which gives the
+chisel a turn as it strikes, combined with an air pump to suck up from
+the hole the accumulating dirt and water.
+
+Artesian wells appear to have first been known in Europe in the province
+of Artois, France, in the thirteenth century. Hence their name. The
+previous state of the art in Egypt, China and elsewhere was not then
+known.
+
+Other modern inventions in well-making machinery have consisted in
+innumerable devices to supplant manual labour and to meet new
+conditions.
+
+_Coal Oil_:--Reichenbach, the German chemist, discovered paraffine.
+Young, soon after, in 1850, patented paraffine oil made from coal. These
+discoveries, added to the long observed fact of coal oil floating on
+streams in Pennsylvania and elsewhere, led to the search for its natural
+source. The discovery of the reservoirs of petroleum in Pennsylvania in
+1855-1860, and subsequently of gas, which nature had concealed for so
+long a time, gave a great impetus to inventions to obtain and control
+these riches. With earth-augurs, drills, and drill cleaning and clearing
+and "fishing" apparatus, and devices for creating a new flow of oil, and
+tubing, new forms of packing, etc., inventors created a new industry.
+
+Colonel E. Drake sank the first oil well in Pennsylvania in 1859. Since
+then, 125,000 oil wells have been drilled in that and neighbouring
+localities. The world has seldom seen such excitement, except in
+California on the discovery of gold, as attended the coal oil discovery.
+The first wells sunk gushed thousands of barrels a day. Farmers and
+other labouring men went to bed poor and woke up rich. Rocky
+wildernesses and barren fields suddenly became Eldorados. The burning
+rivers of oil were a reflection of the golden treasures which flowed
+into the hands and pockets of thousands as from a perpetual fountain
+touched by some great magician's wand.
+
+Old methods of boring wells were too slow, and although the underlying
+principle was the same, the new methods and means invented enabled wells
+to be bored with one-tenth the labour, in one-tenth the time, and at
+one-tenth the cost. Many great cities and plains and deserts have been
+provided with these wells owing to the ease with which they can now be
+sunk.
+
+Another ingenious method of sinking wells was invented by Colonel N. W.
+Greene at Cortland, New York, in 1862. It became known as the "driven
+well," and consisted of a pointed tube provided with holes above the
+pointed end, and an inclosed tube to prevent the passage of sand or
+gravel through the holes in the outer tube. When the pointed tube was
+driven until water was reached the inner tube was withdrawn and a pump
+mechanism inserted. This well, so simple, so cheap and effective, has
+been used in all countries by thousands of farmers on dry plains and by
+soldiers in many desert lands. With these and modern forms of artesian
+wells the deserts have literally been made to blossom as the rose.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.
+
+    "Time measures all things, but I measure it."
+
+
+So far as we at present know there were four forms of time-measuring
+instruments known to antiquity--the sun-dial, the clepsydra or water
+clock, the hour-glass, and the graduated candle.
+
+The sun-dial, by which time was measured by the shadow cast from a pin,
+rod or pillar upon a graduated horizontal plate--the graduations
+consisting of twelve equal parts, in which the hours of the day were
+divided, were, both as to the instrument and the division of the day
+into hours, invented by the Babylonians or other Oriental race, set up
+on the plains of Chaldea, constructed by the Chinese and Hindoos--put
+into various forms by these nations, and adapted, but unimproved, by the
+learned Greeks and conquering Romans. It appears to have been unknown to
+the Assyrians and Egyptians, or if known, its knowledge confined to
+their wise men, as it does not appear in any of their monuments.
+
+The clepsydra, an instrument by which in its earliest form a portion of
+time was measured by the escape of water from a small orifice in the
+bottom of a shell or vase, or by which the empty vase, placed in another
+vessel filled with water, was gradually filled through the orifice and
+which sank within a certain time, is supposed by many to have preceded
+the invention of the sun-dial. At any rate they were used
+contemporaneously by the same peoples.
+
+In its later form, when the day and night were each divided into twelve
+hours, the vessel was correspondingly graduated, and a float raised by
+the inflowing water impelled a pointer attached to the float against the
+graduations.
+
+Plato, it is said, contrived a bell so connected with the pointer that
+it was struck at each hour of the night. But the best of ancient
+clepsydras was invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria about the middle of
+the third century B. C. He was the pupil of Archimedes, and adopting his
+master's idea of geared wheels, he mounted a toothed wheel on a shaft
+extending through the vessel and carrying at one end outside of the
+vessel a pointer adapted to move around the face of a dial graduated
+with the 24 hours. The vertical toothed rod or rack, adapted to be
+raised or lowered by a float in a vessel gradually filled with water,
+engaged a pinion fixed on another horizontal shaft, which pinion in turn
+engaged the larger wheel. It was not difficult to proportion the parts
+and control the supply of water to make the point complete its circuit
+regularly. Then the same inventor dispensed with the wheel, rack, and
+pinion, and substituted a cord to which a float was attached, passing
+the cord over a grooved pulley and securing a weight at its other end.
+The pulley was fixed on the shaft which carried the hour hand. The float
+was a counterbalance to the weight, and as it was lifted by the water
+the weight stretched the cord and turned the pulley, which caused the
+pointer to move on the dial and indicate the hour. The water thus acted
+as an escapement to control the motive power. In one form the water
+dropped on wheels which had their motion communicated to a small statue
+that gradually rose and pointed with a rod to the hour upon the dial.
+
+Thus the essential parts of a clock--an escapement, which is a device to
+control the power in a clock or watch so that it shall act
+intermittently on the time index, a motive power, which was then water
+or a weight, a dial to display the hours, and an index to point them
+out--were invented at this early age. But the art advanced practically
+no further for many centuries.
+
+The hour-glass is too familiar to need description.
+
+The incense sticks of the Chinese, the combustion of which proceeded so
+slowly and regularly as to render them available for time measures, were
+the precursors of the graduated candles.
+
+With the ungraduated sun-dial the Greeks fixed their times for bathing
+and eating. When the shadow was six feet long it was time to bathe, when
+twice that length it was time to sup. The clepsydra became in Greece a
+useful instrument to enforce the law in restricting loquacious orators
+and lawyers to reasonable limits in their addresses. And in Rome the
+sun-dials, the clepsydras and the hour-glass were used for the same
+purpose, and more generally than in Greece, to regulate the hours of
+business and pleasure.
+
+The graduated candles are chiefly notable as to their use, if not
+invention, by Alfred the Great in about 883. They were 12 inches long,
+divided into 12 parts, of which three would burn in one hour. In use
+they were shielded from the wind by thin pieces of horn, and thus the
+"horn lantern" originated. With them he divided the day into three equal
+parts, one for religion, one for public affairs, and one for rest and
+recreation.
+
+Useful clocks of wondrous make were described in the annals of the
+middle ages, especially in Germany, made by monks and others for Kings,
+monasteries and churches. The old Saxon and Teutonic words _cligga_, and
+_glocke_, signifying the striking of a bell, and from which the name
+clock is derived, indicates the early combination of striking and
+time-keeping mechanism. The records are scant as to the particulars of
+inventions in horology during the middle ages and down to the sixteenth
+century, but we know that weights, and trains of wheels and springs, and
+some say pendulums, were used in clockwork, and that the tones of hourly
+bells floated forth from the dim religious light of old cathedrals. They
+all appear to have involved in different forms the principle of the old
+clepsydra, using either weights or water as the motive power to drive a
+set of wheels and to move a pointer over the face of a dial.
+
+Henry de Vick of France about 1370 constructed a celebrated clock for
+Charles V., the first nearest approach to modern weight clocks. The
+weight was used to unwind a cord from a barrel. The barrel was connected
+to a ratchet and there were combined therewith a train of toothed wheels
+and pinions, an escapement consisting of a crown wheel controlled by two
+pallets, which in turn were operated alternately by two weights on a
+balanced rod. An hour hand was carried by a shaft of the great wheel,
+and a dial plate divided into hours. This was a great advance, as a more
+accurate division of time was had by improving the isochronous
+properties of the vibrating escapement. But the world was still wanting
+a time-keeper to record smaller portions of the day than the hour and a
+more accurate machine than Vick's.
+
+Two hundred years, nearly, elapsed before the next important advance in
+horology. By this time great astronomers like Tycho Brahe and Valherius
+had divided the time-recording dials into minutes and seconds.
+
+About 1525 Jacob Zech of Prague invented the fusee, which was
+re-invented and improved by the celebrated Dr. Hooke, 125 years later.
+
+Small portable clocks, the progenitors of the modern watch, commenced to
+appear about 1500. It was then that Peter Hele of Nuremberg substituted
+for weights as the motive power a ribbon of steel, which he wound around
+a central spindle, connecting one end to a train of wheels to which it
+gave motion as it unwound.
+
+Then followed the famous observation of the swinging lamp by the then
+young Galileo, about 1582, while lounging in the cathedral of Pisa. The
+isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum inferred from this
+observation was not published or put to practical application in clocks
+for nearly sixty years afterward. In 1639 Galileo, then old and blind,
+dictated to his son one of his books in which he discussed the
+isochronal properties of oscillating bodies, and their adaptation as
+time measures. He and others had used the pendulum for dividing time,
+but moved it by hand and counted its vibrations. But Huygens, the great
+Dutch scientist, about 1556 was the first to explain the principles and
+properties of the pendulum as a time measurer and to apply it most
+successfully to clocks. His application of it was to the old clock of
+Vick's.
+
+The seventeenth century thus opened up a new era in clock and watch
+making. The investigations, discoveries, and inventions of Huygens and
+other Dutch clock-makers, of Dr. Hooke and David Ramsey of England,
+Hautefeuille of France, and a few others placed the art of clock and
+watch making on the scientific basis on which it has ever since rested.
+
+The pendulum and watch-springs needed to have their movements controlled
+and balanced by better escapements. Huygens thought that the pendulum
+should be long and swing in a cycloidal course, but Dr. Hooke found the
+better way to produce perfect isochronous movements was to cause the
+pendulum to swing in short arcs, which he accomplished by his invention
+of the anchor escapement.
+
+The fusee which Dr. Hooke re-invented consists of a conical
+spirally-grooved pulley, around which a chain is wound, and which is
+connected at one end to a barrel, in which the main actuating spring is
+tightly coiled. The fusee is thus interposed between the wheel train and
+the spring to equalise the power of the latter.
+
+To Dr. Hooke must also be credited the invention of that delicate but
+efficient device, the hair-spring balance for watches. His inventions in
+this line were directed to the best means of utilising and controlling
+the force of springs, his motto being "_ut tensio sic vis_," (as the
+tension is so is the force.) Repeating watches to strike the hours,
+half-hours and quarters, made their appearance in the seventeenth
+century. In the next century Arnold made one for George III., as small
+as an English sixpence. This repeated the hours, halves and quarters,
+and in it for the first time in the art a jewel was used as a bearing
+for the arbors, and this particular one was a ruby made into a minute
+cylinder.
+
+After the discovery and practical application of weights, springs,
+wheels, levers and escapements to time mechanisms, subsequent
+inventions, numerous as they have been, have consisted chiefly, not in
+the discovery of new principles, but in new methods in the application
+of old ones. Prior to the eighteenth century, however, clocks were
+cumbrous and expensive, and the watches rightly regarded as costly toys;
+and as to their accuracy in time-measuring, the cheaper ones were hardly
+as satisfactory as the ancient sun-dials.
+
+With the coming of the machine inventions and the new industrial and
+social ideas of the eighteenth century came an almost sudden new
+appreciation of the value of time. Hours, minutes and seconds began to
+be carefully prized, both by the trades and professions, and the demand
+from the common people for accurate time records became great. This
+demand it has been the office of the nineteenth century to supply, and
+to place clocks and watches within the reach of the poor as well as the
+rich. While thus lessening the cost of time-keepers their value has been
+enhanced by increasing their accuracy and durability.
+
+Among the other ideas for which the eighteenth century was famous in
+watch-making was that of dispensing with the key for winding, thus
+saving the losing of keys and preventing access of dust, an idea which,
+however, was perfected only in the last half of the nineteenth century.
+
+The eighteenth century was chiefly distinguished by its scientific
+improvements in time-keepers, to adapt them for astronomical
+observations and for use at sea, in not only accurately determining the
+time, but the degrees of longitude. Chronometers were invented,
+distinguished from watches and clocks, by means by which the fluctuation
+of the parts caused by the variations in temperature are obviated or
+compensated. In clocks what are known as the mercurial and gridiron
+pendulums were invented respectively toward the close of the eighteenth
+century by Graham and Harrison, and the latter also subsequently
+invented the expanding and contracting balance wheel for watches. The
+principle in these appliances is the employment of two different metals
+which expand unequally, and thus maintain an uniformity of operation.
+
+The Dutch, with Huygens in the lead, were long among the leading
+clock-makers. Germany ranked next. It was in the seventeenth century
+that a wonderful industry in clock-making there commenced, which lasted
+for two centuries. The Black Forest region of South Germany became a
+famous locality for the manufacture of cheap wooden clocks. The system
+adopted was a minute division of labour. From fourteen to twenty
+thousand hands twenty years ago were employed in the Schwarzwald
+district. Labour-saving machines were ignored almost entirely. The
+annual production finally reached nearly two million clocks, of the
+value of about five million dollars.
+
+Switzerland in watch-making followed precisely the example of Germany in
+clock-making. It commenced there in the seventeenth and culminated in
+the nineteenth century. Many thousands of its population were engaged in
+the business and it flourished under the fostering care of the
+government--by the establishment of astronomical observations for
+testing the adjustment of the best watches, the giving of prizes, and
+the establishment and encouragement of schools of horology conducted on
+thorough scientific methods. A quarter of a century ago it was estimated
+that in Switzerland 40,000 persons out of a population of 150,000 were
+engaged in watch-making, and that the annual production sometimes
+reached 1,600,000 completed movements. The whole world was their market.
+The United States alone was in 1875 importing 134,000 watches annually
+from that country.
+
+As in Germany, so one characteristic of the Swiss system was a minute
+sub-division of the labour. Individuals and entire families had certain
+parts only to make. It is said that the Swiss watch passed through the
+hands of one hundred and thirty different workmen before it was put upon
+the market. The use of machines was also, as in Germany, ignored. By
+this national devotion to a single trade and its sub-division of labour,
+the successful production of complicated watches became great and their
+prices comparatively low.
+
+The United States in the commencement of its career and at the opening
+of the century had no clocks or watches of its own manufacture. But it
+soon followed the example of Germany and Switzerland and established
+cheap clock manufactories, first of wood, and then of metal, which
+became famous and of world-wide use. But it could make no headway
+against the cheap labour of Europe in watch-making, and the country was
+flooded with watches of all qualities, principally from Switzerland and
+England. Finally, at the half-way mark in the century, the inquiry arose
+among Americans, why could not the system of the minute sub-division of
+human labour followed in watch-making countries so cheaply and
+profitably, be accomplished by machinery? The field was open, the prize
+was great, and the government stood ready to grant exclusive patents to
+every inventor who would devise a new and useful machine. The problem
+was great, as the fields abroad had been filled for generations by
+skilled artisans who had reduced the complicated mechanism of
+watch-making to a fine art. Fortunately the habit had been established
+in America in several of the leading industries, principally in that of
+fire-arms, of fabricating separate machinery for the independent making
+of numerous parts of the same implement, whereby uniformity and
+interchangeability were established. Under such a practice, which was
+known as the American system, a duplicate of the smallest part of a
+complicated machine, lost or worn out thousands of miles from the
+factory, could soon be furnished by simply sending the number or name of
+such required part to the manufacturer, or to the nearest dealer in such
+machines.
+
+With such encouragement and example the scheme of watch-making was
+commenced. Soon large factories were built, and by the time of the
+Centennial Exhibition in 1876, the American Watch Company of Waltham,
+Massachusetts, were enabled to present an exhibit of watch movements
+made by machinery, which astonished the world. Other great companies in
+different parts of the country soon followed with the same general
+system. Machines, working with the apparent intelligence and facility of
+human minds and hands, and with greater mathematical accuracy than was
+possible with the hands, appeared:--for cutting out the finest teeth
+from blank wheels stamped out from steel or brass; for making and
+cutting the smallest, finest threaded screws by the thousands per hour
+and with greatest uniformity and accuracy; for jewel-making; for cutting
+and polishing by diamonds, or sapphire-armed tools, the rough,
+unpolished diamond and ruby, crysolite, garnet, or aqua-marine, and for
+boring, finishing and setting the same; for the formation of the most
+delicate pins or arbors; for the making of the escapements, including
+forks, pallets, rollers, and scape wheels; for making springs and
+balances, including the main-springs and hair-springs; for making and
+setting the stem-winding parts; for making the cases, and engraving the
+same, etc. The list would be too long to simply name all the ingenious
+machines there exhibited and subsequently invented for every important
+operation.
+
+It was the aim of these manufacturers to locate every great factory in
+some quiet and attractive spot, free from the dust of town, and city,
+and divide it into many departments, from the blacksmithing to the
+packing and transportation of the completed article; and to conduct
+every department with the best mechanical and mathematical skill that
+money and brains could provide.
+
+The same system was followed with equal success in producing the
+first-class pocket-chronometer for the nicest work to which chronometers
+can be put.
+
+Thus with every watch and its every part made the exact duplicate of its
+fellow, uniformity in time-keeping has been established; and the simile
+of Pope is no longer so correct, "'Tis with our judgments as our
+watches, none go just alike, yet each believes his own." A simple
+statement of this system illustrates with greater force than an entire
+volume the revolution the nineteenth century has produced in the useful
+art of horology. And yet the story should not omit reference to the
+application of the electric system to clocks, whereby clocks at distant
+points of a city or country are connected, automatically corrected and
+set to standard time from a central observatory or other time station.
+
+Great as were the advances in horology during the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, the number of inventions that have been made in
+the nineteenth century is evidenced by the fact that in the United
+States alone about 4,000 patents have been granted since 1800, which,
+however, represent not only American inventors but very many of other
+countries.
+
+_Registering Devices._--Devices for recording fares and money have
+employed the keenest wits of many inventors and is an art of quite
+recent origin. Attention was first directed to fare registers in public
+vehicles, the object of which is to accurately report to the proper
+office of the company at the end of a trip, or of the day, the number of
+passengers carried and the fares received. Portable registers, to be
+carried by the conductor and operated in front of the passenger have
+been almost universally succeeded by stationary ones set up at one end
+of the vehicle in open view of all the passengers and operated by a
+strap and lever by the conductor. These fare registers have been called
+"A mechanical conscience for street car conductors."
+
+_Cash Registers_, intended to compel honesty on the part of retail
+salesmen, are required to be operated by them, and when the proper
+lever, or levers, or it may be a crank handle, is or are touched, the
+machine automatically records the amount of the sale, the amount of
+change given, and the total amount of all the sales and money received
+and paid out.
+
+_Voting Machines_--designed to overcome the difficulties, expenditure of
+time, and the commission of errors and frauds experienced in the reading
+and counting of votes--have received great attention from inventors, and
+are not yet in a satisfactory condition. The problem involves the
+dispensing of printing the ballots, the prevention of fraudulent
+deposition of ballots, the automatic correct counting of the same, and a
+display of the result as soon as the balloting is closed.
+
+Successful electrical devices have been made for recording the votes of
+a great number of persons in a large assembly by the touch of an "aye"
+or "nay" button at the seat of the voter and the recording of the same
+on paper at a central desk.
+
+The invention and extensive use of bicycles, automobiles, etc., have
+given rise to the invention of _cyclometers_, which are small devices
+connected to some part of the vehicle to indicate to the rider or driver
+the rate at which he is riding, and the number of miles ridden.
+
+_Speed Indicators._--Many municipalities having adopted ordinances
+limiting the rate of speed for street and steam cars, bicycles,
+automobiles, and other vehicles, a want was created, which has been met,
+for devices to indicate to the passengers, drivers or conductors the
+rate at which the vehicle is travelling, and to sound an alarm in case
+of excess of speed, so that brakes can be applied and the speed reduced.
+Or to relieve persons of anxiety and trouble in this respect, ingenious
+devices have been contrived which automatically reduce the speed when
+the prescribed limit has been exceeded.
+
+_Weighing Scales and Machines._--"Just balances and just weights" have
+been required from the day of the declaration, "a false weight is an
+abomination unto the Lord." And therefore strict accuracy must always be
+the measure of merit of a weighing machine. To this standard the
+inventions of the century in weighing scales have come. Until this
+century the ordinary balance with equal even arms suspended from a
+central point, and each carrying means for suspending articles to be
+weighed, or compared in weights, and the later steelyard with its
+unequal arms, with its graduated long arms and a sliding weight and
+holding pan, were the principal forms of weighing machines. Platform
+scales were described in an English patent to one Salman in 1796, but
+their use is not recorded. The compound lever scale on the principle of
+the steelyard, but arranged to be used with a platform, was invented and
+came into use in the United States about 1831. Thaddeus and Erastus
+Fairbanks of St. Johnsbury, Vermont, were the inventors, and it was
+found to meet the want of farmers in weighing hemp, hay, etc., by more
+convenient means than the ordinary steelyard. They converted the
+steelyard into platform scales. The leading characteristics of such
+machines are, first, a convenient platform nicely balanced on knife
+edges of steel levers, and second, a graduated horizontal beam, a
+sliding weight thereon connected by an upright rod at one end to the
+beam, and at its opposite end to the balance frame beneath the platform.
+
+The modification in size and adaptation of this machine for the weighing
+of different commodities amounted to some 400 different
+varieties--running from the delicately-constructed apparatus for
+weighing the fraction of a grain, to the ponderous machines for weighing
+and recording the loaded freight car of fifty or sixty tons, or the
+canal-boat or other vessel with its load of five or six hundred tons.
+The adaptation of a balance platform on which to place a light load, or
+to drive thereon with heavy loads, whether of horses, steam, or water
+vehicles, was a great blessing to mankind. No wonder that they were soon
+sold all over the world, and that monarchs and people hastened to heap
+honors on the inventors.
+
+Spring weighing scales have recently been invented, which will
+accurately and automatically show not only the weight but the total
+price of the goods weighed, the price per unit being known and fixed.
+
+In the weighing of large masses of coarse material, such as grain, coal,
+cotton seed, and the like, machines have been constructed which
+automatically weigh such materials and at the same time register the
+weight.
+
+Previous to this century no method was known, except the exercise of
+good judgment in the light of experience, of accurately testing the
+strength of materials. Wood and metals were used in unnecessarily
+cumbrous forms for the purpose to which they were put, in order to
+ensure safety, or else the strength of the parts failed where it was
+most needed.
+
+The idea of testing the tensile, transverse, and cubical resisting
+strength of materials has been applied to many other objects than beams
+and bars of wood and metals; to belts, cloths, cables, wires, fibres,
+paper, twine, yarn, cement, and to liquids. Kiraldy, Kennedy, and others
+of England, Thomasset of France, Riehle of Germany, and Fairbanks,
+Thurston and Emery of the United States, are among the noted inventors
+of such machines.
+
+In the Emery system of machines, consisting of scales, gages, and
+dynamometers, the power exerted on the material tested is transmitted
+from the load to an indicating device by means of liquid acting on
+diaphragms. The same principle is employed in his weighing machines.
+
+By one of these hydraulic testing machines the tensile strength of
+forged links has been ascertained by the exertion of a power amounting
+to over 700,000 pounds before breaking a link, the chain breaking with a
+loud report.
+
+The most delicate materials are tested by the same machine--the tensile
+strength of a horsehair, some of which are found to stand the strain of
+one and two pounds. Eggs and nuts are cracked without being crushed, and
+the power exerted and the strain endured automatically recorded. Steel
+beams and rods have been subjected to a strain of a million pounds
+before breaking.
+
+Governments, municipalities, and the people generally are thus provided
+with means by which they can proceed with the greatest confidence in the
+safe and economical construction and completion of their buildings and
+public works.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, FINE ARTS.
+
+
+Neither the historic nor prehistoric records find man without musical
+instruments of some sort. They are as old as religion, and have been
+found wherever evidence of religious rites of any description have been
+found, as they constituted part of the instrumentalities of such rites.
+They are found as relics of worship and the dance, ages after the
+worshippers and the dancers have become part of the earth's strata. They
+have been found wherever the earliest civilisations have been
+discovered; and they appear to have been regarded as desirable and
+necessary as the weapons and the labour implements of those
+civilisations. They abounded in China, in India, and in Egypt before the
+lyre of Apollo was invented, or the charming harp of Orpheus was
+conceived.
+
+There was little melody according to modern standards, but the musical
+instruments, like all other inventions, the fruit of the brain of man,
+were slowly evolved as he wanted them, and to meet the conditions
+surrounding him.
+
+There were the conch shell trumpet, the stone, bone, wood and metal
+dance rattles, the beaks of birds, and the horns and teeth of beasts,
+for the same rattling purpose. The simple reed pipes, the hollow wooden
+drums, the skin drum-heads, the stretched strings of fibre and of
+tendons, the flutes, the harps, the guitars, the psalteries, and
+hundreds of other forms of musical instruments, varied as the skill and
+fancy of man varied, and in accordance with their taste and wants, along
+the entire gamut of noises and rude melodies. The ancient races had the
+instruments, but their voices, except as they existed in the traditions
+of their gods, were not harmonious.
+
+As modern wants and tastes developed and music became a science the
+demands of the nineteenth century were met by a Helmholtz, who
+discovered and explained the laws of harmony, and by many ingenious
+manufacturers, who so revolutionised the pianoforte action, and the
+action of musical instruments constructed on these principles, that
+their predecessors would hardly be recognised as prototypes.
+
+The story of the piano, that queen of musical instruments, involves the
+whole history of the art of music. Its evolution from the ancient harp,
+gleaned by man from the wind, "that grand old harper, who smote his
+thunder harp of pines," is too long a story to here recite in detail. It
+must suffice to say, it started with the harp, in its simplest form,
+composed of a frame with animal tendons stretched tight thereon and
+twanged by the fingers. Then followed strings of varied length, size,
+and tension, to obtain different tones, soon accompanied by an
+instrument called the plectrum--a bone or ivory stick with which to
+vibrate the strings, to save the fingers. This was the harp of the
+Egyptians, and of Jubal, "the father of all such as handle the harp and
+the organ," and half-brother of Tubal Cain, the great teacher "of every
+artificer in brass and iron." Then the harp was laid prostrate, its
+strings stretched over a sounding board, and each held and adapted to be
+tightened by pegs, and played upon by little hammers having soft pellets
+or corks at their ends. This was the psaltery and the dulcimer of the
+Assyrians and the Hebrews.
+
+The Greeks derived their musical instruments from the Egyptians, and the
+Romans borrowed theirs from the Greeks, but neither the Greeks nor the
+Romans invented any.
+
+Then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find the harp, both in a
+horizontal and an upright position, with its strings played upon by
+keys. This was the _clavicitherium_. In the sixteenth century came the
+virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments favoured by
+Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary, and which, recently brought from
+obscurity, have been made to revive the ancient Elizabethan melodies, to
+the delight of modern hearers. These were followed in the seventeenth
+century by the clavichord, the favourite instrument of Bach. Then
+appeared the harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, having a
+hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which Mozart and Handel and Haydn
+brought out their grand productions. The ancient Italian cembello was
+another spinet.
+
+Thus, through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown. By 1711
+in Italy, under the inventive genius of Bartolommeo Cristofori of
+Florence, they had culminated in the modern piano. The piano as devised
+by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this, that
+in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them
+by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys, whereas, in
+the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills.
+
+In the 1876 exhibition at Philadelphia, a piano The Greeks derived their
+musical instruments from the Egyptians, and the Romans borrowed theirs
+from the Greeks, but neither the Greeks nor the Romans invented any.
+
+Then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find the harp, both in a
+horizontal and an upright position, with its strings played upon by
+keys. This was the clavicitherium. In the sixteenth century came the
+virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments favoured by
+Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary, and which, recently brought from
+obscurity, have been made to revive the ancient Elizabethan melodies, to
+the delight of modern hearers. These were followed in the seventeenth
+century by the clavichord, the favourite instrument of Bach. Then
+appeared the harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, having a
+hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which Mozart and Handel and Haydn
+brought out their grand productions. The ancient Italian cembello was
+another spinet.
+
+Thus, through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown. By 1711
+in Italy, under the inventive genius of Bartolommeo Cristofori of
+Florence, they had culminated in the modern piano. The piano as devised
+by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this, that
+in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them
+by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys, whereas, in
+the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills.
+
+In the 1876 exhibition at Philadelphia, a piano was displayed which had
+been made by Johannes Christian Schreiber of Germany in 1741.
+
+Then in the latter part of the eighteenth century Broadwood and Clementi
+of London and Erard of Strasburg and Petzold of Paris commenced the
+manufacture of their fine instruments. Erard particularly made many
+improvements in that and in the nineteenth century in the piano, its
+hammers and keys, and Southwell of Dublin in the dampers.
+
+By them and the Collards of London, Bechstein of Berlin, and Chickering,
+Steinway, Weber, Schomacher, Decker and Knabe of America, was the piano
+"ripened after the lapse of more than 2,000 years into the perfectness
+of the magnificent instruments of modern times, with their better
+materials, more exact appliances, finer adjustments, greater strength of
+parts, increase of compass and power, elastic responsiveness of touch,
+enlarged sonority, satisfying delicacy, and singing character in tone."
+
+A piano comprises five principal parts: first, the framing; second, the
+sounding board; third, the stringing; fourth, the key mechanism, or
+action, and fifth, the ornamental case. To supply these several parts
+separate classes of skilled artisans have arisen, the forests have been
+ransacked for their choicest woods, the mines have been made to yield
+their choicest stores, and the forge to weld its finest work. Science
+has given to music the ardent devotion of a lover, and resolved a
+confused mass of more or less pleasant noises into liquid harmonies. In
+1862 appeared Helmholtz's great work on the "Law and Tones and the
+Theory of Music." He it was who invented the method of analysing sound.
+By the use of hollow bodies called _resonators_ he found that every
+sound as it generally occurs in nature and as it is produced by most of
+our musical instruments, or the human voice, is not a single simple
+sound, but a compound of several tones of different intensity and pitch;
+all of which different tones combined are heard as one; and that the
+difference of quality or _timbre_ of the sounds of different musical
+instruments resides in the different composition of these sounds; that
+different compound sounds contain the same fundamental tone but
+differently mixed with other tones. He explained how these fundamental
+and compound tones might be fully developed to produce either harmonious
+or dissonant sensations. His researches were carried farther and added
+to by Prof. Mayer of New Jersey. These theories were practically applied
+in the pianos produced by the celebrated firm of Steinway and Sons of
+New York; and their inventions and improvements in the iron framing, in
+laying of strings in relation to the centre of the sounding-board, in
+"resonators" in upright frames, and in other features, from 1866 to
+1876, produced a revolution in the art of piano making.
+
+If the piano is properly the queen of musical instruments, the organ may
+be rightly regarded, as it has been named, "King in the realm of music."
+It is an instrument, the notes of which are produced by the rush of air
+through pipes of different lengths, the air being supplied by bellows or
+other means, and controlled by valves which are operated by keys, and by
+which the supply of air is admitted or cut off.
+
+The earliest description appears to be that in the "Spiritalia" of Hero
+of Alexandria (150-200 B. C.) and Ctesibius of Alexandria was the
+inventor. A series of pipes of varying lengths were filled by an
+air-pump which was operated by a wind-mill. Organs were again originated
+in the early Christian centuries; and a Greek epigram of the fourth
+century refers to one as provided with "reeds of a new species agitated
+by blasts of wind that rush from a leathern cavern beneath their roots,
+while a robust mortal, running with swift fingers over the concordant
+keys, makes them smoothly dance and emit harmonious sounds."
+
+The same in principle to-day, but more complicated in structure, "yet of
+easy control under the hands of experts, fertile in varied symphonious
+effects, giving with equal and satisfying success the gentlest and most
+sympathetic tones as well as complete and sublimely full utterances of
+musical inspiration."
+
+The improvements of the century have consisted in adding a great variety
+of stops; in connections and couplers of the great keyboard and pipes;
+in the pedal part; in the construction of the pipes and wind chests; and
+principally in the adaptation of steam, water, air, and electricity, in
+place of the muscles of men, as powers in furnishing the supply of air.
+Some of the great organs of the century, having three or four thousand
+pipes, with all the modern improvements, and combining great power with
+the utmost brilliancy and delicacy of utterance, and with a blended
+effect which is grand, solemn and most impressive, render indeed this
+noble instrument the "king" in the realm of music.
+
+In the report of 1895 of the United States Commissioner of patents it is
+stated that "the _autoharp_ has been developed within the past few
+years, having bars arranged transversely across the strings and provided
+with dampers which, when depressed, silence all the strings except those
+producing the desired chords.
+
+"An ingenious musical instrument of the class having keyboards like the
+piano or organ has been recently invented. All keyboard instruments in
+ordinary use produce tones that are only approximately correct in pitch,
+because these must be limited in number to twelve, to the octave, while
+the tones of the violin are absolute or untempered. The improved
+instrument produces untempered tones without requiring extraordinary
+variations from the usual arrangement of the keys."
+
+Self-playing musical instruments have been known for more than forty
+years, but it is within the past twenty-five years that devices have
+been invented for controlling tones by pneumatic or electrical
+appliances to produce expressions. Examples of the later of these three
+kinds of musical instruments may be found in the United States patents
+of Zimmermann in 1882, Tanaka, 1890, and Gally, 1879.
+
+The science of _acoustics_ and its practical applications have greatly
+advanced, chiefly due to the researches of Helmholtz, referred to above.
+
+When the nature and laws of the waves of sound became fully known a
+great field of inventions was opened. Then came the telephone,
+phonograph, graphophone and gramophone.
+
+The telephone depends upon a combination of electricity and the waves of
+the human voice. The phonograph and its modifications depend alone on
+sound waves--the recording of the waves from one vibrating membrane and
+their exact reproduction on another vibrating membrane.
+
+The acoustic properties of churches and other buildings were improved by
+the adaptation of banks of fine wires to prevent the re-echoing of
+sounds. _Auricular tubes_ adapted to be applied to the ears and
+concealed by the hair, and other forms of aural instruments, were
+devised.
+
+The _Megaphone_ of Edison appeared, consisting of two large funnels
+having elastic conducting tubes from their apices to the aural orifice.
+Conversation in moderate tones has been heard and understood by their
+use at a distance of one and a half miles. The megaphone has been found
+very useful in speaking to large outdoor crowds.
+
+But let us go back a little: In 1845, Chas. Bourseuil of France
+published the idea that the vibrations of speech uttered against a
+diaphragm might break or make an electric contact, and the electric
+pulsations thereby produced might set another diaphragm vibrating which
+should produce the transmitted sound waves. In 1857, another Frenchman,
+Leon Scott, patented in France his _Phonautograph_--an instrument
+consisting of a large barrel-like mouth-piece into which words were
+spoken, a membrane therein against which the voice vibrations were
+received, a stylus attached to this vibrating membrane, and a rotating
+cylinder covered with blackened paper, against which the stylus bore and
+on which it recorded the sound waves in exact form received on the
+vibrating diaphragm. Then came the researches and publications of
+Helmholtz and K�nig on acoustic science, 1862-1866. Then young Philip
+Reis of Frankfort, Germany, attempted to put all these theories into an
+apparatus to reproduce speech, but did not quite succeed. Then in
+1874-1875, Bell took up the matter, and at the Philadelphia exhibition,
+1876, astonished the world by the revelations of the telephone. In
+April, 1877, Charles Cros, a Frenchman, in a communication to the
+Academy of Sciences in Paris, after describing an apparatus like the
+Scott phonautograph, set forth how traced undulating lines of voice
+vibrations might be reproduced in intaglio or in relief, and reproduced
+upon a vibrating membrane by a pointed stylus attached thereto and
+following the line of the original pulsations. The communication seems
+to have been pigeon-holed, and not read in open session until December,
+1877, and until after Thomas A. Edison had actually completed and used
+his phonograph in the United States. Cros rested on the suggestion.
+Edison, without knowing of Cros' suggestion, was first to make and
+actually use the same invention. Edison's cylinder, on which the sounds
+were recorded and from which they were reproduced, was covered by tin
+foil. A great advance was made by Dr Chichester A. Bell and Mr. C. S.
+Tainter, who in 1886 patented in the United States means of cutting or
+engraving the sound waves in a solid body. The solid body they employed
+was a thin pasteboard cylinder covered with wax. This apparatus they
+called the _graphophone_. Two years thereafter, Mr. Emile Berliner of
+Washington had invented the _gramophone_, which consists in etching on a
+metallic plate the record of voice waves. He has termed his invention,
+"the art of etching the human voice." He prepares a polished metal
+plate, generally zinc, with an extremely thin coating of film or fatty
+milk, which dries upon and adheres to the plate. The stylus penetrates
+this film, meeting from it the slightest possible resistance, and traces
+thereon the message. The record plate is then subjected to a
+particularly constituted acid bath, which, entering the groove or
+grooves formed by the stylus, cuts or etches the same into the plate.
+The groove thus formed may be deepened by another acid solution. When
+thus produced, as many copies of the record as desired may be made by
+the electrotyper or print plater.
+
+The public is now familiar with the different forms of this wonderful
+instrument, and like the telephone, they no longer seem marvellous. Yet
+it is only within the age of a youth or a maiden when the allegations or
+predictions that the human voice would soon be carried over the land,
+and reproduced across a continent, or be preserved or engraven on
+tablets and reproduced at pleasure anywhere, in this or any subsequent
+generation, were themselves regarded as strange messages of dreamers and
+madmen.
+
+_Optical Instruments._--There were practical inventions in optical
+instruments long before this century. Achromatic and other lenses were
+known, and the microscope, the telescope and spectacles.
+
+The inventive genius of this century in the field of optics has not
+eclipsed the telescope and microscope of former ages. They were the
+fruits of the efforts of many ages and of many minds, although Hans
+Lippersheim of Holland in 1608 appears to have made the first successful
+instrument "for seeing things at a distance." Galileo soon thereafter
+greatly improved and increased its capacity, and was the first to direct
+it towards the heavens. And as to the microscope, Dr. Lieberkulm, of
+Berlin, in 1740, made the first successful solar microscope. As well
+known, it consisted essentially of two lenses and a mirror, by which the
+sun's rays are reflected on the first lens, concentrated on the object
+and further magnified by the second lens.
+
+The depths of the stars and the minutest mote that floats in the sun
+beam reflect the glory of those inventions.
+
+The invention of John Dolland of London, about 1758, of the achromatic
+lens should be borne in mind in connection with telescopes, microscopes,
+etc. He it was who invented the combination of two lenses, one concave
+and the other convex, one of flint glass and the other of crown glass,
+which, refracting in contrary ways, neutralised the dispersion of colour
+rays and produced a clear, colourless light.
+
+Many improvements and discoveries in optics and optical instruments have
+been made during the century, due to the researches of such scientists
+as Arago, Brewster, Young, Fresnel, Airy, Hamilton, Lloyd, Cauchy and
+others, and of the labours of the army of skilled experts and
+mechanicians who have followed their lead.
+
+Sir David Brewster, born in Scotland in 1781, made (1810-1840) many
+improvements in the construction of the microscope and telescope,
+invented the kaleidoscope, introduced in the stereoscope the principles
+and leading features which those beautiful instruments still embody, and
+rendered it popular among scientists and artists.
+
+It is said that Prof. Eliot of Edinburgh in 1834 was the first to
+conceive of the idea of a stereoscope, by which two different pictures
+of the same object, taken by photography, to correspond to the two
+different positions of an object as viewed by the two eyes, are combined
+into one view by two reflecting mirrors set at an angle of about 45�,
+and conveying to the eyes a single reflection of the object as a solid
+body. But Sir Charles Wheaton in 1838 constructed the first instrument,
+and in 1849 Brewster introduced the present form of lenticular lenses.
+
+Brewster also demonstrated the utility of dioptric lenses, and zones in
+lighthouse illumination; and in which field Faraday and Tyndall also
+subsequently worked with the addition of electrical appliances. The
+labours of these three men have illuminated the wildest waters of the
+sea and preserved a thousand fleets of commerce and of war from awful
+shipwreck.
+
+As illustrating the difficulties sometimes encountered in introducing an
+invention into use, the American Journal of Chemistry some years ago
+related that the Abb� Moigno, in introducing the stereoscope to the
+savants of France, first took it to Arago, but Arago had a defect of
+vision which made him see double, and he could only see in it a medley
+of four pictures; then the Abb� went to Savart, but unfortunately Savart
+had but one eye and was quite incapable of appreciating the thing. Then
+Becquerel was next visited, but he was nearly blind and could see
+nothing in the new optical toy. Not discouraged, the Abb� then called
+upon Puillet of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. Puillet was much
+interested, but he was troubled with a squint which presented to his
+anxious gaze but a blurred mixture of images. Lastly Brot was tried.
+Brot believed in the corpuscular theory of light, and was opposed to the
+undulatory theory, and the good Abb� not being able to assure him that
+the instrument did not contradict his theory, Brot refused to have
+anything to do with it. In spite, however, of the physical disabilities
+of scientists, the stereoscope finally made its way in France.
+
+Besides increasing the power of the eye to discover the secrets and
+beauties of nature, modern invention has turned upon the eye itself and
+displayed the wonders existing there, behind its dark glass doors. It
+was Helmholtz who in 1851 described his _Ophthalmoscope_. He arranged a
+candle so that its rays of light, falling on an inclined reflector, were
+thrown through the pupil of the patient's eye, whose retina reflected
+the image received on the retina back to the mirror where it could be
+viewed by the observer. This image was the background of the eye, and
+its delicate blood vessels and tissues could thus be observed. This
+instrument was improved and it gave rise to the contrivance of many
+delicate surgical instruments for operating on the eye.
+
+The _Spectroscope_ is an instrument by which the colours of the solar
+rays are separated and viewed, as well as those of other incandescent
+bodies. By it, not only the elements of the heavenly bodies have been
+determined, but remarkable results have been had in analysing well-known
+metals and discovering new ones. Its powers and its principles have been
+so developed during the century by the discoveries, inventions and
+investigations of Herschel, Wollaston, Fraunhofer, Bronsen and Kirchoff,
+Steinheil, Tyndall, Huggins, Draper and others, that spectrum analysis
+has grown from the separation of light into its colours by the prism of
+Newton, to what Dr. Huggins has aptly termed "a new sense."
+
+We have further referred to this wonderful discovery in the Chapter on
+Chemistry.
+
+The inventions and improvements in optical instruments gave rise to
+great advances in the making of lenses, based on scientific principles,
+and not resting alone on hard work and experience. Alvan Clark a son of
+America, and Prof. Ernst Abbe of Germany, have within the last third of
+the century produced a revolution in the manufacture of lenses, and
+thereby extended the realms of knowledge to new worlds of matter in the
+heavens and on earth.
+
+_Solarmeter._--In 1895 a United States patent was granted to Mr. Bechler
+for an instrument called a solarmeter. It is designed for taking
+observations of heavenly bodies and recording mechanically the parts of
+the astronomical triangle used in navigation and like work. Its chief
+purpose is to determine the position of the compass error of a ship at
+sea independently of the visibility of the sea horizon. If the horizon
+is clouded, and the sun or a known star is visible, a ship's position
+can still be determined by the solarmeter.
+
+_Instruments for Measuring the Position and Distances of Unseen
+Objects._--Some of the latest of such instruments will enable one to see
+and shoot at an object around a corner, or at least out of sight. Thus a
+United States patent was granted to Fiske in 1889, wherein it is set
+forth that by stationing observers at points distant from a gun, which
+points are at the extremities of a known base line, and which command a
+view of the area within the range of the gun, the observers discover the
+position and range of the object by triangulation and set certain
+pointers. By means of electrical connection between those pointers and
+pointers at the gun station based on the system of the Wheatstone
+bridge, the latter pointers, or the guns themselves serving as pointers,
+may be placed in position to indicate the line of fire. By a nice
+arrangement of mirror and lenses attached to a firearm the same object
+may be accomplished. Similar apparatuses in which the reflectory
+surfaces of mirrors mounted on an elevated frame-work, and known as
+_Polemoscopes_ and _Altiscopes_ and _Range-Finders_, have also been
+invented, and used with artillery. But such devices may be profitably
+used for more peaceful and amusing purposes.
+
+Born with the ear attuned to music and the eye to observe beauty, the
+hand of Art was to trace and make permanent the fleeting forms which
+melody and the eye impressed upon the soul of man.
+
+In fact modern science has demonstrated that tones and colours are
+inseparable. Bell and Tainter with their _photophone_ have converted the
+undulatory waves of light into the sweetest music. Reversing the
+process, beautiful flashes of light have been produced from musical
+vibrations by the _phonophote_ of M. Coulon and the _phonoscope_ of
+Henry Edmunds.
+
+Entrancing as the story is, we can only here allude to a few of those
+discoveries and inventions that have become the handmaidens of the art
+which guided the chisel of Phidias and inspired the brush of Raphael.
+
+_Photography._--The art of producing permanent images of the "human face
+divine," natural scenes, and other objects, by the agency of light, is
+due more to the discoveries of the chemist than to the inventions of the
+mechanic; and to the chemists of this century. At the same time a
+mechanical invention of old times became a necessary appliance in the
+reduction of the theories of the chemists to practice:--The _Camera
+Obscura_, that dark box in which a mirror is placed, provided also with
+a piece of ground glass or white cardboard paper, and having a
+projecting part at one end in which a lens is placed, whereby when the
+lens part is directed to an object an image of the same is thrown by the
+rays of light focused by the lens upon the mirror, and reflected by the
+mirror to the glass or paper board, was invented by Roger Bacon about
+1297, or by Alberta in 1437, described by Leonardo da Vinci in 1500 as
+an imitation of the structure of the eye, again by Baptista Porta in
+1589, and remodelled by Sir Isaac Newton in 1700. Until the 19th century
+it was used only in the taking of sketches and scenes on or from the
+card or glass on which the reflection was thrown.
+
+Celebrated chemists such as Sheele of the 18th century, and Ritter,
+Wollaston, Sir Humphry Davy, Young, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and others in
+the early part of the 19th century, began to turn their attention to the
+chemical and molecular changes which the sunlight and its separate rays
+effected in certain substances, and especially upon certain compounds of
+silver. In sensitising the receiving paper, glass, or metal with such a
+compound it must necessarily be protected from exposure to sunlight, and
+this fact, together with the desire to sensitise the image produced by
+the camera, not only suggested but seemed to render that instrument
+indispensable to photography. Nevertheless the experiments of chemists
+fell short of the high mark, and it was reserved for an artist to unite
+the efforts of the sun and the chemists in a successful instrument.
+
+It was Louis Jacques Mand� Daguerre, born at Corneilles, France, in
+1789, and who died in 1851, who was the first to reduce to practice the
+invention called after his name. He was a brilliant scene painter, and
+especially successful in painting panoramas. In 1822, assisted by
+Bouton, he had invented the _diorama_, by which coloured lights
+representing the various changes of the day and season were thrown upon
+the canvasses in his beautiful panoramas of Rome, London, Naples and
+other great cities. Several years previous to 1839 he and Joseph N.
+Niepce, learning of the efforts of chemists in that line, began
+independently, and then together, to develop the art of obtaining
+permanent copies of objects produced by the chemical action of the sun.
+Niepce died while they were thus engaged. Daguerre prosecuted his
+researches alone, and toward the close of 1838 his success was such that
+he made known his invention to Arago, and Arago announced it in an
+eloquent and enthusiastic address to the French Academy of Sciences in
+January 1839. It at once excited great attention, which was heightened
+by the pictures produced by the new process. The French Government, in
+consideration of the details of the invention and its improvements being
+made public and on request of Daguerre, granted him an annuity and one
+also to Niepce's son.
+
+At first only pictures of natural objects were taken; but in learning of
+Daguerre's process Dr. John William Draper of New York, a native of
+England and adopted son of America, the brilliant author of _The
+Intellectual Development of Europe_, and other great works, in the same
+year, 1839, took portraits of persons by photography, and he was the
+first to do this. Draper was also the first in America to reveal the
+wonders of the spectroscope; and he was first to show that each colour
+of the spectrum had its own peculiar chemical effect. This was in 1847.
+
+The sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of man in the new great
+art of Photography. Natural philosophers, chemists, inventors,
+mechanics, all now pressed forward, and still press forward to improve
+the art, to establish new growths from the old art, and extend its
+domains. Those domains have the generic term of _Photo-Processes_.
+Daguerreotypy, while the father of them all, is now hardly practised as
+Daguerre practised it, and has become a small subordinate sub-division
+of the great class. Yet more faithful likenesses are not yet produced
+than by this now old process. Among the children of the Photo-Process
+family are the _Calotype_, _Ambrotype_, _Ferreotype_, _Collodion_ and
+_Silver Printing_, _Carbon Printing_, _Heliotype_, _Heliogravure_,
+_Photoengraving_ (relief intaglio-Woodburytype), _Photolithography_;
+_Alberttype_; _Photozincograph_, _Photogelatine-printing_;
+_Photomicrography_ (to depict microscopic objects), _Kinetographs_, and
+_Photosculpture_. A world of mechanical contrivances have been
+invented:--_Octnometers_, _Baths_, _Burnishing tools_, _Cameras and
+Camera stands_, _Magazine and Roll holders_; _Dark rooms_ and _Focussing
+devices_, _Heaters_ and _Driers_; _Exposure Meters_, etc. etc.
+
+The _Kinetograph_, for taking a series of pictures of rapidly moving
+objects, and by which the living object, person or persons, are made to
+appear moving before us as they moved when the picture was taken, is a
+marvellous invention; and yet simple when the process is understood.
+Photography and printing have combined to revolutionise the art of
+illustration. Exact copies of an original, whether of a painting or a
+photograph, are now produced on paper with all the original shades and
+colours. The long-sought-for problem of photographing in colours has in
+a measure been solved. The "three _colour processes_" is the name given
+to the new offspring of the inventors which reproduces by the camera the
+natural colours of objects.
+
+The scientists Maxwell Young and Helmholtz established the theory that
+the three colours, red, green, and blue, were the primary colours, and
+from a mixture of these, secondary colours are produced. Henry Collen in
+1865 laid down the lines on which the practical reduction should take
+place; and within the last decade F. E. Ives of Philadelphia has
+invented the _Photochromoscope_ for producing pictures in their natural
+colours. The process consists in blending in one picture the separate
+photographic views taken on separate negative plates, each sensitised to
+receive one of the primary colours, which are then exposed and blended
+simultaneously in a triple camera.
+
+Plates and films and many other articles and processes have helped to
+establish the Art of Photography on its new basis.
+
+Among the minor inventions relating to Art, mention may be made of that
+very useful article the lead _pencil_, which all have employed so much
+time in sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands. Within a
+decade, pencils in which the lead or crayon is covered instead of with
+wood, with slitted, perforated or creased paper, spirally rolled
+thereon, and on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new point is
+exposed; or that other style in which a number of short, sharpened
+marking leads, or crayons, are arranged in series and adapted to be
+projected one after the other as fast as worn away.
+
+_In Painting_ modern inventions and discoveries have simply added to the
+instrumentalities of genius but have created no royal road to the art
+made glorious by Titian and Raphael. It has given to the artists,
+through its chemists, a world of new colours, and through its mechanics
+new and convenient appliances.
+
+_Air Brushes_ have proved a great help by which the paint or other
+colouring matter is sprayed in heavy, light, or almost invisible showers
+to produce backgrounds by the force of air blown upon the pigments held
+in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube. Made of larger proportions,
+this brush has been used for fresco painting, and for painting large
+objects, such as buildings, which it admits of doing with great
+rapidity.
+
+A description of modern methods of applying colours to porcelain and
+pottery is given in the chapter treating of those subjects.
+
+_Telegraphic pictures_:--Perhaps it is appropriate in closing this
+chapter that reference be made to that process by which the likeness of
+the distant reader may be taken telegraphically. A picture in relief is
+first made by the swelled gelatine or other process; a tracing point is
+then moved in the lines across the undulating surface of the pictures,
+and the movements of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical
+apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the opposite end of the line
+and there reproduced upon a suitable substance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+SAFES AND LOCKS.
+
+
+Prior to the century safes were not constructed to withstand the test of
+intense heat. Efforts were numerous, however, to render them safe
+against the entrance of thieves, but the ingenuity of the thieves
+advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers. And the race
+between these two classes of inventors still continues. For with the
+exercise of a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks, aided by all
+the advancement of science as to the nature of metals, their tough
+manufacture and their resistance to explosives, thieves still manage to
+break in and steal. The only sure protection against burglars at the
+close of the nineteenth century appears to consist of what it was at the
+close of any previous century--the preponderance of physical force and
+the best weapons. Among the latest inventions are electrical connections
+with the safe, whereby tampering therewith alarms one or more watchmen
+at a near station.
+
+A classification of safes embraces, _Fire-proof_, _Burglar-proof_, _Safe
+Bolt Works_, _Express and Deposit Safes and Boxes_, _Circular Doors_,
+_Pressure Mechanism_, and _Water and Air Protective Devices_.
+
+The attention of the earliest inventors of the century were directed
+toward making safes fire-proof. In England the first patent granted for
+a fire-proof safe was to Richard Scott in 1801. It had two casings, an
+inner and outer one, including the door, and the interspace was filled
+in with charcoal, or wood, and treated with a solution of alkaline salt.
+
+This idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible material has
+been generally followed ever since. The particular inventions in that
+line consist in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials,
+variations in the form of the interspacing, and new methods in the
+construction of the casings, and the selection of the best metals for
+such construction.
+
+In 1834 William Marr of England patented a lining for a double metallic
+chest, filled with non-combustible materials such as mica, or talc clay,
+lime, and graphite. Asbestos commenced to be used about the same time.
+
+The great fire in New York City in 1835, destroying hundreds of millions
+of dollars' worth of property of every description, gave a great impetus
+to the invention of fire-proof safes in America.
+
+B. G. Wilder there patented in 1843 his celebrated safe, now extensively
+used throughout the world. It consisted of a double box of wrought-iron
+plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron, with a bar across the
+middle; and as a filling for the interspaces he used hydrated gypsum,
+hydraulic cement, plaster of paris, steatite, alum, and the dried
+residuum of soda water.
+
+Herring was another American who invented celebrated safes, made with a
+boiler-iron exterior, a hardened steel inner safe, with the interior
+filled with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft steel. Thus the
+earth, air and water were ransacked for lining materials, in some cases
+more for the purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish any real
+advance in the art. Water itself was introduced as a lining, made to
+flow through the safes, sometimes from the city mains, and so retained
+that when the temperature in case of fire reached 212� F. it became
+steam; and an arrangement for introducing steam in place of water was
+contrived. Among other lining materials found suitable were soapstone,
+alumina, ammonia, copperas, starch, Epsom salts, and gypsum, paper,
+pulp, and alum, and a mixture of various other materials.
+
+After safes were produced that would come out of fiery furnaces where
+they had been buried for days without even the smell of fire or smoke
+upon their contents, inventors commenced to direct their attention to
+burglar-proof safes.
+
+Chubb, in 1835, patented a process of rendering wooden safes burglar
+proof by lining them with steel, or case-hardened iron plate. Newton in
+1853 produced one made of an outer shell of cast iron, an interior
+network of wrought iron rods, and fluid iron poured between these, so
+that a compound mass was formed of different degrees of resistance to
+turn aside the burglar's tools. Chubb again, in 1857, and in subsequent
+years, and Chartwood, Glocker, and Thompson and Tann and others in
+England invented new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the
+drilling by tools. Hall and Marvin of the United States also invented
+safes for the same purpose. Hall had thick steel plates dovetailed
+together; and angle irons tenoned at the corners. Marvin's safe was
+globeshaped, to present no salient points for the action of tools, made
+of chrome steel, mounted in this shape on a platform, or enclosed in a
+fire-proof safe. Herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and
+grooved the doors with double casings, and which he hung with a
+lever-hinge, provided the doors with separate locks and packed all the
+joints with rubber to prevent the operation of the air pump--which had
+become a dangerous device of burglars with which to introduce explosives
+to blow open the doors.
+
+Still later and more elaborate means have been used to frustrate the
+burglars. Electricity has been converted into an automatic warder to
+guard the castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient
+stations when the locks or doors are meddled with and the proper
+manipulation not used. Express safes for railroad cars have been made of
+parts telescoped or crowded together by hydraulic power, requiring heavy
+machinery for locking and unlocking, and this machinery is located in
+machine shops along the route and not accessible to burglars.
+
+About 1815 inventors commenced to produce devices to show with certainty
+if a lock had been tampered with. The keyhole was closed by a revolving
+metallic curtain, and paper was secured over the keyhole. As a further
+means of detection photographs of some irregular object are made, one of
+which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained. This
+prevents the substitution of one piece of paper for another piece
+without detection. A large number of patents have been taken out on
+glass coverings for locks which have to be broken before the lock can be
+turned. These are called seal locks.
+
+Locks of various kinds, consisting at least of the two general features
+of a bolt and a key to move the bolt, have existed from very ancient
+days. The Egyptians, the Hebrews and the Chinese, and Oriental nations
+generally had locks and keys of ponderous size. Isaiah speaks of the key
+of the house of David; and Homer writes sonorously of the lock in the
+house of Penelope with its brazen key, the respondent wards, the flying
+bars and valves which,
+
+  "Loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring,
+  So roared the lock when it released the spring."
+
+The castles, churches and convents of the middle ages had their often
+highly ornamental locks and their warders to guard and open them. Later,
+locks were invented with complex wards. These are carved pieces of metal
+in the lock which fit into clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the
+lock from being opened except by its own proper key.
+
+As early as 1650 the Dutch had invented the Letter lock, the progenitor
+of the modern permutation lock, consisting of a lock the bolt of which
+is surrounded by several rings on which were cut the letters of the
+alphabet, which by a prearrangement on the part of the owner were made
+to spell a certain word or number of words before the lock could be
+opened. Carew, in verses written in 1621, refers to one of these locks
+as follows:--
+
+  "As doth a lock that goes with letters; for, till every one be known,
+  The lock's as fast as though you had found none."
+
+The art had also advanced in the eighteenth century to the use of
+_tumblers_ in locks, the lever or latch or plate which falls into a
+notch of the bolt and prevents it from being shot until it has been
+raised or released by the action of the key. Barron in England in 1778
+obtained a patent for such a lock.
+
+Joseph Bramah, who has before been referred to in connection with the
+hydraulic press he invented, also in 1784 invented and patented in
+England a lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a century's
+extensive use. It was the first, or among the first of locks which
+troubled modern burglars' picks. Its leading features were a key with
+longitudinal slots, a barrel enclosing a spring, plates, called sliders,
+notched unequally and resting against the spring, a plate with a central
+perforation and slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the
+slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be turned by the key so as
+to actuate the bolt. Chubb and Hobbs of England made important
+improvements in tumbler locks, which for a long time were regarded as
+unpickable.
+
+Most important advances have been made during the century in
+_Combination_ or _Permutation Locks_ and _Time Locks_. For a long time
+permutation or combination locks consisted of modifications of one
+general principle, and that was the Dutch letter lock already referred
+to, or the wheel lock, composed of a series of disks with letters around
+their edges. The interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt
+being shot until a series of letters were in line, forming a combination
+known only to the operator. Time locks are constructed on the principle
+of clockwork, so that they cannot be opened even with the proper key
+until a regulated interval of time has elapsed.
+
+Among the most celebrated combination and time locks of the century are
+those known as the Yale locks, chiefly the inventions of Louis Yale,
+Jr., of Philadelphia. The Yale double dial lock is a double combination
+bank or safe lock having two dials, each operating its own set of
+tumblers and bolts, so that two persons, each in possession of his own
+combination, must be present at a certain time in order to unlock it. If
+this double security is not desired, one person alone may be possessed
+of both combinations, or the combinations may be set as one. In their
+time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render it impossible to
+unlock except at a predetermined time each day, but the arrangement is
+such that on intervening Sundays the time mechanism will entirely
+prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of the door on that
+day.
+
+Another feature of the lock is the thin, flat keys with bevel-edged
+notchings, or with longitudinal sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow
+slit of a cylinder lock. To make locks for use with the corrugated keys
+machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised. In such a lock
+the keyhole, which is a little very narrow slit, is formed sinuously to
+correspond to the sinuosities of the key. No other key will fit it, nor
+can it be picked by a tool, as the tool must be an exact duplicate of
+the key in order to enter and move in the keyhole.
+
+Of late years numerous locks have been invented for the special uses to
+which they are to be applied. Thus, one type of lock is that for safety
+deposit vaults and boxes, in which a primary key in the keeping of a
+janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard mechanism to set the lock,
+while the box owner may use a secondary key to completely unlock the box
+or vault.
+
+Master, or secondary key locks, are now in common use in hotels and
+apartment-houses, by which the key of the door held by a guest will
+unlock only his door, but the master key held by the manager or janitor
+will unlock all the doors. This saves the duplication and multiplicity
+of a vast number of extra keys.
+
+The value of a simple, cheap, safe, effective lock in a place where its
+advantages are appreciated by all classes of people everywhere is
+illustrated in the application of the modern rotary registering lock to
+the single article of mail bags. Formerly it was not unusual that losses
+by theft of mail matter were due in part to the extraction of a portion
+of the mail matter by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring
+it in place.
+
+The United States, with its 76,000,000 of people, found it necessary to
+use in its mail service hundreds of thousands of mail pouches, having
+locks for securing packages of valuable matter. But these locks are of
+such character that it is impossible for anyone to break into the bag
+and conceal the evidence of his crime. The unfortunate thief is reduced
+to the necessity of stealing the whole pouch. Losses under this system
+have grown so small "as to be almost incapable of mathematical
+calculation."
+
+Safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes are now so common,
+even to prevent the unauthorised use of an umbrella, or the unfriendly
+taking away of a bicycle or other vehicle, that notwithstanding the
+nineteenth century dynamite with which burglars still continue to blow
+open the best constructed safes and vaults, still a universal sense of
+greater security in such matters is beginning to manifest itself; and
+not only the loss of valuables by fire and theft is becoming the
+exception, but the temptation to steal is being gradually removed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+CARRYING MACHINES.
+
+
+The reflecting observer delights occasionally to shift the scenes of the
+present stage and bring to the front the processions of the past. That
+famous triumphal one, for instance, of Ptolemy of Philadelphus, at
+Alexandria, about 270 B. C., then in the midst of his power and glory,
+in which there were chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants and
+goats, antelopes, oryxes, buffaloes, ostriches, gnus and zebras; then a
+tribe of the Scythians, when with many scores of oxen they were shifting
+their light, big round houses, made of felt cloth and mounted on road
+carts, to a new camping place; next a wild, mad dash of the Roman
+charioteers around the amphitheatre, or a triumphal march with chariots
+of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory; and now an army of
+the ancient Britons driving through these same charioteers of C�sar with
+their own rude chariots, having sharp hooks and crooked iron blades
+extending from their axles; now a "Lady's Chair" of the fourteenth
+century--the state carriage of the time--with a long, wooden-roofed and
+windowed body, having a door at each end, resting on a cumbrous frame
+without springs, and the axles united rigidly to a long reach; next
+comes a line of imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century,
+with bodies provided with pillars to support the roof, and adorned with
+curtains of cloth and leather, but still destitute of springs; and here
+in stately approach comes a line of more curious and more comfortable
+"royal coaches" of the seventeenth century, when springs were for the
+first time introduced; and now rumbles forward a line of those famous
+old English stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century, which
+were two days flying from Oxford to London, a distance of fifty-five
+miles; but a scene in the next century shows these ponderous vehicles
+greatly improved, and the modern English stage mail-coaches of Palmer in
+line. Referring to Palmer's coaches, Knight says: "Palmer, according to
+De Quincey, was twice as great a man as Galileo, because he not only
+invented mail-coaches (of more general practical utility than Jupiter's
+satellites), but married the daughter of a duke, and succeeded in
+getting the post-office to use them. This revolutionised the whole
+business." The coaches were built with steel springs, windows of great
+strength and lightness combined, boots for the baggage, seats for a few
+outside passengers, and a guard with a grand uniform, to protect the
+mail and stand for the dignity of his majesty's government.
+
+By the system of changing horses frequently great speed was attained,
+and the distance from Edinburgh to London, 400 miles, was made in 40
+hours. Other lines of coaches, arranged to carry double the number of
+passengers outside than in, fourteen to six, were made heavier, and took
+the road more leisurely.
+
+The carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous, heavy contrivances,
+without springs, mostly two-wheel, heavy carts.
+
+The middle classes at that time were not seen riding in coaches of their
+own, but generally on horseback, as the coaches of the rich were too
+expensive, and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in
+construction, and too painful in operation.
+
+Let the observer now pass to the largest and most varied exhibition of
+the best types of modern vehicles of every description that the world
+had ever seen, the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, and
+behold what wonderful changes art, science, invention, and mechanical
+skill had wrought in this domain. Here were the carriages of the rich,
+constructed of the finest and most appropriate woods that science and
+experience had found best adapted for the various parts, requiring the
+combination of strength and lightness, the best steel for the springs,
+embodying in themselves a world of invention and discovery, and splendid
+finish and polish in all parts unknown to former generations.
+
+Here, too, were found vehicles of a great variety for the comfort and
+convenience of every family, from the smallest to the largest means.
+
+The farmer and the truckman were especially provided for. One
+establishment making an exhibition at that time, employed some six
+hundred or seven hundred hands, four hundred horse-power of steam,
+turning out sixty wagons a day, or one in every ten minutes of each
+working day in the year.
+
+Here England showed her victoria, her broughams, landaus, ph�tons,
+sporting-carts, wagonettes, drays and dog-carts; Canada her splendid
+sleighs; France her superb barouches, carriages, double-top sociables,
+the celebrated Collinge patent axle-trees and springs; Germany the best
+carriage axles, springs and gears; Russia its famous low-wheeled
+fast-running carriages; Norway its carryalls, or sulkies, and sleighs
+strongly built, and made of wood from those vast forests that ever
+abound in strength and beauty. One ancient sleigh there was, demurely
+standing by its modern companions, said to have been built in 1625, and
+it was still good. America stood foremost in carriage wheels of best
+materials and beautiful workmanship, bent rims, turned and finished
+spokes, mortised hubs, steel tires, business and farm wagons, carts and
+baby carriages. Each trade and field of labour had its own especially
+adapted complete and finished vehicle. There were hay wagons and
+hearses; beer wagons and ice carts; doctors' buggies, express wagons,
+drays, package delivery wagons; peddlers' wagons with all the shelves
+and compartments of a miniature store, skeleton wagons, and sportsmen's,
+and light and graceful two and four "wheelers." Beautiful displays of
+bent and polished woods, a splendid array of artistic, elegant, and
+useful harnesses, and all the traps that go to make modern means of
+conveyance by animal power so cheap, convenient, strong and attractive
+that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in principles of
+construction of vehicles and in their materials, and since contents
+itself in improving details.
+
+To this century is due the development of that class of carriages, the
+generic term for which is _Velocipedes_--a word which would imply a
+vehicle propelled by the feet, although it has been applied to vehicles
+propelled by the hands and steered by the feet. This name originated
+with the French, and several Frenchmen patented velocipedes from 1800 to
+1821.
+
+Tricycles having three wheels, propelled by the hands and steered with
+the feet, were also invented in the early part of the century.
+
+The term _Bicycle_ does not appear to have been used until about 1869.
+
+Although such structures had been referred to in publications before,
+yet the modern bicycle appears to have been first practically
+constructed in Germany. In 1816 Baron von Drais of Manheim made a
+vehicle consisting of two wheels arranged one before the other, and
+connected by a bar, the forward wheel axled in a fork which was swiveled
+to the front end of the bar and had handles to guide the machine, with a
+seat on the bar midway between the two wheels, and arranged so that the
+driver should bestride the bar. But there was no support for the rider's
+feet, and the vehicle was propelled by thrusting his feet alternately
+against the ground. This machine was called the "Draisine" and
+undoubtedly was the progenitor of the modern bicycle. Denis Johnson
+patented in England in 1818 a similar vehicle which he named the
+"Pedestrian Curricle." Another style was called the "Dandy Horse."
+Another form was that of Gompertz in England in 1821, who contrived a
+segmental rack connected with a frame over the front wheel and engaging
+a pinion on the wheel axle. With some improvements added by others, the
+vehicle came into quite extensive and popular use in some of the cities
+in Europe and America. It was also named the "Dandy" and the "Hobby
+Horse." Treadles were subsequently applied, but after a time the machine
+fell into disuse and was apparently forgotten. In 1863, however, the
+idea was revived by a Frenchman, Michaux, who added the crank to the
+front wheel axle of the "Draisine" (also called the "c�l�rif�r�.") In
+1866 Pierre Lallement of France, having adapted the idea of the crank
+and pedal movement and obtained a patent, went to America, where after
+two years of public indifference the machine suddenly sprung into
+favour. In 1869 a popular wave in its favour also spread over part of
+Europe, and all classes of people were riding it.
+
+But the wheels had hard tires, the roads and many of the streets were
+not smooth, the vehicle got the name of the "bone-breaker" and its use
+ceased. During the few years following some new styles of frames were
+invented. Thus some very high wheels, with a small wheel in front, or
+one behind, wheels with levers in addition to the crank, etc., and then
+for a time the art rested again.
+
+Some one then recalled the fact that McMillan, a Scotchman, about
+1838-1841, had used two low wheels like the "Draisine" with a driving
+gear, and that Dalzell, also of Scotland, had in 1845 made a similar
+machine. Parts of these old machines were found and the wheel
+reconstructed. Then in the seventies the entire field was thrown open to
+women by the invention in England of the "drop frame," which removed
+completely the difficulty as to arrangement of the skirts and thus
+doubled the interest in and desire for a comfortable riding machine. But
+they were still, to a great degree, "bone-breakers."
+
+Then J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of Belfast, Ireland, in order to
+meet the complaints of his son that the wheel was too hard, thought of
+the _pneumatic rubber tire_, and applied it with great success. This was
+a very notable and original re-invention. A re-invention, because a man
+"born before his time" had invented and patented the pneumatic tire more
+than forty years before. It was not wanted then and everybody had
+forgotten it. This man was Robert William Thomson, a civil engineer of
+Adelphi, Middlesex county, England. In 1845 he obtained a patent in
+England, and shortly after in the United States. In both patents he
+describes how he proposed to make a tire for all kinds of vehicles
+consisting of a hollow rubber tube, with an inner mixed canvas and
+rubber lining, a tube and a screw cup by which to inflate it, and
+several ways for preventing punctures. To obviate the bad results of
+punctures he proposed also to make his tire in sectional compartments,
+so that if one compartment was punctured the others would still hold
+good. He also proposed to use vulcanised rubber, thus utilising the then
+very recent discovery of Goodyear of mixing sulphur with soft rubber,
+and to apply the same to the canvas lining.
+
+And, now, when the last decade of the century had been reached, and
+after a century's hard work by the inventors, the present wonderful
+vehicle, known as the "safety bicycle," had obtained a successful and
+permanent foothold among the vehicles of mankind. Proper proportions,
+low wheels, chain-gearing, treadles, pedals and cranks, cushion and
+pneumatic tires, drop frames, steel spokes like a spider's web,
+ball-bearings for the crank and axle parts, a spring-supported cushioned
+seat which could be raised or lowered, adjustable handles, and the
+clearest-brained scientific mechanics to construct all parts from the
+best materials and with mathematical exactness--all this has been done.
+To these accomplishments have been added a great variety of tires to
+prevent wear and puncturing, among which are _self-healing_ tires,
+having a lining of viscous or plastic rubber to close up automatically
+the air holes. Many ways of clamping the tire to the rim have been
+contrived. So have brakes of various descriptions, some consisting of
+disks on the driving shaft, brought into frictional contact by a touch
+of the toe on the pedal, as a substitute for those applied to the
+surface of the tire, known as "spoon brakes"; saddles, speed-gearings,
+men's machines in which by the removal of the upper bar the machine is
+converted into one for the use of women; the substitution of the direct
+action, consisting of beveled gearing for the sprocket chain, etc., etc.
+
+The ideas of William Thomson as to pneumatic and cushioned tires are
+now, after a lapse of fifty years, generally adopted. Even sportsmen
+were glad to seize upon them, and wheels of sulkies, provided with the
+pneumatic tires, have enabled them to lower the record of trotting
+horses. Their use on many other vehicles has accomplished his objects,
+"of lessening the power required to draw carriages, rendering the motion
+easier, and diminishing the noise."
+
+It is impossible to overlook the fact in connection with this subject
+that the processes and machinery especially invented to make the various
+parts of a bicycle are as wonderful as the wheel itself. Counting the
+spokes there are, it is estimated, more than 300 different parts in such
+a wheel. The best and latest inventions and discoveries in the making of
+metals, wood, rubber and leather have been drawn upon in supplying these
+useful carriers. And what a revolution they have produced in the making
+of good roads, the saving of time, the dispatch of business, and more
+than all else, in the increase of the pleasure, the health and the
+amusement of mankind!
+
+It was quite natural that when the rubber cushion and pneumatic tires
+rounded the pleasure of easy and noiseless riding in vehicles that
+_Motor vehicles_ should be revived and improved. So we have the
+_Automobiles_ in great variety. Invention has been and is still being
+greatly exercised as to the best motive power, in the adaption of
+electric motors, oil and gasoline or vapour engines, springs and air
+pumps, in attempts to reduce the number of complicated parts, and to
+render less strenuous the mental and muscular strain of the operator.
+
+_Traction Engines._--The old road engines that antedated the locomotives
+are being revived, and new ideas springing from other arts are being
+incorporated in these useful machines to render them more available than
+in former generations. Many of the principles and features of motor
+vehicles, but on a heavier scale, are being introduced to adapt them to
+the drawing of far heavier loads. Late devices comprise a spring link
+between the power and the traction wheel to prevent too sudden a start,
+and permit a yielding motion; steering devices by which the power of the
+engine is used to steer the machine; and application of convenient and
+easily-worked brakes.
+
+An example of a modern traction engine may be found attached to one or
+more heavy cars adapted for street work, and on which may be found
+apparatus for making the mixed materials of which the roadbed is to be
+constructed, and all of which is moved along as the road or street
+surface is completed. When these fine roads become the possession of a
+country light traction engines for passenger traffic will be found
+largely supplanting the horse and the steam railroad engines.
+
+_Brakes_, railway and electric, have already been referred to in the
+proper chapters. In the latest system of railroading greater attention
+has been paid to the lives and limbs of those employed as workmen on the
+trains, especially to those of brakemen. And if corporations have been
+slow to adopt such merciful devices, legislatures have stepped in to
+help the matter. One great source of accidents in this respect has been
+due to the necessity of the brakemen entering between the cars while
+they are in motion to couple them by hand. This is now being abolished
+by _automatic couplers_, by which, when the locking means have been
+withdrawn from connection or thrown up, they will be so held until the
+cars meet again, when the locking parts on the respective cars will be
+automatically thrown and locked, as easily and on the same principle as
+the hand of one man may clasp the hand of another.
+
+The comfort of passengers and the safety of freight have also been
+greatly increased by the invention of _Buffers_ on railroad cars and
+trains to prevent sudden and violent concussion. Fluid pressure car
+buffers, in which a constant supply of fluid under pressure is provided
+by a pump or train pipe connected to the engine is one of a great
+variety.
+
+Another notable improvement in this line is the splendid vestibule
+trains, in which the cars are connected to one another by enclosed
+passages and which at their meeting ends are provided with yieldingly
+supported door-like frames engaging one another by frictional contact,
+usually, whereby the shock and rocking of cars are prevented in starting
+and stopping, and their oscillation reduced to a minimum.
+
+As collisions and accidents cannot always be prevented, car frames are
+now built in which the frames are trussed, and made of rolled steel
+plates, angles, and channels, whereby a car body of great resistance to
+telescoping or crushing is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING.
+
+    "Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam,
+    Survey our empire, and behold our home."
+
+
+"Ships are but boards," soliloquised the crafty Shylock, and were this
+still true, yet this present period has seen wonderful changes in
+construction.
+
+The high castellated bows and sterns and long prows of _The Great
+Harry_, of the seventeenth century, and its successors in the
+eighteenth, with some moderation of cumbersome matter, gave way to
+lighter, speedier forms, first appearing in the quick-gliding Yankee
+clippers, during the first decade of the nineteenth century.
+
+Eminent naval architects have regarded the proportions of Noah's ark,
+300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad and 30 cubits high, in which the length
+was six times the breadth, and the depth three-fifths of the breadth, as
+the best combination of the elements of strength, capacity and
+stability.
+
+Even that most modern mercantile vessel known as the "whale-back" with
+its nearly flat bottom, vertical sides, arched top or deck, skegged or
+spoon-shaped at bow and stern, straight deck lines, the upper deck
+cabins and steering gear raised on hollow turrets, with machinery and
+cargo in the main hull, has not departed much from the safe rule of
+proportions of its ancient prototype.
+
+But in other respects the ideas of Noah and of the Ph[oe]nicians, the
+best of ancient ship-builders, as well as the Northmen, the Dutch, the
+French, and the English, the best ship-builders of later centuries, were
+decidedly improved upon by the Americans, who, as above intimated, were
+revolutionizing the art and building the finest vessels in the early
+part of the century, and these rivalled in speed the steam vessels for
+some years after steamships were ploughing the rivers and the ocean.
+
+Discarding the lofty decks fore and aft and ponderous topsides, the
+principal characteristics of the American "clippers" were their fine
+sharp lines, built long and low, broad of beam before the centre, sharp
+above the water, and deep aft. A typical vessel of this sort was the
+clipper ship _Great Republic_, built by Donald McKay of Boston during
+the first half of the century. She was 325 feet long, 53 feet wide, 37
+feet deep, with a capacity of about 4000 tons. She had four masts, each
+provided with a lightning rod. A single suit of her sails consisted of
+15,563 yards of canvas. Her keel rose for 60 feet forward, gradually
+curved into the arc of a circle as it blended with the stern. Vessels of
+her type ran seventeen and eighteen miles an hour at a time when steam
+vessels were making only twelve or fourteen miles an hour, the latter
+speed being one which it was predicted by naval engineers could not with
+safety be exceeded with ocean steamships.
+
+These vessels directed the attention of ship-builders to two prominent
+features, the shape of the bow and the length of the vessel. For the old
+convex form of bow and stern, the principal of an elongated wedge was
+substituted, the wedge slightly hollowed on its face, by which the
+waters were more easily parted and thrown aside.
+
+A departure was early made in the matter of strengthening the "ribs of
+oak" to better meet the strains from the rough seas. In 1810 Sir Robert
+Seppings, surveyor of the English navy, devised and introduced the
+system of diagonal bracing. This was an arrangement of timbers crossing
+the ribs on the inside of the ship at angles of about 45�, and braced by
+diagonals and struts.
+
+Of course the great and leading event of the nineteenth century in the
+matter of inventions relating to ships was the introduction of steam as
+the motive power. Of this we have treated in the chapter on steam
+engineering. The giant, steam, demanded and received the obeisance of
+every art before devoting his inexhaustible strength to their service.
+Systems of wood-working and metal manufacture must be revolutionised to
+give him room to work, and to withstand the strokes of his mighty arm.
+Lord Dundas at the beginning of the century had an iron boat built for
+the Forth and Clyde Canal, which was propelled by steam.
+
+But the departure from the adage that "ships are but boards" did not
+take place, however, until about 1829-30, when the substitution of iron
+for wood in the construction of vessels had passed beyond the
+experimental stage. In those years the firm of John Laird of Birkenhead
+began the building of practical iron vessels, and he was followed soon
+by Sir William Fairbairn at Manchester, and Randolph, Elder & Co., and
+the Fairfield Works on the Clyde.
+
+The advantage of iron over wood in strength, and in power to withstand
+tremendous shocks, was early illustrated in the _Great Britain_ built
+about 1844, the first large, successful, seagoing vessel constructed.
+Not long thereafter this same vessel lay helpless upon the coast of
+Ireland, driven there by a great storm, and beaten by the tremendous
+waves of the Atlantic with a force that would have in a few hours or
+days broken up and pulverised a "ship of boards," and yet the _Great
+Britain_ lay there several weeks, was finally brought off, and again
+restored to successful service.
+
+Wood and iron both have their peculiar advantages and disadvantages.
+Wood is not only lighter, but easily procured and worked, and cheaper,
+in many small and private ship-yards where an iron frame and parts would
+be difficult and expensive to produce. It is thought that as to the
+fouling of ships' bottoms a wooden hull covered with copper fouls less,
+and consequently impedes the speed less; that the damage done by shocks
+or the penetration of shot is not so great or difficult to repair, and
+that the danger of variation of the compass by reason of local
+attraction of the metal is less.
+
+But the advantages of iron and steel far outnumber those of wood. Its
+strength, its adaptability for all sizes and forms and lines, its
+increased cheapness, its resistance to shot penetration, its durability,
+and now its easy procurement, constitute qualities which have
+established iron ship-building as a great new and modern art. In this
+modern revolution in iron-clad ships, their adaptation to naval warfare
+was due to the genius of John Ericsson, and dates practically from the
+celebrated battle between the iron-clads the _Merrimac_ and the
+_Monitor_ in Hampton Roads on the Virginia coast in the Civil war in
+America in April, 1862.
+
+Although the tendency at first in building iron and steel vessels,
+especially for the navy, was towards an entire metal structure, later
+experience resulted in a more composite style, using wood in some parts,
+where found best adapted by its capacity of lightness, non-absorption of
+heat and less electrical conductivity, etc., and at the same time
+protecting such interior portions by an iron shell or frame-work.
+
+One great improvement in ship-building, whether in wood or metal,
+thought of and practised to some extent in former times, but after all a
+child of this century, is the building of the hull and hold in
+compartments, water-tight, and sometimes fire-proof, so that in case of
+a leakage or a fire in one or more compartments, the fire or water may
+be confined there and the extension of the danger to the entire ship
+prevented.
+
+In the matter of _Marine Propulsion_, when the steam engine was made a
+practical and useful servant by Watt, and men began to think of driving
+boats and ships with it, the problem was how to adapt it to use with
+propelling means already known. Paddle-wheels and other wheels to move
+boats in place of oars had been suggested, and to some extent used from
+time to time, since the days of the Romans; and they were among the
+first devices used in steam vessels. Their whirl may still be heard on
+many waters. Learned men saw no reason why the screw of Archimedes
+should not be used for the same purpose, and the idea was occasionally
+advocated by French and English philosophers from at least 1680, by
+Franklin and Watt less than a century later, and finally, in 1794,
+Lyttleton of England obtained a patent for his "aquatic propeller,"
+consisting of threads formed on a cylinder and revolving in a frame at
+the head, stern, or side of a vessel.
+
+Other means had been also suggested prior to 1800, and by the same set
+of philosophers, and experimentally used by practical builders, such as
+steam-pumps for receiving the water forward, or amidships, and forcing
+it out astern, thus creating a propulsive movement. The latter part of
+the eighteenth century teemed with these suggestions and experiments,
+but it remained for the nineteenth to see their embodiment and
+adaptation to successful commercial use.
+
+The earliest, most successful demonstrations of screw propellers and
+paddle wheels in steam vessels in the century were the construction and
+use of a boat with twin screws by Col. John Stevens of Hoboken, N. J.,
+in 1804 and the paddle-wheel steamboat trial of Fulton on the Hudson in
+1807.
+
+But it was left to John Ericsson, that great Swedish inventor, going to
+England in 1826 with his brain full of ideas as to steam and solar
+engines, to first perfect the screw-propeller. He there patented in 1836
+his celebrated propeller, consisting of several blades or segments of a
+screw, and based on such correct principles of twist that they were at
+once adopted and applied to steam vessels.
+
+In 1837-1839 the knowledge of his inventions had preceded him to
+America, where his propeller was at once introduced and used in the
+vessels _Frances B. Ogden_ and the _Robert E. Stockton_ (the latter
+built by the Lairds of Birkenhead and launched in 1837). In 1839 or 1840
+Ericsson went to America, and in 1841 he was engaged in the construction
+of the U.S. ship of war _Princeton_, the first naval screw warship built
+having propelling machinery under the water line and out of reach of
+shot.
+
+The idea that steamships could not be safely run at a greater speed than
+ten or twelve miles an hour was now abandoned.
+
+Twice Ericsson revolutionised the naval construction of the world by his
+inventions in America: first by the introduction of his screw-propeller
+in the _Princeton_; and second, by building the iron-clad _Monitor_.
+
+Since Ericsson's day other inventors have made themselves also famous by
+giving new twists to the tail of this famous fish and new forms to its
+iron-ribbed body.
+
+_Pneumatic Propellers_ operated by the expulsion of air or gas against
+the surrounding body of water, and chain-propellers, consisting of a
+revolving chain provided with paddles or floats, have also been invented
+and tested, with more or less successful results.
+
+A great warship as she lies in some one of the vast modern ship-yards of
+the world, resting securely on her long steel backbone, from which great
+ribs of steel rise and curve on either side and far overhead, like a
+monstrous skeleton of some huge animal that the sea alone can produce,
+clothed with a skin, also of steel; her huge interior, lined at bottom
+with an armoured deck that stretches across the entire breadth of the
+vessel, and built upon this deck, capacious steel compartments enclosing
+the engines and boilers, the coal, the magazines, the electric plant for
+supplying power to various motors for lighting the ship and for
+furnishing the current to powerful search-lights; having compartments
+for the sick, the apothecary shop, and the surgeon's hospital, the men's
+and the officers' quarters; above these the conning tower and the
+armoured pilot-house, then the great guns interspersed among these
+various parts, looking like the sunken eyes, or protruding like the bony
+prominences of some awful sea monster, is a structure that gives one an
+idea of the immense departure which has occurred during the last half
+century, not only from the wooden walls of the navies of all the past,
+but from all its mechanical arts.
+
+What a great ocean liner contains and what the contributions are to
+modern ship-building from other modern arts is set forth in the
+following extract from _McClure's Magazine_ for September, 1900, in
+describing the _Deutschland_. "The _Deutschland_, for instance has a
+complete refrigerating plant, four hospitals, a safety deposit vault for
+the immense quantities of gold and silver which pass between the banks
+of Europe and America, eight kitchens, a complete post-office with
+German and American clerks, thirty electrical motors, thirty-six pumps,
+most of them of American and English make, no fewer than seventy-two
+steam engines, a complete drug store, a complete fire department, with
+pumps, hose and other fire-fighting machinery, a library, 2600 electric
+lights, two barber shops, room for an orchestra and brass band, a
+telegraph system, a telephone system, a complete printing establishment,
+a photographic dark room, a cigar store, an electric fire-alarm system,
+and a special refrigerator for flowers."
+
+We have seen, in treating of safes and locks, how burglars keep pace
+with the latest inventions to protect property by the use of dynamite
+and nitro-glycerine explosions. The reverse of this practice prevails
+when those policemen of the seas, the _torpedo boats_, guard the
+treasures of the shore. It is there the defenders are armed with the
+irresistible explosives. These explosives are either planted in harbours
+and discharged by electricity from the shore, or carried by very swift
+armoured boats, or by boats capable of being submerged, directed, and
+propelled by mechanisms contained there and controlled from the shore,
+or from another vessel; or by boats containing all instrumentalities,
+crew, and commander, and capable of submerging and raising itself, and
+of attacking and exploding the torpedo when and where desired. The
+latter are now considered as the most formidable and efficient class of
+destroyers.
+
+No matter how staunch, sound and grand in dimensions man may build his
+ships, old Neptune can still toss them. But Franklin, a century and a
+half ago, called attention to his experiments of oiling his locks when
+in a tempestuous mood, and thus rendering the temper of the Old Man of
+the Sea as placid as a summer pond. Ships that had become unmanageable
+were thus enabled, by spreading oil on the waves from the windward side,
+to be brought under control, and dangerous surfs subdued, so that boats
+could land. Franklin's idea of pouring oil on the troubled waters has
+been revived during the last quarter of the century and various means
+for doing it vigorously patented. The means have varied in many
+instances, but chiefly consist of bags and other receptacles to hold and
+distribute the oil upon the surrounding water with economy and
+uniformity.
+
+At the close of the century the world was still waiting for the
+successful _Air-ship_.
+
+A few successful experiments in balloon navigation by the aid of small
+engines of different forms have been made since 1855. Some believe that
+Count Zeppelin, an officer of the German army has solved the great
+problem, especially since the ascent of his ship made on July 2, 1900,
+at Lake Constance.
+
+It has been asserted that no vessel has yet been made to successfully
+fly unless made on the balloon principle, and Count Zeppelin's boat is
+on that principle. According to the description of Eugen Wolf, an
+aeronaut who took part in the ascent referred to and who published an
+account of the same in the November number of _McClure's_, 1900, it is
+not composed of one balloon, but of a row of them, and these are not
+exposed when inflated to every breeze that blows, but enclosed and
+combined in an enormous cylindrical shell, 420 feet in length, about 38
+feet in diameter, with a volume of 14,780 cubic yards and with ends
+pointed like a cigar. This shell is a framework made up of aluminium
+trellis work, and divided into seventeen compartments, each having its
+own gas bag. The frame is further strengthened and the balloons stayed
+by a network of aluminium wire, and the entire frame covered with a soft
+ramie fibre. Over this is placed a water-tight covering of pegamoid, and
+the lower part covered with light silk. An air space of two feet is left
+between the cover and the balloons. Beneath the balloons extends a
+walking bridge 226 feet long, and from this bridge is suspended two
+aluminium cars, at front and rear of the centre, adapted to hold all the
+operative machinery and the operator and other passengers.
+
+The balloons, provided with proper valves, served to lift the structure;
+large four-winged screws, one on each side of the ship, their shafts
+mounted on a light framework extending from the body of the ship, and
+driven backward and forward by two light benzine engines, one on each
+car, constituted the propelling force. Dirigibility (steering) was
+provided for by an apparatus consisting of a double pair of rudders, one
+pair forward and one aft, reaching out like great fins, and controlled
+by light metal cords from the cars. A ballast of water was carried in a
+compartment under each car. To give the ship an upward or a downward
+movement the plane on which the ship rests was provided with a weight
+adapted to slip back and forth on a cable underneath the balloon shell.
+When the weight was far aft the tip of the ship was upward and the
+movement was upward, when at the forward end the movement was downward,
+and when at the centre the ship was poised and travelled in a horizontal
+plane. The trip was made over the lake on a quiet evening. A distance of
+three and three-quarter miles, at a height of 1300 feet, was made in
+seventeen minutes. Evolutions from a straight course were accomplished.
+The ship was lowered to the lake, on which it settled easily and rode
+smoothly.
+
+The other great plan of air navigation receiving the attention of
+scientists and aeronauts is the aeroplane system. Although the cohesive
+force of the air is so exceedingly small that it cannot be relied upon
+as a sufficient resisting medium through which propulsion may be
+accomplished alone by a counter-resisting agent like propeller blades,
+yet it is known what weight the air has and it has been ascertained what
+expanse of a thin plane is necessary without other means to support the
+weight of a man in the air.
+
+To this idea must be added the means of flight, of starting and
+maintaining a stable flight and of directing its course. Careful
+observation of the manner of the flight of large heavy birds, especially
+in starting, has led to some successful experiments. They do not rise at
+once, but require an initiative force for soaring which they obtain by
+running on the ground before spreading their wings. The action of the
+wings in folding and unfolding for maintaining the flight and
+controlling its direction, is then to be noted.
+
+It is along these lines that inventions in this system are now working.
+An initiative mechanism to start the ship along the earth or water, to
+raise it at an angle, to spread planes of sufficient extent to support
+the weight of the machine and its operators on the body of the air
+column, light engines to give the wing-planes an opening and closing
+action, rudders to steer by, means for maintaining equilibrium, and
+means when landing to float upon the water or roll upon the land, these
+are the principal problems that navigators of the great seas above us
+are now at work upon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+ILLUMINATING GAS.
+
+  "How wonderful that sunbeams absorbed by vegetation in the primordial
+  ages of the earth and buried in its depths as vegetable fossils
+  through immeasurable eras of time, until system upon system of slowly
+  formed rocks have been piled above, should come forth at last, at the
+  disenchanting touch of science, and turn the light of civilised man
+  into day."--_Prof. E. L. Youmans._
+
+  "The invention of artificial light has extended the available term
+  of human life, by giving the night to man's use; it has, by the
+  social intercourse it encourages, polished his manners and refined
+  his tastes, and perhaps as much as anything else, has aided his
+  intellectual progress."--_Draper._
+
+
+If one desires to know what the condition of cities, towns and peoples
+was before the nineteenth century had lightened and enlightened them,
+let him step into some poor country town in some out-of-the-way region
+(and such may yet be found) at night, pick his way along rough
+pavements, and no pavements, by the light of a smoky lamp placed here
+and there at corners, and of weeping lamps and limp candles in the
+windows of shops and houses, and meet people armed with tin lanterns
+throwing a dubious light across the pathways. Let him be prepared to be
+assailed by the odours of undrained gutters, ditches, and roads called
+streets, and escape, if he can, stumbling and falling into them. Let him
+take care also that he avoid in the darkness the drippings from the
+overhanging eaves or windows, and falling upon the slippery steps of the
+dim doorway he may be about to enter. Within, let him overlook, if he
+can, in the hospitable reception, the dim and smoky atmosphere, and
+observe that the brightest and best as well as the most cheerful
+illuminant flashes from the wide open fireplace. Occasionally a glowing
+grate might be met. The eighteenth century did have its glowing grates,
+and its still more glowing furnaces of coal in which the ore was melted
+and by the light of which the castings were made.
+
+It is very strange that year after year for successive generations men
+saw the hard black coal break under the influence of heat and burst into
+flames which lit up every corner, without learning, beyond sundry
+accidents and experiments, that this _gast_, or _geest_, or _spirit_, or
+_vapour_, or _gas_, as it was variously called, could be led away from
+its source, ignited at a distance, and made to give light and heat at
+other places than just where it was generated.
+
+Thus Dr. Clayton, Dean of Kildare, Ireland, in 1688 distilled gas from
+coal and lit and burned it, and told his learned friend, the Hon. Robert
+Boyle, about it, who announced it with interest to the Royal Society,
+and again it finds mention in the _Philosophical Transactions_ fifty
+years later. Then, in 1726, Dr. Hales told how many cubic inches of gas
+a certain number of grains of coal would produce. Then Bishop Watson in
+1750 passed some gas through water and carried it in pipes from one
+place to another; and then Lord Dundonald in 1786 built some ovens,
+distilled coal and tar, burned the gas, and got a patent. In the same
+year, Dr. Rickel of W�rzburg lighted his laboratory with gas made by the
+dry distillation of bones; but all these were experiments. Finally,
+William Murdock, the owner of large workshops at Redruth, in Cornwall, a
+practical man and mechanic, and a keen observer, using soft coal to a
+large extent in his shops, tried with success in 1792 to collect the
+escaping gas and with it lit up the shops. Whether he continued steadily
+to so use the gas or only at intervals, at any rate it seems to have
+been experimental and failed to attract attention. It appears that he
+repeated the experiment at the celebrated steam engine works of Boulton
+and Watt at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1798, and again illuminated the
+works in 1802, on occasion of a peace jubilee.
+
+In the meantime, in 1801, Le Bon, a Frenchman at Paris, had succeeded in
+making illuminating gas from wood, lit his house therewith, and proposed
+to light the whole city of Paris.
+
+Thus it may be said that illuminating gas and the new century were born
+together--the former preceding the latter a little and lighting the way.
+
+Then in 1803 the English periodicals began to take the matter up and
+discuss the whole subject. One magazine objected to its use in houses on
+the ground that the curtains and furniture would be ruined by the
+saturation produced by the oxygen and hydrogen, and that the curtains
+would have to be wrung out the next morning after the illumination.
+There doubtless was good cause for objection to the smoky, unpleasant
+smelling light then produced.
+
+In America in 1806 David Melville of Newport, Rhode Island, lighted with
+gas his own house and the street in front of it. In 1813 he took out a
+patent and lighted several factories. In 1817 his process was applied to
+Beaver Tail Lighthouse on the Atlantic coast--the first use of
+illuminating gas in lighthouses. Coal oil and electricity have since
+been found better illuminants for this purpose.
+
+Murdoch, Winser, Clegg and others continued to illuminate the public
+works and buildings of England. Westminster Bridge and the Houses of
+Parliament were lighted in 1813, and the streets of London in 1815.
+Paris was lighted in 1820, and the largest American cities from 1816 to
+1825. But it required the work of the chemists as well as the mechanics
+to produce the best gas. The rod of Science had touched the rock again
+and from the earth had sprung another servant with power to serve
+mankind, and waited the skilled brain and hand to direct its course.
+
+Produced almost entirely from bituminous coal, it was found to be
+composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen; but various other gases
+were mixed therewith. To determine the proper proportions of these
+gases, to know which should be increased or wholly or partly eliminated,
+required the careful labours of patient chemists. They taught also how
+the gas should be distilled, condensed, cleaned, scrubbed, confined in
+retorts, and its flow measured and controlled.
+
+Fortunately the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part
+of the nineteenth had produced chemists whose investigations and
+discoveries paved the way for success in this revolution in the world of
+light. Priestley had discovered oxygen. Dalton had divided matter into
+atoms, and shown that in its every form, whether solid, liquid, or
+gaseous, these atoms had their own independent, characteristic,
+unalterable weight, and that gases diffused themselves in certain
+proportions.
+
+Berthollet, Graham, and a host of others in England, France, and
+Germany, advanced the art. The highest skilled mechanics, like Clegg of
+England, supplied the apparatus. He it was who invented a gas purifier,
+liquid gas meter, and other useful contrivances.
+
+As the character of the gas as an illuminator depends on the quantity of
+hydro-carbon, or olefiant elements it contains, great efforts were made
+to invent processes and means of carbureting it.
+
+The manufacture of gas was revolutionised by the invention of water gas.
+The main principle of this process is the mixture of hydrogen with the
+vapour of some hydro-carbon: Hydrogen burns with very little light and
+the purpose of the hydro-carbon is to increase the brilliancy of the
+flame. The hydrogen gas is so obtained by the decomposition of water,
+effected by passing steam through highly heated coals.
+
+Patents began to be taken out in this line in England in 1823-24; by
+Donovan in 1830; Geo. Lowe in 1832, and White in 1847. But in England
+water gas could not compete with coal gas in cheapness. On the contrary,
+in America, especially after the petroleum wells were opened up, and
+nature supplied the hydro-carbon in roaring wells and fountains, water
+gas came to the front.
+
+The leading invention there in this line was that of T. S. C. Lowe of
+Morristown, Pennsylvania, in 1873. In Lowe's process anthracite coal
+might be used, which was raised in a suitable retort to a great heat,
+then superheated steam admitted over this hot bed and decomposed into
+hydrogen and carbonic oxide; then a small stream of naphtha or crude
+petroleum was thrown upon the surface of the burning coal, and from
+these decompositions and mixtures a rich olefiant product and other
+light-giving gases were produced.
+
+The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1886 awarded Lowe, or his
+representatives, a grand medal of honour, his being the invention
+exhibited that year which in their opinion contributed most to the
+welfare of mankind.
+
+A number of inventors have followed in the direction set by Lowe. The
+largest part of gas manufacture, which has become so extensive, embodies
+the basic idea of the Lowe process.
+
+The competition set up by the electricians, especially in the production
+of the beautiful incandescent light for indoor illumination, has spurred
+inventors of gas processes to renewed efforts--much to the benefit of
+that great multitude who sit in darkness until corporations furnish them
+with light.
+
+It was found by Siemens, the great German inventor of modern gas
+regenerative furnace systems, that the quality of the gas was much
+improved, and a greater intensity of light obtained, by heating the
+gases and air before combustion--a plan particularly adapted in lighting
+large spaces.
+
+To describe in detail the large number of inventions relating to the
+manufacture of gas would require a huge volume--the generators,
+carburetors, retorts, mixers, purifiers, metres, scrubbers, holders,
+condensers, governors, indicators, registers, chargers, pressure
+regulators, etc., etc.
+
+It was a great convenience outside of towns and cities, where gas mains
+could not be laid, to have domestic plants and portable gas apparatus,
+worked on the same principles, but in miniature form, adapted to a
+single house, but the exercise of great ingenuity was required to render
+such adaptation successful.
+
+In the use of liquid illuminants, which need a wick to feed them, the
+_Argand burner_--that arrangement of concentric tubes between which the
+wick is confined--although invented by Argand in 1784, yet has occupied
+a vast field of usefulness in connection with the lamps of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+A dangerous but very extensively used illuminating liquid before coal
+oil was discovered was camphene, distilled from turpentine. It gave a
+good light but was not a safe domestic companion.
+
+Great attention has recently been paid to the production of _acetylene_
+gas, produced by the reaction between _calcium carbide_ and water. The
+making of the calcium carbide by the decomposition of mixed pulverised
+lime and coal by the use of a powerful electric battery, is a
+preliminary step in the production of this gas, and was a subsequent
+discovery.
+
+The electric light, acetylene, magnesium, and other modern sources of
+light, although they may be more brilliant and intense than coal gas,
+cannot compete in cheapness of production with the latter. Thus far
+illuminating coal gas is still the queen of artificial lights.
+
+After gas was fairly started in lighting streets and buildings its
+adaptation to lamps followed; and among the most noted of gas lamps is
+that of Von Welsbach, who combined a bunsen gas flame and a glass
+chimney with a "_mantle_" located therein. This mantle is a gauze-like
+structure made of refractory quartz, or of certain oxides, which when
+heated by the gas flame produce an incandescent glow of intense
+brilliancy, with a reduced consumption of gas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+BRICK, POTTERY, GLASS, PLASTICS.
+
+
+When the nineteenth century dawned, men were making brick in the same
+way for the most part that they were fifty centuries before. It is
+recorded in the eleventh chapter of Genesis that when "the whole earth
+was of one language and one speech, it came to pass as they journeyed
+from the east that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they
+dwelt there, and they said to one another, Go to, let us make brick and
+burn them thoroughly, And they had brick for stone, and slime had they
+for mortar." Then commenced the building of Babel. Who taught the trade
+to the brick-makers of Shinar?
+
+The journey from the east continued, and with it went brick making to
+Greece and Rome, across the continent of Europe, across the English
+channel, until the brick work of C�sar, stamped by the trade mark of his
+legions, was found on the banks of the Thames, and through the fields of
+Caerleon and York.
+
+Alfred the Great encouraged the trade, and the manufacture flourished
+finely under Henry VIII., Elizabeth and Charles I.
+
+As to Pottery:--Could we only know who among the peoples of the earth
+first discovered, used, or invented fire, we might know who were the
+first makers of baked earthenware. Doubtless the art of pottery arose
+before men learned to bake the plastic clay, in that groping time when
+men, kneading the soft clay with their fingers, or imprinting their
+footsteps in the yielding surface and learning that the sun's heat
+stiffened and dried those forms into durability, applied the discovery
+to the making of crude vessels, as children unto this day make dishes
+from the tenacious mud. But the artificial burning of the vessels was no
+doubt a later imitation of Nature.
+
+Alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone implements have been
+found the hollow clay dish for holding fire, or food, or water. "As the
+fragment of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision, the dream
+of a vanished hand, a draught of water from a familiar spring, the
+almost perished fragrance of a pressed flower call back the singer, the
+loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood, or the parting
+hour, so in the same manner there linger in this crowning decade of the
+crowning century bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole
+people the fragrance and beauty of its past." _Prof. O. T. Mason._ The
+same gifted writer, adds: "Who has not read, with almost breaking heart,
+the story of Palissy, the Huguenot potter? But what have our witnesses
+to say of that long line of humble creatures that conjured out of
+prophetic clay, without wheels or furnace, forms and decorations of
+imperishable beauty, which are now being copied in glorified material in
+the best factories of the world? In ceramic as well as textile art the
+first inventors were women. They quarried the clay, manipulated it,
+constructed and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace and wore
+it out in a hundred uses."
+
+From the early dawn of human history to its present noonday civilisation
+the progress of man may be traced in his pottery. Before printing was an
+art, he inscribed on it his literature. Poets and painters have adorned
+it; and in its manufacture have been embodied through all ages the
+choicest discoveries of the chemist, the inventor and the mechanic.
+
+It would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery from at least the
+time of Homer, who draws a metaphor from the potter seated before his
+wheel and twirling it with both hands, as he shapes the plastic clay
+upon it; to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured vases, covered
+with Egyptian scenes and history; to re-excite wonder over the arts of
+China, in her porcelain, the production of its delicacy and bright
+colours wrapped in such mystery, and stagnant for so many ages, but
+revived and rejuvenated in Japan; to recall to mind the styles and
+composition of the Ph[oe]nician vases with mythological legends burned
+immortally therein; the splendid work of the Greek potteries; to lift
+the Samian enwreathed bowl, "filled with Samian wine"; to look upon the
+Roman pottery, statues and statuettes of Rome's earlier and better days;
+the celebrated _Faience_ (enamelled pottery) at its home in Faenza,
+Italy, and from the hands of its master, Luca della Robia; to trace the
+history of the rare Italian majolica; to tread with light steps the
+bright tiles of the Saracens; to rehearse the story of Bernard Palissy,
+the father of the beautiful French enamelled ware; to bring to view the
+splendid old ware of Nuremberg, the raised white figures on the deep
+blue plaques of Florence, the honest Delft ware of Holland; and finally
+to relate the revolution in the production of pottery throughout all
+Europe caused by the discoveries and inventions of Wedgwood of England
+in the eighteenth century. All this would be interesting, but we must
+hasten on to the equally splendid and more practical works of the busy
+nineteenth century, in which many toilsome methods of the past have been
+superseded by labour-saving contrivances.
+
+The application of machinery to the manufacture of brick began to
+receive attention during the latter part of the eighteenth century,
+after Watt had harnessed steam, and a few patents were issued in England
+and America at that time for such machinery of that character, but
+little was practically done.
+
+The operations in _brickmaking_, to the accomplishment of which by
+machines the inventors of the nineteenth century have devoted great
+talent, relate:
+
+First, to the preparation of the clay.--In ancient Egypt, in places
+where water abounded, it appears that the clay was lifted from the
+bottoms of ponds and lakes on the end of poles, was formed into bricks,
+then sun-dried, modernly called _adobes_. The clay for making these
+required a stiffening material. For this straw was used, mixed with the
+clay; and stubble was also used in the different courses. Hence the old
+metaphor of worthlessness of "bricks without straw," but of course in
+burning, and in modern processes of pressing unburnt bricks, straw is no
+longer used. Sand should abound in the clay in a certain proportion, or
+be mixed therewith, otherwise the clay, whether burned or unburned, will
+crumble. Stones, gravel and sticks must be removed, otherwise the
+contraction of the clay and expansion of the stones on burning, produce
+a weak and crumbling structure.
+
+Brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of iron, and in proportion
+as this abounds the burned brick is of a lighter or a deeper red. It may
+be desired to add colouring matter or mix different forms of clay, or
+add sand or other ingredients. Clay treated by hand was for ages kneaded
+as dough is kneaded, by the hand or feet, and the clay was often long
+subjected, sometimes for years, to exposure to the air, frost and sun to
+disintegrate and ripen it. As the clay must be first disintegrated,
+ground or pulverised, as grain is first ground to flour to make and
+mould the bread, so the use of a grinding mill was long ago suggested.
+The first machine used to do all this work goes by the humble name of
+_pug mill_.
+
+Many ages ago the Chilians of South America hung two ponderous solid
+wood or stone wheels on an axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated
+by animal power; the wheels were made to run round on a deep basin in
+which ores, or stones, or grain were placed to be crushed. This Chilian
+mill, in principle, was adopted a century or so ago in Europe to the
+grinding of clay. The pug mill has assumed many different forms in this
+age; and separate preliminary mills, consisting of rollers of different
+forms for grinding, alone are often used before the mixing operation. In
+one modern form the pug mill consists of an inverted conical-shaped
+cylinder provided with a set of interior revolving blades arranged
+horizontally, and below this a spiral arrangement of blades on a
+vertical axis, by which the clay is thoroughly cut up and crushed
+against the surrounding walls of the mill, in the meantime softened with
+water or steam if desired, and mixed with sand if necessary, and when
+thus ground and tempered is finally pressed down through the lower
+opening of the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds beneath.
+
+Second.--The next operation is for moulding and pressing the brick. To
+take the place of that ancient and still used mode of filling a mould of
+a certain size by the hands with a lump of soft clay, scraping off the
+surplus, and then dumping the mould upon a drying floor, a great variety
+of machines have been invented.
+
+In some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to feed out the clay in
+the form of a long horizontal slab, which is cut up into proper lengths
+to form the bricks. Some machines are in the form of a large horizontal
+revolving wheel, having the moulds arranged in its top face, each mould
+charged with clay as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout
+of the grinding mill, and then the clay is pressed by pistons or
+plungers worked by a rocking beam, and adapted to descend and fit into
+the mould at stated intervals; or the moulds, carried in a circular
+direction, may have movable bottom plates, which may be pressed upwards
+successively by pistons attached to them and raised by inclines on which
+they travel, forcing the clay against a large circular top plate, and in
+the last part of the movement carrying the pressed brick through an
+aperture to the top of the plate, where it is met by and carried away on
+an endless apron.
+
+In some machines two great wheels mesh together, one carrying the moulds
+in its face, and the other the presser plate plungers, working in the
+former, the bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by the
+action of cam followers, or by other means.
+
+In others the moulds are passed, each beneath a gravity-descending or
+cam-forced plunger, the clay being thus stamped by impact into form; or
+in other forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to successive
+pressure from the cam-operated pistons arranged horizontally and on a
+line with the discharging belt.
+
+Third, the drying and burning of the brick.--The old methods were
+painfully slow and tedious. A long time was occupied in seasoning the
+clay, and then after the bricks were moulded, another long time was
+necessary to dry them, and a final lengthy period was employed to burn
+them in crude kilns. These old methods were too slow for modern wants.
+But they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions, as in all
+ages the use of old arts and implements have continued along by the side
+of later inventions and discoveries.
+
+No useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently ever entirely
+supplanted. The implements of the stone age are still found in use by
+some whose environment has deprived them of the knowledge of or desire
+to use better tools. The single ox pulling the crooked stick plough, or
+other similar ancient earth stirrer, and Ruth with her sickle and
+sheaves, may be found not far from the steam plough and the automatic
+binder.
+
+But the use of antiquated machinery is not followed by those who lead
+the procession in this industrial age. Consequently other means than the
+slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics, and the crude
+kilns are giving way to modern heat distributing structures.
+
+Air and heat are driven by fans through chambers, in which the brick are
+openly piled on cars, the surplus heat and steam from an engine-room
+being often used for this purpose, and the cars so laden are slowly
+pushed on the tracks through heated chambers. Passages and pipes and
+chimneys for heat and air controlled by valves are provided, and the
+waste moisture drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys, the draft
+of which is increased by a hot blast, or blasts of heated air are driven
+in one direction through a chamber while the brick are moved through in
+the opposite direction, or a series of drying chambers are separated
+from each other by iron folding-doors, the temperature increasing as
+cars are moved on tracks from one chamber to another.
+
+Dr. Hoffmann of Berlin invented different forms of drying and burning
+chambers which attracted great attention. In his kiln the bricks are
+stacked in an _annular_ chamber, and the fire made to progress from one
+section of the chamber to another, burning the brick as the heat
+advances; and as fast as one section of green brick is dried, or burned,
+it is withdrawn, and a green section presented. Austria introduced most
+successful and thorough systems of drying brick about 1870. In some
+great kilns fires are never allowed to cease. One kiln had been kept
+thus heated for fifteen years. Thus great quantities of green brick can
+at any time be pushed into the kiln on tracks, and when burned pushed
+out, and thus the process may go on continuously day and night.
+
+To return to pottery: As before stated, Wedgwood of England
+revolutionised the art of pottery in the eighteenth century. He was
+aided by Flaxman. Before their time all earthenware pottery was what is
+now called "soft pottery." That is, it was unglazed, simply baked clay;
+_lustrous_ or _semi-glazed_ and _enamelled_ having a harder surface.
+Wedgwood invented the hard porcelain surface, and very many beautiful
+designs. To improve such earthenware and to best decorate it, are the
+objects around which modern inventions have mostly clustered.
+
+The "_regenerative_" principle of heating above referred to employed in
+some kilns, and so successfully incorporated in the regenerators
+invented since 1850 by Siemens, Frank, Boetius, Bicheroux, Pousard and
+others, consisting in using the intensely hot wasted gases from
+laboratories or combustion chambers to heat the incoming air, and
+carrying the mingled products of combustion into chambers and passages
+to heat, dry or burn materials placed therein, has been of great service
+in the production of modern pottery; not only in a great saving in the
+amount of fuel, but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware spoiled in
+the firing.
+
+The old method of burning wood, or soft coal, or charcoal at the bottom
+of a small old-fashioned cylindrical fire brick kiln attended to by
+hand, and heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves in the
+chamber above, is done away with to a great extent in large
+manufactories for the making of stone and earthenware--although still
+followed in many porcelain kilns.
+
+Inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received the aid of woman.
+Susan Frackelton of the United States invented a portable kiln for
+firing pottery and porcelain, for which she obtained a patent in 1886.
+
+As in drying clay for brick, so in drying clay for porcelain and pottery
+generally, great improvements have been made in the drying of the clay,
+and other materials to be mixed therewith. A great step was taken to aid
+drying by the invention of the _filter press_, in which the materials,
+after they are mixed and while still wet, are subjected to such pressure
+that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed out, by which the
+inclosure of air bubbles in the clay is prevented.
+
+Despairing of excelling the China porcelain, although French
+investigators having alleged their discovery of such methods, modern
+inventors have contented themselves in inventing new methods and
+compositions. Charles Aoisseau, the potter of Tours, born in 1796,
+rediscovered and revived the art of Palissy. About 1842, Thomas Battam
+of England invented the method of imitating marble and other statuary by
+a composition of silica, alumina, soda, and traces of lime, magnesia,
+and iron, reducing it to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds,
+forming the figure or group. His plaster casts soon became famous. In
+the use of materials the aid of chemists was had in finding the proper
+ingredients to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common and
+fine _Faience_.
+
+_Porcelain Moulding_, and its accompanying ornamentation and the use of
+apparatus for moulding by compression and by exhaustion of the air has
+become since that time a great industry.
+
+_Porcelain Colours._--Chemists also aided in discovering what metallic
+ingredients could best be used when mixed with the clay and sand to
+produce the desired colours. As soon as a new metal was discovered, it
+was tested to find, among other things, what vitrifiable colour it would
+produce. In the production of metallic glazes, the oxides generally are
+employed. The colours are usually applied to ware when it is in its
+unglazed or _biscuit_ form. In the _biscuit_ or _bisque_ form pottery is
+bibulous, the prepared glaze sinks into its pores and when burned forms
+a vitreous coating.
+
+The application of oil colours and designs to ware before baking by the
+"bat" system of printing originated in the eighteenth and was perfected
+in the nineteenth century. It consists of impressing oil pictures on a
+bat of glue and then pressing the bat on to the porous unbaked clay or
+porcelain which transferred the colours. This was another revolution in
+the art.
+
+One manner for ages of applying colours to ware is first to reduce the
+mixture to a liquid form, called "slip," and then, if the Chinese method
+is followed, to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow bamboo rod,
+which end is covered with wire gauze, then by blowing through the rod
+the colour was sprayed or deposited on the ware. Another method is the
+use of a brush and comb. The brush being dipped into the coloured
+matter, the comb is passed over the brush in such manner as to cause the
+paint to spatter the object with fine drops or particles. A very recent
+method, by which the beautiful background and blended colours of the
+celebrated Rookwood pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio, have become
+distinguished, consists in laying the colour upon the ware in a cloud or
+sheet of almost imperceptible mist by the use of an air atomiser blown
+by the operator. By the use of this simple instrument, the laying on a
+single colour, or the delicate blending and shadings of two or more
+colours in very beautiful effects is easily produced.
+
+This use of the atomiser commenced in 1884, and was claimed as the
+invention of a lady, Miss Laura Fry, who obtained a patent for thus
+blowing the atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in 1889; but it
+was held by the courts that she was anticipated by experiments of
+others, and by descriptions in previous patents of the spraying of paint
+on other objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air brush.
+However, this introduction of the use of the atomiser caused quite a
+revolution in the art of applying colours to pottery in the forming of
+backgrounds.
+
+Enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery. About 1878 Niedringhaus
+in the United States began to enamel sheet iron by the application of
+glaze and iron oxide, giving such articles a granite appearance; and
+since then metallic cooking vessels, bath tubs, etc., have been
+converted in appearance into the finest earthenware and porcelain, and
+far more durable, beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone for
+such purposes.
+
+When we remember that for many centuries, wood and pewter, and to some
+extent crude earthenware, were the materials from which the dishes of
+the great bulk of the human family were made, as well as their table and
+mantel ornaments, and compare them in character and plenteousness with
+the table and other ware of even the poorest character of to-day, we can
+appreciate how much has been done in this direction to help the human
+family by modern inventions.
+
+_Artificial Stone._--The world as yet has not so far exhausted its
+supply of stone and marble as to compel a resort to artificial
+productions on a great scale, and yet to meet the demands of those
+localities wherein the natural supplies of good building stones and
+marble are very scarce, necessitating when used a long and expensive
+transportation, methods have been adopted by which, at comparatively
+small cost, fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have been
+produced, having all the durable and artistic qualities of the
+originals, as for the most part, they are composed of the same materials
+as the stone and marbles themselves.
+
+The characteristic backgrounds, the veins and shadowings, and the soft
+colours of various marbles have been quite successfully imitated by
+treating dehydrated gypsum with various colouring solutions. Sand stones
+have been moulded or pressed from the same ingredients, and with either
+smooth or undressed faces. When necessary the mixture is coloured, to
+resemble precisely the original stones.
+
+One of the improvements in the manufacture and use of modern _cements_
+and artificial stones consists in their application to the making of
+streets and sidewalks. Neat, smooth, hard, beautiful pavements are now
+taking the place everywhere of the unsatisfactory gravel, wood, and
+brick pavements of former days. We know that the Romans and other
+ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements, and the plaster on some of
+their walls stands to-day to attest its good quality. Modern inventors
+have turned their attention in recent years to the production of
+machines to grind, crush, mix and set the materials, and to apply them
+to large wall surfaces, in place of hand labour. _Ready-made plaster_ of
+a fine quality is now manufactured in great quantities. It needs only
+the addition of a little water to reduce it to a condition for use; and
+a machine operated by compressed air may be had for spreading it quickly
+over the lath work of wood or sheet metal, slats, or over rough cement
+ceilings and walls.
+
+_Glass._--The Sister of Pottery is Glass. It may have been an accidental
+discovery, occurring when men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach,
+that fire could melt and fuse sand and ashes, or sand and lime, or sand
+and soda or some other alkali, and with which may also have been mixed
+some particles of iron, or lead, or manganese, or alumina to produce
+that hard, lustrous, vitreous, brittle article that we call _glass_.
+
+But who invented the method of blowing the viscid mass into form on the
+end of a hollow tube? Who invented the scissors and shears for cutting
+and trimming it when soft? Or the use of the diamond, or its dust, for
+polishing it when hard? History is silent on these points. The tablets
+of the most ancient days of Egypt, yet recovered, show glass blowers at
+work at their trade--and the names of the first and original inventors
+are buried in oblivion. Each age has handed down to us from many
+countries specimens of glass ware which will compare favourably in
+beauty and finish with any that can be made to-day.
+
+Yet with the knowledge of making glass of the finest description
+existing for centuries, it is strange that its manufacture was not
+extended to supply the wants of mankind, to which its use now seems so
+indispensable. And yet as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries glass windows were found only in the houses of the wealthy, in
+the churches and palaces, and glass mirrors were unknown except to the
+rich, as curiosities, and as aids to the scientists in the early days of
+telescopy. Poor people used oiled paper, isinglass, thinly shaved
+leather, resembling parchment, and thin sheets of soft pale crystalised
+stone known as talc, and soapstone.
+
+The nineteenth century has been characterised as the scientific century
+of glass, and the term commercial, may well be added to that
+designation.
+
+Its commercial importance and the advancement in its manufacture during
+the first half of the century is illustrated in the fact that the
+Crystal Palace of the London Industrial Exhibition of 1851, although
+containing nearly 900,000 square feet of glass, was furnished by a
+single firm, Messrs. Chance & Co. of London, without materially delaying
+their other orders. In addition to scientific discoveries, the
+manufacture of glass in England received a great impetus by the removal
+of onerous excise duties which had been imposed on its manufacture.
+
+The principal improvements in the art of glass-making effected during
+the nineteenth century may be summarised as follows:
+
+First, Materials.--By the investigations of chemists and practical
+trials it was learned what particular effect was produced by the old
+ingredients employed, and it was found that the colours and qualities of
+glass, such as clearness, strength, tenacity, purity, etc., could be
+greatly modified and improved by the addition to the sand of certain new
+ingredients. By analysis it was learned what different metallic oxides
+should be employed to produce different colours. This knowledge before
+was either preserved in secrecy, or accidentally or empirically
+practised, or unknown. Thus it was learned and established that lime
+hardens the glass and adds to its lustre; that the use of ordinary
+ingredients, the silicates of lime, magnesia, iron, soda and potash, in
+their impure form, will produce the coarser kinds of glass, such as that
+of which green bottles are made; that silicates of soda and lime give
+the common window glass and French plate; that the beautiful varieties
+of Bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate of potash and lime; that
+crystal or flint glass, so called because formerly pulverised flints
+were used in making it, can be made of a suitable combination of
+potassia plumbic silicate; that the plumbic oxide greatly increases its
+transparency, brilliancy, and refractive power; that _paste_--that form
+of glass from which imitations of diamonds are cut, may be produced by
+adding a large proportion of the oxide of lead; that by the addition of
+a trace of ferric oxide or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had; that
+by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire is produced;
+that cuperic oxide will give the emerald, gold oxide the ruby, manganic
+oxide the royal purple, and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic oxides
+the rich black onyx.
+
+Professor Faraday as early as 1824 had noticed a change in colour
+gradually produced in glass containing oxide of manganese by exposure to
+the rays of the sun. This observation induced an American gentleman, Mr.
+Thomas Gaffield, a merchant of Boston, to further experiment in this
+direction. His experiments commenced in 1863, and he subjected eighty
+different kinds of glass, coloured and uncoloured, and manufactured in
+many different countries, to this exposure of the sun's rays. He found
+that not only glass having manganese as an element, but nearly every
+species of glass, was so affected, some in shorter and some in longer
+times; that this discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun,
+but to its actinic rays; and that the original colour of the glass could
+be reproduced by reheating the same.
+
+Mr. Gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain the power of
+different coloured glasses to transmit the actinic or chemical rays, and
+found that blue would transmit the most and red and orange the least.
+
+Others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining the best
+materials to be employed in glass-making in producing the clearest and
+most permanent uncoloured light; the best coloured lights for desired
+purposes; glasses having the best effects on the growth of plants; and
+the best class for refracting, dispersing and transmitting both natural
+lights and those great modern artificial lights, gas and electricity.
+
+Another illustration of modern scientific investigation and success in
+glass-making materials is seen at the celebrated German glass works at
+Jena under the management of Professors Ernst Abbe and Dr. Schott,
+commenced in 1881. They, too, found that many substances had each its
+own peculiar effect in the refraction and dispersion of light, and
+introduced no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass making.
+Their special work was the production of glass for the finest scientific
+and optical purposes, and the highest grades of commercial glass. They
+have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass. Their lenses for
+telescopes and microscopes and photographic cameras, and glass and
+prisms, and for all chemical and other scientific work, have a worldwide
+reputation.
+
+So that in materials of composition the old days in which there were
+substantially but two varieties of glass--the old-fashioned standard
+crown, and flint glass--have passed away.
+
+_Methods._--The revolution in the production of glass has been greatly
+aided also by new methods of treatment of the old as well as the new
+materials. For instance, the application of the Siemens regenerative
+furnace, already alluded to in referring to pottery, in place of
+old-fashioned kilns, and by which the amount of smoke is greatly
+diminished, fuel saved, and the colour of the glass improved. Pots are
+used containing the materials to be melted and not heated in the
+presence of the burning fuel, but by the heated gases in separate
+compartments.
+
+Another process is that of M. de la Bastie, added to by others, of
+toughening glass by plunging it while hot and pasty and after it has
+been shaped, annealed, and reheated, into a bath of grease, whereby the
+rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular condition so that it
+is less dense, resists breaking to a greater degree, and presents no
+sharp edges when broken.
+
+Another process is that of making plate glass by the cylinder
+process--rolling it into large sheets.
+
+Other processes are those for producing hollow ware by pressing in
+moulds; for decorating; for surface enamelling of sheet glass whereby
+beautiful lace patterns are transferred from the woven or netted fabric
+itself by using it as a stencil to distribute upon the surface the
+pulverised enamel, which is afterwards burned on; of producing
+_iridescent_ glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of
+delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against the surface of
+hydrochloric acid under pressure, or the fumes of other materials
+volatilised in a reheating furnace.
+
+Then there is Dode's process for platinising glass, by which a
+reflecting mirror is produced without silvering or otherwise coating its
+back, by first applying a thin coating of platinic choride mixed with an
+oil to the surface of the glass and heating the same, by which the
+mirror reflects from its front face. The platinum film is so thin that
+the pencil and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it, the object
+to be copied being seen by reflection.
+
+Again there is the process of making _glass wool or silk_--which is
+glass drawn out into such extremely fine threads that it may be used for
+all purposes of silk threads in the making of fabrics for decorative
+purposes and in some more useful purposes, such as the filtration of
+water and other liquids.
+
+We have already had occasion to refer to Tilghman's sand blast in
+describing pneumatic apparatus. In glass manufacture the process is used
+in etching on glass designs of every kind, both simple and intricate.
+The sand forced by steam, or by compressed air on the exposed portions
+of the glass on which the design rests, will cut the same deeply, or
+most delicately, as the hand and eye of the operator may direct.
+
+_Machines._--In addition to the new styles of furnaces, moulds and
+melting, and rolling mills to which we have alluded, mention may be made
+of annealing and cooling ovens, by which latter the glass is greatly
+improved by being allowed to gradually cool. A large number of
+instruments have been invented for special purposes, such as for making
+the beautiful expensive cut glass, which is flint glass ground by wheels
+of iron, stone, and emery into the desired designs, while water is being
+applied, and then polished by wheels of wood, and pumice, or
+rottenstone; for grinding and polishing glass for lenses; and for
+polishing and finishing plate glass; for applying glass lining to metal
+pipes, tubes, etc.; for the delicate engraving of glass by small
+revolving copper disks, varying in size from the diameter of a cent down
+to one-fifteenth of an inch, cutting the finest blade of grass, a tiny
+bud, the downy wing of an insect, or the faint shadow of an exquisite
+eyebrow.
+
+_Cameo_ cutting and incrustation; porcelain electroplating and moulding
+apparatus, and apparatus for making porcelain plates before drying and
+burning, may be added to the list.
+
+It would be a much longer list to enumerate the various objects made of
+glass unknown or not in common use in former generations. The reader
+must call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks desirable to be
+made from or covered with this lustrous indestructible material, or any
+practicable form of instrument for the transmission of light, and it is
+quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops or instruments in
+factories ready for its making.
+
+
+_Rubber--Goodyear._
+
+The rubber tree, whether in India with its immense trunk towering above
+all its fellows and wearing a lofty crown, hundreds of feet in
+circumference, of mixed green and yellow blossoms; or in South America,
+more slender and shorter but still beautiful in clustered leaves and
+flowers on its long, loosely pendent branches; or in Africa, still more
+slender and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees along the
+water courses, hiding its struggling support and festooning the whole
+forest with its glossy dark green leaves, sweetly scented, pure white,
+star-like flowers, and its orange-like fruit--yields from its veins a
+milk which man has converted into one of the most useful articles of the
+century.
+
+The modes of treating this milky juice varies among the natives of the
+several countries where the trees abound. In Africa they cut or strip
+the bark, and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and smear it
+thickly over their limbs and bodies, and when it dries pull it off and
+cut it into blocks for transportation. In Brazil the juice is collected
+in clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering fire of palm nuts,
+which gives the material its dark brown appearance. They mould the
+softened rubber over clay patterns in the form of shoes, jars, vases,
+tubes, etc., and as they are sticky they carry them separated on poles
+to the large towns and sea ports and sell them in this condition. It was
+some such articles that first attracted the attention of Europeans, who
+during the eighteenth century called the attention of their countrymen
+to them.
+
+It was in 1736 that La Condamine described rubber to the French Academy.
+He afterward resided in the valley of the Amazon ten years, and then he
+and MM. Herissent, Macquer, and Grossat, again by their writings and
+experiments interested the scientific and commercial world in the
+matter.
+
+In 1770 Dr. Priestley published the fact that this rubber had become
+notable for rubbing out pencil marks, bits of it being sold for a high
+price for that purpose. About 1797, some Englishman began to make
+water-proof varnish from it, and to take out patents for the same. This
+was as far as the art had advanced in caoutchouc, or rubber, in the
+eighteenth century.
+
+In 1819 Mr. Mackintosh, of Glasgow, began experimenting with the oil of
+naphtha obtained from gas works as a solvent for India rubber; and so
+successfully that he made a water-proof varnish which was applied to
+fabrics, took out his patent in England in 1823, and thus was started
+the celebrated "Mackintoshes."
+
+In 1825 Thomas C. Wales, a merchant of Boston, conceived the idea of
+sending American boot and shoe lasts to Brazil for use in place of their
+clay models. This soon resulted in sending great quantities of rubber
+overshoes to Europe and America.
+
+The importation of rubber and the manufacture of water-proof garments
+and articles therefrom now rapidly increased in those countries. But
+nothing that could be done would prevent the rubber from getting soft in
+summer and hard and brittle in the winter. Something was needed to
+render the rubber insensible to the changes of temperature.
+
+For fifty years, ever since the manufacturers and inventors of Europe
+and America had learned of the water-proof character of rubber, they had
+been striving to find something to overcome this difficulty. Finally it
+became the lot of one man to supply the want. His name was Charles
+Goodyear.
+
+Born with the century, in New Haven, Connecticut, and receiving but a
+public school education, he engaged with his father in the hardware
+business in Philadelphia. This proving a failure, he, in 1830, turned
+his attention to the improvement of rubber goods. He became almost a
+fanatic on the subject--going from place to place clad in rubber
+fabrics, talking about it to merchants, mechanics, scientists, chemists,
+anybody that would listen, making his experiments constantly; deeply in
+debt on account of his own and his father's business failures, thrown
+into jail for debt for months, continuing his experiments there with
+philosophical, good-natured persistence; out of jail steeped to his lips
+in poverty; his family suffering for the necessaries of life; selling
+the school books of his children for material to continue his work, and
+taking a patent in 1835 for a rubber cement, which did not help him
+much. Finding that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber by
+removing its adhesiveness, he introduced this process, which met with
+great favour, was applied generally to the manufacture of overshoes, and
+helped his condition. But his trials and troubles continued. Finally one
+Nathaniel Haywood suggested the use of sulphurous acid gas, and this was
+found an improvement; but still the rubber would get hard in winter, and
+although not so soft in summer, yet the odour was offensive. Yet by the
+use of this improvement he was enabled to raise more money to get
+Haywood a patent for it, while he became its owner. In the midst of his
+further troubles, and while experimenting with the sulphur mixed with
+rubber he found by accidental burning or partly melting of the two
+together on a stove, that the part in which the sulphur was embedded was
+hard and inelastic, and that the part least impregnated with the sulphur
+was proportionately softer and more elastic. At last the great secret
+was discovered!
+
+And now at this later day, when $50,000,000 worth of rubber goods are
+made annually in the United States alone, the whole immense business is
+still divided into but two classes--hard and soft--hard or vulcanized
+like that called "ebonite," or soft, it may be, as a delicate wafer. And
+these qualities depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of
+sulphur is used, as described in the patents of Goodyear, commencing
+with his French patent of 1844.
+
+Then of course the pirates began their attacks, and he was kept poor in
+defending his patents, and died comparatively so in 1860; but happy in
+his great discovery. He had received, however, the whole world's
+honours--the great council medal at the Nations Fair in London in 1851
+the Cross of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III., and lesser tributes
+from other nations.
+
+It can be imagined the riches that flowed into the laps of Goodyear's
+successors; the wide field opened for new inventions in machines and
+processes; and the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from
+Goodyear's introduction of a new and useful material to man.--A material
+which, takes its place and stands in line with wood, and leather, and
+glass, and iron, and steel!
+
+But rubber and steel as we now know them are not the only new fabrics
+given to mankind by the inventors of the Nineteenth Century.
+
+The work of the silk worm has been rivalled; and a _wool_ as white and
+soft as that clipped from the cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands
+of these magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts from a
+blast furnace.
+
+The silk referred to is made from a solution of that inflammable
+material of tremendous force known as gun-cotton, or pyroxylin. Dr.
+Chardonnet was the inventor of the leading form of the article, which he
+introduced and patented about 1888. The solution made is of a viscous
+character, allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices in
+fine streams; and as the solvent part evaporates rapidly these fine
+streams become hard, flexible fibres, which glisten with a beautiful
+lustre and can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the fine
+threads spun by that mysterious master of his craft--the silk worm.
+
+The gusts of wind that drove against the molten lava thrown from the
+crater of Kilauea, producing as it did, a fall of white, metallic,
+hairy-like material resembling wool, suggested to man an industrial
+application of the same method. And at the great works of Krupp at
+Essen, Prussia, for instance, may be witnessed a fine stream of molten
+slag flowing from an iron furnace, and as it falls is met by a strong
+blast of cold air which transforms it into a silky mass as white and
+fine as cotton.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abbe, Prof. Ernst, 412, 473.
+
+  Abbott Museum, N.Y., 242.
+
+  Abrading machines, 332.
+
+  Acetylene, 70, 456.
+
+  Accumulators, 177.
+
+  Achromatic lens, 410.
+
+  Acoustics, 406.
+
+  Addressing machines, 285.
+
+  Aeolipile, 74.
+
+  Affixers, 285.
+
+  African inventions, 340, 476.
+
+  Agriculture, Chap. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
+
+  Agricultural chemistry, 64.
+
+  Agricultural societies, 16.
+
+  Aeronautics. (See Air Ships and Balloons, 169, 445, 448.)
+
+  Air Atomizers, 467.
+
+  Air brakes, 89, 108, 193.
+
+  Air Brushes, 195, 418.
+
+  Air Compressors and propellers, 195.
+
+  Air Drills, 194.
+
+  Air Engines, 89, 193, 194.
+
+  Air propellers. (See Pneumatics.)
+
+  Air Pumps, 55, 113, 194, 195, 196, 197, 404.
+
+  Air Ships, 446, 449.
+
+  Airy, 410.
+
+  "Alabama," The, 261.
+
+  Alarm Locks. (See Locks.)
+
+  Alchemistry and alchemists. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Alcohol, 65.
+
+  Alfred the Great, 386, 457.
+
+  Alembert, D., 167.
+
+  Alhambra, 373.
+
+  Allen, Horatio, 83.
+
+  Allen, Dr. John, 168.
+
+  Allotropic phosphorus. (See Matches.)
+
+  Allen and Yates. (See Puddling.)
+
+  Alloys, 237, 238.
+
+  Altiscope, 413.
+
+  Aluminium, 238.
+
+  Amalgamators, 380.
+
+  American Inventions, 341.
+
+  Ammonia, 191, 215.
+
+  Ammoniacal gas engines, 191.
+
+  Amp�re, 122, 130.
+
+  Amontons air engines, 193.
+
+  Ancient smelting. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  An�sthetics, 2, 71.
+
+  Aniline dyes, 69.
+
+  Annealing and tempering, 248.
+
+  Antiseptics, 2, 72.
+
+  Antwerp, Siege of, 261. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Aoisseau, Chas., 466.
+
+  Apollo, 400.
+
+  Applegath, 283, 284.
+
+  Aqueducts, 93, 166, 167.
+
+  Arabs, 253, 274.
+
+  Arabic notation, 2.
+
+  Arago, 122, 410, 411, 416.
+
+  Arc Lamps, 137.
+
+  Archimedes, 9, 165, 185, 442.
+
+  Aristotle, 58.
+
+  Argand burner, 456.
+
+  Arkwright, Richard, 42, 296, 298, 301.
+
+  Arlberg tunnel, 107.
+
+  Armor, plate, 262, 264, 265, 266.
+
+  Arnold, Asa, 301.
+
+  Arnold, watchmaker, 389.
+
+  Armstrong, Sir William G., 176, 263, 264.
+
+  Arquebus. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Artesian Wells, 38.
+
+  Artificial Stone. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Artificial Silk. (See Glass.)
+
+  Arts, Fine, 197, 347, 353, 371, 400, 414, 418.
+
+  Art, Scientific, 228.
+
+  Artificial Teeth. (See Dentistry.)
+
+  Artillery. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Asbestos, 421.
+
+  Assembling machines and system.
+      (See Sewing machines, Watch, and Ordnance.)
+
+  Assyrians, 24.
+
+  Astronomical inventions, 390. (See Horology and Optics.)
+
+  Athens. (See Greece.)
+
+  Athanor, Alchemist's stone. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Atmospheric and Gas pressure, 194.
+
+  Atoms--atomic theory, 59, 60, 453.
+
+  Atomizer, 197, 467.
+
+  Attraction of Gravitation, 2.
+
+  Augurs, 348, 349.
+
+  Auricular instruments, 406.
+
+  Australia, 40.
+
+  Austria, 24, 50, 358.
+
+  Autoharps, 405.
+
+  Automobiles, 89, 435.
+
+  Axes, 340.
+
+
+  B.
+
+  Babbitt, Isaac, metal, 237.
+
+  Babylonians, 384.
+
+  Bach. (See Pianos.)
+
+  Bacon, Roger, 214.
+
+  Bacteria, 213.
+
+  Bailey, 1822; 37.
+
+  Bain, Alex., 147.
+
+  Baling and Bale ties, 51, 52, 53.
+
+  Balloons, 169, 446.
+
+  Band Saw, 348.
+
+  Barber, John, 185.
+
+  Barker's Mill, 171.
+
+  Barlow looms, 305.
+
+  Barlow, Prof., 123.
+
+  Barrel making. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Bartholdi, 105.
+
+  Bastie, 473.
+
+  Batcheller, 318.
+
+  Baths--closets, 178.
+
+  Bath system, Porcelain, 466.
+
+  Battam, Thomas, artificial marble, 466.
+
+  Baude, Peter, 224.
+
+  Beadlestone, metallurgist, 231.
+
+  Bean, B. W., 318.
+
+  Beaulieu, Col. (Ordnance), 264.
+
+  Beating engines. (See Paper.)
+
+  Becher, 58.
+
+  Bechler, 413.
+
+  Becquerel, 44.
+
+  Beds, 355.
+
+  Bed--printing, 282.
+
+  Beer. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Bellaert, Jacob, 280.
+
+  Bell, Alex. Graham, 140, 141, 142, 407, 414.
+
+  Bell, C. A., 408.
+
+  Bell, Sir L., metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Bell's history of metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Bell, Rev. Patrick, 36, 38.
+
+  Bells and Bell making--Metallurgy.
+
+  Bending wood, 349, 357. (See Woodworking.)
+
+  Bennett, Richard, 46.
+
+  Bentham, Sir Sam'l, 242, 342, 349, 374.
+
+  Bergman, 61.
+
+  Berliner, Emile, 408.
+
+  Bernoulli, D., 167.
+
+  Berthollet, 64, 454.
+
+  Berzelius, 60.
+
+  Bessemer, Henry, and process, 176, 232, 233.
+
+  Besson, Prof. J., 75, 242.
+
+  Bicheroux, potter, 465.
+
+  Bicycles, 431.
+
+  Bigelow, E. B., 305.
+
+  Billings, Dr., 210.
+
+  Binding books. (See Printing.)
+
+  Binders, grain and twine, 39.
+
+  Bicycles, 431 to 435.
+
+  Bischof, Simon, 191.
+
+  Blacksmithing. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Blaew of Amsterdam, 281.
+
+  Black, chemist, 58.
+
+  Blair, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Blakely Gun. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Blake, Eli. W., Blake crusher, 376, 377.
+
+  Blanchard, Thos., 268, 343, 344, 350, 356, 369.
+
+  Blasting, 107.
+
+  Blast, steel. (See Bessemer.)
+
+  Blauofen furnace. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Bleaching and Dyeing, 69.
+
+  Blenkinsop, 82.
+
+  Blithe, Walter, 14.
+
+  Block Printing. (See Printing.)
+
+  Blodgett & Lerow, sewing machines, 318.
+
+  Bloomaries. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Blunderbuss, 257.
+
+  Bobbins--spinning, 302.
+
+  Boerhaave, 58.
+
+  Boetius, 365.
+
+  Bohemia, 357.
+
+  Boilers. (See Steam Engineering.)
+
+  "Boke of Husbandry," 1523, 14.
+
+  Bollman bridge, 103.
+
+  Bolting. (See Milling.)
+
+  Bolt making. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Bombards, 254.
+
+  Bombs. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Bomford, Col., 260.
+
+  Bonaparte, 89, 90, 256.
+
+  Bonnets and ladies' hats, 324.
+
+  Bonjeau, M., 325.
+
+  Bonelli, M., 305.
+
+  Book making and binding, 287, 288.
+
+  Boots and shoes, 366 to 371.
+
+  Boring machines, 345, 348.
+
+  Boring square holes, 346.
+
+  Bormann, Genl., 259.
+
+  Bottle stoppers, 358.
+
+  Boulton and Watt, 84, 452.
+
+  Bouton, 415.
+
+  Bourseuil, Chas., 407.
+
+  Boyce, 1799, 35.
+
+  Boyle, Robert, 58, 184, 193, 194.
+
+  Box making. (See Woodworking Machinery.)
+
+  Braiding. (See Sewing Machines.)
+
+  Braithwaite, 83.
+
+  Brakes, bicycle, 433-436.
+
+  Brakes, steam, Railway and Electric, 87, 436.
+
+  Brakes and gins, 297.
+
+  Bramah, Jos., 82, 154, 170, 242, 244, 342, 349, 424.
+
+  Branch, 342.
+
+  Branco, 75.
+
+  Brahe, Tycho, 183, 388.
+
+  Brass, 219.
+
+  Brayton, G. H., 190.
+
+  Brazil, 281, 476, 477.
+
+  Breech-loaders, 257, 263, 264, 265, 269.(See Ordnance.)
+
+  Brewster, Sir David, 410.
+
+  Brickmaking machines, kilns and processes, 457, 464.
+
+  Bridges and Bridge Building, 93 to 104, 197.
+
+  Bright, John, 138.
+
+  Broadwood piano, 403.
+
+  Bronsen, 412.
+
+  Broom-making, 328, 329.
+
+  Brot, 411.
+
+  Brothers of the Bridge, 94.
+
+  Bronze, 218, 219.
+
+  Brooklyn bridge, 98, 99.
+
+  Brown, Sir Saml., 95, 187, 188.
+
+  "Brown Bess," 258.
+
+  Bruce, David, 284.
+
+  Brunel, I. K., 97.
+
+  Brunel, I. M., 351, 367.
+
+  Brunton, 82.
+
+  Brush--Brush light, 137.
+
+  Brushes and Brush making, 330.
+
+  Buchanan's Practical Essays, 244.
+
+  Buckingham, C. L., 148.
+
+  Buffing machines, 365.
+
+  Builders' hardware, 250.
+
+  Buildings, tall, 152, 153.
+
+  Buffers, 437. (See Railways, Elevator, etc., 160, 161.)
+
+  Bunsen, Robt. W., 119, 120, 230.
+
+  Bunsen light, 456.
+
+  Burden, Henry, 95.
+
+  Burdett, Wm., 188.
+
+  Burke, Edmund, 182.
+
+  Burns, Robert, 31.
+
+  Butter, 54, 55.
+
+  Button-hole machines, 323.
+
+  Bunsen. (See Chemistry.)
+
+
+  C.
+
+  Cable transportation, 109.
+
+  C�sar, 457.
+
+  Cahill, Thaddeus, 287.
+
+  Caissons, 100.
+
+  Calcium-carbide, 70, 456.
+
+  Calico making and printing, 325, 326.
+
+  California, 382.
+
+  Cameo cutting, 475.
+
+  _Camera obscura_, 414.
+
+  Campbell printing press, 285.
+
+  Canada, 40, 430.
+
+  Canals, and boats for, 84, 106, 107, 109, 110, 440.
+
+  Canal locks, 110.
+
+  Cane woven goods, 308.
+
+  Cannons and firearms, 252-272.
+
+  Cantilever bridges, 103, 104.
+
+  Caoutchouc. (See Rubber, 476.)
+
+  Caps,--gun, 259.
+
+  Car heating, 211.
+
+  Cars, sleeping, 431. (See Railways.)
+
+  Car tracks, 108.
+
+  Car rails, 108.
+
+  Car wheels, 108.
+
+  Carbines, 266. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Carbon--chemistry.
+
+  Carbonating, 68.
+
+  Carborundum, 70.
+
+  Cardan, 183.
+
+  Carding, 298, 300.
+
+  Cardova. (See Leather.)
+
+  Carlyle, 310.
+
+  Carnot. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Carpentry, 339, 352.
+
+  Carpets and Looms, 305.
+
+  Carr� Brothers, 214.
+
+  Carriages and carrying machines, 82, 428-437.
+
+  Carthagenians, 164.
+
+  Carts. (See Coaches and Waggons.)
+
+  Cartridges, 267.
+
+  Cartwright, Rev. Edwd., 297.
+
+  Carving machinery, 346.
+
+  Case-shot. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Cash registers, 395.
+
+  Cast iron, 223.
+
+  Catalan furnace, 222. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Cauchy, 410.
+
+  Caus, Salomon de, 75.
+
+  Cavendish, 58.
+
+  Caxton, 280.
+
+  Centennial Exhibition. 1876; 38, 39, 40, 140, 246, 320,
+      352, 353, 393, 402, 430.
+
+  Centrifugal machines (pumps), 172, 173.
+
+  Charcoal. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Chairs. (See Furniture.)
+
+  Chaff separator. (See Milling.)
+
+  Chain wheels--hydraulics, 156.
+
+  Chairs, tables, desks, etc. (See Furniture, 351, 358.)
+
+  Challey, M., 97.
+
+  "Champion harvesters"--Harvesters.
+
+  Chance & Co., Glass makers, 470.
+
+  Channelling shoes. (See Leather.)
+
+  Chanute, Octave, 110.
+
+  Chappe, M., 125.
+
+  Charles I. (See Ordnance;
+    Charles II., 242;
+    Charles V., 387;
+    Charles VIII., 265.)
+
+  Chemistry, 58, 70.
+
+  Chemical Telegraph. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Chester-dial telegraph, 146.
+
+  Chili, 461.
+
+  Chill hardening, 250.
+
+  Chickering pianos, 403.
+
+  Chimes, 196.
+
+  China and Chinese inventions, 24, 52, 165, 222, 241, 253,
+      257, 273, 275, 280, 384, 386, 400, 423, 465.
+
+  Chlorates, 70.
+
+  Chlorine, 237.
+
+  Chlorination, 237.
+
+  Chromium, 70.
+
+  Chronometers, 390, 394.
+
+  Chubb-safes, 422, 425.
+
+  Cigar and cigarette machines, 56, 57.
+
+  Cincinnati Bridge. (See Engineering.)
+
+  Cincinnatus, 17, 31.
+
+  Circulation of blood, 2.
+
+  Civil Engineering, 93-110.
+
+  Clark, Alvan, 412.
+
+  Clavichord, 402.
+
+  Clayton, Dr., 1688, 451.
+
+  Clay, Treatment of. (See Brick and Pottery making.)
+
+  Cleaning grain, etc. (See Mills.)
+
+  Clement, metal worker, 244.
+
+  Clementi, pianist, 403.
+
+  Clepsydra, 384, 385, 386.
+
+  "Clermont." (See Steam Ships.)
+
+  Clippers, Ships, 439.
+
+  Clocks, 384. (See Horology.)
+
+  Clocks, Essential parts of, 386.
+
+  Closets. (See Baths.)
+
+  Cloth, Making, Finishing, 306;
+    Drying, 306;
+    Printing, 306;
+    Creasing and pressing, 306;
+    Cutting, 306-324;
+    Fancy woven, 205-306.
+
+  Clothes. (See Garments.)
+
+  Clover Header, 32.
+
+  Clutches, 161-162.
+
+  Clymer, of Philadelphia, press, 282.
+
+  Coaches, stages, mail, etc., 428-431.
+
+  Coach lace, 306.
+
+  Coal, 225, 378, 380;
+    Coal breakers and cleaners, 378-380.
+
+  Coal gas, 450;
+    Coal tar colors. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Coal mining. (See Ores.)
+
+  Coaling Ships, 110.
+
+  Coehorn, shell, 255.
+
+  Coffin, journalist, 25.
+
+  Coke. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Cold metal punching, working and rolling, 246-247.
+
+  Colding of Denmark, 63.
+
+  Collards, pianos, 403.
+
+  Collen, Henry, 417.
+
+  Collins line. (See Steam Ships.)
+
+  Collinge, 430.
+
+  Coloring cloth, 325.
+
+  Colors and coloring, 464-467.
+
+  Color process. (See Photography, 417, Printing, 290.)
+
+  Colt, revolvers, 260, 267, 322.
+
+  Columbiad, 261.
+
+  Colossus of Rhodes, 34.
+
+  Comminges of France, 255.
+
+  Comminuting machines. (See Grinding.)
+
+  Compartment vessels, 442.
+
+  Compass, 2.
+
+  Compensating devices, 391.
+
+  Compound engines, 87-89.
+
+  Compressed air drills, 376.
+
+  Compressed air and steam, 193, 194, 378.
+
+  Compressed air ordnance, 265, 269.
+
+  Condensers, 87.
+
+  Condamine, 477.
+
+  Conservation of forces, 2.
+
+  Constitution, U.S., 8.
+
+  Convertibility of forces, 2.
+
+  Containers, 175.
+
+  Conveyors, transportation, 152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160.
+
+  Cook, Telegraphy, 127, 146.
+
+  Cooke, Prof. J. P., 59.
+
+  Cooke, James, 25.
+
+  Cooking. (See Stoves.)
+
+  Cooper, Peter, 84.
+
+  Coopering. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Copernicus, 183.
+
+  Copper, 218, 219, etc.
+
+  Corliss, 88.
+
+  Corn: Cultivators, 29-30;
+    Mills, 46;
+    Planters, 28.
+
+  Correlation of forces, 2.
+
+  Cort, Henry, 226-231.
+
+  Corundum, 70, 334.
+
+  Coster, 280.
+
+  Cotton, 42, 43;
+    Gin, 42, 43, 297;
+    Harvester, 40.
+
+  Cotton seed oil, 69.
+
+  Cotton and wool machinery, 298. (See Textiles.)
+
+  "Counterblast to Tobacco," 155.
+
+  Couplers, 437.
+
+  Cowper, 31.
+
+  Cowper, printer, 283.
+
+  Cowley, 77.
+
+  Cradle, grain, 33.
+
+  Cranes and derricks, 110, 152, 153, 171.
+
+  Crecy, (1346). (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Cristofori, pianist, 402.
+
+  Crompton, Saml., 42, 297, 298, 301.
+
+  Crompton, George, 305.
+
+  Crookes, Prof. Wm., 149.
+
+  Crooke tubes, 149.
+
+  Cros, Charles, 407.
+
+  Crushers, stone and ore, 376.
+
+  Crystal Palace, 470.
+
+  Ctesibius, 74, 165, 168, 385.
+
+  Cultivators, 29, 30.
+
+  Curtet, 121.
+
+  Cugnot, 1769, 81.
+
+  Culverin. (See Cannon.)
+
+  Cunard line, 86.
+
+  Cuneus, 115.
+
+  Curtains Shades and Screens, 356.
+
+  Cyanide. Cyanide process, 236.
+
+  Cyclometers, 396.
+
+
+  D.
+
+  Daguerre, 415-416.
+
+  Daguerreotype, 415.
+
+  Dahlgren, Cannon, 264.
+
+  Danks, Rotary puddler, 231.
+
+  Dalton, John, 59-60, 186, 194, 453.
+
+  Damascus Steel, 221. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Dana, Prof., 126.
+
+  Daniell's battery, 119, 126.
+
+  Darby, Abraham, 1777, 95, 225.
+
+  Darwin, Dr., 18th cent., 73.
+
+  Davy, Humphry, Sir, 16, 63, 64, 70, 118, 122, 125,
+      188, 209, 236, 415.
+
+  David's harp, 6.
+
+  Decker, piano, 403.
+
+  Delinter, 43.
+
+  Dentistry, 72.
+
+  Dental Chairs, 72, 358;
+    Drills, 72;
+    Engines, 72;
+    Hammers, 72;
+    Pluggers, 72.
+
+  Deoville, St. Clair, 238.
+
+  Derricks, 110.
+
+  "Deutschland," The, 445.
+
+  Desks, 355.
+
+  De Susine, 192.
+
+  Dewar, Prof., 216.
+
+  Dial Telegraphs. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Diamonds. (See Milling; Polishing; Artificial, 70.)
+
+  Diamond Drill, 375.
+
+  Diana, Temple of, 34.
+
+  Diastase, 54.
+
+  Didot, Francois, 1800, 276.
+
+  Dickenson, 277.
+
+  Digesters. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Differential motion, 301.
+
+  Dioptric Lens, 410.
+
+  Diorama, 415.
+
+  Direct Acting Engines, 88.
+
+  Direct Feed Engines, 88.
+
+  Discoveries, distinct from inventions, 1, 2.
+
+  Disk Plows, 21, 30.
+
+  Distaff and Spindle. (See Textiles, 292.)
+
+  Dodge, James M., 159.
+
+  Doffers, 301.
+
+  Dog Carts. (See Carriages.)
+
+  Dollond, John, 410.
+
+  Donkin, 277.
+
+  Donovan, 454.
+
+  Don Quixote, 222.
+
+  Douglass, Nicholas, 105.
+
+  Draining, 105, 106, 107.
+
+  Drags and Drays. (See Waggons, 430-431.)
+
+  Drais, Baron Von, 432.
+
+  Drake, E. S., Col., 382.
+
+  Draper, J. W., Prof., 412, 416, 450.
+
+  Drawing Machines, Spinning, 296, 298, 301.
+
+  Dredging, 105, 106, 107.
+
+  Dressing; of thread and cloths, 299, 302;
+    of skins. (See Leather.)
+
+  Drills, seeders, 20, 27.
+
+  Drills, stone ore and iron, 375, 378.
+
+  Drying apparatus. (See Kilns.)
+
+  Dreyse, 266.
+
+  Dualine, 270.
+
+  Duboscq, 137.
+
+  Dudley, Dud, 224.
+
+  Duncan, John, 311.
+
+  Dundas, Charlotte, 84.
+
+  Dundonald, Lord, 451.
+
+  Dundas, Lord, 83, 440.
+
+  Dunlop, J. B., Bicycles, 433.
+
+  Duplex Engines, 88.
+
+  Dulcimer. (See Music.)
+
+  Dust Explosions and Collectors, 50.
+
+  Dutch Paper, 277;
+    Printing, 280.
+
+  Dutch Canals, 107.
+
+  Dutch Clocks, 388, 391.
+
+  Dutch Furnaces and Stoves, 203.
+
+  Dutch Locks, 424.
+
+  Dutch Ships, 439.
+
+  Dutch Ware, 459.
+
+  Dutton, Maj. C. E., 261.
+
+  Dynamometer, 187, 398.
+
+  Dynamite, 270.
+
+  Dynamo Electric Machines, 130, 134, 251.
+
+
+  E.
+
+  Eads, James B., 102.
+
+  Eames of U. S., 234.
+
+  East River Bridge, 98, 99.
+
+  Eddystone Lighthouse, 105.
+
+  Edison, 137, 144, 145, 148, 407, 408.
+
+  Egyptian agriculture, arts and inventions, 5, 13, 42, 45, 58,
+      164, 184, 220, 241, 273, 292, 340, 354, 400, 402, 423,
+      457, 460, 470.
+
+  Eiffel, M., 105.
+
+  Electricity, 5, 111-151.
+
+  Electric Alarms. (See Locks.)
+
+  Electric Batteries, 117-132.
+
+  Electric Cable, 138.
+
+  Electric Heating, 213.
+
+  Electric Lighting, 108, 119, 121 to 137, 360, 456.
+
+  Electro-Chemistry, 70.
+
+  Electro-magnets, 120-133.
+
+  Electro Metallurgy, 70, 238, 249.
+
+  Electrodes, 113, 135.
+
+  Electrolysis, 129, 131.
+
+  Electrometer, 113, 122.
+
+  Electrical Music, 148.
+
+  Electro Plating, 249.
+
+  Electric Railway, 143, 144.
+
+  Electric Signals and Stops, 160, 162.
+
+  Electric Telegraphy, 2, 114, 122, 123, 145, 146, 147.
+
+  Electrotyping, 283, 290.
+
+  Electric Type Printing, 147, 148.
+
+  Electric Type Writer, 287.
+
+  Electric Voters, 396.
+
+  Elevators, 6, 148, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157.
+
+  Eliot, Prof., 410.
+
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 402.
+
+  Elton, John, 46.
+
+  Elvean, Louis T. van, 155.
+
+  Embossing, 346, 347.
+
+  Embossing, weaving, 306.
+
+  Embroidery, 310, 313.
+
+  Emery, abrading, 70, 334.
+
+  Emery, testing machines, 398.
+
+  England, 8, 17, 25, 50, 188.
+
+  Engraving Machines, 290.
+
+  Enamelling. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Enamelled Ware, 459, 468.
+
+  Engineering. (See Civil.)
+    Electric, 143;
+    Hydraulic, 168;
+    Marine, 442;
+    Mining, 373;
+    Steam, 2.
+
+  Eolipile. (See Hero.)
+
+  Erard, pianist, 403.
+
+  Erasmus, 183.
+
+  Ericsson, John, 83, 86, 441, 443, 444.
+
+  Euclid, 9.
+
+  Euler, 167, 173.
+
+  Evans, Oliver, 1755-1819; 46, 47, 48, 81, 83, 87, 154, 374.
+
+  Evaporating, 52.
+
+  Evelyn, John, 1699; 25.
+
+  Evolution of modern inventions, 153.
+
+  Excavating, 105, 106.
+
+  Explosives, 270.
+
+  Eylewein, 167.
+
+
+  F.
+
+  Fabroni, 66, 118.
+
+  Faience, 459, 466.
+
+  Fairbairn, Sir Wm., 100, 176, 226, 440.
+
+  Fairbanks, scales and testing, 397.
+
+  Fahrenheit, 183.
+
+  Fanning Mills, 45.
+
+  Faraday, Michael, 63, 118, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 138,
+      188, 209, 411, 472.
+
+  Fan mills, 41.
+
+  Fare registers, 395.
+
+  Farmer, Moses G., 133, 135, 145.
+
+  Factory life, 298.
+
+  Faure, M. Camille, 120.
+
+  Faur, Faber du, 230.
+
+  Faust, 280.
+
+  Felt making, 325.
+
+  Fermentation, 65, 66, 67.
+
+  Fertilizers--machines and compositions. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Field, Cyrus W., 138.
+
+  Filament-carbon, 360.
+    (See Electric Lighting.)
+
+  Filters, filtering, 167, 180, 181.
+
+  Filter Press, 465.
+
+  Fink bridge, 103.
+
+  Fire-arms, 252-272.
+
+  Fire crackers, 252.
+
+  Fire engines, 76.
+
+  Fire place, 205.
+
+  Fiske, range finder, 266.
+
+  Fiske, 148, 413.
+
+  Fitch, John, 1784, 81.
+
+  Fitzherbert, Sir A., 1523, 14.
+
+  Fireproof safes. (See Locks.)
+
+  Flax machines, 42.
+
+  Flax brakes, 42.
+
+  Flaxman, 464.
+
+  Flax-threshers, 41, 42.
+
+  Fleming, 247.
+
+  Fleshing machines, 364.
+
+  Fletcher, 244.
+
+  Flexible shafts, 350.
+
+  Florence, 459.
+
+  Flour. (See Mills.)
+
+  Fly Shuttle. (See Spinning and Weaving.)
+
+  Foods, preparation of, 53, 54.
+
+  Force feed-seeders, 26.
+
+  Forneyron, 171, 172.
+
+  Forsythe, Rev. Mr., 259, 260.
+
+  Foucault, 137.
+
+  Fourcroy, 64.
+
+  Fourdrinier, 277. (See Paper making.)
+
+  Frackelton, Susan, portable kiln, 465.
+
+  France, 63, 203, 253, 274, 275, 313.
+
+  Francis, S. W., 286.
+
+  Frank, pottery, 463.
+
+  Franklin, Benj., 5, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117, 121, 125,
+      168, 203, 281, 446.
+
+  Franklin Institute, 455.
+
+  Fraunhofer, von, Jos., 61, 412.
+
+  Frederick, Henry, 255.
+
+  Freiberg Mining Academy, Metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Fresnel, 410.
+
+  Frictional Electricity, 111.
+
+  Frieburg Bridge. (See Bridges.)
+
+  Frogs, R. R., 108.
+
+  Flintlock, firearms, 258.
+
+  Froment, 146.
+
+  Frontinus, on Roman aqueducts, 166.
+
+  Fruits, Preparation of, 51, 53.
+
+  Fruit jars, 359.
+
+  Fry, Laura, 467.
+
+  Fulton, Robt., 84-85.
+
+  Furnaces, hot air; hot water, 206, 207.
+
+  Furniture, 351, 354, 359.
+
+  Furniture machinery, 351, 352.
+
+  Fuses, 259.
+
+
+  G.
+
+  Gaffield, Thos., glass, 472.
+
+  Gale, Prof., 126.
+
+  Galileo, 1, 166, 183, 388, 409.
+
+  Gally, self-playing pianos, 406.
+
+  Galton, Capt. Douglas, 205.
+
+  Galvani, 5, 117, 118, 125.
+
+  Galvanism, 112,121.
+
+  Galvanic batteries, 121, 122.
+
+  Galvanic music, 148, 406.
+
+  Galvanometer, 122, 139.
+
+  Gamble, 277.
+
+  Garay, Blasco de, 75.
+
+  Garments, 310-327.
+
+  Gas, 450;
+    illuminating, 69, 185, 450-456.
+
+  Gases, motors, 188, 190.
+
+  Gas checks, 266.
+
+  Gas engines, 76, 18, 184-194.
+
+  Gasoline and stoves, 213.
+
+  Gas pumps, 190.
+
+  Gatling, Dr., gun, 269.
+
+  Gaul, 32, 33.
+
+  Gauss, 126.
+
+  Gay-Lussac, 60, 185, 194, 209.
+
+  Ged, Wm., 281.
+
+  Geissler tubes, 135, 149.
+
+  Generator, Electric, 113.
+
+  Gentleman Farmer, 1768, 20.
+
+  George III., 389.
+
+  German inventions, 50, 203, 255, 313, 387, 391, 430, 473.
+
+  Germ theory, 67.
+
+  German clock and watch making, 387.
+
+  Gibraltar, 253.
+
+  Giffard-injector, 173.
+
+  Gilbert, Dr., 1600, 5, 113.
+
+  Gill, J. G., 268.
+
+  Giers, 234, 250.
+
+  Gin-cotton, 297.
+
+  Gladstone, inventor, 1806, 35.
+
+  Glass, 469, 474.
+
+  Glass, wool, and silk, 474, 480.
+
+  Glazes, 475. (See Porcelain.)
+
+  Glauber, 58.
+
+  Glycerine, 69.
+
+  Gold. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Goodyear, Chas., 434, 476, 478, 479, 480.
+
+  Googe, Barnaby, 14.
+
+  Gompertz, 432.
+
+  Gordon, 82.
+
+  Gothic architecture, 373.
+
+  Governors, 87.
+
+  Graham (chemist), 391.
+
+  Graham. (See Horology.)
+
+  Grain Binder. (See Harvesters.)
+
+  Grain cradles, drills, and seeders. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Grain elevator, 110.
+
+  Grain Separators, 49.
+
+  Gramme, Z., 134, 136, 137.
+
+  Gramophone, 406, 408.
+
+  Graphophone, 406, 408.
+
+  Grass burning stoves, 211.
+
+  Gray, Elisha. (See Electricity.)
+
+  Gray, S., 1729, 114, 125.
+
+  "Great Britain," The, 440.
+
+  "Great Republic," The, 439.
+
+  Great Urgroez, 357.
+
+  Greece and Greek antiquities and inventions, 9, 13, 18, 45,
+      74, 113, 164, 182, 218, 257, 340, 386, 457, 459.
+
+  Grenades, 255.
+
+  Green, N. W., driven well, 383.
+
+  Greenough, J. J., 318.
+
+  Gribeauval, 256.
+
+  Griffith, Julius, 82.
+
+  Griffiths of U. S., 234.
+
+  Grinding by stones, 45 to 49.
+
+  Grinding glass, 475.
+
+  Grindstones, 375.
+
+  Grossat, 477.
+
+  Grover and Baker sewing mach., 320.
+
+  Grooving, 245.
+
+  Grove, Sir Wm. Robert, 119.
+
+  Gruner, 234.
+
+  Gun carriages. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Gun cotton, 270.
+
+  Gun making, 345.
+
+  Gunpowder, 253, 262, 263, 270.
+
+  Gunpowder eng., 192.
+
+  Gun-stock, 345.
+
+  Guericke, Otto von, 113, 183, 193.
+
+  Guillaume, Puy, 253.
+
+  Gurney, 82.
+
+  Guttenberg, John, 280.
+
+
+  H.
+
+  Hales, Dr., 451.
+
+  Hall, John H., 267.
+
+  Hall safes, 422.
+
+  Hamberg, 58.
+
+  Hamblet, 146.
+
+  Hamilton (stove inventor), 212.
+
+  Hammers, steam and air, 88, 244.
+
+  Hanckwitz, Godfrey, 1680, 199.
+
+  Hancock, Walter, 82.
+
+  Handel, 402.
+
+  Hanging Gardens, 34.
+
+  Hardening metals, 249.
+
+  Hardware. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Hargreaves, Jas., 42, 294, 297.
+
+  Harnesses, 431.
+
+  Harp, The, and the Harpsichord, 6, 402.
+
+  Harvesters, 32, 33, 35, 39, 40, 41, 322.
+
+  Hartshorn, spring roller shades, 356.
+
+  Harveyized steel, 234, 249.
+
+  Harrows, 22, 28.
+
+  Hautefeuille, 77.
+
+  Hauteville, Abb�, 185, 389.
+
+  Hat making, 325.
+
+  Haydn, 402.
+
+  Hay, rakes and tedders, 15, 40.
+
+  Headers, 32.
+
+  Heat as power, 186, 187.
+
+  Heating, 86, 199, 210.
+
+  Hebrews, 45, 362, 423.
+
+  Hele, P., 388.
+
+  Helmont, J. van, 58, 184.
+
+  Hell Gate, 107.
+
+  Helmholtz, 66, 131, 141, 403, 406, 407, 411, 417.
+
+  Hendley, Wm., 82.
+
+  Henry, Joseph, 63, 123, 124, 126, 131, 146, 210.
+
+  Henry, rifle, 267.
+
+  Henry, Wm., 78.
+
+  Herissent, M., 477.
+
+  Hermetical sealing, 359.
+
+  Herodotus, 362.
+
+  Hero of Alexander, 5, 9, 74, 76, 87, 89, 165, 171, 404.
+
+  Herring, safes, 421.
+
+  Herschel, 228, 412.
+
+  Hides, treatment of. (See Leather.)
+
+  Hide mills, 364.
+
+  High and low pressure engines, 87, 88.
+
+  Hindoos, 220, 241, 254, 273, 292, 340, 384.
+
+  Hodges, James, of Montreal, 101.
+
+  Hoe, Robert, and son, R. M., 284.
+
+  Hoe drill-seeders, 27.
+
+  Hoes, 29, 30.
+
+  Hoffman, Dr., 464.
+
+  Hoisting, conveying, and storing, 152-163.
+
+  Holland, 18, 255, 257, 275.
+
+  Holley, A. L., 232.
+
+  Holtzapffel, J., 241.
+
+  Homer, 459.
+
+  Hooke, Dr., 388, 389.
+
+  Hoopes and Townsend, 247.
+
+  Hoppers. (See Mills.)
+
+  Hopper boy. (See Mills.)
+
+  Hoosac tunnel, 107.
+
+  Hornblower, 1781, 87.
+
+  Horrocks, 305.
+
+  Horse power, 187.
+
+  Horseshoes, 248.
+
+  Horology, 384-395.
+
+  Hot air engines, 185.
+
+  Hot air blast, 231.
+
+  Hot furnaces. (See Heating.)
+
+  Hot water circulation. (See Heating.)
+
+  Hotchkiss gun, 270.
+
+  Houdin regulator, 137.
+
+  Houses, their construction, 351, 352.
+
+  Houston. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Howe, Elias, 314-318.
+
+  Howe bridge, 103.
+
+  Howitzer. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Hunt, Walter, 314, 315.
+
+  Hungary, 357.
+
+  Huggins, Dr., 63, 412.
+
+  Hughes, D. E., 147.
+
+  Hugon, 189.
+
+  Hulls, Jonathan, 78.
+
+  Huntsman, Benj., 225.
+
+  "Husbandry, The whole art of." (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Huskisson, 83.
+
+  Hussey, 1833, 37, 38.
+
+  Huxley, 65.
+
+  Huygens, 61, 77, 183, 184, 192, 388, 391.
+
+  Hydraulicising, 174.
+
+  Hydraulic elevators, 156, 157, 164, 165, 166.
+
+  Hydraulic jacks, 174.
+
+  Hydraulic motors, 164-181;
+    pumps, rams, 166, 168;
+    press, 52, 53, 154, 155, 168, 171, 175;
+    testing, 398, 399.
+
+  Hydrogen gas, 454.
+
+  Hydrostatic engines and presses, 166, 190, 194.
+
+
+  I.
+
+  Ida, mountains of, iron, 218.
+
+  Illuminating gas. (See Gas.)
+
+  Impulse pump. (See Ram.)
+
+  Incandescent light, 135, 456.
+
+  Incubators, 207.
+
+  India, 373, 400.
+
+  Industrial mechanics, 328-338.
+
+  Injectors, 173.
+
+  Intensifiers, 174.
+
+  International Exposition, London, 246, 352.
+
+  Invention, what it is, how induced, distinctions, growth,
+      protection of, 1-8.
+
+  Iron, 218.
+
+  Iron Ships. (See Ships.)
+
+  Iridescent glass, 474.
+
+  Ironing machines, 338.
+
+  Italy, 255, 280.
+
+  Ives. F. E. (three-color process), 417.
+
+
+  J.
+
+  Jablochoff, M. Paul, 136.
+
+  Jacks, 245.
+
+  Jacobi, of Russia, 249.
+
+  Jackson, C. T., Dr., 71.
+
+  Jacquard Loom, The, 304, 323, 326.
+
+  Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 304, 305.
+
+  Jenk's ring frame, 302.
+
+  Jenkins, Prof. F., 192.
+
+  Jefferson, Thos., 16,18.
+
+  Jenkin, Prof. Fleeming, 144.
+
+  Jewelry, 333.
+
+  "Jimcrow," 245.
+
+  Johnson, Denis. (See Bicycle.)
+
+  Jones, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Jonval, 172.
+
+  Joule, 2.
+
+  Jupiter, statue of, 34.
+
+
+  K.
+
+  Kaleidoscope, 410.
+
+  Karnes, Lord, 1768, 20.
+
+  Kaolin. (See Lighting.)
+
+  Kay, John, 293, 295.
+
+  "Kearsarge," The, 261.
+
+  Kepler, 183.
+
+  Kennedy, Diss and Cannan, 331.
+
+  Kilns, 463, 464, 465.
+
+  Kinetic energy, Age of, 86.
+
+  Kinetograph, 417.
+
+  Kirchoff, G. R., 62, 412.
+
+  Kitchen and table utensils, 356.
+
+  Knabe piano, 403.
+
+  Knight, Edward, 36, 51, 170, 202, 232, 276, 321, 429.
+
+  Knitting, 307, 308.
+
+  K�nig and Bauer, 283.
+
+  K�nig, acoustics, 407.
+
+  Koops, 277.
+
+  Koster, 1620, rifle, 258.
+
+  Krag-Jorgensen rifle, 268.
+
+  Kramer, 146.
+
+  Krupp, steel, 234.
+
+  Krupp, Fredk., guns, 264.
+
+  Krupp, glass, 480.
+
+  Kutler, Augustin, 258.
+
+
+  L.
+
+  La Condamine, 477.
+
+  Labor organizations, 11.
+
+  Labor, how affected by inventions; reducing, and increasing,
+      152, 153, 162, 163, 293, 308, 380, 381, 460.
+
+  Lace making, 306.
+
+  Laconium, 202.
+
+  Ladd electric machine, 133.
+
+  La Hire, 167, 170.
+
+  Laird, John, 440, 443.
+
+  Lallement, P. (See Bicycle.)
+
+  Lamps and lamp lighting, 359, 450.
+
+  Lancaster, cannon, 263.
+
+  Land reclamation, 107.
+
+  Lane, 1828, 37.
+
+  Lane-Fox light, 137.
+
+  Langen and Otto. (See Gas Engine.)
+
+  Langley, Prof., 4.
+
+  L'Hommedieu, 348.
+
+  Lapping-cotton, 299, 300.
+
+  Lasts, making of, 344, 345.
+
+  Lathes, 241-243, 340, 345, 349;
+    for turning irregular forms of wood, 344.
+
+  Lattice work bridges, 103.
+
+  Laundry, 335.
+
+  Lavoisier, 58, 60, 63.
+
+  Lawn mowers, 40.
+
+  Lazy tongs mechanism, 160.
+
+  Le Bon, 1801, 185, 452.
+
+  Leaching, 236.
+
+  Lead, 219. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Leather, 361-372.
+
+  Leeuwenhoek of Holland, 65.
+
+  Leeu, 280.
+
+  Leckie, 41.
+
+  Le Conte, 63.
+
+  Lefaucheux, M., 267.
+
+  Leibnitz, 183.
+
+  Lenoir, 189.
+
+  Lesage, 121.
+
+  Lescatello, 1662, 24.
+
+  Leyden jar, 114.
+
+  Libavius, 58.
+
+  Liebig, 64.
+
+  Lieberkulm, Dr., 409.
+
+  Light, 2.
+
+  Lighting. (See Lamps and Gas.)
+
+  Light Houses, illumination, 105, 410.
+
+  Linotype, 288, 289, 290.
+
+  Linville bridge, 103.
+
+  Lippersheim, 409.
+
+  Liquid air, 216, 217.
+
+  Livingstone, Dr., 221.
+
+  Livingston, Robt., 84, 85.
+
+  Lixiviation, 236.
+
+  Locks, 420-427.
+
+  Locomotives, 82, 83, 84, 88.
+
+  Looms, 293, 297, 302. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Loomis, Mahlen, 150.
+
+  "London Engineering," 288.
+
+  London exhibition, 1851, 470.
+
+  London Times, 283, 285.
+
+  Lontin regulator, 137.
+
+  Lost arts, 219.
+
+  Louis XI., XIV., 254, 255.
+
+  Lowell, Francis C., 298.
+
+  Lowe, T. S. C., gas, 454, 455.
+
+  Lubricants, 237.
+
+  Lyall, James, 306.
+
+  Lyttleton, 442.
+
+
+  M.
+
+  MacArthur-Forrest, cyanide process, 236.
+
+  Macaulay, Lord, 10.
+
+  Mackintosh, of Glasgow, 477.
+
+  Machine guns, 269.
+
+  Madersperger, Jos., 312.
+
+  Magdeburg, 193.
+
+  Magic lantern. (See Optics.)
+
+  Magnets and Magnetic Electricity, 112, 122, 123, 124, 130, 133.
+
+  Mail bags and locks, 427.
+
+  Mail service, 427.
+
+  Mail marking, 285.
+
+  Majolica. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Malt, 65, 66.
+
+  Man a tool-using animal, 310.
+
+  Manning, 1831, 37.
+
+  Marble, artificial, 468, 469.
+
+  Marine propulsion, 442.
+
+  Marconi, 151.
+
+  Mariotte's law of gases, 184, 194.
+
+  Markers and cutters, 324.
+
+  Markham, 30.
+
+  Marsland, looms, 301.
+
+  Marr, Wm., 421.
+
+  Martin, Prof., 63.
+
+  Marvin's safes, 421.
+
+  McClure's Magazine, 445, 447.
+
+  McCormick reaper, 37, 38.
+
+  McCallum bridge, 103.
+
+  McKay, ships, 439.
+
+  McKay, shoe machines, 369.
+
+  McMillan bicycle, 433.
+
+  Mary, Queen, 402.
+
+  Mason, Prof. O. T., 458.
+
+  Massachusetts, mills, 298, 369.
+
+  Massachusetts, shoe making, 370.
+
+  Master locks, 423, 426.
+
+  Matches, 199, 200, 201.
+
+  Matting, 309, 312.
+
+  Maudsley, Henry, 243, 349.
+
+  Maurice of Nassau, 255.
+
+  Maurice, Peter, 167.
+
+  Mauser rifle, 269.
+
+  Mausoleum, 34.
+
+  Maxim electric light, 137.
+
+  Maxwell, 417.
+
+  Mayer, Prof., 404.
+
+  Meares, 1800, 35.
+
+  Meat, Preparation of, 55.
+
+  Mechanical powers, 4.
+
+  Medicine and surgery, 70, 71, 72.
+
+  Meigs, General M. C., 102.
+
+  Meikle, 1786, 41.
+
+  Megaphone, 407.
+
+  Melville, David, 452.
+
+  Menai Straits bridges, 96.
+
+  Mendeljeff, 2.
+
+  Menzies of Scotland, 41.
+
+  Mergenthaler, 288.
+
+  Merrimac and Monitor, 268, 441.
+
+  Metals and Metallurgy, 218-239.
+
+  Metal founding, 249.
+
+  Metal working and turning, 240;
+    boring, planing, 251;
+    hammering, shaping, 240;
+    modern metal
+    working plant, 250.
+
+  Metal, personal ware, buckles, clasps, hooks, buttons, etc.,
+      250.
+
+  Meters, gas and water, 178.
+
+  Mexico, 281, 292.
+
+  Microphone, 148.
+
+  Microscope, 409.
+
+  Middlings purifier, 49, 50.
+
+  Milk, milkers, 54, 55.
+
+  Millet, 30.
+
+  Mills, 45 to 51.
+
+  Milling, high, low, 49.
+
+  Miller, wood working, 342.
+
+  Miller and Taylor, 81.
+
+  Millwright, The Young, 47.
+
+  Milton, 105, 218.
+
+  Mineral wool, minerals and mining, 373-383.
+
+  Minneapolis mills, 50.
+
+  Mitrailleuses, 269.
+
+  Modern machinery, its commencement, 364.
+
+  Mohl, von, Hugo, 67.
+
+  Moigno, Abb�, 411.
+
+  Mold, aging. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Moulding. (See Wood-working and Glass making.)
+
+  Monks, 387.
+
+  "Monitor," The, 268, 441.
+
+  Montgolfier, 169.
+
+  Moody, Paul, 298.
+
+  Moors, 253.
+
+  Morin, Genl., 209, 238.
+
+  Morland, Sir Sam'l, 77.
+
+  Morrison, Chas., 115.
+
+  Morse, S. B. F., 126, 127, 128, 129.
+
+  Mortars, 253.
+
+  Mortise making, 345.
+
+  Morton, Dr. W. T. G., 71.
+
+  Motor vehicles, 435.
+
+  Mont Cenis Tunnel, 107.
+
+  Mowers, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
+
+  Moxon, Jos., 242.
+
+  Mozart, 402.
+
+  Murdock, Wm., 185, 452.
+
+  Music, 400-406.
+
+  Musical instruments, 6, 400.
+
+  Musical electrical apparatus, 406.
+
+  Muschenbroeck, Prof., 1745, 114, 115.
+
+  Mushet, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Muskets. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Muzzle loaders, 263, 264.
+
+
+  N.
+
+  National Assembly, France, 9.
+
+  Napoleon. (See Bonaparte.)
+
+  Naphtha, 454.
+
+  Nasmyth, 243, 245.
+
+  Needle, 310, 313.
+
+  Needle gun, 266.
+
+  Niedringhaus, 468.
+
+  Netting. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Newcomen, 5, 77, 78, 79, 167, 187.
+
+  Newbold, Chas., 19.
+
+  Newbury, Wm., 348.
+
+  Newton, Sir Isaac, 9, 11, 61, 114, 167, 183, 414.
+
+  Niagara bridges, 97, 98, 104.
+
+  Niagara power, 171, 172.
+
+  Nicholson and Carlisle, 118.
+
+  Nicholson, Wm., of England, 282.
+
+  Nickel. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Niepce, Jas. N., 415.
+
+  Nitro-glycerine, 270.
+
+  Noah's Ark, 438.
+
+  Nobel, A., 192.
+
+  Nollet, Prof., 132.
+
+  Noria, The, 165.
+
+  Norway, 266, 430, 439.
+
+  Nozzles, flexible, 174;
+    water, 179.
+
+
+  O.
+
+  Oersted, 121, 130.
+
+  Ogle, 1822, 36.
+
+  Ohm, G. S., 125.
+
+  Oils and fats, 69.
+
+  Oil cloth, 306.
+
+  Oil lamps, 359.
+
+  Oil stoves and furnaces, 190, 212.
+
+  Oiling waves, 446.
+
+  Oil wells, 190, 382.
+
+  Omnibus. (See Stages and Carriers.)
+
+  Opening and blowing machines, cotton, 299.
+
+  Opthalmoscope, 411.
+
+  Optical instruments, 409-412.
+
+  Ordnance, arms, explosives, 252 to 272.
+
+  Ores, treatment of, 229, 250, 251, 373 to 380.
+
+  Ore separators, 379. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Organs, 404.
+
+  Ornamental iron work. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Ornamental wood work. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Oscillating engines. (See Steam.)
+
+  Osmund furnaces. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Otis elevators, 155.
+
+  Otto, Nicolaus A., Otto engine, 190, 191.
+
+  Oxygen, 58, 453. (See Priestley.)
+
+
+  P.
+
+  Paddle wheels and vessels, 443.
+
+  Paints, 466.
+
+  Painting, 418, 419, 459.
+
+  Painting machines, 193, 418, 467.
+
+  Paixhans, Genl., 261, 264.
+
+  Page, Prof. C. G., 132, 141.
+
+  Page, Ralph, 224.
+
+  Palissy, Bernard, 458.
+
+  Palmer, stage-coaches, 429.
+
+  Palladius, 32.
+
+  Panoramas, 415.
+
+  Paper and printing, 273-291.
+
+  Paper bag machinery, 279.
+
+  Papin, 5, 77, 184, 192, 193.
+
+  Papyrus, 273, 274.
+
+  Paraffine. (See Oils.)
+
+  Parchment, 274.
+
+  Parkinson, Thos., 194.
+
+  Parliament, House of, 209.
+
+  Parquetry. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Parrott, gun, 264.
+
+  Parthenon, 373.
+
+  Partridge, Reuben, matches, 200.
+
+  Pascal, 166, 168, 170, 183.
+
+  Pasteur, 68.
+
+  Patents, their origin and purpose, 8, 21.
+
+  Pattern making. (See Wood, Metal, and Textiles.)
+
+  Pauley, Col., 266.
+
+  Pegs, 367, 368.
+
+  Pencils, 418.
+
+  Pendulum. (See Horology.)
+
+  Pendulum machines, 365.
+
+  Penelope, 306.
+
+  Pennsylvania fireplace, 203.
+
+  Percussion caps, 259, 260.
+
+  Percy. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Permutation locks, 425.
+
+  Pernot, 234.
+
+  Perin & Co., saws, 348.
+
+  Persians, 362.
+
+  Petroleum, 359, 382.
+
+  Petzold, 403.
+
+  Pfaff, 121.
+
+  Pharos of Alexandria, 34.
+
+  Phelps, G. M., 147.
+
+  Ph[oe]nicians, 439, 459.
+
+  "Ph[oe]nix," The. (See Ships.)
+
+  Phonautograph, 141, 407.
+
+  Phonograph, 2, 406.
+
+  Phonophone, 414.
+
+  Phonoscope, 414.
+
+  Photophone, 414.
+
+  Phosphorus matches, 200.
+
+  Photochromoscope, 417.
+
+  Photography, 410, 414, 416, 418.
+
+  Photo-processes, 417.
+
+  Piano, 6, 401-404.
+
+  Picking machine, 298, 299.
+
+  Picker-motion, looms, 297.
+
+  Piezometer, 262.
+
+  Pigments, 70.
+
+  Pitt, inventor, 1786, 33.
+
+  Pixii, 131.
+
+  Planes, 340, 350. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Planing machines, 245, 349, 350. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Plant�, G., 120.
+
+  Planters. (See Chap. III.)
+
+  Plaster, 469.
+
+  Plato, 385.
+
+  Platt, Sir Hugh, 14.
+
+  Platt, Senator, 35.
+
+  Pliny, 32, 164, 223, 227, 273, 340.
+
+  Ploughs, 5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27,
+      28, 29, 30.
+
+  Plucknett, 1808, 35.
+
+  Pneumatics, 165, 182 to 198.
+
+  Pneumatic machines, 195, 197, 198.
+
+  Pneumatic propellers, 444.
+
+  Pneumatic tires, 433.
+
+  Pneumatic tubes and transmission, 159, 196.
+
+  Polemoscope, 413.
+
+  Polishing glass, 475.
+
+  Pope, Alexander, 394.
+
+  Porcelain, 465, 466.
+
+  Poririer (match machine), 201.
+
+  Porta Baptista, 414.
+
+  Porta G. della, 75.
+
+  Portable engines, 88.
+
+  Potato planters, 28.
+
+  Potassium, 236.
+
+  Potter, Humphrey, 78.
+
+  Pottery, 457-469.
+
+  Pousard, 465.
+
+  Powder, 253.
+
+  Power, measure of, 187.
+
+  Prehistoric inventions. (See beginning of each Chapter.)
+
+  Pressing machines, 51, 52, 53.
+
+  Priestley, 58, 453, 477.
+
+  "Princeton," The, 443.
+
+  Printing press, 2, 6, 273-291.
+
+  Prince of Orange, 255.
+
+  Projectiles, 253-270.
+
+  Prometheus, 199, 200.
+
+  Protoplasm, 67.
+
+  Prussia, 266.
+
+  Providence, R. I., Tool Co., 322.
+
+  Psalteries, 401.
+
+  Ptah, 241.
+
+  Puckle's patent breech loader, 258, 259.
+
+  Puddling, 226, 227, 231.
+
+  Pug mills, 461.
+
+  Pullman car, 107.
+
+  Pulp, 275-279.
+
+  Pumps, 187.
+
+  Ptolemy, 428.
+
+  Puillet, 411.
+
+  Puy Guillaume, battle of, 1338, 258.
+
+  Pyramids, 34, 93.
+
+
+  Q.
+
+  Quadruplex telegraphy. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  "Queen Ann's Pocket Piece," 256.
+
+  Queen of Sheba, 326.
+
+  Quern, 45.
+
+  Quilting machine, 324.
+
+
+  R.
+
+  Radcliffe, 305.
+
+  Radiation and radiators, 205, 206.
+
+  Railways, rails and tracks, 106, 108;
+    cars, 108, 109;
+    frogs, 108.
+
+  Railway cars, 436, 437.
+
+  Rakes. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Ramage Press, 281.
+
+  Ramseye, David, 1630, 76.
+
+  Ramelli, Cardan, 75.
+
+  Ramsey, David, 1738, 168, 389.
+
+  Ram, water. (See Pumps.)
+
+  Randolph, David M., 367.
+
+  Randolph, Elder and Co., 440.
+
+  Ranges. (See Stoves.)
+
+  Range finder, 413.
+
+  Raphael, 418.
+
+  Rawhides. (See Leather.)
+
+  Read, Nathan, 1791, 87.
+
+  Reapers. (See Harvesters, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38.)
+
+  Reichenbach, 382.
+
+  Reis, Prof., 141, 407.
+
+  Refining metals, 227.
+
+  Refrigeration, 213, 214, 216.
+
+  Regenerators, 465.
+
+  Regenerative furnace. (See Metallurgy, also, 464.)
+
+  Registers, 395.
+
+  Regulators, Electric, 137;
+    time, 137.
+
+  Rennie, 244.
+
+  Repeating watches, 389.
+
+  Reservoirs, 166, 180.
+
+  Resonators, 404.
+
+  Revault, 1605, 75.
+
+  Revolvers. (See Fire Arms.)
+
+  Rhode Island, 298.
+
+  Ribbon making, 306.
+
+  Rickel, Dr., 451.
+
+  Rider bridge, 103.
+
+  Riehle, testing mach., 398.
+
+  Rifles, 258, 259, 260.
+
+  Rifled cannon, 262, 263.
+
+  Ring frame-spinning, 302.
+
+  Ritter, 118, 121.
+
+  Riveting, 176.
+
+  Road carriage, steam, 83.
+
+  Roads, 106, 107.
+
+  Road making, 106.
+
+  Robia, Luca della, 459.
+
+  Robert, Louis, 276.
+
+  Roberts, 244.
+
+  Rock drilling, 107.
+
+  Rockers, ore, 235.
+
+  Rockets, 253.
+
+  Rodman, General, gun, 264.
+
+  Roebling, John A., engineer, 98, 99.
+
+  Roebling, Washington, 98, 100.
+
+  Roentgen, X rays, 149.
+
+  Rohes, M. Beau de, 189.
+
+  Rogers, Saml. B., metallurgist, 229, 230.
+
+  Rogers, type maker, 289.
+
+  Roller press, 283, 284.
+
+  Roman arts, inventions, etc., 10, 13, 14, 45, 93, 164, 166,
+      178, 202, 274, 457, 459.
+
+  Rookwood pottery, 467.
+
+  Romagnosi, G. D., 121.
+
+  Roscoe, Prof. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Rose, H., 238.
+
+  Rotary engines. (See Steam.)
+
+  Rotary printing press, 284. (See Printing.)
+
+  Rotary pumps. (See Water and Steam Eng.)
+
+  Roving, spinning, 298, 299.
+
+  Rubber, 69, 434.
+
+  Ruhmkorff coil, 132.
+
+  Rumford, Count, 63.
+
+  Rumsey, James, 81, 168.
+
+  Russia, 40, 254, 430.
+
+  Russian leather, 362.
+
+  Rust, Saml., 282.
+
+  Ruth, 16.
+
+
+  S.
+
+  Sabot, projectiles, 262, 263.
+
+  Safes and locks, 420-427.
+
+  Safety valves, 87.
+
+  Saint, Thomas, sewing machine, 311.
+
+  Salman, scales maker, 396.
+
+  Salonen, 1807, mower, 36.
+
+  Samians and Samos, 459.
+
+  Sand blast, 332, 334, 475.
+
+  Sand filters. (See Filters.)
+
+  Sandwich, Earl, 1699, 25.
+
+  Saracens, 274.
+
+  Sarnstrom, Prof., 234.
+
+  Savery, Thos., 5, 77.
+
+  Saws, 340, 341, 342, 348, 351.
+
+  Saw mills, 341, 342.
+
+  Saxton, Jos., 131.
+
+  Scales, 395.
+
+  Scaliger, 183.
+
+  Scandinavians, 363.
+
+  Scarborough, 85.
+
+  Schilling, Baron, 126.
+
+  Sch�nbein, 270.
+
+  Schapper, Hartman, 241.
+
+  Schoeffer, Peter, 270.
+
+  Schreiber, 403.
+
+  Schrotter (matches), 200.
+
+  Schweigger, S. C., 126.
+
+  Scoops, 178.
+
+  Scotland, 19, 20, 33.
+
+  Scott, phonautograph, 141, 407.
+
+  Scott, Sir Walter, 45, 80.
+
+  Scott, Gen. W., 260.
+
+  Scott, Rich'd, 420.
+
+  Scouring machines. (See Leather and Cloth, and Grain.)
+
+  Screw, Archimedean. (See Ships and Propeller.)
+
+  Screw, press, 52.
+
+  Screw propeller, 85, 443.
+
+  Screw making, 245, 246.
+
+  Scythians, 362, 428.
+
+  Scythes, 32, 33, 35.
+
+  Seed drills, 24, 25, 26, 27.
+
+  Seely, F. A., 3.
+
+  Self-playing Instruments, 406.
+
+  Seguin, 83.
+
+  Sellers, Wm., 234, 247.
+
+  Separators, Grain, 48, 49;
+    milk, 54;
+    ore, 379. (See Mills.)
+
+  Seppings, Sir Robert, 440.
+
+  Serrin, 137.
+
+  Serviere, 166.
+
+  Seward, Wm. H., 3.
+
+  Seven Wonders, The, 34, 35.
+
+  Sewing machines, 311-323.
+
+  Sewer construction, 107.
+
+  Shades and screens, 356.
+
+  Shaping machines, 245.
+
+  Sharp's carbine, 267.
+
+  Shaw, Joshua, 260.
+
+  Sheele, 415.
+
+  Sheet metal ware, 250.
+
+  Shells, 264.
+
+  Shingle making, 350.
+
+  Shinar, Brick making in, 457.
+
+  Ships, war, and others, 261, 343, 438-449.
+
+  Shoes and machinery, 365-371.
+
+  Sholes, inventor, type writing, 286.
+
+  Shrapnel, 259.
+
+  Shuttles, 293. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Sickle, 32, 33.
+
+  Side wheel steamboats, 85.
+
+  Siemens, Dr. Werner, 133.
+
+  Siemens, Wm., Sir., 144, 171.
+
+  Siemens and Halske, 144, 146.
+
+  Siemens, C. L., 147, 234, 465.
+
+  Silk making. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Silk, artificial. (See Glass.)
+
+  Silver, 219.
+
+  Singer, sewing machine, 319, 320.
+
+  Sinking shafts, Mode of, 106, 107.
+
+  Skiving. (See Leather.)
+
+  Slade, J. T., 155.
+
+  Slater, Thomas, 298.
+
+  Slaughtering, 55.
+
+  Sleighs, 430, 431.
+
+  Slide, rest, 243, 349.
+
+  Slotting machines, 245.
+
+  Small arms, 266. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Small, Jas., 1784, 18.
+
+  Smeaton, 87, 105.
+
+  Smelting, 220. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Smiles, Self Help, 95.
+
+  Smith & Wesson, revolvers, 269.
+
+  Snellus, 234.
+
+  Snow ploughs, 109.
+
+  Soda, pulp, 278.
+
+  Solarmeter, 413.
+
+  Solomon's temple, 242.
+
+  Somerset, Marquis of Worcester. (See Steam.)
+
+  Sound, 406. (See Acoustics.)
+
+  Sowing, 23.
+
+  Spanish inventions, 25, 75, 253, 274, 280, 292.
+
+  Spectacles. (See Optics.)
+
+  Spectrum, analysis, 60, 61, 62, 63, 412.
+
+  Spectroscope, 2, 412.
+
+  Speed Indicators, 396.
+
+  Spencer, gun, 267.
+
+  Spencer, metal coating, 249.
+
+  Spinet, 402.
+
+  Spinning, 6, 292, 296, 300. (See Textiles.)
+
+  "Spinning Jenny," 297.
+
+  Spinning Mule, 297, 300.
+
+  "Spiritalia," 404.
+
+  Splitting, leather, 366.
+
+  Spooling, 302.
+
+  Springfield musket, 268.
+
+  Spun glass. (See Spinning and 474.)
+
+  Stamp mills and metal working, 236, 250.
+
+  Standard time, 394.
+
+  Stanhope, Earl, 282.
+
+  St. Gothard tunnel, 107.
+
+  St. Louis bridge, 102.
+
+  Steam engines, 2, 5, 73 to 95;
+    boilers, 86;
+    heating, 207;
+    pumps, 79, 81, 88.
+
+  Steam ships, 2, 84, 85, 440.
+
+  Stearns, 145.
+
+  Steel, manufacture of. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Steinheil, 126, 412.
+
+  Steinway, pianos, 403.
+
+  Stenographing, 290.
+
+  Stereoscope, 410, 411.
+
+  Stereotyping, 281.
+
+  Sterilisation, 54, 213.
+
+  Stephenson, Geo., 82, 83, 84, 85, 98.
+
+  Stephenson, Robert, 98, 100, 101, 155.
+
+  Stevens, John C., 84, 85, 86, 443.
+
+  Stevinus, 166.
+
+  Stitching machines. (See Sewing.)
+
+  Stocking making, 307.
+
+  Stone cutting, carving and dressing, 374, 375.
+
+  Stone crushing, 376.
+
+  Stone, artificial, 468.
+
+  Storage battery, 120.
+
+  Storm, W. M. (Gunpowder Engine,) 192.
+
+  Store service, 152, 153, 158, 159.
+
+  Stoves, 200-206.
+
+  Street, Robert, 185.
+
+  Street sweeping, 331.
+
+  Stow, 350.
+
+  St�ckofen, metallurgy, 224.
+
+  Sturgeon, inventor, 122, 123, 124.
+
+  Sturtevant, B. F. (shoes), 368.
+
+  Submarine blasting, etc., 107.
+
+  Suez canal, 107.
+
+  Sugar, 69.
+
+  Sun-dial, 384.
+
+  Subdivision of labor, 392. (See Ordnance and Sewing Machines.)
+
+  Surgery and instruments, 70.
+
+  Suspension bridges, 95, 96-100.
+
+  Swan, light, 137.
+
+  Sweden, 266.
+
+  Sweeping machines, 331.
+
+  Swiss manufactures, (See Watches, etc.)
+
+  Switzerland, 16, 46, 391.
+
+  Symington, 81, 83, 85.
+
+  Syphon recorder, 139.
+
+
+  T.
+
+  T-rail, 108.
+
+  Tables, 354. (See Furniture.)
+
+  Tachenius, 58.
+
+  Tack making, 344.
+
+  Tainter, C. S., 408, 414.
+
+  Takamine, 68.
+
+  Talus, or Perdix, saw inventor, 340.
+
+  Tanning. (See Leather.)
+
+  Tapestry, 275.
+
+  Teasling, 306.
+
+  Tedders, 40.
+
+  Telegraph, 124-128, 139, 140.
+
+  Telegraphic pictures, 419.
+
+  Telephone, 2, 140, 141, 142, 406.
+
+  Telescope, 2, 409.
+
+  Telpherage, 144.
+
+  Telford, 95, 96.
+
+  Tennyson, 67.
+
+  Tesla, 145.
+
+  Testing machines, 398.
+
+  Textiles, 292-309.
+
+  Thermo-electricity, 112, 120.
+
+  Theodore of Samos, 340.
+
+  Thimonnier, 313.
+
+  Thomson, Sir Wm., 63, 139.
+
+  Thompson, Robt. Wm., 433, 435.
+
+  Thompson & Houston, 137.
+
+  "Three color process," 417.
+
+  Thread making. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Threshing machines, 40, 41.
+
+  Throstle, 296.
+
+  Thurston, Prof. R. H., 86.
+
+  Tiles, 350.
+
+  Tilghman, B. F., sand blast, 332, 475.
+
+  Time locks, 425.
+
+  Time measuring of the ancients, 384.
+
+  Tissier, 238.
+
+  Tobacco and machinery, 55, 56, 57.
+
+  Tools, primitive, 310, 328, 339.
+
+  Torpedo vessels, 271, 445.
+
+  Torpedoes, 271.
+
+  Torricelli, 166, 183.
+
+  Tour, Cagniard de la, 65.
+
+  Towne's lattice bridge, 103.
+
+  Traction railways and engines, 436.
+
+  Transplanters, 29.
+
+  Transportation, 107, 109.
+
+  Treadwell, Daniel, 284.
+
+  Tresca, M., 247.
+
+  Trevithick, Richard, 81, 82.
+
+  Tripler, C. E., liquid air, 216.
+
+  Trolley lines. (See Electric, etc.)
+
+  Trough batteries. (See Electricity.)
+
+  Truss bridges, 102, 103.
+
+  Tubal Cain, 218, 239.
+
+  Tubes and tubing, making, 248.
+
+  Tubular bridges, 100, 102.
+
+  Tull, Jethro, 1680-1740, 14, 25.
+
+  Tungsten. (See Metals.)
+
+  Tunnels, 106, 107.
+
+  Turbines, 89, 168, 171, 172.
+
+  Turning, Art of, 242, 339, 344.
+
+  Tusser, Thomas, 14.
+
+  Tweddle, 176.
+
+  Twine binders. (See Harvesters.)
+
+  Twinings (inventor, refrigerator), 215.
+
+  Tympanum, 164.
+
+  Tyndall, John, 411, 412.
+
+  Type, 280, 281.
+
+  Type Distributor, 279.
+
+  Type setter, 278, 279.
+
+  Type writers, 6, 286.
+
+
+  V.
+
+  Vail, Alfred, 126.
+
+  Valerius, 388.
+
+  Valves, valve gear, 87, 89.
+
+  Vapor engines, 190-192.
+
+  Vapor stoves, 200-206, 212.
+
+  Varley, Alfred, 133.
+
+  Varro, 32.
+
+  Vegetable cutters, 51.
+
+  Velocipedes, 431.
+
+  Venetians, 280.
+
+  Ventilation, 209.
+
+  Veneering, 351.
+
+  Vestibule cars, 437.
+
+  Vick, Henry de, clockmaker, 387.
+
+  Victoria bridge. (See Bridges.)
+
+  Vienna, 38.
+
+  Vienna exposition, 348.
+
+  Vince, Leonardo de, 75.
+
+  Virgil, 32.
+
+  Virginal, 6, 402.
+
+  Vitruvius, 227.
+
+  Volta, voltaic electricity, 112, 117, 118, 112 to 120, 125, 133, 134,
+      249.
+
+  Von Alteneck, H., 138.
+
+  Von Drais, 432.
+
+  Vortex theory, 2;
+    Vortex wheel, 171.
+
+  Voting machines, 395.
+
+  Vulcan, 246.
+
+  Vulcanisation. (See Rubber.)
+
+
+  W.
+
+  Waggons, 431.
+
+  Walker, John (matches), 200.
+
+  Walker, Joseph, 367.
+
+  Wales, Thos. C., 477.
+
+  Wallace and Maxim, 137.
+
+  Wall paper, 275, 279.
+
+  Walter, John, 285.
+
+  Watches, 391. (See Clocks.)
+
+  Waltham watches, 393.
+
+  War, effect on by inventions, 271, 272.
+
+  Washington, 15, 16.
+
+  Washing and ironing machines, 335-338.
+
+  Wasp, first paper maker, 273.
+
+  Watches. (See Horology.)
+
+  Water. (See Hydraulics.)
+
+  Water clocks, 385, 386.
+
+  Water closets, 178.
+
+  Water distribution, 167, 178;
+    gas, 454.
+
+  Water wheels, 165;
+    mills, 167;
+    engines, 178.
+
+  Water frame. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Water metres, 178;
+    scoops, 178.
+
+  Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, 59.
+
+  Watt, James, 5, 8, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 154, 167, 170, 176,
+      182, 203, 206, 296, 341, 460.
+
+  Watson, Bishop, 451.
+
+  Weaving, 6, 292, 304. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Weaver's shuttle, 307.
+
+  Weber piano, 403.
+
+  Webster, Daniel, 91.
+
+  Wedgwood, 459, 460, 464.
+
+  Weeks, Jos., 364.
+
+  Weighing, scales, etc., 396, 397, 398.
+
+  Weisenthal, C. F., 310, 312.
+
+  Welding, 248.
+
+  Wellington, Duke of, 83.
+
+  Wells, making and boring of, 373, 379-383;
+    driven, 382;
+    Artesian, 381.
+
+  Welsbach lamp, 456.
+
+  Westinghouse, electric light, 137, 138.
+
+  Weston, Sir Richard, 14.
+
+  Weston, electrician, 137.
+
+  West (destroyer of bacteria), 213.
+
+  Whaleback ships, 438.
+
+  Wheat, its cultivation, 25, 26.
+
+  Wheatstone, Chas., 127, 133, 146, 147, 410.
+
+  Wheeler and Wilson, 319.
+
+  Wheelbarrow, seeder, 24.
+
+  Whewell, 166.
+
+  Whitehurst, Geo., 168.
+
+  Whitney, Eli, cotton gin, 42, 43, 297.
+
+  Whitworth, Sir J., 244, 246, 263.
+
+  Wilde, electric magnet, 133.
+
+  Wilder, safes, 421.
+
+  Wilkes, 277.
+
+  William of Malmesbury, 75.
+
+  Wilson, A. B., sewing machinery,  319.
+
+  Wilson, Genl. John M., 180.
+
+  Winchester rifle, 267.
+
+  Wind mills, wheels, etc., 404. (See Mills.)
+
+  Window glass, window screens, 359.
+
+  Wine making. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Winter, Sir John, 225.
+
+  Wire working, 250.
+
+  Wire wound gun, 263.
+
+  Wireless telegraphy, 150, 151.
+
+  Wolf, aeronaut, 447.
+
+  W�hler, chemist, 238.
+
+  Wollaston, 60, 249, 412.
+
+  Woodbridge, Dr. W. E., 262, 263.
+
+  Woodbury, Oscar D. and E. C., 330.
+
+  Woodworth, Wm., planing machinery, 349.
+
+  Wood, lathe turning, 344.
+
+  Wood, bending and trenting of, 347, 352, 356.
+
+  Wood working machinery, 242, 339, 352, 369.
+
+  Woods, variety and beauty, 352.
+
+  Wood carving, 346.
+
+  Wool. (See Spinning, Weaving, Textiles.)
+
+  Wool, mineral, 474, 480.
+
+  Wooden shoes, making of, 367.
+
+  Worcester, Marquis of, 5, 75, 77, 81.
+
+  Work shop, a modern, 251.
+
+  World's fair, 1851, 36, 38.
+
+  Woven goods, variety of, 308, 309.
+
+  Wright (gas engine), 188.
+
+  Wren, architect, 209.
+
+  Wyatt of Lichfield, 294, 295.
+
+
+  X.
+
+  X rays, 149, 150.
+
+  Xyloplasty, 347.
+
+
+  Y.
+
+  Yale, Linus, Jr., locks, 425.
+
+  Yankee clippers, 438.
+
+  Yarn. (See Weaving, etc.)
+
+  Yeast, 65.
+
+  York, Duke of, 124, 125.
+
+  Young of America, 63, 417.
+
+  Young, Arthur, 1741-1800, 14, 15.
+
+  Youmans, Prof., 450.
+
+
+  Z.
+
+  Zanon, 1764, 24.
+
+  Zech, Jacob, 388.
+
+  Zeppelin, Count, 446.
+
+  Zimmermann, self-playing pianos, 406.
+
+  Zinc, 236.
+
+  Zinc batteries. (See Electricity.)
+
+
+
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES.
+
+_Price 5s. each net._
+
+
+  Religious Progress in the Century.
+      By W. H. Withrow, M. A., D. D., F. R. S. C.
+
+  Literature of the Century.
+      By Professor A. B. de Mille, M. A.
+
+  Progress of South Africa in the Century.
+      By George McCall Theal, D. Lit., LL. D.
+
+  Medicine, Surgery, and Hygiene in the Century.
+      By Ezra Hurlburt Stafford, M. D.
+
+  Progress of India, Japan, and China in the Century.
+      By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., LL. D., &c.
+
+  Progress of the United States of America in the Century.
+      By Prof. Wm. Peterfield Trent, M. A., LL. D.
+
+  Continental Rulers in the Century.
+      By Percy M. Thornton, LL. B., M. P.
+
+  British Sovereigns in the Century.
+      By T. H. S. Escott, M. A.
+
+  Progress of British Empire in the Century.
+      By James Stanley Little.
+
+  Progress of Canada in the Century.
+      By J. Castell Hopkins, F. S. S.
+
+  Progress of Australasia in the Century.
+      By T. A. Coghlan, F. S. S., and Thomas T. Ewing.
+
+  Progress of New Zealand in the Century.
+      By R. F. Irvine, M. A., and O. T. J. Alpers, M. A.
+
+  Political Progress of the Century.
+      By Thomas Macknight.
+
+  Discoveries and Explorations of the Century.
+      By Professor C. G. D. Roberts, M. A.
+
+  Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century.
+      By H. de Beltgens Gibbins, D. Lit., M. A., F. R. G. S.
+
+  Inventions of the Century.
+      By William H. Doolittle.
+
+  Wars of the Century, and the Development of Military Science.
+      By Professor Oscar Browning, M. A.
+
+  Naval Battles of the Century.
+      By Rear-Admiral Francis John Higginson.
+
+  Naval Development of the Century.
+      By Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, K. C. B.
+
+  Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Jefferson to
+  Fillmore).
+      By Francis Bellamy.
+
+  Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Pierce to
+  McKinley).
+      Francis Knowles.
+
+  The Fine Arts in the Century.
+      By William Sharp.
+
+  Progress of Education in the Century.
+      By James Laughlin Hughes and Louis R. Klemm, Ph. D.
+
+  Temperance and Social Progress of the Century.
+      By the Hon. John G. Woolley, M. A.
+
+  Progress of Science in the Century.
+      By Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M. A.
+
+
+
+
+Edinburgh:
+
+Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inventions in the Century, by 
+William Henry Doolittle
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+Project Gutenberg's Inventions in the Century, by William Henry Doolittle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inventions in the Century
+
+Author: William Henry Doolittle
+
+Release Date: July 18, 2011 [EBook #36776]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Stephanie Kovalchik and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Misspellings in the source text have been corrected.
+
+The oe-ligature is indicated with [oe] in this text version.
+
+Missing page entries for "Wooden shoes" was assigned a page number by
+the transcriber.
+
+Index entry for "Stamfield, Jas." was removed since this name does not
+occur in the main text.
+
+
+
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES
+
+
+  EDITOR:
+    JUSTIN McCARTHY.
+
+  ASSOCIATE EDITORS:
+    REV. W. H. WITHROW, M.A., D.D., F.R.S.C.
+    CHARLES G. D. ROBERTS, M.A., F.R.C.I.
+    J. CASTELL HOPKINS, F.R.S.L.
+    T. G. MARQUIS, B.A.
+    REV. T. S. LINSCOTT, F.R.C.I.
+
+
+
+
+
+INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM H. DOOLITTLE
+
+
+
+_Expert and Patent Solicitor, Ex-Examiner in the Patent Office and
+Assistant Commissioner of Patents at Washington, Writer of Inventions,
+Etc._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE LINSCOTT PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+TORONTO AND PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+W. & R. CHAMBERS, Limited
+
+LONDON AND EDINBURGH
+
+1903
+
+
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand Nine
+Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited, in the Office
+of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Year One
+Thousand Nine Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited,
+in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture.
+
+
+_All Rights Reserved._
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.
+
+ Inventions and Discoveries.--Distinctions and Contrast.--The
+ One, Useful Contrivances of Man; the Other, New Things Found
+ in Nature.--Galileo and the Telescope.--Newton and the Law of
+ Gravitation.--Often United as Soul and Body.--Inventions and
+ Discoveries do not Precede or Succeed in Order.--Inventions--
+ Alphabetical Writing; Arabic Notation; The Mariner's Compass;
+ The Telescope; The Steam Engine.--Discoveries;--Attraction of
+ Gravitation; Planetary Motions; Circulation of Blood; Velocity
+ of Light.--Nineteenth Century Inventions and Discoveries.--
+ Further Definitions.--Law of Development.--Contrivances, not
+ Creations.--Man Always an Inventor.--Prof. Langley on Slow
+ Growth of Inventions.--Inventions of this Century Outgrowth of
+ Past Ones.--Egyptian Crooked Stick, Precursor of Modern
+ Plough.--Hero of Alexandria and James Watt.--David's Harp and
+ the Grand Piano.--Electrical Science in 1600 and the Present
+ Day.--Evolution and Interrelation of the Arts.--Age of Machine
+ Inventions.--Its Beginning.--The Inducements to Invention.--
+ Necessity not Always the Mother.--Wants of Various Kinds.--
+ Accident.--Governmental Protection the Greatest Incentive.--
+ Origin and Growth of Patent Laws.--Influence of Personal,
+ Political and Intellectual Freedom and Education.--Arts of
+ Civilization Due to the Inventor.--Macaulay's Estimate.--
+ Will Inventions Continue to Increase or Decrease.--Effect of
+ Economic, Industrial and Social Life upon Inventions.--What
+ Inventions have Done for Humanity.--Thread of the Centuries.--
+ The Roll of Inventions too Vast for Enumeration.                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.
+
+ The Egyptians the Earliest and Greatest Agriculturists.--
+ Rome and Farming.--Cato, Varro, Virgil.--Columella.--Pliny.--
+ Palladius.--The Decline of Agriculture.--Northern Barbarism.--
+ Lowest Ebb in the Middle Ages.--Revival in the Fifteenth and
+ Sixteenth Centuries.--With Invention of Printing.--Publications
+ then, Concerning.--Growth in Seventeenth and Eighteenth
+ Centuries.--Jethro Tull.--Arthur Young.--Washington.--
+ Jefferson.--The Art Scientifically Commenced with Sir Humphry
+ Davy's Lectures on Soils and Plants, 1802-1812.--Societies.--
+ "Book Farming" and Prejudice of Farmers.--A Revisit of Ruth
+ and Cincinnatus at Beginning of Nineteenth Century.--Their
+ Implements still the Common Ones in Use.--The Plough and its
+ History.--Its Essential Parts and their Evolution to Modern
+ Forms.--Originated in Holland.--Growth in England and
+ America.--Small, Jefferson, Newbold.--Lord Kames' Complaint.--
+ The American Plough.--Cutting Disks.--Steam Ploughs: Implements
+ for Preparing the Soil for Planting.--Various Forms of Harrows.      13
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
+
+ The Sowing of Grain.--The Sower of the Parables.--His Art and
+ its Defects Lasted until Nineteenth Century.--The Problems to
+ be Solved.--Assyrian and Chinese Seeding Implements.--India.--
+ Italy First to Introduce a Grain Sowing Machine, Seventeenth
+ Century.--Zanon's Work on Agriculture, 1764.--Austria and
+ England.--A Spaniard's Invention.--Don Lescatello.--The Drill
+ of Jethro Tull.--A Clergyman, Cooke's Machine.--Washington
+ and Others.--Modern Improvements in Seeders and their Operation
+ and Functions.--Force Feed and Gravity Feed.--Graduated Flow.--
+ Divided Feeds for Separate Grains and Fertilizing Material.--
+ Garden Ploughs and Seeders.--Gangs of Heavy Ones.--Operated by
+ Steam.--Corn Planters.--Walking and Riding.--Objects of Proper
+ Planting.--How Accomplished by Machinery.--Variety of
+ Machines.--Potatoes and the Finest Seeds.--Transplanters.--
+ Cultivators.--Their Purposes and Varieties.--Primitive and
+ Modern Toilers.--Millet.--Tillers of the Soil no Longer
+ "Brothers of the Ox."                                                23
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
+
+ Harvesting in Ancient Times.--The Sickle.--Pliny's Machine.--
+ Now the Clover Header.--Palladius' Description.--Improved in
+ 1786.--Scotchman's Grain Cradle in 1794.--The Seven Ancient
+ Wonders and the Seven Modern Wonders.--The Modern Harvester
+ and the Cotton Gin.--Requirements of the Harvester.--Boyce.--
+ Meares.--Plucknett.--Gladstone and the First Front Draft
+ Machine, 1806.--Salonen introduced Vibrating Knives over
+ Stationary Blades, 1807.--Ogle and Reciprocating Knife Bar,
+ 1822.--Rev. Patrick Bell, 1823, Cuts an Acre of Grain in an
+ Hour.--Mowers and Reapers in America in 1820.--Reaper and
+ Thresher combined by Lane, of Maine, 1828.--Manning's Harvester,
+ 1831.--Schnebly.--Hussey.--McCormick, 1833-34.--Harvesters and
+ Mowers at World's Fair, London, 1851.--Automatic Binders.--Wire
+ and Twine.--Advances Shown at Centennial Exhibition, 1876.--
+ Inventions Beyond the Wildest Dreams of Former Farmers.--One
+ Invention Generates Another.--Lawn Mowers.--Hay Forks and
+ Stackers.--Corn, Cotton, Potato, Flax Harvesters.--Threshing.--
+ The Old Flail.--Egyptian and Roman Methods.--The First Modern
+ Threshing Machine.--Menzies, Leckie, Meikle.--Combined
+ Harvesters and Threshers.--Flax Threshers and Brakes.--Cotton
+ Gins.--Eli Whitney.--Enormous Importance of this Machine in
+ Cotton Products.--Displacement of Labour.                            32
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (_continued_).
+
+ Harvest Ended, Comes the Preparation of Grain and Fruits for
+ Food.--Cleaning.--Separating.--Grinding.--Fanning Mills and
+ Sir Walter Scott.--The Rudimentary Mills.--Egyptian.--Hebrew,
+ Grecian, and Roman Methods, Prevailed until Middle of Eighteenth
+ Century.--The Upper and Nether Mill Stone in Modern Dress.--
+ Modern Mills Invented at Close of Eighteenth Century.--Oliver
+ Evans of America, 1755-1819.--Evans' System Prevailed for Three
+ Quarters of a Century.--New System.--Middlings.--Low Milling.--
+ High Milling.--Roller Mills.--Middlings Separators.--Dust
+ Explosions and Prevention.--Vegetable Cutters.--Choppers.--Fruit
+ Parers and Slicers.--Great Range of Mechanisms to Treat the
+ Tenderest Pods and Smallest Seeds.--Crushing Sugar Cane.--
+ Pressing and Baling.--Every Product has its own Proper Machine
+ for Picking, Pressing, Packing, or Baling.--Cotton Compress.--
+ Extensive and Enormous Cotton Crops of the World.--Cotton
+ Presses of Various Kinds.--Hay and its Baling.--Bale Ties.--
+ Fruits and Foods.--Machines for Gathering, Packing, Preserving,
+ etc., all Modern.--Drying and Evaporating.--Sealing.--
+ Transporting.--Tobacco.--Its Enormous Production.--The Interdict
+ of James I., and of Popes, Kings, Sultans, etc.--Variety of
+ Machines for its Treatment.                                          45
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CHEMISTRY, MEDICINES, SURGERY, DENTISTRY.
+
+ Chemistry among the Ancients.--Egyptians.--Ph[oe]nicians.--
+ Israelites.--Greeks and Romans.--Chinese.--Became a Science in
+ the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.--Libavius.--Van
+ Helmont.--Glauber--Tachenius.--Boyle.--Lemery.--Becher.--
+ Stahl.--Boerhaave.--Black.--Cavendish.--Lavoisier.--Priestley.--
+ Chemistry of Nineteenth Century a New World.--Atomic and
+ Molecular Theories.--Light, Heat, and Electricity.--Correlation
+ and Conservation of Forces.--Spectrum Analysis.--Laws of
+ Chemical Changes.--John Dalton.--Wollaston.--Gay.--Lussac.--
+ Berzelius.--Huygens'and Newton's Discoveries in Light in
+ Seventeenth Century.--Unfolded and Developed by Fraunhofer,
+ Kirchoff.--Bunsen in the Nineteenth.--Young of America.--
+ Combination of Spectroscope and Telescope.--Huggins of England,
+ Spectrum Analysis of the Stars.--Heat and other Forces.--Count
+ Rumford.--Davy.--Mayer.--Helmholtz.--Colding.--Joule.--Grove.--
+ Faraday.--Sir William Thomson.--Le Conte and Martin.--French
+ Revolution and Agricultural Chemistry.--Lavoisier, Berthollet.--
+ Guyton.--Fourcroy.--Napoleon.--Sir Humphry Davy.--Liebig.--
+ Fermentation.--Alcohol.--Yeast.--Malt.--Wines.--Beer.--Huxley's
+ Lecture on Yeast, 1871.--Protein.--Protoplasm.--Evolution from
+ one all-pervading Force.--Alcohol and Pasteur.--Manufacture of
+ Liquors.--Carbonating.--Soils and Fertilisers.--Liquids, Oils,
+ Sugar and Fats.--Bleaching and Dyeing.--Aniline Colours.--
+ Perfumes.--Electro-Chemical Methods.--Applied to the Production
+ of Artificial Light.--Abradants.--Disinfectants.--Pigments.--
+ Mineral Analysis.--Purification of Water and Sewage.--
+ Electroplating Metals.--Chemicals and the Fine Arts.--Redemption
+ of Waste Materials.--Medicines and Surgery.--Their Growth from
+ Empiricism.--Anaesthetics.--Davy.--Morton.--Jackson.--Innumerable
+ Medical Compounds.--Antiseptic Treatment of Wounds.--Vast
+ Variety of Surgical Instruments Invented.--Four Thousand Patents
+ in United States Alone.--Dentistry.--Its Ancient Origin.--
+ Account of Herodotus.--Revolution in, during Nineteenth
+ Century.--Instruments.--Artificial Teeth.--Vast Relief from Pain.    58
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.
+
+ Prophecy of Dr. Darwin in Eighteenth Century.--Review of the Art
+ from Hero to James Watt.--Pumping Engines.--Road Carriages.--
+ Watt.--Cugnot.--Rumsey.--Fitch.--Oliver Evans.--Read.--
+ Symington.--Trevithick.--Locomotives.--Blenkinsop.--Griffith.--
+ Bramah.--Horse Engine.--Hancock.--Blackett.--George
+ Stephenson.--Hackworth.--Braithwaite.--Ericsson.--Huskisson
+ First Victim of Railroad Accident.--Seguin.--John C. Stevens.--
+ Horatio Allen.--Peter Cooper.--Symington.--Lord Dundas.--Fulton
+ and Livingston.--The First Successful Steamboat.--Transatlantic
+ Steam Navigation.--Scarborough of Georgia.--Bell of Scotland.--
+ Cunard Line; Paddle Wheels.--Screw Propellers.--The Age of
+ Kinetic Energy.--Professor Thurston.--Variety of Engines and
+ Boilers.--Corliss.--Bicycle and Automobile Engines.--Napoleon's
+ Stage Trip and Present Locomotion.--Daniel Webster's Survey of
+ the Art.                                                             73
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.
+
+ The Duties of a Civil Engineer.--Great Engineering of the
+ Past.--The Divisions.--Steam.--Mining.--Hydraulic.--
+ Electrical.--Marine.--Bridge Making, Its Development.--First
+ Arched Iron Bridge.--Darby.--Telford.--Leading Bridges of the
+ Century.--Suspension.--Tubular.--Tubular Arch.--Truss.--
+ Cantilever.--Spider's Web and Suspension.--Sir Samuel Brown.--
+ The Tweed.--Menai Straits and Telford.--M. Chaley and
+ Fribourg.--J. K. Brunel and Isle of Bourbon.--British America
+ and the United States united in 1855--Niagara.--John A.
+ Roebling.--The Brooklyn Bridge.--Caissons and the Caisson
+ Disease.--Tubular Bridge at Menai.--"The Grandest Lift in
+ Engineering."--Robert Stephenson.--The Tubular Arch at
+ Washington.--Captain Meigs and Captain Eads.--St. Louis
+ Bridge.--Truss System and Vast Modern Bridges.--Cantilever
+ Succeeded the Suspension.--New Niagara and River
+ Forth.--Schneider.--Hayes.--Fowler and Baker.--Milton's
+ Description.--Lighthouses.--Smeaton.--Douglass.--Bartholdi.--
+ Eiffel.--Excavating, Dredging, Draining.--Road-making.--
+ Railroads.--Canals.--Tunnels.--Excavating.--Desert Lands
+ Reclaimed.--Holland and Florida Swamps.--The Tunnels of the
+ Alps.--Suez Canal.--Engineering, as seen from a Pullman
+ Car.--Cable Transportation.--Pneumatic Lock System.--Grain
+ Elevators--Progress in Civilisation.                                 93
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ELECTRICITY.
+
+ Theories and Definitions.--Franklin's and a Modern One.--
+ Varieties of the Force.--Generation.--Dynamic Energy.--
+ Discoveries before the Nineteenth Century.--Magnetism and
+ Electricity.--Fathers of the Science.--Doctor Gilbert.--Otto
+ von Guericke.--Sir Isaac Newton.--Gray.--Dufay.--Professor
+ Muschenbroeck.--Cuneus.--Charles Morrison.--Franklin and
+ Galvani.--Volta.--The Door to Nineteenth Century Inventions
+ then Opened.--Fabroni.--Sir Humphry Davy, Wollaston, Nicholson,
+ and Carlisle.--Ritter Followed--Electrolysis.--Faraday and its
+ Laws.--Davy and the Electric Light.--Batteries.--Daniell.--
+ Grove.--Bunsen.--Brilliant Discoveries from 1800 to 1820.--
+ Oersted, Schweigger.--Magnetising Helix.--Indicators.--Arago
+ and Davy.--Ampere's Discoveries.--Sturgeon and the first
+ Electro-Magnet, 1825.--Telegraphy.--Gauss, Weber, Schilling.--
+ Professor Barlow's Demonstration that Telegraphy was
+ Impracticable.--Joseph Henry.--Powerful Magnets.--Modern and
+ Ancient Telegraphy of Various Kinds.--The Third Decade.--George
+ Simon Ohm.--Steinheil.--Telegraph of Morse, Vail, Dana, Gale.--
+ Wheatstone.--U.S. Supreme Court on Morse System.--His Alphabet
+ and Submarine Telegraph.--Michael Faraday and Science of
+ Magnets.--Steam and Magneto-Dynamo Machines.--Chemical Affinity
+ and Electricity.--Helmholtz, Faraday, Henry, and Pixii.--
+ Ruhmkorff Coil.--Page.--Electrical Light.--Decomposition of
+ Water.--Professor Nollet.--First Practical Electric Light
+ Shone on the Sea, 1858.--Faraday and Holmes.--Lighthouse
+ Illumination.--Dr. W. Siemens.--Wilde's Machine.--Other
+ Powerful Magnetic Machines.--Field Magnets.--Z. Gramme.--
+ The Various Ways and Means of Developing Electric Light.--
+ Geissler Tubes.--First House Lighted in America.--Moses
+ G. Farmer.--Jablochoff's Candle.--French Regulators.--Outdoor
+ and Indoor Illumination.--Siemens, Farmer, Brush, Maxim,
+ Westinghouse, Edison, Swan, Lane--Fox and Others.--Arc Lamps
+ of Heffner von Alteneck.--Ocean Cables.--Cyrus W. Field.--John
+ Bright's Expression.--Weak Currents.--Thomson's Remedy.--Mirror
+ Galvanometer.--Centennial Exhibition and the Telephone.--
+ Alexander Graham Bell, 1875.--The Telephone and Helmholtz'
+ Theory of Tone.--Scott's Phonautograph.--Page's Production of
+ Galvanic Music and Researches of Reis.--Its Slow Growth.--The
+ Ideas of Faraday and Henry still the Basis of the Great
+ Machines.--"Lines of Force."--Electric Railway.--Storage
+ Batteries.--Dynamos.--First Railway at Berlin, 1879.--Then
+ Saxony, Paris, London, New York.--Telpherage by Professor
+ Jenkin.--Problems Solved.--Electrical Magicians.--Edison and
+ Tesla.--Recent Improvements in Telegraphy.--The Talks Both Ways
+ at Same Time and Multiplied.--Printing Systems by Types and
+ Otherwise.--Electrical Elevators.--Microphone.--Ticks of a
+ Watch and the Tread of a Fly Recorded.--Musical Sounds from
+ Minerals and Other Substances.--Signalling and Other
+ Appliances.--The X Rays.--Wireless Telegraphy.                      111
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HOISTING, CONVEYING, AND STORING.
+
+ Drudgery of Ancient Times Relieved by Modern Inventions.--
+ The Labour of Men and Beasts now Done by Steam Giants.--
+ Labour-Saving Appliances for Transportation.--Tall Buildings
+ and Elevators.--Evolution Slow until 19th Century.--Carrying
+ of Weights.--The Pyramids.--Modern Methods.--Ship-Loading.--
+ The Six Ordinary Powers Alone Used until the Time of Watt.--
+ Elevator Mills of Oliver Evans.--The Hydraulic Press of
+ Bramah.--The Lifting of Tubular Bridge by Robt. Stephenson.--
+ Compressed Air Elevator of Slade.--Counterbalance Lifts of
+ Van Elvean.--Modern Elevator of Otis, 1859.--Steam-Water.--
+ Compressed Air.--Electricity: Elevators, how Controlled.--
+ Store Service Conveyors.--Pneumatic Transmission: Dodge's
+ Air Blast Conveyor.--Mode of Switching Conveyors.--"Lazy
+ Tongs" Conveyors.--Buffers.--Endless Cables.--Clutches,
+ Safety.--Labour-Saving Devices and Derangement of Labour.--
+ In One Sense, Inventions Labour-Increasing Devices.                 152
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+ Old as the Thirst of Man.--Prehistoric Inventions.--China.--
+ Pliny's Record.--Egyptian, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman Water
+ Works.--"Pneumatics of Hero."--Overshot, Undershot, and Breast
+ Wheels, Ancient.--Screw of Archimedes.--Frontinus, a Roman
+ Inspector.--1593, Serviere Invents the Rotary Pump.--1586,
+ Stevinus of Holland, Father of the Elementary Science.--Galileo,
+ Torricelli, Pascal, and Sir Isaac Newton in the Seventeenth
+ Century.--Bernoulli, D'Alembert, Euler, Abbe Bossut, Venturi,
+ and Eylewein in the Eighteenth.--Water Distribution then
+ Originated.--Peter Maurice and the London Bridge Pumps.--La
+ Hire's Double Acting Pump.--Dr. John Allen and David Ramsey of
+ England.--Franklin's Force Pump.--Water Ram of Whitehurst and
+ Montgolfier.--Nineteenth Century Opens with Bramah's Pumps.--
+ Water and Steam.--Pumps the Strong Hands of Hydraulics.--Review
+ of Past Inventions: Pascal's Paradox.--Turbines of Forneyron.--
+ Power of Niagara and Turbines there.--Jonval's.--Euler's Old
+ Centrifugal Pumps Revived.--Massachusetts and Appold Systems.--
+ Lowlands of Holland, Marshes of Italy, Swamps of Florida,
+ Drained.--Injectors.--Giffard.--Intensifiers.--Hydraulicising.--
+ Hydraulic Jack and Cleopatra's Needle.--Flow of Cold Metal.--
+ Lead Pipe Made, and Cold Steel Stretched by Water Pressure.--
+ Cotton Presses, Sir Wm. Armstrong's Inventions.--Tweddle and Sir
+ Wm. Fairbairn.--Water Motors.--Baths and Closets.--Results of
+ Modern Improvements.--Germ Theory and Filters.                      164
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
+
+ The Slow March of the Human Mind.--Burke.--The Age of Mechanical
+ Inventions not until nearly Watt's Steam Engine.--Review of
+ "Learning" until that Time.--Motor Engines not Produced until
+ Seventeenth Century.--Suggested by the Bellows and the
+ Cannon.--Huygens and Papin.--Van Helmont the Author of the
+ Term "Gas," 1577-1644.--Robert Boyle and the Air Pump.--Law
+ of Gases.--Mariotte.--Abbe Hauteville, 1682.--The Heart and
+ a Motor.--Sun Burner.--Murdock, 1798, Uses Coal Gas for
+ Illumination.--John Barber and Carburetted Hydrogen.--
+ Street's Heated Gas.--1801, Lebon Proposes Coal Gas Motor.--
+ Investigations of Dalton and Gay-Lussac, 1810.--Heat engines:
+ Air, Gas, Steam, Vapor, Solar.--Explosive.--Temperature the Tie
+ that Binds them as One Family.--1823-26, Sir Samuel Brown.--
+ Gunpowder and Gas Engine.--Davy and Faraday.--Gas to a Liquid
+ State.--Wright, 1833.--Burdett's Compressed Air Engine, 1838.--
+ Lenoir's.--Hugon's.--Beau de Rohes' Investigations.--Oil Wells
+ of United States, 1860.--Petroleum Engines.--Brayton, Spiel.--
+ Otto's Gas Engine and Improvements.--Ammoniacal Gas Engines.--
+ Nobels' Inventions.--Storm's Gunpowder Engine.--Gas and Vapour
+ Compared with Steam.--Prof. Jenkins' Prediction.--Gas to
+ Supplant Steam.--Compressed Air Engines.--Innumerable
+ Applications of Pneumatic Machines.--A Number Mentioned.--
+ Their Universal Application to the Useful and Fine Arts.            182
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATING AND LIGHTING.
+
+ Prometheus and the Modern Match.--1680, Godfrey Hanckwitz
+ Invented First Phosphorous Match.--Other Forms of Matches.--
+ Promethean Matches in 1820.--John Walker.--Lucifer.--Tons of
+ Chemicals, Hundreds of Pine Trees Yearly Made into Matches.--
+ Splints and Machines.--Reuben Partridge.--Poririer.--Pasteboard
+ Box.--Machines for Assorting and Dipping, Drying and Boxing.--
+ Cooking and Heating Stoves.--History of, from Rome to Ben
+ Franklin.--The Old-Fashioned Fireplace.--Varieties of Coal
+ Stoves.--Stove Fireplace.--Ventilation.--Hot Air Furnaces.--
+ How Heat is Distributed, Retained, and Moistened.--Hot Water
+ Circulation.--Incubators.--Baking Ovens, the Dutch and the
+ Modern.--Vast Number of Stove and Furnace Foundries in United
+ States.--Ventilation.--Parliament Buildings and U. S. Capitol.--
+ Eminent Scientific Men who have Made Ventilation a Study.--Best
+ Modes.--Its Great Importance.--Car Heaters.--Grass and Refuse
+ Burning Stoves.--Oil, Vapour, and Gas Stoves, their Construction
+ and Operation.--Sterilising.--Electric Heating and Cooking.--
+ Refrigeration.--Messrs. Carre of France, 1870.--Artificial
+ Ice.--Sulphuric Acid and Ammonia Processes.--Absorption and
+ Compression Methods Described.--Refrigerating Cars.--Liquid Air.    199
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+ The Antiquity of the Art.--The "Lost Arts" Rediscovered.--
+ The Earliest Forms of Smelting Furnaces.--Ancient Iron and
+ Steel.--India and Africa.--Early Spain and the Catalan
+ Furnace.--The Armour of Don Quixote.--Bell's History of the
+ Art.--Germany.--Cast Iron Made by Ancients, Disused for 15
+ Centuries.--Reinvented by Page and Baude in England, 1543.--
+ German Furnaces.--Dud Dudley, the Oxford Graduate and his
+ Furnace, 1619.--Origin of Coke in England.--Use in United
+ States.--Revival of Cast Iron.--Cast Steel in England, Huntsman,
+ 1740.--Henry Cort and Puddling, 1784, and its Subsequent
+ Wonderful Value.--Steam Engine of Watt and Iron.--Refining of
+ Precious Metals.--Amalgamating Process.--Review of the 18th
+ Century.--Herschel's Distinction of Empirical and Scientific
+ Art.--The Nineteenth Century, Scientific Metallurgy.--Steam,
+ Chemistry, Electricity.--Rogers' Iron Floor.--Neilson's Hot Air
+ Blast, 1828, Patent Sustained.--Anthracite Coal.--Colossal
+ Furnaces.--Gas Producers.--Bunsen's Experiments.--Constituents
+ of Ores.--Squeezing Process.--Burden's Method.--Mechanical
+ Puddlers.--Rotary.--Henry Bessemer's Great Process--1855-1860.--
+ Steel from Iron.--Holley's Apparatus.--Effects of and Changes in
+ Bessemer Process.--Old Methods and Means Revived and Improved.--
+ Eminent Inventors.--New Metals and New Processes Discovered.--
+ Harveyised Steel.--Irresistible Projectiles and Impenetrable
+ Armour Plate.--Krupp's Works.--Immense Manufactures in United
+ States.--Treatment of Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, etc.; Mining
+ Operations, Separation, Reduction.--Chemical Methods:
+ Lixiviation or Leaching.--MacArthur.--Forrest.--Sir Humphry
+ Davy.--Scheele.--Chlorine and Cyanide Processes.--Alloys.--
+ Babbitting.--Metallic Lubricants.--Various Alloys and Uses.--
+ Reduction of Aluminium and other Metals.--Electro-Metallurgy.--
+ Diamonds to be Made.--All Arts have Waited on Development of
+ this Art.                                                           218
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+METAL WORKING PROCESSES AND MACHINES.--TUBE MAKING.--WELDING.--ANNEALING
+AND TEMPERING.--COATING AND METAL FOUNDING.--METAL WARE.--WIRE WORKING.
+
+ Metal Working Tools One of the Glories of 19th Century.--Wood
+ Working and Metal Working.--Ancient and Modern Lathe.--Turning
+ Metal Lathe.--A Lost Art in Use in Egypt and in Solomon's
+ Time.--Revived in Sixteenth Century.--Forgotten and Revived
+ again in Eighteenth.--Sir Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah
+ Laid Foundation of Nineteenth Century Tools.--The Slide Rest
+ and Henry Maudsley.--Nasmyth's Description.--Vast Rolls, and
+ Most Delicate Watch Mechanisms, cut by the Lathe and its
+ Tools.--Metal Planing.--Eminent Inventors, 1811-1840.--
+ Many Inventions and Modifications Resulting in a Wonderful
+ Evolution.--Metal-Boring Machines.--Modern Vulcan's Titanic
+ Work-Shop.--Screw Making.--Demand Impossible to Supply under
+ Old Method.--Great Display at London Exhibition, 1851, and
+ Centennial, Philadelphia, 1876.--J. Whitworth & Co., of England,
+ Sellers & Co., of America, and Others.--The Great Revelation.--
+ Hoopes and Townsend and the Flow of Cold, Solid Metal.--Cold
+ Punching, etc.--Machine-Made Horse-Shoes.--The Blacksmith
+ and Modern Inventions.--Making of Great Tubes.--Welding by
+ Electricity, and Tempering and Annealing.--How Armour Plate
+ is Hardened.--Metals Coated.--Electro-Plating and Casting.--
+ Great Domes Gilded.--Moulds for Metal Founding.--Machines
+ and Methods.--Steel Ingots.--Sheet Metal and Personal Ware.--
+ Great Variety of Machines for Making.--Wire Made Articles.--
+ Description of Great Modern Work-Shop.                              240
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ORDNANCE, ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND EXPLOSIVES.
+
+ This Art Slow in Growth, but no Art Progressed Faster.--The
+ Incentives to its Development.--The Greatest Instruments in
+ the New Civilisation.--Peace and its Fruits Established by
+ them.--Its History.--Chinese Cannon.--India.--The Moors.--
+ Arabs.--Cannon at Cordova in 1280.--The Spaniards and Gibraltar,
+ 1309.--The Spread of Artillery through Europe.--Description of
+ Ancient Guns.--Breech Loaders and Stone Cannon Balls.--Wrought
+ Iron Cannon and Shells in 15th Century.--Big Cannon of the
+ Hindoos and Russians.--Strange Names.--France under Louis
+ XI.--Improvements of the Sixteenth Century.--Holland's Mortar
+ Shells and Grenades in the Seventeenth.--Coehorn Mortars and
+ Dutch Howitzers.--Louis XIV.--French Artillery Conquers Italy.--
+ Eighteenth Century.--"Queen Ann's Pocket Piece."--Gribeauval
+ the Inventor of the Greatest Improvements in the Eighteenth.--
+ His System Used by Bonaparte at Toulon, the French Revolution,
+ and in Italy.--Marengo, 1800.--Small Arms, their History.--From
+ the Arquebus to the Modern Rifle.--Rifle, the Weapon of the
+ American Settler, and the Revolution.--Puckle's Celebrated
+ Breech-Loading Cannon Patent, and Christian and Turk Bullets.--
+ 1803, Percussion Principle in Fire-arms, Invented by a
+ Clergyman, Forsyth.--1808, Genl. Shrapnel.--Bormann of
+ Belgium.--1814, Shaw and the Cap.--Flint Locks Still in Use,
+ 1847.--Colt's Revolvers, 1835-1851.--History of Cannon again
+ Reverted to.--Columbiads of Bomford.--Paixhan in 1822.--Shells
+ of the Crimea.--Kearsarge and Alabama.--Requirements of Modern
+ Ordnance.--Rodman One of the Pioneers.--Woodbridge's Wire Wound
+ Guns, Piezometer, and Shell Sabot.--Sir William Armstrong and
+ Sir Jos. Whitworth.--Krupp's Cannon and Works.--The Latest
+ Improvements.--Compressed Air Ordnance.--Constructions of
+ Metals and Explosives.--The "Range Finder."--Small Arms again
+ Considered.--History of the Breech Loader and Metallic
+ Cartridges.--Wooden Walls and Stone Forts disappeared.--Monitor
+ and Merrimac.--Blanchard and Hall.--Gill.--Springfield Rifle.--
+ Machine Guns.--Electric Battery.--Gatling's, Hotchkiss'.--
+ Explosives.--Torpedoes.--Effect of Modern Weapons.                  252
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PAPER AND PRINTING, TYPEWRITING AND THE LINOTYPE.
+
+ Paper-making Preceded the Art of Printing.--The Wasp Preceded
+ Man.--The Chinese, the Hindoos, Egyptians, and other Orientals
+ had Invented Both Arts.--History of Papyrus.--Parchment.--
+ Twelfth Century Documents Written on Linen Paper still
+ Extant.--Water Marks.--Wall Paper, Substitute for Tapestry,
+ 1640.--Holland in Advance, Seventeenth Century.--Rittenhouse
+ of Holland Introduces Paper-Making in America, Eighteenth
+ Century.--Paper a Dear Commodity.--The Revolution of the
+ Nineteenth Century.--400 Different Materials now Used.--
+ Nineteenth Century Opens with Robert's Paper-Making Machine.--
+ Messrs. Fourdrinier.--Immense Growth of their System.--Modern
+ Discoveries of Chemists.--Soda Pulp and Sulphite Processes.--
+ Paper Mills.--Paper Bag Machines, etc.--Printing.--Chinese
+ Invented Both Block and Movable Types.--European Inventors.--
+ The Claims of Different Nations.--From Southern Italy to
+ Sweden.--Spread of the Art.--Printing Press and the
+ Reformation.--First Printing Press in New World Set up in
+ Mexico, 1536.--Then in Brazil.--Then in 1639 in
+ Massachusetts.--Types and Presses.--English and American.--
+ Ramage and Franklin.--Blaew of Amsterdam.--Nineteenth Century
+ Opens with Earl of Stanhope's Hand Press.--Clymer of
+ Philadelphia, 1817.--The First Machine Presses.--Nicholson in
+ Eighteenth.--Konig and Bauer in Nineteenth Century, 1813.--
+ London Times, 1814.--1815, Cowper's Electrotype plates.--1822,
+ First Power Press in United States.--Treadwell.--Bruce's Type
+ Casting Machines.--Hoe's Presses.--John Walter's.--German and
+ American Presses.--Capacities of Modern Presses.--Mail
+ Marking.--Typewriting.--Suggested in Eighteenth Century.--
+ Revived by French in 1840.--Leading Features Invented in
+ U. S., 1857.--Electro-Magnet Typewriters.--Cahill.--
+ Book-binding.--Review of the Art.--Linotype "Most Remarkable
+ Machine of Century."--Merganthaler.--Rogers.--Progress and
+ Triumphs of the Art.                                                273
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+TEXTILES.
+
+ The Distaff and the Spindle, without a Change from Ancient
+ Days to Middle of Fourteenth Century.--Ancient and Modern Cloth
+ Making.--Woman the Natural Goddess of the Art.--The Ancient and
+ Isolated Weavers of Mexico.--After 40 Centuries of Hand-Weaving
+ Comes John Kay, of England, 1733.--The Spinning Machines of
+ Wyatt and Hargreaves.--1738-1769, Richard Arkwright.--The
+ "Spinning Jenny" and the "Throstle."--The Steam Engine and
+ Weaving.--1776, Crompton and the "Mule."--1785, Cartwright
+ and Power Looms.--1793, Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin.--
+ 1793-1813, Samuel Slater, Lowell, and Cotton Factories of
+ America.--The Dominion of the Nineteenth Century.--What it
+ Comprises in the Art of Spinning and Weaving.--Description
+ of Operations.--Bobbins of Asa Arnold and the Ring Frame of
+ Jenks.--Spooling Machines.--Warping and Dressing and other
+ Finishing Operations.--Embroidery.--Cloth Finishing.--The
+ Celebrated Jacquard Loom.--Jacquard and Napoleon.--Bonelli's
+ Electric Loom.--Fancy Woollen Looms of George Crompton.--
+ Bigelow's Carpet Looms.--Figuring, Colouring, Embossing.--
+ Cloth Pressing and Creasing.--Felting.--Ribbons.--Comparison
+ of Penelopes of Past and Present.--Knitting Days of our
+ Grandmothers and Knitting Machines.--A Mile of Stockings.--
+ Fancy Stocking and Embroidery Machines.--Netting and Turkish
+ Carpets.--Matting.--Spun Glass, etc.--Hand, and the Skilled
+ Labour of Machinery.                                                292
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GARMENTS.
+
+ "Man is a Tool-using Animal, of which Truth, Clothes are
+ but one Example."--Form of Needle not Changed until 1775.--
+ Weisenthal.--Embroidery Needle.--Saint's Sewing Machine,
+ 1790.--John Duncan's Tamboring Machine, 1804.--Eye Pointed
+ Needles for Rope Matting, 1807.--Madersperger's Sewing Machine,
+ 1814.--France and the Thimonnier Machine, 1830-1848-50, Made of
+ Wood.--Destroyed by Mob.--English Embroidering Machine, 1841.--
+ Concurrent Inventions in Widely Separated Countries.--Thimonnier
+ in France, Hunt in America, 1832, 1834.--Elias Howe, 1846.--
+ Description of Howe's Inventions.--Recital of his Struggles and
+ final Triumphs.--The Test of Priority.--Leather Sewing Machines
+ of Greenough and Corliss, 1842-43.--Bean's Running Stitch,
+ 1843.--The Decade of 1849-1859, Greatest in Century in Sewing
+ Machine Inventions.--Hood's "Song of the Shirt," a Dying
+ Drudgery.--Improvements after Howe.--Blodgett and Lerow's Dip
+ Motion.--Wilson's Four-Motion Feed.--Singer's Inventions, their
+ Importance, his Rise from Poverty to Great Wealth.--The Grover
+ and Baker.--The Display in 1876 at the Centennial.--Vast Growth
+ of the Industry.--Extraordinary Versatility of Invention in
+ Sewing and Reaping Machines, and Breech-Loading Fire-arms.--
+ Commercial Success due to Division of Labour and Assembling
+ of Parts.--Innumerable Additions to the Art.--Seventy-five
+ Different Stitches.--Passing of the Quilting Party.--Embroidery
+ and Button-hole Machines.--Garment-cutting Machines.--Bonnets
+ and Inventions of Women.--Hat Making.--Its History.--Bonjeau's
+ Improvements in Plain Cloths, 1834.--Effect of Modern Inventions
+ on Wearing Apparel and Condition of the Poor.--The Epoch of Good
+ Clothes.                                                            310
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.
+
+ Inventions Engender Others.--Co-operative Growth.--Broom
+ Making.--Crude Condition until the Modern Lathe, Mandrel,
+ Shuttle and Sewing Machine.--Broom Sewing Machines.--Effect
+ on Labour.--The Brush and Brush Machines.--A Hundred Species
+ of Brushes, each Made by a Special Machine.--First Successful
+ Brush Machine, Woodbury's, 1870.--Wonderful Operations.--
+ Street-Sweeping Machines, 1831.--Most Effective Form.--Abrading
+ Machines.--Application of Sand Blast.--Nature's Machine
+ Patented by Tilghman in 1870.--Things Done by the Sand Blast
+ and How.--Emery and Corundum Machines.--Vast Application in
+ Cutting, Grinding, Polishing.--Washing and Ironing Machines.--
+ Their Contribution to Cleanliness and Comfort.--Laundry
+ Appliances.--Old and the New Mangle.--Starch Applying.--Steam
+ Laundry Machinery.--Description of Work done in a Modern Laundry.   328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+WOOD-WORKING.
+
+ Contrast of Prehistoric Labour and Implements and Modern
+ Tools.--The Ages of Stone, Bronze, Iron, and the Age of
+ Wood.--The Slow Growth of Wood-working Inventions.--Tools
+ of the Egyptians.--Saw of the Greeks.--Known to Hindoos
+ and Africans.--Accounts of Pliny and Ansonius as to Planes
+ and Marble Sawing.--Saw-mills of France, Germany, Norway,
+ Sweden.--Holland 100 Years ahead of England, and Why.--William
+ Penn Found Saw-mills in America in 1682.--What made Americans
+ Inventors.--Progress Unknown where Saw-mills are not.--Steam
+ and Saw Mills.--Splendid System and Inventions of Samuel
+ Bentham, Bramah and Branch at Close of Eighteenth Century.--
+ First Decade of Nineteenth Century Produces Wonderful Inventor,
+ Thomas Blanchard.--His Life and Inventions.--Machines for
+ Turning Irregular Forms in Wood and Metal.--The Boring Worm
+ and Boring Machine.--Gun-making and Mortising Machines.--
+ Complicated Ornamental Wood-cutting and Carving Machines.--
+ Whatever Made by Hand can be Better Made by Machinery.--
+ Pattern-Cutting Machines.--Xyloplasty.--Art of Hand Carving
+ Revived.--Bending of Wood by Fire and Steam.--The Problems
+ Solved by Wood-working Inventors.--Great Saws at the Vienna
+ Exposition, 1873.--Boring Tools, Augers, Planes, Lathes, etc.
+ How Improved and by Whom.--"The Universal Wood Workers."--
+ Flexible Shafting.--Shingles and Tiles.--A Great Log, how
+ Turned into Bundles of Shingles.--Veneering.--What Pliny
+ Thought of It.--Brunel's Machines, 1805-1808.--Homes Made
+ Beautiful by Modern Wood-working.--Objects without and Within
+ a House, Made by Such Machinery.--Array of Wood-working
+ Machinery at International Expositions.--The Art of Forestry.       339
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+FURNITURE.--BOTTLING, PRESERVING, AND LAMPLIGHTING.
+
+ Universal Supply of Convenient and Ornamental Furniture Due
+ to Modern Inventions and Machinery.--The Furniture of the
+ Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.--Tables.--Modern Improvements.--
+ Combined Tables, Desks, and Chairs.--Special Forms of Each.--
+ Beds: Advance from the Ponderous Bedsteads of Former Times.--
+ Modern, Ornamental, Healthful Styles.--Iron, Brass, Springs,
+ Surgical and Invalid Chairs and Beds.--Kitchen Utensils.--Vast
+ Amount of Drudgery Relieved.--Curtains, Shades, and Screens.--
+ Great Changes Produced by Steaming and Bending Wood.--The
+ Bentwood Ware Factories of Austria, Hungary, Moravia (1870-73),
+ in Vast Beech Forests Followed in other Countries.--Modern
+ Chairs of Various Kinds.--The Dentist and the Theatre.--Bottle
+ Stoppers.--Enormous Demand for Cork Exhausting the Supply.--
+ Modern Substitutes.--Fruit Jars, etc.--Lamplighting, Ancient
+ and Modern.--Revolution Produced by Petroleum.--Wickless and
+ Electric Lamps.                                                     354
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+LEATHER.
+
+ Leather and Prehistoric Man.--Earliest Implements and Processes
+ Forerunners of Modern Inventions.--Modern Leather Unknown to
+ the Earliest Races.--Tanning.--Leathers of Different Nations.--
+ Hand Tools and Variety of Operations.--Inventions of Nineteenth
+ Century--Labour-Saving Machinery and New Processes.--Epoch of
+ Modern Machinery.--1780, John Bull and his Scraping Machine,
+ Hide-mill, Pioneer Machine of Century.--Fleshing Machines.--
+ Tanning Apparatus.--Reel Machines.--Tanning Processes and the
+ Chemists.--Machines for Different Operations.--Pendulum Lever
+ Machine.--Leather Splitting, and other Remarkable Machines.--
+ Boots and Shoes, their Character before Modern Inventions.--
+ Randolph's Riveting Machine of 1809.--Great Civil Engineer,
+ J. M. Brunel's Machines.--1818, Walker Invents the Wooden
+ Peg.--Peg-making Machines.--1858, Sturtevant's Great
+ Improvement.--Fifty-five Million Pairs of Boots and Shoes then
+ Annually Pegged.--Metal Wire, and Screw Pegs.--Last-turning
+ Machines of Blanchard.--McKay's Shoe Sewing Machine.--
+ Revolution in Shoe Making.--Special Machines for Making Every
+ Part.--One Machine Makes 300 Pairs a Day.--Many Millions made
+ Daily.--Vast Increase of Labourers as the Art Advances.--
+ Illustrations of Yankee Enterprise.--Modern and Ancient
+ Harnesses.--Embossed Leather.--Book Covers and the many Useful
+ and Beautiful Leather Articles.--The Vast and Important Leather
+ Manufactures.                                                       361
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+MINERALS.--WELLS.
+
+ Ancient Tools and the Art of Building.--The Parthenon.--
+ Aqueducts of Rome.--Tombs of India.--Halls of Alhambra.--
+ Gothic Cathedrals.--Steam First Drew Coal, then Sawed Wood and
+ then Stone.--Stone-cutting Machinery.--Carving.--Dressing.--
+ Drilling.--Tunnels.--Wonderful Work of Stone-Boring Machine
+ on Pillars of Ohio State Capitol.--Stone Drills and Compressed
+ Air.--Hell Gate.--Crushing Stones and Ores.--Blake's Crusher.--
+ "Road Metal."--Different Form of Crushers.--Assorting Coal.--
+ Steam and Coal, strong Brothers.--Compressed Air for Mining
+ Machinery.--Mighty Picks Driven by Air.--Electric Motor.--
+ Machines for Screening, Loading, and Weighing.--Ore Mills.--
+ Separators.--Centrifugal Action.--Ore Washing.--Amalgamators:
+ Electric, Lead, Mercury, Plate, Vacuum, Vapour, etc.--The
+ Revolution in Mining.--Well Boring an Ancient Art.--Artesian
+ Wells.--Coal Oil and Coal Wells.--Preceded by Discovery of
+ Paraffine and its Uses.--Reichenbach, Young.--Petroleum
+ Discovery.--New Industry.--Col. Drake and First Oil Well.--
+ Sudden Riches of Farmers.--Boring Water Wells.--Green's Driven
+ Wells.--The Deserts Made to Bloom as the Rose.                      373
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.
+
+ Time Measuring Instruments of Antiquity.--Sun-dial.--Clepsydra,
+ Hour-glass, Graduated Candle.--Plato's Bell.--The Clepsydra
+ of Ctesibius.--Incense Sticks of Chinese.--Sun-dials of Greeks
+ and Romans.--Candles of Alfred the Great.--Wonderful Clocks
+ of the Middle Ages.--Henry de Vick of France, 1370.--Two
+ Hundred Years without Advance.--Astronomers, Brache and
+ Valherius.--1525, Zech's Fusee.--Progenitors of Modern Watch,
+ 1500.--1582, Swinging Lamp of Galileo.--1639, Galileo's
+ Book.--Huygens and the Pendulum.--Dr. Hooke's and David Ramsey's
+ Inventions.--Hair-Spring Balances.--George the Third's Small
+ Time-Piece.--Eighteenth Century Division of Time Pieces into
+ Hours, Minutes and Seconds.--Stem Winders.--Astronomical
+ Discoveries and Chronometers.--Dutch, Leading Clockmakers;
+ Germany, Switzerland.--Systems Followed in these Countries.--
+ Minute Sub-divisions of Labour.--Watch and Clock Making in the
+ United States.--American System.--Wonderful Machines for every
+ Part.--Watch factories.--Pope's Simile.--Revolution in
+ Nineteenth Century.--Electric System.--4000 Patents in U.S.
+ since 1800.--Registering Devices.--"A Mechanical Conscience."--
+ Cash Registers.--Voting Machines.--Electrical Recorders.--
+ Cyclometers.--Speed Indicators.--Weighing Scales and Machines,
+ History of.--The Fairbanks of Vermont, 1831.--Platform and other
+ Scales.--Spring Weighing.--Automatic Recorders of Weight and
+ Prices.--Testing Machines, English, German, American.--The Emery
+ Scales.--Gages, Dynamometers.--Hydraulic Testing.--Delicate
+ Operations.--Strength of a Horse-hair and Great Steel Beam,
+ Tested by Same Machine.--Effect on Public Works.                    384
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, PHOTOGRAPHY, FINE ARTS.
+
+ Musical Instruments Old as Religion.--Abounded before the Lyre
+ of Apollo or the Harp of Orpheus.--Their Evolution.--To Meet
+ Wants and Growing Tastes.--Nineteenth Century and the Laws
+ of Helmholtz.--The Story of the Piano, the Queen, Involves
+ whole History of the Art of Music.--Ancient Harp and Growth.--
+ Psaltery and Dulcimer of Assyrians and Hebrews.--No Inventions
+ by Greeks and Romans in this Art.--Fifteenth Century and the
+ Clavicitherium.--Sixteenth Century, the Virginal and the
+ Spinet.--Seventeenth Century, the Clavichord and Harpsichord.--
+ Italian Cembello.--Bach, Mozart, Handel, Haydn.--Cristofori of
+ Florence, Schreiber of Germany and Modern Piano.--Eighteenth
+ Century, Pianos of Broadwood and Clementi of London, Erard of
+ Strasburg, Petzold of Paris and Others.--Two Thousand Years
+ Taken to Ripen the Modern Piano.--Description of Piano Parts.--
+ Helmholtz's Great Work, 1862.--Effect on System of Music and
+ Musical Instruments.--The Organ, King in the Realm of Music.--
+ History of, from Earliest Times.--Improvements of the Nineteenth
+ Century.--The Auto-harp.--Self-playing Instruments.--The Science
+ of Acoustics and Practical Applications.--Auricular Tubes.--
+ Telephone, Phonograph, Graphophone, Gramophone.--Their
+ Evolution and their Inventors.--Optical Instruments.--Their
+ Growth.--Lippersheim, Galileo, Lieberkulm, John Dolland.--The
+ Improvements and Inventors of the Nineteenth Century.--Brewster
+ and the Kaleidoscope, Stereoscope.--Lenticular Lenses.--
+ Lighthouse Illumination.--Faraday and Tyndall.--Abbe Moigno's
+ Troubles.--Ophthalmoscope.--Spectroscope.--Making of Great
+ Lenses.--Solarmeter.--Measuring the Position and Distances
+ of Unseen Objects.--Light Converted into Music.--Daguerre and
+ Photography.--History and Development.--Colour Reproduction.--
+ Pencils.--Painting.--Air Brushes.--Telegraphic Photographs.         400
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+SAFES AND LOCKS.
+
+ Safes, how Constructed before this Century.--Classification.--
+ Century Starts out to Make Safes Fireproof.--Scott in 1801.--
+ Marr, 1834.--Result of Great Fire in New York, 1835.--Wilder's
+ and Herring's Safes.--Burglar-proof Safes, 1835.--Chubb, Newton,
+ Thompson, Hall, Marvin and Others.--Electricity.--Seal Locks
+ from 1815.--Locks of Various Kinds in Ancient Days.--Of
+ Ponderous Size.--Key of the House of David.--Lock of Penelope's
+ House.--Locks of the Middle Ages.--Letter Locks of the Dutch,
+ 1650.--Carew's Verse.--Eighteenth Century Locks.--Tumblers.--
+ Joseph Bramah's Locks.--Combination, Permutation and Time
+ Locks.--Yale Locks.--Modern Locks Invented for Special Uses.--
+ Master or Secondary Key Locks.--Value of Simple, Cheap,
+ Effective Locks.--Mail Locks and Others.--Greater General
+ Security for Property of all Kinds now Obtained.                    420
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+CARRIAGES AND CARRYING MACHINES GENERALLY.
+
+ Review of Conveyances from Time of Ptolemy's Great Procession,
+ 270 B. C., until Nineteenth Century.--The Old Stage Coaches.--
+ Coaches of the Rich, the Middle Classes and the Poor.--The Past
+ Art Compared with the Art as Exhibited at Centennial Exhibition
+ in 1876 at Philadelphia.--The Varieties of Different Vehicles
+ there Displayed by Different Nations.--Velocipedes and
+ Bicycles.--1800 to 1869.--French, German, English, Scotch.--
+ The "Draisine" of Von Drais, 1816.--Johnson's "Curricle,"
+ 1818.--Gompertz's "Dandy" and "Hobby Horse," 1821.--Michaux's,
+ 1863.--Lallement's of France, 1866, Crank and Pedal.--America
+ and Europe Adopts it, 1866, 1869.--Pneumatic Rubber Tire
+ Invented by Thomson, 1845.--Sleeps Forty Years.--Improvements
+ since 1869.--Motor Vehicles and Automobiles.--Traction
+ Engines.--Brakes, Railway, Air and Electric.--Automatic
+ Couplers, Buffers, and Vestibule Trains.                            428
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+SHIPS AND SHIP BUILDING.
+
+ "Ships are but Boards."--"The Great Harry."--Noah's Ark the
+ Prototype of the Modern "Whale-back."--Ph[oe]nicians.--
+ Northmen.--Dutch, French, English, and American Types.--
+ Nineteenth Century, the Yankee Clippers.--Donald McKay.--
+ "Great Republic."--Steam as Motive Power in Ships the Leading
+ Event in the Art.--Lord Dundas and Steam Canal Boats.--Iron
+ Ships in Place of Wood, 1829-30.--John Laird of Birkenhead.--
+ Sir William Fairbairn.--Clyde Works.--Comparison of Wood and
+ Iron.--1844, the Great Britain.--John Ericsson.--Monitor and
+ Merrimac.--Composite Style of Vessels.--Marine Propulsion.--
+ Paddle Wheels.--Screws.--1804, John Stevens.--1807, Fulton.--
+ Screw Propeller of Ericsson.--The Ogden, the Stockton and the
+ Princeton, the First Naval Warship of its Kind.--The Two
+ Revolutions Produced by Ericsson.--Pneumatic Propellers.--
+ Description of a Warship.--The Deutschland.--Torpedo Boats.--
+ Franklin and Oil on the Waves.--Air Ships.--Count Zeppelin's
+ Boat.--Other Plans of Air Navigation.--The Problems to be Solved.   438
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+ILLUMINATING GAS.
+
+ What Artificial Light has done for Man.--Its Condition before
+ the Nineteenth Century.--Experiments of Dr Clayton, Hon. R.
+ Boyle, Dr. Hales, Bishop Watson, Lord Dundonald, Dr. Rickel,
+ and William Murdock in Eighteenth Century.--1801, Le Bon Makes
+ Gas, Proposes to Light Paris.--1803, English Periodicals
+ Discuss the Subject.--1806, Melville of Newport, U. S., Lights
+ House and Street.--1817, First Lighthouse Lit by Gas.--The
+ Beaver Tail on Atlantic Coast.--Parliament in 1813, London
+ Streets Lit in 1815, Paris, 1820, American Cities 1816-25.--
+ Gas Processes.--Chemistry.--Priestley and Dalton.--Berthollet,
+ Graham, and Others.--Clegg of England and his Gas Machines.--
+ Art Revolutionised by Invention of Water Gas, 1823-1847.--
+ Donovan, Lowe, White.--T. S. C. Lowe, Anthracite Process,
+ 1873.--Competition with Electricity.--Siemens' Regenerative
+ System.--The Generators, Carburetors, Retorts, Mixers,
+ Purifiers, Meters, Scrubbers, Holders, Condensers, Governors,
+ Indicators, Registers, Chargers, Pressure Regulators, etc.--
+ Portable Gas Apparatus.--Argand Burners.--Acetylene Gas.--
+ Calcium Carbide.--Magnesium.--Bunsen Burner and Welsbach Mantle.    450
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+POTTERY, PLASTICS, PORCELAINS, STONEWARE, GLASS, RUBBER, CELLULOID.
+
+ Brickmaking from the Earliest Ages to Nineteenth Century.--
+ Pottery, its Origin Unknown.--Its Evolution.--Women the First
+ Inventors in Ceramic and Textile Arts.--Progress of Man Traced
+ in Pottery.--Review of Pottery from Time of Homer to the
+ Wedgwood Ware of Eighteenth Century.--Labour-Saving Devices
+ of Nineteenth.--Operations in Brickmaking and Machinery.--The
+ Celebrated Pug Mill, the Pioneer.--Moulding and Pressing.--
+ Drying and Burning.--The Slow Growth of Methods.--Useful
+ Contrivances never wholly Supplanted.--Modern Heat
+ Distributors.--Hoffman's Kilns.--Wedgwood's Pottery in
+ Eighteenth.--Siemens' Regenerators in Nineteenth, and other
+ Kilns.--Susan Frackelton's.--The Filter Press.--Chinese and
+ French Porcelains--Battam's Imitations of Marbles and Plaster
+ Moulds.--Faience.--Porcelain Moulding and Colours.--Atomisers
+ and Backgrounds.--Rookwood Pottery and Miss Fry.--Enamelled
+ Ware.--Artificial Stone.--Modern Cements.--Glass the Sister
+ of Pottery.--The Inventors of Blowing, Cutting, Trimming by
+ Shears and Diamond Cutting, Ancient and Unknown.--Glass Windows
+ and Mirrors Unknown to the Poor Prior to Eighteenth Century.--
+ The Nineteenth Century the Scientific Age of Glass.--Its
+ Commercial Development.--Crystal Palace of 1851.--Description
+ of Modern Discoveries.--Materials.--Colours and Faraday's
+ Discovery in 1824.--Gaffield's Extensive Experiments in
+ Producing Colours.--The German Glass Works at Jena of Abbe
+ and Schott.--Methods Followed for Different Varieties.--
+ Machines for Different Purposes.--Cut Glass and other
+ Beautiful Ware.--Cameo Cutting.--Porcelain Electroplating.--
+ Rubber, History of, in Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth
+ Centuries.--Sketch of Goodyear.--His Inventions and Present
+ State of the Art.--Glass Wool of Volcano of Kilauea and Krupp's
+ Blast Furnaces.                                                     457
+
+
+
+
+INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY--INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES--THEIR DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+In treating of the subject of Inventions it is proper to distinguish
+them from their scientific kindred--Discoveries.
+
+The history of inventions is the history of new and useful contrivances
+made by man for practical purposes. The history of scientific
+discoveries is the record of new things found in Nature, its laws,
+forces, or materials, and brought to light, as they exist, either
+singly, or in relation, or in combination.
+
+Thus Galileo invented the telescope, and Newton discovered the law of
+gravitation. The practical use of the invention when turned to the
+heavenly bodies served to confirm the truth of the discovery.
+
+Discovery and invention may be, and often are, united as the soul is to
+the body. The union of the two produces one or more inventions. Thus the
+invented electro-telegraph consists of the combination of discoveries of
+certain laws of electricity with an apparatus, by which signs are
+communicated to distances by electrical influence.
+
+Inventions and discoveries do not precede or follow each other in order.
+The instrument may be made before the laws which govern its operation
+are discovered. The discovery may long precede its adaptation in
+physical form, and both the discovery and adaptation may occur together.
+
+Among the great _inventions_ of the past are alphabetical writing,
+Arabic notation, the mariner's compass, the telescope, the
+printing-press, and the steam-engine. Among the great _discoveries_ of
+the past are the attraction of gravitation, the laws of planetary
+motion, the circulation of the blood, and velocity of light. Among the
+great inventions of the nineteenth century are the spectroscope, the
+electric telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, the railways, and the
+steam-ships. Among the great discoveries of this century are the
+correlation and conservation of forces, anaesthetics, laws of electrical
+energy, the germ theory of disease, the molecular theory of gases, the
+periodic law of Mendeljeff in chemistry, antiseptic surgery, and the
+vortex theory of matter. This short enumeration will serve to indicate
+the different roads along which inventions and the discoveries of
+science progress.
+
+By many it is thought that the inventions and discoveries of the
+nineteenth century exceed in number and importance all the achievements
+of the kind in all the ages of the past.
+
+So marvellous have been these developments of this century that, not
+content with sober definitions, men have defined _invent_, even when
+speaking only of mechanical productions, as "creating what had not
+before existed;" and this period has been described as an age of new
+creations. The far-off cry of the Royal Preacher, "There is no new thing
+under the sun: Is there anything whereof it may be said, see this is
+new, it hath been already of old time which was before us," is regarded
+as a cry of satiety and despair, finding no responsive echo in the array
+of inventions of this bright age.
+
+But in one sense the Preacher's words are ever profoundly true. The
+forces and materials of Nature always exist, awaiting man's discovery,
+and at best he can but vary their relations, re-direct their course, or
+change their forms. In a still narrower sense the truth of the
+Preacher's declaration is apparent:--
+
+In an address before the Anthropological Society of Washington in 1885,
+the late Prof. F. A. Seely, of the United States Patent Office, set
+forth that it was one of the established laws of Invention, that,
+
+"Every human invention has sprung from some prior invention, or from
+some prior known expedient."
+
+Inventions, he said, do not, like their protectress, Pallas Athene,
+spring forth full grown from the heads of their authors; that both as to
+modern inventions and as to those whose history is unrecorded, each
+exhibits in itself the evidence of a similar sub-structure; and that,
+"in the process of elimination we go back and back and find no resting
+place till we reach the rude set of expedients, the original endowment
+of men and brutes alike."
+
+Inventions, then, are not creations, but the evolution of man-made
+contrivances.
+
+It may be remarked, however, as was once said by William H. Seward: "The
+exercise of the inventive faculty is the nearest akin to that of the
+Creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind; for while it does
+not create in the same sense that the Creator did, yet it is the nearest
+approach to it of anything known to man."
+
+There is no history, rock-record, or other evidence of his existence as
+man, which discloses a period when he was not an inventor.
+
+Invention is that divine spark which drove, and still drives him to the
+production of means to meet his wants, while it illuminates his way.
+From that inward spark must have soon followed the invention of that
+outer fire to warm and cheer him, and to melt and mould the earth to his
+desires. Formed for society, the necessity of communication with his
+fellows developed the power of speech. Speech developed written
+characters and alphabets. Common communication developed concert of
+action, and from concert of action sprung the arts of society.
+
+But the evolution of invention has not been uniform. Long periods of
+slowness and stagnation have alternated with shorter or longer periods
+of prolific growth, and these with seasons of slumber and repression.
+
+Thus, Prof. Langley has said that man was thousands of years, and
+possibly millions, in evolving a cutting edge by rubbing one stone on
+another; but only a few thousand years to next develop bronze tools, and
+a still shorter period tools of iron.
+
+We cannot say how long the period was from the age of iron tools to the
+building of the pyramids, but we know that before those stupendous
+structures arose, the six elementary mechanical powers, the lever, the
+wheel, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge and the screw, were
+invented. And without those powers, what mechanical tool or machine has
+since been developed? The age of inventions in the times of the ancients
+rested mainly upon simple applications of these mechanical powers. The
+middle ages slumbered, but on the coming of the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries, the inventions of the ancients were revived, new ones added,
+and their growth and development extended with ever-increasing speed to
+the present time.
+
+The inventions of the nineteenth century, wonderful and innumerable as
+they are, and marvellous in results produced, are but the fruit of the
+seed sown in the past, and the blossom of the buds grown upon the stalks
+of former generations. The early crude stone hatchet has become the keen
+finished metal implement of to-day, and the latter involves in itself
+the culmination of a long series of processes for converting the rough
+ore into the hard and glistening steel.
+
+The crooked and pointed stick with which the Egyptian turned the sands
+of the Nile has slowly grown to be the finished plough that is now
+driven through the sod by steam.
+
+The steam-operated toys of Hero of Alexandria were revived in principle
+and incorporated in the engines of Papin and the Marquis of Worcester in
+the seventeenth century; and the better engines of Savery, Newcomen, and
+more especially of James Watt in the eighteenth century, left the
+improvements in steam-engines of the nineteenth century--great as they
+are--inventions only in matter of detail.
+
+It has been said that electrical science began with the labours of Dr.
+Gilbert, published in 1600. These, with the electrical discoveries and
+inventions of Gray, Franklin, Galvani, and others in the next century,
+terminating with the invention of his battery by Volta in 1800,
+constituted the framework on which was built that world of flashing
+light and earth-circling messages in which we now live.
+
+The study of inventions in any one or all eras cannot proceed
+intelligently unless account is taken not only of their mode of
+construction, and of their evolution one from another, but of the
+evolution of distinct arts, their relation, their interdependence in
+growth, and their mutual progress.
+
+The principles adopted by the ancients in weaving and spinning by hand
+are those still in force; but so great was the advance of inventions
+from hand-operated mechanisms to machines in these and other arts, and
+especially in steam, in the last half of the eighteenth century, that it
+has been claimed that the age of machine production or invention then
+for the first time really began.
+
+When the humble lift became the completed elevator of to-day, the
+"sky-scraper" buildings appeared; but these buildings waited upon the
+invention of their steel skeletons, and the steel was the child of the
+Bessemer process.
+
+The harp with which David stirred the dead soul of Saul was the
+prototype of the sweet clavichord, the romantic virginal, the tinkling
+harpsichord, and the grand piano. The thrumming of the chords by the
+fingers was succeeded by the striking keys; and the more perfect
+rendition of tones awaited the application of new discoveries in the
+realm of musical sounds. The keys and the levers in the art of musical
+instruments were transferred to the art of printing, and are found
+to-day striking a more homely music on the type-writer and on those
+other and more wonderful printing instruments that mould, and set, and
+distribute the type. But these results of later days did not reach their
+perfected operations and forms until many other arts had been discovered
+and developed, by which to treat and improve the wood, and the wire, and
+all the other materials of which those early instruments were composed,
+and by which the underlying principles of their operations became known.
+
+Admitting that man possesses the faculty of invention, what are the
+motives that induce its exercise? Why so prolific in inventions now? And
+will they continue to increase in number and importance, or decrease?
+
+An interesting treatise of bulky dimensions might be written in answer
+to these queries, and the answers might not then be wholly satisfactory.
+Space permits the submission of but a few observations and suggestions
+on these points:----
+
+_Necessity_ is still the mother of inventions, but not of all of them.
+The pressing needs of man in fighting nakedness and hunger, wild beasts
+and storms, may have driven him to the production of most of his early
+contrivances; but as time went on and his wants of every kind
+multiplied, other factors than mere necessity entered into the problem,
+and now it is required to account for the multiplicity of inventions
+under the general head of _Wants_.
+
+To-day it is the want of the luxuries, as well as of the necessities of
+life, the want of riches, distinction, power, and place, the wants of
+philanthropy and the wants of selfishness, and that restless, inherent,
+unsatisfied, indescribable want which is ever pushing man onward on the
+road of progress, that must be regarded as the springs of invention.
+
+_Accident_ is thought to be the fruitful source of great inventions. It
+is a factor that cannot be ignored. But accidents are only occasional
+helps, rarely occurring,--flashes of light suddenly revealing the end of
+the path along which the inventor has been painfully toiling, and
+unnoticed except by him alone. They are sudden discoveries which for the
+most part simply shorten his journey. The rare complete contrivance
+revealed by accident is not an invention at all, but a discovery.
+
+The greatest incentive in modern times to the production of inventions
+is governmental protection.
+
+When governments began to recognize the right of property in inventions,
+and to devise and enforce means by which their author should hold and
+enjoy the same, as he holds his land, his house, or his horse, then
+inventions sprung forth as from a great unsealed fountain.
+
+This principle first found recognition in England in 1623, when
+parliament, stung by the abuse of the royal prerogative in the grant of
+exclusive personal privileges that served to crush the growth of
+inventions and not to multiply them, by its celebrated Statute of
+Monopolies, abolished all such privileges, but excepted from its
+provisions the grant of patents "for the sole working or making of any
+manner of new manufactures within this realm to the true and first
+inventor" thereof.
+
+This statute had little force, however, in encouraging and protecting
+inventors until the next century, and until after the great inventions
+of Arkwright in spinning and James Watt in steam-engines had been
+invaded, and the attention of the courts called more seriously thereby
+to the property rights of inventors, and to the necessity of a liberal
+exposition of the law and its proper enforcement.
+
+Then followed in 1789 the incorporation of that famous provision in the
+Constitution of the United States, declaring that Congress shall have
+the power "To promote the progress of science and useful arts by
+securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right
+to their respective writings and discoveries."
+
+In 1791 followed the law of the National Assembly of France for the
+protection of new inventions, setting forth in the preamble, among other
+things, "that not to regard an industrial invention as the property of
+its author would be to attack the essential rights of man."
+
+These fundamental principles have since been adopted and incorporated in
+their laws by all the nations of the earth.
+
+Inventions in their nature being for the good of all men and for all
+time, it has been deemed wise by all nations in their legislation not to
+permit the inventor to lock up his property in secret, or confine it to
+his own use; and hence the universal practice is to enact laws giving
+him, his heirs, and assigns, exclusive ownership to this species of his
+property for a limited time only, adjudged sufficient to reward him for
+his efforts in its production, and to encourage others in like
+productions; while he, in consideration for this protection, is to fully
+make known his invention, so that the public may be enabled to freely
+make and use it after its exclusive ownership shall have expired.
+
+In addition to the motives and incentives mentioned inducing this modern
+mighty outflow of inventions, regard must be had to the conditions of
+personal, political and intellectual freedom, and of education. There is
+no class of inventors where the mass of men are slaves; and when dense
+ignorance abounds, invention sleeps.
+
+In the days of the greatest intellectual freedom of Greece, Archimedes,
+Euclid, and Hero, its great inventors, flourished; but when its
+political _status_ had reduced the mass of citizens to slaves, when the
+work of the artisan and the inventor was not appreciated beyond the gift
+of an occasional crown of laurel, when manual labour and the labourer
+were scorned, inventions were not born, or, if born, found no
+nourishment to prolong their lives.
+
+In Rome, the labourer found little respect beyond the beasts of burden
+whose burdens he shared, and the inventor found no provision of
+fostering care or protection in her mighty jurisprudence. The middle
+ages carefully repressed the minds of men, and hid away in dark recesses
+the instruments of learning. When men at length awoke to claim their
+birthright of freedom, they invented the printing-press and rediscovered
+gunpowder, with which to destroy the tyranny of both priests and kings.
+Then arose the modern inventor, and with him came the freedom and the
+arts of civilisation which we now enjoy.
+
+What the exercise of free and protected invention has brought to this
+century is thus summarised by Macaulay:
+
+"It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; has extinguished
+diseases; has increased the fertility of the soil; given new security to
+the mariner; furnished new arms to the warrior; spanned great rivers and
+estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers; it has guided the
+thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth; it has lighted up the
+night with splendour of the day; it has extended the range of human
+vision; it has multiplied the power of the human muscles; it has
+accelerated motion; it has annihilated distance; it has facilitated
+intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all despatch of
+business; it has enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea, to
+soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of
+the earth; to traverse the land in carts which whirl along without
+horses; to cross the ocean in ships which run many knots an hour against
+the wind. Those are but a part of its fruits, and of its first fruits,
+for it is a philosophy which never rests, which is never perfect. Its
+law is progress. A point which yesterday was invisible is its goal
+to-day, and will be its starting point to-morrow."
+
+The onward flow of inventions may be interrupted, if not materially
+stayed, by the cessation of some of the causes and incentives which now
+give them life. When comfort for all and rest for all, and a suitable
+division of labour, and an equal distribution of its fruits are reached,
+in that state of society which is pictured in the visions of the social
+philosopher, or as fast as such conditions are reached, so soon will
+cease the pricking of those spurs of invention,--individual rewards, the
+glorious strife of competition, the harrowing necessities, and the
+ambitions for place and power. If all are to co-operate and share alike,
+what need of exclusive protection and fierce and individual struggle?
+Why not sit down now and break the loaf and share it, and pour the wine,
+and enjoy things as they are, without a thought for the morrow?
+
+The same results as to inventions may be reached in different but less
+pleasant ways: When all the industries are absorbed by huge combinations
+of capital the strife of competition among individuals, and the making
+of individual inventions to meet such competition, will greatly
+disappear. Or, the same results may be effected by stringent laws of
+labour organisations, in restricting or repressing all individual
+independent effort, prescribing what shall be done or what shall not be
+done along certain lines of manufacture or employment. So that the
+progress of future inventions depends on the outcome of the great
+economic, industrial, and social battles which are now looming on the
+pathway of the future.
+
+But what the inventions of the nineteenth century were and what they
+have done for Humanity, is a chapter that must be read by all those now
+living or to come who wish to learn the history of their race. It is a
+story which gathers up all the threads of previous centuries and weaves
+them into a fabric which must be used in all the coming ages in the
+attainment of their comforts, their adornments, and their civilisations.
+
+To enumerate all the inventions of the century would be like calling up
+a vast army of men and proclaiming the name of each. The best that can
+be done is to divide the wide field into chapters, and in these chapters
+give as best one may an idea of the leading inventions that have
+produced the greatest industries of the World.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+The Egyptians were the earliest and greatest agriculturists, and from
+them the art was learned by the Greeks. Greece in the days of her glory
+greatly improved the art, and some of her ablest men wrote valuable
+treatises on its different topics. Its farmers thoroughly ploughed and
+fertilised the soil, used various implements for its cultivation, paid
+great attention to the raising of fruits,--the apple, pear, cherry,
+plum, quince, peach, lemon, fig and many other varieties suitable to
+their climate, and improved the breeds of cattle, horse and sheep. When,
+however, social pride and luxurious city life became the dominant
+passions, agriculture was left to menials, and the art gradually faded
+with the State. Rome in her best days placed farming in high regard. Her
+best writers wrote voluminously on agricultural subjects, a tract of
+land was allotted to every citizen, which was carefully cultivated, and
+these citizen farmers were her worthiest and most honoured sons. The
+condition and needs of the soil were studied, its strength replenished
+by careful fertilisation, and it was worked with care. There were
+ploughs which were made heavy or light as the different soils required,
+and there were a variety of farm implements, such as spades, hoes,
+harrows and rakes. Grains, such as wheat, barley, rye and oats, were
+raised, a variety of fruits and vegetables, and great attention paid to
+the breeding of stock. Cato and Varro, Virgil and Columella, Pliny and
+Palladius delighted to instruct the farmer and praise his occupation.
+
+But as the Roman Empire grew, its armies absorbed its intelligent
+farmers, the tilling of the soil was left to the menial and the slave,
+and the Empire and agriculture declined together.
+
+Then came the hordes of northern barbarians pouring in waves over the
+southern countries and burying from sight their arts and civilisation.
+The gloom of the middle ages then closed down upon the European world.
+Whatever good may have been accomplished in other directions by the
+crusades, agriculture reached its lowest ebb, save in those instances
+where the culture of the soil received attention from monastic
+institutions.
+
+The sixteenth century has been fixed upon as the time when Europe awoke
+from its long slumber. Then it was after the invention of the printing
+press had become well established that publications on agriculture began
+to appear. The _Boke of Husbandrie_, in 1523, by Sir Anthony
+Fitzherbert; Thomas Tusser's _Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_;
+Barnaby Googe's _The Whole Art of Husbandry_; _The Jewel House of Art
+and Nature_, by Sir Hugh Platt; the _English Improver_ of Walter Blithe,
+and the writings of Sir Richard Weston on the husbandry of Brabant and
+Flanders, were the principal torches by which the light on this subject
+was handed down through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Further
+awakening was had in the eighteenth century, the chief part of which was
+given by Jethro Tull, an English agriculturist, who lived, and wrote,
+and laboured in the cause between 1680 and 1740. Tull's leading idea was
+the thorough pulverisation of the soil, his doctrines being that plants
+derived their nourishment from minute particles of soil, hence the need
+of its pulverisation. He invented and introduced a horse hoe, a grain
+drill, and a threshing machine.
+
+Next appeared Arthur Young, of England, born in 1741, whose life was
+extended into the 19th century, and to whom the world was greatly
+indebted for the spread of agricultural knowledge. He devoted frequent
+and long journeys to obtaining information on agricultural subjects, and
+his writings attracted the attention and assistance of the learned
+everywhere. His chief work was the making known widely of the beneficial
+effects of ammonia and ammoniacal compounds on vegetation. Many other
+useful branches of the subject, clearly treated by him, are found in his
+_Annals of Agriculture_. It was this same Arthur Young with whom
+Washington corresponded from his quiet retreat at Mount Vernon. After
+the close of the War of Independence in 1783 and before the adoption of
+the Constitution in 1789 and his elevation to the Presidency in that
+year, Washington devoted very much of his time to the cultivation of his
+large estate in Virginia. He took great interest in every improvement in
+agriculture and its implements. He invented a plough and a rotary seed
+drill, improved his harrows and mills, and made many inquiries relative
+to the efficacy of ploughs and threshing machines made in England and
+other parts of Europe. It was during this period that he opened an
+interesting correspondence with Young on improvements in agriculture,
+which was carried on even while he was President, and he availed himself
+of the proffer of Young's services to fill an order for seeds and two
+ploughs from a London merchant. He also wrote to Robert Cary & Co.,
+merchants in London, concerning an engine he had heard of as being
+constructed in Switzerland, for pulling up trees and their stumps by the
+roots, and ordered one to be sent him if the machine were efficient.
+
+Jefferson, Washington's great contemporaneous statesman and Virginia
+planter, and to whom has been ascribed the chief glory of the American
+patent system, himself also an inventor, enriched his country by the
+full scientific knowledge he had gained from all Europe of agricultural
+pursuits and improvements.
+
+The progress of the art, in a fundamental sense, that is in a knowledge
+of the constituents, properties, and needs of the soil, commenced with
+the investigations of Sir Humphry Davy at the close of the 18th century,
+resulting in his celebrated lectures before the Board of Agriculture
+from 1802 to 1812, and his practical experiments in the growth of plants
+and the nature of fertilisers. Agricultural societies and boards were a
+characteristic product of the eighteenth century in Europe and America.
+But this birth, or revival of agricultural studies, the enthusiastic
+interest taken therein by its great and learned men, and all its
+valuable publications and discoveries, bore comparatively little fruit
+in that century. The ignorance and prejudice of the great mass of
+farmers led to a determined, and in many instances violent resistance to
+the introduction of labour-saving machinery and the practical
+application of what they called "book-farming." A fear of driving people
+out of employment led them to make war upon new agricultural machines
+and their inventors, as they had upon weaving and spinning inventions.
+This war was more marked in England than elsewhere, because there more
+of the new machines were first introduced, and the number of labourers
+in those fields was the greatest. In America the ignorance took the
+milder shape of contempt and prejudice. Farmers refused, for instance,
+to use cast-iron ploughs as it was feared they would poison the soil.
+
+So slow was the invention and introduction of new devices, that if Ruth
+had revisited the earth at the beginning of the nineteenth century, she
+might have seen again in the fields of the husbandmen everywhere the
+sickle of the reapers behind whom she gleaned in the fields of Boaz,
+heard again the beating on the threshing floor, and felt the old
+familiar rush of the winnowing wind. Cincinnatus returning then would
+have recognised the plough in common use as about the same in form as
+that which he once abandoned on his farm beyond the Tiber.
+
+But with the spread of publications, the extension of learning, the
+protection now at last obtained and enforced for inventions, and with
+the foundations laid and the guide-posts erected in nearly every art and
+science by previous discoverers, inventors and writers, the century was
+now ready to start on that career of inventions which has rendered it so
+glorious.
+
+As the turning over and loosening of the sod and the soil for the
+reception of seed was, and still is the first step in the art of
+agriculture, the plough is the first implement to be considered in this
+review.
+
+A plough possesses five essential features,--a frame or beam to which
+the horses are attached and which is provided with handles by which the
+operator guides the plough, a share to sever the bottom of a slice of
+land--the furrow--from the land beneath, a mould board following the
+share to turn the furrow over to one side, and a landside, the side
+opposite the mould board and which presses against the unploughed ground
+and steadies the plough. To these have been commonly added a device
+called the coulter, which is a knife or sharp disk fastened to the frame
+in advance of the share and adapted to cut the sod or soil so that the
+furrow may be more easily turned, an adjustable gauge wheel secured to
+the beam in advance of the coulter, and which runs upon the surface of
+the soil to determine by the distance between the perimeter of the wheel
+at the bottom and the bottom of the plough share the depth of the
+furrow, and a clevis, which is an adjustable metal strap attached to the
+end of the beam to which the draught is secured, and by which the pitch
+of the beam and the depth and width of the furrow are regulated. The
+general features, the beam, handles, and share, have existed in ploughs
+from the earliest ages in history. A plough with a metal share was
+referred to by the prophecy of Isaiah seven centuries before Christ,
+"They shall beat their swords into plough-shares;" and such a plough
+with the coulter and gauge wheel added is found in the Caylus collection
+of Greek antiquities. The inventions of centuries in ploughs have
+proceeded along the lines of the elements above enumerated.
+
+The leading features of the modern plough with a share and mould board
+constructed to run in a certain track and turn its furrows one over
+against the other, appear to have originated in Holland in the 18th
+century, and from there were made known to England. James Small of
+Scotland wrote of and made ploughs having a cast-iron mould board and
+cast and wrought iron shares in 1784-85.
+
+In America, about the same time, Thos. Jefferson studied and wrote upon
+the proper shape to be given to the mould board.
+
+Charles Newbold in 1797 took out the first patent in the United States
+for a plough--all parts cast in one piece of solid iron except the beam
+and handles.
+
+It is a favourite idea with some writers and with more talkers, that
+when the necessity really arises for an invention the natural inventive
+genius of man will at once supply it. Nothing was more needed and sought
+after for thirty centuries among tillers of the soil than a good plough,
+and what finally supplied it was not necessity alone, but improved
+brains. Long were the continued efforts, stimulated no doubt in part by
+necessity, but stimulated also by other motives, to which allusion has
+already been made, and among which are the love of progress, the hope of
+gain, and legislative protection in the possession of inventive
+property.
+
+The best plans of writers and inventors of the eighteenth century were
+not fully developed until the nineteenth, and it can be safely said that
+within the last one hundred years a better plough has been produced than
+in all of the thousands of years before. The defects which the
+nineteenth century's improvements in ploughs were designed to remedy can
+best be understood by first realising what was the condition of ploughs
+in common use when the century opened.
+
+Different parts of the plough, such as the share and coulter, were
+constructed of iron, but the general practice among farmers was to make
+the beam and frame, handles and mould board of strong and heavy timber.
+The beam was straight, long, and heavy, and that and the mould generally
+hewed from a tree. The mould board on both sides to prevent its wearing
+out too rapidly was covered with more or less thick plates of iron. The
+handles were made from crooked branches of trees. "The beam," it is
+said, "was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the handles
+fastened on almost at right angles with it, thus leaving the ploughman
+little control over his implement which did its work in a very slow and
+imperfect manner." It was some such plough that Lord Kames complained
+about in the _Gentleman Farmer_ in 1768, as being used in Scotland--two
+horses and two oxen were necessary to pull it, "the ridges in the fields
+were high and broad, in fact enormous masses of accumulated earth, that
+could not admit of cross ploughing or cultivation; shallow ploughing
+universal; ribbing, by which half the land was left untilled, a general
+practice over the greater part of Scotland; a continual struggle between
+the corn and weeds for superiority." As late as 1820 an American writer
+was making the same complaint. "Your furrows," he said, "stand up like
+the ribs of a lean horse in the month of March. A lazy ploughman may sit
+on the beam and count every bout of his day's work; besides the greatest
+objection to all these ploughs is that they do not perform the work well
+and the expense is enormous for blacksmith work." It was complained by
+another that it took eight or ten oxen to draw it, a man to ride upon
+the beam to keep it on the ground, and a man followed the plough with a
+heavy iron hoe to dig up the "baulks."
+
+The improvements made in the plough during the century have had for
+their object to lessen the great friction between the wide, heavy,
+ill-formed share and mould board, and the ground, which has been
+accomplished by giving to the share a sharp clean tapering form, and to
+the mould board a shape best calculated to turn the furrow slice; to
+improve the line of draught so that the pull of the team may be most
+advantageously employed, which has been effected after long trials,
+study and experiment in the arrangement of beam, clevis and draft rod,
+setting the coulter at a proper angle and giving the landside a plane
+and parallel surface; to increase the wear and lessen the weight of the
+parts, which has been accomplished by ingenious processes in treating
+the metal of which the parts are composed, and lessening the number of
+parts; to render the plough easily repairable by casting the parts in
+sets and numbering them, by which any part may be replaced by the
+manufacturer without resort to the blacksmith. In short there is no part
+of the plough but what has received the most careful attention of the
+inventor. This has been evidenced by the fact that in the United States
+alone nearly eleven thousand patents on ploughs were issued during the
+nineteenth century. When it is considered that all the applications for
+these patents were examined as to their novelty, before the grant of the
+patent, the enormous amount of study and invention expended on this
+article can be appreciated. Among the century's improvements in this
+line is the use of disks in place of the old shovel blades to penetrate
+the earth and revolve in contact therewith. Cutting disks are harnessed
+to steam motors and are adapted to break up at one operation a wide
+strip of ground. The long-studied problem of employing a gang of ploughs
+to plough back and forth and successfully operated by steam has been
+solved, and electricity is now being introduced as a motor in place of
+steam. Thus millions of broad acres which never would have been
+otherwise turned are now cultivated. The tired muscle-strained ploughman
+who homeward plodded his weary way at night may now comfortably ride at
+his ease upon the plough, while at the same time the beasts that pull it
+have a lighter load than ever before.
+
+Next to the plough among the implements for breaking, clearing and
+otherwise preparing the soil for the reception of seed, comes the
+_harrow_. From time immemorial it has been customary to arm some sort of
+a frame with wooden or iron spikes to scratch the earth after the
+ploughing. But this century has greatly improved the old constructions.
+Harrows are now found everywhere made in sections to give flexibility to
+the frame; collected in gangs to increase the extent of operation; made
+with disks instead of spikes, with which to cut the roots of weeds and
+separate the soil, instead of merely scratching them. A still later
+invention, curved spring teeth, has been found far superior to spikes or
+disks in throwing up, separating and pulverising the soil. A harrow
+comprising two ranks of oppositely curved trailing teeth is especially
+popular in some countries. These three distinct classes of harrows, the
+disk type, the curved spring tooth type, and gangs of sections of
+concavo-convex disks, particularly distinguish this class of implements
+from the old forms of previous ages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+It is wonderful for how many generations men were contented to throw
+grain into the air as the Parable relates:
+
+"Behold, a sower went forth to sow, and when he sowed some seeds fell by
+the way side, and the fowls came and devoured them up: some fell on
+stony places where they had not much earth, and forthwith they sprung
+up, because they had no deepness of earth; and when the sun was up they
+were scorched; and because they had no root they withered away. And some
+fell among thorns and the thorns sprung up and choked them. But others
+fell into good ground and brought forth fruit, some a hundredfold, some
+sixtyfold, and some thirtyfold."
+
+Here are indicated the defects in depositing the seed that only the
+inventions of the century have fully corrected. The equal distribution
+of the seed and not its wide scattering, its sowing in regular drills or
+planting at intervals, at certain and uniform depths, the adaptation of
+devices to meet the variations in the land to be planted, and in short
+the substitution of quick, certain, positive mechanisms for the slow,
+uncertain, variable hand of man. Not only has the increase an
+hundredfold been obtained, but with the machines of to-day the sowing
+and planting of a hundredfold more land has been made possible, the
+employment of armies of men where idleness would have reigned, and the
+feeding of millions of people among whom hunger would otherwise have
+prevailed. Not only did this machinery not exist at the beginning of the
+century, but the agricultural machines and devices in this line of the
+character existing fifty years ago are now discarded as useless and
+worthless.
+
+It is true that, as in the case of the ploughs, attempts had been made
+through the centuries to invent and improve seeding implements. The
+Assyrians 500 years B. C. had in use a rude plough in which behind the
+sharp wooden plough point was fixed a bowl-shaped hopper through which
+seed was dropped into the furrow, and was covered by the falling back of
+the furrow upon it. The Chinese, probably before that time, had a
+wheelbarrow arrangement with a seed hopper and separate seed spouts. In
+India a drilling hopper had been attached to a plough. Italy claims the
+honour among European nations of first introducing a machine for sowing
+grain. It was invented about the beginning of the seventeenth century
+and is described by Zanon in his _Work on Agriculture_ printed at Venice
+in 1764. It was a machine mounted on two wheels, that had a seed box in
+the bottom of which was a series of holes opening into a corresponding
+number of metal tubes or funnels. At their front these tubes at their
+lower ends were sharpened to make small furrows into which the seed
+dropped.
+
+Similar single machines were in the course of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries devised in Austria and England. The one in Austria
+was invented by a Spaniard, one Don Joseph de Lescatello, tested in
+Luxembourg in 1662. The inventor was rewarded by the Emperor,
+recommended to the King of Spain, and in 1663 and 1664 his machines were
+made and sold at Madrid. The knowledge of this Spaniard's invention was
+made known in England in 1699 by the Earl of Sandwich and John Evelyn.
+Jethro Tull in England shortly after invented and introduced a combined
+system of drilling, ploughing and cultivating. He sowed different seeds
+from the same machine, and arranged that they might be covered at
+different depths. Tull's machines were much improved by James Cooke, a
+clergyman of Lancashire, England; and also in the last decade of the
+eighteenth century by Baldwin and Wells of Norfolk, England.
+
+Washington and others in America had also commenced to invent and
+experiment with seeding machines. But as before intimated, the
+nineteenth century found the great mass of farmers everywhere sowing
+their wheat and other grains by throwing them into the air by hand, to
+be met by the gusts of wind and blown into hollows and on ridges, on
+stones and thorny places,--requiring often a second and third repetition
+of the same tedious process.
+
+In 1878 Mr. Coffin, a distinguished journalist of Boston, in an address
+before the Patent Committee of the U. S. Senate, set forth the
+advantages obtained by the modern improvements in seeders as follows:
+
+"The seeder covers the soil to a uniform depth. It sows evenly, and sows
+a specific quantity. You may graduate it so that, after a little
+experience, you can determine the amount per acre even to a quart of
+wheat. They sow all kinds of grain,--wheat, clover, and superphosphate,
+if need be, at once. They harrow at the same time. They make the crop
+more certain. It is the united testimony of manufacturers and farmers
+alike that the crop is increased from one-eighth to one-fourth,
+especially in the winter wheat. Winter wheat, you are aware, in the
+freezing and thawing season, is apt to heave out. It is desirable to
+bury the seed a uniform and proper depth and to throw over the young
+plant such an amount of soil that it shall not heave with the freezing
+and thawing. Of the 360,000,000 bushels of wheat raised last year I
+suppose more than 300,000,000 was winter wheat. One-eighth of this is
+37,700,000 bushels."
+
+It would seem to many that after the adoption of a seed hopper, and
+spouts with sharpened ends that cut the drill rows in the furrows and
+deposited the seed therein, that little was left to be done in this
+class of inventions; but a great many improvements were necessary.
+Gravity alone could not be depended upon for feeding the seed. Means had
+to be devised for a continuous and regular discharge from each grain
+tube; for varying the quantity of the seed fed by varying the escape
+openings, or by positive mechanical movements variable in speed; for
+fixing accurately the quantity of seed discharged; for changing the
+apparatus to feed coarse or fine seed; and for rendering the apparatus
+efficient on different surfaces--steep hillsides, level plains,
+irregular lands.
+
+An important step was the substitution of what is called the "force
+feed" for the gravity feed. There is a variety of devices for this
+purpose, the principle of one of them being a revolving feed wheel
+located beneath the hopper, and above each spout, the two casings
+between which the feed wheel revolves forming the outer walls of a
+complete measuring channel, or throat, through which the grain is
+carried by the rotary motion of the wheel, thus providing the means of
+measuring the seed with as much accuracy as could be done by a small
+measure. The quantity sown per acre is governed by simply increasing or
+diminishing the speed of the feed wheel. In one form of device this
+change of speed is altered by a system of cone gearing. A graduated flow
+of the seed has also been effected by the employment of a cylinder
+having a smooth and fluted part working in a cup beneath the hopper with
+provision for adjustment of the smooth part towards and from the fluted
+part to cut off or increase the flow.
+
+To avoid the use of a separate apparatus for separate sizes of grain and
+other seed, the seed holder has been divided into parts--one part for
+containing wheat, barley and other medium-sized grains, and another for
+corn, peas and the larger seeds. And as these parts are used on separate
+occasions, the respective apertures are opened or closed by a sliding
+bottom and by a single movement of the hand.
+
+Rubber tubes for conducting the seed through the hollow holes were
+introduced in place of the metal spouts that answered both as a spout
+and a hoe.
+
+In place of the common hoe drill of a form used in the early part of the
+century, the hoes being forced into the soil by the use of levers and
+weights, what are known as "shoe drills" have largely succeeded. A
+series of shoes are pivoted to the frame, extend beneath the seed box,
+and are provided with springs for depressing or raising them.
+
+All kinds of seeds and fertilisers, separately or together, may be now
+sown, and the broadcast sowing of a larger area than that covered by the
+throw of the hand can now be given by machinery.
+
+Corn and cotton seed are thus also planted, mixed or unmixed with the
+fertilising material.
+
+Not only have light ploughs been combined with small seed boxes and one
+or more seed tubes, for easy work in gardens, but the arrangements
+varied and graded for different uses until is reached that great machine
+run by steam power, in which is assembled a gang of heavy harrows in
+front to loosen and pulverise the soil, then the seed and fertilising
+drill of capacious width for sowing the grain in rows, followed by a
+lighter broad harrow to cover the seed, and all so arranged that the
+steam lifts the heavy frames on turning, and all controlled easily by
+the man who rides upon the machine.
+
+In planting at intervals or in hills, as corn and potatoes, and other
+like larger seeds, no longer is the farmer required to trudge across the
+wide field carrying a heavy load in bag or box, or compel his boys or
+women folk to drop the seed while he follows on laboriously with the
+hoe. He may now ride, if he so choose, and the machine which carries him
+furnishes the motive power for operating the supply and cut-off of the
+grain at intervals.
+
+The object of the farmer in planting corn is to plant it in straight
+lines about four feet apart each way, putting from three to five grains
+into each spot in a scattered and not huddled condition. These objects
+are together nicely accomplished by a variety of modern machines.
+
+The planting of great fields of potatoes has been greatly facilitated by
+machinery that first slices them and then sows the slices continuously
+in a row, or drops them in separate spots or hills, as may be desired.
+The finest seeds, such as grass and clover, onion and turnip seed, and
+delicate seed like rice, are handled and sown by machines without
+crushing or bruising, and with the utmost exactness. Just what seed is
+necessary to be supplied to the machine for a given area is decided
+upon, and the machine distributes the same with the same nicety that a
+doctor distributes the proper dose of pellets upon the palm of his
+patient.
+
+Transplanters as well as planters have been devised. These transplanters
+will dig the plant trench, distribute the fertiliser, set the plant,
+pack the earth and water the plant, automatically.
+
+The class of machines known as cultivators are those only, properly
+speaking, which are employed to cultivate the plant after the crop is
+above the ground. The duties which they perform are to loosen the earth,
+destroy the weeds, and throw the loosened earth around the growing
+plant.
+
+Here again the laborious hoe has been succeeded by the labour-saving
+machine.
+
+Cultivators have names which indicate their construction and the crop
+with which they are adapted to be used. Thus there are "corn
+cultivators," "cotton cultivators," "sugar-cane cultivators," etc.
+Riding cultivators are known as "sulky cultivators" where they are
+provided with two wheels and a seat for the driver.
+
+If worked between two rows they are termed single, and when between
+three rows, double cultivators. A riding cultivator adapted to work
+three rows has an arched axle to pass over the rows of the growing
+plants and cultivate both sides of the plants in each row. Double
+cultivators are constructed so that their outside teeth may be adjusted
+in and out from the centre of the machine to meet the width of the rows
+between which they operate. A "walking cultivator" is when the operator
+walks and guides the machine with the hands as with ploughs. Ordinary
+ploughs are converted into cultivators by supplying them with double
+adjustable mould boards. Ingenious arrangements generally exist for
+widening or narrowing the cultivator and for throwing the soil from the
+centre of the furrow to opposite sides and against the plant. The depth
+to which the shares or cultivator blades work in the ground may be
+adjusted by a gauge wheel upon the draught beam, or a roller on the back
+of the frame.
+
+Disk cultivators are those in which disk blades instead of ploughs are
+used with which to disturb the soil already broken. As with ploughs, so
+with cultivators, steam-engines are employed to draw a gang of
+cultivating teeth or blades, their framework, and the operator seated
+thereon, to and fro across the field between two or more rows, turning
+and running the machine at the end of the rows.
+
+Millet's recent celebrated painting represents a brutal, primitive type
+of a man leaning heavily on a hoe as ancient and woful in character as
+the man himself. It is a picture of hopeless drudgery and blank
+ignorance. Markham, the poet, has seized upon this picture, dwelt
+eloquently on its horrors, and apostrophised it as if it were a
+condition now existing. He exclaims,
+
+  "O masters, lords and rulers in all lands
+  How will the future reckon with this man?"
+
+The present has already reckoned with him, and he and his awkward
+implement of drudgery nowhere exist, except as left-over specimens of
+ancient and pre-historic misery occasionally found in some benighted
+region of the world.
+
+The plough and the hoe are the chief implements with which man has
+subdued the earth. Their use has not been confined to the drudge and the
+slave, but men, the leaders and ornaments of their race, have stood
+behind them adding to themselves graces, and crowning labor with
+dignity. Cincinnatus is only one of a long line of public men in ancient
+and modern times who have served their country in the ploughfield as
+well as on the field of battle and in the halls of Legislation. We hear
+the song of the poet rising with that of the lark as he turns the sod.
+Burns, lamenting that his share uptears the bed of the "wee modest
+crimson-tipped flower" and sorrowing that he has turned the "Mousie"
+from its "bit o' leaves and stibble" by the cruel coulter. The finest
+natures, tuned too fine to meet the rude blasts of the world, have
+shrunk like Cowper to rural scenes, and sought with the hoe among
+flowers and plants for that balm and strength unfound in crowded marts.
+
+But the dignity imparted to the profession of Agriculture by a few has
+now by the genius of invention become the heritage of all.
+
+While prophets have lamented, and artists have painted, and poets
+sorrowed over the drudgeries of the tillers of the soil, the tillers
+have steadily and quietly and with infinite patience and toil worked out
+their own salvation. They no longer find themselves "plundered and
+profaned and disinherited," but they have yoked the forces of nature to
+their service, and the cultivation of the earth, the sowing of the seed,
+the nourishment of the plant, have become to them things of pleasurable
+labour.
+
+With the aid of these inventions which have been turned into their hands
+by the prolific developments of the century they are, so far as the soil
+is concerned, no longer "brothers of the ox," but king of kings and lord
+of lords.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
+
+
+If the farmer, toward the close of the 18th century, tired with the
+sickle and the scythe for cutting his grass and grain, had looked about
+for more expeditious means, he would have found nothing better for
+cutting his grass; and for harvesting his grain he would have been
+referred to a machine that had existed since the beginning of the
+Christian era. This machine was described by Pliny, writing about A. D.
+60, who says that it was used on the plains of Rhaetia. The same machine
+was described by Palladius in the fourth century. That machine is
+substantially the machine that is used to-day for cutting and gathering
+clover heads to obtain the seed. It is now called a header.
+
+A machine that has been in use for eighteen centuries deserves to be
+described, and its inventor remembered; but the name of the inventor has
+been lost in oblivion. The description of Palladius is as follows:
+
+"In the plains of Gaul, they use this quick way of reaping, and without
+reapers cut large fields with an ox in one day. For this purpose a
+machine is made carried upon two wheels; the square surface has boards
+erected at the side, which, sloping outward, make a wider space above.
+The board on the fore part is lower than the others. Upon it there are a
+great many small teeth, wide set in a row, answering to the height of
+the ears of corn (wheat), and turned upward at the ends. On the back
+part of the machine two short shafts are fixed like the poles of a
+litter; to these an ox is yoked, with his head to the machine, and the
+yoke and traces likewise turned the contrary way. When the machine is
+pushed through the standing corn all the ears are comprehended by the
+teeth and cut off by them from the straw and drop into the machine. The
+driver sets it higher or lower as he finds it necessary. By a few goings
+and returnings the whole field is reaped. This machine does very well in
+plain and smooth fields."
+
+As late as 1786 improvements were being attempted in England on this old
+Gallic machine. At that time Pitt, in that country, arranged a cylinder
+with combs or ripples which tore off the heads of the grain-stalks and
+discharged them into a box on the machine. From that date until 1800
+followed attempts to make a cutting apparatus consisting of blades on a
+revolving cylinder rotated by the rotary motion of the wheels on which
+the machine was carried.
+
+In 1794, a Scotchman invented the grain cradle. Above the blade of a
+scythe were arranged a set of fingers projecting from a post in the
+scythe snath. This was considered a wonderful implement. A report of a
+Scottish Highland Agricultural Society about that time said of this new
+machine:
+
+"With a common sickle, seven men in ten hours reaped one and one-half
+acres of wheat,--about one-quarter of an acre each. With the new machine
+a man can cut one and one-half acres in ten hours, to be raked, bound,
+and stacked by two others."
+
+It was with such crude and imperfect inventions that the farmers faced
+the grain and grass fields of the nineteenth century.
+
+The Seven Wonders of the ancient world have often been compared with the
+wonders of invention of this present day.
+
+Senator Platt in an address at the Patent Centennial Celebration in
+Washington, in 1891, made such a contrast:
+
+"The old wonders of the world were the Pyramids, the Hanging Gardens of
+Babylon, the Phidian statue of Jupiter, the Mausoleum, the Temple of
+Diana at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Pharos of Alexandria.
+Two were tombs of kings, one was the playground of a petted queen, one
+was the habitat of the world's darkest superstition, one the shrine of a
+heathen god, another was a crude attempt to produce a work of art solely
+to excite wonder, and one only, the lighthouse at Alexandria, was of the
+slightest benefit to mankind. They were created mainly by tyrants; most
+of them by the unrequited toil of degraded and enslaved labourers. In
+them was neither improvement nor advancement for the people." With some
+excess of patriotic pride, he contrasts these with what he calls "the
+seven wonders of American invention." They were the cotton-gin; the
+adaptation of steam to methods of transportation; the application of
+electricity to business pursuits; the harvester; the modern
+printing-press; the ocean cable; and the sewing machine. "How
+wonderful," he adds, "in conception, in construction, in purpose, these
+great inventions are; how they dwarf the Pyramids and all the wonders of
+antiquity; what a train of blessings each brought with its entrance into
+social life; how wide, direct and far-reaching their benefits. Each was
+the herald of a social revolution; each was a human benefactor; each was
+a new Goddess of Liberty; each was a great Emancipator of man from the
+bondage of labour; each was a new teacher come upon earth; each was a
+moral force."
+
+Of these seven wonders, the harvester and the cotton-gin will only be
+described in this chapter. "Harvester" has sometimes been used as a
+broad term to cover both mowers and reapers. In a recent and more
+restricted sense, it is applied to a machine that cuts grain, separates
+it into gavels, and binds it.
+
+The difficulty that confronted the invention of mowers was the
+construction, location and operation of the cutting part. To convert the
+scythe or the sickle, or some other sharp blade into a fast
+reciprocating cutter, to hang such cutter low so that it would cut near
+the ground, to protect it from contact with stones by a proper guard, to
+actuate it by the wheels of the vehicle, to hinge the cutter-bar to the
+frame so that its outer end might be raised, and to arrange a seat on
+the machine so that the driver could control the operating parts by
+means of a lever, or handles, were the main problems to be solved.
+
+In 1799, Boyce, of England, had a vertical shaft with six rotating
+scythes beneath the frame of the implement. This died with the century.
+
+In 1800, Meares, his countryman, tried to adapt shears. He was followed
+there, in 1805, by Plucknett, who introduced a horizontal, rotating,
+circular blade. Others, subsequently, adopted this idea, both in England
+and America. It had been customary, as in olden times, to push the
+apparatus forward by a horse or horses hitched behind. But, in 1806,
+Gladstone had patented a front draft machine, with a revolving wheel
+armed with knife-blades cutting at one side of the machine and a
+segment-bar with fingers which gathered the grain and held the straw
+while the knife cut it.
+
+Then, in 1807, Salonen introduced vibrating knifes over stationary
+blades, fingers to gather grain to the cutters, and a rake to carry the
+grain off to one side.
+
+In 1822, Ogle, also of England, was the first to invent the
+_reciprocating_ knife-bar. This is the movement that has been given in
+all the successful machines since. Ogle's was a crude machine, but it
+furnished the ideas of projecting the cutter-bar at the side of a reel
+to gather the grain to the cutter and of a grain platform which was
+tilted to drop the sheaf.
+
+The world is indebted also to the Rev. Patrick Bell, of Scotland, who
+had invented and built as early as 1823-26, a machine which would cut an
+acre of grain in an hour, and is thus described by Knight:
+
+"The machine had a square frame on two wheels which ran loose on the
+axle, except when clutched thereto to give motion to the cutters. The
+cutter-bar had fixed triangular cutters between each of which was a
+movable vibrating cutter, which made a shear cut against the edge of the
+stationary cutter, on each side. It had a reel with twelve vanes to
+press the grain toward the cutters, and cause it to fall upon a
+travelling apron which carried away cut grain and deposited it at the
+side of the machine. The reel was driven by bevel-gearing."
+
+It was used but a few years and then revived again at the World's Fair
+in London, in 1851.
+
+In the United States, inventions in mowers and reapers began to make
+their appearance about 1820. In 1822, Bailey was the first to patent a
+mowing machine. It was a circular revolving scythe on a vertical axis,
+rotated by gearing from the main axle, and so that the scythe was
+self-sharpened by passing under a whet-stone fixed on an axis and
+revolving with the scythe and was pulled by a horse in front. In 1828,
+Lane, of Maine, combined the reaper and thresher. In 1831, Manning had a
+row of fingers and a reciprocating knife, and in 1833, Schnebly
+introduced the idea of a horizontal endless apron on which the grain
+fell, constructed to travel intermittently so as to divide the grain
+into separate parts or gavels, and deliver the gavels at one side.
+Hussey, of Maryland, in 1833, produced the most useful harvester up to
+that time. It had open guard fingers, a knife made of triangular
+sections, reciprocating in the guard, and a cutter-bar on a hinged
+frame.
+
+Then came the celebrated reaper of McCormick, of Virginia, in 1834, and
+his improvements of 1845-1847, and by 1850 he had built hundreds of his
+machines. Other inventors, too numerous to mention, from that time
+pushed forward with their improvements. Then came many public trials and
+contests between rival manufacturers and inventors.
+
+One of the earliest and most notable was the contest at the World's
+Fair, in London, in 1851. This exhibition, the first of the kind the
+world had seen, giving to the nations taking part such an astonishing
+revelation of each other's productions, and stimulating in each such a
+surprising growth in all the industrial and fine arts, revealed nothing
+more gratifying to the lover of his kind than those inventions of the
+preceding half-century that had so greatly lifted the farm labourer from
+his furrow of drudgery.
+
+Among the most conspicuous of such inventions were the harvesters.
+Bell's machine, previously described, and Hussey's and McCormick's were
+the principal contesting machines. They were set to work in fields of
+grain, and to McCormick was finally awarded the medal of honour.
+
+This contest also opened the eyes of the world to the fact that vast
+tracts of idle land, exceeding in extent the areas of many states and
+countries, could now be sown and reaped--a fact impossible with the
+scythe and the sickle. It was the herald of the admission into the
+family of nations of new territories and states, which, without these
+machines, would unto this day be still wild wildernesses and trackless
+deserts.
+
+This great trial also was followed by many others, State and
+International. In 1852, there was in the United States a general trial
+of reapers and mowers at Geneva, New York; in 1855, at the French
+Exposition, at Paris, where again McCormick met with a triumph; in 1857,
+at Syracuse, New York, and subsequently at all the great State and
+International Expositions. These contests served to bring out the
+failures, and the still-existing wants in this line of machinery. The
+earlier machines were clumsy. They were generally one-wheeled machines,
+lacked flexibility of parts and were costly. They cut, indeed, vast
+tracts of grain and grass, but the machines had to be followed by an
+army of men to bind and gather the fallen grain. This army demanded high
+wages and materially increased the cost of reaping the crop, and sadly
+diminished the profits.
+
+When the Vienna Exposition, in 1873, was held, a great advance was shown
+in this and all other classes of agricultural machinery. Reapers and
+mowers were lighter in construction, and far less in cost, and stronger
+and more effective in every way. The old original machines of McCormick
+on which he had worked for twenty years prior to the 1851 triumph, had
+been succeeded by another of his machines, on which an additional twenty
+years of study, experiment and improvement had been expended. An endless
+number of inventors had in the meantime entered the lists. The frame,
+the motive gearing, the hinged cutter-bar and knives, the driver's seat,
+the reel, the divider, for separating the swath of grain to be cut from
+the uncut, the raising and depressing lever, the self-raker, and the
+material of which all the parts were composed had all received the
+greatest attention, and now was awaiting the coming of a perfect
+mechanical binder that would roll the grain on the machine into a
+bundle, automatically bind it, and drop the bound bundles on the ground.
+The latter addition came in an incomplete shape to Vienna. The best form
+was a crude wire binder. In 1876 at the Centennial Exhibition at
+Philadelphia, the mowers and reapers blossomed still more fully, but not
+into full fruition; for it was not until two or three years thereafter
+that the celebrated _twine_ binders, which superseded the wire, were
+fully developed.
+
+Think of the almost miraculous exercise of invention in making a machine
+to automatically cut the grain, elevate it to a platform, separate and
+roll it into sheaves, seize a stout cord from a reel, wrap it about the
+sheaf, tie a knot that no sailor could untie, cut the cord, and throw
+the bound sheaf to one side upon the ground!
+
+So great became the demand for this binders' twine that great
+corporations engaged in its manufacture, and they in turn formed a great
+trust to control the world's supply. This one item of twine, alone,
+amounted to millions of dollars every year, and from its manufacture
+arose economic questions considered by legislators, and serious
+litigation requiring the attention of the courts.
+
+At this Centennial Exhibition, besides twenty or more great
+manufacturing firms of the United States who exhibited reapers and
+mowers, Canada, far-away Australia, and Russia brought each a fine
+machine of this wonderful class. And not only these countries, but
+nearly all of Europe sent agricultural machines and implements in such
+numbers and superior construction that they surpassed the wildest dreams
+of the farmer of a quarter of a century before.
+
+Up to this time, about eleven thousand patents have been granted in the
+United States, all presumably on separate improvements in mowers and
+reapers alone. This number includes, of course, many patents issued to
+inventors of other countries.
+
+Before leaving this branch of the subject the lawn-mower should not be
+overlooked, with its spiral blades on a revolving cylinder, a hand lever
+by which it can be pushed over a lawn and the grass cut as smooth as the
+green rug upon a lady's chamber.
+
+It is the law of inventions that one invention necessitates and
+generates another. Thus the vastly increased facilities for cutting
+grass necessitated new means for taking care of it when cut. And these
+new means were the hay tedder to stir it, the horse hay-rake, the great
+hay-forks to load, and the hay-stackers. Harvesters for grass and grain
+have been supplemented by Corn, Cotton, Potato and Flax Harvesters.
+
+The threshing-floor still resounds to the flail as the grain is beaten
+from the heads of the stalks. Men and horses still tread it out, the
+wooden drag and the heavy wain with its gang of wheels, and all the old
+methods of threshing familiar to the Egyptians and later among the
+Romans may still be found in use in different portions of the world.
+
+Menzies of Scotland, about the middle of the eighteenth century, was the
+first to invent a threshing machine. It was unsuccessful. Then came
+Leckie, of Stirlingshire, who improved it. But the type of the modern
+threshing machine was the invention of a Scotchman, one Meikle, of
+Tyningham, East Lothian, in 1786. Meikle threw the grain on to an
+inclined board, from whence it was fed between two fluted rollers to a
+cylinder armed with blades which beat it, thence to a second beating
+cylinder operating over a concave grating through which the loosened
+grain fell to a receptacle beneath; thence the straw was carried over a
+third beating cylinder which loosened the straw and shook out the
+remaining grain to the same receptacle, and the beaten straw was then
+carried out of the machine. Meikle added many improvements, among which
+was a fan-mill by which the grain was separated and cleaned from both
+straw and chaff. This machine, completed and perfected about the year
+1800, has seen no departure in principle in England, and in the United
+States the principal change has been the substitution of a spiked drum
+running at a higher speed for Meikle's beater drum armed with blades.
+
+In countries like California, says the U.S. Commissioner of Patents in
+his report for 1895, "Where the climate is dry and the grain is ready
+for threshing as soon as it is cut, there is in general use a type of
+machine known as a combined harvester and thresher in which a thresher
+and a harvester machine of the header type are mounted on a single
+platform, and the heads of grain are carried directly from the harvester
+by elevators into the threshing machine, from which the threshed grain
+is delivered into bags and is then ready for shipment. Some of these
+machines are drawn by horses and some have a portable engine mounted on
+the same truck with the harvester propelling the machine, while
+furnishing power to drive the mechanism at the same time. Combined
+harvesters and threshers have been known since 1836, but they have been
+much improved and are now built on a much larger scale."
+
+Flax-threshers for beating the grain from the bolls of the cured flax
+plant, removing the bolls, releasing and cleaning the seed, are also a
+modern invention.
+
+Flax and Hemp Brakes, machines by which the woody and cellular portion
+of the flax is separated from the fibrous portion, produced in practical
+shape in the century, and flanked by the improved pullers, cutters,
+threshers, scutchers, hackles, carders, and rovers, have supplanted
+Egyptian methods of 3,000 years' standing, for preparing the flax for
+spinning, as well as the crude improvements of the 18th century.
+
+After the foundation of cotton manufacture had been laid "as one of the
+greatest of the world's industries," in the 18th century by those five
+great English inventors, Kay, who invented the fly-shuttle, Hargreaves,
+the "Spinning Jenny," Arkwright, the water-frame, Crompton, the
+spinning-mule, and Cartwright, the power-loom, came Eli Whitney in 1793,
+a young school teacher from Massachusetts located in Georgia, who
+invented the _cotton-gin_. His crude machine, worked by a single person,
+could clean more cotton in a single day than could be done by a man in
+several months, by hand.
+
+The enormous importance of such a machine began to be appreciated at the
+beginning of the century, and it set cotton up as a King whose dominion
+has extended across the seas.
+
+Prior to 1871, inventions in this art were mainly directed to perfecting
+the structure of this primary gin. By that machine only the long staple
+fibre was secured, leaving the cotton seed covered with a short fibre,
+which with the seed was regarded as a waste product. To reclaim this
+short fibre and secure the seed in condition for use, have been the
+endeavours of many inventors during the last twenty years. These objects
+have been attained by a machine known as the _delinter_, one of the
+first practical forms of which appeared about 1883.
+
+In a bulletin published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1895,
+entitled, "Production and Price of Cotton for One Hundred Years," the
+period commences with the introduction of Whitney's saw gin, and ends
+with the year mentioned and with the production in that year of the
+largest crop the world had ever seen. No other agricultural crop
+commands such universal attention. Millions of people are employed in
+its production and manufacture. How insignificant compared with the
+wonder wrought by this one machine seems indeed any of the old seven
+wonders of the world! Although the displacement of labour occasioned by
+the introduction of the cotton-gin was not severely felt, as it was
+slave labour, yet that invention affords a good illustration of the fact
+that labour-saving machines increase the supply of the article, the
+increased supply lowers its price, the lower price increases the demand,
+the increased demand gives rise to more machines and develops other
+inventions and arts, all of which results in the employment of ten
+thousand people to every one thousand at work on the product originally.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (_continued_).
+
+
+When the harvest is ended and the golden stores of grains and fruits are
+gathered, then the question arises what shall be next done to prepare
+them for food and for shipment to the distant consumer.
+
+If the cleaning of the grain and separating it from the chaff and dirt
+are not had in the threshing process, separate machines are employed for
+fanning and screening.
+
+It was only during the 18th century that fanning mills were introduced;
+and it is related by Sir Walter Scott in one of his novels that some of
+his countrymen considered it their religious duty to wait for a natural
+wind to separate the chaff from the wheat; that they were greatly
+shocked by an invention which would raise a whirlwind in calm weather,
+and that they looked upon the use of such a machine as rebellion against
+God.
+
+As to the grinding of the grain, the rudimentary means still exist, and
+are still used by rudimentary peoples, and to meet exceptional
+necessities; these are the primeval hollowed stone and mortar and
+pestle, and they too were "the mills of the Gods" in Egyptian, Hebrew
+and Early Greek days: the _quern_--that is, the upper running stone and
+the lower stationary grooved one--was a later Roman invention and can be
+found described only a century or two before the Christian era.
+
+Crude as these means were they were the chief ones used in milling until
+within a century and a quarter ago.
+
+In a very recent bright work published in London, by Richard Bennett and
+John Elton, on Corn Mills, etc., they say on this point: "The mill of
+the last century, that, by which, despite its imperfections, the
+production of flour rose from one of the smallest to one of the greatest
+and most valuable industries of the world, was essentially a structure
+of few parts, whether driven by water or wind, and its processes were
+exceedingly simple. The wheat was cleaned by a rude machine consisting
+of a couple of cylinders and screens, and an air blast passed through a
+pair of mill-stones, running very close together, in order that the
+greatest amount of flour might be produced at one grinding. The meal was
+then bolted, and the tailings, consisting of bran, middlings and
+adherent flour, again sifted and re-ground. It seems probable that the
+miller of the time had a fair notion of the high grade of flour ground
+from middlings, but no systematic method of procedure for its production
+was adopted."
+
+The upper and the nether mill-stone is still a most useful device. The
+"dress," which consists of the grooves which are formed in the meeting
+faces of the stones, has been changed in many ways to meet the
+requirements in producing flour in varying degrees of fineness. Machines
+have been invented to make such grooves. A Swiss machine for this
+purpose consists of two disks carrying diamonds in their peripheries,
+which, being put in rapid revolution, cut parallel grooves in the face
+of the stone.
+
+A great advance in milling was made both in America and Europe by the
+inventions of Oliver Evans. Evans was born in the State of Delaware,
+U.S., in 1755, and died in 1819. He was a poor boy and an apprentice to
+a wheelwright, and while thus engaged his inventive powers were
+developed. He had an idea of a land carriage propelled without animal
+power. At the age of 22 he invented a machine for making card teeth,
+which superseded the old method of making them by hand. Later he
+invented steam-engines and steam-boats, to which attention will
+hereafter be called. Entering into business with his brothers within the
+period extending from 1785 to 1800, he produced those inventions in
+milling which by the opening of the 19th century had revolutionised the
+art. A description of the most important of these inventions was
+published by him in 1795 in a book entitled _The Young Millwright and
+Miller's Grist_. Patents were granted Evans by the States of Delaware,
+Maryland and Pennsylvania in 1787, and by the U.S. Government in 1790
+and 1808.
+
+As these inventions formed the basis of the most important subsequent
+devices of the century, a brief statement of his system is proper:
+
+From the time the grain was emptied from the waggon to the final
+production of the finest flour at the close of the process, all manual
+labour was dispensed with. The grain was first emptied into a box hung
+on a scale beam where it was weighed, then run into an elevator which
+raised it to a chamber over cleaning machines through which it was
+passed, and reclaimed by the same means if desired; then it was run down
+into a chamber over the hoppers of the mill-stones; when ground it fell
+from the mill-stones into conveyors and as carried along subjected to
+the heated air of a kiln drier; then carried into a meal elevator to be
+raised and dropped on to a cooling floor where it was met by what is
+called a hopper boy, consisting of a central round upright shaft
+revolving on a pivot, and provided with horizontal arms and sweeps
+adapted to be raised and lowered and turned, by which means the meal was
+continually stirred around, lifted and turned on the floor and then
+gathered on to the bolting hoppers, the bolts being cylindrical sieves
+of varying degrees of fineness to separate the flour from its coarser
+impurities, and when not bolted sufficiently, carried by a conveyor
+called a drill to an elevator to be dumped again into the bolting
+hoppers and be re-bolted. When not sufficiently ground the same drill
+was used to carry the meal to the grind stones. It was the design of the
+process to keep the meal in constant motion from first to last so as to
+thoroughly dry and cool it, to heat it further in the meantime, and to
+run the machines so slowly as to prevent the rise and waste of the flour
+in the form of dust.
+
+The Evans system, with minor modifications and improvements, was the
+prevailing one for three-quarters of a century. New mills, when erected,
+were provided with this system, and many mills in their quiet retreats
+everywhere awoke from their drowsy methods and were equipped with the
+new one.
+
+But the whole system of milling has undergone another great change
+within the last thirty years:
+
+During that time it has been learned that the coarser portion or kernel
+of wheat which lies next to the skin of the berry and between the skin
+and the heart is the most valuable and nutritious part, as it consists
+largely of gluten, while the interior consists of starch, which when dry
+becomes a pearly powder. Under the old systems this coarser part, known
+as middlings, was eliminated, and ground for feed for cattle, or into
+what was regarded as an inferior grade of flour from which to make
+coarse bread. It was customary, therefore, under the old method to set
+the grinding surfaces very close with keen sharp burrs, so that this
+coarser part was cut off and mixed with the small particles of bran,
+fine fuzz and other foreign substances, which was separated from the
+finer part of the kernel by the bolting.
+
+The new process consists of removing the outer skin and adherent
+impurities from the middlings, then separating the middlings from the
+central finer part and then regrinding the middlings into flour.
+
+This middlings flour being superior, as stated, to what was called
+straight grade, it became desirable to obtain as much middlings as
+possible, and to this end it was necessary to set the grinding surfaces
+further apart so as to grind _high_, hence the _high_ milling process as
+distinguished from _low_ milling. For the better performance of the high
+rolling process, roller mills were invented. It was found that the
+cracking process by which the kernel could be cracked and the gluten
+middlings separated from the starchy heart could best be had by the
+employment of rollers or cylinders in place of face stones, and at the
+same time the heating of the product, which injures it, be avoided.
+
+The rollers operate in sets, and successive crackings are obtained by
+passing and repassing, if necessary, the grain through these rollers,
+set at different distances apart. The operation on grains of different
+qualities, whether hard or soft, or containing more or less of the
+gluten middlings, or starchy parts, and their minute and graded
+separation, thus are obtained with the greatest nicety.
+
+The Hungarians, the Germans, the Austrians, the Swiss, the English and
+the Americans have all invented useful forms of these rollers.
+
+This process was accompanied by the invention of new forms of middlings
+separators and purifiers, in which upward drafts of air are made to pass
+up through flat, graded shaking bolts, in an enclosed case, by which the
+bran specks and fuzz are lifted and conveyed away from the shaken
+material. In some countries, such as the great wheat state of Minnesota,
+U.S., where the wheat had before been of inferior market value owing to
+the poorer grade of flour obtained by the old processes, that same wheat
+was made to produce the most superior flour under the new processes,
+thus increasing the yearly value of the crops by many millions of
+dollars.
+
+Disastrous flour dust explosions in some of the great mills at
+Minneapolis, in 1877-78, developed the invention of dust collectors, by
+which the suspended particles of flour dust are withdrawn from the
+machinery and the mill, and the air is cleared for respiration and for
+the production of the finest flour, while the mill is kept closed and
+comfortable in cold seasons. One of the latest forms of such a collector
+has for its essential principle the vertical or rotatory air current,
+which it is claimed moves and precipitates the finest particles.
+
+The inventions in the class of mills have so multiplied in these latter
+days, that nearly every known article that needs to be cleaned and
+hulled, or ground, or cracked or pulverized, has its own specially
+designed machine. Wind and water as motive powers have been supplanted
+by steam and electricity. It would be impossible in one volume to
+describe this great variety. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary, gives
+a list under "Mills," of more than a hundred distinct machines and
+processes relating to grinding, hulling, crushing, pulverising and
+mixing products.
+
+_Vegetable Cutters._--Modern ingenuity has not neglected those more
+humble devices which save the drudgery of hand work in the preparation
+of vegetables and roots for food for man and beasts, and for use
+especially when large quantities are to be prepared. Thus, we find
+machines armed with blades and worked by springs and a lever, for
+chopping, others for cutting stalks, other machines for paring and
+slicing, such as apple and potato parers and slicers, others for grating
+and pulping, others for seeding fruits, such as cherries and raisins,
+and an entire range of mechanisms, from those which handle delicately
+the tenderest pod and smallest seed, to the ponderous machines for
+cutting and crushing the cane in sugar making.
+
+_Pressing and Baling._--The want of pressing loose materials and packing
+bulky ones, like hay, wool, cotton, hops, etc, and other coarser
+products, into small, compact bales and bodies, to facilitate their
+transportation, was immediately felt on the great increase of such
+products in the century.
+
+From this arose pressing and baling machines of a great variety, until
+nearly every agricultural product that can be pressed, packed or baled
+has its special machine for that operation. Besides those above
+indicated relating to agricultural products, we have cane presses,
+cheese presses, butter presses, cigar and tobacco presses, cork presses,
+and flour packers, fruit and lard presses, peat presses, sugar presses
+and others. Leading mechanical principles in presses are also indicated
+by name, as screw presses, toggle presses, beater press, revolving
+press, hydraulic press, rack and pinion press, and rolling pressure
+press and so on.
+
+There are the presses also that are used in compressing cotton. When it
+is remembered that cotton is raised in about twenty different countries,
+and that the cotton crop of the United States of 1897-98 was 10,897,857
+bales, of about 500 lbs. each; of India, (estimated) for the same
+period, 2,844,000, of 400 lbs each; of China about 1,320,000, of 500 lbs
+each, and between two and three million bales in the other countries, it
+is interesting to consider how the world's production of this enormous
+mass of elastic fibre, amounting to seventeen or eighteen million bales,
+of four and five hundred pounds each, is compressed and bound.
+
+The screw press was the earliest form of machine used, and then came the
+hydraulic press. Later it has been customary to press the cotton by
+screw presses or small hydraulic presses at the plantation, bind it with
+ropes or metal bands and then transport it to some central or seaboard
+station where an immense establishment exists, provided with a great
+steam-operated press, in which the bale from the country is placed and
+reduced to one-fourth or one-third its size, and while under pressure
+new metallic bands applied, when the bale is ready for shipment. This
+was a gain of a remarkable amount of room on shipboard and on cars, and
+solved a commercial problem. But now this process, and the commercial
+rectangular bale, seem destined to be supplanted by roller presses set
+up near the plantations themselves, into which the cotton is fed
+directly from the gin, rolled upon itself between the rollers and
+compressed into round bales of greater density than the square bale,
+thus saving a great amount of cost in dispensing with the steam and
+hydraulic plants, with great additional advantages in convenience of
+handling and cost of transportation.
+
+It is so arranged also that the cotton may be rolled into clean, uniform
+dense layers, so that the same may be unwound at the mill and directly
+applied to the machines for its manufacture into fabrics, without the
+usual tedious and expensive preliminary operations of combing and
+re-rolling.
+
+It has also remained for the developed machine of the century to convert
+hay into an export commodity to distant countries by the baling process.
+Bale ties themselves have received great attention from inventors, and
+the most successful have won fortunes for their owners.
+
+Most ingenious machines have been devised for picking cotton in the
+fields, but none have yet reached that stage of perfection sufficient to
+supplant the human fingers.
+
+_Fruits and Foods._--To prepare and transport fruits in their natural
+state to far distant points, while preserving them from decay for long
+times, is, in the large way demanded by the world's great appetites,
+altogether a success of modern invention.
+
+To gather the fruit without bruising by mechanical pickers, and then to
+place the fruit, oranges for instance, in the hands of an intelligent
+machine which will automatically, but delicately and effectually, wrap
+the same in a paper covering, and discharge them without harm, are among
+the recent inventive wonders. In the United States alone 67 patents had
+been granted up to 1895 for fruit wrapping machines.
+
+Inventions relating to drying and evaporating fruit, and having for
+their main object to preserve as much as possible the natural taste and
+colour of the fruit, have been numerous. Spreading the fruit in the air
+and letting the sun and air do the rest is now a crude process.
+
+These are the general types of drying and evaporating machines:
+
+First, those in which trays of fruit are placed upon stationary ledges
+within a heated chamber; second, those in which the trays are raised and
+lowered by mechanical means toward or farther from the source of heat as
+the drying progresses; third, those in which the fruit is placed in
+imperforate steam jacketed pans. Many improvements, of course, have been
+made in detail of form, in ventilation, the supplying and regulating of
+heat and the moving of trays.
+
+The hermetically sealed glass or earthenware fruit jar, the lids of
+which can be screwed or locked down upon a rubber band, after the jar is
+filled and the small remainder of air drawn out by a convenient steam
+heater, now used by the million, is an illustration of the many useful
+modern contrivances in this line.
+
+_Sterilisation._--In preserving, the desirability of preventing disease
+and keeping foods in a pure state has developed in the last quarter of a
+century many devices by which the food is subjected to a steam heat in
+chambers, and, by devices operated from the outside, the cans or bottles
+are opened and shut while still within the steam-filled chamber.
+
+_Diastase._--By heating starchy matters with substances containing
+diastase, a partial transformation is effected, which will materially
+shorten and aid its digestion, and this fact has been largely made use
+of in the preparation of soluble foods, especially those designed for
+infants and invalids, such as malted milk and lactated food.
+
+_Milkers._--Invention has not only been exercised in the preservation
+and transportation of milk, but in the task of milking itself. Since
+1860 inventors have been seeking patents for milkers, some having tubes
+operated by air-pumps, others on the same principle in which the vacuum
+is made to increase and decrease or pulsate, and others for machines in
+which the tubes are mechanically contracted by pressure plates.
+
+_Slaughtering._--Great improvements have been made in the slaughtering
+of animals, by which a great amount of its repulsiveness and the
+unhealthfulness of its surroundings have been removed. These
+improvements relate to the construction of proper buildings and
+appliances for the handling of the animals, the means for slaughtering,
+and modes of taking care of the meat and transporting the same.
+Villages, towns, and even many cities, are now relieved of the formerly
+unsavoury slaughter-houses, and the work is done from great centres of
+supply, where meats in every shape are prepared for food and shipment.
+
+It would be impossible in a bulky volume, much less in a single chapter,
+to satisfactorily enumerate those thousands of inventions which, taking
+hold of the food products of the earth, have spread them as a feast
+before the tribes of men.
+
+_Tobacco._--Some of the best inventive genius of the century has been
+exercised in providing for man's comfort, not a food, but what he
+believes to be a solace.
+
+  "Sublime Tobacco! which from East to West
+  Cheers the tar's labour or the Turkman's rest."
+
+In the United States alone, in the year 1885, there were 752,520 acres
+of land devoted to the production of tobacco, the amount in pounds grown
+being 562,736,000, and the value of which was estimated as $43,265,598.
+These amounts have been somewhat less in years since then, but the
+appetite continues, and any deficiency in the supply is made up by
+enormous importation. Thus, in 1896, there were imported into the United
+States, 32,924,966 pounds of tobacco, of various kinds, valued at
+$16,503,130. There are no reliable statistics showing that, man for man,
+the people of that country are greater lovers of the weed than the
+people of other countries, but the annual value of tobacco raised and
+imported by them being thus about $60,000,000, it indicates the strength
+of the habit and the interest in the nurture of the plant throughout the
+world. Neither the "Counterblaste to Tobacco" of King James I., and the
+condemnations of kings, popes, priests and sultans, that followed its
+early introduction into Europe, served to choke the weed in its infancy
+or check its after growth. Now it is attended from the day of its
+planting until it reaches the lips of the consumer by contrivances of
+consummate skill to fit it for its destined purpose. Besides the
+ploughs, the cultivators and the weeders of especial forms used to
+cultivate the plant, there are, after the grown plant is cut in the
+field, houses of various designs for drying it, machines for rolling the
+leaves out smoothly in sheets; machines for removing the stems from the
+leaves and for crushing the stem; machines for pressing it into shape,
+and for pressing it, whether solid or in granular form, into boxes, tubs
+and bags; machines for granulating it and for grinding it into snuff;
+machines for twisting it into cords; machines for flavouring the leaf
+with saccharine and other matters; machines for making cigars, and
+machines of a great variety and of the most ingenious construction for
+making cigarettes and putting them in packages.
+
+Samples of pipes made by different ages and by different peoples would
+form a collection of wonderful art and ingenuity, second only to an
+exhibition of the means and methods of making them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CHEMISTRY.
+
+
+Chemistry, having for its field the properties and changes of matter,
+has excited more or less attention ever since men had the power to
+observe, to think, and to experiment.
+
+Some knowledge of chemistry must have existed among the ancients to have
+enabled the Egyptians to smelt ores and work metals, to dye their
+cloths, to make glass, and to preserve their dead from decomposition;
+so, too, to this extent among the Ph[oe]nicians, the Israelites, the
+Greeks and the Romans; and perhaps to a greater extent among the
+Chinese, who added powder to the above named and other chemical
+products. Aristotle speculated, and the alchemists of the middle ages
+busied themselves in magic and guess-work. It reached the dignity of a
+science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by the labours of
+such men, in the former century, as Libavius, Van Helmont, Glauber,
+Tachenius, Boyle, Lemery and Becher; Stahl, Boerhaave and Hamberg in
+both; and of Black, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Priestley and others in the
+eighteenth.
+
+But so great have been the discoveries and inventions in this science
+during the nineteenth century that any chemist of any previous age, if
+permitted to look forward upon them, would have felt
+
+  "Like some watcher of the skies
+  When a new planet swims into his ken."
+
+Indeed, the chemistry of this century is a new world, of which all the
+previous discoveries in that line were but floating nebulae.
+
+So vast and astonishingly fast has been the growth and development of
+this science that before the century was two-thirds through its course
+Watts published his _Dictionary of Chemistry_ in five volumes, averaging
+a thousand closely printed pages, followed soon by a thousand-page
+supplement; and it would have required such a volume every year since to
+adequately report the progress of the science. Nomenclatures, formulas,
+apparatuses and processes have all changed. It was deemed necessary to
+publish works on _The New Chemistry_, and Professor J. P. Cooke is the
+author of an admirable volume under that title.
+
+We can, therefore, in this chapter only step from one to another of some
+of the peaks that rise above the vast surrounding country, and note some
+of the lesser objects as they appear in the vales below.
+
+The leading discoveries of the century which have done so much to aid
+Chemistry in its giant strides are the atomic and molecular theories,
+the mechanics of light, heat, and electricity, the correlation and
+conservation of forces, their invariable quantity, and their
+indestructibility, spectrum analysis and the laws of chemical changes.
+
+John Dalton, that humble child of English north-country Quaker stock,
+self-taught and a teacher all his life, in 1803 gave to the world his
+atomic theory of chemistry, whereby the existence of matter in ultimate
+atoms was removed from the region of the speculation of certain ancient
+philosophers, and established on a sure foundation.
+
+The question asked and answered by Dalton was, what is the relative
+weight of the atoms composing the elementary bodies?
+
+He discovered that one chemical element or compound can combine with
+another chemical element, to form a new compound, in two different
+proportions by weight, which stand to each other in the simple ratio of
+one to two; and at the same time he published a table of the _Relative
+weight of the ultimate particles of Gaseous and other Bodies_. Although
+the details of this table have since been changed, the principles of his
+discovery remain unchanged. Says Professor Roscoe:
+
+  "Chemistry could hardly be said to exist as a science before the
+  establishment of the laws of combination in multiple proportions, and
+  the subsequent progress of chemical science materially depended upon
+  the determination of these combined proportions or atomic weights of
+  the elements first set up by Dalton. So that among the founders of our
+  science, next to the name of the great French Philosopher, Lavoisier,
+  will stand in future ages the name of John Dalton, of Manchester."
+
+Less conspicuous but still eminently useful were his discoveries and
+labours in other directions, in the expansion of gases, evaporation,
+steam, etc.
+
+Wollaston and Gay-Lussac, both great chemists, applied Dalton's
+discovery to wide and most important fields in the chemical arts.
+
+Also contemporaneous with Dalton was the great German chemist,
+Berzelius, who confirmed and extended the discoveries of Dalton. More
+than this, it has been said of Berzelius:
+
+  "In him were united all the different impulses which have advanced the
+  science since the beginning of the present epoch. The fruit of his
+  labors is scattered throughout the entire domain of the science.
+  Hardly a substance exists to the knowledge of which he has not in some
+  way contributed. A direct descendant of the school of his countryman,
+  Bergman, he was especially renowned as an analyst. No chemist has
+  determined by direct experiment the composition of a greater number of
+  substances. No one has exerted a greater influence in extending the
+  field of analytical chemistry."
+
+As to light, the great Huygens, the astronomer and mathematician, the
+improver of differential calculus and of telescopes, the inventor of the
+pendulum clock, chronometers, and the balance wheel to the watch, and
+discoverer of the laws of the double refraction of light and of
+polarisation, had in the 17th century clearly advanced the idea that
+light was propagated from luminous bodies, not as a stream of particles
+through the air but in waves or vibrations of ether, which is a
+universal medium extending through all space and into all bodies. This
+fundamental principle now enters into the explanation of all the
+phenomena of light.
+
+Newton in the next century, with the prism, decomposed light, and in a
+darkened chamber reproduced all the colours and tints of the rainbow.
+But there were dark lines in that beam of broken sunlight which Newton
+did not notice.
+
+It was left to Joseph von Fraunhofer, a German optician, and to the 19th
+century, and nearly one hundred years after Newton's experiments with
+the prism, to discover, with finer prisms that he had made, some 590 of
+these black lines crossing the solar spectrum. What they were he did not
+know, but conjectured that they were caused by something which existed
+in the sun and stars and not in our air. But from that time they were
+called Fraunhofer's dark lines.
+
+From the vantage ground of these developments we are now enabled to step
+to that mountain peak of discovery from which the sun and stars were
+looked into, their elements portrayed, their very motions determined,
+and their brotherhood with the earth, in substance, ascertained.
+
+The great discovery of the cause of Fraunhofer's dark bands in the
+broken sunlight was made by Gustave Robert Kirchoff, a German physician,
+in his laboratory in Heidelberg, in 1860, in conjunction with his fellow
+worker, Robert Bunsen.
+
+Kirchoff happened to let a solar ray pass through a flame coloured with
+sodium, and through a prism, so that the spectrum of the sun and the
+flame fell one upon another. It was expected that the well known yellow
+line of sodium would come out in the solar spectrum, but it was just the
+opposite that took place. Where the bright yellow line should have
+fallen appeared a dark line.
+
+With this observation was coupled the reflection that heat passes from a
+body of a higher temperature to one of a lower, and not inversely.
+Experiments followed: iron, sodium, copper, etc., were heated to
+incandescence and their colours prismatically separated. These were
+transversed with the same colours of other heated bodies, and the latter
+were absorbed and rendered black. Kirchoff then announced his law that
+all bodies absorb chiefly those colours which they themselves emit.
+Therefore these vapours of the sun which were rendered in black lines
+were so produced by crossing terrestrial vapors of the same nature.
+
+Thus by the prism and the blowpipe were the same substances found in the
+sun, the stars, and the earth. The elements of every substance submitted
+to the process were analysed, and many secrets in the universe of matter
+were revealed.
+
+Young, of America, invented a splendid combination of spectroscope and
+telescope, and Huggins of England was the first to establish by spectrum
+analysis the approach and retreat of the stars.
+
+It was prior to this time that those wonderful discoveries and labours
+were made which developed the true nature of heat, which demonstrated
+the kinship and correlation of the forces of Nature, their conservation,
+or property of being converted one into another, and the
+indestructibility of matter, of which force is but another name.
+
+The first demonstrations as to the nature of heat were given by the
+American Count Rumford, and then by Sir Humphry Davy, just at the close
+of the 18th century, and then followed in this the brilliant labours and
+discoveries of Mayer and Helmholtz of Germany, Colding of Denmark, and
+Joule, Grove, Faraday, Sir William Thomson of England, of Henry, Le
+Conte and Martin of America, as to the correlation and convertibility of
+all the forces.
+
+The French revolution, and the Napoleonic wars, isolating France and
+exhausting its resources, its chemists were appealed to devote their
+genius and researches to practical things; to the munitions of war, the
+rejuvenation of the soil, the growing of new crops, like the sugar beet,
+and new manufacturing products.
+
+Lavoisier had laid deep and broad in France the foundations of
+chemistry, and given the science nomenclature that lasted a century. So
+that the succeeding great teachers, Berthollet, Guyton, Fourcroy and
+their associates, and the institutions of instruction in the sciences
+fostered by them, and inspired in that direction by Napoleon, bent their
+energies in material directions, and a tremendous impulse was thus given
+to the practical application of chemistry to the arts and manufactures
+of the century.
+
+The same spirit, to a less extent, however, manifested itself in
+England, and as early as 1802 we find Sir Humphry Davy beginning his
+celebrated lectures on the _Elements of Agricultural Chemistry_ before a
+board of agriculture, a work that has passed through many editions in
+almost every modern language.
+
+When the fact is recalled that agricultural chemistry embraces the
+entire natural science of vegetable and animal production, and includes,
+besides, much of physics, meteorology and geology, the extent and
+importance of the subject may be appreciated; and yet such appreciation
+was not manifested in a practical manner until the 19th century. It was
+only toward the end of the 18th century that the vague and ancient
+notions that air, water, oil and salt formed the nutrition of plants,
+began to be modified. Davy recognized and explained the beneficial
+fertilizing effects of ammonia, and analysed and explained numerous
+fertilizers, including guano. It is due to his discoveries and
+publications, combined with those of the eminent men on the continent,
+above referred to, that agricultural chemistry arose to the dignity of a
+science. The most brilliant, eloquent and devoted apostle of that
+science who followed Davy was Justus von Liebig of Germany, who was born
+in Darmstadt in 1803, the year after Davy commenced his lectures in
+England. It was in response to the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science that he gave to the world his great publications
+on _Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, Commerce, Physiology,
+and Pathology_, from which great practical good resulted the world over.
+One of his favorite subjects was that of fermentation, and this calls up
+the exceedingly interesting discoveries in the nature of alcohol, yeast,
+mould--aging malt, wines and beer--and their accompanying beneficial
+results.
+
+In one of Huxley's charming lectures--such as he delighted to give
+before a popular audience--delivered in 1871, at Manchester, on the
+subject of "Yeast," he tells how any liquid containing sugar, such as a
+mixture of honey and water, if left to itself undergoes the peculiar
+change we know as fermentation, and in the process the scum, or thicker
+muddy part that forms on top, becomes yeast, carbonic acid gas escapes
+in bubbles from the liquid, and the liquid itself becomes spirits of
+wine or alcohol. "Alcohol" was a term used until the 17th century to
+designate a very fine subtle powder, and then became the name of the
+subtle spirit arising from fermentation. It was Leeuwenhoek of Holland
+who, two hundred years ago, by the use of a fine microscope he invented,
+first discovered that the muddy scum was a substance made up of an
+enormous multitude of very minute grains floating separately, and in
+lumps and in heaps, in the liquid. Then, in the next century the
+Frenchman, Cagniard de la Tour, discovered that these bodies grew to a
+certain size and then budded, and from the buds the plant multiplied;
+and thus that this yeast was a mass of living plants, which received in
+science the name of "torula," that the yeast plant was a kind of fungus
+or mould, growing and multiplying. Then came Fabroni, the French
+chemist, at the end of the 18th century, who discovered that the yeast
+plant was of bag-like form, or a cell of woody matter, and that the cell
+contained a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
+This was a vegeto-animal substance, having peculiarities of "animal
+products."
+
+Then came the great chemists of the 19th century, with their delicate
+methods of analysis, and decided that this plant in its chief part was
+identical with that element which forms the chief part of our own blood.
+That it was protein, a substance which forms the foundation of every
+animal organism. All agreed that it was the yeast plant that fermented
+or broke up the sugar element, and produced the alcohol. Helmholtz
+demonstrated that it was the minute particles of the solid part of the
+plant that produced the fermentation, and that such particles must be
+growing or alive, to produce it. From whence sprang this wonderful
+plant--part vegetable, part animal? By a long series of experiments it
+was found that if substances which could be fermented were kept entirely
+closed to the outer air, no plant would form and no fermentation take
+place. It was concluded then, and so ascertained, that the torulae in
+the plant proceeded from the torulae in the atmosphere, from "gay motes
+that people the sunbeams." Concerning just how the torulae broke up or
+fermented the sugar, great chemists have differed.
+
+After the discovery that the yeast was a plant having cells formed of
+the pure matter of wood, and containing a semi-fluid mass identical with
+the composition which constitutes the flesh of animals, came the further
+discovery that all plants, high and low, are made up of the same kind of
+cells, and their contents. Then this remarkable result came out, that
+however much a plant may otherwise differ from an animal, yet, in
+essential constituents the cellular constructure of animal and plant is
+the same. To this substance of energy and life, common in the minute
+plant cell and the animal cell, the German botanist, Hugo von Mohl,
+about fifty years ago gave the name "protoplasm." Then came this
+astounding conclusion, that this _protoplasm_ being common to both plant
+and animal life, the essential difference consisted only in the manner
+in which the cells are built up and are modified in the building.
+
+And from that part of these great discoveries which revealed the fact
+that the sugary element was infected, as it were, from the germs of the
+air, producing fermentation and its results, arose that remarkable
+theory of many diseases known as the "germ theory." And, as it was found
+in the yeast plant that only the solid part or particle of the plant
+germinated fermentation and reaction, so, too, it has been found by the
+germ theory that only the solid particle of the contagious matter can
+germinate or grow the disease.
+
+In this unfolding of the wonders of chemistry in the nineteenth century,
+the old empirical walls between forces and organisms, and organic and
+inorganic chemistry, are breaking down, and celestial and terrestrial
+bodies and vapours, living beings, and growing plants are discovered to
+be the evolution of one all-pervading essence and force. One is reminded
+of the lines of Tennyson:
+
+    "Large elements in order brought
+    And tracts of calm from tempest made,
+    And world fluctuation swayed
+    In vassal tides that followed thought.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    One God, one law, one element,
+    And one far-off divine event
+    To which the whole creation moves."
+
+In the class of alcohol and in the field of yeast, the work of Pasteur,
+begun in France, has been followed by improvements in methods for
+selecting proper ferments and excluding improper ones, and in improved
+processes for aging and preserving alcoholic liquors by destroying
+deleterious ferments. Takamine, in using as ferment, koji, motu and
+moyashi, different forms of mould, and proposing to do entirely away
+with malt in the manufacture of beer and whiskey, has made a noteworthy
+departure. Manufacturing of malt by the pneumatic process, and stirring
+malt during germination, are among the improvements.
+
+_Carbonating._--The injecting of carbonic acid gas into various waters
+to render them wholesome, and also into beers and wines during
+fermentation, and to save delay and prevent impurities, are decided
+improvements.
+
+The immense improvements and discoveries in the character of soils and
+fertilisers have already been alluded to. Hundreds of instruments have
+been invented for measuring, analysing, weighing, separating,
+volatilising and otherwise applying chemical processes to practical
+purposes.
+
+To the chemistry of the century the world is indebted for those devices
+and processes for the utilisation and manufacture of many useful
+products from the liquids and oils, sugar from cane and beets,
+revivifying bone-black, centrifugal machinery for refining sugar, in
+defecating it by chemicals and heat, in evaporating it in pans, in
+separating starch and converting it into glucose, etc.
+
+_Oils and Fats._--Up to within this century the vast amount of cotton
+seed produced with that crop was a waste. Then by the process, first of
+steaming the seed and expressing the oil, now by the process of
+extraction by the aid of volatile solvents, and casting off the solvents
+by distillation, an immensely valuable product has been obtained.
+
+The utilising of oils in the manufacture of oilcloth and linoleum and
+rubber, has become of great commercial value. Formerly sulphur was the
+vulcanising agent, now chloride of sulphur has been substituted for pure
+sulphur.
+
+Steam and the distillation processes have been applied with great
+success to the making of glycerine from fat and from soap underlye and
+in extracting fat from various waste products.
+
+_Bleaching and Dyeing._--Of course these arts are very old, but the old
+methods would not be recognised in the modern processes; and those who
+lived before the century knew nothing of the magnificent colours, and
+certain essences, and sweet savours that can be obtained from the black,
+hand-soiling pieces of coal. In the making of illuminating gas, itself a
+finished chemical product of the century, a vast amount of once wasted
+products, especially coal tar, are now extensively used; and from coal
+tar and the residuum of petroleum oils, now come those splendid aniline
+dyes which have produced such a revolution in the world of colours. The
+saturation of sand by a dye and its application to fabrics by an air
+blast; the circulation of the fluid colors, or of fluids for bleaching
+or drying, or oxidising, through perforated cylinders or cops on which
+the cloths are wound; devices for the running of skeins through dyes,
+the great improvements in carbon dyes and kindred colours, the processes
+of making the colours on the fibre, and the perfumes made by the
+synthetic processes, are among the inventions in this field.
+
+The space that a list of the new chemical products of this age and their
+description would fill, has already been indicated by reference to the
+great dictionary of Watts. Some of the electro-chemical products will be
+hereinafter referred to in the Chapter on Electricity, and the chemistry
+of Metallurgy will be treated under the latter topic.
+
+_Electro-chemical Methods._--Space will only permit it to be said that
+these methods are now employed in the production of a large number of
+elements, by means of which very many of them which were before mere
+laboratory specimens, have now become cheap and useful servants of
+mankind in a hundred different ways; such as aluminium, that light and
+non-corrosive metal, reduced from many dollars an ounce a generation
+ago, to 30 and 40 cents a pound now; carborundum, largely superseding
+emery and diamond dust as an abradant; artificial diamonds; calcium
+carbide, from which the new illuminating acetylene gas is made;
+disinfectants of many kinds; pigments, chromium, manganese, and
+chlorates by the thousand tons. The most useful new chemical processes
+are those used in purifying water sewage and milk, in electroplating
+metals and other substances, in the application of chemicals to the fine
+arts, in extracting grease from wool, and the making of many useful
+products from the waste materials of the dumps and garbage banks.
+
+_Medicines and Surgery._--One hundred years ago, the practice of
+medicine was, in the main, empirical. Certain effects were known to
+usually follow the giving of certain drugs, or the application of
+certain measures, but why or how these effects were produced, was
+unknown. The great steps forward have been made upon the true scientific
+foundation established by the discoveries and inventions in the fields
+of physics, chemistry and biology. The discovery of anaesthetics and
+their application in surgery and the practice of medicine, no doubt
+constitutes the leading invention of the century in this field.
+
+Sir Humphry Davy suggested it in 1800, and Dr. W. T. Morton was the
+first to apply an anaesthetic to relieve pain in a surgical operation,
+which he did in a hospital in Boston in 1846. Both its original
+suggestion and application were also claimed by others.
+
+Not only relief from intense pain to the patient during the operation,
+but immense advantages are gained by the long and careful examination
+afforded of injured or diseased parts, otherwise difficult or impossible
+in a conscious patient.
+
+The exquisite pain and suffering endured previous to the use of
+anaesthetics often caused death by exhaustion. Many delicate operations
+can now be performed for the relief of long-continued diseases which
+before would have been hazardous or impossible. How many before suffered
+unto death long-drawn-out pain and disease rather than submit to the
+torture of the knife! How many lives have been saved, and how far
+advanced has become the knowledge of the human body and its painful
+diseases, by this beneficent remedy!
+
+Inventions in the field of medicine consist chiefly in those innumerable
+compositions and compounds which have resulted from chemical
+discoveries. Gelatine capsules used to conceal unpalatable remedies may
+be mentioned as a most acceptable modern invention in this class.
+Inventions and discoveries in the field of surgery relate not only to
+instrumentalities but processes. The antiseptic treatment of wounds, by
+which the long and exhausting suppuration is avoided, is among the most
+notable of the latter. In instruments vast improvements have been made;
+special forms adapted for operation in every form of injury; in
+syringes, especially hypodermic, those used for subcutaneous injections
+of liquid remedies; inhalers for applying medicated vapours and devices
+for applying volatile anaesthetics, and devices for atomising and
+spraying liquids. In the United States alone about four thousand patents
+have been granted for inventions in surgical instruments.
+
+_Dentistry._--This art has been revolutionised during the century. Even
+in the time of Herodotus, one special set of physicians had the
+treatment of teeth; and artificial teeth have been known and used for
+many ages, but all seems crude and barbarous until these later days. In
+addition to the use of anaesthetics, improvements have been made in
+nearly every form of dental instruments, such as forceps, dental
+engines, pluggers, drills, hammers, etc., and in the means and materials
+for making teeth. Later leading inventions have reference to utilising
+the roots of destroyed teeth as supports on which to form bridges to
+which artificial teeth are secured, and to crowns for decayed teeth that
+still have a solid base.
+
+There exists no longer the dread of the dentist's chair unless the
+patient has neglected too long the visit. Pain cannot be all avoided,
+but it is ameliorated; and the new results in workmanship in the saving
+and in the making of teeth are vast improvements over the former
+methods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.
+
+    "Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar
+    Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car;
+    Or in wide waving wings expanded bear
+    The flying chariot through the field of air."
+
+
+Thus sang the poet prophet, the good Dr. Darwin of Lichfield, in the
+eighteenth century. Newcomen and Watt had not then demonstrated that
+steam was not unconquerable, but the hitching it to the slow barge and
+the rapid car was yet to come. It has come, and although the prophecy is
+yet to be rounded into fulfilment by the driving of the "flying chariot
+through the field of air," that too is to come.
+
+The prophecy of the doctor poet was as suggestive of the practical means
+of carrying it into effect as were all the means proposed during the
+first seventeen centuries of the Christian Era for conquering steam and
+harnessing it as a useful servant to man.
+
+Toys, speculations, dreams, observations, startling experiments, these
+often constitute the framework on which is hung the title of Inventor;
+but the nineteenth century has demanded a better support for that proud
+title. He alone who first transforms his ideas into actual work and
+useful service in some field of man's labor, or clearly teaches others
+to do so, is now recognised as the true inventor. Tested by this rule
+there was scarcely an inventor in the field of steam in all the long
+stretches of time preceding the seventeenth century. And if there were,
+they had no recording scribes to embalm their efforts in history.
+
+We shall never know how early man learned the wonderful power of the
+spirit that springs from heated water. It was doubtless from some sad
+experience in ignorantly attempting to put fetters on it.
+
+The history of steam as a motor generally commences with reference to
+that toy called the aeolipile, described by Hero of Alexandria in a
+treatise on pneumatics about two centuries before Christ, and which was
+the invention of either himself or Ctesibius, his teacher.
+
+This toy consisted of a globe pivoted on two supports, one of which was
+a communicating pipe leading into a heated cauldron of water beneath.
+The globe was provided with two escape pipes on diametrically opposite
+sides and bent so as to discharge in opposite directions. Steam admitted
+into the globe from the cauldron escaped through the side pipes, and its
+pressure on these pipes caused the globe to rotate.
+
+Hero thus demonstrated that water can be converted into steam and steam
+into work.
+
+Since that ancient day Hero's apparatus has been frequently reinvented
+by men ignorant of the early effort, and the principle of the invention
+as well as substantially the same form have been put into many practical
+uses. Hero in his celebrated treatise described other devices, curious
+siphons and pumps. Many of them are supposed to have been used in the
+performance of some of the startling religious rites at the altars of
+the Greek priests.
+
+From Hero's day the record drops down to the middle ages, and still it
+finds progress in this art confined to a few observations and
+speculations. William of Malmesbury in 1150 wrote something on the
+subject and called attention to some crude experiments he had heard of
+in Germany. Passing from the slumber of the middle ages, we are assured
+by some Spanish historians that one Blasco de Garay, in 1543, propelled
+a ship having paddle wheels by steam at Barcelona. But the publication
+was long after the alleged event, and is regarded as apocryphal.
+
+Observations became more acute in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, experiments more frequent, and publications more full and
+numerous.
+
+Cardan Ramelli and Leonardo da Vinci, learned Italians, and the
+accomplished Prof. Jacob Besson of Orleans, France, all did much by
+their writings to make known theoretically the wonderful powers of
+steam, and to suggest modes of its practical operation, in the latter
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+Giambattista della Porta, a gentleman of Naples, possessing high and
+varied accomplishments in all the sciences as they were known at that
+day, 1601, and who invented the magic-lantern and _camera obscura_, in a
+work called _Spiritalia_, described how steam pressure could be employed
+to raise a column of water, how a vacuum was produced by the
+condensation of steam in a closed vessel, and how the condensing vessel
+should be separated from the boiler. Revault in France showed in 1605
+how a bombshell might be exploded by steam.
+
+Salomon de Caus, engineer and architect to Louis XIII, in 1615 described
+how water might be raised by the expansion of steam.
+
+In 1629 the Italian, Branco, published at Rome an account of the
+application of a steam jet upon the vanes of a small wheel to run it,
+and told how in other ways Hero's engine might be employed for useful
+purposes.
+
+The first English publication describing a way of applying steam
+appeared in 1630 in a patent granted to David Ramseye, for a mode of
+raising water thereby. This was followed by patents to Grant in 1632 and
+to one Ford in 1640. During that century these crude machines were
+called "fire engines." It seems to have been common in some parts of
+Europe during the seventeenth century to use a blast of steam to improve
+the draft of chimneys and of blast furnaces. This application of steam
+to smoke and smelting has been frequently revived by modern inventors
+with much flourish of originality.
+
+It is with a certain feeling of delight and relief, after a prolonged
+search through the centuries for some evidence of harnessing this mighty
+agent to man's use, that we come to the efforts of the good Marquis of
+Worcester--Edward Somerset. He it was who in 1655 wrote of the
+_Inventions of the Sixteenth Century_. He afterwards amplified this
+title by calling his book _A Century of Names and Scantlings of such
+Inventions as at present I call to mind to have tried and perfected_,
+etc.
+
+There are about one hundred of these "Scantlings," and his descriptions
+of them are very brief but interesting. Some, if revived now and put to
+use, would throw proposed flying machines into the background, as they
+involved perpetual motion.
+
+But to his honor be it said that he was the first steam-engine builder.
+A patent was issued to him in 1663. It was about 1668 that he built and
+put in successful operation at Raglan Castle at Vauxhall, near London, a
+steam engine to force water upward. He made separate boilers, which he
+worked alternately, and conveyed the steam from them to a vessel in
+which its pressure operated to force the water up. Unfortunately he did
+not leave a description of his inventions sufficiently full to enable
+later mechanics to make and use them. He strove in vain to get capital
+interested and a company formed to manufacture his engines. The age of
+fear and speculation as to steam ceased when the Marquis set his engine
+to pumping water, and from that time inventors went on to put the arm of
+steam to work.
+
+In 1683 Sir Samuel Morland commenced the construction of the Worcester
+engines for use and sale; Hautefeuille of France taught the use of gas,
+described how gas as well as steam engines might be constructed, and was
+the first to propose the use of the piston. The learned writings of the
+great Dutch scientist and inventor, Huygens, on heat and light steam and
+gas, also then came forth, and his assistant, the French physicist and
+doctor, Denis Papin, in 1690, proposed steam as a universal motive
+power, invented a steam engine having a piston and a safety valve, and
+even a crude paddle steamer, which it is said was tried in 1707 on the
+river Fulda. Then in 1698 came Thomas Savery, who patented a steam
+engine that was used in draining mines.
+
+The eighteenth century thus commenced with a practical knowledge of the
+power of steam and of means for controlling and working it.
+
+Then followed the combined invention of Newcomen, Cawley and Savery, in
+1705, of the most successful pumping engine up to that time. In this
+engine a cylinder was employed for receiving the steam from a separate
+boiler. There was a piston in the cylinder driven up by the steam
+admitted below it, aided by a counterpoise at one end of an engine beam.
+The steam was then cut off from the boiler and condensed by the
+introduction beneath the piston of a jet of water, and the condensed
+steam and water drawn off by a pipe. Atmospheric pressure forced the
+piston down. The piston and pump rods were connected to the opposite
+ends of a working beam of a pumping engine, as in some modern engines.
+Gauge cocks to indicate the height of water, and a safety valve to
+regulate the pressure of steam, were employed. Then came the ingenious
+improvement of the boy Humphrey Potter, connecting the valve gear with
+the engine beam by cords, so as to do automatically what he was set to
+do by hand, and the improvement on that of the Beighton plug rod. Still
+further improved by others, the Newcomen engine came into use through
+out Europe.
+
+Jonathan Hulls patented in England in 1736 a marine steam engine, and in
+1737 published a description of a Newcomen engine applied to his system
+for towing ships. William Henry, of Pennsylvania, tried a model
+steamboat on the Conestoga river in 1763.
+
+This was practically the state of the art, in 1763, when James Watt
+entered the field. His brilliant inventions harnessed steam to more than
+pumping engines, made it a universal servant in manifold industries, and
+started it on a career which has revolutionized the trade and
+manufactures of the world.
+
+To understand what the nineteenth century has done in steam motive power
+we must first know what Watt did in the eighteenth century, as he then
+laid the foundation on which the later inventions have all been built.
+
+Taking up the crude but successful working engine of Newcomen, a model
+of which had been sent to him for repairs, he began an exhaustive study
+of the properties of steam and of the means for producing and
+controlling it. He found it necessary to devise a new system.
+
+Watt saw that the alternate heating and cooling of the cylinder made the
+engine work slowly and caused an excessive consumption of steam. He
+concluded that "the cylinder should always be as hot as the steam that
+entered it." He therefore closed the cylinder and provided a separate
+condensing vessel into which the steam was led after it raised the
+piston. He provided an air-tight jacket for the cylinder, to maintain
+its heat. He added a tight packing in the cylinder-head for the
+piston-rod to move through, and a steam-tight stuffing-box on the top of
+the cylinder. He caused the steam to alternately enter below and above
+the piston and be alternately condensed to drive the piston down as well
+as up, and this made the engine double-acting, increasing its power and
+speed. He converted the reciprocating motion of the piston into a rotary
+motion by the adoption of the crank, and introduced the well-known
+parallel motion, and many other improvements. In short, he demonstrated
+for the first time by a practical and efficient engine that the
+expansive force of steam could be used to drive all ordinary machinery.
+He then secured his inventions by patents against piracy, and sustained
+them successfully in many a hard-fought battle. It had taken him the
+last quarter of the 18th century to do all these things.
+
+Watt was the proper precursor of the nineteenth century inventions, as
+in him were combined the power and attainments of a great scientist and
+the genius of a great mechanic. The last eighteen years of his life were
+passed in the 19th century, and he was thus enabled to see his
+inventions brought within its threshold and applied to those arts which
+have made this age so glorious in mechanical achievements.
+
+Watt so fitly represents the class of modern great inventors in his
+character and attainments that the description of him by Sir Walter
+Scott is here pertinent as a tribute to that class, and as a delineation
+of the general character of those benefactors of his race of which he
+was so conspicuous an example:--
+
+Says Sir Walter:--
+
+  "Amidst this company stood Mr. Watt, the man whose genius discovered
+  the means of multiplying our national resources to a degree, perhaps,
+  even beyond his own stupendous powers of calculation and combination;
+  bringing the treasures of the abyss to the summit of the earth--giving
+  to the feeble arm of man the momentum of an Afrite--commanding
+  manufactures to rise--affording means of dispensing with that time and
+  tide which wait for no man--and of sailing without that wind which
+  defied the commands and threats of Xerxes himself. This potent
+  commander of the elements--this abridger of time and space--this
+  magician, whose cloudy machinery has produced a change in the world,
+  the effects of which, extraordinary as they are, are perhaps only
+  beginning to be felt--was not only the most profound man of science,
+  the most successful combiner of powers and calculator of numbers, as
+  adapted to practical purposes, was not only one of the most generally
+  well-informed, but one of the best and kindest of human beings."
+
+The first practical application of steam as a working force was to
+pumping, as has been stated. After Watt's system was devised,
+suggestions and experiments as to road locomotives and carriages were
+made, and other applications came thick and fast. A French officer,
+Cugnot, in 1769 and 1770, was the first to try the road carriage engine.
+Other prominent Frenchmen made encouraging experiments on small
+steamboats--followed in 1784-86 by James Rumsey and John Fitch in
+America in the same line. Watt patented a road engine in 1784. About the
+same time his assistant, Murdock, completed and tried a model locomotive
+driven by a "grasshopper" engine. Oliver Evans, the great American
+contemporary of Watt, had in 1779 devised a high-pressure non-condensing
+steam engine in a form still used. In 1786-7 he obtained in Pennsylvania
+and Maryland patents for applying steam to driving flour mills and
+propelling waggons. Also about this time, Symington, the Scotchman,
+constructed a working model of a steam carriage, which is still
+preserved in the museum at South Kensington, London. Symington and his
+fellow Scotchmen, Miller and Taylor, in 1788-89 also constructed working
+steamboats. In 1796 Richard Trevithick, a Cornish marine captain, was
+producing a road locomotive. The century thus opened with activity in
+steam motive power. The "scantlings" of the Marquis of Worcester were
+now being converted into complete structures. And so great was the
+activity and the number of inventors that he is a daring man who would
+now decide priority between them. The earliest applications in this
+century of steam power were in the line of road engines.
+
+On Christmas eve of 1801, Trevithick made the initial trip with the
+first successful steam road locomotive through the streets of Camborne
+in Cornwall, carrying passengers. In one of his trips he passed into the
+country roads and came to a tollgate through which a frightened keeper
+hastily passed him without toll, hailing him as the devil.
+
+Persistent efforts continued to be made to introduce a practical steam
+road carriage in England until 1827. After Trevithick followed
+Blenkinsop, who made a locomotive which ran ten miles an hour. Then came
+Julius Griffith, in 1821, of Brompton, who patented a steam carriage
+which was built by Joseph Bramah, one of the ablest mechanics of his
+time. Gordon, Brunton and Gurney attempted a curious and amusing steam
+carriage, resembling a horse in action--having jointed legs and feet,
+but this animal was not successful. Walter Hancock, in 1827, was one of
+the most persistent and successful inventors in this line; but bad roads
+and an unsympathetic public discouraged inventors in their efforts to
+introduce steam road carriages, and their attention was turned to the
+locomotive to run on rails or tracks especially prepared for them.
+Wooden and iron rails had been introduced a century before for heavy
+cars and wagons in pulling loads from mines and elsewhere, but when at
+the beginning of the century it had been found that the engines of Watt
+could be used to drag such loads, it was deemed necessary to make a rail
+having its top surface roughened with ridges and the wheels of the
+engine and cars provided with teeth or cogs to prevent anticipated
+slipping.
+
+In England, Blackett and George Stephenson discovered that the adhesion
+of smooth wheels to smooth rails was sufficient. Without overlooking the
+fact that William Hendley built and operated a locomotive called the
+_Puffing Billy_ in 1803, and Hackworth one a little later, yet to the
+genius of Stephenson is due chiefly the successful introduction of the
+modern locomotive. His labours and inventions continued from 1812 for
+twenty years, and culminated at two great trials: the first one on the
+Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829, when he competed with
+Hackworth and Braithwaite and Ericsson, and with the _Rocket_ won the
+race; and the second at the opening of the same road in 1830, when with
+the _Northumbrian_, at the head of seven other locomotives and a long
+train of twenty-eight carriages, in which were seated six hundred
+passengers, he ran the train successfully between the two towns.
+
+On this occasion Mr. Huskisson, Home Secretary in the British Cabinet,
+while the cars were stopping to water the engines, and he was out on the
+track talking with the Duke of Wellington, was knocked down by one of
+the engines and had one of his legs crushed. Placed on board of the
+_Northumbrian_, it was driven at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour by
+Stephenson to Eccles. Mr. Huskisson died there that night. This was its
+first victim, and the greatest speed yet attained by a locomotive.
+
+The year 1829 therefore can be regarded as the commencement of the life
+of the locomotive for transportation of passengers. The steam blast
+thrown into the smokestack by Hackworth, the tubular boiler of Seguin
+and the link motion of Stephenson were then, as they now are, the
+essential features of locomotives.
+
+In the meantime America had not been idle. The James Watt of America,
+Oliver Evans, in 1804 completed a flat-bottomed boat to be used in
+dredging at the Philadelphia docks, and mounting it on wheels drove it
+by its own steam engine through the streets to the river bank. Launching
+the craft, he propelled it down the river by using the same engine to
+drive the paddle wheels. He gave to this engine the strange name of
+_Oruktor Amphibolos_.
+
+John C. Stevens of New Jersey was, in 1812, urging the legislature of
+the State of New York to build railways, and asserting that he could see
+nothing to hinder a steam carriage from moving with a velocity of one
+hundred miles an hour. In 1829 George Stephenson in England had made for
+American parties a locomotive called _The Stourbridge Lion_, which in
+that year was brought to America and used on the Delaware and Hudson R.
+R. by Horatio Allen. Peter Cooper in the same year constructed a
+locomotive for short curves, for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
+
+Returning now to steam navigation:--Symington again entered the field in
+1801-2 and constructed for Lord Dundas a steamboat, named after his
+wife, the _Charlotte Dundas_, for towing on a canal, which was
+successfully operated.
+
+Robert Fulton, an American artist, and subsequently a civil engineer,
+built a steamboat on the Seine in 1803, assisted by R. Livingston, then
+American Minister to France. Then in 1806 Fulton, having returned to the
+United States, commenced to build another steamboat, in which he was
+again assisted by Livingston, and in which he placed machinery made by
+Boulton and Watt in England. This steamboat, named the _Clermont_, was
+130 ft. long, 18 ft. beam, 7 ft. depth and 160 tons burden. It made its
+first trip on the Hudson, from New York to Albany and return, in August,
+1807, and subsequently made regular trips. It was the first commercially
+successful steamboat ever made, as George Stephenson's was the first
+commercially successful locomotive. In the meantime Col. John Stevens of
+New Jersey was also at work on a steamboat, and had in 1804 built such a
+boat at his shops, having a screw propeller and a flue boiler. Almost
+simultaneously with Fulton he brought out the _Ph[oe]nix_, a side-wheel
+steamer having hollow water lines and provided with feathering paddle
+wheels, and as Fulton and Livingston had a monopoly of the Hudson,
+Stevens took his boat by sea from New York around to Delaware bay and up
+the Delaware river. This was in 1808, and was the first sea voyage ever
+made by a steam vessel.
+
+Transatlantic steamship navigation was started in 1819. A Mr.
+Scarborough of Savannah, Ga., in 1818 purchased a ship of about three
+hundred and fifty tons burden, which was named the _Savannah_. Equipped
+with engine and machinery it steamed out of New York Harbour on the 27th
+day of March, 1819, and successfully reached Savannah, Georgia. On the
+20th of May in the same year she left Savannah for Liverpool, making the
+trip in 22 days. From Liverpool she went to Copenhagen, Stockholm, St.
+Petersburg, Cronstadt and Arundel, and from the latter port returned to
+Savannah, making the passage in twenty-five days.
+
+But Scottish waters, and the waters around other coasts of the British
+Islands, had been traversed by steamboats before this celebrated trip of
+the _Savannah_. Bell's steamboat between Glasgow and Greenock in 1812
+was followed by five others in 1814; and seven steamboats plied on the
+Thames in 1817.
+
+So the locomotives and the steamboats and steamships continued to
+multiply, and when the first forty years of the century had been reached
+the Iron Horse was fairly installed on the fields of Europe and America,
+and the rivers and the oceans were ploughed by its sisters, the steam
+vessels.
+
+It was in 1840 that the famous Cunard line of transatlantic steamers was
+established, soon followed by the Collins line and others.
+
+A few years before, John C. Stevens in America and John Ericsson in
+England had brought forward the screw propeller; and Ericsson was the
+first to couple the engine to the propeller shaft. It succeeded the
+successful paddle wheels of Fulton in America and Bell in England.
+
+The nineteenth century is the age of kinetic energy: the energy of
+either solid, liquid, gaseous or electrical matter transformed into
+useful work.
+
+It has been stated by that eminent specialist in steam engineering,
+Prof. R. H. Thurston, that "the steam engine is a machine which is
+especially designed to transform energy originally dormant or potential
+into active and useful available kinetic energy;" and that the great
+problem in this branch of science is "to construct a machine which shall
+in the most perfect manner possible convert the kinetic energy of heat
+into mechanical power, the heat being derived from the combustion of
+fuel, and steam being the receiver and conveyor of that heat."
+
+Watt and his contemporaries regarded heat as a material substance called
+"Phlogiston." The modern kinetic theory of heat was a subsequent
+discovery, as elsewhere explained.
+
+The inventors of the last part of the eighteenth century and of the
+nineteenth century have directed their best labours to construct an
+engine as above defined by Thurston.
+
+First as to the boiler: Efforts were made first to get away from the
+little old spherical boiler of Hero. In the 18th century Smeaton devised
+the horizontal lengthened cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue. Oliver
+Evans followed with two longitudinal flues. Nathan Read of Salem,
+Massachusetts, in 1791, invented a tubular boiler in which the flues and
+gases are conducted through tubes passing through the boiler into the
+smokestack. Such boilers are adapted for portable stationary engines,
+locomotives, fire and marine engines, and the fire is built within the
+boiler frame. Then in the 19th century came the use of sectional
+boilers--a combination of small vessels instead of a large common one,
+increasing the strength while diminishing capacity--to obtain high
+pressure of steam. Then came improved weighted and other safety valves
+to regulate and control this pressure. The compound or double cylinder
+high-pressure engine of Hornblower of England, in 1781, and the
+high-pressure non-condensing steam engine devised by Evans in 1779, were
+reconstructed and improved in the early part of the century.
+
+To give perfect motion and the slightest friction to the piston; to
+regulate the supply of steam to the engine by proper valves; to
+determine such supply by many varieties of governors and thus control
+the speed; to devise valve gear which distributes the steam through its
+cycles of motion by which to admit the steam alternately to each end of
+the steam cylinder as the piston moves backward and forward, and exhaust
+valves to open and close the parts through which the steam escapes; to
+automatically operate such valves; to condense the escaping steam and to
+remove the water of condensation; to devise powerful steam brakes--these
+are some of the important details on which inventors have exercised
+their keenest wits. Then again the extensive inventions of the century
+have given rise to a great classification to designate their forms or
+their uses: condensing and non-condensing, high-pressure or
+low-pressure--the former term being applied to engines supplied with
+steam of 50 lbs. pressure to the square inch and upward, and the latter
+to engines working under 40 lbs. pressure--and the low pressure are
+nearly always the condensing and the high pressure the non-condensing;
+reciprocating and rotary--the latter having a piston attached to a shaft
+and revolving within a cylinder of which the axis is parallel with the
+axis of rotation of the piston.
+
+Direct acting, where the piston rod acts directly upon the connecting
+rod and through it upon the crank, without the intervention of a beam or
+lever; oscillating, in which the piston rods are attached directly to
+the crank pin and as the crank revolves the cylinder oscillates upon
+trunnions, one on each side of it, through which the steam enters and
+leaves the steam chest.
+
+Then as to their use, engines are known as stationary, pumping,
+portable, locomotive or marine.
+
+The best-known engine of the stationary kind is the Corliss, which is
+very extensively used in the United States and Europe.
+
+Among other later improvements is the duplex pumping engine, in which
+one engine controls the valve of the other; compensating devices for
+steam pumping, by which power is accumulated by making the first half of
+the stroke of the steam piston assist in moving the piston the other
+half of the stroke during the expansion of steam; steam or air hand
+hammers on which the piston is the hammer and strikes a tool projecting
+through the head into the cylinder; rock drilling, in which the movement
+of the valves is operated by the piston at any portion of its stroke;
+shaft governors, in which the eccentric for operating the engine valves
+is moved around or across the main or auxiliary shaft; multiple
+cylinders, in which several cylinders, either single or double, are
+arranged to co-operate with a common shaft; impact rotary, known as
+steam turbines, a revival in some respects of Hero's engine. And then,
+finally, the delicate and ingenious bicycle and automobile steam
+engines.
+
+Then there are steam sanding devices for locomotives by which sand is
+automatically fed to the rails at the same time the air brake is
+applied.
+
+Starting valves used for starting compound locomotives on ascending
+steep grades, in which both low and high pressure cylinders are supplied
+with live steam, and when the steam, exhausted from either high or low
+pressure cylinders into the receivers, has reached a predetermined
+pressure, the engine works on the compound principle. Single acting
+compound engines, in which two or more cylinders are arranged tandem,
+the steam acting only in one direction, and the exhaust steam of one
+acting upon the piston in the cylinder next of the series, are arranged
+in pairs, so that while one is acting downward the other is acting
+upward.
+
+Throttle valves automatically closed upon the bursting of a pipe, or the
+breaking of machinery, are operated by electricity, automatically, or by
+hand at a distance.
+
+Napoleon, upon his disastrous retreat from Moscow, anxious to reach
+Paris as soon as possible, left his army on the way, provided himself
+with a travelling and sleeping carriage, and with relays of fresh horses
+at different points managed, by extraordinary strenuous efforts day and
+night, to travel from Smorgoni to Paris, a distance of 1000 miles,
+between the 5th and 10th of December, 1812. This was at the average rate
+of about two hundred miles a day, or eight or nine miles an hour. It was
+a most remarkable ride for any age by horse conveyance.
+
+Within the span of a man's life after that event any one could take a
+trip of that distance in twenty-four hours, with great ease and comfort,
+eating and sleeping on the car, and with convenient telegraph and
+telephone stations along the route by which to comunicate by pen, or
+word of mouth, with distant friends at either end of the journey.
+
+If Napoleon had deemed it best to have continued his journey across the
+Atlantic to America he would have been compelled to pass several weeks
+on an uncomfortable sailing vessel. Now, a floating palace would await
+him which would carry him across in less than six days.
+
+Should mankind be seized with a sudden desire to replace all the
+locomotives in the world by horse power it would be utterly impossible
+to do it. It was recently estimated that there were one hundred and
+fifty thousand locomotives in use on the railroads of the world; and as
+a fair average would give them five hundred horse power each, it will be
+seen that they are the equivalent of seventy-five million horses.
+
+Space and time will not admit of minute descriptions, or hardly a
+mention, of the almost innumerable improvements of the century in steam.
+Having seen the principles on which these inventions have been
+constructed, enumerated the leading ones and glanced at the most
+prominent facts in their history, we must refer the seeker for more
+particulars to those publications of modern patent offices, in which
+each regiment and company of this vast army is embalmed in its own
+especial and ponderous volume.
+
+A survey of the field will call to mind, however, the eloquent words of
+Daniel Webster:--
+
+"And, last of all, with inimitable power, and with a 'whirlwind sound'
+comes the potent agency of steam. In comparison with the past, what
+centuries of improvement has this single agent compressed in the short
+compass of fifty years! Everywhere practicable, everywhere efficient, it
+has an arm a thousand times stronger than that of Hercules, and to which
+human ingenuity is capable of fitting a thousand times as many hands as
+belonged to Briareus. Steam is found triumphant in operation on the
+seas; and under the influence of its strong propulsion, the gallant
+ship,
+
+  'Against the wind, against the tide
+  Still steadies with an upright keel.'
+
+It is on the rivers, and the boatman may repose upon his oars; it is on
+highways, and exerts itself along the courses of land conveyances; it is
+at the bottom of mines, a thousand feet below the earth's surface; it is
+in the mills and in the workshops of the trades. It rows, it pumps, it
+excavates, it carries, it draws, it lifts, it hammers, it spins, it
+weaves, it prints. It seems to say to men, at least to the class of
+artisans: 'Leave off your manual labour, give up your bodily toil;
+bestow but your skill and reason to the directing of my power and I will
+bear the toil, with no muscle to grow weary, no nerve to relax, no
+breast to feel faintness!' What further improvement may still be made in
+the use of this astonishing power it is impossible to know, and it were
+vain to conjecture. What we do know is that it has most essentially
+altered the face of affairs, and that no visible limit yet appears
+beyond which its progress is seen to be impossible."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.
+
+
+The field of service of a civil engineer has thus been eloquently stated
+by a recent writer in _Chambers's Journal_:
+
+"His duties call upon him to devise the means for surmounting obstacles
+of the most formidable kind. He has to work in the water, over the
+water, and under the water; to cause streams to flow; to check them from
+overflowing; to raise water to a great height; to build docks and walls
+that will bear the dashing of waves; to convert dry land into harbours,
+and low water shores into dry land; to construct lighthouses on lonely
+rocks; to build lofty aqueducts for the conveyance of water, and
+viaducts, for the conveyance of railway trains; to burrow into the
+bowels of the earth with tunnels, shafts, pits and mines; to span
+torrents and ravines with bridges; to construct chimneys that rival the
+loftiest spires and pyramids in height; to climb mountains with roads
+and railways; to sink wells to vast depths in search of water. By
+untiring patience, skill, energy and invention, he produces in these
+several ways works which certainly rank among the marvels of human
+power."
+
+The pyramids of Egypt, the roads, bridges and aqueducts built by the
+Chinese and by Rome; the great bridges of the Middle Ages, and
+especially those built by that strange fraternal order known as the
+"Brothers of the Bridge"; the ocean-defying lighthouses of a later
+period--these, and more than these, attest the fact that there were
+great engineers before the nineteenth century.
+
+But the engineering of to-day is the hand-maid of all the Sciences; and
+as they each have advanced during the century beyond all that was
+imagined, or dreamed of as possible in former times, so have the labours
+of engineering correspondingly multiplied. No longer are such labours
+classified and grouped in one field, called Civil Engineering, but they
+have been necessarily divided into great additional new and independent
+fields, known as Steam Engineering, Mining Engineering, Hydraulic
+Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Marine Engineering. Within each
+of these fields are assembled innumerable appliances which are the
+offspring of the inventive genius of the century just closed.
+
+We have seen how one discovery, or the development of a certain art,
+brings in its train and often necessitates other inventions and
+discoveries. The development and dedication of the steam engine to the
+transportation of goods and men called for improvements in the roads and
+rails on which the engine and its load were to travel, and this demand
+brought forth those modern railway bridges which are the finest examples
+in the art of bridge making that the world has ever seen.
+
+The greatest bridges of former ages were built of stone and solid
+masonry. Now iron and steel have been substituted, and these light but
+substantial frameworks span wide rivers and deep ravines with almost the
+same speed and gracefulness that the spider spins his silken web from
+limb to limb. These, too, waited for their construction on that next
+turn in the wheel of evolution, which brought better processes in the
+making of iron and steel, and better tools and appliances for working
+metals, and in handling vast and heavy bodies.
+
+The first arched iron bridge was over the Severn at Coalbrookdale,
+England, erected by Abraham Darby in 1777. In 1793 one was erected by
+Telford at Buildwas, and in the same year Burden completed an arch
+across the weir at Sunderland. The most prominent classes of bridges in
+which the highest inventive and constructive genius of the engineers of
+the century are illustrated are known as the _suspension_, the _tubular_
+and the _tubular arch_, the _truss and cantilever_.
+
+Suspension bridges consisting of twisted vines, of iron chains, or of
+bamboo, or cane, or of ropes, have been known in different parts of the
+world from time immemorial, but they bear only a primitive and
+suggestive resemblance to the great iron cable bridges of the nineteenth
+century. The first notable structure of this kind was constructed by Sir
+Samuel Brown, across the Tweed at Berwick, England, in 1819. Brown was
+born in London in 1776 and died in 1852. He entered the navy at the age
+of 18, was made commander in 1811, and retired as captain in 1842. We
+have alluded to the spider's web, and Smiles, in his _Self Help_,
+relates as an example of intelligent observation that while Capt Brown
+was occupied in studying the character of bridges with the view of
+constructing one of a cheap description to be thrown across the Tweed,
+near which he lived, he was walking in his garden one dewy autumn
+morning when he saw a tiny spider's web suspended across his path. The
+idea immediately occurred to him of a bridge of iron wires. In 1829
+Brown also was the engineer for suspension bridges built over the Esk at
+Montrose and over the Thames at Hammersmith. Before that time, a span in
+a bridge of 100 feet was considered remarkably long. Suspension bridges
+are best adapted for long spans, and have been constructed with spans
+more than twice as long as any other form. Sir Samuel Brown's bridge had
+a span of 449 feet. This class of bridges is usually constructed with
+chains or cables passing over towers, with the roadway suspended
+beneath. The ends of the chains or cables are securely anchored. The
+cables are then passed over towers, on which they are supported in
+movable saddles, so that the towers are not overthrown by the strain on
+the cables. Nice calculations have to be made as to the tension to be
+placed on the cables, the allowance for deflection, and the equal
+distribution of weight. The floor-way in the earlier bridges of this
+type was supported by means of a series of equidistant vertical rods,
+and was lacking stiffness, but this was remedied by trussing the road
+bed, using inclined stays extending from the towers and partially
+supporting the roadway for some distance out from the tower.
+
+The next finest suspension bridge was constructed by Thomas Telford and
+finished in 1826, across the Menai Strait to connect the island of
+Anglesea with the mainland of Wales. Telford was born in Dumfriesshire,
+Scotland, in 1757, and died in Westminster in 1834. Beginning life as a
+stone mason, he rose by his own industry to be a master among architects
+and a prince among builders of iron bridges, aqueducts, canals, tunnels,
+harbours and docks.
+
+The Menai bridge was composed of chains or wire ropes, each nearly a
+third of a mile in length, and which descended 60 feet into sloping pits
+or drifts, where they were screwed to cast-iron frames embedded in the
+rocks. The span of the suspended central arch was 560 feet, and the
+platform was 100 feet above high water. Seven stone arches of 521/2
+feet span make up the rest of the bridge.
+
+But a suspension bridge was completed in 1834 by M. Challey of Lyon over
+the Saane at Fribourg, Switzerland, which greatly surpassed the Menai
+bridge. The span is 880 feet from pier to pier, and the roadway is 167
+feet above the river. It is supported by four iron wire cables, each
+consisting of 1056 wires. It was tested by placing 15 pieces of
+artillery, drawn by 50 horses and accompanied by 300 men crowded
+together as closely as possible, first at the centre, and then at each
+extreme, causing a depression of 391/2 inches, but no sensible
+oscillation was experienced.
+
+Isambard K. Brunel was another great engineer, who constructed a
+suspension bridge at the Isle of Bourbon in 1823, and the Charing Cross
+over the Thames at Hungerford in 1845, which was a footbridge, having a
+span of 675 feet, the longest span of any bridge in England. Then
+followed finer and larger suspension bridges in other parts of the
+world. It was across the Niagara in front of the great falls that in
+1855 British America and the United States were joined by a magnificent
+suspension bridge, one of the finest in the world, and the two English
+speaking countries were then physically and commercially united. At the
+opening of the bridge, one portion of which was for a railway, the
+shriek of the locomotive and the roar of the train mingled with the roar
+of the wild torrent 250 feet below. The bridge, 800 feet long, is a
+single span, supported by four enormous cables of wire stretching from
+the Canadian cliff to the opposite United States cliff. The cables pass
+over the tops of lofty stone towers arising from these cliffs, and each
+cable consists of no less than 4,000 distinct wires. The roadway hangs
+from these cables, suspended by 624 vertical rods.
+
+The engineer of this bridge was John A. Roebling, a native of Prussia,
+born there in 1806, and who died in New York in 1869. He was educated at
+the Polytechnic School in Berlin, and emigrated to America at the age of
+25. His labors were first as a canal and railway engineer, then he
+became the inventor and manufacturer of a new form of wire rope, and
+then turned his attention to the construction of aqueducts and
+suspension bridges. After the Niagara bridge, above described, he
+commenced another bridge of greater dimensions over the same river,
+which was finished within two or three years. His next work was the
+splendid suspension bridge at Cincinnati, Ohio, which has a clear span
+of 1057 feet. In 1869, in connection with his son, Washington A.
+Roebling, he commenced that magnificent suspension bridge to unite the
+great cities of New York and Brooklyn, and which, by its completion,
+resulted in the consolidation of those cities as Greater New York. The
+Roeblings, father and son, were to the engineering of America what
+George Stephenson and his son Robert were to the locomotive and railway
+and bridge engineering of Great Britain.
+
+The Brooklyn bridge, known also as the East River bridge, was formally
+opened to the public on the 24th of May 1883. Most enormous and
+unexpected technical difficulties were met and overcome in its
+construction. Its total length is nearly 6,000 feet. The length of the
+suspended structure from anchorage to anchorage is 3,454 feet. A
+statement of the general features of this bridge indicates the nature of
+the construction of such bridges as a class, and distinguishes them from
+the comparatively simple forms of past ages. This structure is supported
+by two enormous towers, having a height of 276 feet above the surface of
+the water, carrying at their tops the saddles which support the cables,
+and having a span between them of 1,595 feet. The towers are each
+pierced by two archways, 311/2 feet wide, and 1201/2 feet high,
+through which openings passes the floor of the bridge at the height of
+118 feet above high water mark. There are four supporting cables, each
+16 inches in diameter, and each composed of about 5,000 single wires.
+The wire is one-eighth size; 278 single wires are grouped into a rope,
+and 19 ropes bunched to form a cable. The iron saddles at the top of the
+lofty towers, and on which the cables rest, are made movable to permit
+its expansion and compression--and they glide through minute distances
+on iron rollers in saddle plates embedded and anchored in the towers, in
+response to strains and changes of temperature. The enormous cables pass
+from the towers shoreward to their anchorages 930 feet away, and which
+are solid masses of masonry, each 132 x 119 feet at base and top, 89
+feet high, and weighing 60,000 tons. The bridge is divided into five
+avenues: one central one for foot passengers, two outer ones for
+vehicles, and the others for the street cars. The cost of the bridge was
+nearly $15,000,000.
+
+Twenty fatal and many disabling accidents occurred during the
+construction of the bridge. The great engineer Roebling was the first
+victim to an accident. He had his foot crushed while laying the
+foundation of one of the stone piers, and died of lockjaw.
+
+It was necessary to build up the great piers by the aid of caissons,
+which are water-tight casings built of timber and metal and sunk to the
+river bed and sometimes far below it, within which are built the
+foundations of piers or towers, and into which air is pumped for the
+workmen. A fire in one of the caissons, which necessitated its flooding
+by water, and to which the son, Washington Roebling, was exposed,
+resulted in prostrating him with a peculiar form of caisson disease,
+which destroyed the nerves of motion without impairing his intellectual
+faculties. But, although disabled from active work, Mr. Roebling
+continued to superintend the vast project through the constant mediation
+of his wife.
+
+_Tubular Bridges._--These are bridges formed by a great tube or hollow
+beam through the center of which a roadway or railway passes. The name
+would indicate that the bridge was cylindrical in form, and this was the
+first idea. But it was concluded after experiment that a rectangular
+form was the best, as it is more rigid than either a cylindrical or
+elliptical tube. The adoption of this form was due to Fairbairn, the
+celebrated English inventor and engineer of iron structures. The Menai
+tubular railway bridge, adjacent to the suspension bridge of Telford
+across the same strait, and already described, was the first example of
+this type of bridge. Robert Stephenson was the engineer of this great
+structure, aided by the suggestions of Fairbairn and other eminent
+engineers. This bridge was opened for railway traffic in March, 1850. It
+was built on three towers and shore abutments. The width of the strait
+is divided by these towers into four spans--two of 460 feet each, and
+two of 230 feet. In appearance, the bridge looked like one huge, long,
+narrow iron box, but it consisted really of four bridges, each made of a
+pair of rectangular tubes, and through one set of tubes the trains
+passed in going in one direction, and through the other set in going the
+opposite direction. These ponderous tubes were composed of wrought-iron
+plates, from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick, the
+largest 12 feet in length, riveted together and stiffened by angle
+irons. They varied in height--the central ones being the highest and
+those nearest the shore the lowest. The central ones are 30 feet high,
+and the inner ones about 22 feet. Their width was about 14 feet. They
+were built upon platforms on the Caernarvon shore, and the great problem
+was how to lift them and put them in place, especially the central ones,
+which were 460 feet in length. Each tube weighed 1,800 pounds, and they
+were to be raised 192 feet. This operation has been described as "the
+grandest lift ever effected in engineering." It was accomplished by
+means of powerful hydraulic presses. Another and still grander example
+of this style of bridge is the Victoria at Montreal, Canada. This also
+was designed by Robert Stephenson and built under his direction by James
+Hodges of Montreal. Work was commenced in 1854 and it was completed in
+December, 1859, and opened for travel in 1860. It consists of 24 piers,
+242 feet apart, except the centre one, from which the span is 330 feet.
+The tube is in sections and quadrangular in form. Every plate and piece
+of iron was made and punched in England and brought across the Atlantic.
+In Canada little remained to be done but to put the parts together and
+in position. This, however, was in itself a Herculean task. The enormous
+structure was to be placed sixty feet above the swift current of the
+broad St. Lawrence, and wherein huge masses of ice, each block from
+three to five feet in thickness, accumulated every winter. The work was
+accomplished by the erection of a vast rigid stage of timber, on which
+the tubes were built up plate by plate. When all was completed the great
+staging was removed, and the mighty tube rested alone and secure upon
+its massive wedge-faced piers rising from the bedrock of the flood
+below.
+
+_The Tubular Arch Bridge._--This differs from the tubular bridge proper,
+in that the former consists of a bridge the body of which is supported
+by a tubular archway of iron and steel, whereas in the latter the body
+of the bridge itself is a tube. The tubular arch is also properly
+classed as a girder bridge because the great tube which covers the span
+is simply an immense beam or girder, which supports the superstructure
+on which the floor of the bridge is laid. A fine illustration of this
+style of bridge is seen in what is known as the aqueduct bridge over
+Rock Creek at Washington, D. C., in which the arch consists of two
+cast-iron jointed pipes, supporting a double carriage and a double
+street car way, and through which pipes all the water for the supply of
+the City of Washington passes. General M. C. Meigs was the engineer.
+
+Another far grander illustration of such a structure, in combination
+with the truss system, is that of the Illinois and St. Louis bridge,
+across the Mississippi, of which Captain James B. Eads was the engineer.
+There are three great spans, the central one of which has a length of
+about 520 feet, and the others a few feet less. Four arches form each
+span, each arch consisting of an upper and lower curved member or rib,
+extending from pier to pier, and each member composed of two parallel
+steel tubes.
+
+_Truss and truss arched bridges._--These, for the most part, are those
+quite modern forms of iron or wooden bridges in which a supplementary
+frame work, consisting of iron rods placed obliquely, vertically or
+diagonally, and cemented together, and with the main horizontal beams
+either above or below the same, to produce a stiff and rigid structure,
+calculated to resist strain from all directions.
+
+Previous to the 19th century, the greatest bridges being constructed
+mostly of solid masonry piers and arches, no demand for a bridge of this
+kind existed; but after the use of wrought iron and steel became
+extensive in bridge making, and as these apparently light and airy
+frames may be extended, piece by piece across the widest rivers,
+straits, and arms of the sea, a substitute for the great, expensive, and
+frequent supporting piers became a want, and was supplied by the system
+of trusses and truss arches. The truss system has also been applied to
+the construction of vast modern bridges in places where timber is
+accessible and cheap. Each different system invented bears the name of
+its inventor. Thus, we have the Rider, the Fink, the Bollman, the
+Whipple, the Howe, the Jones, the Linville, the McCallum, Towne's
+lattice and other systems.
+
+What is called the cantilever system has of late years to a great extent
+superseded the suspension construction. This consists of beams or
+girders extending out from the opposite piers at an upward diagonal
+angle, and meeting at the centre over the span, and there solidly
+connected together, or to horizontal girders, in such manner that the
+compression load is thrown on to the supporting piers, upward strains
+received at the centre, and side deflections provided against. It is
+supposed that greater rigidity is obtained by this means than by the
+suspension, and, like the suspension, great widths may be spanned
+without an under supporting frame work. Two fine examples of this type
+are found, one in a bridge across the Niagara adjacent to the suspension
+bridge above described and one across the river Forth at Queens Ferry in
+Scotland. The Niagara Bridge is a combination of cast steel and iron. It
+was designed by C. C. Schneider and Edmund Hayes. It was built for a
+double-track railroad. The total length of the bridge is 910 feet
+between the centres of the anchorage piers. The cantilevers rest on two
+gigantic steel towers, standing on massive stone piers 39 feet high. The
+clear span between the towers is 470 feet, and the height of the bridge,
+from the mad rush of waters to the car track is 239 feet.
+
+Messrs Fowler and Baker were the engineers of the Forth railway bridge.
+It was begun in 1883 and finished in 1890. It is built nearly all of
+steel, and is one of the most stupendous works of the kind. It crosses
+two channels formed by the island of Inchgarvie, and each of the channel
+spans is 1710 feet in the clear and a clear headway of 150 feet under
+the bridge. Three balanced cantilevers are employed, poised on four
+gigantic steel tube legs supported on four huge masonry piers. The
+height of the bridge above the piers is 330 feet. The cantilever portion
+has the appearance of a vast elongated diamond. Steel lattice work of
+girders, forms the upper side of the cantilever, while the under side
+consists of a hollow curve approaching in form a quadrant of a circle
+drawn from the base of the legs or struts to the ends of the cantilever.
+
+Such is the growth of these great bridges with their tremendous spans
+across which man is spinning his iron webs, that when seen at night with
+a fiery engine pulling its thundering train across in the darkness, one
+is reminded of Milton's description, "over the dark abyss whose boiling
+gulf tamely endured a bridge of wondrous length, from Hell continued,
+reaching the utmost orb of this frail world."
+
+The _lighthouses_ of the century, in masonry, do not greatly excel in
+general principles those of preceding ones, as at Eddystone, designed by
+Smeaton. Nicholas Douglass, however, invented a new system of
+dovetailing, and great improvements have been made in the system of
+illuminating.
+
+Lighthouses are also distinguished from those of preceding centuries by
+the substitution of iron and cast steel for masonry. The first cast-iron
+lighthouse was put up at Point Morant, Jamaica, in 1842. Since then they
+have taken the form of iron skeleton towers.
+
+One of the latest and most picturesque of lighthouses is that of
+Bartholdi's statue of Liberty enlightening the world, the gift of the
+French government to the United States, framed by M. Eiffel, the great
+French engineer, and set up by the United States at Bedloe's Island in
+New York harbor. It consists of copper plates on a network of iron.
+Although the statue is larger than any in the world of such composite
+construction, its success as a lighthouse is not as notable as many
+farther seaward.
+
+In _excavating_, _dredging_ and _draining_, the inventions of the
+century have been very numerous, but, like numerous advances in the
+arts, such inventions, so far as great works are concerned, have
+developed from and are closely related to steam engineering.
+
+The making of roads, railroads, canals and tunnels has called forth
+thousands of ingenious mechanisms for their accomplishment. A half dozen
+men with a steam-power excavator or dredger can in one day perform a
+greater extent of work than could a thousand men and a thousand horses
+in a single day a few generations ago.
+
+An excavating machine consisting of steel knives to cut the earth, iron
+scoops, buckets and dippers to scoop it up, endless chains or cranes to
+lift them, actuated by steam, and operated by a single engineer, will
+excavate cubic yards of earth by the minute and at a cost of but a few
+dollars a day.
+
+Dredging machines of a great variety have been constructed. Drags and
+scoops for elevating, and buckets, scrapers and shovels, and rotating
+knives to first loosen the earth, suction pumps and pipes, which will
+suck great quantities of the loosened earth through pipes to places to
+be filled--these and kindred devices are now constantly employed to dig
+and excavate, to deepen and widen rivers, to drain lands, to dig canals,
+to make harbours, to fill up the waste places and to make courses for
+water in desert lands.
+
+Inventions for the excavating of clay, piling and burning it in a crude
+state for ballast for railways, are important, especially for those
+railways which traverse areas where clay is plentiful, and stones and
+gravel are lacking.
+
+Sinking shafts through quicksands by artificially freezing the sand, so
+as to form a firm frozen wall immediately around the area where the
+shaft is to be sunk, is a recent new idea.
+
+Modern countries especially are waking up to the necessity of good
+roads, not only as a necessary means of transportation, but as a
+pre-requisite to decent civilisation in all respects. And, therefore,
+great activity has been had in the last third of a century in invention
+of machines for finishing and repairing roads.
+
+In the matter of sewer construction, regarded now so necessary in all
+civilised cities and thickly-settled communities as one of the means of
+proper sanitation, great improvements have been made in deep sewerage,
+in which the work is largely performed below the surface and with little
+obstruction to street traffic.
+
+In connection with excavating and dredging machines, mention should be
+made of those great works in the construction of which they bore such
+important parts, as drainage and land reclamation, such as is seen in
+the modern extensions of land reclamation in Holland, in the Haarlem
+lake district in the North part of England, the swamps of Florida and
+the drainage of the London district; in modern tunnels such as the
+Hoosac in America and the three great ones through the Alps: the Mont
+Cenis, St. Gothard, and Arlberg, the work in which developed an entirely
+new system of engineering, by the application of newly-discovered
+explosives for blasting, new rock-drilling machinery, new
+air-compressing machines for driving the drill machines and ventilating
+the works, and new hydraulic and pumping machinery for sinking shafts
+and pumping out the water.
+
+The great canals, especially the Suez, developed a new system of canal
+engineering. Thus by modern inventions of devices for digging and
+blasting, dredging and draining and attendant operations, some of the
+greatest works of man on earth have been produced, and evinced the
+exercise of his highest inventive genius.
+
+If one wishes an ocular demonstration of the wonders wrought in the 19th
+century in the several domains of engineering, let him take a Pullman
+train across the continent from New York to San Francisco. The distance
+is 3,000 miles and the time is four days and four nights. The car in
+which the passenger finds himself is a marvel of woodwork and
+upholstery--a description of the machinery and processes for producing
+which belongs to other arts. The railroad tracks upon which the vehicle
+moves are in themselves the results of many inventions. There is the
+width of the track, and it was only after a long and expensive contest
+that countries and corporations settled upon a uniform gauge. The common
+gauge of the leading countries and roads is now 4 feet 81/2 inches. A
+greater width is known as a broad gauge, a less width as a narrow gauge.
+Then as to the rail: first the wooden, then the iron and now the steel,
+and all of many shapes and weights. The T-rail invented by Birkensaw in
+1820, having two flanges at the top to form a wide berth for the wheels
+of the rolling stock, the vertical portion gripped by chairs which are
+spiked to the ties, is the best known. Then the frogs, a V-shaped device
+by which the wheels are guided from one line of rails to another, when
+they form angles with each other; the car wheel made with a flange or
+flanges to fit the rail, and the railway gates, ingenious contrivances
+that guard railway crossings and are operated automatically by the
+passing trains, but more commonly by watchmen. The car may be lighted
+with electricity, and as the train dashes along at the rate of 30 to 80
+miles an hour, it may be stopped in less than a minute by the touch of
+the engineer on an air brake. Is it midwinter and are mountains of snow
+encountered? They disappear before the railway snow-plough more quickly
+than they came. It passes over bridges, through tunnels, across
+viaducts, around the edges of mountain peaks, every mile revealing the
+wondrous work of man's inventive genius for encompassing the earth with
+speed, safety and comfort. Over one-half million miles of these railway
+tracks are on the earth's surface to-day!
+
+Not only has the railway superseded horse power in the matter of
+transportation to a vast extent, but other modes of transportation are
+taking the place of that useful animal. The old-fashioned stage coach,
+and then the omnibus, were successively succeeded by the street car
+drawn by horses, and then about twenty years ago the horse began to be
+withdrawn from that work and the cable substituted.
+
+_Cable transportation_ developed from the art of making iron wire and
+steel wire ropes or cables. And endless cables placed underground,
+conveyed over rollers and supported on suitable yokes, and driven from a
+great central power house, came into use, and to which the cars were
+connected by ingeniously contrived lever grips--operated by the driver
+on the car. These great cable constructions, expensive as they were,
+were found more economical than horse power. In fact, there is no
+modernly discovered practical motive power but what has been found less
+expensive both as to time and money than horse power. But the cable for
+this purpose is now in turn everywhere yielding to electricity, the
+great motor next to steam. The overhead cable system for the
+transportation of materials of various descriptions in carriers, also
+run by a central motor, is still very extensively used. The cable plan
+has also been tried with some success in the propelling of canal boats.
+
+_Canals_, themselves, although finding a most serious and in some
+localities an entirely destructive rival in the railroad, have grown in
+size and importance, and in appliances that have been substituted for
+the old-style locks. The latest form of this device is what is known as
+the pneumatic balance lock system.
+
+It has been said by Octave Chanute that "Progress in civilisation may
+fairly be said to be dependent upon the facilities for men to get about,
+upon their intercourse with other men and nations, not only in order to
+supply their mutual needs cheaply, but to learn from each other their
+wants, their discoveries and their inventions." Next to the power and
+means for moving people, come the immense and wonderful inventions for
+lifting and loading, such as cranes and derricks, means for coaling
+ships and steamers, for handling and storing the great agricultural
+products, grain and hay, and that modern wonder, the _grain elevator_,
+that dots the coasts of rivers, lakes and seas, receives the vast stores
+of golden grain from thousands of steam cars that come to it laden from
+distant plains and discharges it swiftly in mountain loads into vessels
+and steamers to be carried to the multitudes across the seas, and to
+satisfy that ever-continuing cry, "Give us this day our daily bread."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ELECTRICITY.
+
+
+In 1900 the real nature of electricity appears to be as unknown as it
+was in 1800.
+
+Franklin in the eighteenth century defined electricity as consisting of
+particles of matter incomparably more subtle than air, and which
+pervaded all bodies. At the close of the nineteenth century electricity
+defined as "simply a form of energy which imparts to material substances
+a peculiar state or condition, and that all such substances partake more
+or less of this condition."
+
+These theories and the late discovery of Hertz that electrical energy
+manifests itself in the form of waves, oscillations or vibrations,
+similar to light, but not so rapid as the vibrations of light,
+constitute about all that is known about the nature of this force.
+
+Franklin believed it was a single fluid, but others taught that there
+were two kinds of electricity, positive and negative, that the like
+kinds were repulsive and the unlike kinds attractive, and that when
+generated it flowed in currents.
+
+Such terms are not now regarded as representing actual varieties of this
+force, but are retained as convenient modes of expression, for want of
+better ones, as expressing the conditions or states of electricity when
+produced.
+
+Electricity produced by friction, that is, developed upon the surface of
+a body by rubbing it with a dissimilar body, and called frictional or
+static electricity, was the only kind produced artificially in the days
+of Franklin. What is known as galvanism, or animal electricity, also
+takes its date in the 18th century, to which further reference will be
+made. Since 1799 there have been discovered additional sources, among
+which are voltaic electricity, or electricity produced by chemical
+action, such as is manifested when two dissimilar metals are brought
+near each other or together, and electrical manifestations produced by a
+decomposing action, one upon the other through a suitable medium;
+inductive electricity, or electricity developed or induced in one body
+by its proximity to another body through which a current is flowing;
+magnetic electricity, the conversion of the power of a magnet into
+electric force, and the reverse of this, the production of magnetic
+force by a current of electricity; and thermal electricity, or that
+generated by heat. Electricity developed by these, or other means in
+contra-distinction to that produced by friction, has been called
+dynamic; but all electric force is now regarded as dynamic, in the sense
+that forces are always in motion and never at rest.
+
+Many of the manifestations and experiments in later day fields which, by
+reason of their production by different means, have been given the names
+of discovery and invention, had become known to Franklin and others, by
+means of the old methods in frictional electricity. They are all,
+however, but different routes leading to the same goal. In the midst of
+the brilliant discoveries of modern times confronting us on every side
+we should not forget the honourable efforts of the fathers of the
+science.
+
+We need not dwell on what the ancients produced in this line. It was a
+single fact only:--The Greeks discovered that amber, a resinous
+substance, when rubbed would attract lighter bodies to it.
+
+In 1600 appeared the father of modern electricity--Dr. Gilbert of
+Colchester, physician to Queen Elizabeth. He revived the one experiment
+of antiquity, and added to it the further fact that many substances
+besides amber, when rubbed, would manifest the same electric condition,
+such as sulphur, sapphire, wax, glass and other bodies. And thus he
+opened the field of electrodes. He was the first to use the terms,
+electricity, electric and electrode, which he derived from the word
+_elektron_, the Greek name for amber. He observed the actions of
+magnets, and conjectured the fundamental identity of magnetism and
+electricity. He arranged an electrometer, consisting of an iron needle
+poised on a pivot, by which to note the action of the magnet. This was
+about the time that Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg, Germany, was born.
+He became a "natural" philosopher, and for thirty-five years was
+burgomaster of his native town. He invented the air-pump, and he it was
+who illustrated the force of atmospheric pressure by fitting together
+two hollow brass hemispheres which, after the air within them had been
+exhausted, could not be pulled apart. He also invented a barometer, and
+as an astronomer suggested that the return of comets might be
+calculated. He invented and constructed the first machine for generating
+electricity. It consisted of a ball of sulphur rotated on an axis, and
+which was electrified by friction of the hand, the ball receiving
+negative electricity while the positive flowed through the person to the
+earth. With this machine "he heard the first sound and saw the first
+light in artificially excited electricity." The machine was improved by
+Sir Isaac Newton and others, and before the close of that century was
+put into substantially its present form of a round glass plate rotated
+between insulated leather cushions coated with an amalgam of tin and
+zinc, the positive or vitreous electricity thus developed being
+accumulated on two large hollow brass cylinders with globular ends,
+supported on glass pillars. Gray in 1729 discovered the conductive power
+of certain substances, and that the electrical influence could be
+conveyed to a distance by means of an insulated wire. This was the first
+step towards the electric telegraph.
+
+Dufay, the French philosopher and author, who in 1733-1737 wrote the
+_Memoirs of the French Academy_, was, it seems, the first to observe
+electrical attractions and repulsions; that electrified resinous
+substances repelled like substances while they attracted bodies
+electrified by contact with glass; and he, therefore, to the latter
+applied the term _vitreous_ electricity and to the former the term
+_resinous_ electricity. In 1745 Prof. Muschenbroeck of Leyden University
+developed the celebrated Leyden jar. This is a glass jar coated both
+inside and outside with tinfoil for about four-fifths of its height. Its
+mouth is closed with a cork through which is passed a metallic rod,
+terminating above in a knob and connected below with the inner coating
+by a chain or a piece of tinfoil. If the inner coating be connected with
+an electrical machine and the outer coating with the earth, a current of
+electricity is established, and the inner coating receives what is
+called a positive and the outer coating a negative charge. On connecting
+the two surfaces by means of a metallic discharger having a
+non-conducting handle a spark is obtained. Thus the Leyden jar is both a
+collector and a condenser of electricity. On arranging a series of such
+jars and joining their outer and inner surfaces, and connecting the
+series with an electrical machine, a battery is obtained of greater or
+less power according to the number of jars employed and the extent of
+supply from the machine.
+
+The principle of the Leyden jar was discovered by accident. Cuneus, a
+pupil of Muschenbroeck, was one day trying to charge some water in a
+glass bottle with electricity by connecting it with a chain to the
+sparking knob of an electrical machine. Holding the bottle in one hand
+he arranged the chain with the other, and received a violent shock. His
+teacher then tried the experiment himself, with a still livelier and
+more convincing result, whereupon he declared that he would not repeat
+the trial for the whole Kingdom of France.
+
+When the science of static electricity was thus far developed, with a
+machine for generating it and a collector to receive it, many
+experiments followed. Charles Morrison in 1753, in the _Scots Magazine_,
+proposed a telegraph system of insulated wires with a corresponding
+number of characters to be signalled between two stations. Other schemes
+were proposed at different times down to the close of the century.
+
+Franklin records among several other experiments with frictional
+electricity accumulated by the Leyden jar battery the following results,
+produced chiefly by himself: The existence of an attractive and a
+repulsive action of electricity; the restoration of the equilibrium of
+electrical force between electrified and non-electrified bodies, or
+between bodies differently supplied with the force; the electroscope, a
+body charged with electricity and used to indicate the presence and
+condition of electricity in another body; the production of work, as the
+turning of wheels, by which it was proposed a spit for roasting meat
+might be formed, and the ringing of chimes by a wheel, which was done;
+the firing of gunpowder, the firing of wood, resin and spirits; the
+drawing off a charge from electrified bodies at a near distance by
+pointed rods; the heating and melting of metals; the production of
+light; the magnetising of needles and of bars of iron, giving rise to
+the analogy of magnetism and electricity.
+
+Franklin, who had gone thus far, and who also had drawn the lightning
+from the clouds, identified it as electricity, and taught the mode of
+its subjection, felt chagrined that more had not been done with this
+subtle agent in the service of man. He believed, however, that the
+day-spring of science was opening, and he seemed to have caught some
+reflection of its coming light. Observing the return to life and
+activity of some flies long imprisoned in a bottle of Madeira wine and
+which he restored by exposure to the sun and air, he wrote that he
+should like to be immersed at death with a few friends in a cask of
+Madeira, to be recalled to life a hundred years thence to observe the
+state of his country. It would not have been necessary for him to have
+been embalmed that length of time to have witnessed some great
+developments of his favorite science. He died in 1790, and it has been
+said that there was more real progress in this science in the first
+decade of the nineteenth century than in all previous centuries put
+together.
+
+Before opening the door of the 19th century, let us glance at one more
+experiment in the 18th:
+
+While the aged Franklin was dying, Dr Luigi Galvani of Bologna, an
+Italian physician, medical lecturer, and learned author, was preparing
+for publication his celebrated work, _De viribus Electricitatis in Motu
+Musculari Commentarius_, in which he described his discovery made a few
+years before of the action of the electric current on the legs and
+spinal column of a frog hung on a copper nail. This discovery at once
+excited the attention of scientists, but in the absence of any immediate
+practical results the multitude dubbed him the "frog philosopher." He
+proceeded with his experiments on animals and animal matter, and
+developed the doctrine and theories of what is known as animal or
+galvanic electricity. His fellow countryman and contemporary, Prof.
+Volta of Pavia, took decided issue with Galvani and maintained that the
+pretended animal electricity was nothing but electricity developed by
+the contact of two different metals. Subsequent investigations and
+discoveries have established the fact that both theories have truth for
+their basis, and that electricity is developed both by muscular and
+nervous energy as well as by chemical action. In 1799 Volta invented his
+celebrated pile, consisting of alternate disks of copper and zinc
+separated by a cloth moistened with a dilute acid; and soon after an
+arrangement of cups--each containing a dilute acid and a copper and a
+zinc plate placed a little distance apart, and thus dispensing with the
+cloth. In both instances he connected the end plate of one kind with the
+opposite end plate of the other kind by a wire, and in both arrangements
+produced a current of electricity. To the discoveries, experiments, and
+disputes of Galvani and Volta and to those of their respective
+adherents, the way was opened to the splendid electrical inventions of
+the century, and the discovery of a new world of light, heat, speech and
+power. The discoveries of Galvani and Volta at once set leading
+scientists at work. Fabroni of Florence, and Sir Humphry Davy and
+Wollaston of England, commenced interesting experiments, showing that
+rapid oxidation and chemical decomposition of the metals took place in
+the voltaic pile.
+
+By the discoveries of Galvani the physicians and physiologists were
+greatly excited, and believed that by this new vital power the nature of
+all kinds of nervous diseases could be explored and the remedy applied.
+Volta's discovery excited the chemists. If two dissimilar metals could
+be decomposed and power at the same time produced they contended that
+practical work might be done with the force. In 1800 Nicholson and
+Carlisle decomposed water by passing the electric current through the
+same; Ritter decomposed copper sulphate, and Davy decomposed the
+alkalies, potash and soda. Thus the art of electrolysis--the
+decomposition of substances by the galvanic current, was established.
+Later Faraday laid down its laws. Naturally inventions sprung up in new
+forms of batteries. The pile and cup battery of Volta had been succeeded
+by the trough battery--a long box filled with separated plates set in
+dilute acid. The trough battery was used by Sir Humphry Davy in his
+series of great experiments--1806-1808--in which he isolated the
+metallic bases, calcium, sodium, potassium, etc. It consisted of 2000
+double plates of copper and zinc, each having a surface of 32 square
+inches. With this same trough battery Davy in 1812 produced the first
+electric carbon light, the bright herald of later glories.
+
+Among the most noted new batteries were Daniell's, Grove's and Bunsen's.
+They are called the "two fluid batteries," because in place of a single
+acidulated bath in which the dissimilar metals were before placed, two
+different liquid solutions were employed.
+
+John Frederick Daniell of London, noted for his great work,
+_Meteorological Essays_, and other scientific publications, and as
+Professor of Chemistry in King's College, in 1836, described how a
+powerful and constant current of electricity may be continued for an
+unlimited period by a battery composed of zinc standing in an acid
+solution and a sheet of copper in a solution of sulphate of copper.
+
+Sir William Robert Grove, first an English physician, then an eminent
+lawyer, and then a professor of natural philosophy, and the first to
+announce the great theory of the Correlation of Physical Forces, in 1839
+produced his battery, much more powerful than any previous one, and
+still in general use. In it zinc and platinum are the metals used--the
+zinc bent into cylindrical form and placed in a glass jar containing a
+weak solution of sulphuric acid, while the platinum stands in a porous
+jar holding strong nitric acid and surrounded by the zinc. Among the
+electrical discoveries of Grove were the decomposition by electricity of
+water into free oxygen and hydrogen, the electricity of the flame of the
+blow-pipe, electrical action produced by proximity, without contact, of
+dissimilar metals, molecular movements induced in metals by the electric
+current, and the conversion of electricity into mechanical force.
+
+Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, a German chemist and philosopher and scientific
+writer, who invented some of the most important aids to scientific
+research of the century, who constructed the best working chemical
+laboratory on the continent and founded the most celebrated schools of
+chemistry in Europe, invented a battery, sometimes called the carbon
+battery, in which the expensive pole of platinum in the Grove battery is
+replaced by one of carbon. It was found that this combination gave a
+greater current than that of zinc and platinum.
+
+A great variety of useful voltaic batteries have since been devised by
+others, too numerous to be mentioned here. There is another form of
+battery having for its object the storing of energy by electrolysis, and
+liberating it when desired, in the form of an electric current, and
+known as an accumulator, or secondary, polarization, or storage battery.
+Prof. Ritter had noticed that the two plates of metal which furnished
+the electric current, when placed in the acid liquid and united, could
+in themselves furnish a current, and the inventing of _storage_
+batteries was thus produced. The principal ones of this class are
+Gustave Plante's of 1860 and M. Camille Faure's of 1880. These have
+still further been improved. Still another form are the _thermo-electric
+batteries_, in which the electro-motive force is produced by the joining
+of two different metals, connecting them by a wire and heating their
+junctions. Thus, an electric current is obtained directly from heat,
+without going through the intermediate processes of boiling water to
+produce steam, using this steam to drive an engine, and using this
+engine to turn a dynamo machine to produce power.
+
+But let us retrace our steps:--As previously stated, Franklin had
+experimented with frictional electricity on needles, and had magnetised
+and polarised them and noticed their deflection; and Lesage had
+established an experimental telegraph at Geneva by the same kind of
+electricity more than a hundred years ago. But frictional electricity
+could not be transmitted with power over long distances, and was for
+practical purposes uncontrollable by reason of its great diffusion over
+surfaces, while voltaic electricity was found to be more intense and
+could be developed with great power along a wire for any distance. Fine
+wires had been heated and even melted by Franklin by frictional
+electricity, and now Ritter, Pfaff and others observed the same effect
+produced on the conducting wires by a voltaic current; and Curtet, on
+closing the passage with a piece of charcoal, produced a brilliant
+light, which was followed by Davy's light already mentioned.
+
+As early as 1802 an Italian savant, Gian D. Romagnosi of Trent, learning
+of Volta's discovery, observed and announced in a public print the
+deflection of the magnetic needle when placed near a parallel conductor
+of the galvanic current. In the years 1819 and 1820 so many brilliant
+discoveries and inventions were made by eminent men, independently and
+together, and at such near and distant places, that it is hard telling
+who and which was first. It was in 1819 that the celebrated Danish
+physicist, Oersted of Copenhagen, rediscovered the phenomena that the
+voltaic current would deflect a magnetic needle, and that the needle
+would turn at right angles to the wire. In 1820 Prof. S. C. Schweigger
+of Halle discovered that this deflecting force was increased when the
+wire was wound several times round the needle, and thus he invented the
+magnetising helix. He also then invented a galvano-magnetic indicator (a
+single-wire circuit) by giving the insulated wire a number of turns
+around an elongated frame longitudinally enclosing the compass needle,
+thus multiplying the effect of the current upon the sensitive needle,
+and converting it into a practical _measuring_ instrument--known as the
+galvanometer, and used to observe the strength of currents. In the same
+year Arago found that iron filings were attracted by a voltaic charged
+wire; and Arago and Davy that a piece of soft iron surrounded spirally
+by a wire through which such a current was passed would become magnetic,
+attract to it other metals while in that condition, immediately drop
+them the instant the current ceased, and that such current would
+permanently magnetise a steel bar. The elements of the _electro-magnet_
+had thus been produced. It was in that year that Ampere discovered that
+magnetism is the circulation of currents of electricity at right angles
+to the axis of the needle or bar joining the two poles of the magnet. He
+then laid down the laws of interaction between magnets and electrical
+currents, and in this same year he proposed an electric-magneto
+telegraph consisting of the combination of a voltaic battery, conducting
+wires, and magnetic needles, one needle for each letter of the alphabet.
+
+The discoveries of Ampere as to the laws of electricity have been
+likened to the discovery of Newton of the law of gravitation.
+
+Still no practical result, that is, no useful machine, had been produced
+by the electro-magnet.
+
+In 1825 Sturgeon of England bent a piece of wire into the shape of a
+horse-shoe, insulated it with a coating of sealing wax, wound a fine
+copper wire around it, thus making a helix, passed a galvanic current
+through the helix, and thus invented the first practical electro-magnet.
+But Sturgeon's magnet was weak, and could not transmit power for more
+than fifty feet. Already, however, it had been urged that Sturgeon's
+magnet could be used for telegraphic purposes, and a futile trial was
+made. In the field during this decade also labored the German professors
+Gauss and Weber, and Baron Schilling of Russia. In 1829 Prof. Barlow of
+England published an article in which he summarised what had been done,
+and scientifically demonstrated to his own satisfaction that an
+electro-magnetic telegraph was impracticable, and his conclusion was
+accepted by the scientific world as a fact. This was, however, not the
+first nor the last time that scientific men had predicted
+impracticabilities with electricity which afterwards blossomed into full
+success. But even before Prof. Barlow was thus arriving at his
+discouraging conclusion, Prof. Joseph Henry at the Albany Institute in
+the State of New York had commenced experiments which resulted in the
+complete and successful demonstration of the power of electro-magnetism
+for not only telegraph purposes but for almost every advancement that
+has since been had in this branch of physics. In March 1829 he exhibited
+at his Institute the magnetic "spool" or "bobbin," that form of coil
+composed of tightly-wound, silk-covered wire which he had constructed,
+and which since has been universally employed for nearly every
+application of electro-magnetism, of induction, or of magneto-electrics.
+And in the same year and in 1830 he produced those powerful magnets
+through which the energy of a galvanic battery was used to lift hundreds
+of tons of weight.
+
+In view of all the facts now historically established, there can be no
+doubt that previous to Henry's experiments the means for developing
+magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and that, as found
+by Prof. Barlow, the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable
+and impracticable for the transmission of power to a distance. Prof.
+Henry was the first to prove that a galvanic battery of "intensity" must
+be employed to project the current through a long conductor, and that a
+magnet of one long wire must be used to receive this current; the first
+to magnetise a piece of soft iron at a distance and call attention to
+its applicability to the telegraph; the first to actually sound a bell
+at a distance by means of the electro-magnet; and the first to show that
+the principles he developed were applicable and necessary to the
+practical operation of an effective telegraph system.
+
+Sturgeon, the parent of the electro-magnet, on learning of Henry's
+discoveries and inventions, wrote: "Professor Henry has been enabled to
+produce a magnetic force which totally eclipses every other in the whole
+annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be found since the miraculous
+suspension of the celebrated oriental impostor in his iron coffin."
+(_Philosophical Magazine and Annals_, 1832.)
+
+The third decade was now prepared for the development of the telegraph.
+As to the telegraph in its broadest sense, as a means for conveying
+intelligence to a distance quickly and without a messenger, successful
+experiments of that kind have existed from the earliest times:--from the
+signal fires of the ancients; from the flag signals between ships at
+sea, introduced in the seventeenth century by the Duke of York, then
+Admiral of the English fleet, and afterwards James II of England; from
+the semaphore telegraph of M. Chappe, adopted by the French government
+in 1794, consisting of bars pivoted to an upright stationary post, and
+made to swing vertically or horizontally to indicate certain signals;
+and from many other forms of earlier and later days.
+
+As to electricity as an agent for the transmission of signals, the idea
+dates, as already stated, from the discovery of Stephen Gray in 1729,
+that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by the
+means of an insulated wire. This was followed by the practical
+suggestions of Franklin and others. But when, as we have seen, voltaic
+electricity entered the field, electricity became a more powerful and
+tractable servant, and distant intelligent signals became one of its
+first labors.
+
+The second decade was also made notable by the discovery and
+establishment by George Simon Ohm, a German professor of Physics, of the
+fundamental mathematical law of electricity: It has been expressed in
+the following terms: (a) the current strength is equal to the
+electro-motive force divided by the resistance; (b) the force is equal
+to the current strength multiplied by the resistance; (c) the resistance
+is equal to the force divided by the current strength.
+
+The historical development and evolution of the telegraph may be now
+summarized:--
+
+1. The discovery of galvanic electricity by Galvani--1786-1790.
+
+2. The galvanic or voltaic battery by Volta in 1800.
+
+3. The galvanic influence on a magnetic needle by Romagnosi (1802)
+Oersted (1820).
+
+4. The galvanometer of Schweigger, 1820--the parent of the needle
+system.
+
+5. The electro-magnet by Arago and Sturgeon--1820-1825--the parent of
+the magnet system.
+
+Then followed in the third decade the important series of steps in the
+evolution, consisting of:--
+
+_First_, and most vital, Henry's discovery in 1829 and 1830 of the
+"intensity" or spool-wound magnet, and its intimate relation to the
+"intensity" battery, and the subordinate use of an armature as the
+signalling device.
+
+_Second_, Gauss's improvement in 1833 (or probably Schilling's
+considerably earlier) of reducing the electric conductors to a single
+circuit by the ingenious use of a dual sign so combined as to produce a
+true alphabet.
+
+_Third_, Weber's discovery in 1833 that the conducting wires of an
+electric telegraph could be efficiently carried through the air without
+any insulation except at their points of support.
+
+_Fourth_, Daniell's invention of a "constant" galvanic battery in 1836.
+
+_Fifth_, Steinheil's remarkable discovery in 1837 that the earth may
+form the returning half of a closed galvanic circuit, so that a single
+conducting wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes.
+
+_Sixth_, Morse's adaptation of the armature and electro-magnet of Henry
+as a recording instrument in 1837 in connection with his improvement in
+1838 on the Schilling, Gauss and Steinheil alphabets by employing the
+simple "dot and dash" alphabet in a single line. He was also assisted by
+the suggestions of Profs. Dana and Gale. To which must be added his
+adoption of Alfred Vail's improved alphabet, and Vail's practical
+suggestions in respect to the recording and other instrumentalities.
+
+To these should be added the efforts in England, made almost
+simultaneously with those of Morse, of Wheatstone and Cook and Davy, who
+were reaching the same goal by somewhat different routes.
+
+Morse in 1837 commenced to put the results of his experiments and
+investigations in the form of caveats, applications and letters patent
+in the United States and in Europe. He struggled hard against
+indifference and poverty to introduce his invention to the world. It was
+not until 1844 that he reduced it to a commercial practical success. He
+then laid a telegraph from Washington to Baltimore under the auspices of
+the United States Government, which after long hesitation appropriated
+$30,000 for the purpose. It was on the 24th day of May, 1844, that the
+first formal message was transmitted on this line between the two cities
+and recorded by the electro-magnet in the dot and dash alphabet, and
+this was immediately followed by other messages on the same line.
+
+Morse gathered freely from all sources of which he could avail himself
+knowledge of what had gone before. He was not a scientific discoverer,
+but an inventor, who, adding a few ideas of his own to what had before
+been discovered, was the first to combine them in a practical useful
+device. What he did as an inventor, and what anyone may do to constitute
+himself an inventor, by giving to the world a device which is useful in
+the daily work of mankind, as distinguished from the scientific
+discoverer who stops short of successful industrial work, is thus stated
+by the United States Supreme Court in an opinion sustaining the validity
+of his patents, after all the previous art had been produced before
+it:--
+
+"Neither can the inquiries he made nor the information or advice he
+received from men of science in the course of his researches impair his
+right to the character of an inventor. No invention can possibly be
+made, consisting of a combination of different elements of power,
+without a thorough knowledge of the properties of each of them, and the
+mode in which they operate on each other. And it can make no difference
+in this respect, whether he derives his information from books, or from
+conversation with men skilled in the science. If it were otherwise, no
+patent in which a combination of different elements is used would ever
+be obtained, for no man ever made such an invention without having first
+obtained this information, unless it was discovered by some fortunate
+accident. And it is evident that such an invention as the
+electro-magnetic telegraph could never have been brought into action
+without it; for a very high degree of scientific knowledge and the
+nicest skill in the mechanic arts are combined in it, and were both
+necessary to bring it into successful operation. The fact that Morse
+sought and obtained the necessary information and counsel from the best
+sources, and acted upon it, neither impairs his rights as an inventor
+nor detracts from his merits."--_O'Reilly vs. Morse, 5 Howard_.
+
+The combination constituting Morse's invention comprised a main wire
+circuit to transmit the current through its whole length whenever
+closed; a main galvanic battery to supply the current; operating keys to
+break and close the main circuit; office circuits; a circuit of
+conductors and batteries at each office to record the message there;
+receiving spring lever magnets to close an office circuit when a current
+passes through the main circuit; adjusting screws to vary the force of
+the main current; marking apparatus, consisting of pointed pieces of
+wire, to indent dots and lines upon paper; clockwork to move the paper
+indented; and magnet sounders to develop the power of the pointer and of
+the armatures to produce audible distinguishable sounds.
+
+It was soon learned by operators how to distinguish the signs or letters
+sent by the length of the "click" of the armature, and by thus reading
+by sound the reading of the signs on paper was dispensed with, and the
+device became an electric-magnetic acoustic telegraph.
+
+What is known as the Morse system has been improved, but its fundamental
+principles remain, and their world-wide use constitute still the daily
+evidence of the immense value of the invention to mankind.
+
+Before the 1844 reduction to practice, Morse had originated and laid the
+first submarine telegraph. This was in New York harbour in 1842. In a
+letter to the Secretary of the United States Treasury, August 10, 1843,
+he also suggested the project of an Atlantic telegraph.
+
+While Henry was busy with his great magnets and Morse struggling to
+introduce his telegraph, Michael Faraday was making those investigations
+and discoveries which were to result in the application of electricity
+to the service of man in still wider and grander fields.
+
+Faraday was a chemist, and Davy's most brilliant pupil and efficient
+assistant. His earliest experiments were in the line of electrolysis.
+This was about 1822, but it was not until 1831 that he began to devote
+his brilliant talents as an experimentalist and lecturer wholly to
+electrical researches, and for a quarter of a century his patient,
+wonderful labours and discoveries continued. It has been said that
+"although Oersted was the discoverer of electro-magnetism and Ampere its
+expounder, Faraday made the science of magnets electrically what it is
+at the present day."
+
+Great magnetic power having been developed by passing a galvanic current
+around a bar of soft iron, Faraday concluded that it was reasonable to
+suppose that as mechanical action is accompanied by an equal amount of
+reaction, electricity ought to be evolved from magnetism.
+
+"It was in 1831 that Faraday demonstrated before the Royal Society that
+if a magnetized bar of steel be introduced into the centre of a helix of
+insulated wire, there is at the moment of introduction of the magnet a
+current of electricity set up in a certain direction in the insulated
+wire forming the helix, while on the withdrawal of the magnet from the
+helix a current in an opposite direction takes place.
+
+"He also discovered that the same phenomenon was to be observed if for
+the magnet was substituted a coil of insulated wire, through which the
+current from a voltaic element was passing; and further that when an
+insulated coil of wire was made to revolve before the poles of a
+permanent magnet, electric currents were induced in the wires of the
+coil."--_Journal of the Society of Arts._
+
+On these discoveries were based the action of all magneto-dynamo
+electric machines--machines that have enabled the world to convert the
+energy of a steam engine in its stall, or a distant waterfall, into
+electric energy for the performance of the herculean labours of lighting
+a great city, or an ocean-bound lighthouse, or transporting quickly
+heavy loads of people or freight up and down and to and fro upon the
+earth.
+
+As before stated, Faraday was also the first to proclaim the laws of
+electrolysis, or electro-chemical decomposition. He expressed conviction
+that the forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one and the
+same. Subsequently the great Helmholtz, having proved by experiment that
+in the phenomena of electrolysis no other force acts but the mutual
+attractions of the atomic electric charges, came to the conclusion,
+"that the very mightiest among the chemical forces are of electric
+origin."
+
+Faraday having demonstrated by his experiments that chemical
+decomposition, electricity, magnetism, heat and light, are all
+inter-convertible and correlated forces, the inventors of the age were
+now ready to step forward and put these theories at work in machines in
+the service of man. Faraday was a leader in the field of discovery. He
+left to inventors the practical application of his discoveries.
+
+Prof. Henry in America was, contemporaneously with Faraday, developing
+electricity by means of magnetic induction.
+
+In 1832, Pixii, a philosophical instrument-maker of Paris, and Joseph
+Saxton, an American then residing in London, invented and constructed
+magneto-machines on Faraday's principle of rendering magnetic a core of
+soft iron surrounded with insulated wire from a permanent magnet, and
+rapidly reversing its polarity, which machines were used to produce
+sparks, decompose liquids and metals, and fire combustible bodies.
+Saxton's machine was the well-known electric shock machine operated by
+turning a crank. A similar device is now used for ringing telephone call
+bells.
+
+Prof. C. G. Page of Washington and Ruhmkorff of Paris each made a
+machine, well known as the Ruhmkorff coil, by which intense
+electro-magnetic currents by induction were produced. The production of
+electrical illumination was now talked of more than ever. Scientists and
+inventors now had two forms of electrical machines to produce light: the
+voltaic battery and the magneto-electric apparatus. But a period of
+comparative rest took place in this line until 1850, when Prof. Nollet
+of Brussels made an effort to produce a powerful magneto-electric
+machine for decomposing water into its elements of hydrogen and oxygen,
+which gases were then to be used in producing the lime light; and a
+company known as "The Alliance" was organized at Paris to make large
+machines for the production of light.
+
+We have seen that Davy produced a brilliant electric light with two
+pieces of charcoal in the electric circuit of a voltaic battery. Greener
+and Staite revived this idea in a patent in 1845. Shortly after Nollet's
+machine, F. H. Holmes of England improved it and applied the current
+directly to the production of electric light between carbon points. And
+Holmes and Faraday in 1857 prepared this machine for use.
+
+On the evening of December 8, 1858, the first practical electric light,
+the work of Faraday and Holmes, flashed over the troubled sea from the
+South Foreland Lighthouse. On June 6, 1862, this light was also
+introduced into the lighthouse at Dungeness, England. The same light was
+introduced in French lighthouses in December, 1863, and also in the work
+on the docks of Cherbourg. At this time Germany was also awake to the
+importance of this invention, and Dr. Werner Siemens of Berlin was at
+work developing a machine for the purpose into one of less cost and of
+greater use. Inventors were not yet satisfied with the power developed
+from either the voltaic battery or the magneto-electric machine, and
+continued to improve the latter.
+
+In 1867, the same year that Faraday died, and too late for him to
+witness its glory, came out the most powerful magneto-electric machine
+that had yet been produced. It was invented by Wilde of London, and
+consisted of very large electro-magnets, or field magnets, receiving
+their electric power from the "lines of force" discovered by Faraday,
+radiating from the poles of a soft iron magnet, combined with a small
+magneto-electric machine having permanent magnets, and by which the
+current developed in the smaller machine was sent through the coils of
+the larger magnets. By this method the magnetic force was vastly
+multiplied, and electricity was produced in such abundance as to fuse
+thick iron wire fifteen inches long and one-fourth of an inch in
+diameter, and to develop a magnificent arc light. Quickly succeeding the
+Wilde machine came independent inventions in the same direction from
+Messrs. G. Farmer of Salem, Mass., Alfred Yarley and Prof. Charles
+Wheatstone of England, and Dr. Siemens of Berlin, and Ladd of America.
+These inventors conceived and put in practice the great idea of
+employing the current from an electro-magnetic machine to excite its own
+electric magnet. They were thus termed "self-exciting." The idea was
+that the commutator (an instrument to change the direction, strength or
+circuit of the current) should be so connected with the coils of the
+field magnets that all or a part of the current developed in the
+armature would flow through these coils, so that all permanent magnets
+might be dispensed with, and the machine used to excite itself or charge
+its own field magnets without the aid of any outside charging or feeding
+mechanism.
+
+Mr. Z. Gramme, of France, a little later than Wilde made a great
+improvement. Previously, machines furnished only momentary currents of
+varying strength and polarity; and these intermittent currents were hard
+to control without loss in the strength of current and the frequent
+production of sparks. Gramme produced a machine in which, although as in
+other machines the magnetic field of force was created by a powerful
+magnet, yet the armature was a ring made of soft iron rods, and
+surrounded by an endless coil of wire, and made to revolve between the
+poles of the magnet with great rapidity, producing a constant current in
+one direction. By Faraday's discovery, when the coil of the closed
+circuit was moved before the poles of the magnet, the current was
+carried half the time in one direction and half in the other,
+constituting what is called an alternating current. Gramme employed the
+commutator to make the current direct instead of alternating.
+
+Dynamo-electric machines for practical work of many kinds had now been
+born and grown to strength.
+
+In addition to these and many other electrical machines this century has
+discovered several ways by which the electricity developed by such
+machines may be converted into light. I. By means of two carbon
+conductors between which passes a series of intensely brilliant sparks
+which form a species of flame known as the _voltaic arc_, and the heat
+of which is more intense than that from any other known artificial
+source. II. By means of a rod of carbon or kaolin, strip of platinum or
+iridium, a carbon filament, or other substance placed between two
+conductors, the resistance opposed by such rod, strip, or filament to
+the passage of the current being so great as to develop heat to the
+point of incandescence, and produce a steady white and pure light.
+Attempts also have been made to produce illumination by what is called
+stratified light produced by the electric discharge passing through
+tubes containing various gases. These tubes are known as Geissler tubes,
+from their inventor. Still another method is the production of a
+continuous light from a vibratory movement of carbon electrodes to and
+from each other, producing a bright flash at each separation, and
+maintaining the separations at such a rate that the effect of the light
+produced is continuous. But these additional methods do not appear as
+yet to be commercially successful.
+
+It must not be overlooked that before dynamo-magneto-electric machines
+were used practically in the production of the electric light for the
+purposes of illumination, the voltaic battery was used for the same
+purpose, but not economically.
+
+The first private dwelling house ever lighted in America, or doubtless
+anywhere else, by electricity, was that of Moses G. Farmer, in Salem,
+Massachusetts, in the year 1859. A voltaic battery furnished the current
+to conducting wires which led to two electric lamps on the mantel-piece
+of the drawing-room, and in which strips of platinum constituted the
+resisting and lighting medium. A soft, mild, agreeable light was
+produced, which was more delightful to read or sew by than any
+artificial light ever before known. Either or both lamps could be
+lighted by turning a button, and they were maintained for several weeks,
+but were discontinued for the reason that the cost of maintaining them
+was much greater than of gas light.
+
+It was in connection with the effective dynamo-electric apparatus of
+M. Gramme above referred to that the electric candle invented by
+M. Paul Jablochoff became soon thereafter extensively employed for
+electric lighting in Paris, and elsewhere in Europe. This invention,
+like the great majority of useful inventions, is noted for its
+simplicity. It consists of two carbon pencils placed side by side and
+insulated from each other by means of a thin plate of some refractory
+material which is a non-conductor at ordinary temperatures, but which
+becomes a conductor, and consequently a light, when fused by the action
+of a powerful current. Plaster of Paris was found to be the most
+suitable material for this purpose, and the light produced was soft,
+mellow, slightly rose-coloured, and quite agreeable to the eye.
+
+It having been found that carbon was better adapted for lighting
+purposes than platinum or other metals, by reason of its greater
+radiating power for equal temperatures, and still greater infusibility
+at high temperatures, inventors turned their attention to the production
+of the best carbon lamp.
+
+The two pointed pieces of hard conducting carbon used for the separated
+terminals constitute the voltaic arc light--a light only excelled in
+intense brilliancy by the sun itself. It is necessary in order to make
+such a light successful that it should be continuous. But as it is found
+that both carbons waste away under the consuming action of the intense
+heat engendered by their resistance to the electric current, and that
+one electrode, the positive, wastes away twice as fast as the opposite
+negative electrode, the distance between the points soon becomes too
+great for the current longer to leap over it, and the light is then
+extinguished. Many ingenious contrivances have been devised for
+correcting this trouble, and maintaining a continuously uniform distance
+between the carbons by giving to them a self-adjusting automatic action.
+Such an apparatus is called a _regulator_, and the variety of regulators
+is very great. The French were among the first to contrive such
+regulators,--Duboscq, Foucault, Serrin, Houdin, and Lontin invented most
+useful forms of such apparatus. Other early inventors were Hart of
+Scotland, Siemens of Germany, Thompson and Houston of England, and
+Farmer, Brush, Wallace, Maxim, and Weston and Westinghouse of America.
+Gramme made his armature of iron rods to prevent its destruction by
+heat. Weston in 1882 improved this method by making the armature of
+separate and insulated sheets of iron around which the coil is wound.
+The arc light is adapted for streets and great buildings, etc.; but for
+indoor illumination, when a milder, softer light is desirable, the
+_incandescent_ light was invented, and this consists of a curved
+filament of carbon about the size of a coarse horsehair, seated in a
+bulb of glass from which the air has been exhausted. In exhausted air
+carbon rods or filaments are not consumed, and so great ingenuity was
+exercised on that line. Among the early noted inventors of incandescent
+carbon filament lamps were Edison and Maxim of New York, Swan, and
+Lane-Fox of England.
+
+Another problem to be solved arose in the proposed use of arc lamps upon
+an extended scale, or in series, as in street lighting, wherein the
+current to all lamps was supplied by a single wire, and where it was
+found that owing to the unequal consumption of the carbons some were
+burning well, some poorly, and some going out. It was essential,
+therefore, to make each lamp independent of the resistance of the main
+circuit and of the action of the other lamps, and to have its regulating
+mechanism governed entirely by the resistance of its own arc. The
+solution of this difficult problem was the invention by Heffner von
+Alteneck of Germany, and his device came into use wherever throughout
+the world arc lamps were operated. Westinghouse also improved the direct
+alternating system of lighting by one wire by the introduction of two
+conducting wires parallel to each other, and passing an interrupted or
+alternating current through one, thereby inducing a similar and always
+an alternating current through the other. Brush adopted a three-wire
+system; and both obtained a uniform consumption of the carbons.
+
+In a volume like this, room exists for mention only of those inventions
+which burn as beacon lights on the tallest hills--and so we must now
+pass on to others.
+
+Just as Faraday was bringing his long series of experimental researches
+to a close in 1856-59, and introducing the fruits of his labours into
+the lighthouses of England, Cyrus W. Field of New York had commenced his
+trials in the great scheme of an ocean cable to "moor the new world
+alongside the old," as John Bright expressed it. After crossing the
+ocean from New York to England fifty times, and baffled often by the
+ocean, which broke his cables, and by the incredulous public of both
+hemispheres, who laughed at him, and by electricity, which refused to do
+his bidding, he at last overcame all obstacles, and in 1866 the cable
+two thousand miles in length had been successfully stretched and
+communication perfected. To employ currents of great power, the cable
+insulation would have been disintegrated and finally destroyed by heat.
+Therefore only feeble currents could be used. But across that long
+distance these currents for many reasons grew still weaker. The
+inventor, Sir William Thomson, was at hand to provide the remedy. First,
+by his _mirror galvanometer_. A needle in the shape of a small magnet
+and connected to the current wires, is attached to the back of a small
+concave mirror having a hole in its centre; opposite the mirror is
+placed a graduated scale board, having slits through it, and a lighted
+lamp behind it. The light is thrown through the slits across to the hole
+at the center of the mirror and upon the needle. The feeblest imaginable
+current suffices to deflect the needle in one direction, which throws
+back the little beam of light upon it to the graduated front of the
+scale. When the current is reversed the needle and its shadow are
+deflected in the other direction, and so by a combination of right and
+left motions, and pauses, of the spots of light to represent letters,
+the message is spelled out. Second, a more expeditious instrument called
+the _syphon recorder_. In this the galvanometer needle is connected to a
+fine glass syphon tube conducting ink from a reservoir on to a strip of
+paper which is drawn under the point of the tube with a uniform motion.
+The irregular movements given the galvanometer needle by the varying
+current are clearly delineated on the paper. Or in writing very long
+cables the point of the syphon may not touch the paper, but the ink by
+electrical attraction from the paper is ejected from the syphon upon the
+paper in a succession of fine dots. The irregular lines of dots and
+dashes were translated into words in accordance with the principles of
+the Morse telegraph.
+
+An instrument was exhibited at the Centennial International Exhibition
+at Philadelphia in 1876, which was considered by the judges "the
+greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph." Such was
+the language used both by Prof. Joseph Henry and Sir Wm. Thomson, and
+concurred in by the other eminent judges from America, Germany, France,
+Austria and Switzerland. This instrument was the _Telephone_. It
+embodied, for the practical purpose of transmitting articulate speech to
+distances, the union of the two great forces,--sound and electricity. It
+consisted of a method and an apparatus. The apparatus or means consisted
+of an electric battery circuit, a transmitting cone placed at one end of
+the line into which speech and other vocal sounds were uttered, a
+diaphragm against which the sounds were projected, an armature secured
+to or forming a part of the diaphragm, an electro-magnet loosely
+connected to the armature, a wire connecting this magnet with another
+precisely similar arrangement of magnet, armature, diaphragm, and cone,
+at the receiving end. When speech was uttered in the transmitter the
+sound vibrations were received on the diaphragm, communicated to the
+electricised armature, from thence by induction to the magnet and the
+connecting wire current, which, undulating with precisely the same form
+of sound vibrations, carried them in exactly the same form to the
+receiving magnet. They were then carried through the receiving armature
+and reproduced on the receiving diaphragm, with all the same
+characteristics of pitch, loudness and quality.
+
+The inventor was Alexander Graham Bell, by nativity a Scotchman, then a
+resident of Canada, and finally a citizen of the United States. His
+father was a teacher of vocal physiology at Edinburgh, and he himself
+became a teacher of deaf mutes. This occupation naturally led him to a
+thorough investigation of the laws of sound. He acknowledged the aid he
+received from the great work of Helmholtz on the _Theory of Tone_. His
+attention was called to sounds transmitted and reproduced by the
+electric current, especially by the ease with which telegraph operators
+read their messages by the duration of the "click" of their instruments.
+He knew of the old device of a tightly-stretched string or wire between
+two little boxes. He had read the publication of Prof. C. G. Page, of
+America, in 1837, on the _Production of Galvanic Music_, in which was
+described how musical notes were transmitted and reproduced by an
+interrupted magnetic circuit. He became acquainted with the experimental
+musical telephonic and acoustic researches of Reis, and others of
+Germany, and those of celebrated scientists in France, especially the
+phonautograph of Scott, a delicate instrument having a cone membrane and
+pointer, and used to reproduce on smoked glass the waves of sound. He
+commenced his experiments with magneto instruments in 1874, continued
+them in 1875, when he succeeded in reproducing speech, but poorly, owing
+to his imperfect instruments, and then made out his application, and
+obtained a patent in the United States in July, 1876.
+
+Like all the other remarkable inventions recorded in these pages, this
+"marvel" did not spring forth as a sudden creation, but was a slow
+growth of a plant derived from old ideas, although it blossomed out
+suddenly one day when audible sounds were accidentally produced upon an
+apparatus with which he was experimenting.
+
+It is impossible here to narrate the tremendous conflict that Bell now
+encountered to establish his title as first inventor, or to enumerate
+the multitude of improvements and changes made which go to make up the
+successful telephone of to-day.
+
+The messages of the voice are carried on the wings of electricity
+wherever any messages are carried, except under the widest seas, and
+this difficulty inventors are now seeking to overcome.
+
+The story of the marvellous inventions of the century in electricity is
+a fascinating one, but in length and details it is also marvellous, and
+we must hasten unwillingly to a close. Numerous applications of it will
+be mentioned in chapters relating to other arts.
+
+In the generation of this mighty force improvements have been made, but
+those of greatest power still involve the principles discovered by
+Faraday and Henry seventy years ago. The ideas of Faraday of the "lines
+of force"--the magnetic power streaming from the poles of the magnet
+somewhat as the rays of heat issue on all sides from a hot body, forming
+the magnetic field--and that a magnet behaves like an electric current,
+producing an electric wave by its approach to or recession from a coil
+of wire, joined with Henry's idea of increasing the magnetising effect
+by increasing the number of coils around the magnet, enter into all
+powerful dynamo electric machines of to-day. In them the lines of force
+must flow around the frame and across the path of the armature; and
+there must be a set of conductors to cut the lines of force twice in
+every revolution of the cylinder carrying the armature from which the
+current is taken.
+
+When machines had been produced for generating with some economy
+powerful currents of electricity, their use for the world's business
+purposes rapidly increased. Among such applications, and following
+closely the electric lighting, came the _electric railway_. A substitute
+for the slow animal, horse, and for the dangerous, noisy steam horse and
+its lumbering locomotive and train, was hailed with delight. Inventors
+came forward with adaptations of all the old systems they could think of
+for the purpose, and with many new ones. One plan was to adapt the
+storage battery--that silent chemical monster which carries its own
+power and its own machine--and place one on each car to actuate a motor
+connected to the driving wheels. Another plan was to conduct the current
+from the dynamo machine at its station along the rails on one side of
+the track to the motor on the car and the return current on the opposite
+track; another was to carry the current to the car on a third rail
+between the track, using both the other rails for the return; another to
+use an overhead wire for the current from the dynamo, and connect it
+with the car by a rod, one end of which had a little wheel or trolley
+running on the overhead wire, to take up the current, the other end
+being connected by a wire to the car motor; another plan to have a
+trench made leading from the central station underneath the track the
+whole length of the line, and put into this trench conducting wires from
+the dynamo, to one of which the car motor should be connected by a
+trolley rod or "brush," extending down through a central slot between
+the rails of the track to carry the electric supply into the motor. In
+all these cases a lever was supplied to cut off communication between
+the conducting wire and the motor, and a brake lever to stop the car.
+
+All of these plans have been tried, and some of them are still being
+tried with many improvements in detail, but not in principle.
+
+The first electrical railway was constructed and operated at Berlin in
+1879, by Messrs Siemens and Halske. It was two thousand seven hundred
+feet long and built on the third rail system. This was an experiment but
+a successful one. It was followed very soon by another line near Berlin
+for actual traffic; then still another in Saxony. At the Paris
+Exposition in 1881, Sir Wm. Siemens had in operation a road about one
+thousand six hundred feet in length, on which it is estimated
+ninety-five thousand passengers were conveyed in seven weeks. Then in
+the next year in London; and then in the following year one in the
+United States near New York, constructed by Edison. And thus they
+spread, until every important town and city in the world seems to have
+its electric plant, and its electric car system, and of course its
+lighting, telephone and telegraph systems.
+
+In 1882 Prof. Fleeming Jenkin of England invented and has put to use a
+system called _Telpherage_, by which cars are suspended on an overhead
+wire which is both the track and electrical conductor. It has been found
+to be advantageous in the transportation of freight from mines and other
+places to central stations.
+
+With the coming of the electric railway, the slow, much-abused horse,
+the puffing steam engine blowing off smoke and cinders through the
+streets, the great heavy cars, rails and roadbeds, the dangerous
+collisions and accidents, have disappeared.
+
+The great problems to solve have related to generation, form,
+distribution and division of the electric current at the dynamos at the
+central stations for the purposes of running the distant motors and for
+furnishing independent supplies of light, heat, sound and power. These
+problems have received the attention of the keenest inventors and
+electrical engineers and have been solved.
+
+The description of the inventions made by such electrical magicians as
+Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla would fill volumes.
+
+The original plan of sending but one message over a wire at a time has
+also been improved; and duplex, quadruplex and multiplex systems have
+been invented (by Stearns, Farmer, Edison and others) and applied, which
+have multiplied the capacity of the telegraphs, and by which even the
+alleged all-talk-at-the-same-time habit of certain members of the great
+human family can be carried on in opposite directions on the same wire
+at the same time between their gatherings in different cities and
+without a break.
+
+To understand the manner of multiplying messages or signals on the same
+line, and using apparently the same electric current to perform
+different operations, the mind must revert to the theory already
+referred to, that a current of electricity does not consist of a stream
+of matter flowing like water through a conductor in one direction, but
+of particles of subtle ether, vibrating or oscillating in waves from and
+around the conductor which excites them; that the vibration of this line
+of waves proceeds at the rate of many thousand miles per second, almost
+with the velocity of waves of light, with which they are so closely
+related; that this wave current is susceptible of being varied in
+direction and in strength, according to the impulse given by the initial
+pressure of the transmitting and exciting instrument; and that some wave
+currents have power by reason of their form or strength to penetrate or
+pass others coming from an opposite direction. So that in the multiplex
+process, for instance, each transmission having a certain direction or
+strength and its own set of transmitting and receiving instruments, will
+have power to give its own peculiar and independent signal or message.
+Apparently there is but one continuous current, but in reality each
+transmission is separated from the others by an almost inconceivably
+short interval of time.
+
+Among the inventions in the class of Telegraphy should also be mentioned
+the dial and the printing systems. Ever since the electric telegraph was
+invented, attempts have been made to use the electric influence to
+operate either a pointer to point out the letters of the message sent on
+a dial, or to print them on a moving strip of paper; and also to
+automatically reproduce on paper the handwriting of the sender or writer
+of the message. The earliest efforts were by Cooke and Prof. Wheatstone
+of London, in 1836-37; but it was not until 1839, after Prof. Henry had
+succeeded in perfecting the electromagnet, that dial and printing
+telegraphs were successfully produced. Dial telegraphs consist of the
+combination with magnets, armatures and printed dial plate of a
+clock-work and a pointer, means to set the pointer at the communicating
+end (which in some instances has been a piano keyboard) to any letter,
+the current operating automatically to indicate the same letters at the
+receiving end. These instruments have been modified and improved by
+Brequet and Froment of France, Dr. Siemens and Kramer, and Siemens and
+Halske of Germany, Prof. Wheatstone of England, Chester and Hamblet of
+America, and others. They have been used extensively upon private and
+municipal lines both in Europe and the United States.
+
+The type-printing telegraph was coeval with the dial, and originated
+with Morse and Vail as early as 1837. The printing of the characters is
+effected in various ways; sometimes by clockwork mechanism and sometimes
+by the direct action of an electromagnet. Wheatstone exhibited one in
+1841. House of Vermont invented in 1845-1846 the first printing
+telegraph that was brought into any extensive use in the United States.
+Then followed that of David E. Hughes of Kentucky in 1855, aided by his
+co-inventor George M. Phelps of Troy, New York, and which was
+subsequently adopted by the French government, by the United Kingdom
+Telegraph Co. of Great Britain, and by the American Telegraph Co in the
+United States. The system was subsequently greatly improved by Hughes
+and others. Alexander Bain of Edinburgh in 1845-46 originated the modern
+automatic chemical telegraph. In this system a kind of punch was used to
+perforate two rows of holes grouped to represent letters on a strip of
+paper conducted over a metal cylinder and arranged so as to permit
+spring levers to drop through the perforations and touch the cylinder,
+thus forming an electrical contact; and a recording apparatus consisting
+of a strip of paper carried through a chemical solution of an acid and
+potash and over a metal roller, and underneath one or two styles, or
+pens, which pens were connected by live wires with the poles of two
+batteries at the sending station. The operation is such that colored
+marks upon the paper were made by the pens corresponding precisely to
+the perforations in the strip at the sending station. Siemens,
+Wheatstone and others also improved this system; but none of these
+systems have as yet replaced or equalled in extensive use the Morse key
+and sounder system, and its great acoustic advantage of reading the
+messages by the click of the instrument. The type-printing system,
+however, has been recently greatly improved by the inventions of Howe,
+C. L. Buckingham, Fiske and others in the United States. Special
+contrivances and adaptations of the telegraph for printing stock reports
+and for transmitting fire alarm, police, and emergency calls, have been
+invented.
+
+The erection of tall office and other buildings, some to the height of
+more than twenty stories, made practicable by the invention of the
+elevator system, has in turn brought out most ingenious devices for
+operating and controlling the elevators to insure safety and at the same
+time produce economy in the motive power.
+
+The utility of the telephone has been greatly increased by the
+inventions of Hughes and Edison of the _microphone_. This consists, in
+one form, of pieces of carbon in loose contact placed in the circuit of
+a telephone. The very slightest vibrations communicated to the wood are
+heard distinctly in the telephone. By these inventions and certain
+improvements not only every sound and note of an opera or concert has
+been carried to distant places, but the slightest whispers, the minute
+movements of a watch, even the tread of a fly, and the pressure of a
+finger, have been rendered audible.
+
+By the aid of the electric current certain rays of light directed upon
+the mineral selenium, and some other substances, have been discovered to
+emit musical sounds.
+
+So wonderful and mysterious appear these communications along the
+electric wire that each and every force in the universe seems to have a
+voice awaiting utterance to man. The hope is indulged that by some such
+means we may indeed yet receive the "touch of a vanished hand and the
+sound of a voice that is still."
+
+In 1879 that eminent English scientist, Prof. Wm. Crookes, published his
+extensive researches in electrical discharges as manifested in glass
+tubes from which the air had been exhausted. These same tubes have
+already been referred to as Geissler tubes, from the name of a young
+artist of Bonn who invented them. In these tubes are inclosed various
+gases through which the sparks from an induction coil can be passed by
+means of platinum electrodes fused into the glass, and on the passage of
+the current a soft and delicately-tinted light is produced which streams
+through the tube from pole to pole.
+
+In 1895, Wm. Konrad Roentgen, professor of Physics in the Royal
+University of Wuerzburg, while experimenting with these Crookes and
+Geissler tubes, discovered with one of them, which he had covered with a
+sort of black cardboard, that the rays emanating from the same and
+impinging on certain objects would render them self-luminous, or
+fluorescent; and on further investigation that such rays, unlike the
+rays of sunlight, were not deflected, refracted or condensed; but that
+they proceeded in straight lines from the point at which they were
+produced, and penetrated various articles, such as flesh, blood, and
+muscle, and thicknesses of paper, cloth and leather, and other
+substances which are opaque to ordinary light; and that thus while
+penetrating such objects and rendering them luminous, if a portion of
+the same were of a character too dense to admit of the penetration, the
+dark shadow of such obstacle would appear in the otherwise luminous
+mass.
+
+Unable to explain the nature or cause of this wonderful revelation,
+Roentgen gave to the light an algebraic name for the unknown--the X
+rays.
+
+This wonderful discovery, at first regarded as a figment of scientific
+magic, soon attracted profound attention. At first the experiments were
+confined to the gratification of curiosity--the interior of the hand was
+explored, and on one occasion the little mummified hand of an Egyptian
+princess folded in death three or four thousand years ago, was held up
+to this light, and the bones, dried blood, and muscle of the ancient
+Pharaohs exhibited to the startled eyes of the present generation. But
+soon surgery and medicine took advantage of the unknown rays for
+practical purposes. The location of previously unreachable bullets, and
+the condition of internal injuries, were determined; the cause of
+concealed disease was traced, the living brain explored, and the
+pulsations of the living heart were witnessed.
+
+Retardation of the strength of the electric current by the inductive
+influence of neighboring wires and earth currents, together with the
+theory that the electric energy pervades all space and matter, gave rise
+to the idea that if the energy once established could be set in motion
+at such point above the ordinary surface of the earth as would free this
+upper current from all inductive disturbance, impulses of such power
+might be conveyed from one high point and communicated to another as to
+produce signals without the use of a conducting wire, retaining only the
+usual batteries and the earth connection. On July 30th, 1872, Mahlen
+Loomis of Washington, D. C., took out a patent for "the utilization of
+natural electricity from elevated points" for telegraphic purposes,
+based on the principle mentioned, and made successful experiments on the
+Blue Ridge mountains in Virginia near Washington, accounts of which were
+published in Washington papers at the time; but being poor and receiving
+no aid or encouragement he was compelled to give it up. Marconi of Italy
+has been more successful in this direction, and has sent electric
+messages and signals from high stations over the English Channel from
+the shores of France to England. So that now wireless telegraphy is an
+established fact.
+
+It is certainly thrilling to realize that there is a mysterious, silent,
+invisible and powerful mechanical agent on every side of us, waiting to
+do our bidding, and to lend a hand in every field of human labour, and
+yet unable to be so used without excitement to action and direction in
+its course by some master, intermediate between itself and man. The
+principal masters for this purpose are steam and water power. A small
+portion of the power of the resistless Niagara has been taken, diverted
+to turn the machinery which excites electricity to action, and this
+energy in turn employed to operate a multitude of the most powerful
+motors and machines of many descriptions.
+
+So great is the might of this willing agent that at a single turn of the
+hand of man it rushes forth to do work for him far exceeding in wonder
+and extent any labour of the gods of mythological renown.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HOISTING, CONVEYING AND STORING.
+
+
+Allusion has been made to the stupendous buildings and works of the
+ancients and of the middle ages; the immense multitude of workers and
+great extent of time and labour employed in their construction; and how
+the awful drudgery involved in such undertakings was relieved by the
+invention of modern engineering devices--the cranes, the derricks, and
+the steam giants to operate them, so that vast loads which required
+large numbers of men and beasts to move, and long periods of time in
+which to move them, can now be lifted with ease and carried to great
+heights and distances in a few minutes by the hands of one or of a few
+men.
+
+But outside of the line of such undertakings there is an immense field
+of labor-saving appliances adapted for use in transportation of smaller
+loads from place to place, within and without buildings, and for
+carrying people and freight from the lower to the upper stories of tall
+structures. In fact the tall buildings which we see now in almost every
+great city towering cloudward from the ground to the height of fifteen,
+twenty and twenty-five stories, would have been extravagant and useless
+had not the invention of the modern elevator rendered their highest
+parts as easy of access as their lowest, and at the same time given to
+the air space above the city lot as great a commercial value in feet and
+inches as the stretch of earth itself.
+
+Many of the "sky-scrapers" so called, are splendid monuments of the
+latest inventions of the century.
+
+It is by means of the modern elevator that the business of a whole town
+may be transacted under a single roof.
+
+In the multiplicity of modern human contrivances by which the sweat and
+drudgery of life are saved, and time economised for worthier objects, we
+are apt to overlook the painful and laborious steps by which they were
+reached, and to regard with impatience, or at least with indifference,
+the story of their evolution; and yet no correct or profound knowledge
+of the growth of humanity to its higher planes can be obtained without
+noting to what extent the minor inventions, as well as the startling
+ones, have aided the upward progress.
+
+For instance, consider how few and comparatively awkward were the
+mechanical means before this century. The innumerable army of men when
+men were slaves, and when blood and muscle and brain were cheap, who,
+labouring with the beast, toiled upward for years on inclined ways to
+lay the stones of the stupendous pyramids, still had their counterpart
+centuries later in the stream of men carrying on their shoulders the
+loads of grain and other freight and burdens from the shore to the holds
+of vessels, from vessels to the shore, from the ground to high buildings
+and from one part of great warehouses to another. Now look at a vessel
+moved to a wharf, capable of holding fifty thousand or one hundred
+thousand bushels of grain and having that amount poured into it in three
+hours from the spouts of an elevator, to which the grain has been
+carried in a myriad buckets on a chain by steam power in about the same
+time; or to those arrangements of carriers, travelling on ropes, cords,
+wires, or cables, by which materials are quickly conveyed from one part
+of some structure or place to another, as hay and grain in barns or
+mows, ores from mines to cars, merchandise of all kinds from one part of
+a great store to another; or shot through pipes underground from one
+section of a city or town to their destination by a current of air.
+
+True, as it has before been stated, the ancients and later generations
+had the wedge, the pulley, the inclined plane, the screw and the
+windlass, and by these powers, modified in form and increased in size as
+the occasion demanded, in the form of cranes, derricks, and operated by
+animal power, materials were lifted and transported; but down to the
+time of the practical and successful application of steam by Watt in the
+latter part of the 18th century, and until a much later period in most
+places in the world, these simple means actuated alone by men or animals
+were the best means employed for elevating and conveying loads, and even
+they were employed to a comparatively limited extent.
+
+The century was well started before it was common to employ cups on
+elevator bands in mills, invented by Oliver Evans in 1780, to carry
+grain to the top of the mill, from whence it was to fall by gravity to
+the grinding and flouring apparatus below. It was not until 1795 that
+that powerful modern apparatus--the hydraulic, or hydrostatic, press was
+patented by Bramah in England. The model he then made is now in the
+museum of the Commissioner of Patents, London. In this a reservoir for
+water is provided, on which is placed a pump having a piston rod worked
+by a hand lever. The water is conveyed from the reservoir to a cylinder
+by a pipe, and this cylinder is provided with a piston carrying at its
+top a table, which rises between guides. The load to be carried is
+placed on this table, and as the machine was at first designed to
+compress materials the load is pressed by the rising table against an
+upper stationary plate. The elevation of the table is proportionate to
+the quantity of water injected, and the power proportionate to the
+receptive areas of the pump and the cylinder. The first great
+application of machines built on this principle was by Robert Stephenson
+in the elevation of the gigantic tubes for the tubular bridge across the
+Menai straits, already described in the chapter on Civil Engineering.
+The century was half through with before it was proposed to use water
+and steam for passenger elevators.
+
+In 1852 J. T. Slade in England patented a device consisting of a drum to
+be actuated by steam, water, or compressed air, around which drum ropes
+were wound, and to which ropes were attached separate cages in separate
+wells, to counterbalance each other, the cages moving in guides, and
+provided with brakes and levers to stop and control the cages and the
+movement of the drum. Louis T. Van Elvean, also of England, in 1858
+invented counterbalance weights for such lifts. Otis, an American,
+invented and patented in America and England in 1859 the first approach
+to the modern passenger elevator for hotels, warehouses, and other
+structures. The motive power was preferably a steam engine; and the
+elevating means was a large screw placed vertically and made to revolve
+by suitable gearing, and a cylinder to which the car was attached,
+having projections to work in the threads of the screw. Means were
+provided to start and to stop the car, and to retard its otherwise
+sudden fall and stoppage.
+
+Elevators, which are now so largely used to raise passengers and freight
+from the lower to the upper stories of high edifices, have for their
+motive power steam, water, compressed air, and electricity. With steam a
+drum is rotated over which a hoisting wire-rope is wound, to which the
+elevator car is attached. The car for passengers may be a small but
+elegantly furnished room, which is carried on guide blocks, and the
+stationary guides are provided with ratchet teeth with which pawls on
+the car are adapted to engage should the hoisting rope give way. To the
+hoisting rope is attached a counterbalance weight to partly meet the
+weight of the car in order to prevent the car from sticking fast on its
+passage, and also to prevent a sudden dropping of the car should the
+rope become slack. A hand rope for the operator is provided, which at
+its lower end is connected with a starting lever controlling the valves
+of the cylinders into which steam is admitted to start the piston shaft,
+which in turn actuates the gear wheels, by which movement the ropes are
+wound around the drums.
+
+In another form of steam elevator the drums are turned in opposite
+directions, by right and left worms driven by a belt.
+
+In the hydraulic form of elevator, a motor worked by water is employed
+to lift the car, although steam power is also employed to raise the
+water. The car is connected to wire cables passing over large sheaves at
+the top of the well room to a counterbalancing bucket. This bucket fits
+closely in a water-tight upright tube, or stand-pipe, about two feet in
+diameter, extending from the basement to the upper story. Near this
+stand-pipe in the upper story is placed a water supply tank. A pipe
+discharges the water from the tank into the bucket, which moves up and
+down in the stand pipe. There is a valve in the tank which is opened by
+stepping on a treadle in the car, and this action admits to the bucket
+just enough weight of water to overbalance the load on the car. As soon
+as the bucket is heavier than the car it descends, and of course draws
+the car upward, thus using the minimum power required to raise each
+load, rather than, when steam is employed, the full power of the engine
+each and every time. The speed is controlled by means of brakes or
+clamps that firmly clasp wrought-iron slides secured to posts on each
+side of the well room, the operator having control of these brakes by a
+lever on the car. When the car has ascended as far as desired, the
+operator steps upon another treadle in the car connected with a valve in
+the bottom of the bucket and thus discharges the water into the
+receiving tank below until the car is heavier than the bucket, when it
+then of course descends. The water is thus taken from the upper tank
+into the bucket, discharged through the stand-pipe into the receiving
+tank under the floor of the basement and then pumped back again to the
+upper tank, so that it is used over and over again without loss.
+
+Various modifications have been made in the hydraulic forms. In place of
+steam, electricity was introduced to control the hydraulic operation.
+Again, an electric motor has been invented to be placed on the car
+itself, with connected gearing engaging rack bars in the well.
+
+Elevators have been contrived automatically controlled by switch
+mechanisms on the landings; and in connection with the electric motor
+safety devices are used to break the motor circuit and thus stop the car
+the moment the elevator door is opened; and there are devices to break
+the circuit and stop the car at once, should an obstruction, the foot
+for instance, be accidentally thrust out into the path of the car frame.
+Columns of water and of air have been so arranged that should the car
+fall the fall will be broken by the water or air cushion made to yield
+gradually to the pressure. So many safety devices have been invented
+that there is now no excuse for accidents. They result by a criminal
+neglect of builders or engineers to provide themselves with such
+devices, or by a most ignorant or careless management and operation of
+simple actuating mechanisms.
+
+Between 1880 and 1890 there was great activity in the invention of what
+is known as store service conveyors. One of the earliest forms, and one
+which had been partly selected from other arts, was to suspend from a
+rigid frame work connected to the floor, roof, or side of the building,
+a long platform in the direction through the building it was desired the
+road to run, giving this platform a slight inclination. On this platform
+were placed tracks, and from the tracks were suspended trucks, baskets,
+or other merchandise receptacles, having wheels resting on and adapted
+to roll on the tracks. Double or single tracks could be provided as
+desired. The cars ran on these tracks by gravity, and considerable
+ingenuity was displayed in the feature alone of providing the out-going
+and returning inclined tracks; in hand straps and levers for raising and
+lowering the carriage, part or all of it, to or from the tracks, and in
+buffers to break the force of the blow of the carriages when arriving at
+their stopping places.
+
+Then about 1882-83 it was found by some inventors if moderately fine
+wires were stretched level, and as tight as possible, they would afford
+such little friction and resistance to light and nicely balanced wheels,
+that no inclination of the tracks was necessary, and that the carriages
+mounted on such wheels and tracks would run the entire length of a long
+building and turn corners not too sharp by a single initial push of the
+hand. In other arrangements a carrier is self-propelled by means of a
+coiled spring on the carrier, which begins its operation as soon as the
+carrier is given a start; and to meet the exhausted strength of such
+spring, coiled springs at different points on the line are arranged to
+engage and give the carrier an additional push. Before the carrier is
+stopped its action is such as to automatically rewind its spring.
+
+A system of pneumatic transmission was invented, by which a carrier is
+caused to travel through a tube by the agency of an air current, created
+therein by an air compressor, blower, or similar device. The device is
+so arranged that the air current is caused to take either direction
+through the tube; and in some instances gravity may be used to assist a
+vacuum formed behind the carrier. The tube is controlled at each end by
+one or more sliding gates or valves, and the carrier is made to actuate
+the gates, and close the one behind it, so that the carrier may be
+discharged without permitting the escape of the air and consequent
+reduction of pressure.
+
+An interesting invention has been made by James M. Dodge of Philadelphia
+in the line of conveyors, whereby pea coal and other quite heavy
+materials introduced by a hopper into a trough are subjected to a
+powerful air blast which pushes the material forward; and as the trough
+is provided with a series of frequently occurring slots or perforations
+open to the outer air and inclined opposite the direction of travel, the
+powerful current from the blower in escaping through such outlets tends
+to lift or buoy the material and carry it forward in the air current,
+thereby greatly reducing frictional contact and increasing the impelling
+operation. The inventor claims that with such an apparatus many tons of
+material per hour may be conveyed with a comparatively small working air
+pressure.
+
+In order that a conveyor carriage may be automatically switched off at a
+certain place or station on the line, one mode adopted was to arrange at
+a gate or station a sort of pin or projection or other deflector to
+engage some recess or corresponding feature on the carriage, so as to
+arrest and turn the carriage in its new direction at that point. Another
+mode was the adoption of electro-magnets, which would operate at a
+certain place to arrest or divert the carriage; and in either case the
+carriage was so constructed that its engaging features would operate
+automatically only in conjunction with certain features at a particular
+place on the line.
+
+Signals have been also adopted, in some cases operated by an electric
+current, by which the operator can determine whether or not the
+controlling devices have operated to stop the carrier at the desired
+place. By electric or mechanical means it is also provided that one or
+more loop branches may be connected with or disconnected from the main
+circuit.
+
+The "lazy tongs" principle has been introduced, by which a long
+lazy-tongs is shot forth through a tube or box to carry forward the
+carriage; and the same principle is employed in fire-escapes to throw up
+a cage to a great height to a window or other point, which cage is
+lowered gently and safely by the same means to the ground. Buffers of
+all kinds have been devised to effect the stoppage of the carrier
+without injury thereto under the different degrees of force with which
+it is moved upon its way, to prevent rebounding, and to enable the
+carrier to be discharged with facility at the end of its route.
+
+Among the early mechanical means of transporting the carriage was an
+endless cable moved continuously by an engine, and this adoption of
+cable principle in store service was co-eval with its adoption for
+running street cars. Also the system of switching the cars from the main
+line to a branch, and in different parts of a city, at the same time
+that all lines are receiving their motive power from the main line,
+corresponds to the manner of conveying cash to all parts of a building
+at the same time from many points.
+
+To the great department store or monstrous building wherein, as we have
+said, the whole business of a town may be transacted, the assemblage and
+conjoint use of elevators and conveyors seem to be actually necessary.
+
+A very useful and important line of inventions consists in means for
+forming connections between rotary shafts and their pulleys and
+mechanisms to be operated thereby, by which such mechanism can be
+started or stopped at once, or their motion reversed or retarded; or by
+which an actuating shaft may be automatically stopped. These means are
+known as _clutches_.
+
+They are designed often to afford a yielding connection between the
+shaft and a machine which shall prevent excessive strain and wear upon
+starting of the shaft. They are also often provided with a spring
+connection, which, in the rotation of the shaft in either direction,
+will operate to relieve the strain upon the shaft, or shafts, and its
+driving motor. Safety clutches are numerous, by which the machine is
+quickly and automatically stopped by the action of electro-magnets
+should a workman or other obstruction be caught in the machinery.
+
+Electric auxiliary mechanism has also been devised to start or stop the
+main machine slowly, and thus prevent injury to small or delicate parts
+of complicated machines, like printing presses for instance. Clutches
+are arranged sometimes in the form of weights, resembling the action of
+the weights in steam governors, whereby centrifugal action is relied
+upon for swinging the weights outward to effect a clutching and coupling
+of the shaft, or other mechanism, so that two lines of shafting are
+coupled, or the machine started, or speeded, at a certain time during
+the operation. In order to avoid the great mischief arising sometimes
+from undue strain upon and the breaking of a shaft, a weak coupling
+composed of a link is sometimes employed between the shaft and the
+driven machine, whereby, should the force become suddenly too great, the
+link of weaker metal is broken, and the connection between the shaft
+thereby destroyed and the machine stopped.
+
+To this class of inventions, as well as to many others, the phrase,
+"labour-saving", is applied as a descriptive term, and as it is a
+correct one in most instances, since they save the labour of many human
+hands, they are regarded by many as detrimental to a great extent, as
+they result in throwing out of employment a large number of persons.
+
+This derangement does sometimes occur, but the curtailment of the number
+of labourers is but temporary after all.
+
+The increased production of materials, resulting from cheaper and better
+processes, and from the reduced cost of handling them, necessitates the
+employment of a larger number of persons to take care of, in many ways,
+the greater output caused by the increased demand; the new machinery
+demands the labour of additional numbers in its manufacture; the
+increase in the size and heights of buildings involves new modes of
+construction and a greater number of artisans in their erection; new
+forms of industry springing from every practical invention which
+produces a new product or results in a new mode of operation,
+complicates the systems of labour, and creates a demand for a large
+number of employers and employees in new fields. Hence, it is only
+necessary to resort to comparative, statistics (too extensive to cite
+here) to show that the number of unemployed people in proportion to
+the populations, is less in the present age than in any previous
+one. In this sense, therefore, inventions should be classed as
+labour-_increasing_ devices.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+HYDRAULICS.
+
+
+The science of Hydraulics appears to be as old as the thirst of man.
+
+When prehistoric men had only stone implements, with which to do their
+work, they built aqueducts, reservoirs and deep wells which rival in
+extent many great similar works that are the boast of their modern
+descendants. Modern inventors have also produced with a flourish nice
+instrumentalities for raising water, agencies which are covered with the
+moss of untold centuries in China.
+
+It was more than an ancient observation that came down to Pliny's time
+for record, that water would rise to a level with its source. The
+observation, however, was put into practical use in his time and long
+before without a knowledge of its philosophical cause.
+
+Nothing in Egyptian sculpture portraying the arts in vogue around the
+cradle of the human race is older than the long lever rocking upon a
+cleft stick, one arm of the lever carrying a bracket and the other arm
+used to raise a bucket from a well. Forty centuries and more have not
+rendered this device obsolete.
+
+Among other machines of the Egyptians, the Carthaginians, the Greeks,
+and the Romans for raising water was the _tympanum_, a drum-shape wheel
+divided into radial partitions, chambers, or pockets, which were open to
+a short depth on the periphery of the wheel, and inclined toward the
+axis, and which was driven by animal or manual power. These pockets
+scooped up the water from the stream or pond in which the wheel was
+located as the wheel revolved, and directed it toward the axis of the
+wheel, where it ran out into troughs, pipes, or gutters. The _Noria_, a
+chain of pots, and the screw of Archimedes were other forms of ancient
+pumps. The bucket pumps with some modifications are known in modern
+times as scoop wheels, and have been used extensively in the drainage of
+lands, especially by the Dutch, who at first drove them by windmills and
+later by steam.
+
+The division of water-wheels into overshot, undershot and breast wheels
+is not a modern system.
+
+In the _Pneumatics of Hero_, which compilation of inventions appeared in
+225 B. C., seventy-nine illustrations are given and described of simple
+machines, between sixty and seventy of which are hydraulic devices.
+Among these, are siphon pumps, the force pump of Ctesibius, a
+"fire-pump," having two cylinders, and two pistons, valves, and levers.
+We have in a previous chapter referred to Hero's steam engine. The fact
+that a vacuum may be created in a pump into which water will rise by
+atmospheric pressure appears to have been availed of but not explained
+or understood.
+
+The employment of the rope, pulley and windlass to raise water was known
+to Hero and his countrymen as well as by the Chinese before them. The
+chain pump and other pumps of simple form have only been improved since
+Hero's day in matters of detail. The screw of Archimedes has been
+extended in application as a carrier of water, and converted into a
+conveyor of many other materials.
+
+Thus, aqueducts, reservoirs, water-wheels (used for grinding grain),
+simple forms of pumps, fountains, hydraulic organs, and a few other
+hydraulic devices, were known to ancient peoples, but their limited
+knowledge of the laws of pneumatics and their little mechanical skill
+prevented much general progress or extensive general use of such
+inventions.
+
+It is said that Frontinus, a Roman Consul, and inspector of public
+fountains and aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan, and who wrote
+a book, _De Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae Commentarius_, describing the
+great aqueducts of Rome, was the first and the last of the ancients to
+attempt a scientific investigation of the motions of liquids.
+
+In 1593 Serviere, a Frenchman, born in Lyons, invented the rotary pump.
+In this the pistons consisted of two cog wheels, their leaves
+intermeshing, and rotated in an elliptical shaped chamber. The water
+entered the chamber from a lower pipe, and the action of the wheels was
+such as to carry the water around the chamber and force it out through
+an opposite upper pipe. Subsequent changes involved the rotating of the
+cylinder instead of the wheels and many modifications in the form of the
+wheels. The same principle was subsequently adopted in rotary steam
+engines.
+
+In 1586, a few years before this invention of Serviere, Stevinus, the
+great engineer of the dikes of Holland, wrote learnedly on the
+_Principles of Statics and Hydrostatics_, and Whewell states that his
+treatment of the subject embraces most of the elementary science of
+hydraulics and hydrostatics of the present day. This was followed by the
+investigations and treatises of Galileo, his pupil Torricelli, who
+discovered the law of air pressure, the great French genius, Pascal, and
+Sir Isaac Newton, in the 17th century; and Daniel Bernoulli, d'Alembert,
+Euler, the great German mathematician and inventor of the centrifugal
+pump, the Abbe Bossut, Venturi, Eylewein, and others in the 18th
+century.
+
+It was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that mankind departed much
+from the practice of supplying their towns and cities with water from
+distant springs, rivers and lakes, by pipes and aqueducts, and resorted
+to water distribution systems from towers and elevated reservoirs.
+Certain cities in Germany and France were the first to do this, followed
+in the 18th century by England. This seems strange, as to England, as in
+1582 one Peter Maurice, a Dutch engineer, erected at London, on the old
+arched bridge across the Thames, a series of forcing pumps worked by
+undershot wheels placed in the current of the river, by which he forced
+a supply of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty buildings adjacent to
+the bridge. Before the inventions of Newcomen and Watt in the latter
+part of the 18th century of steam pumps, the lift and force pumps were
+operated by wheels in currents, by horses, and sometimes by the force of
+currents of common sewers.
+
+When the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and cities thus began to be
+pumped for drinking purposes, _strainers_ and _filters_ of various kinds
+were invented of necessity. The first ones of which there is any printed
+record made their appearance in 1776.
+
+After the principles of hydraulics had thus been reviewed and discussed
+by the philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries and applied, to the
+extent indicated, further application of them was made, and especially
+for the propelling of vessels. In 1718 La Hire revived and improved the
+double-acting pump of Ctesibius, but to what extent he put it into use
+does not appear. However, it was the double-acting pump having two
+chambers and two valves, and in which the piston acted to throw the
+water out at each stroke.
+
+In 1730 Dr. John Allen of England designed a vessel having a tunnel or
+pipe open at the stern thereof through which water was to be pumped into
+the air or sea--the reaction thus occasioned driving the vessel forward.
+He put such a vessel at work in a canal, working the pumps by manual
+labor, and suggested the employment of a steam engine. A vessel of this
+kind was patented by David Ramsey of England in 1738. Rumsey of America
+in 1782 also invented a similar vessel, built one 50 feet long, and ran
+it experimentally on the Potomac river. Dr. Franklin also planned a boat
+of this kind in 1785 and illustrated the same by sketches. His plan has
+since been tried on the Scheldt, but two turbines were substituted for
+his simple force pump. Further mention will be made later on of a few
+more elaborate inventions of this kind.
+
+It also having been discovered that the fall of a column of water in a
+tube would cause a portion of it to rise higher than its source by
+reason of the force of momentum, a machine was devised by which
+successive impulses of this force were used, in combination with
+atmospheric pressure, to raise a portion of the water at each impulse.
+This was the well-known _ram_, and the first inventor of such a machine
+was John Whitehurst of Cheapside, England, who constructed one in 1772.
+From a reservoir, spring, or cistern of water, the water was discharged
+downward into a long pipe of small diameter, and from thence into a
+shorter pipe governed by a stop-cock. On the opening of the stop-cock
+the water was given a quick momentum, and on closing the cock water was
+forced by the continuing momentum through another pipe into an air
+chamber. A valve in the latter-mentioned pipe opened into the air
+chamber. The air pressure served to overcome the momentum and to close
+the chamber and at the same time forced the water received into the air
+chamber up an adjacent pipe. Another impulse was obtained and another
+injection of water into the chamber by again opening the stop-cock, and
+thus by successive impulses water was forced into the chamber and
+pressed by the air up through the discharge pipe and thence through a
+building or other receptacle. But the fact that the stop-valve had to be
+opened and closed by hand to obtain the desired number of lifts rendered
+the machine ineffective.
+
+In 1796 Montgolfier, a Frenchman and one of the inventors of the
+balloon, substituted for the stop-cock of the Whitehurst machine a loose
+impulse valve in the waste pipe, whereby the valve was raised by the
+rush of the water, made to set itself, check the outflow and turn the
+current into the air chamber. This simple alteration changed the
+character of the machine entirely, rendered it automatic in action and
+converted it into a highly successful water-raising machine. For this
+invention Montgolfier obtained a Gold Medal from the French Exposition
+of 1802. Where a head can be had from four to six feet, water can be
+raised to the height of 30 feet. Bodies of water greater in amount than
+is desired to be raised can thus be utilised, and this simple machine
+has come into very extensive use during the present century.
+
+Allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful hydraulic press of
+Joseph Bramah invented in 1795-1800, its practical introduction in this
+century and improvements therein of others. After the great improvements
+in the steam engine made by Watt, water, steam and air pressure joined
+their forces on the threshold of this century to lift and move the
+world, as it had never been moved before.
+
+The strong hands of hydraulics are pumps. They are divided into classes
+by names indicating their purpose and mode of operation, such as single,
+double-acting, lift or force, reciprocating or rotary, etc.
+
+Knight, in his celebrated _Mechanical Dictionary_, enumerates 100
+differently constructed pumps connected with the various arts. In a
+broader enumeration, under the head of _Hydraulic Engineering and
+Engineering Devices_, he gives a list of over 600 species. The number
+has since increased. About nine-tenths of these contrivances have been
+invented during the 19th century, although the philosophical principles
+of the operation of most of them had been previously discovered.
+
+The important epochs in the invention of pumps, ending with the 18th
+century, were thus the single-acting pump of Ctesibius, 225 B. C., the
+double-acting of La Hire in 1718, the hydraulic ram of Whitehurst, 1772,
+and the hydraulic press of Bramah of 1795-1802.
+
+Bramah's press illustrates how the theories of one age often lie
+dormant, but if true become the practices of a succeeding age. Pascal,
+150 years before Bramah's time, had written this seeming hydraulic
+paradox: "If a vessel closed on all sides has two openings, the one a
+hundred times as large as the other, and if each be supplied with a
+piston which fits it exactly, then a man pushing the small piston will
+equilibrate that of 100 men pushing the piston which is 100 times as
+large, and will overcome the other 99." This is the law of the hydraulic
+press, that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same.
+
+The next important epoch was the invention of Forneyron in 1823, of the
+water-wheel known as the Turbine and also as the Vortex Wheel. If we
+will return a moment to the little steam engine of the ancient Hero of
+Alexandria, called the Eolipile, it will be remembered that the steam
+admitted into a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite
+pipes, having bent exits turned in contrary directions, caused the
+vessel to rotate by reason of the reaction of the steam against the
+pipes. In what is called Barker's mill, brought out in the 18th century,
+substantially the same form of engine is seen with water substituted for
+the steam.
+
+A turbine is a wheel usually placed horizontally to the water. The wheel
+is provided with curved internal buckets against which the water is led
+by outer curved passages, the guides and the buckets both curved in such
+manner that the water shall enter the wheel as nearly as possible
+without shock, and leave it with the least possible velocity, thereby
+utilising the greatest possible amount of energy.
+
+In the chapter on Electrical inventions reference is made to the mighty
+power of Niagara used to actuate a great number of electrical and other
+machines of vast power. This utilisation had long been the dream of
+engineers. Sir William Siemens had said that the power of all the coal
+raised in the world would barely represent the power of Niagara. The
+dream has been realised, and the turbine is the apparatus through which
+the power of the harnessed giant is transmitted. A canal is dug from the
+river a mile above the falls. It conducts water to a power house near
+the falls. At the power house the canal is furnished with a gate, and
+with cribs to keep back the obstructions, such as sticks. At the gate is
+placed a vertical iron tube called a penstock, 71/2 feet in diameter
+and 160 feet deep. At the bottom of the penstock is placed a turbine
+wheel fixed on a shaft, and to which shaft is connected an electric
+generator or other power machine. On opening the gate a mass of water
+71/2 feet in diameter falls upon the turbine wheel 160 feet below. The
+water rushing through the wheel turns it and its shaft many hundred
+revolutions a minute. All the machinery is of enormous power and
+dimensions. One electric generator there is 11 feet 7 inches in diameter
+and spins around at the rate of 250 revolutions a minute. Means are
+provided by which the speed of each wheel is regulated automatically.
+Each turbine in a penstock represents the power of 5,000 horses, and
+there are now ten or more employed.
+
+After the water has done its work on the wheels it falls into a tunnel
+and is carried back to the river below the falls. Not only are the
+manufactures of various kinds of a large town at the falls thus supplied
+with power, but electric power is transmitted to distant towns and
+cities.
+
+Turbine pumps of the Forneyron type have an outward flow; but another
+form, invented also by a Frenchman, Jonval, has a downward discharge,
+and others are oblique, double, combined turbine, rotary, and
+centrifugal, embodying similar principles. The term _rotary_, broadly
+speaking, includes turbine and centrifugal pumps. The centrifugal pump,
+invented by Euler in 1754, was taken up in the nineteenth century and
+greatly improved.
+
+In the centrifugal pump of the ordinary form the water is received at
+the centre of the wheel and diverted and carried out in an upward
+direction, but in most of its modern forms derived from the turbine, the
+principle is adopted of so shaping the vanes that the water, striking
+them in the curved direction, shall not have its line of curvature
+suddenly changed.
+
+Among modern inventions of this class of pumps was the "Massachusetts"
+of 1818 and McCarty's, in 1830, of America, that of some contemporary
+French engineers, and subsequently in France the Appold system, which
+latter was brought into prominent notice at the London Exposition of
+1851. Improvements of great value were also made by Prof. James Thompson
+of England.
+
+Centrifugal pumps have been used with great success in lifting large
+bodies of water to a moderate height, and for draining marshes and other
+low lands.
+
+Holland, Germany, France, England and America have, through some of
+their ablest hydraulic engineers and inventors, produced most remarkable
+results in these various forms of pumps. We have noted what has been
+done at Niagara with the turbines; and the drainage of the marshes of
+Italy, the lowlands of Holland, the fens of England and the swamps of
+Florida bear evidence of the value of kindred inventions.
+
+That modern form of pump known as the _injector_, has many uses in the
+arts and manufactures. One of its most useful functions is to
+automatically supply steam boilers with water, and regulate the supply.
+It was the invention of Giffard, patented in England in 1858, and
+consists of a steam pipe leading from the boiler and having its nozzle
+projecting into an annular space which communicates with a feed pipe
+from a water supply. A jet of steam is discharged with force into this
+space, producing a vacuum, into which the water from the feed pipe
+rushes, and the condensed steam and water are driven by the momentum of
+the jet into a pipe leading into the boiler. This exceedingly useful
+apparatus has been improved and universally used wherever steam boilers
+are found. This idea of injecting a stream of steam or water to create
+or increase the flow of another stream has been applied in
+_intensifiers_, to increase the pressure of water in hydraulic mains,
+pipes, and machines, by additional pressure energy. Thus the water from
+an ordinary main may be given such an increased pressure that a jet from
+a hydrant may be carried to the tops of high houses.
+
+In connection with pumping it may be said that a great deal has been
+discovered and invented during this century concerning the force and
+utilisation of jets of water and the force of water flowing through
+orifices. In the art of mining, a new system called _hydraulicising_ has
+been introduced, by which jets of water at high pressure have been
+directed against banks and hills, which have crumbled, been washed away,
+and made to reveal any precious ore they have concealed.
+
+To assist this operation _flexible nozzles_ have been invented which
+permit the stream to be easily turned in any desired direction.
+
+Returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic pressure, mention
+must be made of the recent invention of the _hydraulic jack_, a portable
+machine for raising loads, and which has displaced the older and less
+efficient screw jack. As an example of the practical utility of the
+hydraulic jack, about a half century ago it required the aid of 480 men
+working at capstans to raise the Luxor Obelisk in Paris, whilst within
+30 years thereafter Cleopatra's Needle, a heavier monument, was raised
+to its present position on the Thames embankment by four men each
+working one hydraulic jack.
+
+By the high pressures, or stresses given by the hydraulic press it was
+learned that cold metals have plasticity and can be moulded or stretched
+like other plastic bodies. Thus in one modification a machine is had for
+making lead pipes:--A "container" is filled with molten lead and then
+allowed to cool. The container is then forced by the pump against an
+elongated die of the size of the pipe required. A pressure from one to
+two tons per square inch is exerted, the lead is forced up through the
+die, and the pipe comes out completed. Wrought iron and cold steel can
+be forced like wax into different forms, and a rod of steel may be drawn
+through a die to form a piano wire.
+
+By another modification of the hydraulic press pipes and cables are
+covered with a coating of lead to prevent deterioration from rust and
+other causes.
+
+Not only are cotton and other bulky materials pressed into small compass
+by hydraulic machines, but very valuable oils are pressed from cotton
+seed and from other materials--the seed being first softened, then made
+into cakes, and the cakes pressed.
+
+If it is desired to line tunnels or other channels with a metal lining,
+shield or casing, large segments of iron to compose the casing are put
+in position, and as fast as the tunnel is excavated the casing is
+pressed forward, and when the digging is done the cast-iron tunnel is
+complete.
+
+If the iron hoops on great casks are to be tightened the cask is set on
+the plate of a hydraulic press, the hoops connected to a series of steel
+arms projecting from an overhanging support, and the cask is pressed
+upward until the proper degree of tightness is secured.
+
+In the application of hydraulic power to machine tools great advances
+have been made. It has become a system, in which Tweddle of England was
+a pioneer. The great force of water pressure combined with comparatively
+slow motion constitutes the basis of the system. Sir William Fairbairn
+had done with steam what Tweddle and others accomplished with water.
+Thus the enormous force of men and the fearful clatter formerly
+displayed in these huge works where the riveting of boilers was carried
+on can now be dispensed with, and in place of the noisy hammer with its
+ceaseless blows has come the steam or the hydraulic riveting machine,
+which noiselessly drives the rivet through any thickness of metal,
+clinches the same, and smooths the jointed plate. The forging and the
+rolling of the plates are performed by the same means.
+
+William George Armstrong of England, afterward Sir William, first a
+lawyer, but with the strongest bearing toward mechanical subjects,
+performed a great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering. It
+is claimed that he did for hydraulic machinery, in the storage and
+transmission of power thereby, what Watt did for the steam engine and
+Bessemer did for steel. In 1838 he produced his first invention, an
+important improvement in the hydraulic engine. In 1840, in a letter to
+the _Mechanics' Magazine_, he calls attention to the advantages of water
+as a mechanical agent and a reservoir of power, and showed how water
+pumped to an elevated reservoir by a steam engine might have the
+potential energy thus stored utilised in many advantageous ways. How,
+for instance, a small engine pumping continuously could thus supply many
+large engines working intermittently. In illustration of this idea he
+invented a crane, which was erected on Newcastle quay in 1846; another
+was constructed on the Albert dock at Liverpool, and others at other
+places. These cranes, adapted for the lifting and carrying of enormous
+loads, were worked by hydraulic pressure obtained from elevated tanks or
+reservoirs, as above indicated. But as a substitute for such tanks or
+reservoirs he invented the _Accumulator_. This consists of a large
+cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger, which is made to work
+water-tight therein by means of suitable packing. To this plunger is
+attached a weighted case filled with one or many tons of metal or other
+coarse material. Water is pumped into the cylinder until the plunger is
+raised to its full height within the cylinder, when the supply of water
+is cut off by the automatic operation of a valve. When the cranes or
+other apparatus to be worked thereby are in operation, water is passed
+from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates the crane through
+hydraulic pressure. This pressure of course depends upon the weight of
+the plunger. Thus a pressure of from 500 to 1,000 pounds per square inch
+may be obtained. The descending plunger maintains a constant pressure
+upon the water, and the water is only pumped into the cylinder when it
+is required to be filled. With sensitive accumulators of this character
+hydraulic machinery is much used on board ships for steering them, and
+for loading, discharging and storing cargoes.
+
+_Water Pressure Engines_ or _Water Motors_ of a great variety as to
+useful details have been invented to take advantage of a natural head of
+water from falls wherever it exists, or from artificial accumulators or
+from street mains. They resemble steam engines, in that the water under
+pressure drives a piston in a cylinder somewhat in the manner of steam.
+The underlying principle of this class of machinery is the admission of
+water under pressure to a cylinder which moves the piston and is allowed
+to escape on the completion of the stroke. They are divided into two
+great classes, single and double acting engines, accordingly as the
+water is admitted to one side of the piston only, or to both sides
+alternately. Both kinds are provided with a regulator in the form of a
+turn-cock, weight, or spring valve to regulate and control the flow of
+water and to make it continuous. They are used for furnishing a limited
+amount of power for working small printing presses, dental engines,
+organs, sewing machines, and for many other purposes where a light motor
+is desired.
+
+The nineteenth century has seen a revolution in _baths_ and accompanying
+_closets_. However useful, luxurious, and magnificent may have been the
+patrician baths of ancient Rome, that system, which modern investigators
+have found to be so complete to a certain extent, was not nor ever has
+been in the possession of the poor. It is within the memory of many now
+living everywhere how wretched was the sanitary accommodations in every
+populous place a generation or two ago. Now, with the modern water
+distribution systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which can be brought
+to the homes of all, with plunger, valved siphon and valved and washout
+closets, air valve, liquid seal, pipe inlet, and valve seal traps, and
+with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning systems for drains and
+cesspools, little excuse can be had for want of proper sanitary
+regulations in any intelligent community. The result of the adoption of
+these modern improvements in this direction on the health of the people
+has been to banish plagues, curtail epidemics, and prolong for years the
+average duration of human life.
+
+How multiplied are the uses to which water is put, and how completely it
+is being subjected to the use of man!
+
+Rivers and pipes have their metres, so that now the velocity and volume
+of rivers and streams are measured and controlled, and floods prevented.
+The supplies for cities and for families are estimated, measured and
+recorded as easily as are the supplies of illuminating gas, or the flow
+of food from elevators.
+
+Among the minor, but very useful inventions, are _water scoops_ for
+picking up water for a train while in motion, consisting of a curved
+open pipe on a car, the mouth of which strikes a current of water in an
+open trough between the tracks and picks up and deposits in a minute a
+car load of water for the engine. _Nozzles_ to emit jets of great
+velocity, and ball nozzles terminating in a cup in which a ball is
+loosely seated, and which has the effect, as it is lifted by the jet, to
+spread it into an umbrella-shaped spray, are of great value at fires in
+quenching flame and smoke.
+
+Next to pure air to breathe we need pure water to drink, and modern
+discoveries and inventions have done and are doing much to help us to
+both. Pasteur and others have discovered and explained the germ theory
+of disease and to what extent it is due to impure water. Inventors have
+produced _filters_, and there is a large class of that character which
+render the water pure as it enters the dwelling, and fit for all
+domestic purposes. A specimen of the latter class is one which is
+attached to the main service pipe as it enters from the street. The
+water is first led into a cylinder stored with coarse filtering material
+which clears the water of mud, sediment and coarser impurities, and then
+is conducted into a second cylinder provided with a mass of fine grained
+or powdered charcoal, or some other material which has the quality of
+not only arresting all remaining injurious ingredients, but destroys
+organisms, neutralises ammonia and other deleterious matter. From thence
+the water is returned to the service pipe and distributed through the
+house. The filter may be thoroughly cleansed by reversing the movement
+of the water, and carrying it off through a drain pipe until it runs
+clear and sweet, whereupon the water is turned in its normal course
+through the filter and house.
+
+In a very recent report of General J. M. Wilson, Chief of Engineers,
+U.S.A., the subject of filtration of water, and especially of public
+water supplies in England, the United States, and on the Continent, is
+very thoroughly treated, and the conclusion arrived at there is that the
+system termed "the American," or mechanical system, is the most
+successful one.
+
+This consists, first, in leading the water into one or more reservoirs,
+then coagulating suspended matter in the water by the use of the
+sulphate of alumina, and then allowing the water to flow through a body
+of coarse sand, by which the coagulated aluminated matter is caught and
+held in the interstices of the sand, and the bacteria arrested. All
+objectionable matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of the sand
+body, which portion is from time to time scraped off, and the whole sand
+mass occasionally washed out by upward currents of water forced through
+the same.
+
+By this system great rapidity of filtration is obtained, the rate being
+120,000,000 gallons a day per acre.
+
+The English system consists more in the use of extended and successive
+reservoirs or beds of sand alone, or aided by the use of the sulphate.
+This also is extensively used in many large cities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
+
+
+"The march of the human mind is slow," exclaimed Burke in his great
+speech on "Conciliation with the Colonies." It was at the beginning of
+the last quarter of the 18th century that he was speaking, and he was
+referring to the slow discovery of the eternal laws of Providence as
+applied in the field of political administration to distant colonies.
+The same could then have been said of the march of the human mind in the
+realms of Nature. How slow had been the apprehension of the forces of
+that kind but silent Mother whose strong arms are ever ready to lift and
+carry the burdens of men whenever her aid is diligently sought! The
+voice of Burke was, however, hardly silent when the human mind suddenly
+awoke, and its march in the realms of government and of natural science
+since then cannot be regarded as slow.
+
+More than fifteen centuries before Burke spoke, not only had Greece
+discovered the principles of political freedom for its citizens and its
+colonies, but the power of steam had been discovered, and experimental
+work been done with it.
+
+Yet when the famous orator made his speech the Grecian experiment was a
+toy of Kings, and the steam engine had just developed from this toy into
+a mighty engine in the hands of Watt. The age of mechanical inventions
+had just commenced with the production of machines for spinning and
+weaving. And yet, in view of the rise of learning, and the appearance
+from time to time of mighty intellects in the highest walks of science,
+the growth of the mind in the line of useful machinery had indeed been
+strangely slow. "Learning" had revived in Italy in the 12th and 13th
+centuries and spread westward in the 14th. In the 15th, gunpowder and
+printing had been discovered, and Scaliger, the famous scholar of Italy,
+and Erasmus, the celebrated Dutch philosopher, were the leading
+restorers of ancient literature. Science then also revived, and
+Copernicus, the Pole, gave us the true theory of the solar system. The
+16th century produced the great mathematicians and astronomers Tycho
+Brahe, the Dane, Cardan and Galileo, the illustrious Italians, and
+Kepler, the German astronomer, whose discovery of the laws of planetary
+motion supplemented the works of Copernicus and Galileo and illuminated
+the early years of the 17th century.
+
+In the 17th century appeared Torricelli, the inventor of the barometer;
+Guericke, the German, inventor of the air pump; Fahrenheit, the inventor
+of the mercurial thermometer bearing his name; Leibnitz, eminent in
+every department of science and philosophy; Huygens, the great Dutch
+astronomer and philosopher; Pascal of France and Sir Isaac Newton of
+England, the worthy successors of Kepler, Galileo and Copernicus; and
+yet, with the exception of philosophical discoveries and a few
+experiments, the field of invention in the way of motor engines still
+remained practically closed. But slight as had been the discoveries and
+experiments referred to, they were the mine from which the inventions of
+subsequent times were quarried.
+
+One of the earliest, if not the first of pneumatic machines, was the
+bellows. Its invention followed the discovery of fire and of metals. The
+bladders of animals suggested it, and their skins were substituted for
+the bladders.
+
+The Egyptians have left a record of its use, thirty-four centuries ago,
+and its use has been continuous ever since.
+
+Mention has been made of the cannon. It was probably the earliest
+attempt to obtain motive power from heat. The ball was driven out of an
+iron cylinder by the inflammatory power of powder. Let a piston be
+substituted for the cannon ball, as was suggested by Huygens in 1680 and
+by Papin in 1690, and the charge of powder so reduced that when it is
+exploded the piston will not be thrown entirely out of the cylinder,
+another small explosive charge introduced on the other side of the
+piston to force it back, or let the cylinder be vertical and the piston
+be driven back by gravity, means provided to permit the escape of the
+gas after it has done its work, and means to keep the cylinder cool, and
+we have the prototype of the modern heat engines. The gunpowder
+experiments of Huygens and Papin were not successful, but they were the
+progenitors of similar inventions made two centuries thereafter.
+
+Jan Baptista van Helmont, a Flemish physician (1577-1644), was the first
+to apply the term, _gas_ to the elastic fluids which resemble air in
+physical properties. Robert Boyle, the celebrated Irish scholar and
+scientist, and improver of the air pump, and Edwin Mariotte, the French
+physicist who was first to show that a feather and a coin will drop the
+same distance at the same time in a reservoir exhausted of air, were the
+independent discoverers of Boyle's and Mariotte's law of
+gases(1650-1676). This was that at any given temperature of a gas which
+is at rest its volume varies inversely with the pressure put upon it. It
+follows from this law that the density and tension, and therefore the
+expansive force of a gas, are proportional to the compressing force to
+which it is subjected. It is said that Abbe Hauteville, the son of a
+baker of Orleans, about 1678 proposed to raise water by a powder motor;
+and that in 1682 he described a machine based on the principle of the
+circulation of the blood, produced by the alternate expansion and
+contraction of the heart.
+
+The production of heat by concentrating the rays of the sun, and for
+burning objects had been known from the time of Archimedes, and been
+repeated from time to time.
+
+Thus stood this art at the close of the 17th century, and thus it
+remained until near the close of the 18th.
+
+In England Murdock, the Cornish Steam Engineer, was the first to make
+and use coal gas for illuminating purposes, which he did in 1792 and
+1798. Its utilisation for other practical purposes was then suggested.
+
+Gas engines as motive powers were first described in the English patent
+to John Barber, in 1791, and then in one issued to Robert Street in
+1794. Barber proposed to introduce a stream of carbonated hydrogen gas
+through one port, and a quantity of air at another, and explode them
+against the piston. Street proposed to drive up the piston by the
+expansive force of a heated gas, and anticipated many modern ideas.
+Phillipe Lebon, a French engineer, in 1799 and in 1801 anticipated in a
+theoretical way many ideas since successfully reduced to practice. He
+proposed to use coal gas to drive a piston, which in turn should move
+the shaft that worked the pumps which forced in the gas and air, and
+thus make the machine double-acting; to introduce a charge of
+inflammable gas mixed with sufficient air to ignite it; to compress the
+air and gas before they entered the motor cylinder; to introduce the
+charge alternately on each side of the piston; and he also suggested the
+use of the electric spark to fire the mixture. But Lebon was
+assassinated and did not live to work out his ideas.
+
+At the very beginning of the 19th century John Dalton in England,
+1801-1807, and Gay-Lussac in France began their investigations of gases
+and vapours. Dalton was not only the author of the atomic theory, but
+the discoverer of the leading ideas in the "Constitution of Mixed
+Gases." These features were the diffusion of gases, the action of gases
+on each other in vacuum--the influence of different temperatures upon
+them, their chemical constituents and their relative specific gravity.
+
+Gay-Lussac, continuing his investigations as to expansion of air and
+gases under increased temperatures, in 1807-10, established the law that
+when free from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to equal amounts
+for all equal increments of temperature. He also showed that the gases
+combine, as to volume, in simple proportions, and that several of them
+on being compounded contracted always in such simple proportions as
+one-half, one-third, or one-quarter, of their joint bulk. By these laws
+all forms of engines which were made to work through the agency of heat
+are classed as heat engines--so that under this head are included steam
+engines, air engines, gas engines, vapour engines and solar engines. The
+tie that binds these engines into one great family is temperature. It is
+the heat that does the work. Whether it is a cannon, the power of which
+is manifested in a flash, or the slower moving steam engine, whose
+throbbing heart beats not until water is turned to steam, or the sun,
+the parent of them all, whose rays are grasped and used direct, the
+question in all cases is, what is the amount of heat produced and how
+can it be controlled?
+
+It, then, can make no difference what the agent is that is employed,
+whether air, or gas, or steam, or the sun, or gunpowder explosion, but
+what is the temperature to be attained in the cylinder or vessel in
+which they work. Power is the measure of work done in a given time.
+Horse power is the unit of such measurement, and it consists of the
+amount of power that is required to raise one pound through a vertical
+distance of one foot. This power is pressure and the pressure is heat.
+The unit of heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
+of a pound of distilled water one degree--from 39 degrees to 40 degrees
+F. Its amount or measurement is determined in any instance by a
+dynamometer.
+
+These were the discoveries with which Philosophy opened the nineteenth
+century so brilliantly in the field of Pneumatics.
+
+Before that time it seemed impossible that explosive gases would ever be
+harnessed as steam had been and made to do continual successful work in
+a cylinder and behind a piston. As yet means were to be found to make
+the engine efficient as a double-acting one--to start the untamed steed
+at the proper moment and to stop him at the moment he had done his work.
+
+As Newcomen had been the first in the previous century to apply the
+steam engine to practical work--pumping water from mines--so Samuel
+Brown of England was the first in this century to invent and use a gas
+engine upon the water.
+
+Brown took out patents in 1823 and 1826. He proposed to use gunpowder
+gas as the motive power. His engine was also described in the
+_Mechanics' Magazine_ published in London at that time. In the making of
+his engine he followed the idea of a steam engine, but used the flame of
+an ignited gas jet to create a vacuum within the cylinder instead of
+steam. He fitted up an experimental boat with such an engine, and means
+upon the boat to generate the gas. The boat was then operated upon the
+Thames. He also succeeded experimentally in adapting his engine to a
+road carriage. But Brown's machines were cumbrous, complicated, and
+difficult to work, and therefore did not come into public use.
+
+About this time (1823), Davy and Faraday reawakened interest in gas
+engines by their discovery that a number of gases could be reduced to a
+liquid state, some by great pressure, and others by cold, and that upon
+the release of the pressure the gases would return to their original
+volume. In the condensation heat was developed, and in re-expansion it
+was rendered latent.
+
+Then Wright in 1833 obtained a patent in which he expounded and
+illustrated the principles of expansion and compression of gas and air,
+performed in separate cylinders, the production of a vacuum by the
+explosion and the use of a water jacket around the cylinder for cooling
+it.
+
+For William Burdett, in 1838, is claimed the honour of having been the
+first to invent the means of compressing the gas and air previous to the
+explosion, substantially the same as adopted in gas engines of the
+present day.
+
+The defects found in gas engines thus far were want of proper
+preliminary compression, then in complete expansion, and finally loss of
+heat through the walls.
+
+Some years later, Lenoir, a Frenchman, invented a gas engine of a
+successful type, of which three hundred in 1862 were in use in France.
+It showed what could be accomplished by an engine in which the fuel was
+introduced and fired directly in the piston cylinder. Its essential
+features were a cylinder into which a mixture of gas and air was
+admitted at atmospheric pressure, which was maintained until the piston
+made half its stroke, when the gas was exploded by an electric spark. A
+wheel of great weight was hung upon a shaft which was connected to the
+piston, and which weight absorbed the force suddenly developed by the
+explosion, and so moderated the speed. Another object of the use of the
+heavy wheel was to carry the machine over the one-half of the period in
+which the driving power was absent.
+
+Hugon, another eminent French engineer, invented and constructed a gas
+engine on the same principle as Lenair's.
+
+About this time (1850-60) M. Beau de Rohes, a French engineer,
+thoroughly investigated the reasons of the uneconomical working of gas
+motors, and found that it was due to want of sufficient compression of
+the gas and air previous to explosion, incomplete expansion and loss of
+heat through the walls of the cylinder, and he was the first to
+formulate a "cycle" of operations necessary to be followed in order to
+render a gas engine efficient. They related to the size and dimensions
+of the cylinder; the maximum speed of the piston; the greatest possible
+expansion, and the highest pressure obtainable at the beginning of the
+act of expansion. The study and application of these conditions created
+great advancements in gas engines.
+
+With the discovery and development of the oil wells in the United States
+about 1860 a new fuel was found in the crude petroleum, as well as a
+source of light. The application of petroleum to engines, either to
+produce furnace heat, or as introduced directly into the piston cylinder
+mixed with inflammable gas to produce flame heat and expansion, has
+given a wonderful impetus to the utilisation of gas engines.
+
+G. H. Brayton of the United States in 1873 invented a very efficient
+engine in which the vapour of petroleum mixed with air constituted the
+fuel. Adolf Spiel of Berlin has also recently invented a petroleum
+engine.
+
+Principal among those to whom the world is indebted for the revolution
+in the construction of gas engines and its establishment as a successful
+rival to the steam engine is Nicolaus A. Otto of Deutz on the Rhine.
+
+In the Lenair and Hugon system the expansive force of the exploded gas
+was used directly upon the piston, and through this upon the other
+moving parts. A great noise was produced by these constant explosions.
+In the Otto system the explosion is used indirectly and only to produce
+a vacuum below the piston, when atmospheric pressure is used to give the
+return stroke of the piston and produce the effective work. The Otto
+engine is noiseless. This is accomplished by his method of mixing and
+admitting the gases. He employs two different mixtures, one a "feebly
+explosive mixture," and the other "a strongly explosive mixture," used
+to operate on the piston and thus prolong the explosions.
+
+The mode of operation of one of Otto's most successful engines is as
+follows: The large fly wheel is started by hand or other means, and as
+the piston moves forward it draws into the cylinder a light charge of
+mixed coal gas and air, and the gas inlet is then cut off. As the piston
+returns it compresses this mixture. At the moment the down stroke is
+completed the compressed mixture is ignited, and, expanding, drives the
+piston before it. In the second return stroke the burnt gases are
+expelled from the cylinder and the whole made ready to start afresh.
+Work is actually done in the piston only during one-quarter of the time
+it is in motion. The fly-wheel carries forward the work at the outset
+and the gearing the rest of the time.
+
+Otto was associated with Langen in producing his first machine, and its
+introduction at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876
+excited great attention. Otto and E. W. and W. J. Crossley jointly, and
+then Otto singly, subsequently patented notable improvements.
+
+Simon Bischof and Clark, Hurd and Clayton in England; Daimler of Deutz
+on the Rhine, Riker and Wiegand of the United States, and others, have
+made improvements in the Otto system.
+
+Ammoniacal gas engines have been successfully invented. _Aqua ammonia_
+is placed in a generator in which it is heated. The heat separates the
+ammonia gas from the water, and the gas is then used to operate a
+suitable engine. The exhaust gas is cooled, passed into the previously
+weakened solution, reabsorbed and returned to the generator. In 1890
+Charles Tellier of France patented an ammoniacal engine, also means for
+utilising solar heat and exhaust steam for the same purpose; and in the
+same year De Susini, also of France, patented an engine operated by the
+vapour of ether; A. Nobel, another Frenchman, in 1894, patented a
+machine for propelling torpedoes and other explosive missiles, and for
+controlling the course of balloons, the motive power of which is a gas
+developed in a closed reservoir by the chemical reaction of metallic
+sodium or potassium in a solution of ammonia. These vapour engines are
+used for vapour launches, bicycles and automobiles.
+
+In 1851 the ideas of Huygens and Papin of two hundred years before were
+revived by W. M. Storm, who in that year took out a gunpowder engine
+patent in the United States, in which the air was compressed by the
+explosions of small charges of gunpowder. About fifteen other patents
+have been taken out in America since that time for such engines. In some
+the engines are fed by cartridges which are exploded by pulling a
+trigger.
+
+As to gas and vapor engines generally, it may now be said, in comparison
+with steam, that although the steam engine is now regarded as almost
+perfect in operation, and that it can be started and stopped and
+otherwise controlled quietly, smoothly, instantaneously, and in the most
+uniform and satisfactory manner, yet there is the comparatively long
+delay in generating the steam in the boiler, and the loss of heat and
+power as it is conducted in pipes to the working cylinder, resulting in
+the utilisation of only ten per cent of the actual power generated,
+whereas gas and vapour engines utilise twenty-five per cent of the power
+generated, and the flame and explosions are now as easily and
+noiselessly controlled as the flow of oil or water. The world is coming
+to agree with Prof. Fleeming Jenkins that "Gas engines will ultimately
+supplant the steam."
+
+The smoke and cinder nuisance with them has been solved.
+
+The sister invention of the gas engine is the air engine. There can be
+no doubt about the success of this busy body, as it is now a swift and
+successful motor in a thousand different fields. Machines in which air,
+either hot or cold, is used in place of steam as the moving power to
+drive a piston, or to be driven by a piston, are known generally as air,
+caloric, or hot-air engines, air compressors, or compressed air engines,
+and are also classed as pneumatic machines, air brakes, or pumps. They
+are now specifically known by the name of the purpose to which they are
+applied, as air ship, ventilator, air brake, fan blower, air pistol, air
+spring, etc.
+
+The attention of inventors was directed towards compressed and heated
+air as a motor as soon as steam became a known and efficient servant;
+but the most important and the only successful air machine existing
+prior to this century was the air pump, invented by Guericke in 1650,
+and subsequently perfected by Robert Boyle and others. The original pump
+and the Magdeburg hemispheres are still preserved.
+
+It is recorded that Amontons of France, in 1699, had an atmospheric fire
+wheel or air engine in which a heated column of air was made to drive a
+wheel.
+
+It has already been noted what Papin (1680-1690) proposed and did in
+steam. His last published work was a Latin essay upon a new system for
+raising water by the action of fire, published in 1707.
+
+The action of confined and compressed steam and gases, and air, is so
+nearly the same in the machines in which they constitute the motive
+power that the history, development, construction, and operation of the
+machines of one class are closely interwoven with those of the others.
+
+Taking advantage of what had been taught them by Watt and others as to
+steam and steam engines, and of the principles and laws of gases as
+expounded by Boyle, Mariotte, Dalton, and Gay-Lussac, that many of the
+gases, such as air, preserve a permanent expansive gaseous form under
+all degrees of temperature and compression to which they had as yet been
+subjected, that when compressed and released they will expand, and exert
+a pressure in the contrary direction until the gas and outside
+atmospheric pressure are in equilibrium, that this compressed gas
+pressure is equal, and transmitted equally in all directions, and that
+the weight of a column of air resting on every horizontal square inch at
+the sea level is very nearly 14.6 pounds, the inventors of the
+nineteenth century were enabled by this supreme illumination to enter
+with confidence into that work of mechanical contrivances which has
+rendered the age so marvellous.
+
+It was natural that in the first development of mechanical appliances
+they should be devoted to those pursuits in which men had the greatest
+practical interest. Thus as to steam it was first applied to the raising
+of water from mines and then to road vehicles. And so in 1800 Thos.
+Parkinson of England invented and patented an "hydrostatic engine or
+machine for the purpose of drawing beer or any other liquid out of a
+cellar or vault in a public house, which is likewise intended to be
+applied for raising water out of mines, ships or wells. By the use of a
+sort of an air pump he maintained an air pressure on the beer in an
+air-tight cask situated in the cellar, which was connected with pipes
+having air-tight valves, with the upper floor. The liquid was forced
+from the cellar by the air pressure, and when turned off, the air
+pressure was resumed in the cask, which "preserved the beer from being
+thrown into a state of flatness." Substantially the same device in
+principle has been reinvented and incorporated in patents numerous times
+since.
+
+In the innumerable applications of the pneumatic machines and air tools
+of the century, especially of air-compressing devices, to the daily uses
+of life, we may, by turning first to our home, find its inner and outer
+walls painted by a pneumatic paint-spraying machine, for such have been
+made that will coat forty-six thousand square feet of surface in six
+hours; and it is said that paint can be thus applied not only more
+quickly, but more thoroughly and durably than by the old process. The
+periodical and fascinating practice of house cleaning is now greatly
+facilitated by an air brush having a pipe with a thin wide end in which
+are numerous perforations, and through which the air is forced by a
+little pump, and with which apparatus a far more efficient cleaning
+effect upon carpets, mattresses, curtains, clothes, and furniture can be
+obtained than by the time-honoured broom and duster.
+
+Is the home uncomfortable by reason of heat and summer insects? A
+compressor having tanks or cisterns in the cellar filled with cool or
+cold air may be set to work to reduce the temperature of the house and
+fan the inmates with a refreshing breeze.
+
+Air engines have been invented which can be used to either heat or cool
+the air, or do one or the other automatically. The heating when wanted
+is by fuel in a furnace forced up by a working cylinder, and the cooling
+by the circulation of water around small, thin copper tubes through
+which the air passes to the cylinder.
+
+Do the chimes of the distant church bells lead one to the house of
+worship? The worshipper goes with the comforting assurance that the
+chimes which send forth such sweet harmonies are operated not by
+toiling, sweating men at ropes, but by a musician who plays as upon an
+organ, and works the keys, valves and stops by the aid of compressed
+air, and sometimes by the additional help of electricity.
+
+Mention has already been made of office and other elevators, in which
+compressed air is an important factor in operating the same and for
+preventing accidents.
+
+If a waterfall is convenient, air is compressed by the body of
+descending water, and used to ventilate tunnels, and deep shafts and
+mines, or drive the drills or other tools.
+
+The pneumatic mail tube despatch system, by which letters, parcels,
+etc., are sent from place to place by the force of atmospheric pressure
+in an air-exhausted tube, is a decidedly modern invention, unknown in
+use even by those who are still children. Tubes as large as eight inches
+in diameter are now in use in which cartridge boxes are placed, each
+holding six hundred or more letters, and when the air is exhausted the
+cartridge is forced through the tubes to the distance sometimes of three
+miles and more in a few minutes.
+
+In travelling by rail the train is now guided in starting or in stopping
+on to the right track, which may be one out of forty or fifty, by a
+pneumatic switch, the switches for the whole number of tracks being
+under the control of a single operator. The fast-moving train is stopped
+by an air brake, and the locomotive bell is rung by touching an air
+cylinder. The "baggage smashing," a custom more honoured in the breach
+than in the observance, is prevented by a pneumatic baggage arrangement
+consisting of an air-containing cylinder, and an arm on which to place
+the baggage, and which arm is then quickly raised by the cylinder piston
+and is automatically swung around by a cam action carrying the baggage
+out of or into the car.
+
+Bridge building has been so facilitated by the use of pneumatic machines
+for raising heavy loads of stone and iron, and for riveting and
+hammering, and other air tools, aided by the development in the art of
+quick transportation, that a firm of bridge builders in America can
+build a splendid bridge in Africa within a hundred days after the
+contract has been entered upon.
+
+Ship building is hastened by these same air drilling and riveting
+machines.
+
+The propelling of cars, road vehicles, boats, balloons, and even ships,
+by explosive gases and compressed air is an extensive art in itself, yet
+still in its infancy, and will be more fully described in the chapter on
+carrying machines.
+
+The realm of Art has received a notable advancement by the use of a
+little blow-pipe or atomiser by which the pigments forming the
+background on beautiful vases are blown with just that graduated force
+desired by the operator to produce the most exquisitely smooth and
+blended effects, while the varying colours are made to melt
+imperceptibly into one another as delicately as the mingled shade and
+coloured sunlight fall on a forest brook.
+
+But to enumerate the industrial arts to which air and other pneumatic
+machines have been adapted would be to catalogue them all. Mention is
+made of others in chapters in which those special arts are treated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATION AND LIGHTING.
+
+
+That Prometheus stole fire from heaven to give it to man is perhaps as
+authentic an account of the invention of fire as has been given. It is
+also reported that he brought it to earth in a hollow tube. If a small
+stick or twig had then been dipped into the divine fire the suggestion
+of the modern match may be supposed to have been made.
+
+But men went on to reproduce the fire in the old way by rubbing pieces
+of wood together, or using the flint, the steel and the tinder until
+1680, when Godfrey Hanckwitz of London, learning of the recent discovery
+of phosphorus and its nature, and inspired by the Promethean idea,
+wrapped the phosphorus in folds of brown paper, rubbed it until it took
+fire, and then ignited thereat one end of a stick which he had dipped in
+sulphur; and this is commonly known as the first invented match. There
+followed the production of a somewhat different form of match, sticks
+first dipped in sulphur, and then in a composition of chlorate potash,
+sulphur, colophony, gum of sugar, and cinnabar for coloring. These were
+arranged in boxes, and were accompanied by a vial containing sulphuric
+acid, into which the match was dipped and thereby instantly ignited.
+These were called chemical matches and were sold at first for the high
+price of fifteen shillings a box.
+
+They were too costly for common use, and so our fathers went on to the
+nineteenth century using the flint, the steel and the tinder, and
+depending on the coal kept alive upon their own or their neighbour's
+hearth.
+
+Prometheus, however, did reappear about 1820-25, when a match bearing
+the name "Promethean" was invented. It consisted of a roll of paper
+treated with sugar and chlorate of potash and a small cell containing
+sulphuric acid. This cell was broken by a pair of pliers and the acid
+ignited the composition by contact therewith.
+
+It was not until 1827-29 that John Walker, chemist, at
+Stockton-upon-Tees, improved upon the idea of Prometheus and Hanckwitz
+of giving fire to men in a hollow tube. He used folded sanded paper--it
+may have been a tube--and through this he drew a stick coated with
+chlorate of potash and phosphorus. This successful match was named
+"Lucifer," whose other name was Phosphor, the Morning Star, and the King
+of the Western Land. Faraday, to whom also was given Promethean
+inspiration, procured some of Walker's matches and brought them to
+public notice.
+
+In many respects the mode of their manufacture has been improved, but in
+principle of composition and ignition they remain the same as Walker's
+to-day. In 1845, Schrotter of Vienna discovered amorphous or allotropic
+phosphorus, which rendered the manufacture of matches less dangerous to
+health and property. Tons of chemicals and hundreds of pine trees are
+used yearly in the making of matches, and many hundreds of millions of
+them are daily consumed.
+
+But this vast number of matches could not be supplied had it not been
+for the invention of machines for making and packing them. Thus in 1842
+Reuben Partridge of America patented a machine for making splints.
+Others for making splints and the matches separately, quickly followed.
+Together with these came match dipping and match box machines. The
+splint machines were for slitting a block of wood of the proper height
+downward nearly the whole way into match splints, leaving their butts in
+the solid wood. These were square and known as block matches. Other
+mechanisms cut and divided the block into strips, which were then dipped
+at one end, dried and tied in bundles. By other means, a swing blade,
+for instance, the matches were all severed from the block. Matches are
+made round by one machine by pressing the block against a plate having
+circular perforations, and the interspaces are beveled so as to form
+cutting edges.
+
+Poririer, a Frenchman, invented a machine for making match boxes of
+pasteboard. Suitable sized rectangular pieces of pasteboard rounded at
+the angles for making the body of the box are first cut, then these
+pieces are introduced into the machine, where by the single blow of a
+plunger they are forced into a matrix or die and pressed, and receive by
+this single motion their complete and final shape. The lid is made in
+the same way.
+
+By one modern invention matches after they are cut are fed into a
+machine at the rate of one hundred thousand an hour, on to a horizontal
+table, each match separated from the other by a thin partition. They are
+thus laid in rows, one row over another, and while being laid, the
+matches are pushed out a little way beyond the edge of the table, a
+distance far enough to expose their ends and to permit them to be
+dipped. When a number of these rows are completed they are clamped
+together in a bundle and then dipped--first, into a vessel of hot
+sulphur, and then into one of phosphorus, or other equivalent
+ingredients may be used or added. After the dipping they are subjected
+to a drying process and then boxed. Processes differ, but all are
+performed by machinery.
+
+In many factories where phosphorus is used without great care workmen
+have been greatly affected thereby. The fumes of the phosphorus attack
+the teeth, especially when decayed, and penetrate to the jaw, causing
+its gradual destruction, but this has been avoided by proper
+precautions.
+
+The greatly-increased facility of kindling a fire by matches gave an
+impetus to the invention of _cooking and heating stoves_. Of course
+stoves, generically speaking, are not a production of the nineteenth
+century. The Romans had their _laconicum_ or heating stove, which from
+its name was an invention from Laconia. It probably was made in most
+cases of brick or marble, but might have been of beaten iron, was
+cylindrical in shape, with an open cupola at the top, and was heated by
+the flames of the _hypocaust_ beneath. The _hypocaust_ was a hot-air
+furnace built in the basement or cellar of the house and from which the
+heat was conducted by flues to the bath rooms and other apartments. The
+Chinese ages ago heated their hollow tiled floors by underground furnace
+fires. We know of the _athanor_ of the alchemists of the middle ages.
+Knight calls it the "original base-burning furnace." A furnace of iron
+or earthenware was provided on one side with an open stack or tower
+which opened at the bottom into the furnace, and which stack was kept
+filled with charcoal, or other fuel, which fed itself automatically into
+the furnace as the fuel on the bed thereof burned away. Watt introduced
+an arrangement on the same principle in his steam boiler furnace in
+1767, and thousands of stoves are now constructed within England and the
+United States also embodying the same principle.
+
+The earthenware and soapstone stoves of continental Europe were used
+long before the present century.
+
+In Ben Franklin's time in the American Colonies there was not much of a
+demand for stoves outside of the largest cities, where wood was getting
+a little scarce and high, but the philosopher not only deemed it proper
+to invent an improvement in chimneys to prevent their smoking and to
+better heat the room, but also devised an improved form of stove, and
+both inventions have been in constant use unto this day. Franklin
+invented and introduced his celebrated stove, which he called the
+Pennsylvania Fire Place, in 1745, having all the advantages of a
+cheerful open fireplace, and a heat producer; and which consisted of an
+iron stove with an open front set well into the room, in which front
+part the fire was kindled, and the products of combustion conducted up a
+flue, and thence under a false back and up the chimney. Open heat spaces
+were left between the two flues. Air inlets and dampers were provided.
+In his description of this stove at that time Franklin also referred to
+the iron box stoves used by the Dutch, the iron plates extending from
+the hearths and sides, etc., chimneys making a double fireplace used by
+the French, and the German stove of iron plates, and so made that the
+fuel had to be put into it from another room or from the outside of the
+house. He dwells upon the pleasure of an open fire, and the destruction
+of this pleasure by the use of the closed stoves. He also describes the
+discomforts of the fireplace in cold weather--of the "cold draught
+nipping one's back and heels"--"scorched before and frozen behind"--the
+sharp draughts of cold from crevices from which many catch cold and from
+"whence proceed coughs, catarrhs, toothaches, fevers, pleurisies and
+many other diseases." Added to the pleasure of seeing the crackling
+flames, feeling the genial warmth, and the diffusion of a spirit of
+sociability and hospitality, is the fact of increased purity of the air
+by reason of the fireplace as a first-class ventilator. Hence it will
+never be discarded by those who can afford its use; but it alone is
+inadequate for heating and cooking purposes. It is modernly used as a
+luxury by those who are able to combine with it other means for heating.
+
+The great question for solution in this art at all times has been how to
+produce through dwelling houses and larger buildings in cold and damp
+weather a uniform distribution and circulation of pure heated air. The
+solution of this question has of course been greatly helped in modern
+times by a better knowledge of the nature of air and other gases, and
+the laws which govern their motions and combinations at different
+temperatures.
+
+The most successful form of heating coal stove of the century has been
+one that combined in itself the features of base-burning: that is, a
+covered magazine at the centre or back of the stove open at or near the
+top of the stove into which the coal is placed, and which then feeds to
+the bottom of the fire pot as fast as the coal is consumed, a heavy open
+fire pot placed as low as possible, an ash grate connected with the
+bottom of the pot which can be shaken and dumped to an ash box beneath
+without opening the stove, thus preventing the escape of the dust, an
+illuminating chamber nearly or entirely surrounding the fire pot,
+provided with mica windows, through which the fire is reflected and the
+heat radiated, a chamber above the fire pot and surrounding the fuel
+chamber and into which the heat and hot gases arise, producing
+additional radiating surface and permitting the gases to escape through
+a flue in the chimney, or, leading them first through another chamber to
+the base of the stove and thence out, and dampers to control and
+regulate the supply of air to the fuel, and to cut off the escape or
+control the course of the products of combustion.
+
+The cheerful stove fireplace and stove of Franklin and the French were
+revived, combined and improved some years ago by Capt. Douglas Galton of
+the English army for use in barracks, but this stove is also admirably
+adapted for houses. It consists of an open stove or grate set in or at
+the front of the fireplace with an air inlet from without, the throat of
+the fireplace closed and a pipe extending through it from the stove into
+the chimney. Although a steady flow of heat, desirable regulation of
+temperature and great economy in the consumption of fuel, by reason of
+the utilisation of so much of the heat produced, were obtained by the
+modern stove, yet the necessity of having a stove in nearly every room,
+the ill-ventilation due to the non-supply of pure outer air to the room,
+the occasional diffusion of ash dust and noxious gases from the stove,
+and inability to heat the air along the floor, gave rise to a revival of
+the hot-air furnace, placed under the floor in the basement or cellar,
+and many modern and radical improvements therein.
+
+The heat obtained from stoves is effected by radiation--the throwing
+outward of the waves of heat from its source, while the heat obtained
+from a hot-air furnace is effected by convection--the moving of a body
+of air to be heated to the source of heat, and then when heated bodily
+conveyed to the room to be warmed. Hence in stoves and fireplaces only
+such obstruction is placed between the fire and the room as will serve
+to convey away the obnoxious smoke and gases, and the greatest facility
+is offered for radiation, while in hot-air furnaces, although provision
+is also made to carry away the smoke and impure gases, yet the radiation
+is confined as closely as possible to chambers around the fire space,
+which chambers are protected by impervious linings from the outer air,
+and into which fresh outdoor air is introduced, then heated and conveyed
+to different apartments by suitable pipes or flues, and admitted or
+excluded, as desired, by registers operated by hand levers.
+
+There are stationary furnaces and portable furnaces; the former class
+enclose the heating apparatus in walls of brick or other masonry, while
+in the latter the outer casing and the inner parts are metal structures,
+separable and removable. In both classes an outer current of pure air is
+made to course around the fire chamber and around among other flues and
+chambers through which the products of combustion are carried, so that
+all heat possible is utilised. Vessels of water are supplied at the most
+convenient place in one of the hot-air chambers to moisten and temper
+the air, and dampers are placed in the pipes to regulate and guide the
+supply of heat to the rooms above.
+
+After Watt had invented his improvements on the steam engine the idea
+occurred to him of using steam for heating purposes. Accordingly, in
+1784, he made a hollow sheet-iron box of plates, and supplied it with
+steam from the boiler of the establishment. It had an air-escape cock,
+and condensed-water-escape pipe; and in 1799 Boulton and Watt
+constructed a heating apparatus in Lee's factory, Manchester, in which
+the steam was conducted through cast-iron pipes, which also served as
+supports to the floor. Patents were also taken out by others in England
+for steam-heating apparatuses during the latter part of the 18th
+century.
+
+Heating by the circulation of hot water through pipes was also
+originated or revived during the 18th century, and a short time before
+Watt's circulation of steam. It is said that Bonnemain of England, in
+1777, desiring to improve the ancient methods of hatching poultry by
+artificial heat--practised by both ancient and modern Egyptians ages
+before it became a latter day wonder, and taught the Egyptians by the
+ostriches--conceived the idea of constructing quite a large incubator
+building with shelves for the eggs, coops for holding the chickens, and
+a tube for circulating hot water leading from a boiler below and above
+each shelf, and through the coops, and back to the boiler. This
+incubator contains the germs of modern water heaters. In both the steam
+and water heating systems the band or collection of pipes in each room
+may be covered with ornamental radiating plates, or otherwise treated or
+arranged to render them sightly and effective. In one form of the
+hot-water system, however, the collection of a mass of pipes in the
+rooms is dispensed with, and the pipes are massed in an air chamber over
+or adjacent to the furnace, where they are employed to heat a current of
+air introduced from the outside, and which heated pure air is conveyed
+through the house by flues and registers as in the hot-air furnace
+system.
+
+The hanging of the crane, the turning of the spit, the roasting in ashes
+and on hot stones, the heating of and the baking in the big "Dutch"
+ovens, and some other forms of cooking by our forefathers had their
+pleasures and advantages, and still are appreciated under certain
+circumstances, and for certain purposes, but are chiefly honoured in
+memory alone and reverenced by disuse; while the modern cooking stove
+with its roasting and hot water chambers, its numerous seats over the
+fire for pots, pans, and kettles, its easy means of controlling and
+directing the heat, its rotating grate, and, when desired, its rotating
+fire chamber, for turning the hot fire on top to the bottom, and the
+cold choked fire to the top, its cleanliness and thorough heat, its
+economy in the use of fuel, is adopted everywhere, and all the glowing
+names with which its makers and users christen it fail to exaggerate its
+qualities when rightly made and used.
+
+It would appear that the field of labour and the number of labourers,
+chiefly those who toiled with brick and mortar, were greatly reduced
+when those huge fireplaces were so widely discarded. This must have
+seemed so especially in those regions where the houses were built up to
+meet the yearning wants of an outside chimney, but armies of men are
+engaged in civilised countries in making stoves and furnaces, where
+three-quarters of a century ago very few were so employed. As in every
+industrial art old things pass away, but the new things come in greater
+numbers, demand a greater number of workers, develop new wants, new
+fields of labour, and the new and increasing supply of consumers refuse
+to be satisfied with old contrivances.
+
+In the United States alone there are between four and five hundred stove
+and furnace foundries, in which about ten thousand people are employed,
+and more than three million stoves and furnaces produced annually, which
+require nearly a million tons of iron to make, and the value of which is
+estimated as at least $100,000,000.
+
+The matter of _ventilation_ is such a material part of heating that it
+cannot escape attention. There can be no successful heating without a
+circulation of air currents, and fortunately for man in his house no
+good fire can be had without an outflow of heat and an inflow of cooler
+air. The more this circulation is prevented the worse the fire and the
+ventilation.
+
+It seems to many such a simple thing, this change of air--only to keep
+open the window a little--to have a fireplace, and convenient door. And
+yet some of the brightest intellects of the century have been engaged in
+devising means to accomplish the result, and all are not yet agreed as
+to which is the best way.
+
+How to remove the heated, vitiated air and to supply fresh air while
+maintaining the same uniform temperature is a problem of long standing.
+The history of the attempts to heat and ventilate the Houses of
+Parliament since Wren undertook it in 1660 has justly been said to be
+history of the Art of Ventilation since that time, as the most eminent
+scientific authorities in the world have been engaged or consulted in
+it, and the most exhaustive reports on the subject have been rendered by
+such men as Gay-Lussac, Sir Humphry Davy, Faraday and Dr. Arnott of
+England and Gen. Morin of France. The same may be said in regard to the
+Houses of Congress in the United States Capitol for the past thirty-five
+years. Prof. Henry, Dr. Billings, the architect, Clark, of that country,
+and many other bright inventors and men of ability have given the
+subject devoted attention. Among the means for creating ventilation are
+underground tunnels leading to the outer air, with fans in them to force
+the fresh air in or draw the poor air out, holes in the ceiling, fire
+places, openings over the doors, openings under the eaves, openings in
+the window frames, shafts from the floor or basement with fires or gas
+jets to create an upward draught, floors with screened openings to the
+outer air, steam engines to work a suction pipe in one place and a blow
+pipe in another, air boxes communicating with the outer air, screens,
+hoods, and deflectors at these various openings,--all these, separately
+or in combination, have been used for the purpose of drawing the
+vitiated air out and letting the pure air in without creating draughts
+to chill the sensitive, or overheating to excite the nervous.
+
+There seems to have been as many devices invented to keep a house or
+building closed up tight while highly heating it, as to ventilate the
+same and preserve an even, moderate temperature.
+
+The most approved system of ventilation recognises the fact that air is
+of the same weight and is possessed of the same constituents in one part
+of a room as at another, and to create a perfect ventilation a complete
+change and circulation must take place. It therefore creates a draught,
+arising from the production of a vacuum by a current of heat or by
+mechanical means, or by some other way, which draws out of a room the
+used up, vitiated air through outlets at different places, while pure
+outer air is admitted naturally, or forced in if need be, through
+numerous small inlets, such outlets and inlets so located and
+distributed and protected as not to give rise to sensible draughts on
+the occupants.
+
+The best system also recognises the fact that all parts of a house, its
+cellars and attic, its parlours and kitchens, its closets, bathrooms and
+chambers, should be alike clean and well ventilated, and that if one
+room is infected all are infected.
+
+The laurels bestowed on inventors are no more worthily bestowed than on
+those who have invented devices which give to our homes, offices,
+churches and places of amusement a pure and comfortable atmosphere.
+
+_Car Heaters._--The passing away of the good old portable foot stove for
+warming the feet, especially when away from home, and while travelling,
+is not to be regretted, although in some instances it was not at first
+succeeded by superior devices. For a long time after the introduction of
+steam, railroad cars and carriages, in which any heat at all was used,
+were heated by a stove in each car--generally kept full of red hot coal
+or wood--an exceedingly dangerous companion in case of accident. Since
+1871 systems have been invented and introduced, the most successful of
+which consists of utilising the heat of the steam from the locomotive
+for producing a hot-water circulation through pipes along the floor of
+each car, and in providing an emergency heater in each car for heating
+the water when steam from the locomotive is not available.
+
+_Grass-burning Stoves._--There are many places in this world where
+neither wood nor coal abound, or where the same are very scarce, but
+where waste grass and weeds, waste hay and straw, and similar
+combustible refuse are found in great abundance. Stoves have been
+invented especially designed for the economical consumption of such
+fuel. One requisite is that such light material should be held in a
+compressed state while in the stove to prevent a too rapid combustion.
+Means for so holding the material under compression appear to have been
+first invented and patented by Hamilton of America in 1874.
+
+Some means besides the sickle and scythe, hoe and plough, were wanted to
+destroy obnoxious standing grass and weeds. A weed like the Russian
+thistle, for instance, will defy all usual means for its extermination.
+A fire chamber has been invented which when drawn over the ground will
+burn a swath as it advances, and it is provided with means, such as a
+wide flange on the end of the chamber, which extinguishes the fire and
+prevents its spreading beyond the path. A similar stove with jets of
+flame from vapour burners has been used to soften hard asphalt pavement
+when it is desired to take it up.
+
+The art of heating and cooking by oil, vapour and gas stoves is one that
+has arisen during the latter half of this century, and has become the
+subject of a vast number of inventions and extensive industries. Stoves
+of this character are as efficient and economical as coal stoves, and
+are in great demand, especially where coal and wood are scarce and
+high-priced.
+
+_Oil stoves_ as first invented consisted of almost the ordinary lamp,
+without the glass shade set in the stove and were similar to gas stoves.
+But these were objectionable on account of the fumes emitted. By later
+inventions the lamp has been greatly improved. The wick is arranged
+within tubular sliding cylinders so as to be separated from the other
+parts of the stove when it is not lit, and better regulating devices
+adopted, whereby the oil is prevented from spreading from the wick on to
+the other parts of the stove, which give rise to obnoxious fumes by
+evaporation and heating. Some recent inventors have dispensed with the
+wick altogether and the oil is burned practically like vapour.
+_Gasoline_, and other heavy oily vapours are in many stoves first
+vapourised by a preliminary heating in a chamber before the gas is
+ignited for use. These vapours are then conducted by separate jets to
+different points in the stove where the heat is to be applied. The
+danger and unpleasant flame and smoke arising from this vapourising in
+the stove have been obviated by inventions which vapourise the fuel by
+other means, as by carbonating, or loading the air with the vapour in an
+elevated chamber and conducting the saturated air to the burners; or by
+agitation, by means of a quick-acting, small, but powerful fan.
+
+_Sterilising._--The recent scientific discoveries and investigations of
+injurious bacteria rendered it desirable to purify water by other means
+than filtering, especially for the treatment of disease-infected
+localities; and this gave rise to the invention of a system of heat
+sterilising and filtering the water, in one process, and out of contact
+with the germ-laden air, thus destroying the bacteria and delivering the
+water in as pure and wholesome condition as possible. West in 1892
+patented such a system.
+
+_Electric Heating and Cooking._--Reference has already been made in the
+Chapter on Electricity to the use of that agent in heating and cooking.
+The use of the electric current for these purposes has been found to be
+perfectly practical, and for heating cars especially, where electricity
+is the motive power, a portion of the current is economically employed.
+
+The art of heating and cooking naturally suggests the other end of the
+line of temperature--_Refrigeration_.
+
+A refrigeration by which ordinary ice is artificially produced,
+perishable food of all kinds preserved for long times, and transported
+for great distances, which has proved an immense advantage to mankind
+everywhere and is still daily practised to the gratification and comfort
+of millions of men, must receive at least a passing notice. The Messrs.
+E. and F. Carre of France invented successful machines about 1870 for
+making ice by the rapid absorption and evaporation of heat by the
+ammonia process. The discoveries and inventions of others in the
+artificial production of cold by means of volatile liquids, whether for
+the making of ice or other purposes, constituted a great step in the art
+of refrigeration.
+
+Vaporisation, absorption, compression or reduction of atmospheric
+pressure are the principal methods of producing cold. By vaporisation,
+water, ether, sulphuric acid, ammonia, etc., in assuming the vaporous
+form change sensible heat to latent heat and produce a degree of cold
+which freezes an adjacent body of water. The principle of making ice by
+evaporation and absorption may be illustrated by two examples of the
+Carre methods:--It is well known what a great attraction sulphuric acid
+has for water. Water to be frozen is placed in a vessel connected by a
+pipe to a reservoir containing sulphuric acid. A vacuum is produced in
+this reservoir by the use of an air pump, while the acid is being
+constantly stirred. Lessening of the atmospheric pressure upon water
+causes its evaporation, and as the vapour is quietly absorbed by the
+sulphuric acid the water is quickly congealed. It is known that ammonia
+can be condensed into liquid form by pressure or cold, and is absorbed
+by and soluble in water to an extraordinary degree. A generator
+containing a strong solution of ammonia is connected by a pipe to an
+empty receiver immersed in cold water. The ammonia generator is then
+heated, its vapour driven off and conducted to a jacket around the
+centre of the receiver and is there condensed by pressure of an air
+pump. The central cylindrical space in the receiver is now filled with
+water, and the operation is reversed. The generator is immersed in cold
+water and pressure on the liquid ammonia removed. The liquid ammonia now
+passes into the gaseous state, and is conducted to and reabsorbed by the
+water in the generator. But in this evaporation great cold is produced
+and the water in the receiver is soon frozen.
+
+Twining's inventions in the United States in 1853 and 1862 of the
+compression machine, followed by Pictet of France, and a number of
+improvements elsewhere have bid fair to displace the absorption method.
+In dispensing with absorption these machines proceed on the now
+well-established theory that air and many other gases become heated when
+compressed; that this heat can then be drawn away, and that when the gas
+is allowed to re-expand it will absorb a large amount of heat from any
+solid or fluid with which it is brought in contact, and so freeze it.
+Accordingly such machines are so constructed that by the operation of a
+piston, or pistons, in a cylinder, and actuated by steam or other motive
+power, the air or gas is compressed to the desired temperature, the heat
+led off and the cold vapour conducted through pipes and around chambers
+where water is placed and where it is frozen. By the best machines from
+five hundred to one thousand pounds of ice an hour are produced.
+
+The art of refrigeration and of modern transportation have brought the
+fruits of the tropics in great abundance to the doors of the dwellers of
+the north, and from the shores of the Pacific to the Atlantic and across
+the Atlantic to Europe. A train of refrigerator cars in California laden
+with delicious assorted fruits, and provided with fan blowers driven by
+the car axles to force the air through ice chambers, from whence it is
+distributed by perforated pipes through the fruit chambers, and wherein
+the temperature is maintained at about 40 deg. Fah., can be landed in New
+York four days after starting on its journey of 3,000 miles, with the
+fruits in perfect condition.
+
+But the public is still excited and wondering over the new king of
+refrigeration--_liquid air_.
+
+As has been stated, the compression of air to produce cold is a modern
+discovery applied to practical uses, and prominent among the inventors
+and discoverers in this line have been Prof. Dewar and Charles E.
+Tripler.
+
+Air may be compressed and heat generated in the process withdrawn until
+the temperature of the air is reduced to 312 deg. below zero, at which point
+the air is visible and to a certain extent assumes a peculiar material
+form, in which form it can be confined in suitable vessels and used as a
+refrigerant and as a motor of great power when permitted to re-expand.
+It is said that it was not so long ago when Prof. Dewar produced the
+first ounce of liquid air at a cost of $3,000, but that now Mr. Tripler
+claims that he can produce it by his apparatus for five cents a gallon.
+
+Refrigeration is at present its most natural and obvious use, and it is
+claimed that eleven gallons of the material when gradually expanded has
+the refrigerating power of one ton of ice. Its use of course for all
+purposes for which cold can be used is thus assured. It is also to be
+used as a motor in the running of various kinds of engines. It is to be
+used as a great alleviator of human suffering in lowering and regulating
+the temperature of hospitals in hot weather, and in surgical operations
+as a substitute for anaesthetics and cauterising agents.
+
+It was one of the marvellous attractions at the great Paris Exposition
+of 1900.
+
+Lighting is closely allied to the various subjects herein considered,
+but consideration of the various modes and kinds of lamps for lighting
+will be reserved for the Chapter on Furniture for Houses, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+METALLURGY.
+
+    "Nigh on the plain, in many cells prepared,
+    That underneath had veins of liquid fire
+    Sluiced from the lake, a second multitude
+    With wondrous art founded the massy ore;
+    Severing each kind, and scumm'd the bullion dross;
+    A third as soon had formed within the ground
+    A various mould, and from the boiling cells
+    By strange conveyance fill'd each hollow nook;
+    As in an organ, from one blast of wind,
+    To many a row of pipes the sound board breathes."
+                                                  --_Paradise Lost._
+
+
+Ever since those perished races of men who left no other record but that
+engraven in rude emblems on the rocks, or no other signs of their
+existence but in the broken tools found buried deep among the solid
+leaves of the crusted earth, ever since Tubal Cain became "an instructor
+of every artificer in brass and iron," the art of smelting has been
+known. The stone age flourished with implements furnished ready-made by
+nature, or needing little shaping for their use, but the ages of metal
+which followed required the aid of fire directed by the hand of man to
+provide the tool of iron or bronze.
+
+The Greeks claimed that the discovery of iron was theirs, and was made
+at the burning of a forest on the mountains of Ida in Crete, about 1500
+B. C., when the ore contained in the rocks or soil on which the forest
+stood was melted, cleansed of its impurities, and then collected and
+hammered. Archeologists have deprived the Greeks of this gift, and
+carried back its origin to remoter ages and localities.
+
+Man first discovered by observation or accident that certain stones were
+melted or softened by fire, and that the product could be hammered and
+shaped. They learned by experience that the melting could be done more
+effectually when the fuel and the ore were mixed and enclosed by a wall
+of stone; that the fire and heat could be alone started and maintained
+by blowing air into the fuel--and they constructed a rude bellows for
+this purpose. Finding that the melted metal sank through the mass of
+consumed fuel, they constructed a stone hearth on which to receive it.
+Thus were the first crude furnace and hearth invented.
+
+As to gold, silver and lead, they doubtless were found first in their
+native state and mixed with other ores and were hammered into the
+desired shapes with the hardest stone implements.
+
+That copper and tin combined would make bronze was a more complex
+proceeding and probably followed instead of preceding, as has sometimes
+been alleged, the making of iron tools. That bronze relics were found
+apparently of anterior manufacture to any made of iron, was doubtless
+due to the destruction of the iron by that great consumer--oxygen.
+
+What was very anciently called "brass" was no doubt gold-coloured
+copper; for what is modernly known as brass was not made until after the
+discovery of zinc in the 16th century and its combination with copper.
+
+Among the "lost arts" re-discovered in later ages are those which
+supplied the earliest cities with ornamented vessels of gold and copper,
+swords of steel that bent and sprung like whalebones, castings that had
+known no tool to shape their contour and embellishments, and monuments
+and tablets of steel and brass which excite the wonder and admiration of
+the best "artificers in brass and iron" of the present day.
+
+To understand and appreciate the advancements that have been made in
+metallurgy in the nineteenth century, it is necessary to know, in
+outline at least, what before had been developed.
+
+The earliest form of a smelting furnace of historic days, such as used
+by the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and probably by the Hindoos and other
+ancient peoples, and still used in Asia, is thus described by Dr Ure:
+
+"The furnace or bloomary in which the ore is smelted is from 4 to 5 feet
+high; it is somewhat pear-shaped, being about 5 feet wide at bottom and
+1 at top. It is built entirely of clay. There is an opening in front
+about a foot or more in height which is filled with clay at the
+commencement, and broken down at the end of each smelting operation. The
+bellows are usually made of two goatskins with bamboo nozzles, which are
+inserted into tubes of clay that pass into the furnace. The furnace is
+filled with charcoal, and a lighted coal being introduced before the
+nozzle, the mass in the interior is soon kindled. As soon as this is
+accomplished, a small portion of the ore previously moistened with water
+to prevent it from running through the charcoal, but without any flux
+whatever, is laid on top of the coals, and covered with charcoal to fill
+up the furnace. In this manner ore and fuel are supplied and the bellows
+urged for three or four hours. When the process is stopped and the
+temporary wall in front broken down the bloom is removed with a pair of
+tongs from the bottom of the furnace."
+
+This smelting was then followed by hammering to further separate the
+slag, and probably after a reheating to increase the malleability.
+
+It will be noticed that in this earliest process pure carbon was used as
+a fuel, and a blast of air to keep the fire at a great heat was
+employed. To what extent this carbon and air blast, and the mixing and
+remixing with other ingredients, and reheating and rehammering, may have
+been employed in various instances to modify the conditions and render
+the metal malleable and more or less like modern steel, is not known,
+but that an excellent quality of iron resembling modern steel was often
+produced by this simple mode of manufacture by different peoples, is
+undoubtedly the fact. Steel after all is iron with a little more carbon
+in it than in the usual iron in the smelting furnace, to render it
+harder, and a little less carbon than in cast or moulded iron to render
+it malleable, and in both conditions was produced from time immemorial,
+either by accident or design.
+
+It was with such a furnace probably that India produced her keen-edged
+weapons that would cut a web of gossamer, and Damascus its flashing
+blades--the synonym of elastic strength.
+
+Africa, when its most barbarous tribes were first discovered, was making
+various useful articles of iron. Its earliest modes of manufacture were
+doubtless still followed when Dr Livingstone explored the interior, as
+they now also are. He thus describes their furnaces and iron: "At every
+third or fourth village (in the regions near Lake Nyassa) we saw a
+kiln-looking structure, about 6 feet high and 21/2 feet in diameter. It
+is a clay fire-hardened furnace for smelting iron. No flux is used,
+whether with specular iron, the yellow hematite, or magnetic ore, and
+yet capital metal is produced. Native manufactured iron is so good that
+the natives declare English iron "rotten" in comparison, and specimens
+of African hoes were pronounced at Birmingham nearly equal to the best
+Swedish iron." The natives of India, the Hottentots, the early Britons,
+the Chinese, the savages of North and South America, as discovery or
+research brought their labours to light, or uncovered the monuments of
+their earliest life, were shown to be acquainted with similar simple
+forms of smelting furnaces.
+
+Early Spain produced a furnace which was adopted by the whole of Europe
+as fast as it became known. It was the Catalan furnace, so named from
+the province of Catalonia, where it probably first originated, and it is
+still so known and extensively used. "It consists of a four-sided cavity
+or hearth, which is always placed within a building and separated from
+the main wall thereof by a thinner interior wall, which in part
+constitutes one side of the furnace. The blast pipe comes through the
+wall, and enters the fire through a flue which slants downward. The
+bottom is formed of a refractory stone, which is renewable. The furnace
+has no chimneys. The blast is produced by means of a fall of water
+usually from 22 to 27 feet high, through a rectangular tube, into a
+rectangular cistern below, to whose upper part the blast pipe is
+connected, the water escaping through a pipe below. This apparatus is
+exterior to the building, and is said to afford a continuous blast of
+great regularity; the air, when it passes into the furnace, is, however,
+saturated with moisture."--_Knight._
+
+No doubt in such a heat was formed the metal from which was shaped the
+armour of Don Quixote and his prototypes.
+
+Bell in his history of Metallurgy tells us that the manufacture of
+malleable iron must have fallen into decadence in England, especially
+before the reign of Elizabeth and Charles I., as no furnaces equal even
+to the Catalan had for a long time been in use; and the architectural
+iron column found in ancient Delhi, 16 inches in diameter, about 48 feet
+long and calculated to weigh about 17 tons, could not have been formed
+by any means known in England in the sixteenth century. This decadence
+was in part due to the severe laws enacted against the destruction of
+forests, and most of the iron was then brought to England from Germany
+and other countries.
+
+From time immemorial the manufacture of iron and steel has been followed
+in Germany, and that country yet retains pre-eminence in this art both
+as to mechanical and chemical processes. It was in the eighteenth
+century that the celebrated Freiberg Mining Academy was founded, the
+oldest of all existing mining schools; and based on developing mining
+and metallurgy on scientific lines, it has stood always on the battle
+line in the fight of progress.
+
+The early smelting furnaces of Germany resembled the Catalan, and were
+called the "Stueckofen," and in Sweden were known as the "Osmund." In
+these very pure iron was made.
+
+The art of making cast iron, which differs from the ordinary smelted
+iron in the fact that it is _melted_ and then run into moulds, although
+known among the ancients more than forty centuries ago, as shown by the
+castings of bronze and brass described by their writers and recovered
+from their ruins, appears to have been forgotten long before the
+darkness of the middle ages gathered. There is no record of its practice
+from the time the elder Pliny described its former use (40-79 A. D.), to
+the sixteenth century. It is stated that then the lost art was
+re-invented by Ralph Page and Peter Baude of England in 1543--who in
+that year made cast-iron in Sussex.
+
+The "Stueckofen" furnace above referred to was succeeded in Germany by
+higher ones called the "Flossofen," and these were followed by still
+higher and larger ones called "Blauofen," so that by the middle of the
+eighteenth century the furnaces were very capacious, the blast was good,
+and it had been learned how to supply the furnaces with ore, coal and
+lime-stone broken into small fragments. The lime was added as a flux,
+and acted to unite with itself the sand, clay and other impurities to
+form a slag or scoria. The melted purified iron falling to the bottom
+was drawn off through a hole tapped in the furnace, and the molten metal
+ran into channels in a bed of sand called the "Sow and pigs." Hence the
+name, "pig iron."
+
+The smelting of ore by charcoal in those places where carried on
+extensively required the use of a vast amount of wood, and denuded the
+surrounding lands of forests. So great was this loss felt that it gave
+rise to the prohibitory laws and the decadence in England of the
+manufacture of iron, already alluded to. This turned the attention of
+iron smelters to coal as a substitute. Patents were granted in England
+for its use to several unsuccessful inventors. Finally in 1619 Dud
+Dudley, a graduate of Oxford University, and to whom succeeded his
+father's iron furnaces in Worcestershire, obtained a patent and
+succeeded in producing several tons of iron per week by the use of the
+pitcoal in a small blast furnace.
+
+This success inflamed the wood owners and the charcoal burners and they
+destroyed Dudley's works. He met with other disasters common to worthy
+inventors and discontinued his efforts to improve the art.
+
+It is said that in 1664 Sir John Winter of England made coke by burning
+sea coal in closed pots. But this was not followed up, and the use of
+charcoal and the destruction of the forests went on until 1735, when
+Abraham Darby of the Coalbrookdale Iron Works at Shropshire, England,
+commenced to treat the soft pit coal in the same way as wood is treated
+in producing charcoal. He proposed to burn the coal in a smouldering
+fire, to expel the sulphur and other impurities existing in the form of
+phosphorus, hydrogen and oxygen, etc. while saving the carbon. The
+attempt was successful, and thus _coke_ was made. It was found cheaper
+and superior to either coal or charcoal, and produced a quicker fire and
+a greater heat. This was a wonderful discovery, and was preserved as a
+trade secret for a long time. It was referred to as a curiosity in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ in 1747. In fact it was not introduced in
+America until a century later, when in 1841 the soft coal abounding
+around Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and in the neighbouring regions of
+Ohio was thus treated. Even its use then was experimental, and did not
+become a practical art in the United States until about 1860.
+
+With the invention of coke came also the revival of cast iron.
+
+The process of making cast steel was reinvented in England by Benjamin
+Huntsman of Attercliff, near Sheffield, about 1740. Between that time
+and 1770 he practised melting small pieces of "blistered" steel (iron
+bars which had been carbonised by smelting in charcoal) in closed clay
+crucibles.
+
+In 1784 Henry Cort of England introduced the puddling process and
+grooved rolls. Puddling had been invented, but not successfully used
+before. The term "puddling" originated in the covering of the hearth of
+stones at the bottom of the furnace with clay, which was made plastic by
+mixing the clay in a puddle of water; and on which hearth the ore when
+melted is received. When in this melted condition Cort and others found
+that the metal was greatly improved by stirring it with a long iron bar
+called a "rabble," and which was introduced through an opening in the
+furnace. This stirring admitted air to the mass and the oxygen consumed
+and expelled the carbon, silicon, and other impurities. The process was
+subsequently aided by the introduction of pig iron broken into pieces
+and mixed with hammer-slag, cinder, and ore. The mass is stirred from
+side to side of the furnace until it comes to a boiling point, when the
+stirring is increased in quickness and violence until a pasty round mass
+is collected by the puddler. As showing the value of Cort's discovery
+and the hard experience inventors sometimes have, Fairbairn states that
+Cort "expended a fortune of upward of L20,000 in perfecting his
+invention for puddling iron and rolling it into bars and plates; that he
+was robbed of the fruits of his discoveries by the villainy of officials
+in a high department of the government; and that he was ultimately left
+to starve by the apathy and selfishness of an ungrateful country. His
+inventions conferred an amount of wealth on the country equivalent to
+L600,000,000, and have given employment to 600,000 of the working
+population of our land for the last three or four generations." This
+process of puddling lasted for about an hour and a half and entailed
+extremely severe labour on the workman.
+
+The invention of mechanical puddlers, hereinafter referred to,
+consisting chiefly of rotating furnaces, were among the beneficent
+developments of the nineteenth century.
+
+Prior to Cort's time the plastic lump or ball of metal taken from the
+furnace was generally beaten by hammers, but Cort's grooved rollers
+pressed out the mass into sheets.
+
+The improvements of the steam engine by Watt greatly extended the
+manufacture of iron toward the close of the 18th century, as powerful
+air blasts were obtained by the use of such engines in place of the
+blowers worked by man, the horse, or the ox.
+
+So far as the art of refining the precious metals is concerned, as well
+as copper, tin and iron, it had not, previous to this century, proceeded
+much beyond the methods described in the most ancient writings; and
+these included the refining in furnaces, pots, and covered crucibles,
+and alloying, or the mixture and fusion with other metals. Furnaces to
+hold the crucibles, and made of iron cylinders lined with fire brick,
+whereby the crucibles were subjected to greater heat, were also known.
+
+The amalgamating process was also known to the ancients, and Vitruvius
+(B. C. 27) and Pliny (A. D. 79), describe how mercury was used for
+separating gold from its impurities. Its use at gold and silver mines
+was renewed extensively in the sixteenth century.
+
+Thus we find that the eighteenth century closed with the knowledge of
+the smelting furnaces of various kinds, of coke as a fuel in place of
+charcoal, of furious air blasts driven by steam and other power, of cast
+iron and cast steel, and of refining, amalgamating, and compounding
+processes.
+
+Looking back, now, from the threshold of the nineteenth century over the
+path we have thus traced, it will be seen that what had been
+accomplished in metallurgy was the result of the use of ready means
+tested by prolonged trials, of experiments more or less lucky in fields
+in which men were groping, of inventions without the knowledge of the
+real properties of the materials with which inventors were working or of
+the unvarying laws which govern their operations. They had accomplished
+much, but it was the work mainly of empirics. The art preceding the
+nineteenth century compared with what followed is the difference between
+experience simply, and experience when combined with hard thinking,
+which is thus stated by Herschel: "Art is the application of knowledge
+to a practical end. If the knowledge be merely accumulated experience
+the art is empirical; but if it is experience reasoned upon and brought
+under general principles it assumes a higher character and becomes a
+scientific art."
+
+With the developments, discoveries and inventions in the lines of steam,
+chemistry and electricity, as elsewhere told, the impetus they gave to
+the exercise of brain force in every field of nature at the outset of
+the century, and with their practical aid, the art of metallurgy soon
+began to expand to greater usefulness, and finally to its present
+wonderful domain.
+
+The subject of metallurgy in this century soon became scientifically
+treated and its operations classified.
+
+Thus the physical character and metallic constituents of ores received
+the first consideration; then the proper treatment to which the ores
+were to be subjected for the purpose of extracting the metal--which are
+either mechanical or chemical. The mechanical processes designed to
+separate the ore from its enclosing rock or other superfluous earthy
+matter called _gangue_ became known as _ore dressing_ and _ore
+concentrating_. These included mills with rollers, and stamps operated
+by gravity, or steam, for breaking up the ore rocks; abrasion apparatus
+for comminuting the ore by rubbing the pieces of ore under pressure; and
+smelting, or an equivalent process, for melting the ore and driving off
+the impurities by heat, etc. The chemical processes are those by which
+the metal, whatever it may be, is either dissolved or separated from
+other constituents by either the application to the ore of certain
+metallic solutions of certain acids, or by the fusion of different ores
+or metals in substantially the old styles of furnaces; or its
+precipitation by amalgamating, or by electrolysis--the art of
+decomposing metals by electricity.
+
+In the early decades of the century, by the help of chemistry and
+physics, the nature of heat, carbon, and oxygen, and the great affinity
+iron has for oxygen, became better known; and particularly how in the
+making of iron its behaviour is influenced by the presence of carbon and
+other foreign constituents; also how necessary to its perfect separation
+was the proper elimination of the oxygen and carbon. The use of
+manganese and other highly oxidisable metals for this purpose was
+discovered.
+
+Among the earliest most notable inventions in the century, in the
+manufacture of iron, was that of Samuel B. Rogers of Glamorganshire,
+Wales, who invented the iron floor for furnaces with a refractory
+lining--a great improvement on Cort's sand floor, which gave too much
+silicon to the iron; and the _hot air blast_ by Neilson of Glasgow,
+Scotland, patented in 1828. The latter consisted in the use of heated
+air as the blast instead of cold air--whereby ignition of the fuel was
+quickened, intensity of the heat and the expulsion of oxygen and carbon
+from the iron increased, and the operation shortened and improved in
+every way. The patent was infringed and assailed, but finally sustained
+by the highest courts of England. It produced an immense forward stride
+in the amount and quality of iron manufactured.
+
+By the introduction of the hot air blast it became practicable to use
+the hard anthracite coal as a fuel where such coal abounded; and to use
+pig iron, scrap iron, and refractory ore and metals with the fuel to
+produce particular results. Furnaces were enlarged to colossal
+dimensions, some being a hundred feet high and capable of yielding 80 or
+100 tons of metal per day.
+
+The forms of furnaces and means for lining and cooling the hearth and
+adjacent parts have received great attention.
+
+The discovery that the flame escaping from the throat of the blast
+furnace was nothing else than burning carbon led Faber du Faur at
+Wasseralfugen in 1837 to invent the successful and highly valuable
+method of utilising the unburnt gas from the blast furnace for heating
+purposes, and to heat the blast itself, and drive the steam engine that
+blew the blast into the furnace, without the consumption of additional
+fuel. This also led to the invention of separate gas producers. Bunsen
+in 1838 made his first experiments at Hesse in collecting the gases from
+various parts of the furnace, revealing their composition and showing
+their adaptability for various purposes. Thus, from a scientific
+knowledge of the constituents of ores and of furnace gases, calculations
+could be made in advance as to the materials required to make pig iron,
+cast iron, and steel of particular qualities.
+
+In the process of puddling difficulty had been experienced in handling
+the bloom or ball after it was formed in the furnace. A sort of
+squeezing apparatus, or tongs, called the alligator, had been employed.
+
+In 1840 Henry Burden of America invented and patented a method and means
+for treating these balls, whereby the same were taken directly from the
+furnace and passed between two plain converging metal surfaces, by which
+the balls were gradually but quickly pressed and squeezed into a
+cylindrical form, while a large portion of the cinders and other foreign
+impurities were pressed out.
+
+We have described how by Cort's puddling process tremendous labour was
+imposed on the workmen in stirring the molten metal by hand with
+"rabbles." A number of mechanical puddlers were invented to take the
+place of these hand means, but the most important invention in this
+direction was the revolving puddlers of Beadlestone, patented in 1857 in
+England, and of Heaton, Allen and Yates, in 1867-68. The most
+successful, however, was that of Danks of the United States in 1868-69.
+The Danks rotary puddler is a barrel-shaped, refractory lined vessel,
+having a chamber and fire grate and rotated by steam, into which pig
+iron formed by the ordinary blast furnaces, and then pulverised, is
+placed, with the fuel. Molten metal from the furnace is then run in,
+which together with the fuel is then subjected to a strong blast.
+Successive charges may be made, and at the proper time the puddler is
+rotated, slowly at some stages and faster at others, until the operation
+is completed. A much more thorough and satisfactory result in the
+production of a pure malleable iron is thus obtained than is possible by
+hand puddling.
+
+But the greatest improvements in puddling, and in the production of
+steel from iron, and which have produced greater commercial results than
+any other inventions of the century relating to metallurgy, were the
+inventions of Henry Bessemer of Hertfordshire, England, from 1855 to
+1860. In place of the puddling "rabbles" to stir the molten metal, or
+_matte_, as it is called, while the air blast enters to oxidise it, he
+first introduced the molten metal from the furnace into an immense
+egg-shaped vessel lined with quartzose, and hung in an inclined position
+on trunnions, or melted the metal in such vessel, and then dividing the
+air blast into streams forced with great pressure each separate stream
+through an opening in the bottom of the vessel into the molten mass,
+thus making each stream of driven air a rabble; and they together blew
+and lifted the white mass into a huge, surging, sun-bright fountain. The
+effect of this was to burn out the impurities, silicon, carbon, sulphur,
+and phosphorus, leaving the mass a pure soft iron. If steel was wanted a
+small amount of carbon, usually in the form of spiegeleisen, was
+introduced into the converter before the process was complete.
+
+A. L. Holley of the United States improved the Bessemer apparatus by
+enabling a greater number of charges to be converted into steel within a
+given time.
+
+Sir Henry Bessemer has lived to gain great fortunes by his inventions,
+to see them afford new fields of labour for armies of men, and to
+increase the riches of nations, from whom he has received deserved
+honours.
+
+The Bessemer process led to renewed investigations and discoveries as to
+heat and its utilisation, the constituents of different metals and their
+decomposition, and as to the parts played by carbon, silicon, and
+phosphorus. The carbon introduced by the charge of pig iron in the
+Bessemer process was at first supposed to be necessary to produce the
+greatest heat, but this was found to be a mistake; and phosphorus, which
+had been regarded as a great enemy of iron, to be eliminated in every
+way, was found to be a valuable constituent, and was retained or added
+to make phosphorus steel.
+
+The Bessemer process has been modified in various ways: by changing the
+mode of introducing the blast from the bottom of the converter to the
+sides thereof, and admitting the blast more slowly at certain stages; by
+changing the character of the pig iron and fuel to be treated; and by
+changing the shape and operation of the converters, making them
+cylindrical and rotary, for instance.
+
+The Bessemer process is now largely used in treating copper. By this
+method the blowing through the molten metal of a blast of air largely
+removes sulphur and other impurities.
+
+The principles of reduction by the old style furnaces and methods we
+have described have been revived and combined with improvements. For
+instance, the old Catalan style of furnace has been retained to smelt
+the iron, but in one method the iron is withdrawn before it is reduced
+completely and introduced into another furnace, where, mixed with
+further reducing ingredients, a better result by far is produced with
+less labour.
+
+It would be a long list that would name the modern discoverers and
+inventors of the century in the manufacture of iron and steel. But
+eminent in the list, in addition to Davy and Bessemer, and others
+already mentioned, are Mushet, Sir L. Bell, Percy, Blomfield, Beasley,
+Giers and Snellus of England; Martin, Chennot, Du Motay, Pernot and
+Gruner of France; Lohage, Dr. C. L. Siemens and Hoepfer of Germany; Prof
+Sarnstrom and Akerman of Sweden; Turner of Austria; and Holley, Slade,
+Blair, Jones, Sellers, Clapp, Griffiths and Eames of the United States.
+
+Some of the new metals discovered in the last century have in this
+century been combined with iron to make harder steel. Thus we have
+nickel, chromium, and tungsten steel. Processes for hardening steel, as
+the "Harveyized" steel, have given rise to a contest between
+"irresistible" projectiles and "impenetrable" armour plate.
+
+If there are some who regard modern discoveries and inventions in iron
+and steel as lessening the number of workmen and cheapening the product
+too much, thus causing trouble due to labour-saving machinery, let them
+glance, among other great works in the world, at Krupp's at Essen, where
+on January 1st, 1899, 41,750 persons were employed, and at which works
+during the previous year 1,199,610 tons of coal and coke were consumed,
+or about 4000 tons daily. Workers in iron will not be out of employment
+in the United States, where 16,000,000 tons of coke are produced
+annually, 196,405,953 tons of coal mined, 11,000,000 tons of pig iron
+and about 9,000,000 tons of steel made. The increase of population
+within the last hundred years bears no comparison with this enormous
+increase in iron and fuel. It shows that as inventions multiply, so does
+the demand for their better and cheaper products increase.
+
+As the other metals, gold, silver, copper and lead often occur together,
+and in the same deposits with iron, the same general modes of treatment
+to extract them are often applied. These are known as the dry and the
+wet methods, and electro-reduction.
+
+Ever since Mammon bowed his head in search for gold, every means that
+the mind of man could suggest to obtain it have been tried, but the
+devices of this century have been more numerous and more successful than
+any before. The ancient methods of simply melting and "skimming the
+bullion dross" have been superseded. Modern methods may be divided into
+two general classes, the mechanical and the chemical. Of the former
+methods, when gold was found loose in sand or gravel, washing was the
+earliest and most universally practised, and was called panning. In this
+method mercury is often used to take up and secure the fine gold.
+Rockers like a child's cradle, into which the dirt is shovelled and
+washed over retaining riffles, were used; coarse-haired blankets and
+hides; sluices and separators, with or without quicksilver linings to
+catch the gold; and powerful streams of water worked by compressed air
+to tear down the banks. Where water could not be obtained the ore and
+soil were pulverised and dried, and then thrown against the wind or a
+blast of air, and the heavier gold, falling before the lighter dust, was
+caught on hides or blankets. For the crushing of the quartz in which
+gold was found, innumerable inventions in stamp mills, rollers,
+crushers, abraders, pulverisers and amalgamators have been invented; and
+so with roasters, and furnaces, and crucibles to melt the precious
+metal, separate the remaining impurities and convert it to use.
+
+As to chemical methods for the precious metals, the process of
+_lixiviation_, or _leaching_, by which the ore is washed out by a
+solution of potash, or with dilute sulphuric acid, or boiling with
+concentrated sulphuric acid, is quite modern. About 1889 came out the
+great cyanide process, also known as the MacArthur-Forrest process (they
+being the first to obtain patents and introduce the invention),
+consisting of the use of cyanide potassium in solution, which dissolves
+the gold, and which is then precipitated by the employment of zinc. This
+process is best adapted to what are known as free milling or porous
+ores, where the gold is free and very fine and is attracted readily by
+mercury.
+
+In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the metal potassium by subjecting
+moistened potash to the action of a powerful voltaic battery; the
+positive pole gave off oxygen and the metallic globules of pure
+potassium appeared at the negative pole. It is never found uncombined in
+nature. Now if potassium is heated in cyanogen gas (a gas procured by
+heating mercury) or obtained on a large scale by the decomposition of
+yellow prussiate of potash, a white crystalline body very soluble in
+water, and exceedingly poisonous, is obtained. When gold, for instance,
+obtained by pulverising the ore, or found free in sand, is treated to
+such a solution it is dissolved from its surrounding constituents and
+precipitated by the zinc, as before stated.
+
+Chlorine is another metal discovered by Scheele in 1774, but not known
+as an elementary element until so established by Davy's investigations
+in 1810, when he gave it the name it now bears, from the Greek
+_chloras_, yellowish green. It is found abundantly in the mineral world
+in combination with common salt. Now it was found that chlorine is one
+of the most energetic of bodies, surpassing even oxygen under some
+circumstances, and that a chlorine solution will readily dissolve gold.
+
+These, the cyanide and chlorination processes, have almost entirely
+superseded the old washing and amalgamating methods of treating free
+gold--and the cyanide seems to be now taking the lead.
+
+_Alloys._--The art of fusing different metals to make new compounds,
+although always practised, has been greatly advanced by the discoverers
+and inventors of the century. As we have seen, amalgamating to extract
+gold and silver, and the making of bronze from tin and copper were very
+early followed. One of the most notable and useful of modern inventions
+or improvements of the kind was that of Isaac Babbitt of Boston in 1839,
+who in that year obtained patents for what ever since has been known as
+"babbitting." The great and undesirable friction produced by the rubbing
+of the ends of journals and shafts in their bearings of the same metal,
+cast or wrought iron, amounting to one-fifth of the amount of power
+exerted to turn them, had long been experienced. Lubricants of all kinds
+had been and are used; but Babbitt's invention was an anti-friction
+metal. It is composed of tin, antimony, and copper, and although the
+proportions and ingredients have since been varied, the whole art is
+still known as babbitting.
+
+Other successful alloys have been made for gun metal, sheathing of
+ships, horseshoes, organ pipes, plough shares, roofing, eyelets,
+projectiles, faucets, and many and various articles of hardware,
+ornamental ware, and jewelry.
+
+Valuable metals, such as were not always rare or scarce, but very hard
+to reduce, have been rendered far less in cost of production and more
+extensive in use by modern processes. Thus, aluminium, an abundant
+element in rocks and clay, discovered by the German chemist Woehler, in
+1827, a precious metal, so light, bright, and tough, non-oxidizing,
+harder than zinc, more sonorous than silver, malleable and ductile as
+iron, and more tenacious, has been brought to the front from an
+expensive and mere laboratory production to common and useful purposes
+in all the arts by the processes commencing in 1854 with that of St.
+Clair Deoville, of France, followed by those of H. Rose, Morin, Castner,
+Tissier, Hall, and others.
+
+_Electro-metallurgy_, so far, has chiefly to do with the decomposition
+of metals by the electric current, and the production of very high
+temperatures for furnaces, by which the most refractory ores, metals,
+and other substances may be melted, and results produced not obtainable
+in any other way. By placing certain mixtures of carbon and sand, or of
+carbon and clay, between the terminals of a powerful current, a material
+resembling diamonds, but harder, has been produced. It has been named
+carbonundrum. The production of diamonds themselves is looked for. Steel
+wire is now tempered and annealed by electricity, as well as welding
+done, of which mention further on will be made.
+
+Thus we have seen how the birth of ideas of former generations has given
+rise in the present age to children of a larger growth. Arts have grown
+only as machinery for the accomplishment of their objects has developed,
+and machinery has waited on the development of the metals composing it.
+The civilisation of to-day would not have been possible if the
+successors of Tubal Cain had not been like him, instructors "of every
+artificer in brass and iron."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+METAL WORKING.
+
+
+We referred in the last chapter to the fact that metal when it came from
+the melting and puddling furnace was formerly rolled into sheets; but,
+when the manufacturers and consumers got these sheets then came the
+severe, laborious work by hand of cutting, hammering, boring, shaping
+and fitting the parts for use and securing them in place.
+
+It is one of the glories of this century that metal-working tools and
+machinery have been invented that take the metal from its inception,
+mould and adapt it to man's will in every situation with an infinite
+saving of time and labour, and with a perfection and uniformity of
+operation entirely impossible by hand.
+
+Although the tools for boring holes in wood, such as the gimlet, auger,
+and the lathe to hold, turn and guide the article to be operated on by
+the tool, are common in some respects with those for drilling and
+turning metal, yet, the adaptation to use with metal constitutes a class
+of metal-working appliances distinct in themselves, and with some
+exceptions not interchangeable with wood-working utensils. The
+metal-working tools and machines forming the subject of this chapter are
+not those which from time immemorial have been used to pierce, hammer,
+cut, and shape metals, directed by the eye and hand of man, but rather
+those invented to take the place of the hand and eye and be operated by
+other powers.
+
+It needs other than manual power to subdue the metals to the present
+wants of man, and until those modern motor powers, such as steam,
+compressed air, gas and electricity, and modern hydraulic machinery,
+were developed, automatic machine tools to any extent were not invented.
+So, too, the tools that are designed to operate on hard metal should
+themselves be of the best metal, and until modern inventors rediscovered
+the art of making cast steel such tools were not obtainable. The
+monuments and records of ancient and departed races show that it was
+known by them how to bore holes in wood, stone and glass by some sharp
+instruments turned by hand, or it may be by leather cords, as a top is
+turned.
+
+_The lathe_, a machine to hold an object, and at the same time revolve
+it while it is formed by the hand, or cut by a tool, is as old as the
+art of pottery, and is illustrated in the oldest Egyptian monuments, in
+which the god Ptah is shown in the act of moulding man upon the throwing
+wheel. It is a device as necessary to the industrial growth of man as
+the axe or the spade. Its use by the Egyptians appears to have been
+confined to pottery, but the ancient Greeks, Chinese, Africans, and
+Hindoos used lathes, for wood working in which the work was suspended on
+horizontal supports, and adapted to be rotated by means of a rope and
+treadle and a spring bar, impelled by the operator as he held the
+cutting tool on the object. Joseph Holtzapffel in his learned work on
+_Turning and Mechanical Manipulation_, gives a list of old publications
+describing lathes for turning both wood and metal. Among these is
+Hartman Schapper's book published at Frankfort, in 1548. A lathe on
+which was formed wood screws is described in a work of Jacques Besson,
+published at Lyons, France, in 1582.
+
+It is stated that there is on exhibition in the Abbott museum of the
+Historical Society, New York, a bronze drinking vessel, five inches in
+diameter, that was exhumed from an ancient tomb in Thebes, and which
+bears evidence of having been turned on a lathe. It is thought by those
+skilled in the art that it was not possible to have constructed the
+works of metal in Solomon's Temple without a turning lathe. One of the
+earliest published descriptions of a metal turning lathe in its leading
+features is that found in a book published in London, in 1677-83, by
+Joseph Moxon, "hydographer" to King Charles II., entitled, _Mechanical
+Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handy Works_. He therein also described a
+machine for planing metal. Although there is some evidence that these
+inventions of the learned gentleman were made and put to some use, yet
+they were soon forgotten and were not revived until a century later,
+when, as before intimated, the steam engine had been invented and
+furnished the power for working them.
+
+Wood-working implements in which the cutting tool was carried by a
+sliding block were described in the English patents of General Sir
+Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah, in 1793-94. But until this century,
+and fairly within its borders, man was content generally to use the
+metal lathe simply as a holding and turning support, while he with such
+skill and strength as he could command, and with an expenditure of time,
+labour and patience truly marvellous, held and guided with his hands the
+cutting tool with which the required form was made upon or from the
+slowly turning object before him. The contrivance which was to take the
+place of the hand and eye of man in holding, applying, directing and
+impelling a cutting tool to the surface of the metal work was the
+_slide-rest_. In its modern successful automatic form Henry Maudsley, an
+engineer in London, is claimed to be the first inventor, in the early
+part of the century. The leading feature of his form of this device
+consists of an iron block which constitutes the rest, cut with grooves
+so as to adapt it to slide upon its iron supports, means to secure the
+cutting tool solidly to this block, and two screw handles, one to adjust
+the tool towards and against the object to be cut in the lathe, and the
+other to slide the rest and tool lengthwise as the work progresses,
+which latter motion may be given by the hand, or effected automatically
+by a connection of the screw handle of the slide and the rotating object
+on the lathe.
+
+A vast variety of inventions and operations have been effected by
+changes in these main features. Of the value of this invention, Nasmyth,
+a devoted pupil of Maudsley and himself an eminent engineer and
+inventor, thus writes:--"It was this holding of a tool by means of an
+iron hand, and constraining it to move along the surface of the work in
+so certain a manner, and with such definite and precise motion, which
+formed the great era in the history of mechanics, inasmuch as we
+thenceforward became possessed, by its means, of the power of operating
+alike on the most ponderous or delicate pieces of machinery with a
+degree of minute precision, of which language cannot convey an adequate
+idea; and in many cases we have, through its agency, equal facility in
+carrying on the most perfect workmanship in the interior parts of
+certain machines where neither the hand nor the eye can reach, and
+nevertheless we can give to these parts their required form with a
+degree of accuracy as if we had the power of transforming our-selves
+into pigmy workmen, and so apply our labour to the innermost holes and
+corners of our machinery."
+
+The scope of the lathe, slide-rest and operating tool, by its adaptation
+to cut out from a vast roll of steel a ponderous gun, or by a change in
+the size of parts to operate in cutting or drilling the most delicate
+portions of that most delicate of all mechanisms, a watch, reminds one
+of that other marvel of mechanical adaptation, the steam hammer, which
+makes the earth tremble with its mighty blows upon a heated mass of
+iron, or lightly taps and cracks the soft-shelled nut without the
+slightest touch of violence upon its enclosed and fragile fruit.
+
+The adaptation of the lathe and slide to wood-working tools will be
+referred to in the chapter relating to wood-working.
+
+Following the invention of the lathe and the slide-rest, came the
+_metal-planing_ machines. It is stated in Buchanan's _Practical Essays_,
+published in 1841, that a French engineer in 1751, in constructing the
+Marly Water Works on the Seine in France, employed a machine for planing
+out the wrought iron pump-barrels used in that work, and this is thought
+to be the first instance in which iron was reduced to a plane surface
+without chipping or filing. But it needed the invention of the
+slide-rest and its application to metal-turning lathes to suggest and
+render successful metal-planing machines. These were supplied in England
+from 1811 to 1840 by the genius of Bramah, Clement, Fox, Roberts,
+Rennie, Whitworth, Fletcher, and a few others. When it is considered how
+many different forms are essential to the completion of metal machines
+of every description, the usefulness of machinery that will produce them
+with the greatest accuracy and despatch can be imagined. The many
+modifications of the planing machine have names that indicate to the
+workman the purpose for which they are adapted--as the _jack_, a small
+portable machine, quick and handy; the _jim crow_, a machine for planing
+both ways by reversal of the movement of the bed, and it gets its name
+because it can "wheel about and turn about and do just so"; the key
+groove machine, the milling machine with a serrated-faced cutter bar,
+shaping machine and shaping bar, slotting machine, crank planer, screw
+cutting, car-wheel turning, bolt and nut screwing, etc.
+
+As to the mutual evolution and important results of these combined
+inventions, the slide-rest and the planer, we again quote Nasmyth:--
+
+"The first planing machine enabled us to produce the second still
+better, and that a better still, and then slide rests of the most
+perfect kind came streaming forth from them, and they again assisted in
+making better still, so that in a very short time a most important
+branch of engineering business, namely, tool-making, arose, which had
+its existence not merely owing to the pre-existing demand for such
+tools, but in fact raised a demand of its own creating. One has only to
+go into any of these vast establishments which have sprung up in the
+last thirty years to find that nine-tenths of all the fine mechanisms in
+use and in process of production are through the agency, more or less
+direct, of the _slide rest and planing machine_."
+
+Springing out of these inventions, as from a fruitful soil, came the
+metal-boring machines, one class for turning the outside of cylinders to
+make them true, and another class for boring and drilling holes through
+solid metal plates. The principle of the lathe was applied to those
+machines in which the shaft carrying the cutting or boring tool was held
+either in a vertical or in a horizontal position.
+
+Now flowed forth, as from some Vulcan's titanic workshop, machines for
+making bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, chains, staples, car wheels, shafts,
+etc., and other machines for applying them to the objects with which
+they were to be used.
+
+The progress of screw-making had been such that in 1840, by the machines
+then in use for cutting, slotting, shaving, threading, and heading,
+twenty men and boys were enabled to manufacture 20,000 screws in a day.
+Thirty-five years later two girls tending two machines were enabled to
+manufacture 240,000 screws a day. Since then the process has proceeded
+at even a greater rate. So great is the consumption of screws that it
+would be utterly impossible to supply the demand by the processes in
+vogue sixty years ago.
+
+In England's first great International Fair, in 1851, a new world of
+metallurgical products, implements, processes, and metal-working tools,
+were among the grand results of the half century's inventions which were
+exhibited to the assembled nations. The leading exhibitor in the line of
+self-acting lathes, planing, slotting, drilling and boring machines was
+J. Whitworth & Co., of Manchester, England. Here were for the first time
+revealed in a compact form those machines which shaped metal as wood
+alone had been previously shaped. But another quarter of a century
+brought still grander results, which were displayed at the Centennial
+Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876.
+
+As J. Whitworth & Co. were the leading exhibitors at London in 1851, so
+were William Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, the leading exhibitors in
+the 1876 exhibition. As showing the progress of the century, the
+official report, made in this class by citizens of other countries than
+America, set forth that this exhibit of the latter company, "in extent
+and value, in extraordinary variety and originality, was probably
+without parallel in the past history of international exhibitions."
+Language seemed to be inadequate to enable the committee to describe
+satisfactorily the extreme refinement in every detail, the superior
+quality of material and workmanship, the mathematical accuracy, the
+beautiful outlines, the perfection in strength and form, and the
+scientific skill displayed in the remarkable assemblage of this class of
+machinery at that exhibition.
+
+An exhibit on that occasion made by Messrs. Hoopes & Townsend of
+Philadelphia attracted great attention by the fact that the doctrine of
+the flow of solid metal, so well expounded by that eminent French
+scientist, M. Tresca, was therein well illustrated. It consisted of a
+large collection of bolts and screws which had been _cold-punched_, as
+well as of elevator and carrier chains, the links of which had been so
+punched. This punching of the cold metal without cutting, boring,
+drilling, hammering, or otherwise shaping the metal, was indeed a
+revelation.
+
+So also at this Exhibition was a finer collection of machine-made
+horseshoes than had ever previously been presented to the world. A
+better and more intelligent and refined treatment of that noble animal,
+the horse, and especially in the care of his feet, had sprung up during
+the last half century, conspicuously advocated by Mr. Fleming in
+England, and followed promptly in America and elsewhere. Within the last
+forty years nearly two hundred patents have been taken out in the United
+States alone for machines for making horseshoes. Prejudices, jealousies
+and objections of all kinds were raised at first against the
+machine-made horseshoe, as well as the horseshoe nail, but the horses
+have won, and the blacksmiths have been benefited despite their early
+objections. The smiths make larger incomes in buying and applying the
+machine-made shoes. The shoes are not only hammered into shape on the
+machine, but there are machines for stamping them out from metal at a
+single blow; for compressing several thicknesses of raw hide and
+moulding them in a steel mould, producing a light, elastic shoe, and
+without calks; furnishing shoes for defective hoofs, flexible shoes for
+the relief and cure of contracted or flat feet, shoes formed with a
+joint at the toe, and light, hard shoes made of aluminium.
+
+_Tube Making._--Instead of heating strips of metal and welding the edges
+together, tubes may now be made seamless by rolling the heated metal
+around a solid heated rod; or by placing a hot ingot in a die and
+forcing a mandrel through the ingot. And as to tube and metal bending,
+there are wonderful machines which bend sheets of metal into great
+tubes, funnels, ship masts and cylinders.
+
+_Welding._--As to welding--the seams, instead of being hammered, are now
+formed by melting and condensing the edges, or adjoining parts, by the
+electric current.
+
+_Annealing and Tempering._--Steel wire and plates are now tempered and
+annealed by electricity. It is found that they can be heated to a high
+temperature more quickly and evenly by the electric current passed
+through them than by combustion, and the process is much used in making
+clock and watch springs.
+
+One way of hardening plates, especially armour plates, by what is called
+the Harveyized process, is by embedding the face of the plate in carbon,
+protecting the back and sides with sand, heating to about the melting
+point of cast iron, and then hardening the face by chilling, or
+otherwise.
+
+_Coating with Metal._--Although covering metal with metal has been
+practised from the earliest times, accomplished by heating and
+hammering, it was not until this century that electro-plating, and
+plating by chemical processes, as by dipping the metal into certain
+chemical solutions, and by the use of automatic machinery, were adopted.
+It was in the early part of the century that Volta discovered that in
+the voltaic battery certain metallic salts were reduced to their
+elements and deposited at the negative pole; and that Wollaston
+demonstrated how a silver plate in bath of sulphate of copper through
+which a current was passed became covered with copper. Then in 1838,
+Spencer applied these principles in making casts, and Jacobi in Russia
+shortly after electro-gilded a dome of a cathedral in St. Petersburg.
+Space will not permit the enumeration of the vast variety of processes
+and machines for coating and gilding that have since followed.
+
+_Metal Founding._--The treatment of metal after it flows from the
+furnaces, or is poured from the crucibles into moulds, by the operations
+of facing, drying, covering, casting and stripping, has given rise to a
+multitude of machines and methods for casting a great variety of
+objects. The most interesting inventions in this class have for their
+object the chilling, or chill hardening, of the outer surfaces of
+articles which are subject to the most and hardest wear, as axle boxes,
+hammers, anvils, etc., which is effected by exposing the red-hot metal
+to a blast of cold air, or by introducing a piece of iron into a mould
+containing the molten metal.
+
+In casting steel ingots, in order to produce a uniform compact
+structure, Giers of England invented "soaking pits of sand" into which
+the ingot from the mould is placed and then covered, so that the heat
+radiating outward re-heats the exterior, and the ingot is then rolled
+without re-heating.
+
+_Sheet Metal Ware._--Important improvements have been made in this line.
+Wonderful machines have been made which, receiving within them a piece
+of flat metal, will, by a single blow of a plunger in a die, stamp out a
+metal can or box with tightly closed seams, and all ready for the cover,
+which is made in another similar machine; or by which an endless chain
+of cans are carried into a machine and there automatically soldered at
+their seams; and another which solders the heads on filled cans as fast
+as they can be fed into the machine.
+
+_Metal Personal Ware._--Buckles, clasps, hooks and eyelets, shanked
+buttons, and similar objects are now stamped up and out, without more
+manual labour than is necessary to supply the machines with the metal,
+and to take care of the completed articles.
+
+_Wire Working._--Not only unsightly but useful barbed wire fences, and
+the most ornamental wire work and netting for many purposes, such as
+fences, screens, cages, etc., are now made by ingenious machines, and
+not by hand tools.
+
+In stepping into some one of the great modern works where varied
+industries are carried on under one general management, one cannot help
+realising the vast difference between old systems and the new. In one
+portion of the establishment the crude ores are received and smelted and
+treated, with a small force and with ease, until the polished metal is
+complete and ready for manipulation in the manufacture of a hundred
+different objects. In another part ponderous or smaller lathes and
+planing machines are turning forth many varied forms; in quiet corners
+the boring, drilling, and riveting machines are doing their work without
+the clang of hammers; in another, an apparently young student is
+conducting the scientific operation of coating or gilding metals; in
+another, girls may be seen with light machines, stamping, or burnishing,
+or assembling the different parts of finished metal ware; and the motive
+power of all this is the silent but all-powerful electric current
+received from the smooth-running dynamo giant who works with vast but
+unseen energy in a den by himself, not a smoky or a dingy den, but
+light, clean, polished, and beautiful as the workshop of a god.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ORDNANCE, ARMS AND EXPLOSIVES.
+
+
+Although the progress in the invention of fire-arms of all descriptions
+seems slow during the ages preceding the 19th century, yet it will be
+found on investigation that no art progressed faster. No other art was
+spurred to activity by such strong incentives, and none received the
+same encouragement and reward for its development. The art of war was
+the trade of kings and princes, and princely was the reward to the
+subject who was the first to invent the most destructive weapon. Under
+such high patronage most of the ideas and principles of ordnance now
+prevailing were discovered or suggested, but were embodied for the most
+part in rude and inefficient contrivances.
+
+The art waited for its success on the development of other arts, and on
+the mental expansion and freedom giving rise to scientific investigation
+and results.
+
+The cannon and musket themselves became the greatest instruments for the
+advancement of the new civilisation, however much it was intended
+otherwise by their kingly proprietors, and the new civilisation returned
+the compliment through its trained intellects by giving to war its
+present destructive efficiency.
+
+To this efficiency, great as the paradox may seem, Peace holds what
+quiet fields it has, or will have, until most men learn to love peace
+and hate the arts of war.
+
+As to the Chinese is given the credit for the invention of gunpowder, so
+they must also be regarded as the first to throw projectiles by its
+means. But their inventions in these directions may be classed as
+fireworks, and have no material bearing on the modern art of Ordnance.
+It is supposed that the word "cannon," is derived from the same root as
+"cane," originally signifying a hollow reed; and that these hollow reeds
+or similar tubes closed at one end were used to fire rockets by powder.
+
+It is also stated that the practice existed among the Chinese as early
+as 969 A. D. of tying rockets to their arrows to propel them to greater
+distances, as well as for incendiary purposes.
+
+This basic idea had percolated from China through India to the Moors and
+Arabs, and in the course of a few centuries had developed into a crude
+artillery used by the Moors in the siege of Cordova in 1280. The
+Spaniards, thus learning the use of the cannon, turned the lesson upon
+their instructors, when under Ferdinand IV. they took Gibraltar from the
+Moors in 1309. Then the knowledge of artillery soon spread throughout
+Europe. The French used it at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and
+the English had three small guns at Crecy in 1346. These antique guns
+were made by welding longitudinal bars of iron together and binding them
+by iron rings shrunk on while hot. Being shaped internally and
+externally like an apothecary's mortar, they were called mortars or
+bombards. Some were breech-loaders, having a removable chamber at the
+breech into which the charge of powder was inserted behind the ball. The
+balls were stone. These early cannon, bombards, and mortars were mounted
+on heavy solid wooden frames and moved with great difficulty from place
+to place. Then in the fifteenth century they commenced to make
+wrought-iron cannon, and hollow projectiles, containing a bursting
+charge of powder to be exploded by a fuse lit before the shell was
+fired. In the next century cannon were cast.
+
+The Hindoos, when their acquaintance was made by the Europeans, were as
+far advanced as the latter in cannon and fire-arms. One cannon was found
+at Bejapoor, in India, cast of bronze, bearing date 1548, and called the
+"Master of the Field," which weighed 89,600 pounds, and others of
+similar size of later dates. Great cast bronze guns of about the same
+weight as the Hindoo guns were also produced at St. Petersburg, Russia,
+in the sixteenth century.
+
+Many and strange were the names given by Europeans to their cannon in
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to denote their size and the
+weight of the ball they carried: such as the Assick, the Bombard, the
+Basilisk, the cannon Royal, or Carthoun, the Culverin, Demi-culverin,
+Falcon, Siren, Serpentine, etc.
+
+The bombards in the fifteenth century were made so large and heavy,
+especially in France, that they could not be moved without being taken
+apart.
+
+When the heavy, unwieldy bombards with stone balls were used, artillery
+was mostly confined to castles, towns, forts, and ships. When used in
+the field they were dragged about by many yokes of oxen. But in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century, when France under Louis XI. had
+learned to cast lighter brass cannon, to mount them on carriages that
+could be drawn by four or six horses, and which carriages had trunnions
+in which the cannon were swung so as to be elevated or depressed, and
+cast-iron projectiles were used instead of stones, field artillery took
+its rise, and by its use the maps of the world were changed. Thus with
+their artillery the French under Charles VIII., the successor of Louis
+XI., conquered Italy.
+
+In the sixteenth century Europe was busy in adopting these and other
+changes. Cannon were made of all sizes and calibres, but were not
+arranged in battle with much precision. Case shot were invented in
+Germany but not brought into general use. Shells were invented by the
+Italians and fired from mortars, but their mode of construction was
+preserved in great secrecy. The early breech-loaders had been discarded,
+as it was not known how to make the breech gas-tight, and the explosions
+rendered the guns more dangerous to their users than to the enemy.
+
+In the seventeenth century Holland began to make useful mortar shells
+and hand grenades. Maurice and Henry Frederick of Nassau, and Gustave
+Adolphus, made many improvements in the sizes and construction of
+cannon. In 1674, Coehorn, an officer in the service of the Prince of
+Orange, invented the celebrated mortar which bears his name, and the use
+of which has continued to the present time. The Dutch also invented the
+howitzer, a short gun in which the projectiles could be introduced by
+hand. About the same time Comminges of France invented mortars which
+threw projectiles weighing 550 pounds. In this part of that century also
+great improvements were made under Louis XIV. Limbers, by which the
+front part of the gun carriage was made separable from the cannon part
+and provided with the ammunition chest; the prolonge, a cord and hook by
+which the gun part could be moved around by hand; and the elevating
+screw, by which the muzzle of the gun could be raised or
+depressed,--were invented.
+
+In the early part of the eighteenth century it was thought by
+artillerists in England that the longer the gun the farther it would
+carry. One, called "Queen Ann's Pocket Piece" still preserved at Dover,
+is twenty-five feet long and carries a ball only twenty-five pounds in
+weight. It was only after repeated experiments that it was learned that
+the shorter guns carried the projectile the greatest distance.
+
+The greatest improvements in the eighteenth century were made by
+Gribeauval, the celebrated French artillerist, about 1765. He had guns
+made of such material and of such size as to adapt them to the different
+services to which they were to be put, as field, siege, garrison, and
+sea coast. He gave greater mobility to the system by introducing
+six-pound howitzers, and making gun carriages lighter; he introduced the
+system of fixed ammunition, separate compartments in the gun carriages
+for the projectiles, and the charges of powder in paper or cloth bags or
+cylinders; improved the construction of the elevating screw, adapted the
+tangent scale, formed the artillery into horse batteries, and devised
+new equipments and a new system of tactics.
+
+It was with Gribeauval's improved system that "Citizen Bonaparte, young
+artillery officer," took Toulon; with which the same young "bronze
+artillery officer" let go his great guns in the Cul-de-Sac Dauphin
+against the church of St. Roch; on the Port Royal; at the Theatre de la
+Republique; "and the thing we specifically call French Revolution is
+blown into space by it, and became a thing that was."
+
+It was with this system that this same young officer won his first
+brilliant victories in Italy. When the fruit of these victories had been
+lost during his absence he reappeared with his favorite artillery, and
+on the threshold of the century, in May 1800, as "First Consul of the
+Republic" re-achieved at Marengo the supremacy of France over Austria.
+
+As to _small arms_, as before suggested, they doubtless had their origin
+in the practice of the Chinese in throwing fire balls from bamboo
+barrels by the explosion of light charges of powder, as illustrated to
+this day in what are known as "Roman Candles." Fire-crackers and
+grenades were also known to the Chinese and the Greeks.
+
+Among ancient fire-arms the principal ones were the arquebus, also
+bombardelle, and the blunderbuss. They were invented in the fourteenth
+century but were not much used until the fifteenth century. These guns
+for the most part were so heavy that they had to be rested on some
+object to be fired. The soldiers carried a sort of tripod for this
+purpose. The gun was fired by a slow-burning cord, a live coal, a lit
+stick, or a long rod heated at one end, and called a match. The
+blunderbuss was invented in Holland. It was a large, short,
+funnel-shaped muzzle-loader, and loaded with nails, slugs, etc. The
+injuries and hardships suffered by the men who used it, rather than by
+the enemy, rendered its name significant. Among the earliest fire-arms
+of this period one was invented which was a breech-loader and revolver.
+The breech had four chambers and was rotated by hand on an arbour
+parallel to the barrel. The extent of its use is not learned. To ignite
+the powder the "wheel-lock" and "snap-haunce" were invented by the
+Germans in the sixteenth century. The wheel lock consisted of a furrowed
+wheel and was turned by the trigger and chain against a fixed piece of
+iron on the stock to excite sparks which fell on to the priming. The
+snap-haunce, a straight piece of furrowed steel, superseded the
+wheel-lock. The sixteenth century had got well started before the
+English could be induced to give up the cross-bow and arrow, and adopt
+the musket. After they had introduced the musket with the snap-haunce
+and wooden ramrod, it became known, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, as
+the "Brown Bess."
+
+The "old flint-lock" was quite a modern invention, not appearing until
+the seventeenth century. It was a bright idea to fix a piece of flint
+into the cock and arrange it to strike a steel cap on the priming pan
+when the trigger was fired; and it superseded the old match, wheel-lock,
+and snap-haunce. The flint-lock was used by armies well into the
+nineteenth century, and is still in private use in remote localities. As
+the arquebus succeeded the bow and arrow, so the musket, a smooth and
+single-barrel muzzle-loader with a flint-lock and a wooden ramrod,
+succeeded the arquebus. Rifles, which were the old flint-lock muskets
+with their barrels provided with spiral grooves to give the bullet a
+rotary motion and cause it to keep one point constantly in front during
+its flight, is claimed as the invention of Augustin Kutler of Germany in
+1520, and also of Koster of Birmingham, England, about 1620. Muskets
+with straight grooves are said to have been used in the fifteenth
+century.
+
+The rifle with a long barrel and its flint-lock was a favourite weapon
+of the American settler. It was made in America, and he fought the
+Indian wars and the war of the Revolution with it.
+
+It would not do to conclude this sketch of antique cannon and fire-arms
+without referring to Puckle's celebrated English patent No. 418, of May
+15, 1718, for "A Defence." The patent starts out with the motto:
+
+  "Defending King George, your Country, and Lawes,
+  Is defending Yourselves and Protestant Cause."
+
+It proceeds to describe a "Portable Gun or Machine" having a single
+barrel, with a set of removable chambers which are charged with bullets
+before they are placed in the gun, a handle to turn the chambers to
+bring each chamber in line with the barrel, a tripod on which the gun is
+mounted and on which it is to be turned, a screw for elevating and
+turning the gun in different directions, a set of square chambers "for
+shooting square bullets against Turks," a set of round chambers "for
+shooting round bullets against the Christians;" and separate drawings
+show the square bullets for the Turks and the round bullets for the
+Christians. History is silent as to whether Mr. Puckle's patent was put
+in practice, but it contained the germs of some modern inventions.
+
+Among the first inventions of the century was a very important one made
+by a clergyman, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth, a Scotchman, who in 1803 invented
+the percussion principle in fire-arms. In 1807 he patented in England
+detonating powder and pellets which were used for artillery. About 1808
+General Shrapnel of the English army invented the celebrated shell known
+by his name. It then consisted of a comparatively thin shell filled with
+bullets, having a fuse lit by the firing of the gun, and adapted to
+explode the shell in front of the object fired at. This fuse was
+superseded by one invented by General Bormann of Belgium, which greatly
+added to the value of case shot.
+
+In 1814 Joshua Shaw of England invented the percussion cap. Thus, by the
+invention of the percussion principle by Forsyth, and that little copper
+cylinder of Shaw, having a flake of fulminating powder inside and
+adapted to fit the nipple of a gun and be exploded by the fall of the
+hammer, was sounded the death knell of the old flint-locks with which
+the greatest battles of the world had been and were at that time being
+fought. The advantages gained by the cap were the certain and
+instantaneous fire, the saving in time, power, and powder obtained by
+making smaller the orifice through which the ignition was introduced,
+and the protection from moisture given by the covering cap. And yet so
+slow is the growth of inventions sometimes that all Europe continued to
+make the flint-locks for many years after the percussion cap was
+invented; and General Scott, in the war between the United States and
+Mexico in 1847, declined to give the army the percussion cap musket. The
+cap suggested the necessity and invention of machines for making them
+quickly and in great quantities.
+
+The celebrated "Colt's" revolver was invented by Colonel Samuel Colt of
+the United States, in 1835. He continued to improve it, and in 1851
+exhibited it at the World's Fair, London, where it excited great
+surprise and attention. Since then the revolver has become a great
+weapon in both private and public warfare. The next great inventions in
+small arms were the readoption and improvement of the breech-loader, the
+making of metallic cartridges, the magazine gun, smokeless powder and
+other explosives, to which further reference will be made.
+
+To return to cannons:--In 1812 Colonel Bomford, an American officer,
+invented what is called the "Columbiad," a kind of cannon best adapted
+for sea-coast purposes. They are long-chambered pieces, combining
+certain qualities of the gun, howitzer and mortar, and capable of
+projecting shells and solid shot with heavy charges of powder at high
+angles of elevation, and peculiarly adapted to defend narrow channels
+and sea-coast defences. A similar gun was invented by General Paixhans
+of the French army in 1822. The adoption of the Paixhans long-chambered
+guns, designed to throw heavy shells horizontally as well as at a slight
+elevation and as easily as solid shot, was attended with great results.
+Used by the French in 1832, in the quick victorious siege of Antwerp, by
+the allies at Sebastopol, where the whole Russian fleet was destroyed in
+about an hour, and in the fight of the Kearsarge and the doomed Alabama
+off Cherbourg in the American civil war, it forced inventors in the
+different countries to devise new and better armour for the defence of
+ships. This was followed by guns of still greater penetrative power.
+Then as another result effected by these greater guns came the passing
+away of the old-fashioned brick and stone forts as a means of defence.
+
+In an interesting address by Major Clarence E. Dutton of the Ordnance
+Department, U.S.A., at the Centennial Patent Congress at Washington in
+1891, he thus stated what the fundamental improvements were that have
+characterised the modern ordnance during the century:
+
+1. The regulation and control of the action of gunpowder in such a
+manner as to exert less strain upon the gun, and to impart more energy
+to the projectile.
+
+2. To so construct the gun as to transfer a portion of the strain from
+the interior parts of the walls which had borne too much of it, to the
+exterior parts which had borne too little, thus nearly equalising the
+strain throughout the entire thickness of the walls.
+
+3. To provide a metal which should be at once stronger and safer than
+any which had been used before.
+
+In the United States General Rodman, "one of the pioneers of armed
+science," commenced about 1847 a series of investigations and
+experiments on the power and action of gunpowder and the strains
+received by every part of the gun by the exploding gases, of very great
+importance; and in this matter he was assisted greatly by Dr. W. E.
+Woodbridge, who invented an ingenious apparatus termed a "piezometer,"
+or a pressure measurer, by which the pressure of the gases at the
+various parts of the gun was determined with mathematical certainty.
+
+Dr. Woodbridge also added greatly to the success of rifled cannon. The
+success in rifling small arms, by which an elongated ball is made to
+retain the same end foremost during its flight, led again to the
+attempts of rifling cannon for the same purpose, which were finally
+successful. But this success was due not to the spiral grooves in the
+cannon bore, but in attachments to the ball compelling it to follow the
+course of the grooves and giving it the proper initial movement. The
+trouble with these attachments was that they were either stripped off,
+or stripped away, by the gun spirals. Woodbridge in 1850 overcame the
+difficulty by inventing an improved _sabot_, consisting of a ring
+composed of metal softer than the projectile or cannon, fixed on the
+inner end of the projectile and grooved at its rear end, so that when
+the gun is fired and the ball driven forward these grooves expand,
+acting valvularly to fill the grooves in the gun, thus preventing the
+escape of the gases, while the ring at the same time is forced forward
+on to the shell so tightly and forcibly that the projectile is
+invariably given a rotary motion and made to advance strictly in the
+line of axis of the bore, and in the same line during the course of its
+flight. This invention in principle has been followed ever since,
+although other forms have been given the sabot, and it is due to this
+invention that modern rifled cannon have been so wonderfully accurate in
+range and efficient in the penetrating and destructive power both on sea
+and land.
+
+Woodbridge also invented the _wire-wound cannon_, and a machine for
+winding the wire upon the gun, thus giving the breach part, especially,
+immense strength.
+
+In England, among the first notable and greater inventors in ordnance
+during the latter half of the century, a period which embraces the
+reduction to practice of the most wonderful and successful inventions in
+weapons of war which the world had up to that time seen, are Lancaster,
+who invented the elliptical bore; Sir William Armstrong, who, commencing
+in 1885, constructed a gun built of wrought-iron bars twisted into coils
+and applied over a steel core and bound by one or more wrought-iron
+rings, all applied at white heat and shrunk on by contraction due to
+cooling, by which method smooth-bore, muzzle-loading cannon of immense
+calibre, one weighing one hundred tons, were made. They were followed by
+Armstrong, inventor of breech-loaders; Blakely, inventor of cannon made
+of steel tubes and an outer jacket of cast iron; and Sir Joseph
+Whitworth, inventor of most powerful steel cannon and compressed steel
+projectiles.
+
+In Germany, Friedrich Krupp at Essen, Prussia, invented and introduced
+such improvements in breech-loading cannon as revolutionised the
+manufacture of that species of ordnance, and established the foundation
+of the greatest ordnance works in the world. The first of his great
+breech-loading steel guns was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867.
+A Krupp gun finished at Essen in the 70's was then the largest steel gun
+the world had ever seen. It weighed seventy-two tons, and was thirty-two
+feet long. The charge consisted of 385 pounds of powder, the shell
+weighed 1,660 pounds, having a bursting charge of powder of 22 pounds,
+and a velocity of 1,640 feet per second. It was estimated that if the
+gun were fired at an angle of 43 deg. the shell would be carried a distance
+of fifteen miles. It was in the Krupp guns, and also in the Armstrong
+breech-loaders, that a simple feature was for the first time introduced
+which proved of immense importance in giving great additional expansive
+force to the explosion of the powder. This was an increase in the size
+of the powder chamber so as to allow a vacant space in it unfilled with
+powder.
+
+In the United States, Rodman, commencing in 1847, and Dahlgren in 1850,
+and Parrott in 1860, invented and introduced some noticeable
+improvements in cast-iron, smooth-bore, and rifled cannon.
+
+In France General Paixhans and Colonel Treuille de Beaulieu improved the
+shells and ordnance.
+
+The latest improvements in cannon indicate that the old smooth-bore
+muzzle-loader guns are to be entirely superseded by breech-loaders, just
+as in small arms the muzzle-loading musket has given way to the
+breech-loading rifle.
+
+A single lever is now employed, a single turn of which will close or
+open the breech, and when opened expel the shell by the same movement.
+Formerly breech-loaders were confined to the heaviest ordnance; now they
+are a part of the lightest field pieces.
+
+As to the operation of those immense guns above referred to, which
+constitute principally sea-coast defences and the heavy armament for
+forts, gun carriages have been invented whereby the huge guns are
+quickly raised from behind immense embrasures by pneumatic or hydraulic
+cylinders, quickly fired (the range having been before accurately
+ascertained) and then as quickly lowered out of sight, the latter
+movement being aided by the recoil action of the gun.
+
+It is essential that the full force of the gases of explosion shall be
+exerted against the base of the projectile, and therefore all escape of
+such gases be prevented. To this end valuable improvements in _gas
+checks_ have been made,--one kind consisting of an annular canvas sack
+containing asbestos and tallow placed between the front face of the
+breech block and a mushroom-shaped piece, against which the explosion
+impinges.
+
+As among projectiles and shells for cannon those have been invented
+which are loaded with dynamite or other high explosive, a new class of
+_Compressed air ordnance_ has been started, in which air or gas is used
+for the propelling power in place of powder, whereby the chances of
+exploding such shells in the bore of the gun are greatly lessened.
+
+The construction of metals, both for cannon to resist most intense
+explosives and for plates to resist the penetration of the best
+projectiles, have received great attention. They are matters pertaining
+to metallurgy, and are treated of under that head. The strife still
+continues between impenetrable armour plate and irresistible
+projectiles. Within the last decade or so shells have been invented with
+the design simply to shatter or fracture the plate by which the way is
+broken for subsequent shots. Other shells have been invented carrying a
+high explosive and capable of penetrating armour plates of great
+thickness, and exploding after such penetration has taken place.
+
+A great accompaniment to artillery is "The Range Finder," a telescopic
+apparatus for ascertaining accurately the location and distance of
+objects to be fired at.
+
+Returning to _small arms_,--at the time percussion caps were invented in
+England, 1803-1814, John H. Hall of the United States invented a
+breech-loading rifle. It was in substance an ordinary musket cut in two
+at the breech, with the rear piece connected by a hinge and trunnion to
+the front piece, the bore of the two pieces being in line when clamped,
+and the ball and cartridge inserted when the chamber was thrown up. A
+large number were at once manufactured and used in the U.S. Army. A
+smaller size, called _carbines_, were used by the mounted troops. After
+about twenty years' use these guns began to be regarded as dangerous in
+some respects, and their manufacture and use stopped, although the
+carbines continued in use to some extent in the cavalry. A
+breech-loading rifle was also invented by Colonel Pauly of France in
+1812, and improved by Dreyse in 1835; also in Norway in 1838, and in a
+few years adopted by Sweden as superior to all muzzle-loading arms.
+About 1841 the celebrated "Needle Gun" was invented in Prussia, and its
+superiority over all muzzle-loaders was demonstrated in 1848 in the
+first Schleswig-Holstein war.
+
+_Cartridges_, in which the ball and powder were secured together in one
+package, were old in artillery, as has been shown, but their use for
+small arms is a later invention. _Metallic_ cartridges, made of sheet
+metal with a fulminate cap in one end and a rim on the end of the shell
+by which it could be extracted after the explosion, were invented by
+numerous persons in Europe and America during the evolution of the
+breech-loader. Combined metal case and paper patented in England in
+1816, and numerous wholly metallic cartridge shells were patented in
+England, France, and United States between 1840 and 1860. M. Lefaucheux
+of France, in the later period, devised a metal _gas check_ cartridge
+which was a great advance.
+
+A number of inventors in the United States besides Hall had produced
+breech-loading small arms before the Civil War of 1861, but with the
+exception of Colt's revolver and Sharp's carbine, the latter used by the
+cavalry to a small extent, none were first adopted in that great
+conflict. Later, the Henry or Winchester breech-loading rifle and the
+Spencer magazine gun were introduced and did good service. But the whole
+known system of breech-loading small arms was officially condemned by
+the U.S. Military authorities previous to that war. The absence of
+machines to make a suitable cartridge in large quantities and vast
+immediate necessities compelled the authorities to ignore the tested
+Prussian and Swedish breech-loaders and those of their own countrymen
+and to ransack Europe for muskets of ancient pattern. These were worked
+by the soldiers under the ancient tactics, of load, ram, charge and
+fire, until a stray bullet struck the ramrod, or the discharge of a few
+rammed cartridges so over-heated the musket as to thereby dispense with
+the soldier and his gun for further service in that field. However,
+private individuals and companies continued to invent and improve, and
+the civil war in America revolutionised the systems of warfare and its
+weapons. The wooden walls of the navies disappeared as a defence after
+the conflict between the Monitor and the Merrimac, and muzzle-loading
+muskets became things of the past.
+
+Torpedoes, both stationary and movable, then became a successful weapon
+of warfare. Soon after that war, and when the United States had adopted
+the Springfield breech-loading rifle, the works at Springfield were
+equipped with nearly forty different machines, each for making a
+separate part of a gun in great quantities. Many of these had been
+invented by Thomas Blanchard forty years before. That great inventor of
+labour-saving machinery had then designed machines for the shaping and
+making of gun stocks and for forming the accompanying parts. Blanchard
+was a contemporary of Hall, and Hall, to perfect his breech-loader, was
+the first to invent machines for making its various parts. His was the
+first interchangeable system in the making of small arms.
+
+Army officers had come to regard "the gun as only the casket while the
+cartridge is the jewel;" and to this end J. G. Gill at the U.S. Arsenal
+at Frankford, Philadelphia, devised a series of cartridge-making
+machines which ranked among the highest triumphs of American invention.
+
+The single breech-loader is now being succeeded by the magazine gun, by
+which a supply of cartridges in a chamber is automatically fed into the
+barrel. The Springfield, has been remodelled as a magazine loader. Among
+later types of repeating rifles, known from the names of their
+inventors, are the "Krag-Jorgensen," and the "Mauser," and the crack of
+these is heard around the world. Modern rifles are rendered more deadly
+by the fact that they can be loaded and fired in a recumbent position,
+and with smokeless powder, by which the soldier and his location remain
+concealed from his foe.
+
+The recoil of the gun in both large and small arms is now utilised to
+expel the fired cartridge shell, and to withdraw a fresh one from its
+magazine and place it in position in the chamber. _Compressed air and
+explosive gases_ have been used for the same purpose. A small _electric
+battery_ has been placed in the stock to explode the cartridge when the
+trigger is pulled.
+
+Sporting guns have kept pace with other small arms in improvements, and
+among modern forms are those which discharge in alternative succession
+the two barrels by a single trigger. Revolvers have been improved and
+the Smith and Wesson is known throughout the world.
+
+The idea of _Machine Guns_, or _Mitrailleuses_, was not a new one, as we
+have seen from Puckle's celebrated patent of 1718. Also history mentions
+a gun composed of four breech-loading tubes of small calibre, placed on
+a two-wheeled cart used in Flanders as early as 1347, and of four-tubed
+guns used by the Scotch during the civil war in 1644. The machine gun
+invented by Dr. Gatling of the United States during the Civil War and
+subsequently perfected, has become a part of the armament of every
+civilised nation. The object of the gun is to combine in one piece the
+destructive effect of a great many, and to throw a continuous hail of
+projectiles. The gun is mounted on a tripod; the cartridges are
+contained in a hopper mounted on the breech of the gun and are fed from
+locks into the barrels (which are usually five or ten in number) as the
+locks and barrels are revolved by a hand crank. As the handle is turned
+the cartridges are first given a forward motion, which thrusts them into
+the barrels, closes the breech and fires the cartridges in succession,
+and then a backward motion which extracts the empty shells. The gun
+weighs one hundred pounds and firing may be kept up with a ten-barreled
+gun at one thousand shots a minute.
+
+The _Hotchkiss_ revolving cannon is another celebrated American
+production named from its inventor, and constructed to throw heavier
+projectiles than the Gatling. It also has revolving barrels and great
+solidity in the breech mechanism. It has been found to be of great
+service in resisting the attacks of torpedo boats. It is adapted to fire
+long-range shells with great rapidity and powerful effect, and is
+exceedingly efficient in defence of ditches and entrenchments.
+
+_Explosives._--The desire to make the most effective explosives for
+gunnery led to their invention not only for that purpose but for the
+more peaceful pursuit of blasting. _Gun Cotton_, that mixture of nitric
+acid and cotton, made by Schoenbein in 1846, and experimented with for a
+long time as a substitute for gunpowder in cannon and small arms and
+finally discarded for that purpose, is now being again revived, but used
+chiefly for blasting. This was followed by the discovery of
+nitro-glycerine, a still more powerful explosive agent--too powerful and
+uncontrollable for guns as originally made. They did not supersede
+gunpowder, but smokeless powders have come, containing nitro-cellulose,
+or nitro-glycerine rendered plastic, coherent and homogeneous, and
+converted into rods or grains of free running powder, to aid the
+breech-loaders and magazine guns, while the high explosives, gun-cotton,
+nitro-glycerine, dynamite, dualine, etc., have become the favorite
+agencies for those fearful offensive and defensive weapons, the
+_Torpedoes_. From about the time of the discovery of gunpowder,
+stationary and floating chambers and mines of powder, to be discharged
+in early times by fuses (later by percussion or electricity), have
+existed, but modern inventions have rendered them of more fearful
+importance than was ever dreamed of before this century. The latest
+invention in this class is the _submarine torpedo boat_, which, moving
+rapidly towards an enemy's vessel, suddenly disappears from sight
+beneath the water, and strikes the vessel at its lowest or most
+vulnerable point.
+
+To the inquiry as to whether all this vast array of modern implements of
+destruction is to lessen the destruction of human life, shorten war,
+mitigate its horrors and tend toward peace, there can be but one answer.
+All these desirable results have been accomplished whenever the new
+inventions of importance have been used. "Warlike Tribes" have been put
+to flight so easily by civilised armies in modern times that such tribes
+have been doubted as possessing their boasted or even natural courage.
+Nations with a glorious past as to bravery but with a poor armament have
+gone down suddenly before smaller forces armed with modern ordnance. The
+results would have been reversed, and the derision would have proceeded
+from the other side, if the conditions had been reversed, and those
+tribes and brave peoples been armed with the best weapons and the
+knowledge of their use. The courage of the majority of men on the
+battle-field is begot of confidence and enthusiasm, but this confidence
+and enthusiasm, however great the cause, soon fail, and discretion
+becomes the better part of valour, if men find that their weapons are
+weak and useless against vastly superior arms of the enemy. The
+slaughter and destruction in a few hours with modern weapons may not be
+more terrible than could be inflicted with the old arms by far greater
+forces at close quarters in a greater length of time in the past, but
+the end comes sooner; and the prolongation of the struggle with renewed
+sacrifices of life, and the long continued and exhausting campaigns,
+giving rise to diseases more destructive than shot or shell, are thereby
+greatly lessened, if not altogether avoided.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PAPER AND PRINTING.
+
+
+_Paper-making._--"The art preservative of all arts"--itself must have
+means of preservation, and hence the art of paper-making precedes the
+art of printing.
+
+It was Pliny who wrote, at the beginning of the Christian era, that "All
+the usages of civilised life depend in a remarkable degree upon the
+employment of paper. At all events the remembrance of past events."
+
+Naturally to the Chinese, the Hindoo, and the Egyptian, we go with
+inquiries as to origin, and find that as to both arts they were making
+the most delicate paper from wood and vegetable fibres and printing with
+great nicety, long before Europeans had even learned to use papyrus or
+parchment, or had conceived the idea of type.
+
+So far as we know the wasp alone preceded the ancient Orientals in the
+making of paper. Its gray shingled house made in layers, worked up into
+paper by a master hand from decayed wood, pulped, and glutinised,
+waterproofed, with internal tiers of chambers, a fortress, a home, and
+an airy habitation, is still beyond the power of human invention to
+reproduce.
+
+Papyrus--the paper of the Egyptians: Not only their paper, but its pith
+one of their articles of food, and its outer portions material for
+paper, boxes, baskets, boats, mats, medicines, cloths and other articles
+of merchandise.
+
+Once one of the fruits of the Nile, now no longer growing there. On its
+fragile leaves were recorded and preserved the ancient literatures--the
+records of dynasties--the songs of the Hebrew prophets--the early annals
+of Greece and Rome--the vast, lost tomes of Alexandria. Those which were
+fortunately preserved and transferred to more enduring forms now
+constitute the greater part of all we have of the writings of those
+departed ages.
+
+In making paper from papyrus, the inner portion next to the pith was
+separated into thin leaves; these were laid in two or more layers,
+moistened and pressed together to form a leaf; two or more leaves united
+at their edges if desired, or end to end, beaten smooth with a mallet,
+polished with a piece of iron or shell, the ends, or sides, or both, of
+the sheet sometimes neatly ornamented, and then rolled on a wooden
+cylinder. The Romans and other ancient nations imported most of their
+papyrus from Egypt, although raising it to considerable extent in their
+own swamps.
+
+In the seventh century, the Saracens conquered Egypt and carried back
+therefrom, papyrus, and the knowledge of how to make paper from it to
+Europe.
+
+Parchment manufactured from the skins of young calves, kids, lambs,
+sheep, and goats, was an early rival of papyrus, and was known and used
+in Europe before papyrus was there introduced.
+
+The softening of vegetable and woody fibre of various kinds, flax and
+raw cotton and rags, and reducing it into pulp, drying, beating, and
+rolling it into paper, seem to have been suggested to Europe by the
+introduction of papyrus, for we learn of the first appearance of such
+paper by the Arabians, Saracens, Spaniards and the French along through
+the eighth, ninth, and tenth and eleventh centuries. Papyrus does not,
+however, appear to have been superseded until the twelfth century.
+
+Public documents are still extant written in the twelfth century on
+paper made from flax and rags; and paper mills began to put in an
+appearance in Germany in the fourteenth century, in which the fibre was
+reduced to pulp by stampers. England began to make paper in the next
+century. Pulping the fibre by softening it in water and beating the same
+had then been practised for four centuries. Rollers in the mills for
+rolling the pulp into sheets were introduced in the fifteenth century,
+and paper makers began to distinguish their goods from those made by
+others by water marks impressed in the pulp sheets. The jug and the pot
+was one favourite water mark in that century, succeeded by a fool's cap,
+which name has since adhered to paper of a certain size, with or without
+the cap. So far was the making of paper advanced in Europe that about
+1640 wall paper began to be made as a substitute for tapestry; although
+as to this fashion the Chinese were still ahead some indefinite number
+of centuries.
+
+Holland was far advanced in paper-making in the seventeenth century. The
+revolution of 1688 having seriously interrupted the art in England, that
+country imported paper from Holland during that period amounting to
+L100,000. It was a native of Holland, Rittenhouse, who introduced
+paper-making in America and erected a mill near Philadelphia in the
+early years of the eighteenth century, and there made paper from linen
+rags.
+
+The Dutch also had substituted cylinders armed with blades in place of
+stampers and used their windmills to run them. The Germans and French
+experimented with wood and straw.
+
+In the latter part of the eighteenth century some manufacturers in
+Europe had learned to make white paper from white rags, and as good in
+quality, and some think better, than is made at the present day. The
+essentials of paper making by hand from rags and raw vegetable fibres,
+the soaking of fibres in water and boiling them in lyes, the beating,
+rolling, smoothing, sizing and polishing of the paper, were then known
+and practised. But the best paper was then a dear commodity. The art of
+bleaching coloured stock was unknown, and white paper was made alone
+from stock that came white into the mill. The processes were nearly all
+hand operations. "Beating" was pounding in a mortar. The pulp was laid
+by hand upon moulds made of parallel strands of coarse brass wire; and
+the making of the pulp by grinding wood and treating it chemically to
+soften it was experimental.
+
+The nineteenth century produced a revolution. It introduced the use of
+modern machinery, and modern chemical processes, by which all known
+varieties and sizes of paper, of all colours, as well as paper vessels,
+are made daily in immense quantities in all civilised countries, from
+all sorts of fibrous materials.
+
+Knight, in his _Mechanical Dictionary_, gives a list of nearly 400
+different materials for paper making that had been used or suggested,
+for the most part within the century and up to twenty years ago, and the
+number has since increased.
+
+The modern revolution commenced in 1799, when Louis Robert, an employee
+of Francois Didot of Essones, France, invented and patented the first
+machine for making paper in a long, wide, continuous web. The French
+government in 1800 granted him a reward of 8,000 francs. The machine was
+then exhibited in England and there tested with success. It was there
+that Messrs. Fourdrinier, a wealthy stationery firm, purchased the
+patents, expended L60,000 for improvements on the machine, and first
+gave to the world its practical benefits. This expenditure bankrupted
+them, as the machines were not at once remunerative, and parliament
+refused to grant them pecuniary assistance. Gamble, Donkin, Koops, the
+Fourdriniers, Dickenson, and Wilkes, were the first inventors to improve
+the Robert machine, and to give it that form which in many essential
+features remains to-day. They, together with later inventors, gave to
+the world a new system of paper making.
+
+By 1872 two hundred and ninety-nine Fourdrinier machines were running in
+the United States alone. In the improved Fourdrinier machine or system,
+rags, or wood, or straw are ground or otherwise reduced to pulp, and
+then the pulp, when properly soaked and drained, is dumped into a
+regulating box, passing under a copper gate to regulate the amount and
+depth of feed, then carried along through strainers, screeners or
+dressers, to free the mass from clots and reduce it to the proper
+fineness, over an endless wire apron, spread evenly over this apron by a
+shaking motion, subjected to the action of a suction box by which the
+water is drawn off by air-suction pumps, carried between cloth-covered
+rollers which press and cohere it, carried on to a moving long felt
+blanket to further free it from moisture, and which continues to hold
+the sheet of pulp in form; then with the blanket through press rolls
+adjustable to a desired pressure and provided with means to remove
+therefrom adhering pulp and to arrest the progress of the paper if
+necessary; then through another set of compression rollers, when the
+condensed and matted pulp, now paper, is carried on to a second blanket,
+passed through a series of steam cylinders, where the web is partially
+dried, and again compressed, thence through another series of rollers
+and drying cylinders, which still further dry and stretch it, and now,
+finally completed, the sheet is wound on a receiving cylinder. The
+number of rollers and cylinders and the position and the length of the
+process to fully dry, compact, stretch and finish the sheet, may be, and
+are, varied greatly. If it is desired to impress on or into the paper
+water marks, letters, words, or ornamental matter, the paper in its
+moist stage, after it passes through the suction boxes, is passed under
+a "dandy" or fancy scrolled roll provided on its surface with the
+desired design. When it is desired to give it a smooth, glossy surface,
+the paper, after its completion, is passed through animal sizing
+material, and then between drying and smoothing rollers. Or this sizing
+may be applied to the pulp at the outset of the operation. Colouring
+material, when desired, is applied to the pulp, before pressing. By the
+use of machines under this system, a vast amount of material, cast-off
+rags, etc., before regarded as waste, was utilised for paper making.
+
+The modern discoveries of the chemists of the century as to the nature
+of fibres, best modes and materials for reducing them to pulp, and
+bleaching processes, have brought the art of paper making from wood and
+other fibrous materials to its present high and prosperous condition.
+
+What are known as the soda-pulp and the sulphite processes are examples
+of this. The latter and other acid processes were not successful until
+cement-lined digesters were invented to withstand their corroding
+action. But now it is only necessary to have a convenient forest of
+almost any kind of wood to justify the establishment of a paper mill.
+
+It was the scarcity of rags, especially of linen rags, that forced
+inventors to find other paper-producing materials.
+
+It would be impossible and uninteresting in a work of this character to
+enumerate the mechanical details constituting the improvements of the
+century in paper-making machinery of all kinds. Thousands of patents
+have been granted for such inventions. With one modern Fourdrinier
+machine, and a few beating engines, a small paper mill will now turn out
+daily as much paper as could be made by twelve mills a hundred years
+ago.
+
+In moulding pulp into articles of manufacture, satisfactory machines
+have been invented, not only for the mere forming them into shape, but
+for water-proofing and indurating the same. From the making of a
+ponderous paper car wheel to a lady's delicate work basket, success has
+been attained.
+
+_Paper bag machines_, machines for making _paper boxes_, applying and
+staying corners of such boxes, for making _cell cases_ used in packing
+eggs and fruit, and for wrapping fruit; machines for affixing various
+forms of labels and addresses, are among the wonders of modern
+inventions relating to paper. It is wonderful how art and ingenuity
+united about thirty years ago to produce attractive _wall papers_.
+Previous to that time they were dull and conventional in appearance. Now
+beautiful designs are rolled out from machines.
+
+_Printing._--We have already seen how paper making and printing grew up
+together an indefinite number of centuries ago in the Far East. Both
+block printing and movable types were the production of the Chinese,
+with which on their little pages of many-coloured paper they printed
+myriads of volumes of their strange literature in stranger characters
+during centuries when Europeans were painfully inscribing their thoughts
+with the stylus and crude pens upon papyrus and the dried skins of
+animals.
+
+But the European and his descendants delight to honour most the early
+inventors of their own countries. Italy refers with pride to the
+printing from blocks practised by the Venetians, and at Ravenna, from
+1280 to 1300; from type at Subiaco in the Roman territory in 1465, and
+to the first Roman book printed in 1470; the Dutch to Laurens Coster,
+whom they allege invented movable type in 1423. Some of the Dutch have
+doubted this, and pin their faith on Jacob Bellaert, as the first
+printer, and Gerard Leeu, his workman, who made the types at Haarlem, in
+1483. The Germans rely with confidence on John Guttenberg, who at
+Strasburg, as early as 1436, had wooden blocks, and wooden movable
+types, and who, two or three years after, printed several works; on the
+partnership of Faust and Guttenberg in 1450 at Mentz, and their Bible in
+Latin printed in 1456 on vellum with types imitating manuscript in form,
+and illustrated by hand; and, finally, on Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim,
+who then made matrices in which were cast the letters singly, and who
+thereby so pleased his master, Faust, that the latter gave him his
+daughter, Christina, in marriage.
+
+From Germany the art spread to Paris and thence to England. About 1474
+Caxton was printing his black-letter books in England. Spain followed,
+and it is stated that in 1500 there were two hundred printing offices in
+Europe. The religious and political turmoils in Germany in the sixteenth
+century gave an immense impetus to printing there. The printing press
+was the handmaid of the Reformation. In America the first printing press
+was set up in Mexico in 1536, and in Lima, Brazil, in 1586. In 1639,
+nineteen years after the landing of the Pilgrims on the bleak rock at
+Plymouth, they set up a printing press at Cambridge, Mass.
+
+The art of printing soon resolved itself into two classes: first,
+_composition_, the arranging of the type in the proper order into words
+and pages; and second, _press work_; the taking of impressions from the
+types, or from casts of types in plates--being a _facsimile_ of a type
+bed. This was _stereotyping_--the invention of William Ged, of
+Edinburgh, in 1731.
+
+Types soon came to be made everywhere of uniform height; that of England
+and America being 92-100 of an inch, and became universally classified
+by names according to their sizes, as pica, small pica, long primer,
+minion, nonpareil, etc.
+
+After movable types came the invention of _Presses_. The earliest were
+composed of a wooden frame on which were placed the simple screw and a
+lever to force a plate down upon a sheet of paper placed on the bed of
+type which had been set in the press, with a spring to automatically
+raise the screw and plate after the delivery of the impression. This was
+invented by Blaew of Amsterdam in 1620. Such, also, was the Ramage
+press, and on such a one Benjamin Franklin worked at his trade as a
+printer, both in America and in London. His London press, on which he
+worked in 1725, was carried to the United States, and is now on
+exhibition in Washington. This was substantially the state of the art at
+the beginning of the century.
+
+Then Earl Stanhope in England invented a press entirely of iron, and the
+power consisted of the combination of a toggle joint and lever. The
+first American improvement was invented by George Clymer, of
+Philadelphia, in 1817, the power being an improved lever consisting of
+three simple levers of the second order. This was superseded by the
+"Washington" press invented by Samuel Rust in 1829. It has as essential
+parts the toggle joint and lever, and in the frame work, as in the
+Stanhope, type bed, rails on which the bed was moved in and out, means
+to move the bed, the platen, the tympan on which the sheet is placed,
+the frisket, a perforated sheet of paper, to preserve the printed sheet,
+an inking roller and frame. In this was subsequently introduced an
+automatic device for inking the roller, as it was moved back from over
+the bed of type on to an inking table. This, substantially, has been the
+hand press ever since.
+
+With one of these hand-presses and the aid of two men about two hundred
+and fifty sheets an hour could be printed on one side. The increase in
+the circulation of newspapers before the opening of the 19th century
+demanded greater rapidity of production and turned the attention of
+inventors to the construction of power or machine presses. Like the
+paper-making machine, the power press was conceived in the last decade
+of the eighteenth century, and like that art was also not developed
+until the nineteenth century. William Nicholson of England is believed
+to have been the first inventor of a machine printing press. He obtained
+an English patent for it in 1720. The type were to be placed on the face
+of one cylinder, which was designed to be in gear, revolved with, and
+press upon another cylinder covered with soft leather, the type cylinder
+to be inked by a third cylinder to which the inking apparatus, was
+applied, and the paper to be printed by being passed between the type
+and the impression cylinder. These ideas were incorporated into the best
+printing machines that have since been made. But the first successful
+machine printing press was the invention of two Saxons, Koenig and Bauer,
+in 1813, who introduced their ideas from Germany, constructed the
+machine in London, and on which on the 28th of November, 1814, an issue
+of the _London Times_ was printed. The _Times_ announced to its readers
+that day that they were for the first time perusing a paper printed upon
+a machine driven by steam power. What a union of mighty forces was
+heralded in this simple announcement! The union of the steam engine, the
+printing press, and a great and powerful journal! An Archimedean lever
+had been found at last with which to move the world.
+
+The production of printed sheets per hour over the hand-press was at
+once quadrupled, and very shortly 1800 sheets per hour were printed.
+This machine was of that class known as cylinder presses. In this
+machine ordinary type was used, and the type-form was flat and passed
+beneath a large impression cylinder on which the paper was held by
+tapes. The type-form was reciprocated beneath an inking apparatus and
+the paper cylinder alternately. The inking apparatus consisted of a
+series of rollers, to the first of which the ink was ejected from a
+trough and distributed to the others. In 1815 Cowper patented in England
+electrotype plates to be affixed to a cylinder. Applegath and Cowper
+improved the Koenig machine in the matter of the ink distributing
+rollers, and in the adaptation of four printing cylinders to the
+reciprocating type bed, whereby, with some other minor changes, 5000
+impressions on one side were produced per hour. Again Applegath greatly
+changed the arrangement of cylinders and multiplied their number, and
+the number of the other parts, so that in 1848 the sheets printed on one
+side were first 8000 and then 12,000 an hour.
+
+In the United States, Daniel Treadwell of Boston invented the first
+power printing machine in 1822. Two of these machines were at that time
+set up in New York city. It was a flat bed press and was long used in
+Washington in printing for the government. David Bruce of New York, in
+1838, invented the first successful type-casting machine, which, when
+shortly afterward it was perfected, became the model for type-casting
+machines for Europe and America. Previous to that time type were
+generally made by casting them in hand-moulds--the metal being poured in
+with a spoon.
+
+Robert Hoe, an English inventor, went to New York in 1803, and turned
+his attention to the making of printing presses. His son, Richard March
+Hoe, inherited his father's inventive genius. While in England in
+1837-1840, obtaining a patent on and introducing a circular saw, he
+became interested in the printing presses of the London Times. Returning
+home, he invented and perfected a rotary machine which received the name
+of the "Lightning Press." It first had four and then ten cylinders
+arranged in a circle. As finally completed, it printed from a continuous
+roll of paper several miles in length, and on both sides at the same
+time, cutting off and folding ready for delivery, 15,000 to 20,000
+newspapers an hour, the paper being drawn through the press at the rate
+of 1,000 feet in a minute. Before it was in this final, completed shape,
+it was adopted by the _London Times_. John Walter of London in the
+meantime invented a machine of a similar class. He also used a sheet of
+paper miles long. It was first damped, passed through blotting rolls,
+and then to the printing cylinders. It gave out 11,000 perfected sheets,
+or 22,000 impressions an hour, and as each sheet was printed, it was cut
+by a knife on the cylinder, and the sheets piled on the paper boards. It
+was adopted by the London _Times_ and the New York _Times_.
+
+A German press at Augsburg, and the Campbell presses of the United
+States, have also become celebrated as web perfecting presses, in which
+the web is printed, the sheets cut, associated, folded, and delivered at
+high speed. One of the latest quadruple stereotype perfecting presses
+made by Hoe & Co. of New York has a running capacity of 48,000 papers
+per hour. On another, a New York paper has turned off nearly six hundred
+thousand copies in a single day, requiring for their printing
+ninety-four tons of paper. Among other celebrated inventors of printing
+presses in the United States were Isaac Adams, Taylor, Gordon, Potter,
+Hawkins, Bullock, Cottrell, Campbell, Babcock, and Firm.
+
+_Mail-marking Machines_, in which provision is made for holding the
+printing mechanism out of operative position in case a letter is not in
+position to be stamped; address-printing machines, including machines
+for printing addresses by means of a stencil; machines for automatically
+setting and distributing the type, including those in which the
+individual types are caused to enter the proper receptacle by means of
+nicks in the type, which engage corresponding projections on a
+stationary guard plate, and automatic type justifying machines. All such
+have been invented, developed, and perfected in the last half century.
+
+Another invention which has added wonderfully to push the century along,
+is the _Typewriter_. It has long been said that "The pen is mightier
+than the sword," but from present indications, it is proper to add that
+the typewriter is mightier than the pen.
+
+A machine in which movable types are caused to yield impressions on
+paper to form letters by means of key levers operated by hand, has been
+one of slow growth from its conception to its present practical and
+successful form.
+
+Some one suggested the idea in England in a patent in 1714. The idea
+rested until 1840, when a French inventor revived it in a patent. At the
+same time patents began to come out in England and the United States;
+and about forty patents in each of these two countries were granted from
+that time until 1875. Since that date about 1400 patents more have been
+issued in the United States, and a large number in other countries. It
+was, however, only that year and before 1880, that the first popular
+commercially successful machines were made and introduced.
+
+The leading generic idea of all subsequent successful devices of this
+kind was clearly set forth in the patent of S. W. Francis of the United
+States in 1857. This feature is the arranging of a row of hammers in a
+circle so that when put in motion they will all strike the same place,
+which is the centre of that circle. The arrangement of a row of pivoted
+hammers or type levers, each operated by a separate key lever to strike
+an inked ribbon in front of a sheet of paper, means to automatically
+move the carriage carrying the paper roll from right to left as the
+letters are successfully printed, leaving a space between each letter
+and word, and sounding a signal when the end of a line is reached, so
+that the carriage may be returned to its former position--all these and
+some other minor but necessary operations may seem simple enough when
+stated, but their accomplishment required the careful study of many
+inventors for years.
+
+One of the most modern of typewriters has a single electro-magnet to
+actuate all the type bars of a set, and to throw each type from its
+normal position to the printing centre. By an extremely light touch
+given to each key lever the circuit is closed and causes the lever to
+strike without the necessity of pressing the key down its whole extent
+and releasing it before the next key strikes. By this device, the
+operator is relieved of fatigue, as his fingers may glide quickly from
+one key to another, the printing is made uniform, and far greater speed
+attained by reason of the quick and delicate action. Mr. Thaddeus Cahill
+of Washington appears to be the first to have invented the most
+successful of this type of machines.
+
+_Book-binding Machinery_ is another new production of the century. It
+may be that the old hand methods would give to a book a stronger binding
+than is found on most books to-day, but the modern public demands and
+has obtained machinery that will take the loose sheets and bind them
+ready for delivery, at the rate of ten or fifteen thousand volumes a
+day.
+
+The "quaint and curious volumes of forgotten lore," the Latin folios in
+oak or ivory boards with brass clasps, or bound in velvet, or in crimson
+satin, ornamented with finest needlework or precious stones, or the more
+humble beech boards, and calf and sheep skins with metal edges and iron
+clasps, in all of which the sheets were stoutly sewed together and
+glued, when glue was known, to the covers, are now but relics of the
+past. Machinery came to the front quite rapidly after 1825, at which
+time cloth had been introduced as cheaper than leather, and as cheap and
+a more enduring binder than paper. The processes in book-binding are
+enumerated as follows; and for each process a machine has been invented
+within the last sixty years to do the work:
+
+  Folding the sheets;
+  Gathering the consecutive sheets;
+  Rolling the backs of folded sheets;
+  Saw cutting the backs for the combs;
+  Sewing;
+  Rounding the back of the sewed sheets.
+  Edge cutting;
+  Binding, securing the books to the sides, covering with muslin,
+    leather or paper. Tooling and lettering.
+  Edge gilting.
+
+One of the best modern illustrations of human thought and complicated
+manual operations contained in automatic machinery is the _Linotype_.
+
+It is a great step from the humble invention of Schoeffer five hundred
+and fifty years ago of cast movable type to that of another German,
+Mergenthaler, in 1890-92.
+
+The Linotype (a line of type) was pronounced by the _London Engineering_
+"as the most remarkable machine of this century." It was the outcome of
+twelve years of continuous experiment and invention, and the expenditure
+of more than a million dollars. A brief description of this invention is
+given in the report of the United States commissioner of patents for
+1895 as follows: "In the present Mergenthaler construction there is a
+magazine containing a series of tubes for the letter or character
+moulds, each of which moulds is provided with a single character. There
+are a number of duplicates of each character, and the moulds containing
+the same character are all arranged in one tube. The machine is provided
+with a series of finger keys, which, when pressed like the keys of a
+typewriter, cause the letter moulds to assemble in a line in their
+proper order for print. A line mould and a melting pot are then brought
+into proper relation to the assembled line of letter moulds and a cast
+is taken, called the linotype, which represents the entire line, a
+column wide, of the matter to be printed. The letter moulds are then
+automatically returned to their proper magazine tube. The Mergenthaler
+machine is largely in use in the principal newspaper offices, with the
+result that a single operator does at least the work of four average
+compositors."
+
+Mr Rogers obtained a United States patent, September 23, 1890, for a
+machine for casting lines of type, the principal feature of which is
+that the letter moulds are strung on wires secured on a hinged frame.
+"When the frame is in one position, the letter moulds are released by
+the keys, slide down the wires by gravity and are assembled in line at
+the casting point. After the cast is taken, the lower ends of the guide
+wires are elevated, which causes the letter moulds to slide back on the
+wires to their original position, when the operation is repeated for the
+next line." Operated by a single person, the Mergenthaler produces and
+assembles linotypes ready for the press or stereotyping table at the
+rate of from 3,600 to 7,000 ems (type characters) per hour. It permits
+the face or style of type to be changed at will and it permits the
+operator to read and correct his matter as he proceeds.
+
+To the aid of the ordinary printing press came _electrotyping_,
+stenographic colour printing, engraving, and smaller job and card
+presses, all entirely new creations within the century, and of infinite
+variety, each in itself forming a new class in typographic art, and a
+valuable addition to the marvellous transformation.
+
+The introduction of the linotype and other modern machines into printing
+offices has without doubt many times reduced and displaced manual
+labour, and caused at those times at least temporary suffering among
+employees. But statistics do not show that as a whole there are fewer
+printers in the land. On the contrary, the force seems to increase, just
+as the number of printing establishments increase, with the
+multiplication of new inventions. As in other arts, the distress caused
+by the displacement of hand-labour by machinery is local and temporary.
+The whole art rests for its development on the demand for reading
+matter, and the demand never seems to let up. It increases as fast as
+the means of the consumers increase for procuring it. One hundred years
+ago a decent private library, consisting of a hundred or so volumes, one
+or two weekly newspapers, and an occasional periodical, was the badge
+and possession alone of the wealthy few. Now nearly every reading
+citizen of every village has piled up in some corner of his house a
+better supply than that, of bound or unbound literature, and of a far
+superior quality. Besides the tons of reading matter of all kinds turned
+out daily by the city presses, every village wants its own paper and its
+town library, and every one of its business men has recourse to the
+typewriter and the printer for his letters, his cards, and his
+advertisements.
+
+To supply the present demand for printed matter with the implements of a
+hundred years ago, it would be necessary to draw upon and exhaust the
+supply of labourers in nearly every other occupation. Printing would
+become the one universal profession.
+
+The roar of the guns at Waterloo and the click of the first power
+printing press in London were nearly simultaneous. The military Colossus
+then tumbled, and the Press began to lead mankind. Wars still continue,
+and will, until men are civilised; but the vanguard of civilisation are
+the printers, and not the warriors. The marvellous glory of the
+nineteenth century has proceeded from the intelligence of the people,
+awakened, stimulated, and guided by the press. But the press itself, and
+its servitors and messengers, speeding on the wings of electricity, are
+the children of the inventors.
+
+These inventions have made the book and the newspaper the poor man's
+University. They are mirrors which throw into his humble home
+reflections of the scenes of busy life everywhere. By them knowledge is
+spread, thought aroused, and universal education established.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+TEXTILES.
+
+
+_Spinning_:--A bunch of combed fibre fixed in the forked end of a stick
+called a distaff, held under the left arm, while with the right
+forefinger and thumb the housewife or maiden deftly drew out and twisted
+a thread of yarn of the fibre and wound it upon a stick called a
+spindle, was the art of spinning that came down to Europe from Ancient
+Egypt or India without a change through all the centuries to at least
+the middle of the fourteenth century, and in England to the time of
+Henry VIII. Then the spinning wheel was introduced, which is said to
+have also been long in use in India. By the use of the wheel the spindle
+was no longer held in the hand, but, set upon a frame and connected by a
+cord or belt to the wheel, was made to whirl by turning the wheel by
+hand, or by a treadle. The spindle was connected to the bunch of cotton
+by a cord, or by a single roving of cotton or wool attached to the
+spindle, which was held between the finger and thumb, and as the spindle
+revolved the thread was drawn out and twisted and wound by the spindle
+upon itself.
+
+In the cloth of the ancient East the warp and weft were both of cotton.
+In England the warp was linen and the weft was cotton. The warp was made
+by the cloth and linen manufacturers, and the weft yarns furnished by
+the woman spinsters throughout the country. By both these methods only a
+single thread at a time was spun. The principle of the spinning
+operation, the drawing out and twisting a thread or cord from a bunch or
+roll of fibre, has remained the same through all time.
+
+The light and delicate work, the pure and soft material, and the beauty
+and usefulness of raiments produced, have all through time made woman
+the natural goddess, the priestess, the patroness, and the votary of
+this art. The object of all modern machinery, however complicated or
+wonderful, has simply been to increase the speed and efficiency of the
+ancient mode of operation and to multiply its results. The loom, that
+antique frame on which the threads were laid in one direction to form
+the warp, and crossed by the yarns in the opposite direction, carried
+through the warp by the shuttle thrown by hand, to form the woof, or
+weft, comprised a device as old as, if not older than, the distaff and
+spindle.
+
+The ancient and isolated races of Mexico had also learned the art of
+spinning and weaving. When the Spaniards first entered that country they
+found the natives clothed in cotton, woven plain, or in many colours.
+
+After forty centuries of unchanged life, it occurred to John Kay of
+Bury, England, that the weaving process might be improved. In 1733 he
+had succeeded in inventing the picker motion, "picker peg," or "fly."
+This consisted of mechanical means for throwing the shuttle across the
+web by a sudden jerk of a bar--one at each side--operated by pulling a
+cord. He could thus throw the shuttle farther and quicker than by
+hand--make wider cloth, and do as much work in the same time as two men
+had done before. This improvement put weaving ahead of spinning, and the
+weavers were continually calling on the spindlers for more weft yarns.
+This set the wits of inventors at work to better the spinning means.
+
+At the same time that Kay was struggling with his invention of the
+flying shuttle, another poor man, but with less success, had conceived
+another idea, as to spinning. John Wyatt of Lichfield thought it would
+be a good thing to draw out the sliver of cotton or wool between two
+sets of rollers, one end of the sliver being held and fed by one set of
+rollers, while the opposite end was being drawn by the other set of
+rollers moving at a greater speed. His invention, although not then
+used, was patented in 1738 by Lewis Paul, who in time won a fortune by
+it, while Wyatt died poor, and it was claimed that Paul and not Wyatt
+was the true inventor.
+
+About 1764 a little accident occurring in the home of James Hargreaves,
+an English weaver of Blackburn, suggested to that observant person an
+invention that was as important as that of Kay. He was studying hard how
+to get up a machine to meet the weavers' demands for cotton yarns. One
+day while Hargreaves was spinning, surrounded by his children, one of
+them upset the spinning wheel, probably in a children's frolic, and
+after it fell and while lying in a horizontal position, with the spindle
+in a vertical position, and the wheel and the spindle still running, the
+idea flashed into Hargreaves' mind that a number of spindles might be
+placed upright and run from the same power. Thus prompted he commenced
+work, working in secret and at odd hours, and finally, after two or
+three years, completed a crude machine, which he called the spinning
+jenny, some say after his wife, and others that the name came from
+"gin," the common abbreviated name of an engine. This machine had eight
+or ten spindles driven by cords or belts from the same wheel, and
+operated by hand or foot. The rovings at one end were attached to the
+spindles and their opposite portions held together and drawn out by a
+clasp held in the hand. When the thread yarn was drawn out sufficiently
+it was wound upon the spindles by a reverse movement of the wheel. Thus
+finally were means provided to supply the demand for the weft yarns. One
+person with one of Hargreaves' machines could in the same time spin as
+much as twenty or thirty persons with their wheels. But those who were
+to be most benefited by the invention were the most alarmed, for fear of
+the destruction of their business, and they arose in their wrath, and
+demolished Hargreaves' labours. It was a hard time for inventors. The
+law of England then was that patents were invalid if the invention was
+made known before the patent was applied for, and part of the public
+insisted on demolishing the invention if it was so made known, so that
+to avoid the law and the lawless the harassed inventors kept and worked
+their inventions in secret as long as they could. Hargreaves fled to
+Nottingham, where works were soon started with his spinning jennys. The
+ideas of Kay, Wyatt and Hargreaves are said to have been anticipated in
+Italy. There were makers of cloths at Florence, and also in Spain and
+the Netherlands, who were far in advance of the English and French in
+this art, but the descriptions of machinery employed by them are too
+vague and scanty to sustain the allegation.
+
+And now the long ice age of hand working was breaking up, and the age of
+machine production was fast setting in. Hargreaves was in the midst of
+his troubles and his early triumphs, in 1765-1769, when Richard
+Arkwright entered the field. Arkwright, first a barber, and then a
+travelling buyer of hair, and finally a knight, learned, as he travelled
+through Lancashire, Lichfield, Blackburn and Nottingham, of the
+inventions and labours of Wyatt, Kay and Hargreaves. Possessed as he was
+of some mechanical skill and inventive genius, and realising that the
+harvest was ripe and the labourers few, entered the field of inventions,
+and with the help of Kay, revived the old ideas of John Wyatt and Lewis
+Paul of spinning by rollers, which had now slumbered for thirty years.
+Kay and Arkwright constructed a working model, and on this Arkwright by
+hard pushing and hard work obtained capital, and improved, completed and
+patented his machine. The machine was first used by him in a mill
+erected at Nottingham and worked by horses; then at Cromford, and in
+this mill the power used to drive the spinning machine was a water
+wheel. His invention was therefore given the name of the _water_ frame,
+which it retained long after steam had been substituted for water as the
+driving power. It was also named the _throstle_, from the fact that it
+gave a humming or singing sound while at work; but it is commonly known
+as the _drawing_ frame. Arkwright patented useful improvements. He had
+to contend with mobs and with the courts, which combined to destroy his
+machines and his patent, but he finally succeeded in establishing mills,
+and in earning from the Government, manufacturers, and the public a
+great and well-merited munificence.
+
+It is a remarkable coincidence that Watt's steam engine patent and
+Arkwright's first patent for his spinning machine were issued in the
+same year--1769. The new era of invention was dawning fast.
+
+Then, in 1776, came Samuel Crompton of Bolton, who invented a
+combination of the jenny of Hargreaves and the roller water frame of
+Arkwright, and to distinguish his invention from the others he named it
+the "mule." The mule was a carriage on wheels to which the spindles were
+attached. When the mule was drawn out one way on its frame the rovings
+were drawn from bobbins through rollers on a stationary frame, stretched
+and twisted into threads, and then as the mule was run back the spun
+threads were wound on spools on the spindles. The mule entirely
+superseded the use of the jenny. Notwithstanding the advantage in names
+the mule did more delicate work than the jenny. It avoided the
+continuous stretch on the thread of the jenny by first completing the
+thread and then winding it. Crompton's mule was moved back and forth by
+hand. Roberts subsequently made it self-acting. Next, followed in
+England the Rev. Edward Cartwright, who, turning his attention to
+_looms_, invented the first loom run by machinery, the _first power
+loom_, 1784-85. Then the rioters turned on him, and he experienced the
+same attentions received by Hargreaves and Arkwright. The ignorance of
+ages died in this branch of human progress, as it often dies in others,
+with a violent wrench. But the age of steam had at last come, and with
+it the spinning machine, the power loom, the printing press, and the
+discovery among men of the powers of the mind, their freedom to exercise
+such powers, and their right to possess the fruits of their labours.
+
+The completed inventions of Arkwright and others, combined with Watt's
+steam engine, revolutionised trade, and resulted in the establishment of
+mills and factories. A thousand spindles whirled where one hummed
+before. The factory life which drew the women and girls from their
+country homes to heated, and closely occupied, ill ventilated buildings
+within town limits, was, however, not regarded as an improvement in the
+matter of health; and it was a long time before mills were constructed
+and operated with the view to the correction of this evil.
+
+The great increase in demand for cotton produced by these machine
+inventions could not have been met had it not been for Eli Whitney's
+invention of the saw gin in America in 1793. The cleaning of the seed
+from the cotton accomplished by this machine produced as great a
+revolution in the culture of cotton in America as the inventions of
+Arkwright and others accomplished in spinning and weaving in England.
+America had also learned of Arkwright's machinery. Samuel Slater, a
+former employee of Arkwright, introduced it to Rhode Island in 1789, and
+built a great cotton mill there in 1793. Others followed in
+Massachusetts. Within twenty years after the introduction of Arkwright's
+machines in the United States there were a hundred mills there with a
+hundred thousand spindles.
+
+As has been said, it was customary for weavers to make the warp on their
+looms at one place, and the spinners to furnish the yarns for the weft
+from their homes, and even after the spinning machines were invented the
+spinning and weaving were done at separate places. It remained for
+Francis C. Lowell of Boston, who had been studying the art of spinning
+and weaving in England and Scotland and the inventions of Arkwright and
+Crompton, to establish in 1813 at Waltham, Mass., with the aid of Paul
+Moody, machinist, the first factory in the world wherein were combined
+under one roof all the processes for converting cotton into cloth.
+
+The task of the century in this art has been to greatly extend the
+dominion of machinery in the treatment of cotton and wool in all stages,
+from the reception of the raw material at the door of the factory to its
+final completion in the form of the choicest cloth, and to increase the
+capacity of machines sufficiently to meet an ever-increasing and
+enormous consumption. There are from twenty to forty separate and
+distinct operations performed both in spinning and weaving and the
+completion of a piece of cloth from cotton or wool, and nearly all of
+these operations are accomplished by machinery.
+
+The century's improvements and inventions in machines for treating and
+spinning cotton comprise machines for first opening and tearing the
+matted mass apart as it is taken from the bales, then cleaning, carding,
+drawing, roving, stretching, spinning, winding, doubling, dressing,
+warping, weaving, etc. Formerly, the opening machines were simply
+cylinders armed with spikes, to which the cotton was led through nipping
+rollers, and then delivered in a loose, fluffy condition. When such a
+machine was associated with a blowing machine to blow out the dust and
+cleanse the fibre, the loose and scattered condition in which the cotton
+was left gave rise to a great danger from fire, and destructive fires
+often occurred. The object of the later opening machinery is to confine
+the cotton within a casing in its passage through the machine, during
+which passage it is thoroughly stretched, beaten and blown and then
+rolled into a continuous sheet or lap. At the same time, by nice
+devices, it is evened, that is, freed from all knots, and made of
+uniform thickness, while a certain quantity only of cotton of known
+weight is allowed to pass through to constitute the required lap.
+Finally the lap is wound upon a roller, which when filled is removed to
+the carder. Although the cotton is now a white, soft, clean, downy
+sheet, still the fibres cross each other in every direction, and they
+require to be straightened and laid parallel before the spinning. This
+is done by carding. Paul, Hargreaves, Robert Peel, and Arkwright had
+worked in constructing a machine to take the place of hand carding, and
+it was finally reduced by Arkwright, towards the close of the 18th
+century, to its present form and principle.
+
+But to make those narrow, ribbon-like, clean, long lines of rolled
+cotton, known as slivers, by machinery with greater precision and
+uniformity than is possible by hand, and with a thousand times greater
+rapidity, has been the work of many inventors at different times and in
+different countries. The machine cards are cylinders clothed with
+leather and provided with separate sets of slender, sharp, bent fingers.
+The different cards are arranged to move past each other in opposite
+directions, so as to catch and disentangle the fibres. Flat, overhead
+stationary cards are also used through which the cotton is carried. As
+one operation of carding is not sufficient for most purposes the cotton
+is subjected to one or more successive cardings. So ingenious is the
+structure in some of its parts that as the stream of cotton passes on,
+any existing knots do not fail to excite the attention of the machine,
+which at once arrests them and holds them until disentangled. In
+connection with the cards, combers and strippers are used to assist in
+further cleaning and straightening the fibre, which is finally removed
+from the cards and the combs by the doffer. The cotton is stripped from
+the doffer by the doffer knife and in the form of delicate, flat narrow
+ribbons, which are drawn through a small funnel to consolidate them, and
+finally delivered in a coiled form into a tall tin can. The material is
+then carried to a drawing frame, which takes the spongy slivers, and,
+carrying them through successive sets of rollers moving at increased
+speed, elongates, equalises, straightens and "doubles" them, and finally
+condenses them into two or more rolls by passing the same through a
+trumpet-shaped funnel. As the yarns still need to be twisted, they are
+passed through a roving frame similar to a drawing frame. An ingenious
+device connected with the winding of the roving yarns upon bobbins may
+be here noted. Formerly the bobbins on which the yarns were wound
+increased in speed as they were filled, thus endangering and often
+breaking the thread, and at all times increasing the tension. In 1823
+Asa Arnold of Rhode Island invented "a differential motion" by which the
+velocity of the bobbin is kept uniform. The roving having been reduced
+to proper size for the intended number of yarns, now goes to the
+spinning machine, to still further draw out the threads and give to them
+a more uniform twist and tenuity. The spinning machine is simply an
+improved form of Crompton's mule, already described.
+
+Great as have been the improvements in many matters in spindle
+structure, the drawing, the stretching and the twisting still remain
+fundamentally the same in principle as in the singing throstle of
+Arkwright and the steady mule of Crompton. And yet so great and rapid
+has been the advancement of inventions as to details and to meet the
+great demand, that the machinery of half a century ago has been almost
+entirely discarded and supplanted by different types. A great
+improvement on the spinning frame of the 18th century is the ring frame
+invented by Jenks. In this the spindles, arranged vertically in the
+frame, are driven by bands from a central cylinder, and project through
+apertures in a horizontal bar. A flanged ridge around each aperture
+forms a ring and affords a track for a little steel hoop called a
+traveller, which is sprung over the ring. The traveller guides the
+thread on to the spool. As the spindles revolve, the thread passing
+through the traveller revolves it rapidly, and the horizontal bar rising
+and falling has the effect of winding the yarn alternately and regularly
+upon the spools.
+
+The bobbins of the spindle frame were found not large enough to contain
+a sufficient amount of yarn to permit of a long continuous operation
+when the warp came to be applied, and besides there were occasional
+defects in the thread which could not be detected until it broke, if the
+yarn was used directly from the bobbins. So to save much time and
+trouble spooling machines were invented which wind the yarn from the
+bobbins holding 1200 to 1800 yards, to large spools, each holding 18,000
+to 20,000 yards; and then by passing the yarn through fine slots in
+guides which lead to the spool, lumps or weak places, which would break
+the yarns at the guide, could at once be discovered and the yarn retied
+firmly, so that there would be no further breaking in the warper. After
+the yarn is finally spooled it is found that its surface is still rough
+and covered with fuzz. It is desirable, therefore, that it shall be
+smoothed out and be given somewhat of a lustre before weaving. These
+final operations are performed by the warping and dressing machines. In
+the warping machine the threads are drawn between rollers, the tension
+of which can be regulated, and then through a "reed," a comb-shaped
+device which separates the threads, and then finally wound upon a large
+cylinder. In this machine a device is also arranged which operates to
+stop the machine at once if any thread is broken. When the cylinder is
+filled it is then taken to the dresser, which in its modern and useful
+form is known as the "slusher," by which the yarns are drawn through hot
+starch, the superfluous starch squeezed out, and the yarns, kept
+separated all the time, dried by passing them around large drying
+cylinders, or through a closed box heated by steam pipes, and then wound
+upon the loom beam or cylinder.
+
+In weaving, as in spinning, however advanced, complicated and improved
+the means may be beyond the hand methods and simple looms of past ages,
+the general principles in the process are still the same. These means,
+generally and broadly speaking, consist of a frame for two sets of
+threads, a roller, called the warp beam, for receiving and holding the
+threads which form the warp, a cloth beam upon which the cloth is wound
+as it is woven, the warp threads, being first laid parallel, carried
+from the warp beam and attached to the cloth beam; means called heddles,
+which with their moving frames constitute "a harness," consisting of a
+set of vertical strings or rods having central loops through which the
+threads are passed, two or more sets of which receive alternate threads,
+and by the reciprocation of which the threads are separated into sets,
+_decussated_, forming between them what is called a shed through which
+the shuttle is thrown; means for throwing the shuttle; and means, called
+the batten, lay or lathe, for forcing or packing the weft tight into the
+angle formed by the opened warp and so rendering the fabric tight and
+compact, and then the motive power for turning the cloth beam and
+winding the cloth as fast as completed. It is along these lines that the
+inventors have wrought their marvellous changes from hand to power
+looms.
+
+Prior to 1800, in the weaving of figures into cloths, it was customary
+to employ boys to pull the cords in the loom harness in order to arrange
+the coloured threads in their relative positions. In that year appeared
+at the front Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French mechanician and native of
+Lyons, whose parents were weavers, a prolific inventor in his youth, a
+wayward wanderer after fortune and a wife, a soldier in the Revolution,
+losing a son fighting by his side, eking out a poor living with his
+wife's help at straw weaving, finally employed by a silk manufacturer,
+and while thus engaged, producing that loom which has ever since been
+known by his name. This loom was personally inspected by Napoleon, who
+rewarded the inventor with honours and a pension. It was then demolished
+by a mob and its inventor reviled, but it afterward became the pride of
+Lyons and the means of its renown and wealth in the weaving of silks of
+rich designs.
+
+The leading feature of the Jacquard loom consists of a chain of
+perforated pattern cards made to pass over a drum, through which cards
+certain needles pass, causing certain threads of the warp to rise and
+fall, according to the holes in the cards, and thus admitting at certain
+places in the warp coloured weft threads thrown by the shuttle, and
+reproducing the pattern which is perforated in the cards. The Jacquard
+device could be applied to any loom, and it worked a revolution in the
+manufacture of figured goods. The complexity and expensiveness of
+Jacquard's loom were greatly reduced by subsequent improvements. In 1854
+M. Bonelli constructed an electric loom in which the cards of the
+Jacquard apparatus are superseded by an endless band of tin-foiled
+paper, which serves as an electrical conductor to operate the warp
+thread needles, which before had each been actuated by a spiral spring.
+The Jacquard loom was also greatly improved by the English inventors,
+Barlow, Taylor, Martain and others.
+
+Radcliffe and Johnson, also of England, had invented and introduced the
+machines for dressing the yarns in one operation before the weaving;
+Horrocks and Marsland of Stockport greatly improved the adaptation of
+steam to the driving of looms, and Roberts of Manchester made striking
+advances in their mechanical parts and in bringing them to their present
+state of wonderful efficiency.
+
+In America, in 1836, George Crompton of Taunton, Massachusetts,
+commenced a series of inventions in power looms for the manufacture of
+fancy woollen goods, and in the details of such looms generally,
+particularly in increasing the speed of the shuttle, which vastly
+increased the production of such goods and gave to his looms a
+world-wide reputation.
+
+E. B. Bigelow of Massachusetts in 1848 invented a power loom, which was
+exhibited at the Exhibition at London in 1851, and astonished the world
+by his exhibition of carpets superior to any woven by hand. By the later
+improvements, and the aid of steam power, a single American Bigelow
+carpet loom can turn out now one hundred yards of Brussels carpet in a
+day, far superior in quality to any carpet which could possibly be made
+by hand, when a man toiled painfully to produce five yards a day. Mr.
+Bigelow was also a pioneer inventor of power machines for weaving coach
+lace, and cotton checks and ginghams. James Lyall of New York invented a
+power loom applicable either to the weaving of very wide and heavy
+fabrics, such as jute canvas for the foundation of floor oil cloth, or
+to fabrics made of the finest and most delicate yarns.
+
+It would be interesting, if space permitted, to describe the great
+variety of machines that have been invented for dressing, finishing and
+treating cloths after they are woven: The _teasling_ machine, by which
+the nap of woollen cloth is raised; the cloth _drying_ machine, with
+heated rollers, over which the cloth is passed to drive off the moisture
+acquired in dyeing, washing, etc., the cloth _printing_, _figuring_,
+_colouring_ and _embossing_ machines, with engraved cylinders; cloth
+pressing and _creasing_ machines, and the _cloth_ cutting machines for
+cutting the cloth into strips of all lengths, or for cutting piles of
+cloth in a single operation into parts of garments corresponding to the
+prearranged pattern; machines for making _felt_ cloth, and stamping or
+moulding different articles of apparel from felt, etc., etc.
+
+For the making of ribbons and other kind of narrow ware, the needle
+power loom has been invented, in which the fine weft thread is carried
+through the web by a needle instead of a shuttle. This adaptation of the
+needle to looms has placed ribbons within the reach of the poor as well
+as the rich girl.
+
+What a comparison between the work of the virtuous Penelopes and the
+weavers of a century ago and to-day! Then with her wheel, and by walking
+to and from it as the yarn was drawn out, and wound up, a maiden could
+spin twelve skeins of thread in ten hours, producing a thread a little
+more than three miles in length, while the length of her walk to and fro
+was about five miles. Now one Penelope can attend to six or eight
+hundred spindles, each of which spins five thousand yards of thread a
+day, or, with the eight hundred spindles, four million yards, or nearly
+twenty-one hundred miles of thread in a day, while she need not walk at
+all.
+
+It was when the weaver threw the shuttle through the warp by hand that
+Job's exclamation, "My days are like a weaver's shuttle" was an
+appropriate text on the brevity of human life. It may be just as
+appropriate now, but far more striking, when it is realised that
+machines now throw the shuttle one hundred and eighty times a minute, or
+three times a second. Flying as fast as it does, when the shuttle
+becomes exhausted of yarn a late invention presents a new bobbin and a
+new supply of yarn to the shuttle without stopping the machine.
+
+As to _knitting_, the century has seen the day pass when all hosiery was
+knit by hand. First, machines were invented for knitting the leg or the
+foot of the stocking, which were then joined by hand, and then came
+machines that made the stocking complete. The social industry so quietly
+but slowly followed by the good women in their chimney corners with
+their knitting needles, by which a woman might possibly knit a pair a
+day, was succeeded a quarter of a century ago by machines, twelve of
+which could be attended to by a boy, which would knit and complete five
+thousand pairs a week. Such a machine commences with the stocking at the
+top, knits down, widening and narrowing, changes the stitch as it goes
+on to the heel, shapes the heel, and finishes at the end of the toe, all
+one thread, and then it recommences the operation and goes on with
+another and another. Fancy stockings, with numerous colours blended, are
+so knit, and if the yarn holds out a mile of stockings may be thus knit,
+without a break and without an attendant. By these machines the
+astounding result was reached of making the stockings at the cost of
+one-sixth of a mill per pair.
+
+The wonderful reduction in the cost of all kinds of textile fabrics due
+to the perfection of spinning and loom mechanisms, and its power to meet
+the resulting enormous increase in demand, has enabled the poor of
+to-day to be clad better and with a far greater variety of apparel than
+it was possible for the rich a hundred years ago; and the increased
+consumption and demand have brought into these fields of labour, and
+into other fields of labour created by these, great armies of men and
+women, notwithstanding the labour-saving devices.
+
+The wants of the world can no longer be supplied by skilled hand labour.
+And it is better that machines do the skilled labour, if the product is
+increased while made better and cheaper, and the number of labourers in
+the end increased by the development and demands of the art.
+
+Among the recent devices is one which dispenses with the expensive and
+skilful work by hand of drawing the warp threads into the eyes of the
+heddles and through the reed of the loom.
+
+Cane-backed and bottomed chairs and lounges only a few years ago were a
+luxury of the rich and made slowly by hand. Now the open mesh cane
+fabric, having diagonal strands, and other varieties, are made rapidly
+by machinery. Turkish carpets are woven, and floors the world over are
+carpeted with those rich materials the sight of which would have
+astonished the ordinary beholder a half century ago. Matting is woven;
+wire, cane, straw, spun glass; in fact, everything that can be woven by
+hand into useful articles now finds its especially constructed machine
+for weaving it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GARMENTS.
+
+
+"Man is a tool-using animal. Weak in himself, and of small stature, he
+stands on a basis, at most for the flattest-soled, of some half square
+foot, insecurely enough; has to straddle out his legs lest the very wind
+supplant him. Feeblest of bipeds! Three quintals are a crushing load for
+him; the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft, like a waste rag.
+Nevertheless he can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite
+mountain melts into light dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if
+it were paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his
+unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him without tools; without tools
+he is nothing, with tools he is all.... Man is a tool-using animal, of
+which truth, clothes are but one example."--_Sartor Resartus._
+
+In looking through the records of man's achievements to find the
+beginnings of inventions, we discover the glimmering of a change in the
+form of the immemorial needle, in an English patent granted to Charles
+F. Weisenthal, June 24, 1775. It was a needle with a centrally located
+eye, and with both ends pointed, designed for embroidery work by hand,
+and the object of the two points was to prevent the turning of the
+needle end for end after its passage through the cloth. But it was not
+until the 19th century that the idea was reduced to practice in sewing
+machines.
+
+To Thomas Saint, a cabinet maker by trade, of Greenhills Rents, in the
+Parish of St. Sepulchre, Middlesex County, England, the world is
+indebted for the first clear conception of a sewing machine. Saint's
+attention was attracted to the slow way of sewing boots and shoes and
+other leather work, so he determined to improve the method. He took out
+a patent September 17, 1790, and although the germs of some of the
+leading parts of the modern sewing machine are there described, it does
+not appear that his patent was applied to practice. In fact, it
+slumbered in the archives of the British patent office for two
+generations, and after the leading sewing machines of the century had
+been invented and introduced, before it was rediscovered, and its
+contents appreciated in the light of more recent developments. Probably
+Saint's machine, if constructed in accordance with his plans, would not
+have done much good work, certainly not with woven cloth, as he proposed
+to employ a hooked needle to carry a loop through the material, which
+would have been snarled by the cloth threads; but from his drawings and
+description it is clearly established that he was first to conceive of a
+vertically reciprocating needle for forming a seam from a continuous
+thread drawn from a spool; a seam in which each loop is locked, or
+enchained with a subsequent loop, to form what is known as the chain, or
+single thread stitch; and a horizontal sliding plate, to support the
+material to be sewed, and by which the material was also moved sideways
+after each stitch.
+
+May 30, 1804, John Duncan received an English patent for "tamboring on
+cloth." He proposed to employ a series of hooked needles attached in a
+straight line to a horizontal bar, which, when threaded, were first
+thrust forward and their hooked ends carried through the cloth, where
+each needle hook was supplied with a thread by a thread carrier. Then
+the motion of the bar was reversed, which drew the thread back through
+the cloth in the form of loops, and through the loops first formed, thus
+producing a chain stitch. The cloth was automatically shifted to
+correspond to the pattern to be produced, and thus was chain stitch
+embroidery first manufactured. From this point of time successful
+embroidery machines were made.
+
+In 1807 another Englishman patented a machine for making a sort of rope
+matting, in which he describes two eye-pointed, thread-carrying,
+perforating needles, each held in a reciprocating needle bar, and
+designed to unite several small ropes laid parallel, by a reciprocating
+movement.
+
+A German publication, the _Kunst_ and _Generbe Blatt_, for 1817, and
+_Karmarsch's History of Technology_, made mention of a sewing machine
+invented by one Mr. Joseph Madersperger of Vienna, formerly from
+Kuefstein in the Tyrol, and for which he received royal letters patent
+in 1814. From these descriptions it appears Madersperger used a needle
+pointed at both ends, and the eye in the centre, invented many years
+before by Weisenthal, as above stated, which was moved vertically up and
+down, piercing alternately the top and bottom of the stuff, and which
+carried a short thread, enough to make about one hundred and thirty
+stitches, which machine was driven by a crank and handle, on which
+sewing was made of many different shaped forms, by slight changes, and
+which sewed with far greater accuracy and rapidity than hand work. The
+inventor was striving to simplify the machine, but to what extent it had
+been used or had been improved, or what finally became of it, does not
+appear. Yet it is a bit of evidence showing that Germany came next to
+England in the earlier ideas, conceptions of, and struggles after a
+sewing machine.
+
+France then entered the list, and it was in 1830 that Barthelmy
+Thimonnier there produced and patented a sewing machine, which he
+continued to improve and to further patent in 1848 and in 1850 in
+France, England, and the United States. The Thimonnier resembled in some
+prominent respects the machine that had been described in the Saint
+patent, but unlike Saint's, it was reduced to successful practice, and
+possessed some points in common with more modern machines. These were
+the flat cloth plate, vertical post, overhung arm, vertically
+reciprocating needle, and continuous thread. The crochet or barbed
+needle was worked by a treadle, and upon pushing the needle down through
+the cloth, it there caught a thread from a carrier, carried the loop to
+and laid it upon the upper surface of the cloth. Again descending, it
+brought up another loop, enchained it with the one last made, making a
+chain stitch, consisting of a series of loops on the upper side.
+
+Thimonnier made quite a large number of machines, constructed mostly of
+wood, and which were used to make army clothing at Paris. They were best
+adapted to work on leather and in embroidering. They were so far
+successful as to arouse the jealousy and fear of the workmen and working
+women, and, as in the case of Hargreaves, Jacquard, and others, a mob
+broke into his shop, destroyed his machines, ruined his business, and he
+died penniless in 1857.
+
+In the meantime an English patent, No. 8948, of May 4, 1841, had been
+issued to Newton and Archbold for a machine for embroidering the backs
+of gloves, having an eye-pointed needle, worked by a vibrating lever,
+and adapted to carry a thread through the back of the glove, held on a
+frame--the frame and glove moving together after each stitch.
+
+The germs of inventions often develop and fructify simultaneously in
+distant places, without, so far as any one can ascertain, the slightest
+mutual knowledge or co-operation on the part of the separate inventors.
+Between 1832 and 1834, while Thimonnier was in the midst of his early
+struggles in Paris, Walter Hunt was inventing a sewing machine in New
+York, which he completed at that time and on which he sewed one or two
+garments. But as it was experimental in form, and Hunt was full of other
+inventions and schemes, he put it aside, and it probably would never
+have been heard of had not Elias Howe of Massachusetts, ten years after
+Hunt had abandoned his invention, but without knowledge of Hunt's
+efforts, made the first practical successful sewing machine for
+commercial purposes the world had ever seen, obtained his patent, and
+made claims therein which covered not only his special form of
+improvements, but Hunt's old device as well.
+
+Howe's patent was issued September 10, 1846. In that he claimed to be
+the first and original inventor of "A sewing machine, constructed and
+operated to form a seam, substantially as described."
+
+Also "The combination of a needle and a shuttle, or equivalent, and
+holding surfaces, constructed and operating substantially as described."
+
+Also "The combination of holding surfaces with a baster plate or
+equivalent, constructed and operating substantially as described."
+
+Also "A grooved and eye-pointed needle, constructed and adapted for
+rapid machine sewing substantially as described."
+
+When the machine commenced to be a practical success this patent was
+infringed, and when Howe sued upon it a few years after its issue, it
+woke up Hunt and all other alleged prior inventors; and all prior
+patents and publications the world over, relating to sewing machines,
+were raked up to defeat Howe's claims.
+
+But the courts, after long deliberation, held that although, so far as
+Hunt was concerned he had without doubt made a machine in many respects
+like Howe's machine, that it had a curved, eye-pointed needle similar to
+Howe's operated by a vibrating arm and going through the cloth, a
+shuttle carrying the thread that passed through the loop made by the
+needle thread, thus making a lock stitch by drawing it up to one side of
+the cloth, and that this machine did, to a certain extent, sew, yet that
+it ended in an experiment, was laid aside, destroyed, and never
+perfected nor used so as to give to the public the knowledge and benefit
+of a completed invention, and was not therefore an anticipation in the
+eye of the law of Howe's completed, more successful and patented
+machine.
+
+Public successful use is the fact in many cases which alone establishes
+the title of an inventor, when all other tests fail. And this is right
+in one sense, as the laws of all countries in respect to protection by
+patents for inventions are based upon the primary condition of benefit
+to society. This benefit is not derived from the inventor who hides his
+completed invention for years in his closet, or throws it on a dust
+heap. As to previous patents and publications, some were not published
+before Howe's inventions were made, and others were insufficient in
+showing substantially the same machine and mode of operation. And as to
+prior use abroad, it was not regarded under the law of his country as
+competent evidence.
+
+Seldom have the lives of great inventors presented a more striking
+example of the vicissitudes, the despair, and the final triumphs of
+fortune, which are commonly their lot, than is shown in the case of
+Howe. A machinist with a wife and children to support, his health too
+feeble to earn hardly a scanty living, he watches his faithful wife ply
+her constant needle, and wonders why a machine cannot be made to do the
+work. The idea cannot be put aside, and with such poor aids as he can
+command he commences his task.
+
+At last, amid the trials of bitter poverty, he brings his invention to
+that stage in which he induces a friend to advance some money, by the
+promise of a share in the future patent, and thereby gains a temporary
+home for his family and a garret for his workshop. Day after day and
+night after night he labours, and finally, in April, 1845, the rather
+crude machine is completed, and two woollen suits of clothing are sewed
+thereon, one for a friend, and one for himself.
+
+Then came the effort to make more machines and place them on the market.
+People admired the machines as a curiosity, but none were induced to buy
+them or help him pecuniarily. Finally, in September, 1846, he obtained
+his patent, but by that time his best friends had become discouraged,
+and he was compelled to return with his family to his father's house in
+Cambridge, Mass. To earn his bread he sought and found employment on a
+railway locomotive. By some means his brother sold one of his machines
+to Mr. William Thomas, a corset maker of London, and Howe was induced to
+go there to make stays, and his machines. He took his wife and children
+with him. The arrangement made with his employer was not such as to
+enable him to keep his family there, and he soon sent them home.
+
+Unable to sell his machines, he was soon reduced to want. He pawned his
+patent and his last machine, and procured money to return to New York,
+where he arrived penniless in 1849. He then learned that his wife was
+dying of consumption at Cambridge. He was compelled to wait until money
+could be sent him to pay his passage home, and reached there just before
+his wife's death.
+
+He then learned that during his absence his patent and machine had
+attracted attention, that others had taken the matter up, added their
+improvements to his machines, and that many in various places were being
+made and sold which were infringements of his patent. A great demand for
+sewing machines had sprung up. He induced friends to again help him.
+Suits were commenced which, although bitterly fought for six years, were
+finally successful.
+
+Now fortune turned her smiling face upon him. Medals and diplomas, the
+Cross of the Legion of Honour, and millions of money became his. When
+the great civil war broke out in 1861, he entered the army as a private
+soldier, and advanced the money to pay the regiment to which he
+belonged, when the Government paymaster had been long delayed. His life
+was saddened by the fact that his wife had not lived to share his
+fortune. He died in Brooklyn, New York, October 3, 1867, in the midst of
+life, riches, and honour, at the comparatively early age of forty-eight.
+
+In referring to the early inventors of sewing machines in America who
+entered the field about the same time with Howe, mention should be made
+of J. J. Greenough and George Corliss, who had machines patented
+respectively in 1842 and 1843, for sewing leather, with double pointed
+needles; and the running stitch sewing machine used for basting, made
+and patented by B. W. Bean in 1843. About this time, both in England and
+America, machines had been devised for sewing lengths of calico and
+other cloths together, previous to bleaching, dyeing or printing. The
+edges of the cloths were first crimped or fluted and then sewed by a
+running stitch.
+
+The decade of 1849-1859, immediately following the development of the
+Howe machine, was the greatest in the century for producing those
+successful sewing machines which were the foundation of the art,
+established a new industrial epoch, and converted Hood's "Song of the
+Shirt" into a lament commemorative of the miseries of a slavish but
+dying industry.
+
+It was during that decade that, in the United States, Batcheller
+invented the perpetual feed for moving the cloth horizontally under and
+past the needle. In Howe's the cloth could be sewed but a certain
+distance at a time, and then the machine must be readjusted for a new
+length. Then Blodgett and Lerow imparted to the eye-pointed needle what
+is called the "dip motion,"--the needle being made to descend completely
+through the material, then to rise a little to form a loop; the shuttle
+then entered the loop, the needle descended again a short distance,
+while the shuttle passed through the loop of the needle thread, and then
+the needle was raised above the cloth.
+
+It was then that Allen B. Wilson invented the still more famous
+"four-motion feed" for feeding the cloth forward. He employed a bar
+having saw like teeth on one edge which projected up through a slotted
+plate and engaged the cloth. He then first moved the bar forward
+carrying the cloth; second, dropped the bar; third, moved it back under
+the plate; and fourth, raised it to its first position to again engage
+the cloth. These motions were so timed with the movement of the needle
+and so quickly done that the cloth was carried forward while the needle
+was raised, the passage and quick action of the needle was not
+interfered with, and the feeding and the sewing seem to be simultaneous.
+The intermittent grasp and feed of the cloth were hardly perceptible,
+and yet it permitted the cloth to be turned to make a curved seam.
+Wilson also invented the rotating hook which catches the loop of the
+upper thread, and drops a disk bobbin through it to form the stitch. The
+shuttle was thus dispensed with, and an entirely new departure was made
+in the art. These with other improvements made up the celebrated
+"Wheeler and Wilson" machine.
+
+Now also appeared "the Singer," consisting chiefly of the invention of
+T. M. Singer. He improved the operation of the needle bar, devised a
+roughened feed wheel, as a substitute for Wilson's serrated bar,
+introduced a spring presser foot, alongside the needle, to hold the work
+down in proper position while permitting it to be moved forward or in
+any other direction. A "friction pad" was also placed between the cloth
+seam and the spool, to prevent the thread from kinking or twisting under
+the point of the descending needle. He was the first to give the shuttle
+an additional forward movement after it had once stopped, to draw the
+stitch tight,--such operation being taken while the feed moved the cloth
+in the reverse direction, and while, the needle completed its upward
+motion, so that the two threads were simultaneously drawn, and finally a
+spring guide upon the shuttle to control the slack of the thread, and
+prevent its catching by the needle.
+
+By reason of these improvements it is thought by many that Singer was
+the first to furnish the people with a successful operating and
+practical sewing machine. At any rate, the world at last so highly
+appreciated his machines, that it lifted him from poverty to an estate
+which was valued at between eight and ten millions of dollars at the
+time of his death in 1875. Singer was also the first to invent the
+"ruffler," a machine for ruffling or gathering cloth, and a device which
+laid an embroidering thread upon the surface of the cloth under the
+needle thread.
+
+The "Grover and Baker" another celebrated American machine, was invented
+by William O. Grover and William E. Baker in 1851. By certain changes
+they made in the thread carrier and connections, they were enabled to
+make a double looped stitch. This required more thread, but the stitch
+made was unexcelled in strength.
+
+And so the work went on, from step to step, and from the completion of
+one machine after another, until when the Centennial Exhibition came to
+be held in Philadelphia in 1876, a fine array of excellent sewing
+machines was had, from the United States, principally, but also those of
+inventors and manufacturers in Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany,
+Belgium, Sweden and Denmark.
+
+Up to that time about twenty-two hundred patents had been granted in the
+United States, all of which, with the exception of a very few, were for
+inventions made within the preceding quarter of a century. And during
+the last quarter of the century about five thousand more United States
+patents have been issued for devices in this art. This number includes
+many, of course, to inventors of other countries. When it is remembered
+that these patents were issued only after an examination in each case as
+to its novelty, and although slight as may have been the changes or
+additions, yet substantially different they must have been in nearly all
+respects, it may to some extent be realized how great and incessant has
+been the exercise of invention in this useful class of machines.
+
+On this point of the exercise of invention in sewing machines, as well
+as on some others growing out of the subject, Knight, writing in his
+_Mechanical Dictionary_, about twenty years ago, remarks: "If required
+to name the three subjects on which the most extraordinary versatility
+of invention has been expended, the answer would be without hesitation,
+the _sewing machine_, _reaping machine_ and _breech-loading firearm_.
+Each of these has thousands of patents, and although each is the growth
+of the last forty years, it is only during the last twenty-five years
+that they have filled any notable place in the world. It was then only
+by a combination of talents that any of these three important inventions
+was enabled to achieve remarkable success. The sewing machine previous
+to 1851, made without the admirable division of labour which is a
+feature in all well conducted factories, was hard to make, and
+comparatively hard to run. The system of _assembling_, first introduced
+in the artillery service of France by General Gribeauval in 1765 and
+brought to proximate perfection by Colonel Colt in the manufacture of
+the revolver at Hartford, Connecticut, has economised material and time,
+improved the quality as well as cheapened the product. There is to-day,
+and in fact has been for some years, more actual invention in the
+special machines for _making_ sewing machines than in the machines
+themselves. The assembling system, that is, making the component parts
+of an article in distinct pieces of pattern, so as to be
+interchangeable, and the putting them together, is the only system of
+order. How else should the Providence Tool Company execute their order
+for 600,000 rifles for the Turkish Government? How otherwise could the
+Champion Harvesting Machine Company of Springfield, Ohio, turn out an
+equipped machine every four minutes each working day of ten hours? Or,
+to draw the illustration from the subject in hand, how by any other than
+the nicest arrangement of detail can the Singer Sewing Machine Company
+make 6,000 machines per week at Elizabethport, New Jersey?"
+
+When sewing machines were so far completed as to be easily run by a hand
+crank, or treadle, the application of power to run them singly, or in
+series, and to run machines of a larger and more powerful description,
+soon naturally followed--so that garment-making factories of all kinds,
+whether of cloth or leather, have been established in many countries--in
+which steam or electric power is utilised as the motor, and thus human
+strain and labour saved, while the amount of production is increased.
+
+No radical changes in the principle or mode of operation of sewing
+machines have been made in the last twenty-five years; but the efforts
+of inventors have been directed to improve the previously established
+types, and to devise attachments of all kinds, by the aid of which
+anything that can be sewed, can be sewed upon a machine. Tucking,
+ruffling, braiding, cording, hemming, turning, plaiting, gaging, and
+other attachment devices are numerous. Inventors have rivalled one
+another in originating new forms of stitches. About seventy-five
+distinct stitches have been devised, each of which must of course be
+produced by a change in mechanism.
+
+When sewing machines were in their infancy, and confined to sewing
+straight seams and other plain sewing, it was predicted that it was not
+possible to take from the hands of women the making of fine embroidery
+from intricate patterns, or the working of button-holes, and the
+destruction of the quilting party was not apprehended. Nor was it
+expected that human hands could be dispensed with in the cutting out of
+garments. And yet these things have followed. Machines, by a beautiful
+but complex system of needles, working to some extent on the Jacquard
+system of perforated card boards, and by the help of pneumatic or
+electrical power, will work out on most delicate cloths embroidery of
+exquisite patterns.
+
+The button-hole machines will take the garment, cut the button-hole at
+the desired point, and either, as in one class of machines, by moving
+the fabric about the stitch-forming mechanism, or, as in another class,
+moving the stitch-forming mechanism about the button-hole, complete the
+delicate task in the nicest and most effective manner.
+
+Quilting machines have their own bees, consisting of a guide which
+regulates the spaces between the seams, and adjusts them to any width,
+and a single needle, or gang of needles, the latter under the control of
+cams which force the needles to quilt certain desired patterns.
+
+And as to cutting, it is only necessary to place the number of pieces of
+fabric desired to be cut in cutting dies, or upon a table, and over them
+an "over-board" cutter, which comprises a reciprocating band-saw, or a
+rotary knife, all quick, keen and delicate, in an apparatus guided by
+hand, in order to produce in the operation a great pile of the parts
+formerly so slowly produced, one at a time, by scissors or shears.
+
+If men were contented with that single useful garment of some savages, a
+blanket with a slit cut in it for the passage of the head and neck, not
+only would a vast portion of the joys and sorrows of social philosophy
+have been avoided, but an immense strain and trouble on the part of
+inventors of the century would have been obviated.
+
+But man's propensity for wearing clothes has led to the invention of
+every variety of tools for making them faster, cheaper, and better.
+
+No machine has yet been invented that will take the place of the deft
+fingers of women in certain lines of ornamentation, as in final
+completion and trimming of their hats. The airy and erratic demands of
+fashion are too nimble to be supplied by the slow processes of
+machinery, although the crude ground-work, the frame, has been shaped,
+moulded and sewed by machines; and women themselves have invented and
+patented _bonnet frames_ and _patterns_.
+
+But no such difficulty in invention has occurred in _hat-making_ for
+men. From the treating and cutting of the raw material, from the outer
+bound edge, and the band about the body, to the tip of the crown, a
+machine may be found for performing each separate step. Especially is
+this the case with the hard felt and the high silk hats.
+
+Seventy-five years ago the making of hats was by hand processes. Now in
+all hat factories machines are employed, and the ingenuity displayed in
+the construction of some of them is marvellous. It is exceedingly
+difficult to find many of the old hand implements existing even as
+relics.
+
+Wool and fur each has its special machines for turning it into a hat.
+The operations of cleaning and preparing the material, felting the fur,
+when fur is used, shaping the hat body, and then the brim, washing,
+dying, hardening and stiffening it, stretching, smoothing, finishing,
+sizing, lining, trimming, all are now done by machines devised for each
+special purpose. A description of these processes would be interesting,
+but even in an abbreviated form would fill a book.
+
+The wonderful things done in the manufacture of boots and shoes and
+rubber goods will be referred to in subsequent chapters.
+
+Although it was old from time immemorial to colour cotton goods, and the
+calico power printing cylinder was invented and introduced into England
+in the latter part of the 18th century and began to turn out at once
+immense quantities of decorated calicoes and chintz, yet _figured_ woven
+goods were a novelty sixty years ago.
+
+In 1834, Mr. Bonjeau, a prominent wool manufacturer in Sedan, France,
+and an _eleve_ of the Polytechnic School, conceived the idea of
+modifying the plain cloths, universally made, by the union of different
+tints and patterns. This he was enabled to do by the Jacquard loom. The
+manufacture of fancy woven cloths, cassimeres, worsted coatings, etc.,
+of great beauty, combined with strength of fabrication, followed in all
+civilised countries, but their universal adoption as wearing apparel was
+due in part to the lessening of the expense in the making them into
+garments by the sewing machine.
+
+As to the effect of modern inventions on wearing apparel, it is not
+apparent that they were necessary to supply the wardrobes of the rich.
+The Solomons and the Queen of Sheba of ancient days, and all their small
+and great successors in the halls of Fortune, have had their rich robes,
+their purple and their fine linen, whether made in one way or another;
+but modern inventions have banished the day when the poor man's hard
+labour of a long day will not suffice to bring his wife a yard of
+cheapest cloth. Toil, then, as hard as he and his poor wife and children
+might, their united labours would hardly suffice to clothe them in more
+than the poorly-dressed skins of animals and the coarsest of homespun
+wool.
+
+Now, cottons and calicoes are made and sold at a profit for three cents
+a yard; and the poorest woman in the land may appear in neat,
+comfortable and tasteful dress, the entire cost of material and labor of
+which need not exceed fifty cents. The comfort, respectability and
+dignity of a large family, which depend so much on clothes, may be
+ensured at the cost of a few dollars.
+
+And as to the condition of the sewing woman, trying and poor as it is in
+many instances, yet she can earn more money with less physical
+exhaustion than under the old system.
+
+The epoch of good clothes for the people, with all that it means in the
+fight upward from degradation, began in this century, and it was due to
+the inventions which have been above outlined.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.
+
+
+One invention engenders another, or co-operates with another. None
+lives, or stands, or dies, alone.
+
+So, in the humble but extensive art of _broom-making_, men and women
+worked along through ages binding with their hands the supple twigs of
+trees or bushes, or of corn, by thongs, or cords, or wire, upon the
+rudely-formed collar of a hand-smoothed stick, until the modern lathe
+and hollow mandrel armed with cutters, the power-driven shuttle, and the
+sewing machine, were invented.
+
+The lathe and mandrel to hold the stick while it was cut was used
+before, but it was long within the century that a hollow mandrel was
+first invented, which was provided internally with cutting bevelled
+knives, and into which the stick was placed, carried through
+longitudinally, and during its passage cut smooth and finished. As broom
+corn became the chief product from which brooms are made, it became
+desirable to have a machine, after the corn had been scraped of its
+seed, to size and prepare the stems in regular lengths for the various
+sizes of brooms, and accordingly such a machine was invented. Then a
+machine was needed and invented to wind the corn-brush with the cord or
+wire and tie it in a round bunch, preparatory to flattening and sewing
+it.
+
+Then followed different forms of broom-sewing machines. Among the
+pioneers was one which received the round bunch between two compressing
+jaws, and pressed it flat. While so held a needle with its coarse thread
+was forced through the broom above the binding and the cord twined
+around it. Then a shuttle, also carrying a stout thread, was thrown over
+the cord, the needle receded and was then forced through the broom again
+_under_ the binding cord. Thus in conjunction with the shuttle the
+stitches were formed alternately above and below the binding twine, the
+holding jaws being raised intermittently for that purpose. As each
+stitch was formed the machine fed the broom along laterally and
+intermittently. By another ingenious device the cord was tied and cut,
+when the sewing was completed.
+
+It is only by such machines which treat the entire article from the
+first to the last step, that the immense number of brooms now necessary
+to supply the market are made. True it is that at first labour was
+displaced. At one time seventeen skilled workmen would manufacture five
+hundred dozen brooms per week.
+
+They had reduced the force of earlier times by making larger quantities
+by better processes. Then when the broom-sewing machines and other
+inventions got fairly to work, nine men would turn out twelve hundred
+dozen brooms per week. Thus, while the force was reduced nearly
+one-half, the quantity of product was more than doubled. But as the cost
+of labour decreased and the product increased, the product became more
+plentiful and cheaper, the demand and use became greater, more
+broom-corn was raised, more broom-factories started, and soon the
+temporary displacement of labour was succeeded by a permanent increase
+in manufacture and in labourers, an increase in their wages, and an
+improvement in their condition.
+
+Useful and extensive as is its use, the broom does not compare in
+variety and wide application to the _brush_. The human body, cloth,
+leather, metals, wood and grains, everything that needs rubbing,
+cleaning, painting and polishing, meets the acquaintance of the brush.
+Nearly a hundred species of brushes might be enumerated, each having an
+especial construction for a particular use.
+
+Although the majority of brushes are still made by hand, yet a few most
+ingenious machines have been made which greatly facilitate and speed the
+operation, and many mechanical appliances have been invented in aid of
+hand-work. These machines and appliances, together with those which cut,
+turn, bore, smooth, and polish the handles and backs, to which the brush
+part is secured, have greatly changed and improved the art of
+brush-making during the last fifty years.
+
+The first machine which attracted general attention was invented by
+Oscar D. and E. C. Woodbury of New York, and patented in 1870. As in
+hand-making and before subjected to the action of the machine, the
+bristles are sorted as to length and color. A brush-back, bored with
+holes by a gang of bits, which holes do not extend, however, all the way
+through the back, is placed in the machine under a cone-jointed plunger,
+adapted to enter the hole in the brush-back. A comb-shaped slitted plate
+in the machine has then each slit filled with bristles, sufficient in
+number to form a single tuft. When the machine is started, the bristles
+in a slit are forced out therefrom through a twisted guideway, which
+forms them into a round tuft, and which is laid horizontally beneath a
+plunger, which, descending, first doubles the tuft, and as the plunger
+continues to descend, forces the double end down into the hole. The
+plunger is supplied with a wire from a reel, turns as it descends, and
+twists the wire around the lower end of the tuft, the wire being
+directed in that way by a spiral groove within the plunger. The
+continuing action of the plunger is such as to screw the wire into the
+back. The wire is cut when the rotary plunger commences its descent, and
+when the tuft is thus secured the plunger ascends, the block is moved
+for another hole, and another set of bristles is presented for
+manipulation. Brushes with 70 holes can be turned out by this machine at
+the rate of one a minute.
+
+Another most ingenious machine for this purpose is that of Kennedy,
+Diss, and Cannan, patented in the United States in 1892. In this, brush
+blocks of varying sizes, but of the same pattern, are bored by the same
+machine which receives the bristles, and the tufts are inserted as fast
+as the holes are bored. Both machines are automatic in operation.
+
+_Street-sweeping machines_ began to appear about 1831 in England,
+shortly after in France, and then in cities in other countries.
+
+The simplest form and most effective sweeper comprises a large cylinder
+armed with spiral rows of splints and hung diagonally on the under side
+and across a frame having two or four wheels. This cylinder is connected
+by bevelled gearing with the wheels, and in revolving throws the dirt
+from the street into a ridge on one side thereof, where it is swept into
+heaps by hand sweepers, and is then carted off. King of the United
+States was the inventor.
+
+A more recent improvement consists in the use of pneumatic means for
+removing the dust that is caused by the use of revolving brooms or
+brushes, such removal being effected by means of a hood that covers the
+area of the street beneath the body of the machine, and incloses an air
+exhaust, the sweepings being drawn through the exhaust mechanism and
+deposited in a receptacle for the purpose, or in some instances
+deposited in a furnace carried by the machine and there burned.
+
+In cities having hard, smooth, paved streets and sufficient municipal
+funds, the most effective, but most expensive way, has been found to
+keep a large force of men constantly at work with hoes, shovels, brooms,
+bags and carts, removing the dirt as fast as it accumulates.
+
+
+_Abrading Machines._
+
+One of the most striking inventions of the century is the application of
+the sand-blast to industrial and artistic purposes.
+
+For ages the sands of the desert and wild mountain plains, lifted and
+driven by the whirling winds, had sheared and polished the edges and
+faces of rocks, and cut them into fantastic shapes, and the sands of the
+shore, tossed by the winds of the sea, had long scratched and bleared
+the windows of the fisherman's hut, before it occurred to the mind of
+man that here were a force and an agent which could be harnessed into
+his service.
+
+It was due finally to the inventive genius of B. F. Tilghman of
+Philadelphia, Pa., who, in 1870, patented a process by which common
+sand, powdered quartz, emery, or other comminuted sharp cutting
+material, may be blown or driven with such force upon the surface of the
+hardest materials, as to cut, clean, engrave, and otherwise abrade them,
+in the most wonderful and satisfactory manner.
+
+Diamonds are abraded; glass depolished, or engraved, or bored; metal
+castings cleaned; lithographic zinc plates grained; silverware frosted;
+stone and glass for jewelry shaped and figured; the inscriptions and
+ornaments of monuments and tombstones cut thereon; engravings and
+photographs copied; steel files cleaned and sharpened, and stones and
+marble carved into forms of beauty with more exactness and in far less
+time than by the chisel of the artisan.
+
+The gist of the process is the employment of a jet of sand or other hard
+abrading material, driven at a high velocity by a blast of air or steam,
+under a certain pressure, in accordance with the character of the work
+to be done. The sand is placed in a box-like receptacle into which the
+air or steam is forced, and the sand flowing into the same chamber is
+driven through a narrow slit or slits in the form of a thin sheet,
+directly on to the object to be abraded.
+
+By one method the surface of the object is first coated with tinfoil on
+which the artist traces his design, and this is then coated with melted
+transparent wax. Then when the wax is hardened it is cut away along the
+lines already indicated, and seen through the wax. The object now is
+subjected to the blast, and as the sand will not penetrate a softened
+material sufficient to abrade a surface beneath, the exposed portions
+alone will be cut away. The sand after it strikes is carried off by a
+blast to some receptacle, from which it is returned to its former place
+for further use. Other means may be used in the place of a slitted box,
+as a small or larger blow-pipe; but the driving of the sand, or similar
+abrading material, with great force by the steam or air blast, is the
+essential feature of the process.
+
+_Emery_, that variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of crystalline
+alumina, resembling in appearance dark, fine-grained iron ore, ranking
+next to the diamond in hardness, and a sister of the sapphire and the
+ruby, has long been used as an abradant. The Eastern nations have used
+corundum for this purpose for ages. Turkey and Greece once had a
+monopoly of it. Knight says: "The corundum stone used by the Hindoos and
+Chinese is composed of corundum powdered, two parts; lac resin, one
+part. The two are intimately mixed in an earthen vessel, kneaded and
+flattened, shaped and polished. A hole in the stone for the axis is made
+by a heated copper rod."
+
+However ancient the use of artificial stones for grinding and polishing,
+nevertheless it is true that the solid emery wheel in the form that has
+made it generally useful, in machines known as _emery grinders_, is a
+modern invention, and of American origin.
+
+In the manufacture of such machines great attention and the highest
+scientific skill has been paid, first, to the material composing the
+wheel, and to the cementing substances by which the emery is compacted
+and bound in the strongest manner, to prevent bursting when driven at
+great speed; secondly, to the construction of machines and wheels of a
+composition varying from the finest to the coarsest; and thirdly, to the
+proper balancing of the wheels in the machines, an operation of great
+nicety, in order that the wheel may be used on delicate tools, when
+driven at high speed, without producing uneven work, marking the
+objects, or endangering the breaking, or bursting of the wheel.
+
+Such machines, when properly constructed, although not adapted to take
+the place of the file, other steel-cutting tools, and the grindstone for
+many purposes, yet have very extensively displaced those tools for
+cutting edges, and the grinding and polishing of hardened metals, by
+reason chiefly of their greater convenience, speed, and general
+adaptability. Not only tools of all sizes are ground and polished, but
+ploughshares, stove and wrought-iron plates, iron castings, the inner
+surfaces of hollow ironware, the bearings of spindles, arbours, and the
+surfaces of steel, chilled or cast-iron rolls, etc.
+
+In the great class of Industrial Mechanics, no machines of the century
+have contributed more to the comfort and cleanliness of mankind than
+those by which wearing apparel in its vast quantities is washed and
+ironed more thoroughly, speedily, and satisfactorily in every way than
+is possible by the old hand systems. When it is remembered how under the
+old system such a large part of humanity, and this the weaker part,
+devoted such immense time and labour to the universal washing and
+ironing days, the invention of these machines and appliances must be
+regarded as among the great labour-saving blessings of the century.
+
+True, the individual washerwoman and washerman, and ironers, have by no
+means disappeared, and are still in evidence everywhere, yet the
+universal and general devotion of one-half the human race to the
+wash-tub and ironing-table for two or more days in the week is no longer
+necessary. And even for the individual worker, the convenient appliances
+and helps that have been invented have greatly relieved the occupation
+of pain and drudgery.
+
+Among modern devices in the laundry, worked by hand, is, first, the
+_washing-machine_, in which the principle is adapted of rolling over or
+kneading the clothes. By moving a lever by hand up and down, the clothes
+are thoroughly rubbed, squeezed and lifted at each stroke. Then comes
+the _wringer_, a common form of which consists of two parallel rolls of
+vulcanized and otherwise specially treated rubber, fitted to shafts
+which, by an arrangement of cog-wheels, gearing and springs in the
+framework at the ends of rolls, and a crank handle, are made to roll on
+each other. The clothes are passed between the rollers, the springs
+permit the rollers to yield and part more or less, according to the
+thickness of the clothes.
+
+Then the old-fashioned, or the new-fashioned mangle is brought into
+play. The old-style mangle had a box, weighted with stone, which was
+reciprocated on rollers, and was run back and forth upon the clothes
+spread upon a polished table beneath. One of the more modern styles is
+on the principle of the wringer above described, or a series of rollers
+arranged around a central drum, and each having a rubber spring
+attached, by which means the clothes are not subjected to undue pressure
+at one or two points, as in the first mentioned kind.
+
+Starch is also applied by a similar machine. The cloth is dipped into a
+body of starch, or the same is applied by hand, and then the superfluous
+starch squeezed out as the clothes are passed through the rollers.
+
+But for hotels and other large institutions washing is now done by
+steam-power machinery.
+
+It is an attractive sight to step into a modern laundry, operated with
+the latest machinery on the largest scale. The first thing necessary in
+many localities is to clarify the water. This is done by attaching to
+the service pipe tanks filled with filtering material, through which the
+water flows before reaching the boiler. The driving engine and shafting
+are compactly placed at one end or side of the room, with boilers and
+kettles conveniently adjacent. The water and clothes are supplied to the
+washing-machine, and operated by the engine. Steam may be used in
+addition to the engine to keep it boiling hot, or steam may be
+substituted entirely for the water.
+
+The machine may be one of several types selected especially for the
+particular class of goods to be washed. There is the dash-wheel,
+constructed on the principle of the cylinder churn; the outer case being
+stationary and the revolving dash-wheel water-tight, or perforated,
+which is the preferred form for collars and cuffs. In place of the
+dash-wheel cylinders are sometimes used, having from sixty to seventy
+revolutions a minute. Another form has vibrating arms or beaters, giving
+between four hundred and five hundred strokes a minute, and by which the
+clothes are squeezed between rubbing corrugated boards. The rubbing
+boards also roll the clothes over and over until they are thoroughly
+washed. In another form a rotating cylinder for the clothes is provided
+with an arrangement of pipes by which either steam, water or blueing can
+be introduced as desired, into the cylinder, through its hollow
+journals, so that the clothes can be washed, rinsed, and blued without
+removal from the machine.
+
+Another type has perforated, reciprocating pistons, between which the
+clothes are alternately squeezed and released, a supply of fresh water
+being constantly introduced through one of the hollow cylinder journals,
+while the used water is discharged through the opposite journal; and in
+still another the clothes are placed in a perforated cylinder within an
+outer casing, and propeller blades, assisted by other spiral blades,
+force a continuous current of water through the clothes.
+
+In ironing, hollow polishing rolls of various sizes are used, heated
+either by steam or gas. The articles to be ironed are placed in proper
+position upon a table and carried under and in contact with the rolls.
+Or the goods are ironed between a heated cylinder and a revolving drum
+covered with felting, and the polishing effected by the cylinder
+revolving faster than the drum. Ingenious forms of hand-operated ironing
+machines for turning over and ironing the edges of collars, and other
+articles, are in successful use.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+WOOD-WORKING.
+
+
+In surveying the wonderful road along which have travelled the toiling
+inventors, until the splendid fields of the present century have been
+reached, the mind indulges in contrasts and reverts to the far gone
+period of man's deprivations, when man, the animal, was fighting for
+food and shelter.
+
+  "Poor naked wretches, wheresoe'er you are,
+  That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,
+  How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,
+  Your loop'd and window'd raggedness, defend you
+  From seasons such as these?"
+                                      --_King Lear III, IV._
+
+When the implements of labour and the weapons of war were chiefly made
+of stone, or bronze, or iron, such periods became the "age" of stone, or
+bronze, or iron; and we sometimes hear of the ages of steam, steel and
+electricity. But the age of wood has always existed, wherever forests
+abounded. It was, doubtless, the earliest "age" in the industries of
+man, but is not likely to be the latest, as the class of inventions we
+are about to consider, although giving complete dominion to man over the
+forests, are hastening their destruction.
+
+As in every other class of inventions, there had been inventions in the
+class of wood-working through the ages preceding this century, in tools,
+implements and machines; but not until near the close of the eighteenth
+century had there been much of a break in the universal toil by hand.
+The implements produced were, for the most part, the result of the slow
+growth of experience and mechanical skill, rather than the product of
+inventive genius.
+
+True, the turning-lathe, the axe, the hammer, the chisel, the saw, the
+auger, the plane, the screw, and cutting and other wood-shaping
+instruments in simple forms existed in abundance. The Egyptians used
+their saws of bronze. The Greeks deified their supposed inventor of the
+saw, Talus, or Perdix, and they claimed Theodore of Lamos as the
+inventor of the turning-lathe; although the main idea of pivoting an
+object between two supports, so that it could be turned while the hands
+were free to apply a tool to its shaping, was old in the potter's wheel
+of the Egyptians, which was turned while the vessel resting upon it was
+shaped and ornamented by the hand and tools. It appears also to have
+been known by the Hindoos and the Africans.
+
+Pliny refers to the curled chips raised by the plane, and Ansonius
+refers to mills driven by the waters of the Moselle for sawing marble
+into slabs. Early records mention saw-mills run by water-power in the
+thirteenth century in France, Germany and Norway; and Sweden had them in
+the next century. Holland had them one hundred years at least before
+they were introduced into England.
+
+Fearful of the entire destruction of the forests by the wood used in the
+manufacture of iron, and incited by the opposition and jealousy of hand
+sawyers, England passed some rigid laws on the subject in the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries, which, although preserving the forests, gave
+for a long time the almost exclusive manufacture of iron and lumber to
+Germany and Holland. Even as late as 1768, a saw-mill, built at
+Limehouse, under the encouragement of the Society of Arts, by James
+Stansfield, was destroyed by a mob. Saw-mills designed to be run by
+water-power had been introduced into the American colonies by the Dutch
+more than a century before they made their appearance in England.
+William Penn found that they had long been at work on the Delaware when
+he reached its shores in 1682.
+
+It was nothing indigenous to the climate or race that rendered the
+Americans inventors. The early colonists, drawn from the most civilised
+countries of Europe, carried to the new world knowledge of the latest
+and best appliances known to their respective countries in the various
+arts. With three thousand miles of water between them and the source of
+such appliances, and between them and the source of arbitrary power and
+laws to hamper efforts and enterprise, with stern necessity on every
+hand prompting them to avail themselves of every means to meet their
+daily wants, all known inventions were put to use, and brains were
+constantly exercised in devising new means to aid, or take the place of,
+manual labour, which was scarce. Surrounded, too, by vast forests, from
+which their houses, their churches and their schools must be
+constructed, these pioneers naturally turned their thoughts toward
+wood-working machinery. The attention to this art necessarily created
+interest in and developed other arts. Thus constant devotion to pursuits
+strenuously demanding labour-saving devices evolved a race of keen
+inventors and mechanics. So that when Watt had developed his wonderful
+application of steam to industrial purposes, America was ready to
+substitute steam for water-power in the running of saw-mills.
+
+Steam saw-mills commenced to buzz with the opening of the century.
+
+As to the relation of that humble machine, the saw-mill, to the progress
+of civilisation, it was once said: "The axe produces the log hut, but
+not until the saw-mill is introduced do framed dwellings and villages
+arise; it is civilisation's pioneer machine; the precursor of the
+carpenter, wheelwright and turner, the painter, the joiner, and legions
+of other professions. Progress is unknown where it is not. Its
+comparative absence in the Southern American continent was not the least
+cause of the trifling advancement made there during three centuries and
+a half. Surrounded by forests of the most valuable and variegated
+timber, with water-power in mountain streams, equally neglected, the
+masses of the people lived in shanties and mud hovels, not more
+commodious than those of the aborigines, nor more durable than the
+annual structures of birds. Wherever man has not fixed and comfortable
+homes, he is, as regards civilisation, stationary; improvement under
+such circumstances has never taken place, nor can it."
+
+Miller, in England, in 1777, had described in his patent a circular saw,
+and Hatton, in 1776, had vaguely described a planing machine; but the
+inception of the marvellous growth in wood-working machinery in the
+nineteenth century occurred in England during the last decade of the
+eighteenth. It was due to the splendid efforts of General Samuel
+Bentham, and of Bramah and Branch, both as to metal-working and
+wood-working machinery.
+
+General Bentham, a brother of the celebrated jurist, Jeremy Bentham, had
+his attention drawn to the slow, laborious, and crude methods of working
+in wood, while making a tour of Europe, and especially in Russia, and
+engaged in inspecting the art of ship-building in those countries, in
+behalf of the British Admiralty. On his return, 1791-1792, he converted
+his home into a shop for making wood-working machines. These included
+"Planing, moulding, rabbeting, grooving, mortising, and sawing, both in
+coarse and fine work, in curved, winding, and transverse directions, and
+shaping wood in complicated forms."
+
+Of the amount of bills presented to and paid for by the Admiralty for
+these machines, General Bentham received about L20,000.
+
+These machines were developed and in use just as the new century
+approached. Thus, with the exception of the saw-mill, it may be again
+said that prior to this century the means mankind had to aid them in
+their work in metals and in wood were confined to hand tools, and these
+were for the most part of a simple and crude description.
+
+The ground-work now being laid, the century advanced into a region of
+invention in tools and machinery for wood-working of every description,
+far beyond the wildest dreams of all former carpenters and joiners. Not
+only were the machines themselves invented, but they gave rise in turn
+to a host of inventions in metal-working for making them.
+
+In the same line of inventions there appeared in the first decade of the
+century one of the most ingenious of men, and a most fitting type of
+that great class of Yankee inventors who have carved their way to renown
+with all implements, from the jack-knife to the electrically-driven
+universal shaping machine.
+
+Thomas Blanchard, born in Massachusetts in 1788, while a boy, was
+accustomed to astonish his companions by the miniature wind-wheels and
+water-wheels that he whittled out with his knife. While attending the
+parties of young people who gathered on winter evenings at different
+homes in the country to pare apples, the idea of a paring machine
+occurred to him, and when only thirteen years of age, he invented and
+made the first apple-paring machine, with which more apples could be
+pared in a given time than any twelve of his girl acquaintances could
+pare with a knife.
+
+At eighteen, while working in a shop, driving the heads down on tacks,
+on an anvil, with a hammer, he invented the first tack-forming machine,
+which, when perfected by him, made five hundred tacks a minute, and
+which has never since been improved in principle. He improved the steam
+engine, and invented one of the first envelope machines. He made the
+first metal lathe for cutting out the butts of gun-barrels. But his
+greatest triumphs were in wood-working machinery.
+
+Challenged to make a machine that would make a gun stock, always before
+that time regarded an impossible task, its every part being so irregular
+in form, he secluded himself in his workshop for six months, and after
+constant labour and experiments he at the end of that time had produced
+a machine that more than astonished the entire world, and which worked a
+revolution in the making of all irregular forms from wood. This was in
+1819. This machine would not only make a perfect gun-stock, but shoe
+lasts, and ships' tackle-blocks, axe-handles, and a multitude of
+irregular-shaped blocks which before had always required the most expert
+hand operatives to produce. This machine became the subject of
+parliamentary inquiry on the part of England, and so great were the
+doubts concerning it, that successive commissions were appointed to
+examine and report upon it. Finally the English government ordered eight
+or ten of such machines for the making of gun-stocks for its army, and
+paid Blanchard about $40,000 for them. He was once jestingly asked at
+the navy department at Washington if he could turn a seventy-four? He at
+once replied, "Yes, if you will furnish me the block." Of course
+infringers appeared, but he maintained his rights and title as first and
+original inventor after the most searching trials in court.
+
+The generic idea of Blanchard's lathe for turning irregular forms
+consists in the use of a pattern of the device which is to be shaped
+from the rough material, placing such pattern in a lathe, alongside of
+the rough block, and having a guide wheel which has an arm having
+cutters, and which guide follows all the lines of the pattern, and which
+cutters, extending to the rough material, chip it away to the depth and
+in the direction imparted by the pattern lines to the guide, thus
+producing from the rough block a perfect representation of the pattern.
+
+In the midst of his studies in the construction of his inventions
+Blanchard's attention was drawn to the operations of a boring worm upon
+an old oak log. Closely examining and watching the same by the aid of a
+microscope, he gained valuable ideas from the work of his humble
+teacher, which he incorporated into his new cutting and boring machines.
+
+His series of machines in gun-making were designed to make and shape
+automatically every part of the gun, whether of wood or metal. His
+machines, and subsequent improvements by others, for boring, mortising
+and turning, display wonderful ingenuity. A modern mortising machine,
+for instance, is adapted to quickly and accurately cut a square or
+oblong hole to any desired depth, width, and length by cutting blades;
+to automatically reciprocate the cutters both vertically and
+horizontally in order to cut the mortise, both as to length and depth,
+at one time, and to automatically withdraw the cutters when they have
+finished cutting the mortise. They are provided with simple means for
+setting and feeding the cutters to do this work, and while giving the
+cutters a positive action, ample clearance is provided for the removal
+of the chips as fast as they are cut.
+
+From what such inventions will produce in the way of complicated and
+ornamental workmanship we may conclude that it is a law of invention
+that whatever can be made by hand may be made by a machine, and made
+better.
+
+_Carving Machines_ made their appearance early in the century. In 1800 a
+Mr. Watt of London produced one, on which he carved medallions and
+figures in ivory and ebony. Also subsequently, John Hawkins of the same
+city, and a Mr. Cheverton, invented machines for the same purpose.
+Another Englishman, Braithwaite, in 1840, invented a most attractive
+carving process in which, instead of cutting tools, he employed
+_burning_ as his agent. Heated casts of previously carved models were
+pressed into or on to wet wood, and the charcoal surfaces then brushed
+off with hard brushes.
+
+After Blanchard's turning-lathes and boring apparatus, appeared machines
+in which a series of cutters were employed, guided by a tracing lever
+attached to a carved model, and actuating the cutter to reproduce on
+material placed upon an adjusting table a copy of the model.
+
+Machines have been invented which consist of hard iron or steel rollers
+on the surface of which are cut beautiful patterns, and between which
+wood previously softened by steam is passed, and designs thus impressed
+thereon. A similar process of embossing, was devised in Paris and called
+Xyloplasty, by which steam-softened wood is compressed in carved moulds,
+which give it bas-relief impressions.
+
+But in the carving of wood by hand, a beautiful art, which has been
+revived within the past generation, there are touches of sentiment,
+taste and human toil, which, like the touches of the painter and the
+master of music, appeal to cultivated minds in a higher than mechanical
+sense. The mills of the modern gods, the inventors, grind with exceeding
+and exact fineness, but the work of a human hand upon a manufactured
+article still appeals to human sympathy.
+
+The bending of wood when heated by fire or steam had been known and
+practised to a limited extent, but Blanchard invented a _clamping
+machine_, to which improvements have been added, and by which ship
+timbers, furniture, ploughs, piano frames, carriage bows, stair and
+house banisters and balusters, wheel rims, staves, etc., etc., are bent
+to the desired forms, and without breaking. Bending to a certain extent
+does not weaken wood, but stretching the same has been found to impair
+and destroy its strength.
+
+The principal problems which the inventors of the century have solved in
+the class of wood-working have been the adaptation to rapid-working
+machinery of the saw and other blades, to sever; the plane to smooth,
+the auger, the bit and the gimlet to bore, the hammer to drive, and a
+combination of all or a part of these to shape and finish the completed
+article.
+
+It was a great step from the reciprocating hand saw, worked painfully by
+one or two men, to the band saw, invented by a London mechanic, William
+Newbury, in 1808. This was an endless steel belt serrated on one edge,
+mounted on pulleys, and driven continuously by the power of steam
+through the hardest and the heaviest work. Pliable, to conform to the
+faces of the wheels over which it is carried, it will bend with all the
+sinuosities of long timber, no time is lost in its operation, and no
+labour of human hands is necessary to guide it or the object on which it
+works.
+
+At the Vienna Exposition in 1873, the first mammoth saw of this
+description was exhibited. The saw itself was made by the celebrated
+firm of Perin & Co., of Paris, upon machinery the drawings of which were
+made by Mr. Van Pelt of New York, and constructed by Richards, Loudon
+and Kelly of Philadelphia. The saw was fifty-five feet long, and sawed
+planks from a pine log three feet thick, at the rate of sixty
+superficial feet per minute. The difficulty of securing a perfectly
+reliable weld in the endless steel band was overcome by M. Perin, who
+received at the Paris Exhibition in 1867 the Grand Cross of the Legion
+of Honour. Now gangs of such saws may be found in America and elsewhere,
+and circular saws have also been added. Saws that both cut, form, and
+_plane_ the boards at the same time are now known.
+
+_Boring tools_, both for hand and machinery, demanded improvement.
+Formerly augers and similar boring tools had merely a curved sharpened
+end and a concavity to hold the chips, and the whole tool had to be
+withdrawn to empty the chips. It was known as a _pod_ auger. In 1809,
+L'Hommedieu, a Frenchman, invented an auger with two pods and cutting
+lips, a central screw and a twisted shank. About the same time Lilley of
+Connecticut made a twisted auger, and these screw-form, twisted, cutting
+tools of various kinds, with their cutting lips, and by which the
+shavings or chips were withdrawn continuously from the hole as the
+cutting proceeded, became so improved in the United States that they
+were known as the American augers and bits. The planing machines of
+General Bentham were improved by Bramah, and he and Maudsley also
+greatly improved other wood-working machines and tools in
+England--1802-1810.
+
+We have before, in the chapter on metal-working, shown the importance of
+the _slide-rest_, _planer_ and _lathe_, _when combined_, and which also
+are extensively adapted to wood-working. In Bramah's machine, a vertical
+spindle carried at its lower extremity a horizontal wheel having
+twenty-eight cutter blades, followed by a plane also attached to a
+wheel. A board was by these means perfectly trimmed and smoothed from
+end to end, as it was carried against the cutters by suitable moving
+means. William Woodworth of New York, in 1828, patented a celebrated
+planing machine which became so popular and its use was regarded so
+necessary in the wood-working trades, that the patent was looked upon as
+an odious monopoly. It consisted of a combination of rollers armed with
+cutters, attached to a horizontal shaft revolving at a great speed, and
+of means for feeding the boards to the cutters. With Bentham's,
+Bramah's, Blanchard's, and Woodworth's ideas for a basis, those
+innumerable improvements have been made in machinery, by which wood is
+converted with almost lightning rapidity into all the forms in which we
+see it, whether ornamental or useful, in modern homes and other
+structures.
+
+Some machines are known as "Universal Wood Workers." In these a single
+machine is provided with various tools, and adapted to perform a great
+variety of work by shifting the position of the material and the tools.
+The following operations can be performed on such a machine:--Planing,
+bevelling, tapering, tenoning, tongueing and grooving (grooves straight,
+circular or angular), making of joints, twisting and a number of other
+operations.
+
+The later invention by Stow of Philadelphia of a _flexible_ shaft, made
+up of a series of coils of steel wire, given a leather covering, and to
+which can be attached augers, bits, or metal drills, the tool applied to
+its work from any direction, and its direction varied while at work, has
+excited great attention.
+
+_Shingles_ are as old in the art as the framework of buildings. Rome was
+roofed with shingles for centuries, made of oak or pine.
+
+Tiles, plain and fancy, and slates, have to a certain extent superseded
+wood shingling, but the wood will always be used where it can be found
+in plenty, as machines will now turn them out complete faster than they
+can be hauled away. A shingle is a thin piece of wood, thicker at one
+end than at the other, having parallel sides, about three times as long
+as it is wide, having generally smooth surfaces and edges. All these
+features are now given to the shingle by modern machines.
+
+A great log is rolled into a mill at one end and soon comes out at the
+other in bundles of shingles; the logs sawed into blocks, the blocks
+split or sawed again into shingle sizes, tapered, planed in the
+direction of the grain of the wood, the complete shingles collected and
+bound in bundles, each operation by a special machine, or by a series of
+mechanisms.
+
+_Veneering_, that art of covering cheap or ordinary wood with a thin
+covering of more ornamental and valuable wood, known from the days of
+the Egyptians, has been vastly extended by modern machinery. The
+practice, however, so emphatically denounced centuries ago by Pliny, as
+"the monstrous invention of paint and dyes applied to the woods or
+veneers, to imitate other woods," has yet its practitioners and
+admirers.
+
+T. M. Brunel, in 1805-1808, devised a set of circular saws run by a
+steam engine, which cut sheets of rosewood and mahogany, one-fourteenth
+of an inch thick, with great speed and accuracy. Since that day the
+veneer planing machine, for delicately smoothing the sheets, the
+straightening machine, for straightening scrolls that have been cut from
+logs, the polishing machines for giving the sheets their bright and
+glossy appearance, the pressing machine for applying them to the
+surfaces to which they are to be attached, the hammering machine for
+forcing out superfluous glue from between a veneer and the piece to
+which it is applied; all of these and numerous modifications of the same
+have been invented, and resulted in placing in the homes everywhere many
+beautiful ornamental articles of furniture, which before the very rich
+only could afford to have.
+
+Special forms of machinery for making various articles of wood are about
+as numerous as the articles themselves.
+
+We appear before the house and know before entering that its doors and
+sills, clapboards and window frames, its sashes and blinds, its
+cornices, its embrasures and pillars, and shingles, each or all have had
+a special machine invented for its manufacture. We enter the house and
+find it is so with objects within--the flooring may be adorned with the
+beautiful art of marquetry and parquetry, wood mosaic work, the
+wainscoting and the frescoes and ceilings, the stairs and staircases,
+its carved and ornamental supporting frames and balusters, the charming
+mantel frames around the hospitable fireplaces, and every article of
+furniture we see in which wood is a part. So, too, it is with every
+useful wooden implement and article within and without the house,--the
+trays, the buckets, the barrels, the tubs, the clothes-pins, the
+broom-handles, the mops, the ironing and bread boards; and outside the
+house, the fences, railings and posts--many of these objects entirely
+unknown to the poor of former generations, uncommon with the rich, and
+the machinery for making them unknown to all.
+
+It was a noble array of woodwork and machinery with which the nations
+surprised and greeted the world, at each of its notable international
+Expositions during the century. Each occasion surpassed its predecessor
+in the beauty of construction of the machines displayed and efficiency
+of their work. The names of the members of this array were hard and
+uncouth, such as the axe, the adze, and the bit, the auger, bark-cutting
+and grinding machines, blind-slat boring, and tenoning, dovetail,
+mortising, matching and planing, wood splitting, turning, wheeling and
+planing, wood-bending, rim-boring dowelling, felly-jointing, etc., etc.
+These names and the clamour of the machines were painful to the ear, but
+to the thoughtful, they were converted into sweeter music, when
+reflection brought to mind the hard toil of human hands they had saved,
+the before unknown comforts and blessings of civilisation they had
+brought and were bringing to the human race, and the enduring forms of
+beauty they had produced.
+
+To the invention of wood-working machinery we are also indebted for the
+awakening of interest in the qualities of wood for a vast number of
+artistic purposes. It was a revelation, at the great Philadelphia
+Exposition of 1876, to behold the specimens of different woods from all
+the forests of the earth, selected and assembled to display their
+wonderful grain and other qualities, and showing how well nature was
+storing up for us in its silent shades those growths which were waiting
+the genius of invention to convert into forms of use and beauty for
+every home.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+
+So far as machinery is concerned for converting wood into furniture, the
+same has been anticipated in the previous chapter, but much remains to
+be said about the articles of furniture themselves.
+
+Although from ancient days the most ancient countries provided by hand
+elaborate and beautiful articles of furniture of many descriptions, yet
+it has been left for modern advances in machinery and kindred arts to
+yield that universal supply of convenient and ornamental furniture which
+now prevails.
+
+The Egyptians used chairs and tables of a more modern form than the
+Greeks or Romans, who lolled about on couches even at their meals; but
+the Egyptians did not have the convenient section tables built in
+sliding sections, which permit the table to be enlarged to accommodate
+an increased number of guests. And now recently this modern form of
+table has been improved, by arranging the sections and leaves so that
+when the sections are slid out the leaves are automatically raised and
+placed in position, which is done either by lazy-tongs mechanism, or by
+a series of parallel links: Tables constructed with folding detachable
+and adjustable legs, tables constructed for special purposes as sewing
+machines, and typewriting machine tables, by which the machine head may
+be dropped beneath the table top when not in use; tables combined with
+desks wherein the table part may be slid into the desk part when not in
+use and the sliding cover pulled down to cover and lock from sight both
+the table and desk; surgical tables, adapted to be raised or lowered at
+either end or at either side and to be extended; "knock down" tables,
+adapted to be taken all apart for shipment or storage; tables combined
+with chairs to be folded down by the side of the chair when not in use;
+and many other useful forms have been added to the list.
+
+Much ingenuity has been displayed in the construction of desks, to save
+and economise space. Mention has been made of a combined folding desk
+and extensible table. Another form is an arrangement of desk drawers,
+whereby when one drawer is locked or unlocked all the rest are locked or
+unlocked automatically. Whatever shape or function anyone desires in a
+desk may be met, except, perhaps, the performance of the actual work of
+the occupant.
+
+In the matter of _beds_, the principal developments have been due to the
+advancement of wood-working machinery, and the manufacture of iron,
+steel, and brass. The old-fashioned ponderous bedsteads, put together by
+heavy screws, have given way to those mortised and tenoned, joined and
+matched, and by which they can easily be put up and taken down; and to
+iron and brass bedsteads, which are both ornamental and more healthful.
+No bed may be without an inexpensive steel spring frame or mattress for
+the support of the bedding. Folding beds made to economise space, and
+when folded upright become an ornamental bureau; and invalid bedsteads,
+designed for shifting the position of the invalid, are among the many
+modern improvements.
+
+_Kitchen Utensils._--A vast amount of drudgery in the kitchen has been
+relieved by the convenient inventions in labor-saving appliances: coffee
+and spice mills, can-openers, stationary washtubs, stopper extractors,
+superseding the old style of hand-corkscrews where large numbers of
+bottles are to be uncorked; refrigerators and provision safes, attaching
+and lifting devices and convenient culinary dishes and utensils of great
+variety.
+
+_Curtains_, _shades_ and _screens_ have been wonderfully improved and
+their use made widely possible by modern inventions and new adaptation
+of old methods. Wood, cotton, silk, paper, combined or uncombined with
+other materials, in many novel ways unknown to our ancestors, have
+rendered these articles available in thousands of homes where their use
+was unknown and impossible a century ago. Among the most convenient
+attachments to shades is the spring roller, invented by Hartshorn of
+America, in 1864, whereby the shade is automatically rolled upon its
+stick to raise or lower it.
+
+Window screens for the purpose of excluding flies, mosquitoes, and other
+insects, while freely admitting the air, are now made extensible and
+adjustable in different ways to fit different sizes of windows. Curtains
+and shades are provided with neat and most attractive supporting rods,
+to which they are attached by brass or wooden rings, and provided with
+easily manipulated devices to raise and securely hold them in any
+desired position.
+
+The art of steaming wood and bending it, by iron pattern forms
+adjustable to the forms desired, as particularly devised in principle by
+Blanchard in America in 1828-1840, referred to in Wood-working, has
+produced great changes in the art of furniture making, especially in
+chairs. A particularly interesting illustration of the results of this
+art occurred in Austria. About forty years ago the manufacture in
+Germany and Austria of furniture by machinery, especially of bent
+wood-ware, became well established there; and by the time of the Vienna
+Exposition in 1873, factories on a most extensive scale for the
+construction of bed furniture were in operation among the vast mountain
+beech forests of Moravia and Hungary. The greatest of these works were
+located in Great Urgroez, Hungary, and Bisritz, Moravia, with twenty or
+more auxiliary establishments. Between five and six thousand work people
+were employed, the greater part of whom were females, and it was
+necessary to use steam and water motors, to the extent of many hundred
+horse power.
+
+The forests were felled, and the tree-tops removed and made into
+charcoal for use in the glass works of Bohemia. The trunks were hauled
+to the mills and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws.
+The planks in turn were cut with circular saws into square pieces for
+turning, and then the pieces turned and cut on lathes, to give them the
+size required and the rounded shape; the pieces then steamed while in
+their green state for twenty-four hours in suitable boilers, then taken
+out and bent to the desired shape on a cast-iron frame by hand, then
+subjected, with the desired pattern, to the pattern-turning table, and
+cut; then kept locked in the pattern's iron embrace until the pieces
+were dried and permanently set in shape, then clamped to a bench, filed,
+rasped, stained, and French polished by the deft hands of the women;
+then assembled in proper position in frames of the form of the chair or
+other article to be made, their contact surface sawed to fit at the
+joints, and then finally the parts glued together and further secured by
+the addition of a few screws or balls.
+
+Chairs, lounges and lighter furniture were thus made from bent pieces of
+wood with very few joints, having a neat and attractive appearance, and
+possessing great strength. The art has spread to other forests and other
+countries, and the turned, bent, highly polished and beautiful furniture
+of this generation would have been but a dream of beauty to the
+householder of a century ago.
+
+Children's chairs are made so that the seat may be raised or lowered, or
+the chair converted into a perambulator. Dentist's chairs have been
+developed until it is only necessary for the operator to turn a valve
+governing a fluid, generally oil, under pressure to raise or lower the
+chair and the patient. In the more agreeable situation at the theatre or
+concert one may hang his hat on the bottom of the chair, upturned to
+afford access to it through a crowded row, and turning down the chair,
+sit with pleasure, as the curtain is rolled up by compressed air, or
+electricity, at the touch of a button.
+
+To the unthinking and unobserving, the subject of _bottle stoppers_ is
+not entrancing, but those acquainted with the art know with what long,
+continuous, earnest efforts, thousands of inventors have sought for the
+best and cheapest bottle stopper to take the place of corks--the
+enormous demand for which was exhausting the supply and rendering their
+price almost prohibitive.
+
+One of the most successful types is a stopper of rubber combined with a
+metal disk, and hung by a wire on the neck of the bottle, so that the
+stopper can be used over and over again; another form composed of glass,
+or porcelain, and cork; another is a thin disk of cork placed in a thin
+metal cap which is crimped over a shoulder on the neck of the bottle,
+and still another is a thin disk of pasteboard adapted for milk bottles
+and pressed tightly within a rim on the inside of the neck of the
+bottle.
+
+In this connection should be mentioned that self-sealing fruit jar,
+known from its inventor as "Mason's fruit jar," which came into such
+universal use--that combination of screw cap, screw-threaded jar-neck
+and the rubber ring, or gasket, on which the cap was screwed so tightly
+as to seal the jar hermetically.
+
+In lamplighting, what a wonderful change from the old oil lamps of
+former ages! The modern lamp may be said to be an improved means of
+grace, as it will hold out much longer, and shed a far more attractive
+light for the sinner, whose return, by its genial light, is, even to the
+end, so greatly desired.
+
+The discovery of petroleum and its introduction as a light produced a
+revolution in the construction of lamps. Wicks were not discarded, but
+changed in shape from round to flat, and owing to the coarseness and
+disagreeable odour of coal oil, especially in its early unrefined days,
+devices first had for their object the easy feeding of the wick, and
+perfect combustion. To this end the burner portion through which the
+wick passed was perforated at its base to create a proper draft, and
+later the cap over the base was also perforated. But with refined oil
+the disagreeable odour continued. It was found that this was mainly due
+to the fact that both in lamps and stoves the oil would ooze out of the
+wick on to the adjacent parts of the lamps or stove, and when the wick
+was lit the heat would burn or heat the oil and thus produce the odour.
+Inventors therefore contrived to separate the oil reservoir and wick
+part when the lamp or stove were not in use; and finally, in stoves, to
+dispense with the wick altogether. As wickless oil stoves are now in
+successful use the wickless lamp may be expected to follow.
+
+The lamp, however, that throws all others into the shade is that
+odourless, heatless, magic, mellow, tempered light of electricity, that
+springs out from the little filament, in its hermetically sealed glass
+cage, and shines with unsurpassed loveliness on all those fortunate
+enough to possess it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+LEATHER.
+
+
+It is interesting to speculate how prehistoric man came to use the skin
+of the beasts of the field for warmth and shelter. Originally no doubt,
+and for untold centuries, the use was confined to the hairy, undressed,
+fresh, or dried skins, known as pelts. Then came the use of better
+tools. The garments have perished, but the tools of stone and of bronze
+survived, which, when compared with those employed among the earliest
+historic tribes of men, were found to be adapted to cut and strip the
+hairy covering from the bodies of animals, and clean, pound, scrape and
+otherwise adapt them to use.
+
+And ever since the story of man began to be preserved in lasting records
+from farthest Oriental to the northernmost limits of Europe and America,
+memorials of the early implements of labour in the preparation of hides
+for human wear have been found. The aborigines knew how to sharpen bones
+of the animals they killed to scrape, clean, soften or roughen their
+skins. They knew how to sweat, dry, and smoke the skins, and this crude
+seasoning process was the forerunner of modern tanning. But leather as
+we know it now, that soft, flexible, insoluble combination of the
+gelatine and fibrine of the skin with tannic acid, producing a durable
+and imputrescible article, that will withstand decay from the joint
+attack of moisture, warmth and air, was unknown to the earlier races of
+men, for its production was due to thorough tanning, and thorough
+tanning was a later art.
+
+When men were skin-dressed animals they knew little or nothing of
+tanning. Tannic acid is found in nearly every plant that grows, and its
+combination with the fresh skins spread or thrown thereon, may have
+given rise to the observation of the beneficial result and subsequent
+practice. But whether discovered by chance, accident or experience, or
+invented from necessity, the art of tanning should have rendered the
+name of the discoverer immortal. The earliest records, however, describe
+the art, but not the inventor.
+
+From the time the Hebrews covered the altars of their tabernacles with
+rams' skins dyed red, as recorded in Exodus; when they and the Egyptians
+worked their leather, currying and stretching it with their knives,
+awls, stones, and other implements, making leather water buckets,
+resembling very much those now made by machinery, covering their harps
+and shields with leather, ornamental and embossed; from the days of the
+early Africans, famous for their yellow, red and black morocco; from the
+days of the old national dress of the Persians with their leather
+trousers, aprons, helmets, belts and shirts; from the time that the
+ancient Scythians utilised the skins of their enemies, and Herodotus
+described the beauty and other good qualities of the human hide; from
+the early days of that peculiar fine and agreeable leather of the
+Russians, fragrant with the oil of the birch; from the days of the white
+leather of the Hungarians, the olive-tanned leather of the Saracens;
+from the time of the celebrated Cordovan leather of the Spaniards; from
+the ancient cold periods of the Esquimaux and the Scandinavians, who,
+clad in the warm skins of the Arctic bears, stretched tough-tanned
+sealskin over the frame work of their boats; from the time of the
+introduction of the art of the leather worker to the naked Briton, down
+to almost the nineteenth century, substantially the same hand tools,
+hard hand labour, and the old elbow lubricant were known and practised.
+
+Hand tools have improved, of course, as other arts in wood and iron
+making have developed, but the operations are about the same. There were
+and must be fleshing knives to scrape from off the hide the adherent
+flesh and lime,--for this the hide is placed over the convex edge of an
+inclined beam and the work is called beaming; the curriers' knife for
+removing the hair; skiving, or the cutting off the rough edges and
+fleshy parts on the border of the hide; shaving and flattening; the
+cutting away of the inequalities left after skiving; _stoning_, the
+rubbing of the leather by a scouring stone to render it smooth;
+_slicking_, to remove the water and grease; or to smooth and polish, by
+a rectangular sharpened stone, steel or glass tool; _whitening_, to
+shave off thin strips of the flesh, leaving the leather thinner, whiter
+and more pliable; _stuffing_, to soften the scraped and pounded hides
+and make them porous; _graining_, the giving to the hair or grain side a
+granular appearance by rubbing with a grooved or roughened piece of
+wood; _bruising_ or boarding to make the leather supple and pliable by
+bringing the two flesh sides together and rubbing with a graining board;
+_scouring_, by aid of a stream of water to whiten the leather by rubbing
+with a slicking stone or steel.
+
+The inventions of the century consist in labour-saving machinery for
+these purposes, new tanning and dressing processes, and innumerable
+machines for making special articles of leather.
+
+As before stated, the epoch of modern machinery commenced with the
+practical application of water power to other than grinding mills, and
+of steam in place of water, contemporaneously with the invention of
+spinning and weaving machinery in the last half of the eighteenth
+century. These got fairly to work at the beginning of the century, and
+the uses of machinery spread to the treatment of leather. John Bull was
+the appropriate name of the man who first patented a scraping machine in
+England, about 1780, and Joseph Weeks the next one, some years later.
+
+One of the earliest machines of the century was the hide mill, which,
+after the hand tools had scraped and stoned, shaved and hardened the
+hides, was used to rub and dub them, and soften and swell them for
+tanning. Pegged rollers were the earliest form for this purpose, and
+later corrugated rollers and power-worked hammers were employed.
+Hundreds of hides could be softened daily by these means.
+
+Then came ingenious machines to take the place of the previous
+operations of the hand tools,--the fleshing machine, in one form of
+which the hides are placed on a curved bed, and the fleshy parts scraped
+off or removed by revolving glass blades, or by curved teeth of steel
+and wood in a roller under which a table is given a to-and-fro movement;
+tanning apparatus of a great variety, by which hides, after they are
+thoroughly washed and softened, and the pores opened by swelling, are
+subjected to movements in the tanning liquor vats, such as rocking or
+oscillating, rotary, or vertical; or treated by an air exhaust, known as
+the vacuum process; in all of which the object is to thoroughly
+impregnate in the shortest time all the interstices and pores of the
+skin with the tannic acid, by which the fibrous and gelatinous matter is
+made to combine to form leather, and by which process, also, the hide is
+greatly increased in weight.
+
+Reel machines are then employed to transfer the hides from one vat to
+another, thus subjecting them to liquors of increasing strength. Soaking
+in vats formerly occupied twelve or eighteen months, but under the new
+methods the time has been greatly reduced. And now since 1880, the
+chemists are pushing aside the vegetable processes, and substituting
+mineral processes, by which tanning is still further shortened and
+cheapened. The new processes depend chiefly on the use of chromium
+compounds.
+
+Then came scouring machines, in which a rapidly revolving stiff brush is
+used to scour the grain or hair side, removing the superfluous colouring
+matter, called the bloom, and softening and cleansing the hide; the
+slicking or polishing machines to clean, stretch and smooth the leather
+by glass, stone, or copper blades on a rapidly-moving belt carried over
+pulleys; whitening, buffing, skiving, fleshing and shaving machines, all
+for cutting off certain portions and inequalities of the leather, and
+reducing its thickness.
+
+In one form of this class of machines an oscillating pendulum lever is
+employed, carrying at its end a revolving cylinder having thirty or more
+spiral blades. The pendulum swings to and fro at the rate of ninety
+movements a minute, while the cylinder rolls over the leather at the
+rate of 2780 revolutions per minute. Scarfing, skiving, chamfering,
+bevelling, feather-edging, appear to be synonymous terms for a variety
+of machines for cutting the edges of leather obliquely, for the purpose
+chiefly of making lap seams, scarf-joints, and reducing the thickness
+and stiffness of leather at those and certain other points.
+
+Then there are leather-splitting machines, consisting of one or more
+rollers and a pressure bar, which draw and press the leather against a
+horizontally arranged and adjustable knife, which nicely splits the
+leather in two parts, and thus doubles the quantity. This thin split
+leather is much used in making a cheap quality of boots and shoes and
+other articles.
+
+There are also corrugating, creasing, fluting, pebbling, piercing and
+punching machines; machines for grinding the bark and also for grinding
+the leather; machines for gluing sections of leather together, and
+machines for sewing them; machines for rounding flat strips of leather,
+for the making of whips and tubes; machines for scalloping the edges;
+and a very ingenious machine for assorting leather strips or strings
+according to their size or thickness.
+
+The most important improvements of the century in leather working relate
+to the manufacture of boots and shoes. It could well be said of boots
+and shoes, especially those made for the great mass of humanity, before
+the modern improvements in means and processes had been invented: "Their
+feet through faithless leather met the dirt."
+
+It is true that in the eighteenth century, both in Europe and America,
+the art of leather and boot and shoe making had so far advanced that
+good durable foot wear was produced by long and tedious processes of
+tanning, and by careful making up of the leather into boots and shoes by
+hand; the knife, the awl, the waxed thread, the nails and hammer and
+other hand tools of the character above referred to being employed. But
+the process was a tedious and costly one and the articles produced were
+beyond the limits of the poor man's purse. Hence the wooden shoes, and
+those made of coarse hide and dressed and undressed skins, and of coarse
+cloth, mixed or unmixed with leather.
+
+In 1809, David Mead Randolph of England patented machinery for riveting
+soles and heels to the uppers instead of sewing them together.
+
+The celebrated civil engineer, Isambard M. Brunel, shortly thereafter
+added several machines of his own invention to Randolph's method, and he
+established a large manufactory for the making chiefly of army shoes.
+The various separate processes performed by his machines involved the
+cutting out of the leather, hardening it by rolling, securing the welt
+on to the inner sole by small nails, and studding the outer sole with
+larger nails. Divisions of men were employed to work each separate step,
+and the shoes were passed from one process to another until complete.
+
+Large quantities of shoes were made at reduced prices, but complaints
+were made as to the nails penetrating into the shoe and hurting the
+feet. The demand for army shoes fell off, and the system was abandoned;
+but it had incited invention in the direction of machine-made shoes and
+the day of exclusive hand labour was doomed.
+
+About 1818 Joseph Walker of Hopkinston, Massachusetts invented the
+wooden peg. Making and applying pegs by hand was too slow work, and
+machines were at once contrived for making them. As one invention
+necessitates and begets others, so special forms of machines for sawing
+and working up wood into pegs were devised.
+
+Such machinery was for first sawing the selected log of wood into slices
+across the grain a little thicker than the length of a peg and cutting
+out knots in the wood; then planing the head of the block smooth;
+grooving the block with a V-shaped cutting tool; splitting the pegs
+apart, and then bleaching, drying, polishing and winnowing them.
+
+It took forty or fifty years to perfect these and kindred machines, but
+at the end of that time there was a factory at Burlington, Vermont,
+which from four cords of wood, made every day four hundred bushels of
+shoe pegs.
+
+About 1858 B. F. Sturtevant of Massachusetts made a great improvement in
+this line. He was a very poor man, getting a living by pegging on the
+soles of a few pair of shoes each day. He devised a pegging machine, and
+out of his scanty earnings and at odd hours, with much pain and labour,
+and by borrowing money, he finally completed it. The machine made what
+was called "peg wood," a long ribbon strip of seasoned wood, sharpened
+on one edge and designed to be fed into the machine for pegging shoes.
+The shoes were punctured by awls driven by machinery, and then as the
+peg strip was carried to it the machine severed the strip into
+chisel-edged pegs, and peg-driving mechanism drove them into the holes.
+Nine hundred pegs a minute were driven. It soon almost supplanted all
+other peg-driving machines, and after the machines were quite generally
+introduced, there were made in one year alone in New England fifty-five
+million pairs of boots and shoes pegged by the Sturtevant machines.
+
+Other forms of pegs followed, such as the metal screw pegs, and machines
+to cut them off from a continuous spiral wire from which they were made.
+Lasts on which the shoes were made had been manufactured by the hundred
+thousand on the wood-turning lathes invented by Blanchard, described in
+the chapter on Wood-Working.
+
+In 1858 also, about the same time the Sturtevant pegging machine was
+introduced, the shoe-sewing machine was developed. The McKay Shoe-Sewing
+Machine Co. of Massachusetts after an expenditure of $130,000, and three
+years' time in experiments, were enabled to put their machines in
+practical operation. The pegging machines and sewing machines worked a
+revolution in shoemaking.
+
+A revolution in the art of shoemaking thus started was followed up by
+wondrous machines invented to meet every part of the manufacture.
+Lasting machines for drawing and fitting the leather over lasts, in
+which the outer edges of the leather are drawn over the bottom of the
+last and tacked thereto by the hands and fingers of the machine instead
+of those of the human hand, were invented.
+
+_Indenting machines_:--The welt is known as that strip of leather around
+the shoe between the upper and the sole, and machines were invented for
+cutting and placing this, indenting it for the purpose of rendering it
+flexible and separating the stitches, all a work until recently entirely
+done by hand. Machines for twining the seams in the uppers, and forming
+the scallops; machines especially adapted to the making of the heel, as
+heel trimming and compressing, rounding and polishing, and for nailing
+the finished heel to the boot or shoe; machines for treating the sole in
+every way, rolling it, in place of the good old way of pounding it on a
+lap stone; trimming, rounding, smoothing, and polishing it; machines for
+cutting out gores; machines for marking the uppers so that at one
+operation every shoe will be stamped by its size, number, name of
+manufacture, number of case, and any other convenient symbols; machines
+for setting the buttons and eyelets; all these are simply members in the
+long line of inventions in this art.
+
+The old style of boot has given way to the modern shoe and gaiter, but
+for the benefit of those who still wear them, special machines for
+shaping the leg, called boot trees, have been contrived.
+
+So far had the art advanced that twenty years ago one workingman with
+much of this improved machinery combined in one machine called the
+"bootmaker," could make three hundred pairs of boots or shoes a day.
+Upward of three thousand such machines were then at work throughout the
+world; and one hundred and fifty million pairs of boots were then being
+made annually thereon. Now the number of machines and pairs of boots and
+shoes has been quadrupled.
+
+And the world is having its feet clothed far more extensively, better
+and at less cost than was ever possible by the hand system. The number
+of workers in the art, both men and women, has vastly increased instead
+of being diminished, while their wages have greatly advanced over the
+old rates.
+
+As an illustration of how rapidly modern enterprise and invention
+proceeds in Yankeeland, it has been related that some years ago in
+Massachusetts, after many of these shoe-making machines had got into
+use, a factory which was turning out 2400 pairs of shoes every day was
+completely destroyed by fire on a Wednesday night. On Thursday the
+manufacturer hired a neighbouring building and set carpenters at work
+fitting it up. On Friday he ordered a new and complete outfit of
+machinery from Boston; on Saturday the machinery arrived and the men set
+it up; on Monday work was started, and on Tuesday the manufacturer was
+filling his orders to the full number of 2400 pairs a day.
+
+There are very many people in the world who still prefer the hand-made
+shoe, and there is nothing to prevent the world generally from going
+back to that system if they choose; but St. Crispin's gentle art has
+blossomed into a vaster field of blessings for mankind under the
+fruitful impetus of invention than if left to vegetate under the simple
+processes of primitive man.
+
+Horses, no less than man, have shared in the improvement in leather
+manufacture. The harnesses of the farmer's and labouring man's horses a
+century ago, when they were fortunate enough to own horses, were of the
+crudest description. Ropes, cords, coarse bands of leather were the
+common provisions. Now the strength and cheapness of harnesses enable
+the poor man to equip his horse with a working suit impossible to have
+been produced a hundred years ago.
+
+To the beautiful effects produced by the use of modern embossing
+machines on paper and wood have been added many charming patterns in
+_embossed_ leather. Books and leather cases, saddlery and household
+ornamentation of various descriptions have been either moulded into
+forms of beauty, or stamped or rolled by cameo and intaglio designs cut
+into the surface of fast-moving cylinders.
+
+The leather manufactures have become so vastly important and valuable in
+some countries, especially in the United States--second, almost to
+agricultural products--that it would be very interesting to extend the
+description to many processes and machines, and to facts displaying the
+enormous traffic in leather, now necessarily omitted for want of space.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+MINERALS--WELLS.
+
+    Dost thou hear the hammer of Thor,
+    Wielded in his gloves of iron?
+
+
+As with leather, so with stone, the hand tools and hard labour have not
+changed in principle since the ancient days. The hammer for breaking,
+the lever for lifting, the saw for cutting, rubbing-stones and irons for
+smoothing and polishing, sand and water for the same purpose, the mallet
+and chisel, and other implements for ornamenting, the square, the level,
+and the plumb for their respective purposes, all are as old as the art
+of building.
+
+And as for buildings and sculpture of stone and marble made by hand
+tools, we have yet to excel the pyramids, the Parthenon of Athens, which
+"Earth proudly wears as the best gem upon her zone," the palaces,
+coliseums, and aqueducts of Rome, the grand and polished tombs of India,
+the exquisite halls of the Alhambra, and the Gothic cathedrals.
+
+But the time came when human blood and toil became too dear to be the
+possession solely of the rulers and the wealthy, and to be used alone to
+perpetuate and commemorate riches, power and glory.
+
+Close on the expansion of men's minds came the expansion of steam and
+the development of modern inventions. The first application of the steam
+engine in fields of human labour was the drawing of water from the coal
+mines of England; then in drawing the coal itself.
+
+It was only a step for the steam engine into a new field of labour when
+General Bentham introduced his system of wood-sawing machinery in 1800;
+and from sawing wood to sawing stone was only one more step. We find
+that taken in 1803 in Pennsylvania, when Oliver Evans of Philadelphia
+drove with a high-pressure steam engine, "twelve saws in heavy frames,
+sawing at the rate of one hundred feet of marble in twelve hours." How
+long would it have taken hand sawyers of marble at ancient Paros and
+Naxos to have done the same?
+
+_Stone-cutting_ machines of other forms than sawing then followed.
+
+It was desired to divide large blocks generally at the quarries to
+facilitate transportation. Machines for this purpose are called
+stone-channelling machines. They consist of a gang of chisels bound
+together and set on a framework which travels on a track adjacent to the
+stone to be cut, and so arranged that the cutters may be set to the
+stone at desired angles, moved automatically forward and back in the
+grooves they are cutting, be fed in or out, raised or lowered, detached,
+and otherwise manipulated in the operation.
+
+Other stone-cutting machines had for their objects the cutting and
+moulding the edges of tables, mantels and slabs; and the cutting of
+circular and other curved work. In the later style of machine the cutter
+fixed on the end of a spindle is guided in the desired directions on the
+surface of the stone by a pointer, which, attached to the cutter
+spindle, moves in the grooves of a pattern also connected to the
+rotating support carrying the cutter.
+
+Other forms of most ingenious stone-dressing and carving machines have
+been devised for cutting mouldings, and ornamental figures and devices,
+in accordance with a model or pattern fixed to the under side of the
+table which carries the stone or marble to be dressed; and in which, by
+means of a guide moving in the pattern, the diamond cutter or cutters,
+carried in a circular frame above the work and adjusted to its surface,
+are moved in the varying directions determined by the pattern. A stream
+of water is directed on the stone to clear it of the dust during the
+operations. The carving of stone by machinery is now a sister branch of
+wood carving. Monuments, ornamentation, and intricate forms of figures
+and characters are wrought with great accuracy by cutting and dressing
+tools guided by the patterns, or directed by the hand of the operator.
+
+For the dressing of the faces of grindstones, special forms of cutting
+machines have been devised.
+
+It was a slow and tedious task to drill holes through stone by hand
+tools; and it was indeed a revolution in this branch of the art when
+steam engines were employed to rotate a rod armed at its end with
+diamond or other cutters against the hardest stone. This mode of
+drilling also effected a revolution in the art of blasting. Then,
+neither height, nor depth, nor thickness of the stone could prevent the
+progress of the drill rod. Tunnels through mountain walls, and wells
+through solid quartz are cut to the depth of thousands of feet.
+
+One instance is related of the wonderful efficiency on a smaller scale
+of such a machine: The immense columns of the State Capitol at Columbus,
+Ohio, were considered too heavy for the foundation on which they rested.
+The American Diamond Rock Boring Company of Providence, Rhode Island,
+bored out a twenty-four inch core from each of the great pillars, and
+thus relieved the danger.
+
+In the most economical and successful stone drills _compressed air_ is
+employed as the motive power to drive the drills, which may be used
+singly or in gangs, and which may be adjusted against the rock or quarry
+in any direction. When in position and ready for work a few moments will
+suffice to bore the holes, apply the explosive and blast the ledge. The
+cleaning away of submarine ledges in harbours, such as the great work at
+Hell Gate in the harbour of New York, has thus been effected.
+
+_Crushing_:--Among the most useful inventions relating to stone working
+are machines for crushing stones and ores, and assorting them. The old
+way of hammering by hand was first succeeded by powerful stamp hammers
+worked by steam. Both methods of course are still followed, but they
+demand too great an expenditure of force and time.
+
+About a third of a century ago, Eli Whitney Blake of New Haven,
+Connecticut, was a pioneer inventor of a new and most successful type of
+stone breaking machine, which ever since has been known as the "Blake
+Crusher." This crusher consists of two ponderous upright jaws, one fixed
+and the other movable, between which the stones or ores to be crushed
+are fed. Each of the jaws is lined with the hardest kind of chilled
+steel. The movable jaw is inclined from its lower end from the fixed jaw
+and at its upper end is pivoted to swing on a heavy round iron bar. The
+movable jaw is forced toward the fixed jaw by two opposite toggle levers
+set, in one form of the crusher, at their inner ends in steel bearings
+of a vertical vibrating, rocking lever, one of the toggles bearing at
+its outer end against the movable jaw and the outer toggle against a
+solid frame-work. The rocking lever is operated through a crank by a
+steam engine, and as it is vibrated, the toggle joint forces the lever
+end of the movable jaw towards the fixed jaw with immense force,
+breaking the hardest stone like an eggshell.
+
+The setting of the movable jaw at an incline enables the large stone to
+be first cracked, the movable jaw then opens, and as the stone falls
+lower between the more contracted jaws, it is broken finer, until it is
+finally crushed or pulverized and falls through at the bottom. The
+movable jaw is adjustable and can be set to crush stones to a certain
+size.
+
+As the rock drill made a revolution in blasting and tunnelling, so the
+Blake crusher revolutionised the art of road making. "Road metal," as
+the supply of broken stones for roads is now called, is the fruit of the
+crusher. Hundreds of tons of stone per day can be crushed to just the
+size desired, and the machine may be moved from place to place where
+most convenient to use.
+
+Other crushers have been invented, formed on the principle of abrasion.
+The stones, or ore, fall between two great revolving disks, having
+corrugated steel faces, which are set the desired distance apart, and
+between which the stones are crushed by the rubbing action. In this
+style of machine the principle of a gradual breaking from a coarse to a
+finer grade, is maintained by setting the disks farther apart at the
+centre where the stone enters, and nearer together at their peripheries
+where the broken stone is discharged. Large smooth or corrugated
+rollers, conical disks, concentric rollers armed with teeth of varying
+sizes, and yet so arranged as to preserve the feature of the narrowing
+throat at the bottom or place of discharge, have also been devised and
+extensively used.
+
+A long line of inventions has appeared especially adapted to break up
+and separate coal into different sizes. To view the various monstrous
+heaps of assorted coals at the mouth of a coal mine creates an
+impression that some great witch had imposed on a poor victim the
+gigantic and seemingly impossible task of breaking and assorting a vast
+heap of coal into these separate piles within a certain time--a task
+which also seems to have been miraculously and successfully performed
+within such an exceedingly short time as to either satisfy or confuse
+the presiding evil genius.
+
+Modern civilisation has been developed mostly from steam and coal, and
+they have been to each other as strong brothers, growing more and more
+mutually dependent to meet the demands made upon them.
+
+The mining of coal, and its subsequent treatment for burning, before the
+invention of the steam engine, were long, painful, and laborious tasks,
+and the steam engine could never have had its modern wants supplied if
+its power had not been used to supplement, with a hundredfold increased
+effect, the labour of human hands.
+
+It being impracticable to carry steam or the steam engine to the bottom
+of the mine for work there, compressed air is there employed, which is
+compressed by a steam engine up at the mouth. By this compressed air
+operated in a cylinder to drive a piston, and a connecting rod and a
+pick, a massive steel pick attached to the rod may be driven in any
+direction against the wall of coal at the rate of from ninety to one
+hundred and twenty blows per minute; and at the same time the discharged
+compressed, cold, pure, fresh air flows into and through the mine,
+affording ventilation when and where most needed.
+
+In addition to these great drills, more recent inventors have brought
+out small machines for single operators, worked by the electric motor.
+
+After the coal is lifted out, broken and assorted, it needs to be washed
+free of the adhering dust and dirt; and for this purpose machines are
+provided, as well as for screening, loading and weighing. The operations
+of breaking, assorting and washing are often combined in one machine,
+while an intermediate hand process for separating the pieces of slate
+from the coal may be employed; but additional automatic means for
+separating the coal and slate are provided, consisting in forcing with
+great power water through the coal as it falls into a chamber, which
+carries the lighter slate to the top of the chamber, where it is at once
+drawn off.
+
+The chief of machines with _ores_ is the _ore mill_, which not only
+breaks up the ore but grinds or pulverises it.
+
+Some chemical and other processes for reducing ores have been referred
+to in the Chapter on Metallurgy.
+
+Other mechanical processes consist of _separators_ of various
+descriptions--a prominent one of which acts on the principal of
+centrifugal force. The crushed material from a spout being led to the
+centre of a rapidly rotating disk is thrown off by centrifugal force;
+and as the lighter portions are thrown farther from the disk, and the
+heavier portions nearer to the same, the material is automatically
+assorted as to size and weight. As the disk revolves these assorted
+portions fall through properly graded apertures into separate channels
+of a circular trough, from whence they are swept out by brushes secured
+to a support revolving with the disk.
+
+Many forms of ore washing machines have been invented to treat the ore
+after it has been reduced to powder. These are known by various names,
+as jiggers, rifflers, concentrators, washing frames, etc. A stream of
+water is directed on, into, and through the mass of pulverised ore and
+dirt, the dirt and kindred materials, lighter than the ore, are raised
+and floated towards the top of the receptacle and carried away, while
+the ore settles.
+
+This operation is frequently carried on in connection with amalgamated
+surfaces over which the metal is passed to still further attract and
+concentrate the ore. An endless apron travelling over cylinders is
+sometimes employed, composed of slats the surface of each of which is
+coated with an amalgam, and on this belt the powdered ore is spread
+thinly and carried forward. The vibrations of the belt tend to shake and
+distribute the ore particles, the amalgam attracts them, the refuse is
+thrown off as the belt passes down over the cylinder, while the ore
+particles are retained and brushed off into a proper receptacle.
+_Amalgamators_ themselves form a large class of inventions. They are
+known as electric, lead, mercury, plate, vacuum, vapour, etc.
+
+By the help of these and a vast number of other kindred inventions, the
+business of mining in all its branches has been revolutionised and
+transformed, even within the last half century. With the vast increase
+in the output of coal, and of ores, and the incalculable saving of hand
+labour, the number of operators has been increased in the same
+proportion, their wages increased, their hours of labour shortened, and
+their comforts multiplied in variety and quantity, with a diminished
+cost. The whole business of mining has been raised from ceaseless
+darkness and drudgery to light and dignity. Opportunity has been created
+for miners to become men of standing in the community in which they
+live; and means provided for educating their children and for obtaining
+comfortable homes adorned with the refinements of civilisation.
+
+_Well boring_ is an ancient art--known to the Egyptians and the Chinese.
+Wells were coeval with Abraham when his servant had the celebrated
+interview with Rebecca. "Jacob's well at Sychar--the ancient
+Shechim--has been visited by travellers in all ages and has been
+minutely described. It is nine feet in diameter and one hundred and five
+feet deep, made entirely through rock. When visited by Maundrel it
+contained fifteen feet of water."--_Knight._ Some kind of a drill must
+have been used to have cut so great a depth through rock. The Chinese
+method of boring wells from time immemorial has been by the use of a
+sharp chisel-like piece of hard iron on the end of a heavy iron and wood
+frame weighing four or five hundred pounds, lifted by a lever and turned
+by a rattan cord operated by hand, and by which wells from fifteen
+hundred to eighteen hundred feet in depth and five or six inches in
+diameter have been bored.
+
+This method has lately been improved by attaching the chisel part, which
+is made very heavy, to a rope of peculiar manufacture, which gives the
+chisel a turn as it strikes, combined with an air pump to suck up from
+the hole the accumulating dirt and water.
+
+Artesian wells appear to have first been known in Europe in the province
+of Artois, France, in the thirteenth century. Hence their name. The
+previous state of the art in Egypt, China and elsewhere was not then
+known.
+
+Other modern inventions in well-making machinery have consisted in
+innumerable devices to supplant manual labour and to meet new
+conditions.
+
+_Coal Oil_:--Reichenbach, the German chemist, discovered paraffine.
+Young, soon after, in 1850, patented paraffine oil made from coal. These
+discoveries, added to the long observed fact of coal oil floating on
+streams in Pennsylvania and elsewhere, led to the search for its natural
+source. The discovery of the reservoirs of petroleum in Pennsylvania in
+1855-1860, and subsequently of gas, which nature had concealed for so
+long a time, gave a great impetus to inventions to obtain and control
+these riches. With earth-augurs, drills, and drill cleaning and clearing
+and "fishing" apparatus, and devices for creating a new flow of oil, and
+tubing, new forms of packing, etc., inventors created a new industry.
+
+Colonel E. Drake sank the first oil well in Pennsylvania in 1859. Since
+then, 125,000 oil wells have been drilled in that and neighbouring
+localities. The world has seldom seen such excitement, except in
+California on the discovery of gold, as attended the coal oil discovery.
+The first wells sunk gushed thousands of barrels a day. Farmers and
+other labouring men went to bed poor and woke up rich. Rocky
+wildernesses and barren fields suddenly became Eldorados. The burning
+rivers of oil were a reflection of the golden treasures which flowed
+into the hands and pockets of thousands as from a perpetual fountain
+touched by some great magician's wand.
+
+Old methods of boring wells were too slow, and although the underlying
+principle was the same, the new methods and means invented enabled wells
+to be bored with one-tenth the labour, in one-tenth the time, and at
+one-tenth the cost. Many great cities and plains and deserts have been
+provided with these wells owing to the ease with which they can now be
+sunk.
+
+Another ingenious method of sinking wells was invented by Colonel N. W.
+Greene at Cortland, New York, in 1862. It became known as the "driven
+well," and consisted of a pointed tube provided with holes above the
+pointed end, and an inclosed tube to prevent the passage of sand or
+gravel through the holes in the outer tube. When the pointed tube was
+driven until water was reached the inner tube was withdrawn and a pump
+mechanism inserted. This well, so simple, so cheap and effective, has
+been used in all countries by thousands of farmers on dry plains and by
+soldiers in many desert lands. With these and modern forms of artesian
+wells the deserts have literally been made to blossom as the rose.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.
+
+    "Time measures all things, but I measure it."
+
+
+So far as we at present know there were four forms of time-measuring
+instruments known to antiquity--the sun-dial, the clepsydra or water
+clock, the hour-glass, and the graduated candle.
+
+The sun-dial, by which time was measured by the shadow cast from a pin,
+rod or pillar upon a graduated horizontal plate--the graduations
+consisting of twelve equal parts, in which the hours of the day were
+divided, were, both as to the instrument and the division of the day
+into hours, invented by the Babylonians or other Oriental race, set up
+on the plains of Chaldea, constructed by the Chinese and Hindoos--put
+into various forms by these nations, and adapted, but unimproved, by the
+learned Greeks and conquering Romans. It appears to have been unknown to
+the Assyrians and Egyptians, or if known, its knowledge confined to
+their wise men, as it does not appear in any of their monuments.
+
+The clepsydra, an instrument by which in its earliest form a portion of
+time was measured by the escape of water from a small orifice in the
+bottom of a shell or vase, or by which the empty vase, placed in another
+vessel filled with water, was gradually filled through the orifice and
+which sank within a certain time, is supposed by many to have preceded
+the invention of the sun-dial. At any rate they were used
+contemporaneously by the same peoples.
+
+In its later form, when the day and night were each divided into twelve
+hours, the vessel was correspondingly graduated, and a float raised by
+the inflowing water impelled a pointer attached to the float against the
+graduations.
+
+Plato, it is said, contrived a bell so connected with the pointer that
+it was struck at each hour of the night. But the best of ancient
+clepsydras was invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria about the middle of
+the third century B. C. He was the pupil of Archimedes, and adopting his
+master's idea of geared wheels, he mounted a toothed wheel on a shaft
+extending through the vessel and carrying at one end outside of the
+vessel a pointer adapted to move around the face of a dial graduated
+with the 24 hours. The vertical toothed rod or rack, adapted to be
+raised or lowered by a float in a vessel gradually filled with water,
+engaged a pinion fixed on another horizontal shaft, which pinion in turn
+engaged the larger wheel. It was not difficult to proportion the parts
+and control the supply of water to make the point complete its circuit
+regularly. Then the same inventor dispensed with the wheel, rack, and
+pinion, and substituted a cord to which a float was attached, passing
+the cord over a grooved pulley and securing a weight at its other end.
+The pulley was fixed on the shaft which carried the hour hand. The float
+was a counterbalance to the weight, and as it was lifted by the water
+the weight stretched the cord and turned the pulley, which caused the
+pointer to move on the dial and indicate the hour. The water thus acted
+as an escapement to control the motive power. In one form the water
+dropped on wheels which had their motion communicated to a small statue
+that gradually rose and pointed with a rod to the hour upon the dial.
+
+Thus the essential parts of a clock--an escapement, which is a device to
+control the power in a clock or watch so that it shall act
+intermittently on the time index, a motive power, which was then water
+or a weight, a dial to display the hours, and an index to point them
+out--were invented at this early age. But the art advanced practically
+no further for many centuries.
+
+The hour-glass is too familiar to need description.
+
+The incense sticks of the Chinese, the combustion of which proceeded so
+slowly and regularly as to render them available for time measures, were
+the precursors of the graduated candles.
+
+With the ungraduated sun-dial the Greeks fixed their times for bathing
+and eating. When the shadow was six feet long it was time to bathe, when
+twice that length it was time to sup. The clepsydra became in Greece a
+useful instrument to enforce the law in restricting loquacious orators
+and lawyers to reasonable limits in their addresses. And in Rome the
+sun-dials, the clepsydras and the hour-glass were used for the same
+purpose, and more generally than in Greece, to regulate the hours of
+business and pleasure.
+
+The graduated candles are chiefly notable as to their use, if not
+invention, by Alfred the Great in about 883. They were 12 inches long,
+divided into 12 parts, of which three would burn in one hour. In use
+they were shielded from the wind by thin pieces of horn, and thus the
+"horn lantern" originated. With them he divided the day into three equal
+parts, one for religion, one for public affairs, and one for rest and
+recreation.
+
+Useful clocks of wondrous make were described in the annals of the
+middle ages, especially in Germany, made by monks and others for Kings,
+monasteries and churches. The old Saxon and Teutonic words _cligga_, and
+_glocke_, signifying the striking of a bell, and from which the name
+clock is derived, indicates the early combination of striking and
+time-keeping mechanism. The records are scant as to the particulars of
+inventions in horology during the middle ages and down to the sixteenth
+century, but we know that weights, and trains of wheels and springs, and
+some say pendulums, were used in clockwork, and that the tones of hourly
+bells floated forth from the dim religious light of old cathedrals. They
+all appear to have involved in different forms the principle of the old
+clepsydra, using either weights or water as the motive power to drive a
+set of wheels and to move a pointer over the face of a dial.
+
+Henry de Vick of France about 1370 constructed a celebrated clock for
+Charles V., the first nearest approach to modern weight clocks. The
+weight was used to unwind a cord from a barrel. The barrel was connected
+to a ratchet and there were combined therewith a train of toothed wheels
+and pinions, an escapement consisting of a crown wheel controlled by two
+pallets, which in turn were operated alternately by two weights on a
+balanced rod. An hour hand was carried by a shaft of the great wheel,
+and a dial plate divided into hours. This was a great advance, as a more
+accurate division of time was had by improving the isochronous
+properties of the vibrating escapement. But the world was still wanting
+a time-keeper to record smaller portions of the day than the hour and a
+more accurate machine than Vick's.
+
+Two hundred years, nearly, elapsed before the next important advance in
+horology. By this time great astronomers like Tycho Brahe and Valherius
+had divided the time-recording dials into minutes and seconds.
+
+About 1525 Jacob Zech of Prague invented the fusee, which was
+re-invented and improved by the celebrated Dr. Hooke, 125 years later.
+
+Small portable clocks, the progenitors of the modern watch, commenced to
+appear about 1500. It was then that Peter Hele of Nuremberg substituted
+for weights as the motive power a ribbon of steel, which he wound around
+a central spindle, connecting one end to a train of wheels to which it
+gave motion as it unwound.
+
+Then followed the famous observation of the swinging lamp by the then
+young Galileo, about 1582, while lounging in the cathedral of Pisa. The
+isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum inferred from this
+observation was not published or put to practical application in clocks
+for nearly sixty years afterward. In 1639 Galileo, then old and blind,
+dictated to his son one of his books in which he discussed the
+isochronal properties of oscillating bodies, and their adaptation as
+time measures. He and others had used the pendulum for dividing time,
+but moved it by hand and counted its vibrations. But Huygens, the great
+Dutch scientist, about 1556 was the first to explain the principles and
+properties of the pendulum as a time measurer and to apply it most
+successfully to clocks. His application of it was to the old clock of
+Vick's.
+
+The seventeenth century thus opened up a new era in clock and watch
+making. The investigations, discoveries, and inventions of Huygens and
+other Dutch clock-makers, of Dr. Hooke and David Ramsey of England,
+Hautefeuille of France, and a few others placed the art of clock and
+watch making on the scientific basis on which it has ever since rested.
+
+The pendulum and watch-springs needed to have their movements controlled
+and balanced by better escapements. Huygens thought that the pendulum
+should be long and swing in a cycloidal course, but Dr. Hooke found the
+better way to produce perfect isochronous movements was to cause the
+pendulum to swing in short arcs, which he accomplished by his invention
+of the anchor escapement.
+
+The fusee which Dr. Hooke re-invented consists of a conical
+spirally-grooved pulley, around which a chain is wound, and which is
+connected at one end to a barrel, in which the main actuating spring is
+tightly coiled. The fusee is thus interposed between the wheel train and
+the spring to equalise the power of the latter.
+
+To Dr. Hooke must also be credited the invention of that delicate but
+efficient device, the hair-spring balance for watches. His inventions in
+this line were directed to the best means of utilising and controlling
+the force of springs, his motto being "_ut tensio sic vis_," (as the
+tension is so is the force.) Repeating watches to strike the hours,
+half-hours and quarters, made their appearance in the seventeenth
+century. In the next century Arnold made one for George III., as small
+as an English sixpence. This repeated the hours, halves and quarters,
+and in it for the first time in the art a jewel was used as a bearing
+for the arbors, and this particular one was a ruby made into a minute
+cylinder.
+
+After the discovery and practical application of weights, springs,
+wheels, levers and escapements to time mechanisms, subsequent
+inventions, numerous as they have been, have consisted chiefly, not in
+the discovery of new principles, but in new methods in the application
+of old ones. Prior to the eighteenth century, however, clocks were
+cumbrous and expensive, and the watches rightly regarded as costly toys;
+and as to their accuracy in time-measuring, the cheaper ones were hardly
+as satisfactory as the ancient sun-dials.
+
+With the coming of the machine inventions and the new industrial and
+social ideas of the eighteenth century came an almost sudden new
+appreciation of the value of time. Hours, minutes and seconds began to
+be carefully prized, both by the trades and professions, and the demand
+from the common people for accurate time records became great. This
+demand it has been the office of the nineteenth century to supply, and
+to place clocks and watches within the reach of the poor as well as the
+rich. While thus lessening the cost of time-keepers their value has been
+enhanced by increasing their accuracy and durability.
+
+Among the other ideas for which the eighteenth century was famous in
+watch-making was that of dispensing with the key for winding, thus
+saving the losing of keys and preventing access of dust, an idea which,
+however, was perfected only in the last half of the nineteenth century.
+
+The eighteenth century was chiefly distinguished by its scientific
+improvements in time-keepers, to adapt them for astronomical
+observations and for use at sea, in not only accurately determining the
+time, but the degrees of longitude. Chronometers were invented,
+distinguished from watches and clocks, by means by which the fluctuation
+of the parts caused by the variations in temperature are obviated or
+compensated. In clocks what are known as the mercurial and gridiron
+pendulums were invented respectively toward the close of the eighteenth
+century by Graham and Harrison, and the latter also subsequently
+invented the expanding and contracting balance wheel for watches. The
+principle in these appliances is the employment of two different metals
+which expand unequally, and thus maintain an uniformity of operation.
+
+The Dutch, with Huygens in the lead, were long among the leading
+clock-makers. Germany ranked next. It was in the seventeenth century
+that a wonderful industry in clock-making there commenced, which lasted
+for two centuries. The Black Forest region of South Germany became a
+famous locality for the manufacture of cheap wooden clocks. The system
+adopted was a minute division of labour. From fourteen to twenty
+thousand hands twenty years ago were employed in the Schwarzwald
+district. Labour-saving machines were ignored almost entirely. The
+annual production finally reached nearly two million clocks, of the
+value of about five million dollars.
+
+Switzerland in watch-making followed precisely the example of Germany in
+clock-making. It commenced there in the seventeenth and culminated in
+the nineteenth century. Many thousands of its population were engaged in
+the business and it flourished under the fostering care of the
+government--by the establishment of astronomical observations for
+testing the adjustment of the best watches, the giving of prizes, and
+the establishment and encouragement of schools of horology conducted on
+thorough scientific methods. A quarter of a century ago it was estimated
+that in Switzerland 40,000 persons out of a population of 150,000 were
+engaged in watch-making, and that the annual production sometimes
+reached 1,600,000 completed movements. The whole world was their market.
+The United States alone was in 1875 importing 134,000 watches annually
+from that country.
+
+As in Germany, so one characteristic of the Swiss system was a minute
+sub-division of the labour. Individuals and entire families had certain
+parts only to make. It is said that the Swiss watch passed through the
+hands of one hundred and thirty different workmen before it was put upon
+the market. The use of machines was also, as in Germany, ignored. By
+this national devotion to a single trade and its sub-division of labour,
+the successful production of complicated watches became great and their
+prices comparatively low.
+
+The United States in the commencement of its career and at the opening
+of the century had no clocks or watches of its own manufacture. But it
+soon followed the example of Germany and Switzerland and established
+cheap clock manufactories, first of wood, and then of metal, which
+became famous and of world-wide use. But it could make no headway
+against the cheap labour of Europe in watch-making, and the country was
+flooded with watches of all qualities, principally from Switzerland and
+England. Finally, at the half-way mark in the century, the inquiry arose
+among Americans, why could not the system of the minute sub-division of
+human labour followed in watch-making countries so cheaply and
+profitably, be accomplished by machinery? The field was open, the prize
+was great, and the government stood ready to grant exclusive patents to
+every inventor who would devise a new and useful machine. The problem
+was great, as the fields abroad had been filled for generations by
+skilled artisans who had reduced the complicated mechanism of
+watch-making to a fine art. Fortunately the habit had been established
+in America in several of the leading industries, principally in that of
+fire-arms, of fabricating separate machinery for the independent making
+of numerous parts of the same implement, whereby uniformity and
+interchangeability were established. Under such a practice, which was
+known as the American system, a duplicate of the smallest part of a
+complicated machine, lost or worn out thousands of miles from the
+factory, could soon be furnished by simply sending the number or name of
+such required part to the manufacturer, or to the nearest dealer in such
+machines.
+
+With such encouragement and example the scheme of watch-making was
+commenced. Soon large factories were built, and by the time of the
+Centennial Exhibition in 1876, the American Watch Company of Waltham,
+Massachusetts, were enabled to present an exhibit of watch movements
+made by machinery, which astonished the world. Other great companies in
+different parts of the country soon followed with the same general
+system. Machines, working with the apparent intelligence and facility of
+human minds and hands, and with greater mathematical accuracy than was
+possible with the hands, appeared:--for cutting out the finest teeth
+from blank wheels stamped out from steel or brass; for making and
+cutting the smallest, finest threaded screws by the thousands per hour
+and with greatest uniformity and accuracy; for jewel-making; for cutting
+and polishing by diamonds, or sapphire-armed tools, the rough,
+unpolished diamond and ruby, crysolite, garnet, or aqua-marine, and for
+boring, finishing and setting the same; for the formation of the most
+delicate pins or arbors; for the making of the escapements, including
+forks, pallets, rollers, and scape wheels; for making springs and
+balances, including the main-springs and hair-springs; for making and
+setting the stem-winding parts; for making the cases, and engraving the
+same, etc. The list would be too long to simply name all the ingenious
+machines there exhibited and subsequently invented for every important
+operation.
+
+It was the aim of these manufacturers to locate every great factory in
+some quiet and attractive spot, free from the dust of town, and city,
+and divide it into many departments, from the blacksmithing to the
+packing and transportation of the completed article; and to conduct
+every department with the best mechanical and mathematical skill that
+money and brains could provide.
+
+The same system was followed with equal success in producing the
+first-class pocket-chronometer for the nicest work to which chronometers
+can be put.
+
+Thus with every watch and its every part made the exact duplicate of its
+fellow, uniformity in time-keeping has been established; and the simile
+of Pope is no longer so correct, "'Tis with our judgments as our
+watches, none go just alike, yet each believes his own." A simple
+statement of this system illustrates with greater force than an entire
+volume the revolution the nineteenth century has produced in the useful
+art of horology. And yet the story should not omit reference to the
+application of the electric system to clocks, whereby clocks at distant
+points of a city or country are connected, automatically corrected and
+set to standard time from a central observatory or other time station.
+
+Great as were the advances in horology during the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, the number of inventions that have been made in
+the nineteenth century is evidenced by the fact that in the United
+States alone about 4,000 patents have been granted since 1800, which,
+however, represent not only American inventors but very many of other
+countries.
+
+_Registering Devices._--Devices for recording fares and money have
+employed the keenest wits of many inventors and is an art of quite
+recent origin. Attention was first directed to fare registers in public
+vehicles, the object of which is to accurately report to the proper
+office of the company at the end of a trip, or of the day, the number of
+passengers carried and the fares received. Portable registers, to be
+carried by the conductor and operated in front of the passenger have
+been almost universally succeeded by stationary ones set up at one end
+of the vehicle in open view of all the passengers and operated by a
+strap and lever by the conductor. These fare registers have been called
+"A mechanical conscience for street car conductors."
+
+_Cash Registers_, intended to compel honesty on the part of retail
+salesmen, are required to be operated by them, and when the proper
+lever, or levers, or it may be a crank handle, is or are touched, the
+machine automatically records the amount of the sale, the amount of
+change given, and the total amount of all the sales and money received
+and paid out.
+
+_Voting Machines_--designed to overcome the difficulties, expenditure of
+time, and the commission of errors and frauds experienced in the reading
+and counting of votes--have received great attention from inventors, and
+are not yet in a satisfactory condition. The problem involves the
+dispensing of printing the ballots, the prevention of fraudulent
+deposition of ballots, the automatic correct counting of the same, and a
+display of the result as soon as the balloting is closed.
+
+Successful electrical devices have been made for recording the votes of
+a great number of persons in a large assembly by the touch of an "aye"
+or "nay" button at the seat of the voter and the recording of the same
+on paper at a central desk.
+
+The invention and extensive use of bicycles, automobiles, etc., have
+given rise to the invention of _cyclometers_, which are small devices
+connected to some part of the vehicle to indicate to the rider or driver
+the rate at which he is riding, and the number of miles ridden.
+
+_Speed Indicators._--Many municipalities having adopted ordinances
+limiting the rate of speed for street and steam cars, bicycles,
+automobiles, and other vehicles, a want was created, which has been met,
+for devices to indicate to the passengers, drivers or conductors the
+rate at which the vehicle is travelling, and to sound an alarm in case
+of excess of speed, so that brakes can be applied and the speed reduced.
+Or to relieve persons of anxiety and trouble in this respect, ingenious
+devices have been contrived which automatically reduce the speed when
+the prescribed limit has been exceeded.
+
+_Weighing Scales and Machines._--"Just balances and just weights" have
+been required from the day of the declaration, "a false weight is an
+abomination unto the Lord." And therefore strict accuracy must always be
+the measure of merit of a weighing machine. To this standard the
+inventions of the century in weighing scales have come. Until this
+century the ordinary balance with equal even arms suspended from a
+central point, and each carrying means for suspending articles to be
+weighed, or compared in weights, and the later steelyard with its
+unequal arms, with its graduated long arms and a sliding weight and
+holding pan, were the principal forms of weighing machines. Platform
+scales were described in an English patent to one Salman in 1796, but
+their use is not recorded. The compound lever scale on the principle of
+the steelyard, but arranged to be used with a platform, was invented and
+came into use in the United States about 1831. Thaddeus and Erastus
+Fairbanks of St. Johnsbury, Vermont, were the inventors, and it was
+found to meet the want of farmers in weighing hemp, hay, etc., by more
+convenient means than the ordinary steelyard. They converted the
+steelyard into platform scales. The leading characteristics of such
+machines are, first, a convenient platform nicely balanced on knife
+edges of steel levers, and second, a graduated horizontal beam, a
+sliding weight thereon connected by an upright rod at one end to the
+beam, and at its opposite end to the balance frame beneath the platform.
+
+The modification in size and adaptation of this machine for the weighing
+of different commodities amounted to some 400 different
+varieties--running from the delicately-constructed apparatus for
+weighing the fraction of a grain, to the ponderous machines for weighing
+and recording the loaded freight car of fifty or sixty tons, or the
+canal-boat or other vessel with its load of five or six hundred tons.
+The adaptation of a balance platform on which to place a light load, or
+to drive thereon with heavy loads, whether of horses, steam, or water
+vehicles, was a great blessing to mankind. No wonder that they were soon
+sold all over the world, and that monarchs and people hastened to heap
+honors on the inventors.
+
+Spring weighing scales have recently been invented, which will
+accurately and automatically show not only the weight but the total
+price of the goods weighed, the price per unit being known and fixed.
+
+In the weighing of large masses of coarse material, such as grain, coal,
+cotton seed, and the like, machines have been constructed which
+automatically weigh such materials and at the same time register the
+weight.
+
+Previous to this century no method was known, except the exercise of
+good judgment in the light of experience, of accurately testing the
+strength of materials. Wood and metals were used in unnecessarily
+cumbrous forms for the purpose to which they were put, in order to
+ensure safety, or else the strength of the parts failed where it was
+most needed.
+
+The idea of testing the tensile, transverse, and cubical resisting
+strength of materials has been applied to many other objects than beams
+and bars of wood and metals; to belts, cloths, cables, wires, fibres,
+paper, twine, yarn, cement, and to liquids. Kiraldy, Kennedy, and others
+of England, Thomasset of France, Riehle of Germany, and Fairbanks,
+Thurston and Emery of the United States, are among the noted inventors
+of such machines.
+
+In the Emery system of machines, consisting of scales, gages, and
+dynamometers, the power exerted on the material tested is transmitted
+from the load to an indicating device by means of liquid acting on
+diaphragms. The same principle is employed in his weighing machines.
+
+By one of these hydraulic testing machines the tensile strength of
+forged links has been ascertained by the exertion of a power amounting
+to over 700,000 pounds before breaking a link, the chain breaking with a
+loud report.
+
+The most delicate materials are tested by the same machine--the tensile
+strength of a horsehair, some of which are found to stand the strain of
+one and two pounds. Eggs and nuts are cracked without being crushed, and
+the power exerted and the strain endured automatically recorded. Steel
+beams and rods have been subjected to a strain of a million pounds
+before breaking.
+
+Governments, municipalities, and the people generally are thus provided
+with means by which they can proceed with the greatest confidence in the
+safe and economical construction and completion of their buildings and
+public works.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, FINE ARTS.
+
+
+Neither the historic nor prehistoric records find man without musical
+instruments of some sort. They are as old as religion, and have been
+found wherever evidence of religious rites of any description have been
+found, as they constituted part of the instrumentalities of such rites.
+They are found as relics of worship and the dance, ages after the
+worshippers and the dancers have become part of the earth's strata. They
+have been found wherever the earliest civilisations have been
+discovered; and they appear to have been regarded as desirable and
+necessary as the weapons and the labour implements of those
+civilisations. They abounded in China, in India, and in Egypt before the
+lyre of Apollo was invented, or the charming harp of Orpheus was
+conceived.
+
+There was little melody according to modern standards, but the musical
+instruments, like all other inventions, the fruit of the brain of man,
+were slowly evolved as he wanted them, and to meet the conditions
+surrounding him.
+
+There were the conch shell trumpet, the stone, bone, wood and metal
+dance rattles, the beaks of birds, and the horns and teeth of beasts,
+for the same rattling purpose. The simple reed pipes, the hollow wooden
+drums, the skin drum-heads, the stretched strings of fibre and of
+tendons, the flutes, the harps, the guitars, the psalteries, and
+hundreds of other forms of musical instruments, varied as the skill and
+fancy of man varied, and in accordance with their taste and wants, along
+the entire gamut of noises and rude melodies. The ancient races had the
+instruments, but their voices, except as they existed in the traditions
+of their gods, were not harmonious.
+
+As modern wants and tastes developed and music became a science the
+demands of the nineteenth century were met by a Helmholtz, who
+discovered and explained the laws of harmony, and by many ingenious
+manufacturers, who so revolutionised the pianoforte action, and the
+action of musical instruments constructed on these principles, that
+their predecessors would hardly be recognised as prototypes.
+
+The story of the piano, that queen of musical instruments, involves the
+whole history of the art of music. Its evolution from the ancient harp,
+gleaned by man from the wind, "that grand old harper, who smote his
+thunder harp of pines," is too long a story to here recite in detail. It
+must suffice to say, it started with the harp, in its simplest form,
+composed of a frame with animal tendons stretched tight thereon and
+twanged by the fingers. Then followed strings of varied length, size,
+and tension, to obtain different tones, soon accompanied by an
+instrument called the plectrum--a bone or ivory stick with which to
+vibrate the strings, to save the fingers. This was the harp of the
+Egyptians, and of Jubal, "the father of all such as handle the harp and
+the organ," and half-brother of Tubal Cain, the great teacher "of every
+artificer in brass and iron." Then the harp was laid prostrate, its
+strings stretched over a sounding board, and each held and adapted to be
+tightened by pegs, and played upon by little hammers having soft pellets
+or corks at their ends. This was the psaltery and the dulcimer of the
+Assyrians and the Hebrews.
+
+The Greeks derived their musical instruments from the Egyptians, and the
+Romans borrowed theirs from the Greeks, but neither the Greeks nor the
+Romans invented any.
+
+Then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find the harp, both in a
+horizontal and an upright position, with its strings played upon by
+keys. This was the _clavicitherium_. In the sixteenth century came the
+virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments favoured by
+Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary, and which, recently brought from
+obscurity, have been made to revive the ancient Elizabethan melodies, to
+the delight of modern hearers. These were followed in the seventeenth
+century by the clavichord, the favourite instrument of Bach. Then
+appeared the harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, having a
+hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which Mozart and Handel and Haydn
+brought out their grand productions. The ancient Italian cembello was
+another spinet.
+
+Thus, through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown. By 1711
+in Italy, under the inventive genius of Bartolommeo Cristofori of
+Florence, they had culminated in the modern piano. The piano as devised
+by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this, that
+in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them
+by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys, whereas, in
+the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills.
+
+In the 1876 exhibition at Philadelphia, a piano The Greeks derived their
+musical instruments from the Egyptians, and the Romans borrowed theirs
+from the Greeks, but neither the Greeks nor the Romans invented any.
+
+Then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find the harp, both in a
+horizontal and an upright position, with its strings played upon by
+keys. This was the clavicitherium. In the sixteenth century came the
+virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments favoured by
+Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary, and which, recently brought from
+obscurity, have been made to revive the ancient Elizabethan melodies, to
+the delight of modern hearers. These were followed in the seventeenth
+century by the clavichord, the favourite instrument of Bach. Then
+appeared the harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, having a
+hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which Mozart and Handel and Haydn
+brought out their grand productions. The ancient Italian cembello was
+another spinet.
+
+Thus, through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown. By 1711
+in Italy, under the inventive genius of Bartolommeo Cristofori of
+Florence, they had culminated in the modern piano. The piano as devised
+by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this, that
+in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them
+by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys, whereas, in
+the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills.
+
+In the 1876 exhibition at Philadelphia, a piano was displayed which had
+been made by Johannes Christian Schreiber of Germany in 1741.
+
+Then in the latter part of the eighteenth century Broadwood and Clementi
+of London and Erard of Strasburg and Petzold of Paris commenced the
+manufacture of their fine instruments. Erard particularly made many
+improvements in that and in the nineteenth century in the piano, its
+hammers and keys, and Southwell of Dublin in the dampers.
+
+By them and the Collards of London, Bechstein of Berlin, and Chickering,
+Steinway, Weber, Schomacher, Decker and Knabe of America, was the piano
+"ripened after the lapse of more than 2,000 years into the perfectness
+of the magnificent instruments of modern times, with their better
+materials, more exact appliances, finer adjustments, greater strength of
+parts, increase of compass and power, elastic responsiveness of touch,
+enlarged sonority, satisfying delicacy, and singing character in tone."
+
+A piano comprises five principal parts: first, the framing; second, the
+sounding board; third, the stringing; fourth, the key mechanism, or
+action, and fifth, the ornamental case. To supply these several parts
+separate classes of skilled artisans have arisen, the forests have been
+ransacked for their choicest woods, the mines have been made to yield
+their choicest stores, and the forge to weld its finest work. Science
+has given to music the ardent devotion of a lover, and resolved a
+confused mass of more or less pleasant noises into liquid harmonies. In
+1862 appeared Helmholtz's great work on the "Law and Tones and the
+Theory of Music." He it was who invented the method of analysing sound.
+By the use of hollow bodies called _resonators_ he found that every
+sound as it generally occurs in nature and as it is produced by most of
+our musical instruments, or the human voice, is not a single simple
+sound, but a compound of several tones of different intensity and pitch;
+all of which different tones combined are heard as one; and that the
+difference of quality or _timbre_ of the sounds of different musical
+instruments resides in the different composition of these sounds; that
+different compound sounds contain the same fundamental tone but
+differently mixed with other tones. He explained how these fundamental
+and compound tones might be fully developed to produce either harmonious
+or dissonant sensations. His researches were carried farther and added
+to by Prof. Mayer of New Jersey. These theories were practically applied
+in the pianos produced by the celebrated firm of Steinway and Sons of
+New York; and their inventions and improvements in the iron framing, in
+laying of strings in relation to the centre of the sounding-board, in
+"resonators" in upright frames, and in other features, from 1866 to
+1876, produced a revolution in the art of piano making.
+
+If the piano is properly the queen of musical instruments, the organ may
+be rightly regarded, as it has been named, "King in the realm of music."
+It is an instrument, the notes of which are produced by the rush of air
+through pipes of different lengths, the air being supplied by bellows or
+other means, and controlled by valves which are operated by keys, and by
+which the supply of air is admitted or cut off.
+
+The earliest description appears to be that in the "Spiritalia" of Hero
+of Alexandria (150-200 B. C.) and Ctesibius of Alexandria was the
+inventor. A series of pipes of varying lengths were filled by an
+air-pump which was operated by a wind-mill. Organs were again originated
+in the early Christian centuries; and a Greek epigram of the fourth
+century refers to one as provided with "reeds of a new species agitated
+by blasts of wind that rush from a leathern cavern beneath their roots,
+while a robust mortal, running with swift fingers over the concordant
+keys, makes them smoothly dance and emit harmonious sounds."
+
+The same in principle to-day, but more complicated in structure, "yet of
+easy control under the hands of experts, fertile in varied symphonious
+effects, giving with equal and satisfying success the gentlest and most
+sympathetic tones as well as complete and sublimely full utterances of
+musical inspiration."
+
+The improvements of the century have consisted in adding a great variety
+of stops; in connections and couplers of the great keyboard and pipes;
+in the pedal part; in the construction of the pipes and wind chests; and
+principally in the adaptation of steam, water, air, and electricity, in
+place of the muscles of men, as powers in furnishing the supply of air.
+Some of the great organs of the century, having three or four thousand
+pipes, with all the modern improvements, and combining great power with
+the utmost brilliancy and delicacy of utterance, and with a blended
+effect which is grand, solemn and most impressive, render indeed this
+noble instrument the "king" in the realm of music.
+
+In the report of 1895 of the United States Commissioner of patents it is
+stated that "the _autoharp_ has been developed within the past few
+years, having bars arranged transversely across the strings and provided
+with dampers which, when depressed, silence all the strings except those
+producing the desired chords.
+
+"An ingenious musical instrument of the class having keyboards like the
+piano or organ has been recently invented. All keyboard instruments in
+ordinary use produce tones that are only approximately correct in pitch,
+because these must be limited in number to twelve, to the octave, while
+the tones of the violin are absolute or untempered. The improved
+instrument produces untempered tones without requiring extraordinary
+variations from the usual arrangement of the keys."
+
+Self-playing musical instruments have been known for more than forty
+years, but it is within the past twenty-five years that devices have
+been invented for controlling tones by pneumatic or electrical
+appliances to produce expressions. Examples of the later of these three
+kinds of musical instruments may be found in the United States patents
+of Zimmermann in 1882, Tanaka, 1890, and Gally, 1879.
+
+The science of _acoustics_ and its practical applications have greatly
+advanced, chiefly due to the researches of Helmholtz, referred to above.
+
+When the nature and laws of the waves of sound became fully known a
+great field of inventions was opened. Then came the telephone,
+phonograph, graphophone and gramophone.
+
+The telephone depends upon a combination of electricity and the waves of
+the human voice. The phonograph and its modifications depend alone on
+sound waves--the recording of the waves from one vibrating membrane and
+their exact reproduction on another vibrating membrane.
+
+The acoustic properties of churches and other buildings were improved by
+the adaptation of banks of fine wires to prevent the re-echoing of
+sounds. _Auricular tubes_ adapted to be applied to the ears and
+concealed by the hair, and other forms of aural instruments, were
+devised.
+
+The _Megaphone_ of Edison appeared, consisting of two large funnels
+having elastic conducting tubes from their apices to the aural orifice.
+Conversation in moderate tones has been heard and understood by their
+use at a distance of one and a half miles. The megaphone has been found
+very useful in speaking to large outdoor crowds.
+
+But let us go back a little: In 1845, Chas. Bourseuil of France
+published the idea that the vibrations of speech uttered against a
+diaphragm might break or make an electric contact, and the electric
+pulsations thereby produced might set another diaphragm vibrating which
+should produce the transmitted sound waves. In 1857, another Frenchman,
+Leon Scott, patented in France his _Phonautograph_--an instrument
+consisting of a large barrel-like mouth-piece into which words were
+spoken, a membrane therein against which the voice vibrations were
+received, a stylus attached to this vibrating membrane, and a rotating
+cylinder covered with blackened paper, against which the stylus bore and
+on which it recorded the sound waves in exact form received on the
+vibrating diaphragm. Then came the researches and publications of
+Helmholtz and Koenig on acoustic science, 1862-1866. Then young Philip
+Reis of Frankfort, Germany, attempted to put all these theories into an
+apparatus to reproduce speech, but did not quite succeed. Then in
+1874-1875, Bell took up the matter, and at the Philadelphia exhibition,
+1876, astonished the world by the revelations of the telephone. In
+April, 1877, Charles Cros, a Frenchman, in a communication to the
+Academy of Sciences in Paris, after describing an apparatus like the
+Scott phonautograph, set forth how traced undulating lines of voice
+vibrations might be reproduced in intaglio or in relief, and reproduced
+upon a vibrating membrane by a pointed stylus attached thereto and
+following the line of the original pulsations. The communication seems
+to have been pigeon-holed, and not read in open session until December,
+1877, and until after Thomas A. Edison had actually completed and used
+his phonograph in the United States. Cros rested on the suggestion.
+Edison, without knowing of Cros' suggestion, was first to make and
+actually use the same invention. Edison's cylinder, on which the sounds
+were recorded and from which they were reproduced, was covered by tin
+foil. A great advance was made by Dr Chichester A. Bell and Mr. C. S.
+Tainter, who in 1886 patented in the United States means of cutting or
+engraving the sound waves in a solid body. The solid body they employed
+was a thin pasteboard cylinder covered with wax. This apparatus they
+called the _graphophone_. Two years thereafter, Mr. Emile Berliner of
+Washington had invented the _gramophone_, which consists in etching on a
+metallic plate the record of voice waves. He has termed his invention,
+"the art of etching the human voice." He prepares a polished metal
+plate, generally zinc, with an extremely thin coating of film or fatty
+milk, which dries upon and adheres to the plate. The stylus penetrates
+this film, meeting from it the slightest possible resistance, and traces
+thereon the message. The record plate is then subjected to a
+particularly constituted acid bath, which, entering the groove or
+grooves formed by the stylus, cuts or etches the same into the plate.
+The groove thus formed may be deepened by another acid solution. When
+thus produced, as many copies of the record as desired may be made by
+the electrotyper or print plater.
+
+The public is now familiar with the different forms of this wonderful
+instrument, and like the telephone, they no longer seem marvellous. Yet
+it is only within the age of a youth or a maiden when the allegations or
+predictions that the human voice would soon be carried over the land,
+and reproduced across a continent, or be preserved or engraven on
+tablets and reproduced at pleasure anywhere, in this or any subsequent
+generation, were themselves regarded as strange messages of dreamers and
+madmen.
+
+_Optical Instruments._--There were practical inventions in optical
+instruments long before this century. Achromatic and other lenses were
+known, and the microscope, the telescope and spectacles.
+
+The inventive genius of this century in the field of optics has not
+eclipsed the telescope and microscope of former ages. They were the
+fruits of the efforts of many ages and of many minds, although Hans
+Lippersheim of Holland in 1608 appears to have made the first successful
+instrument "for seeing things at a distance." Galileo soon thereafter
+greatly improved and increased its capacity, and was the first to direct
+it towards the heavens. And as to the microscope, Dr. Lieberkulm, of
+Berlin, in 1740, made the first successful solar microscope. As well
+known, it consisted essentially of two lenses and a mirror, by which the
+sun's rays are reflected on the first lens, concentrated on the object
+and further magnified by the second lens.
+
+The depths of the stars and the minutest mote that floats in the sun
+beam reflect the glory of those inventions.
+
+The invention of John Dolland of London, about 1758, of the achromatic
+lens should be borne in mind in connection with telescopes, microscopes,
+etc. He it was who invented the combination of two lenses, one concave
+and the other convex, one of flint glass and the other of crown glass,
+which, refracting in contrary ways, neutralised the dispersion of colour
+rays and produced a clear, colourless light.
+
+Many improvements and discoveries in optics and optical instruments have
+been made during the century, due to the researches of such scientists
+as Arago, Brewster, Young, Fresnel, Airy, Hamilton, Lloyd, Cauchy and
+others, and of the labours of the army of skilled experts and
+mechanicians who have followed their lead.
+
+Sir David Brewster, born in Scotland in 1781, made (1810-1840) many
+improvements in the construction of the microscope and telescope,
+invented the kaleidoscope, introduced in the stereoscope the principles
+and leading features which those beautiful instruments still embody, and
+rendered it popular among scientists and artists.
+
+It is said that Prof. Eliot of Edinburgh in 1834 was the first to
+conceive of the idea of a stereoscope, by which two different pictures
+of the same object, taken by photography, to correspond to the two
+different positions of an object as viewed by the two eyes, are combined
+into one view by two reflecting mirrors set at an angle of about 45 deg.,
+and conveying to the eyes a single reflection of the object as a solid
+body. But Sir Charles Wheaton in 1838 constructed the first instrument,
+and in 1849 Brewster introduced the present form of lenticular lenses.
+
+Brewster also demonstrated the utility of dioptric lenses, and zones in
+lighthouse illumination; and in which field Faraday and Tyndall also
+subsequently worked with the addition of electrical appliances. The
+labours of these three men have illuminated the wildest waters of the
+sea and preserved a thousand fleets of commerce and of war from awful
+shipwreck.
+
+As illustrating the difficulties sometimes encountered in introducing an
+invention into use, the American Journal of Chemistry some years ago
+related that the Abbe Moigno, in introducing the stereoscope to the
+savants of France, first took it to Arago, but Arago had a defect of
+vision which made him see double, and he could only see in it a medley
+of four pictures; then the Abbe went to Savart, but unfortunately Savart
+had but one eye and was quite incapable of appreciating the thing. Then
+Becquerel was next visited, but he was nearly blind and could see
+nothing in the new optical toy. Not discouraged, the Abbe then called
+upon Puillet of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. Puillet was much
+interested, but he was troubled with a squint which presented to his
+anxious gaze but a blurred mixture of images. Lastly Brot was tried.
+Brot believed in the corpuscular theory of light, and was opposed to the
+undulatory theory, and the good Abbe not being able to assure him that
+the instrument did not contradict his theory, Brot refused to have
+anything to do with it. In spite, however, of the physical disabilities
+of scientists, the stereoscope finally made its way in France.
+
+Besides increasing the power of the eye to discover the secrets and
+beauties of nature, modern invention has turned upon the eye itself and
+displayed the wonders existing there, behind its dark glass doors. It
+was Helmholtz who in 1851 described his _Ophthalmoscope_. He arranged a
+candle so that its rays of light, falling on an inclined reflector, were
+thrown through the pupil of the patient's eye, whose retina reflected
+the image received on the retina back to the mirror where it could be
+viewed by the observer. This image was the background of the eye, and
+its delicate blood vessels and tissues could thus be observed. This
+instrument was improved and it gave rise to the contrivance of many
+delicate surgical instruments for operating on the eye.
+
+The _Spectroscope_ is an instrument by which the colours of the solar
+rays are separated and viewed, as well as those of other incandescent
+bodies. By it, not only the elements of the heavenly bodies have been
+determined, but remarkable results have been had in analysing well-known
+metals and discovering new ones. Its powers and its principles have been
+so developed during the century by the discoveries, inventions and
+investigations of Herschel, Wollaston, Fraunhofer, Bronsen and Kirchoff,
+Steinheil, Tyndall, Huggins, Draper and others, that spectrum analysis
+has grown from the separation of light into its colours by the prism of
+Newton, to what Dr. Huggins has aptly termed "a new sense."
+
+We have further referred to this wonderful discovery in the Chapter on
+Chemistry.
+
+The inventions and improvements in optical instruments gave rise to
+great advances in the making of lenses, based on scientific principles,
+and not resting alone on hard work and experience. Alvan Clark a son of
+America, and Prof. Ernst Abbe of Germany, have within the last third of
+the century produced a revolution in the manufacture of lenses, and
+thereby extended the realms of knowledge to new worlds of matter in the
+heavens and on earth.
+
+_Solarmeter._--In 1895 a United States patent was granted to Mr. Bechler
+for an instrument called a solarmeter. It is designed for taking
+observations of heavenly bodies and recording mechanically the parts of
+the astronomical triangle used in navigation and like work. Its chief
+purpose is to determine the position of the compass error of a ship at
+sea independently of the visibility of the sea horizon. If the horizon
+is clouded, and the sun or a known star is visible, a ship's position
+can still be determined by the solarmeter.
+
+_Instruments for Measuring the Position and Distances of Unseen
+Objects._--Some of the latest of such instruments will enable one to see
+and shoot at an object around a corner, or at least out of sight. Thus a
+United States patent was granted to Fiske in 1889, wherein it is set
+forth that by stationing observers at points distant from a gun, which
+points are at the extremities of a known base line, and which command a
+view of the area within the range of the gun, the observers discover the
+position and range of the object by triangulation and set certain
+pointers. By means of electrical connection between those pointers and
+pointers at the gun station based on the system of the Wheatstone
+bridge, the latter pointers, or the guns themselves serving as pointers,
+may be placed in position to indicate the line of fire. By a nice
+arrangement of mirror and lenses attached to a firearm the same object
+may be accomplished. Similar apparatuses in which the reflectory
+surfaces of mirrors mounted on an elevated frame-work, and known as
+_Polemoscopes_ and _Altiscopes_ and _Range-Finders_, have also been
+invented, and used with artillery. But such devices may be profitably
+used for more peaceful and amusing purposes.
+
+Born with the ear attuned to music and the eye to observe beauty, the
+hand of Art was to trace and make permanent the fleeting forms which
+melody and the eye impressed upon the soul of man.
+
+In fact modern science has demonstrated that tones and colours are
+inseparable. Bell and Tainter with their _photophone_ have converted the
+undulatory waves of light into the sweetest music. Reversing the
+process, beautiful flashes of light have been produced from musical
+vibrations by the _phonophote_ of M. Coulon and the _phonoscope_ of
+Henry Edmunds.
+
+Entrancing as the story is, we can only here allude to a few of those
+discoveries and inventions that have become the handmaidens of the art
+which guided the chisel of Phidias and inspired the brush of Raphael.
+
+_Photography._--The art of producing permanent images of the "human face
+divine," natural scenes, and other objects, by the agency of light, is
+due more to the discoveries of the chemist than to the inventions of the
+mechanic; and to the chemists of this century. At the same time a
+mechanical invention of old times became a necessary appliance in the
+reduction of the theories of the chemists to practice:--The _Camera
+Obscura_, that dark box in which a mirror is placed, provided also with
+a piece of ground glass or white cardboard paper, and having a
+projecting part at one end in which a lens is placed, whereby when the
+lens part is directed to an object an image of the same is thrown by the
+rays of light focused by the lens upon the mirror, and reflected by the
+mirror to the glass or paper board, was invented by Roger Bacon about
+1297, or by Alberta in 1437, described by Leonardo da Vinci in 1500 as
+an imitation of the structure of the eye, again by Baptista Porta in
+1589, and remodelled by Sir Isaac Newton in 1700. Until the 19th century
+it was used only in the taking of sketches and scenes on or from the
+card or glass on which the reflection was thrown.
+
+Celebrated chemists such as Sheele of the 18th century, and Ritter,
+Wollaston, Sir Humphry Davy, Young, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and others in
+the early part of the 19th century, began to turn their attention to the
+chemical and molecular changes which the sunlight and its separate rays
+effected in certain substances, and especially upon certain compounds of
+silver. In sensitising the receiving paper, glass, or metal with such a
+compound it must necessarily be protected from exposure to sunlight, and
+this fact, together with the desire to sensitise the image produced by
+the camera, not only suggested but seemed to render that instrument
+indispensable to photography. Nevertheless the experiments of chemists
+fell short of the high mark, and it was reserved for an artist to unite
+the efforts of the sun and the chemists in a successful instrument.
+
+It was Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre, born at Corneilles, France, in
+1789, and who died in 1851, who was the first to reduce to practice the
+invention called after his name. He was a brilliant scene painter, and
+especially successful in painting panoramas. In 1822, assisted by
+Bouton, he had invented the _diorama_, by which coloured lights
+representing the various changes of the day and season were thrown upon
+the canvasses in his beautiful panoramas of Rome, London, Naples and
+other great cities. Several years previous to 1839 he and Joseph N.
+Niepce, learning of the efforts of chemists in that line, began
+independently, and then together, to develop the art of obtaining
+permanent copies of objects produced by the chemical action of the sun.
+Niepce died while they were thus engaged. Daguerre prosecuted his
+researches alone, and toward the close of 1838 his success was such that
+he made known his invention to Arago, and Arago announced it in an
+eloquent and enthusiastic address to the French Academy of Sciences in
+January 1839. It at once excited great attention, which was heightened
+by the pictures produced by the new process. The French Government, in
+consideration of the details of the invention and its improvements being
+made public and on request of Daguerre, granted him an annuity and one
+also to Niepce's son.
+
+At first only pictures of natural objects were taken; but in learning of
+Daguerre's process Dr. John William Draper of New York, a native of
+England and adopted son of America, the brilliant author of _The
+Intellectual Development of Europe_, and other great works, in the same
+year, 1839, took portraits of persons by photography, and he was the
+first to do this. Draper was also the first in America to reveal the
+wonders of the spectroscope; and he was first to show that each colour
+of the spectrum had its own peculiar chemical effect. This was in 1847.
+
+The sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of man in the new great
+art of Photography. Natural philosophers, chemists, inventors,
+mechanics, all now pressed forward, and still press forward to improve
+the art, to establish new growths from the old art, and extend its
+domains. Those domains have the generic term of _Photo-Processes_.
+Daguerreotypy, while the father of them all, is now hardly practised as
+Daguerre practised it, and has become a small subordinate sub-division
+of the great class. Yet more faithful likenesses are not yet produced
+than by this now old process. Among the children of the Photo-Process
+family are the _Calotype_, _Ambrotype_, _Ferreotype_, _Collodion_ and
+_Silver Printing_, _Carbon Printing_, _Heliotype_, _Heliogravure_,
+_Photoengraving_ (relief intaglio-Woodburytype), _Photolithography_;
+_Alberttype_; _Photozincograph_, _Photogelatine-printing_;
+_Photomicrography_ (to depict microscopic objects), _Kinetographs_, and
+_Photosculpture_. A world of mechanical contrivances have been
+invented:--_Octnometers_, _Baths_, _Burnishing tools_, _Cameras and
+Camera stands_, _Magazine and Roll holders_; _Dark rooms_ and _Focussing
+devices_, _Heaters_ and _Driers_; _Exposure Meters_, etc. etc.
+
+The _Kinetograph_, for taking a series of pictures of rapidly moving
+objects, and by which the living object, person or persons, are made to
+appear moving before us as they moved when the picture was taken, is a
+marvellous invention; and yet simple when the process is understood.
+Photography and printing have combined to revolutionise the art of
+illustration. Exact copies of an original, whether of a painting or a
+photograph, are now produced on paper with all the original shades and
+colours. The long-sought-for problem of photographing in colours has in
+a measure been solved. The "three _colour processes_" is the name given
+to the new offspring of the inventors which reproduces by the camera the
+natural colours of objects.
+
+The scientists Maxwell Young and Helmholtz established the theory that
+the three colours, red, green, and blue, were the primary colours, and
+from a mixture of these, secondary colours are produced. Henry Collen in
+1865 laid down the lines on which the practical reduction should take
+place; and within the last decade F. E. Ives of Philadelphia has
+invented the _Photochromoscope_ for producing pictures in their natural
+colours. The process consists in blending in one picture the separate
+photographic views taken on separate negative plates, each sensitised to
+receive one of the primary colours, which are then exposed and blended
+simultaneously in a triple camera.
+
+Plates and films and many other articles and processes have helped to
+establish the Art of Photography on its new basis.
+
+Among the minor inventions relating to Art, mention may be made of that
+very useful article the lead _pencil_, which all have employed so much
+time in sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands. Within a
+decade, pencils in which the lead or crayon is covered instead of with
+wood, with slitted, perforated or creased paper, spirally rolled
+thereon, and on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new point is
+exposed; or that other style in which a number of short, sharpened
+marking leads, or crayons, are arranged in series and adapted to be
+projected one after the other as fast as worn away.
+
+_In Painting_ modern inventions and discoveries have simply added to the
+instrumentalities of genius but have created no royal road to the art
+made glorious by Titian and Raphael. It has given to the artists,
+through its chemists, a world of new colours, and through its mechanics
+new and convenient appliances.
+
+_Air Brushes_ have proved a great help by which the paint or other
+colouring matter is sprayed in heavy, light, or almost invisible showers
+to produce backgrounds by the force of air blown upon the pigments held
+in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube. Made of larger proportions,
+this brush has been used for fresco painting, and for painting large
+objects, such as buildings, which it admits of doing with great
+rapidity.
+
+A description of modern methods of applying colours to porcelain and
+pottery is given in the chapter treating of those subjects.
+
+_Telegraphic pictures_:--Perhaps it is appropriate in closing this
+chapter that reference be made to that process by which the likeness of
+the distant reader may be taken telegraphically. A picture in relief is
+first made by the swelled gelatine or other process; a tracing point is
+then moved in the lines across the undulating surface of the pictures,
+and the movements of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical
+apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the opposite end of the line
+and there reproduced upon a suitable substance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+SAFES AND LOCKS.
+
+
+Prior to the century safes were not constructed to withstand the test of
+intense heat. Efforts were numerous, however, to render them safe
+against the entrance of thieves, but the ingenuity of the thieves
+advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers. And the race
+between these two classes of inventors still continues. For with the
+exercise of a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks, aided by all
+the advancement of science as to the nature of metals, their tough
+manufacture and their resistance to explosives, thieves still manage to
+break in and steal. The only sure protection against burglars at the
+close of the nineteenth century appears to consist of what it was at the
+close of any previous century--the preponderance of physical force and
+the best weapons. Among the latest inventions are electrical connections
+with the safe, whereby tampering therewith alarms one or more watchmen
+at a near station.
+
+A classification of safes embraces, _Fire-proof_, _Burglar-proof_, _Safe
+Bolt Works_, _Express and Deposit Safes and Boxes_, _Circular Doors_,
+_Pressure Mechanism_, and _Water and Air Protective Devices_.
+
+The attention of the earliest inventors of the century were directed
+toward making safes fire-proof. In England the first patent granted for
+a fire-proof safe was to Richard Scott in 1801. It had two casings, an
+inner and outer one, including the door, and the interspace was filled
+in with charcoal, or wood, and treated with a solution of alkaline salt.
+
+This idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible material has
+been generally followed ever since. The particular inventions in that
+line consist in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials,
+variations in the form of the interspacing, and new methods in the
+construction of the casings, and the selection of the best metals for
+such construction.
+
+In 1834 William Marr of England patented a lining for a double metallic
+chest, filled with non-combustible materials such as mica, or talc clay,
+lime, and graphite. Asbestos commenced to be used about the same time.
+
+The great fire in New York City in 1835, destroying hundreds of millions
+of dollars' worth of property of every description, gave a great impetus
+to the invention of fire-proof safes in America.
+
+B. G. Wilder there patented in 1843 his celebrated safe, now extensively
+used throughout the world. It consisted of a double box of wrought-iron
+plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron, with a bar across the
+middle; and as a filling for the interspaces he used hydrated gypsum,
+hydraulic cement, plaster of paris, steatite, alum, and the dried
+residuum of soda water.
+
+Herring was another American who invented celebrated safes, made with a
+boiler-iron exterior, a hardened steel inner safe, with the interior
+filled with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft steel. Thus the
+earth, air and water were ransacked for lining materials, in some cases
+more for the purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish any real
+advance in the art. Water itself was introduced as a lining, made to
+flow through the safes, sometimes from the city mains, and so retained
+that when the temperature in case of fire reached 212 deg. F. it became
+steam; and an arrangement for introducing steam in place of water was
+contrived. Among other lining materials found suitable were soapstone,
+alumina, ammonia, copperas, starch, Epsom salts, and gypsum, paper,
+pulp, and alum, and a mixture of various other materials.
+
+After safes were produced that would come out of fiery furnaces where
+they had been buried for days without even the smell of fire or smoke
+upon their contents, inventors commenced to direct their attention to
+burglar-proof safes.
+
+Chubb, in 1835, patented a process of rendering wooden safes burglar
+proof by lining them with steel, or case-hardened iron plate. Newton in
+1853 produced one made of an outer shell of cast iron, an interior
+network of wrought iron rods, and fluid iron poured between these, so
+that a compound mass was formed of different degrees of resistance to
+turn aside the burglar's tools. Chubb again, in 1857, and in subsequent
+years, and Chartwood, Glocker, and Thompson and Tann and others in
+England invented new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the
+drilling by tools. Hall and Marvin of the United States also invented
+safes for the same purpose. Hall had thick steel plates dovetailed
+together; and angle irons tenoned at the corners. Marvin's safe was
+globeshaped, to present no salient points for the action of tools, made
+of chrome steel, mounted in this shape on a platform, or enclosed in a
+fire-proof safe. Herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and
+grooved the doors with double casings, and which he hung with a
+lever-hinge, provided the doors with separate locks and packed all the
+joints with rubber to prevent the operation of the air pump--which had
+become a dangerous device of burglars with which to introduce explosives
+to blow open the doors.
+
+Still later and more elaborate means have been used to frustrate the
+burglars. Electricity has been converted into an automatic warder to
+guard the castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient
+stations when the locks or doors are meddled with and the proper
+manipulation not used. Express safes for railroad cars have been made of
+parts telescoped or crowded together by hydraulic power, requiring heavy
+machinery for locking and unlocking, and this machinery is located in
+machine shops along the route and not accessible to burglars.
+
+About 1815 inventors commenced to produce devices to show with certainty
+if a lock had been tampered with. The keyhole was closed by a revolving
+metallic curtain, and paper was secured over the keyhole. As a further
+means of detection photographs of some irregular object are made, one of
+which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained. This
+prevents the substitution of one piece of paper for another piece
+without detection. A large number of patents have been taken out on
+glass coverings for locks which have to be broken before the lock can be
+turned. These are called seal locks.
+
+Locks of various kinds, consisting at least of the two general features
+of a bolt and a key to move the bolt, have existed from very ancient
+days. The Egyptians, the Hebrews and the Chinese, and Oriental nations
+generally had locks and keys of ponderous size. Isaiah speaks of the key
+of the house of David; and Homer writes sonorously of the lock in the
+house of Penelope with its brazen key, the respondent wards, the flying
+bars and valves which,
+
+  "Loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring,
+  So roared the lock when it released the spring."
+
+The castles, churches and convents of the middle ages had their often
+highly ornamental locks and their warders to guard and open them. Later,
+locks were invented with complex wards. These are carved pieces of metal
+in the lock which fit into clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the
+lock from being opened except by its own proper key.
+
+As early as 1650 the Dutch had invented the Letter lock, the progenitor
+of the modern permutation lock, consisting of a lock the bolt of which
+is surrounded by several rings on which were cut the letters of the
+alphabet, which by a prearrangement on the part of the owner were made
+to spell a certain word or number of words before the lock could be
+opened. Carew, in verses written in 1621, refers to one of these locks
+as follows:--
+
+  "As doth a lock that goes with letters; for, till every one be known,
+  The lock's as fast as though you had found none."
+
+The art had also advanced in the eighteenth century to the use of
+_tumblers_ in locks, the lever or latch or plate which falls into a
+notch of the bolt and prevents it from being shot until it has been
+raised or released by the action of the key. Barron in England in 1778
+obtained a patent for such a lock.
+
+Joseph Bramah, who has before been referred to in connection with the
+hydraulic press he invented, also in 1784 invented and patented in
+England a lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a century's
+extensive use. It was the first, or among the first of locks which
+troubled modern burglars' picks. Its leading features were a key with
+longitudinal slots, a barrel enclosing a spring, plates, called sliders,
+notched unequally and resting against the spring, a plate with a central
+perforation and slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the
+slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be turned by the key so as
+to actuate the bolt. Chubb and Hobbs of England made important
+improvements in tumbler locks, which for a long time were regarded as
+unpickable.
+
+Most important advances have been made during the century in
+_Combination_ or _Permutation Locks_ and _Time Locks_. For a long time
+permutation or combination locks consisted of modifications of one
+general principle, and that was the Dutch letter lock already referred
+to, or the wheel lock, composed of a series of disks with letters around
+their edges. The interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt
+being shot until a series of letters were in line, forming a combination
+known only to the operator. Time locks are constructed on the principle
+of clockwork, so that they cannot be opened even with the proper key
+until a regulated interval of time has elapsed.
+
+Among the most celebrated combination and time locks of the century are
+those known as the Yale locks, chiefly the inventions of Louis Yale,
+Jr., of Philadelphia. The Yale double dial lock is a double combination
+bank or safe lock having two dials, each operating its own set of
+tumblers and bolts, so that two persons, each in possession of his own
+combination, must be present at a certain time in order to unlock it. If
+this double security is not desired, one person alone may be possessed
+of both combinations, or the combinations may be set as one. In their
+time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render it impossible to
+unlock except at a predetermined time each day, but the arrangement is
+such that on intervening Sundays the time mechanism will entirely
+prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of the door on that
+day.
+
+Another feature of the lock is the thin, flat keys with bevel-edged
+notchings, or with longitudinal sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow
+slit of a cylinder lock. To make locks for use with the corrugated keys
+machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised. In such a lock
+the keyhole, which is a little very narrow slit, is formed sinuously to
+correspond to the sinuosities of the key. No other key will fit it, nor
+can it be picked by a tool, as the tool must be an exact duplicate of
+the key in order to enter and move in the keyhole.
+
+Of late years numerous locks have been invented for the special uses to
+which they are to be applied. Thus, one type of lock is that for safety
+deposit vaults and boxes, in which a primary key in the keeping of a
+janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard mechanism to set the lock,
+while the box owner may use a secondary key to completely unlock the box
+or vault.
+
+Master, or secondary key locks, are now in common use in hotels and
+apartment-houses, by which the key of the door held by a guest will
+unlock only his door, but the master key held by the manager or janitor
+will unlock all the doors. This saves the duplication and multiplicity
+of a vast number of extra keys.
+
+The value of a simple, cheap, safe, effective lock in a place where its
+advantages are appreciated by all classes of people everywhere is
+illustrated in the application of the modern rotary registering lock to
+the single article of mail bags. Formerly it was not unusual that losses
+by theft of mail matter were due in part to the extraction of a portion
+of the mail matter by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring
+it in place.
+
+The United States, with its 76,000,000 of people, found it necessary to
+use in its mail service hundreds of thousands of mail pouches, having
+locks for securing packages of valuable matter. But these locks are of
+such character that it is impossible for anyone to break into the bag
+and conceal the evidence of his crime. The unfortunate thief is reduced
+to the necessity of stealing the whole pouch. Losses under this system
+have grown so small "as to be almost incapable of mathematical
+calculation."
+
+Safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes are now so common,
+even to prevent the unauthorised use of an umbrella, or the unfriendly
+taking away of a bicycle or other vehicle, that notwithstanding the
+nineteenth century dynamite with which burglars still continue to blow
+open the best constructed safes and vaults, still a universal sense of
+greater security in such matters is beginning to manifest itself; and
+not only the loss of valuables by fire and theft is becoming the
+exception, but the temptation to steal is being gradually removed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+CARRYING MACHINES.
+
+
+The reflecting observer delights occasionally to shift the scenes of the
+present stage and bring to the front the processions of the past. That
+famous triumphal one, for instance, of Ptolemy of Philadelphus, at
+Alexandria, about 270 B. C., then in the midst of his power and glory,
+in which there were chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants and
+goats, antelopes, oryxes, buffaloes, ostriches, gnus and zebras; then a
+tribe of the Scythians, when with many scores of oxen they were shifting
+their light, big round houses, made of felt cloth and mounted on road
+carts, to a new camping place; next a wild, mad dash of the Roman
+charioteers around the amphitheatre, or a triumphal march with chariots
+of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory; and now an army of
+the ancient Britons driving through these same charioteers of Caesar with
+their own rude chariots, having sharp hooks and crooked iron blades
+extending from their axles; now a "Lady's Chair" of the fourteenth
+century--the state carriage of the time--with a long, wooden-roofed and
+windowed body, having a door at each end, resting on a cumbrous frame
+without springs, and the axles united rigidly to a long reach; next
+comes a line of imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century,
+with bodies provided with pillars to support the roof, and adorned with
+curtains of cloth and leather, but still destitute of springs; and here
+in stately approach comes a line of more curious and more comfortable
+"royal coaches" of the seventeenth century, when springs were for the
+first time introduced; and now rumbles forward a line of those famous
+old English stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century, which
+were two days flying from Oxford to London, a distance of fifty-five
+miles; but a scene in the next century shows these ponderous vehicles
+greatly improved, and the modern English stage mail-coaches of Palmer in
+line. Referring to Palmer's coaches, Knight says: "Palmer, according to
+De Quincey, was twice as great a man as Galileo, because he not only
+invented mail-coaches (of more general practical utility than Jupiter's
+satellites), but married the daughter of a duke, and succeeded in
+getting the post-office to use them. This revolutionised the whole
+business." The coaches were built with steel springs, windows of great
+strength and lightness combined, boots for the baggage, seats for a few
+outside passengers, and a guard with a grand uniform, to protect the
+mail and stand for the dignity of his majesty's government.
+
+By the system of changing horses frequently great speed was attained,
+and the distance from Edinburgh to London, 400 miles, was made in 40
+hours. Other lines of coaches, arranged to carry double the number of
+passengers outside than in, fourteen to six, were made heavier, and took
+the road more leisurely.
+
+The carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous, heavy contrivances,
+without springs, mostly two-wheel, heavy carts.
+
+The middle classes at that time were not seen riding in coaches of their
+own, but generally on horseback, as the coaches of the rich were too
+expensive, and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in
+construction, and too painful in operation.
+
+Let the observer now pass to the largest and most varied exhibition of
+the best types of modern vehicles of every description that the world
+had ever seen, the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, and
+behold what wonderful changes art, science, invention, and mechanical
+skill had wrought in this domain. Here were the carriages of the rich,
+constructed of the finest and most appropriate woods that science and
+experience had found best adapted for the various parts, requiring the
+combination of strength and lightness, the best steel for the springs,
+embodying in themselves a world of invention and discovery, and splendid
+finish and polish in all parts unknown to former generations.
+
+Here, too, were found vehicles of a great variety for the comfort and
+convenience of every family, from the smallest to the largest means.
+
+The farmer and the truckman were especially provided for. One
+establishment making an exhibition at that time, employed some six
+hundred or seven hundred hands, four hundred horse-power of steam,
+turning out sixty wagons a day, or one in every ten minutes of each
+working day in the year.
+
+Here England showed her victoria, her broughams, landaus, phaetons,
+sporting-carts, wagonettes, drays and dog-carts; Canada her splendid
+sleighs; France her superb barouches, carriages, double-top sociables,
+the celebrated Collinge patent axle-trees and springs; Germany the best
+carriage axles, springs and gears; Russia its famous low-wheeled
+fast-running carriages; Norway its carryalls, or sulkies, and sleighs
+strongly built, and made of wood from those vast forests that ever
+abound in strength and beauty. One ancient sleigh there was, demurely
+standing by its modern companions, said to have been built in 1625, and
+it was still good. America stood foremost in carriage wheels of best
+materials and beautiful workmanship, bent rims, turned and finished
+spokes, mortised hubs, steel tires, business and farm wagons, carts and
+baby carriages. Each trade and field of labour had its own especially
+adapted complete and finished vehicle. There were hay wagons and
+hearses; beer wagons and ice carts; doctors' buggies, express wagons,
+drays, package delivery wagons; peddlers' wagons with all the shelves
+and compartments of a miniature store, skeleton wagons, and sportsmen's,
+and light and graceful two and four "wheelers." Beautiful displays of
+bent and polished woods, a splendid array of artistic, elegant, and
+useful harnesses, and all the traps that go to make modern means of
+conveyance by animal power so cheap, convenient, strong and attractive
+that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in principles of
+construction of vehicles and in their materials, and since contents
+itself in improving details.
+
+To this century is due the development of that class of carriages, the
+generic term for which is _Velocipedes_--a word which would imply a
+vehicle propelled by the feet, although it has been applied to vehicles
+propelled by the hands and steered by the feet. This name originated
+with the French, and several Frenchmen patented velocipedes from 1800 to
+1821.
+
+Tricycles having three wheels, propelled by the hands and steered with
+the feet, were also invented in the early part of the century.
+
+The term _Bicycle_ does not appear to have been used until about 1869.
+
+Although such structures had been referred to in publications before,
+yet the modern bicycle appears to have been first practically
+constructed in Germany. In 1816 Baron von Drais of Manheim made a
+vehicle consisting of two wheels arranged one before the other, and
+connected by a bar, the forward wheel axled in a fork which was swiveled
+to the front end of the bar and had handles to guide the machine, with a
+seat on the bar midway between the two wheels, and arranged so that the
+driver should bestride the bar. But there was no support for the rider's
+feet, and the vehicle was propelled by thrusting his feet alternately
+against the ground. This machine was called the "Draisine" and
+undoubtedly was the progenitor of the modern bicycle. Denis Johnson
+patented in England in 1818 a similar vehicle which he named the
+"Pedestrian Curricle." Another style was called the "Dandy Horse."
+Another form was that of Gompertz in England in 1821, who contrived a
+segmental rack connected with a frame over the front wheel and engaging
+a pinion on the wheel axle. With some improvements added by others, the
+vehicle came into quite extensive and popular use in some of the cities
+in Europe and America. It was also named the "Dandy" and the "Hobby
+Horse." Treadles were subsequently applied, but after a time the machine
+fell into disuse and was apparently forgotten. In 1863, however, the
+idea was revived by a Frenchman, Michaux, who added the crank to the
+front wheel axle of the "Draisine" (also called the "celerifere.") In
+1866 Pierre Lallement of France, having adapted the idea of the crank
+and pedal movement and obtained a patent, went to America, where after
+two years of public indifference the machine suddenly sprung into
+favour. In 1869 a popular wave in its favour also spread over part of
+Europe, and all classes of people were riding it.
+
+But the wheels had hard tires, the roads and many of the streets were
+not smooth, the vehicle got the name of the "bone-breaker" and its use
+ceased. During the few years following some new styles of frames were
+invented. Thus some very high wheels, with a small wheel in front, or
+one behind, wheels with levers in addition to the crank, etc., and then
+for a time the art rested again.
+
+Some one then recalled the fact that McMillan, a Scotchman, about
+1838-1841, had used two low wheels like the "Draisine" with a driving
+gear, and that Dalzell, also of Scotland, had in 1845 made a similar
+machine. Parts of these old machines were found and the wheel
+reconstructed. Then in the seventies the entire field was thrown open to
+women by the invention in England of the "drop frame," which removed
+completely the difficulty as to arrangement of the skirts and thus
+doubled the interest in and desire for a comfortable riding machine. But
+they were still, to a great degree, "bone-breakers."
+
+Then J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of Belfast, Ireland, in order to
+meet the complaints of his son that the wheel was too hard, thought of
+the _pneumatic rubber tire_, and applied it with great success. This was
+a very notable and original re-invention. A re-invention, because a man
+"born before his time" had invented and patented the pneumatic tire more
+than forty years before. It was not wanted then and everybody had
+forgotten it. This man was Robert William Thomson, a civil engineer of
+Adelphi, Middlesex county, England. In 1845 he obtained a patent in
+England, and shortly after in the United States. In both patents he
+describes how he proposed to make a tire for all kinds of vehicles
+consisting of a hollow rubber tube, with an inner mixed canvas and
+rubber lining, a tube and a screw cup by which to inflate it, and
+several ways for preventing punctures. To obviate the bad results of
+punctures he proposed also to make his tire in sectional compartments,
+so that if one compartment was punctured the others would still hold
+good. He also proposed to use vulcanised rubber, thus utilising the then
+very recent discovery of Goodyear of mixing sulphur with soft rubber,
+and to apply the same to the canvas lining.
+
+And, now, when the last decade of the century had been reached, and
+after a century's hard work by the inventors, the present wonderful
+vehicle, known as the "safety bicycle," had obtained a successful and
+permanent foothold among the vehicles of mankind. Proper proportions,
+low wheels, chain-gearing, treadles, pedals and cranks, cushion and
+pneumatic tires, drop frames, steel spokes like a spider's web,
+ball-bearings for the crank and axle parts, a spring-supported cushioned
+seat which could be raised or lowered, adjustable handles, and the
+clearest-brained scientific mechanics to construct all parts from the
+best materials and with mathematical exactness--all this has been done.
+To these accomplishments have been added a great variety of tires to
+prevent wear and puncturing, among which are _self-healing_ tires,
+having a lining of viscous or plastic rubber to close up automatically
+the air holes. Many ways of clamping the tire to the rim have been
+contrived. So have brakes of various descriptions, some consisting of
+disks on the driving shaft, brought into frictional contact by a touch
+of the toe on the pedal, as a substitute for those applied to the
+surface of the tire, known as "spoon brakes"; saddles, speed-gearings,
+men's machines in which by the removal of the upper bar the machine is
+converted into one for the use of women; the substitution of the direct
+action, consisting of beveled gearing for the sprocket chain, etc., etc.
+
+The ideas of William Thomson as to pneumatic and cushioned tires are
+now, after a lapse of fifty years, generally adopted. Even sportsmen
+were glad to seize upon them, and wheels of sulkies, provided with the
+pneumatic tires, have enabled them to lower the record of trotting
+horses. Their use on many other vehicles has accomplished his objects,
+"of lessening the power required to draw carriages, rendering the motion
+easier, and diminishing the noise."
+
+It is impossible to overlook the fact in connection with this subject
+that the processes and machinery especially invented to make the various
+parts of a bicycle are as wonderful as the wheel itself. Counting the
+spokes there are, it is estimated, more than 300 different parts in such
+a wheel. The best and latest inventions and discoveries in the making of
+metals, wood, rubber and leather have been drawn upon in supplying these
+useful carriers. And what a revolution they have produced in the making
+of good roads, the saving of time, the dispatch of business, and more
+than all else, in the increase of the pleasure, the health and the
+amusement of mankind!
+
+It was quite natural that when the rubber cushion and pneumatic tires
+rounded the pleasure of easy and noiseless riding in vehicles that
+_Motor vehicles_ should be revived and improved. So we have the
+_Automobiles_ in great variety. Invention has been and is still being
+greatly exercised as to the best motive power, in the adaption of
+electric motors, oil and gasoline or vapour engines, springs and air
+pumps, in attempts to reduce the number of complicated parts, and to
+render less strenuous the mental and muscular strain of the operator.
+
+_Traction Engines._--The old road engines that antedated the locomotives
+are being revived, and new ideas springing from other arts are being
+incorporated in these useful machines to render them more available than
+in former generations. Many of the principles and features of motor
+vehicles, but on a heavier scale, are being introduced to adapt them to
+the drawing of far heavier loads. Late devices comprise a spring link
+between the power and the traction wheel to prevent too sudden a start,
+and permit a yielding motion; steering devices by which the power of the
+engine is used to steer the machine; and application of convenient and
+easily-worked brakes.
+
+An example of a modern traction engine may be found attached to one or
+more heavy cars adapted for street work, and on which may be found
+apparatus for making the mixed materials of which the roadbed is to be
+constructed, and all of which is moved along as the road or street
+surface is completed. When these fine roads become the possession of a
+country light traction engines for passenger traffic will be found
+largely supplanting the horse and the steam railroad engines.
+
+_Brakes_, railway and electric, have already been referred to in the
+proper chapters. In the latest system of railroading greater attention
+has been paid to the lives and limbs of those employed as workmen on the
+trains, especially to those of brakemen. And if corporations have been
+slow to adopt such merciful devices, legislatures have stepped in to
+help the matter. One great source of accidents in this respect has been
+due to the necessity of the brakemen entering between the cars while
+they are in motion to couple them by hand. This is now being abolished
+by _automatic couplers_, by which, when the locking means have been
+withdrawn from connection or thrown up, they will be so held until the
+cars meet again, when the locking parts on the respective cars will be
+automatically thrown and locked, as easily and on the same principle as
+the hand of one man may clasp the hand of another.
+
+The comfort of passengers and the safety of freight have also been
+greatly increased by the invention of _Buffers_ on railroad cars and
+trains to prevent sudden and violent concussion. Fluid pressure car
+buffers, in which a constant supply of fluid under pressure is provided
+by a pump or train pipe connected to the engine is one of a great
+variety.
+
+Another notable improvement in this line is the splendid vestibule
+trains, in which the cars are connected to one another by enclosed
+passages and which at their meeting ends are provided with yieldingly
+supported door-like frames engaging one another by frictional contact,
+usually, whereby the shock and rocking of cars are prevented in starting
+and stopping, and their oscillation reduced to a minimum.
+
+As collisions and accidents cannot always be prevented, car frames are
+now built in which the frames are trussed, and made of rolled steel
+plates, angles, and channels, whereby a car body of great resistance to
+telescoping or crushing is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING.
+
+    "Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam,
+    Survey our empire, and behold our home."
+
+
+"Ships are but boards," soliloquised the crafty Shylock, and were this
+still true, yet this present period has seen wonderful changes in
+construction.
+
+The high castellated bows and sterns and long prows of _The Great
+Harry_, of the seventeenth century, and its successors in the
+eighteenth, with some moderation of cumbersome matter, gave way to
+lighter, speedier forms, first appearing in the quick-gliding Yankee
+clippers, during the first decade of the nineteenth century.
+
+Eminent naval architects have regarded the proportions of Noah's ark,
+300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad and 30 cubits high, in which the length
+was six times the breadth, and the depth three-fifths of the breadth, as
+the best combination of the elements of strength, capacity and
+stability.
+
+Even that most modern mercantile vessel known as the "whale-back" with
+its nearly flat bottom, vertical sides, arched top or deck, skegged or
+spoon-shaped at bow and stern, straight deck lines, the upper deck
+cabins and steering gear raised on hollow turrets, with machinery and
+cargo in the main hull, has not departed much from the safe rule of
+proportions of its ancient prototype.
+
+But in other respects the ideas of Noah and of the Ph[oe]nicians, the
+best of ancient ship-builders, as well as the Northmen, the Dutch, the
+French, and the English, the best ship-builders of later centuries, were
+decidedly improved upon by the Americans, who, as above intimated, were
+revolutionizing the art and building the finest vessels in the early
+part of the century, and these rivalled in speed the steam vessels for
+some years after steamships were ploughing the rivers and the ocean.
+
+Discarding the lofty decks fore and aft and ponderous topsides, the
+principal characteristics of the American "clippers" were their fine
+sharp lines, built long and low, broad of beam before the centre, sharp
+above the water, and deep aft. A typical vessel of this sort was the
+clipper ship _Great Republic_, built by Donald McKay of Boston during
+the first half of the century. She was 325 feet long, 53 feet wide, 37
+feet deep, with a capacity of about 4000 tons. She had four masts, each
+provided with a lightning rod. A single suit of her sails consisted of
+15,563 yards of canvas. Her keel rose for 60 feet forward, gradually
+curved into the arc of a circle as it blended with the stern. Vessels of
+her type ran seventeen and eighteen miles an hour at a time when steam
+vessels were making only twelve or fourteen miles an hour, the latter
+speed being one which it was predicted by naval engineers could not with
+safety be exceeded with ocean steamships.
+
+These vessels directed the attention of ship-builders to two prominent
+features, the shape of the bow and the length of the vessel. For the old
+convex form of bow and stern, the principal of an elongated wedge was
+substituted, the wedge slightly hollowed on its face, by which the
+waters were more easily parted and thrown aside.
+
+A departure was early made in the matter of strengthening the "ribs of
+oak" to better meet the strains from the rough seas. In 1810 Sir Robert
+Seppings, surveyor of the English navy, devised and introduced the
+system of diagonal bracing. This was an arrangement of timbers crossing
+the ribs on the inside of the ship at angles of about 45 deg., and braced by
+diagonals and struts.
+
+Of course the great and leading event of the nineteenth century in the
+matter of inventions relating to ships was the introduction of steam as
+the motive power. Of this we have treated in the chapter on steam
+engineering. The giant, steam, demanded and received the obeisance of
+every art before devoting his inexhaustible strength to their service.
+Systems of wood-working and metal manufacture must be revolutionised to
+give him room to work, and to withstand the strokes of his mighty arm.
+Lord Dundas at the beginning of the century had an iron boat built for
+the Forth and Clyde Canal, which was propelled by steam.
+
+But the departure from the adage that "ships are but boards" did not
+take place, however, until about 1829-30, when the substitution of iron
+for wood in the construction of vessels had passed beyond the
+experimental stage. In those years the firm of John Laird of Birkenhead
+began the building of practical iron vessels, and he was followed soon
+by Sir William Fairbairn at Manchester, and Randolph, Elder & Co., and
+the Fairfield Works on the Clyde.
+
+The advantage of iron over wood in strength, and in power to withstand
+tremendous shocks, was early illustrated in the _Great Britain_ built
+about 1844, the first large, successful, seagoing vessel constructed.
+Not long thereafter this same vessel lay helpless upon the coast of
+Ireland, driven there by a great storm, and beaten by the tremendous
+waves of the Atlantic with a force that would have in a few hours or
+days broken up and pulverised a "ship of boards," and yet the _Great
+Britain_ lay there several weeks, was finally brought off, and again
+restored to successful service.
+
+Wood and iron both have their peculiar advantages and disadvantages.
+Wood is not only lighter, but easily procured and worked, and cheaper,
+in many small and private ship-yards where an iron frame and parts would
+be difficult and expensive to produce. It is thought that as to the
+fouling of ships' bottoms a wooden hull covered with copper fouls less,
+and consequently impedes the speed less; that the damage done by shocks
+or the penetration of shot is not so great or difficult to repair, and
+that the danger of variation of the compass by reason of local
+attraction of the metal is less.
+
+But the advantages of iron and steel far outnumber those of wood. Its
+strength, its adaptability for all sizes and forms and lines, its
+increased cheapness, its resistance to shot penetration, its durability,
+and now its easy procurement, constitute qualities which have
+established iron ship-building as a great new and modern art. In this
+modern revolution in iron-clad ships, their adaptation to naval warfare
+was due to the genius of John Ericsson, and dates practically from the
+celebrated battle between the iron-clads the _Merrimac_ and the
+_Monitor_ in Hampton Roads on the Virginia coast in the Civil war in
+America in April, 1862.
+
+Although the tendency at first in building iron and steel vessels,
+especially for the navy, was towards an entire metal structure, later
+experience resulted in a more composite style, using wood in some parts,
+where found best adapted by its capacity of lightness, non-absorption of
+heat and less electrical conductivity, etc., and at the same time
+protecting such interior portions by an iron shell or frame-work.
+
+One great improvement in ship-building, whether in wood or metal,
+thought of and practised to some extent in former times, but after all a
+child of this century, is the building of the hull and hold in
+compartments, water-tight, and sometimes fire-proof, so that in case of
+a leakage or a fire in one or more compartments, the fire or water may
+be confined there and the extension of the danger to the entire ship
+prevented.
+
+In the matter of _Marine Propulsion_, when the steam engine was made a
+practical and useful servant by Watt, and men began to think of driving
+boats and ships with it, the problem was how to adapt it to use with
+propelling means already known. Paddle-wheels and other wheels to move
+boats in place of oars had been suggested, and to some extent used from
+time to time, since the days of the Romans; and they were among the
+first devices used in steam vessels. Their whirl may still be heard on
+many waters. Learned men saw no reason why the screw of Archimedes
+should not be used for the same purpose, and the idea was occasionally
+advocated by French and English philosophers from at least 1680, by
+Franklin and Watt less than a century later, and finally, in 1794,
+Lyttleton of England obtained a patent for his "aquatic propeller,"
+consisting of threads formed on a cylinder and revolving in a frame at
+the head, stern, or side of a vessel.
+
+Other means had been also suggested prior to 1800, and by the same set
+of philosophers, and experimentally used by practical builders, such as
+steam-pumps for receiving the water forward, or amidships, and forcing
+it out astern, thus creating a propulsive movement. The latter part of
+the eighteenth century teemed with these suggestions and experiments,
+but it remained for the nineteenth to see their embodiment and
+adaptation to successful commercial use.
+
+The earliest, most successful demonstrations of screw propellers and
+paddle wheels in steam vessels in the century were the construction and
+use of a boat with twin screws by Col. John Stevens of Hoboken, N. J.,
+in 1804 and the paddle-wheel steamboat trial of Fulton on the Hudson in
+1807.
+
+But it was left to John Ericsson, that great Swedish inventor, going to
+England in 1826 with his brain full of ideas as to steam and solar
+engines, to first perfect the screw-propeller. He there patented in 1836
+his celebrated propeller, consisting of several blades or segments of a
+screw, and based on such correct principles of twist that they were at
+once adopted and applied to steam vessels.
+
+In 1837-1839 the knowledge of his inventions had preceded him to
+America, where his propeller was at once introduced and used in the
+vessels _Frances B. Ogden_ and the _Robert E. Stockton_ (the latter
+built by the Lairds of Birkenhead and launched in 1837). In 1839 or 1840
+Ericsson went to America, and in 1841 he was engaged in the construction
+of the U.S. ship of war _Princeton_, the first naval screw warship built
+having propelling machinery under the water line and out of reach of
+shot.
+
+The idea that steamships could not be safely run at a greater speed than
+ten or twelve miles an hour was now abandoned.
+
+Twice Ericsson revolutionised the naval construction of the world by his
+inventions in America: first by the introduction of his screw-propeller
+in the _Princeton_; and second, by building the iron-clad _Monitor_.
+
+Since Ericsson's day other inventors have made themselves also famous by
+giving new twists to the tail of this famous fish and new forms to its
+iron-ribbed body.
+
+_Pneumatic Propellers_ operated by the expulsion of air or gas against
+the surrounding body of water, and chain-propellers, consisting of a
+revolving chain provided with paddles or floats, have also been invented
+and tested, with more or less successful results.
+
+A great warship as she lies in some one of the vast modern ship-yards of
+the world, resting securely on her long steel backbone, from which great
+ribs of steel rise and curve on either side and far overhead, like a
+monstrous skeleton of some huge animal that the sea alone can produce,
+clothed with a skin, also of steel; her huge interior, lined at bottom
+with an armoured deck that stretches across the entire breadth of the
+vessel, and built upon this deck, capacious steel compartments enclosing
+the engines and boilers, the coal, the magazines, the electric plant for
+supplying power to various motors for lighting the ship and for
+furnishing the current to powerful search-lights; having compartments
+for the sick, the apothecary shop, and the surgeon's hospital, the men's
+and the officers' quarters; above these the conning tower and the
+armoured pilot-house, then the great guns interspersed among these
+various parts, looking like the sunken eyes, or protruding like the bony
+prominences of some awful sea monster, is a structure that gives one an
+idea of the immense departure which has occurred during the last half
+century, not only from the wooden walls of the navies of all the past,
+but from all its mechanical arts.
+
+What a great ocean liner contains and what the contributions are to
+modern ship-building from other modern arts is set forth in the
+following extract from _McClure's Magazine_ for September, 1900, in
+describing the _Deutschland_. "The _Deutschland_, for instance has a
+complete refrigerating plant, four hospitals, a safety deposit vault for
+the immense quantities of gold and silver which pass between the banks
+of Europe and America, eight kitchens, a complete post-office with
+German and American clerks, thirty electrical motors, thirty-six pumps,
+most of them of American and English make, no fewer than seventy-two
+steam engines, a complete drug store, a complete fire department, with
+pumps, hose and other fire-fighting machinery, a library, 2600 electric
+lights, two barber shops, room for an orchestra and brass band, a
+telegraph system, a telephone system, a complete printing establishment,
+a photographic dark room, a cigar store, an electric fire-alarm system,
+and a special refrigerator for flowers."
+
+We have seen, in treating of safes and locks, how burglars keep pace
+with the latest inventions to protect property by the use of dynamite
+and nitro-glycerine explosions. The reverse of this practice prevails
+when those policemen of the seas, the _torpedo boats_, guard the
+treasures of the shore. It is there the defenders are armed with the
+irresistible explosives. These explosives are either planted in harbours
+and discharged by electricity from the shore, or carried by very swift
+armoured boats, or by boats capable of being submerged, directed, and
+propelled by mechanisms contained there and controlled from the shore,
+or from another vessel; or by boats containing all instrumentalities,
+crew, and commander, and capable of submerging and raising itself, and
+of attacking and exploding the torpedo when and where desired. The
+latter are now considered as the most formidable and efficient class of
+destroyers.
+
+No matter how staunch, sound and grand in dimensions man may build his
+ships, old Neptune can still toss them. But Franklin, a century and a
+half ago, called attention to his experiments of oiling his locks when
+in a tempestuous mood, and thus rendering the temper of the Old Man of
+the Sea as placid as a summer pond. Ships that had become unmanageable
+were thus enabled, by spreading oil on the waves from the windward side,
+to be brought under control, and dangerous surfs subdued, so that boats
+could land. Franklin's idea of pouring oil on the troubled waters has
+been revived during the last quarter of the century and various means
+for doing it vigorously patented. The means have varied in many
+instances, but chiefly consist of bags and other receptacles to hold and
+distribute the oil upon the surrounding water with economy and
+uniformity.
+
+At the close of the century the world was still waiting for the
+successful _Air-ship_.
+
+A few successful experiments in balloon navigation by the aid of small
+engines of different forms have been made since 1855. Some believe that
+Count Zeppelin, an officer of the German army has solved the great
+problem, especially since the ascent of his ship made on July 2, 1900,
+at Lake Constance.
+
+It has been asserted that no vessel has yet been made to successfully
+fly unless made on the balloon principle, and Count Zeppelin's boat is
+on that principle. According to the description of Eugen Wolf, an
+aeronaut who took part in the ascent referred to and who published an
+account of the same in the November number of _McClure's_, 1900, it is
+not composed of one balloon, but of a row of them, and these are not
+exposed when inflated to every breeze that blows, but enclosed and
+combined in an enormous cylindrical shell, 420 feet in length, about 38
+feet in diameter, with a volume of 14,780 cubic yards and with ends
+pointed like a cigar. This shell is a framework made up of aluminium
+trellis work, and divided into seventeen compartments, each having its
+own gas bag. The frame is further strengthened and the balloons stayed
+by a network of aluminium wire, and the entire frame covered with a soft
+ramie fibre. Over this is placed a water-tight covering of pegamoid, and
+the lower part covered with light silk. An air space of two feet is left
+between the cover and the balloons. Beneath the balloons extends a
+walking bridge 226 feet long, and from this bridge is suspended two
+aluminium cars, at front and rear of the centre, adapted to hold all the
+operative machinery and the operator and other passengers.
+
+The balloons, provided with proper valves, served to lift the structure;
+large four-winged screws, one on each side of the ship, their shafts
+mounted on a light framework extending from the body of the ship, and
+driven backward and forward by two light benzine engines, one on each
+car, constituted the propelling force. Dirigibility (steering) was
+provided for by an apparatus consisting of a double pair of rudders, one
+pair forward and one aft, reaching out like great fins, and controlled
+by light metal cords from the cars. A ballast of water was carried in a
+compartment under each car. To give the ship an upward or a downward
+movement the plane on which the ship rests was provided with a weight
+adapted to slip back and forth on a cable underneath the balloon shell.
+When the weight was far aft the tip of the ship was upward and the
+movement was upward, when at the forward end the movement was downward,
+and when at the centre the ship was poised and travelled in a horizontal
+plane. The trip was made over the lake on a quiet evening. A distance of
+three and three-quarter miles, at a height of 1300 feet, was made in
+seventeen minutes. Evolutions from a straight course were accomplished.
+The ship was lowered to the lake, on which it settled easily and rode
+smoothly.
+
+The other great plan of air navigation receiving the attention of
+scientists and aeronauts is the aeroplane system. Although the cohesive
+force of the air is so exceedingly small that it cannot be relied upon
+as a sufficient resisting medium through which propulsion may be
+accomplished alone by a counter-resisting agent like propeller blades,
+yet it is known what weight the air has and it has been ascertained what
+expanse of a thin plane is necessary without other means to support the
+weight of a man in the air.
+
+To this idea must be added the means of flight, of starting and
+maintaining a stable flight and of directing its course. Careful
+observation of the manner of the flight of large heavy birds, especially
+in starting, has led to some successful experiments. They do not rise at
+once, but require an initiative force for soaring which they obtain by
+running on the ground before spreading their wings. The action of the
+wings in folding and unfolding for maintaining the flight and
+controlling its direction, is then to be noted.
+
+It is along these lines that inventions in this system are now working.
+An initiative mechanism to start the ship along the earth or water, to
+raise it at an angle, to spread planes of sufficient extent to support
+the weight of the machine and its operators on the body of the air
+column, light engines to give the wing-planes an opening and closing
+action, rudders to steer by, means for maintaining equilibrium, and
+means when landing to float upon the water or roll upon the land, these
+are the principal problems that navigators of the great seas above us
+are now at work upon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+ILLUMINATING GAS.
+
+  "How wonderful that sunbeams absorbed by vegetation in the primordial
+  ages of the earth and buried in its depths as vegetable fossils
+  through immeasurable eras of time, until system upon system of slowly
+  formed rocks have been piled above, should come forth at last, at the
+  disenchanting touch of science, and turn the light of civilised man
+  into day."--_Prof. E. L. Youmans._
+
+  "The invention of artificial light has extended the available term
+  of human life, by giving the night to man's use; it has, by the
+  social intercourse it encourages, polished his manners and refined
+  his tastes, and perhaps as much as anything else, has aided his
+  intellectual progress."--_Draper._
+
+
+If one desires to know what the condition of cities, towns and peoples
+was before the nineteenth century had lightened and enlightened them,
+let him step into some poor country town in some out-of-the-way region
+(and such may yet be found) at night, pick his way along rough
+pavements, and no pavements, by the light of a smoky lamp placed here
+and there at corners, and of weeping lamps and limp candles in the
+windows of shops and houses, and meet people armed with tin lanterns
+throwing a dubious light across the pathways. Let him be prepared to be
+assailed by the odours of undrained gutters, ditches, and roads called
+streets, and escape, if he can, stumbling and falling into them. Let him
+take care also that he avoid in the darkness the drippings from the
+overhanging eaves or windows, and falling upon the slippery steps of the
+dim doorway he may be about to enter. Within, let him overlook, if he
+can, in the hospitable reception, the dim and smoky atmosphere, and
+observe that the brightest and best as well as the most cheerful
+illuminant flashes from the wide open fireplace. Occasionally a glowing
+grate might be met. The eighteenth century did have its glowing grates,
+and its still more glowing furnaces of coal in which the ore was melted
+and by the light of which the castings were made.
+
+It is very strange that year after year for successive generations men
+saw the hard black coal break under the influence of heat and burst into
+flames which lit up every corner, without learning, beyond sundry
+accidents and experiments, that this _gast_, or _geest_, or _spirit_, or
+_vapour_, or _gas_, as it was variously called, could be led away from
+its source, ignited at a distance, and made to give light and heat at
+other places than just where it was generated.
+
+Thus Dr. Clayton, Dean of Kildare, Ireland, in 1688 distilled gas from
+coal and lit and burned it, and told his learned friend, the Hon. Robert
+Boyle, about it, who announced it with interest to the Royal Society,
+and again it finds mention in the _Philosophical Transactions_ fifty
+years later. Then, in 1726, Dr. Hales told how many cubic inches of gas
+a certain number of grains of coal would produce. Then Bishop Watson in
+1750 passed some gas through water and carried it in pipes from one
+place to another; and then Lord Dundonald in 1786 built some ovens,
+distilled coal and tar, burned the gas, and got a patent. In the same
+year, Dr. Rickel of Wuerzburg lighted his laboratory with gas made by the
+dry distillation of bones; but all these were experiments. Finally,
+William Murdock, the owner of large workshops at Redruth, in Cornwall, a
+practical man and mechanic, and a keen observer, using soft coal to a
+large extent in his shops, tried with success in 1792 to collect the
+escaping gas and with it lit up the shops. Whether he continued steadily
+to so use the gas or only at intervals, at any rate it seems to have
+been experimental and failed to attract attention. It appears that he
+repeated the experiment at the celebrated steam engine works of Boulton
+and Watt at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1798, and again illuminated the
+works in 1802, on occasion of a peace jubilee.
+
+In the meantime, in 1801, Le Bon, a Frenchman at Paris, had succeeded in
+making illuminating gas from wood, lit his house therewith, and proposed
+to light the whole city of Paris.
+
+Thus it may be said that illuminating gas and the new century were born
+together--the former preceding the latter a little and lighting the way.
+
+Then in 1803 the English periodicals began to take the matter up and
+discuss the whole subject. One magazine objected to its use in houses on
+the ground that the curtains and furniture would be ruined by the
+saturation produced by the oxygen and hydrogen, and that the curtains
+would have to be wrung out the next morning after the illumination.
+There doubtless was good cause for objection to the smoky, unpleasant
+smelling light then produced.
+
+In America in 1806 David Melville of Newport, Rhode Island, lighted with
+gas his own house and the street in front of it. In 1813 he took out a
+patent and lighted several factories. In 1817 his process was applied to
+Beaver Tail Lighthouse on the Atlantic coast--the first use of
+illuminating gas in lighthouses. Coal oil and electricity have since
+been found better illuminants for this purpose.
+
+Murdoch, Winser, Clegg and others continued to illuminate the public
+works and buildings of England. Westminster Bridge and the Houses of
+Parliament were lighted in 1813, and the streets of London in 1815.
+Paris was lighted in 1820, and the largest American cities from 1816 to
+1825. But it required the work of the chemists as well as the mechanics
+to produce the best gas. The rod of Science had touched the rock again
+and from the earth had sprung another servant with power to serve
+mankind, and waited the skilled brain and hand to direct its course.
+
+Produced almost entirely from bituminous coal, it was found to be
+composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen; but various other gases
+were mixed therewith. To determine the proper proportions of these
+gases, to know which should be increased or wholly or partly eliminated,
+required the careful labours of patient chemists. They taught also how
+the gas should be distilled, condensed, cleaned, scrubbed, confined in
+retorts, and its flow measured and controlled.
+
+Fortunately the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part
+of the nineteenth had produced chemists whose investigations and
+discoveries paved the way for success in this revolution in the world of
+light. Priestley had discovered oxygen. Dalton had divided matter into
+atoms, and shown that in its every form, whether solid, liquid, or
+gaseous, these atoms had their own independent, characteristic,
+unalterable weight, and that gases diffused themselves in certain
+proportions.
+
+Berthollet, Graham, and a host of others in England, France, and
+Germany, advanced the art. The highest skilled mechanics, like Clegg of
+England, supplied the apparatus. He it was who invented a gas purifier,
+liquid gas meter, and other useful contrivances.
+
+As the character of the gas as an illuminator depends on the quantity of
+hydro-carbon, or olefiant elements it contains, great efforts were made
+to invent processes and means of carbureting it.
+
+The manufacture of gas was revolutionised by the invention of water gas.
+The main principle of this process is the mixture of hydrogen with the
+vapour of some hydro-carbon: Hydrogen burns with very little light and
+the purpose of the hydro-carbon is to increase the brilliancy of the
+flame. The hydrogen gas is so obtained by the decomposition of water,
+effected by passing steam through highly heated coals.
+
+Patents began to be taken out in this line in England in 1823-24; by
+Donovan in 1830; Geo. Lowe in 1832, and White in 1847. But in England
+water gas could not compete with coal gas in cheapness. On the contrary,
+in America, especially after the petroleum wells were opened up, and
+nature supplied the hydro-carbon in roaring wells and fountains, water
+gas came to the front.
+
+The leading invention there in this line was that of T. S. C. Lowe of
+Morristown, Pennsylvania, in 1873. In Lowe's process anthracite coal
+might be used, which was raised in a suitable retort to a great heat,
+then superheated steam admitted over this hot bed and decomposed into
+hydrogen and carbonic oxide; then a small stream of naphtha or crude
+petroleum was thrown upon the surface of the burning coal, and from
+these decompositions and mixtures a rich olefiant product and other
+light-giving gases were produced.
+
+The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1886 awarded Lowe, or his
+representatives, a grand medal of honour, his being the invention
+exhibited that year which in their opinion contributed most to the
+welfare of mankind.
+
+A number of inventors have followed in the direction set by Lowe. The
+largest part of gas manufacture, which has become so extensive, embodies
+the basic idea of the Lowe process.
+
+The competition set up by the electricians, especially in the production
+of the beautiful incandescent light for indoor illumination, has spurred
+inventors of gas processes to renewed efforts--much to the benefit of
+that great multitude who sit in darkness until corporations furnish them
+with light.
+
+It was found by Siemens, the great German inventor of modern gas
+regenerative furnace systems, that the quality of the gas was much
+improved, and a greater intensity of light obtained, by heating the
+gases and air before combustion--a plan particularly adapted in lighting
+large spaces.
+
+To describe in detail the large number of inventions relating to the
+manufacture of gas would require a huge volume--the generators,
+carburetors, retorts, mixers, purifiers, metres, scrubbers, holders,
+condensers, governors, indicators, registers, chargers, pressure
+regulators, etc., etc.
+
+It was a great convenience outside of towns and cities, where gas mains
+could not be laid, to have domestic plants and portable gas apparatus,
+worked on the same principles, but in miniature form, adapted to a
+single house, but the exercise of great ingenuity was required to render
+such adaptation successful.
+
+In the use of liquid illuminants, which need a wick to feed them, the
+_Argand burner_--that arrangement of concentric tubes between which the
+wick is confined--although invented by Argand in 1784, yet has occupied
+a vast field of usefulness in connection with the lamps of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+A dangerous but very extensively used illuminating liquid before coal
+oil was discovered was camphene, distilled from turpentine. It gave a
+good light but was not a safe domestic companion.
+
+Great attention has recently been paid to the production of _acetylene_
+gas, produced by the reaction between _calcium carbide_ and water. The
+making of the calcium carbide by the decomposition of mixed pulverised
+lime and coal by the use of a powerful electric battery, is a
+preliminary step in the production of this gas, and was a subsequent
+discovery.
+
+The electric light, acetylene, magnesium, and other modern sources of
+light, although they may be more brilliant and intense than coal gas,
+cannot compete in cheapness of production with the latter. Thus far
+illuminating coal gas is still the queen of artificial lights.
+
+After gas was fairly started in lighting streets and buildings its
+adaptation to lamps followed; and among the most noted of gas lamps is
+that of Von Welsbach, who combined a bunsen gas flame and a glass
+chimney with a "_mantle_" located therein. This mantle is a gauze-like
+structure made of refractory quartz, or of certain oxides, which when
+heated by the gas flame produce an incandescent glow of intense
+brilliancy, with a reduced consumption of gas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI.
+
+BRICK, POTTERY, GLASS, PLASTICS.
+
+
+When the nineteenth century dawned, men were making brick in the same
+way for the most part that they were fifty centuries before. It is
+recorded in the eleventh chapter of Genesis that when "the whole earth
+was of one language and one speech, it came to pass as they journeyed
+from the east that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they
+dwelt there, and they said to one another, Go to, let us make brick and
+burn them thoroughly, And they had brick for stone, and slime had they
+for mortar." Then commenced the building of Babel. Who taught the trade
+to the brick-makers of Shinar?
+
+The journey from the east continued, and with it went brick making to
+Greece and Rome, across the continent of Europe, across the English
+channel, until the brick work of Caesar, stamped by the trade mark of his
+legions, was found on the banks of the Thames, and through the fields of
+Caerleon and York.
+
+Alfred the Great encouraged the trade, and the manufacture flourished
+finely under Henry VIII., Elizabeth and Charles I.
+
+As to Pottery:--Could we only know who among the peoples of the earth
+first discovered, used, or invented fire, we might know who were the
+first makers of baked earthenware. Doubtless the art of pottery arose
+before men learned to bake the plastic clay, in that groping time when
+men, kneading the soft clay with their fingers, or imprinting their
+footsteps in the yielding surface and learning that the sun's heat
+stiffened and dried those forms into durability, applied the discovery
+to the making of crude vessels, as children unto this day make dishes
+from the tenacious mud. But the artificial burning of the vessels was no
+doubt a later imitation of Nature.
+
+Alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone implements have been
+found the hollow clay dish for holding fire, or food, or water. "As the
+fragment of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision, the dream
+of a vanished hand, a draught of water from a familiar spring, the
+almost perished fragrance of a pressed flower call back the singer, the
+loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood, or the parting
+hour, so in the same manner there linger in this crowning decade of the
+crowning century bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole
+people the fragrance and beauty of its past." _Prof. O. T. Mason._ The
+same gifted writer, adds: "Who has not read, with almost breaking heart,
+the story of Palissy, the Huguenot potter? But what have our witnesses
+to say of that long line of humble creatures that conjured out of
+prophetic clay, without wheels or furnace, forms and decorations of
+imperishable beauty, which are now being copied in glorified material in
+the best factories of the world? In ceramic as well as textile art the
+first inventors were women. They quarried the clay, manipulated it,
+constructed and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace and wore
+it out in a hundred uses."
+
+From the early dawn of human history to its present noonday civilisation
+the progress of man may be traced in his pottery. Before printing was an
+art, he inscribed on it his literature. Poets and painters have adorned
+it; and in its manufacture have been embodied through all ages the
+choicest discoveries of the chemist, the inventor and the mechanic.
+
+It would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery from at least the
+time of Homer, who draws a metaphor from the potter seated before his
+wheel and twirling it with both hands, as he shapes the plastic clay
+upon it; to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured vases, covered
+with Egyptian scenes and history; to re-excite wonder over the arts of
+China, in her porcelain, the production of its delicacy and bright
+colours wrapped in such mystery, and stagnant for so many ages, but
+revived and rejuvenated in Japan; to recall to mind the styles and
+composition of the Ph[oe]nician vases with mythological legends burned
+immortally therein; the splendid work of the Greek potteries; to lift
+the Samian enwreathed bowl, "filled with Samian wine"; to look upon the
+Roman pottery, statues and statuettes of Rome's earlier and better days;
+the celebrated _Faience_ (enamelled pottery) at its home in Faenza,
+Italy, and from the hands of its master, Luca della Robia; to trace the
+history of the rare Italian majolica; to tread with light steps the
+bright tiles of the Saracens; to rehearse the story of Bernard Palissy,
+the father of the beautiful French enamelled ware; to bring to view the
+splendid old ware of Nuremberg, the raised white figures on the deep
+blue plaques of Florence, the honest Delft ware of Holland; and finally
+to relate the revolution in the production of pottery throughout all
+Europe caused by the discoveries and inventions of Wedgwood of England
+in the eighteenth century. All this would be interesting, but we must
+hasten on to the equally splendid and more practical works of the busy
+nineteenth century, in which many toilsome methods of the past have been
+superseded by labour-saving contrivances.
+
+The application of machinery to the manufacture of brick began to
+receive attention during the latter part of the eighteenth century,
+after Watt had harnessed steam, and a few patents were issued in England
+and America at that time for such machinery of that character, but
+little was practically done.
+
+The operations in _brickmaking_, to the accomplishment of which by
+machines the inventors of the nineteenth century have devoted great
+talent, relate:
+
+First, to the preparation of the clay.--In ancient Egypt, in places
+where water abounded, it appears that the clay was lifted from the
+bottoms of ponds and lakes on the end of poles, was formed into bricks,
+then sun-dried, modernly called _adobes_. The clay for making these
+required a stiffening material. For this straw was used, mixed with the
+clay; and stubble was also used in the different courses. Hence the old
+metaphor of worthlessness of "bricks without straw," but of course in
+burning, and in modern processes of pressing unburnt bricks, straw is no
+longer used. Sand should abound in the clay in a certain proportion, or
+be mixed therewith, otherwise the clay, whether burned or unburned, will
+crumble. Stones, gravel and sticks must be removed, otherwise the
+contraction of the clay and expansion of the stones on burning, produce
+a weak and crumbling structure.
+
+Brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of iron, and in proportion
+as this abounds the burned brick is of a lighter or a deeper red. It may
+be desired to add colouring matter or mix different forms of clay, or
+add sand or other ingredients. Clay treated by hand was for ages kneaded
+as dough is kneaded, by the hand or feet, and the clay was often long
+subjected, sometimes for years, to exposure to the air, frost and sun to
+disintegrate and ripen it. As the clay must be first disintegrated,
+ground or pulverised, as grain is first ground to flour to make and
+mould the bread, so the use of a grinding mill was long ago suggested.
+The first machine used to do all this work goes by the humble name of
+_pug mill_.
+
+Many ages ago the Chilians of South America hung two ponderous solid
+wood or stone wheels on an axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated
+by animal power; the wheels were made to run round on a deep basin in
+which ores, or stones, or grain were placed to be crushed. This Chilian
+mill, in principle, was adopted a century or so ago in Europe to the
+grinding of clay. The pug mill has assumed many different forms in this
+age; and separate preliminary mills, consisting of rollers of different
+forms for grinding, alone are often used before the mixing operation. In
+one modern form the pug mill consists of an inverted conical-shaped
+cylinder provided with a set of interior revolving blades arranged
+horizontally, and below this a spiral arrangement of blades on a
+vertical axis, by which the clay is thoroughly cut up and crushed
+against the surrounding walls of the mill, in the meantime softened with
+water or steam if desired, and mixed with sand if necessary, and when
+thus ground and tempered is finally pressed down through the lower
+opening of the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds beneath.
+
+Second.--The next operation is for moulding and pressing the brick. To
+take the place of that ancient and still used mode of filling a mould of
+a certain size by the hands with a lump of soft clay, scraping off the
+surplus, and then dumping the mould upon a drying floor, a great variety
+of machines have been invented.
+
+In some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to feed out the clay in
+the form of a long horizontal slab, which is cut up into proper lengths
+to form the bricks. Some machines are in the form of a large horizontal
+revolving wheel, having the moulds arranged in its top face, each mould
+charged with clay as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout
+of the grinding mill, and then the clay is pressed by pistons or
+plungers worked by a rocking beam, and adapted to descend and fit into
+the mould at stated intervals; or the moulds, carried in a circular
+direction, may have movable bottom plates, which may be pressed upwards
+successively by pistons attached to them and raised by inclines on which
+they travel, forcing the clay against a large circular top plate, and in
+the last part of the movement carrying the pressed brick through an
+aperture to the top of the plate, where it is met by and carried away on
+an endless apron.
+
+In some machines two great wheels mesh together, one carrying the moulds
+in its face, and the other the presser plate plungers, working in the
+former, the bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by the
+action of cam followers, or by other means.
+
+In others the moulds are passed, each beneath a gravity-descending or
+cam-forced plunger, the clay being thus stamped by impact into form; or
+in other forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to successive
+pressure from the cam-operated pistons arranged horizontally and on a
+line with the discharging belt.
+
+Third, the drying and burning of the brick.--The old methods were
+painfully slow and tedious. A long time was occupied in seasoning the
+clay, and then after the bricks were moulded, another long time was
+necessary to dry them, and a final lengthy period was employed to burn
+them in crude kilns. These old methods were too slow for modern wants.
+But they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions, as in all
+ages the use of old arts and implements have continued along by the side
+of later inventions and discoveries.
+
+No useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently ever entirely
+supplanted. The implements of the stone age are still found in use by
+some whose environment has deprived them of the knowledge of or desire
+to use better tools. The single ox pulling the crooked stick plough, or
+other similar ancient earth stirrer, and Ruth with her sickle and
+sheaves, may be found not far from the steam plough and the automatic
+binder.
+
+But the use of antiquated machinery is not followed by those who lead
+the procession in this industrial age. Consequently other means than the
+slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics, and the crude
+kilns are giving way to modern heat distributing structures.
+
+Air and heat are driven by fans through chambers, in which the brick are
+openly piled on cars, the surplus heat and steam from an engine-room
+being often used for this purpose, and the cars so laden are slowly
+pushed on the tracks through heated chambers. Passages and pipes and
+chimneys for heat and air controlled by valves are provided, and the
+waste moisture drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys, the draft
+of which is increased by a hot blast, or blasts of heated air are driven
+in one direction through a chamber while the brick are moved through in
+the opposite direction, or a series of drying chambers are separated
+from each other by iron folding-doors, the temperature increasing as
+cars are moved on tracks from one chamber to another.
+
+Dr. Hoffmann of Berlin invented different forms of drying and burning
+chambers which attracted great attention. In his kiln the bricks are
+stacked in an _annular_ chamber, and the fire made to progress from one
+section of the chamber to another, burning the brick as the heat
+advances; and as fast as one section of green brick is dried, or burned,
+it is withdrawn, and a green section presented. Austria introduced most
+successful and thorough systems of drying brick about 1870. In some
+great kilns fires are never allowed to cease. One kiln had been kept
+thus heated for fifteen years. Thus great quantities of green brick can
+at any time be pushed into the kiln on tracks, and when burned pushed
+out, and thus the process may go on continuously day and night.
+
+To return to pottery: As before stated, Wedgwood of England
+revolutionised the art of pottery in the eighteenth century. He was
+aided by Flaxman. Before their time all earthenware pottery was what is
+now called "soft pottery." That is, it was unglazed, simply baked clay;
+_lustrous_ or _semi-glazed_ and _enamelled_ having a harder surface.
+Wedgwood invented the hard porcelain surface, and very many beautiful
+designs. To improve such earthenware and to best decorate it, are the
+objects around which modern inventions have mostly clustered.
+
+The "_regenerative_" principle of heating above referred to employed in
+some kilns, and so successfully incorporated in the regenerators
+invented since 1850 by Siemens, Frank, Boetius, Bicheroux, Pousard and
+others, consisting in using the intensely hot wasted gases from
+laboratories or combustion chambers to heat the incoming air, and
+carrying the mingled products of combustion into chambers and passages
+to heat, dry or burn materials placed therein, has been of great service
+in the production of modern pottery; not only in a great saving in the
+amount of fuel, but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware spoiled in
+the firing.
+
+The old method of burning wood, or soft coal, or charcoal at the bottom
+of a small old-fashioned cylindrical fire brick kiln attended to by
+hand, and heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves in the
+chamber above, is done away with to a great extent in large
+manufactories for the making of stone and earthenware--although still
+followed in many porcelain kilns.
+
+Inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received the aid of woman.
+Susan Frackelton of the United States invented a portable kiln for
+firing pottery and porcelain, for which she obtained a patent in 1886.
+
+As in drying clay for brick, so in drying clay for porcelain and pottery
+generally, great improvements have been made in the drying of the clay,
+and other materials to be mixed therewith. A great step was taken to aid
+drying by the invention of the _filter press_, in which the materials,
+after they are mixed and while still wet, are subjected to such pressure
+that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed out, by which the
+inclosure of air bubbles in the clay is prevented.
+
+Despairing of excelling the China porcelain, although French
+investigators having alleged their discovery of such methods, modern
+inventors have contented themselves in inventing new methods and
+compositions. Charles Aoisseau, the potter of Tours, born in 1796,
+rediscovered and revived the art of Palissy. About 1842, Thomas Battam
+of England invented the method of imitating marble and other statuary by
+a composition of silica, alumina, soda, and traces of lime, magnesia,
+and iron, reducing it to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds,
+forming the figure or group. His plaster casts soon became famous. In
+the use of materials the aid of chemists was had in finding the proper
+ingredients to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common and
+fine _Faience_.
+
+_Porcelain Moulding_, and its accompanying ornamentation and the use of
+apparatus for moulding by compression and by exhaustion of the air has
+become since that time a great industry.
+
+_Porcelain Colours._--Chemists also aided in discovering what metallic
+ingredients could best be used when mixed with the clay and sand to
+produce the desired colours. As soon as a new metal was discovered, it
+was tested to find, among other things, what vitrifiable colour it would
+produce. In the production of metallic glazes, the oxides generally are
+employed. The colours are usually applied to ware when it is in its
+unglazed or _biscuit_ form. In the _biscuit_ or _bisque_ form pottery is
+bibulous, the prepared glaze sinks into its pores and when burned forms
+a vitreous coating.
+
+The application of oil colours and designs to ware before baking by the
+"bat" system of printing originated in the eighteenth and was perfected
+in the nineteenth century. It consists of impressing oil pictures on a
+bat of glue and then pressing the bat on to the porous unbaked clay or
+porcelain which transferred the colours. This was another revolution in
+the art.
+
+One manner for ages of applying colours to ware is first to reduce the
+mixture to a liquid form, called "slip," and then, if the Chinese method
+is followed, to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow bamboo rod,
+which end is covered with wire gauze, then by blowing through the rod
+the colour was sprayed or deposited on the ware. Another method is the
+use of a brush and comb. The brush being dipped into the coloured
+matter, the comb is passed over the brush in such manner as to cause the
+paint to spatter the object with fine drops or particles. A very recent
+method, by which the beautiful background and blended colours of the
+celebrated Rookwood pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio, have become
+distinguished, consists in laying the colour upon the ware in a cloud or
+sheet of almost imperceptible mist by the use of an air atomiser blown
+by the operator. By the use of this simple instrument, the laying on a
+single colour, or the delicate blending and shadings of two or more
+colours in very beautiful effects is easily produced.
+
+This use of the atomiser commenced in 1884, and was claimed as the
+invention of a lady, Miss Laura Fry, who obtained a patent for thus
+blowing the atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in 1889; but it
+was held by the courts that she was anticipated by experiments of
+others, and by descriptions in previous patents of the spraying of paint
+on other objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air brush.
+However, this introduction of the use of the atomiser caused quite a
+revolution in the art of applying colours to pottery in the forming of
+backgrounds.
+
+Enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery. About 1878 Niedringhaus
+in the United States began to enamel sheet iron by the application of
+glaze and iron oxide, giving such articles a granite appearance; and
+since then metallic cooking vessels, bath tubs, etc., have been
+converted in appearance into the finest earthenware and porcelain, and
+far more durable, beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone for
+such purposes.
+
+When we remember that for many centuries, wood and pewter, and to some
+extent crude earthenware, were the materials from which the dishes of
+the great bulk of the human family were made, as well as their table and
+mantel ornaments, and compare them in character and plenteousness with
+the table and other ware of even the poorest character of to-day, we can
+appreciate how much has been done in this direction to help the human
+family by modern inventions.
+
+_Artificial Stone._--The world as yet has not so far exhausted its
+supply of stone and marble as to compel a resort to artificial
+productions on a great scale, and yet to meet the demands of those
+localities wherein the natural supplies of good building stones and
+marble are very scarce, necessitating when used a long and expensive
+transportation, methods have been adopted by which, at comparatively
+small cost, fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have been
+produced, having all the durable and artistic qualities of the
+originals, as for the most part, they are composed of the same materials
+as the stone and marbles themselves.
+
+The characteristic backgrounds, the veins and shadowings, and the soft
+colours of various marbles have been quite successfully imitated by
+treating dehydrated gypsum with various colouring solutions. Sand stones
+have been moulded or pressed from the same ingredients, and with either
+smooth or undressed faces. When necessary the mixture is coloured, to
+resemble precisely the original stones.
+
+One of the improvements in the manufacture and use of modern _cements_
+and artificial stones consists in their application to the making of
+streets and sidewalks. Neat, smooth, hard, beautiful pavements are now
+taking the place everywhere of the unsatisfactory gravel, wood, and
+brick pavements of former days. We know that the Romans and other
+ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements, and the plaster on some of
+their walls stands to-day to attest its good quality. Modern inventors
+have turned their attention in recent years to the production of
+machines to grind, crush, mix and set the materials, and to apply them
+to large wall surfaces, in place of hand labour. _Ready-made plaster_ of
+a fine quality is now manufactured in great quantities. It needs only
+the addition of a little water to reduce it to a condition for use; and
+a machine operated by compressed air may be had for spreading it quickly
+over the lath work of wood or sheet metal, slats, or over rough cement
+ceilings and walls.
+
+_Glass._--The Sister of Pottery is Glass. It may have been an accidental
+discovery, occurring when men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach,
+that fire could melt and fuse sand and ashes, or sand and lime, or sand
+and soda or some other alkali, and with which may also have been mixed
+some particles of iron, or lead, or manganese, or alumina to produce
+that hard, lustrous, vitreous, brittle article that we call _glass_.
+
+But who invented the method of blowing the viscid mass into form on the
+end of a hollow tube? Who invented the scissors and shears for cutting
+and trimming it when soft? Or the use of the diamond, or its dust, for
+polishing it when hard? History is silent on these points. The tablets
+of the most ancient days of Egypt, yet recovered, show glass blowers at
+work at their trade--and the names of the first and original inventors
+are buried in oblivion. Each age has handed down to us from many
+countries specimens of glass ware which will compare favourably in
+beauty and finish with any that can be made to-day.
+
+Yet with the knowledge of making glass of the finest description
+existing for centuries, it is strange that its manufacture was not
+extended to supply the wants of mankind, to which its use now seems so
+indispensable. And yet as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries glass windows were found only in the houses of the wealthy, in
+the churches and palaces, and glass mirrors were unknown except to the
+rich, as curiosities, and as aids to the scientists in the early days of
+telescopy. Poor people used oiled paper, isinglass, thinly shaved
+leather, resembling parchment, and thin sheets of soft pale crystalised
+stone known as talc, and soapstone.
+
+The nineteenth century has been characterised as the scientific century
+of glass, and the term commercial, may well be added to that
+designation.
+
+Its commercial importance and the advancement in its manufacture during
+the first half of the century is illustrated in the fact that the
+Crystal Palace of the London Industrial Exhibition of 1851, although
+containing nearly 900,000 square feet of glass, was furnished by a
+single firm, Messrs. Chance & Co. of London, without materially delaying
+their other orders. In addition to scientific discoveries, the
+manufacture of glass in England received a great impetus by the removal
+of onerous excise duties which had been imposed on its manufacture.
+
+The principal improvements in the art of glass-making effected during
+the nineteenth century may be summarised as follows:
+
+First, Materials.--By the investigations of chemists and practical
+trials it was learned what particular effect was produced by the old
+ingredients employed, and it was found that the colours and qualities of
+glass, such as clearness, strength, tenacity, purity, etc., could be
+greatly modified and improved by the addition to the sand of certain new
+ingredients. By analysis it was learned what different metallic oxides
+should be employed to produce different colours. This knowledge before
+was either preserved in secrecy, or accidentally or empirically
+practised, or unknown. Thus it was learned and established that lime
+hardens the glass and adds to its lustre; that the use of ordinary
+ingredients, the silicates of lime, magnesia, iron, soda and potash, in
+their impure form, will produce the coarser kinds of glass, such as that
+of which green bottles are made; that silicates of soda and lime give
+the common window glass and French plate; that the beautiful varieties
+of Bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate of potash and lime; that
+crystal or flint glass, so called because formerly pulverised flints
+were used in making it, can be made of a suitable combination of
+potassia plumbic silicate; that the plumbic oxide greatly increases its
+transparency, brilliancy, and refractive power; that _paste_--that form
+of glass from which imitations of diamonds are cut, may be produced by
+adding a large proportion of the oxide of lead; that by the addition of
+a trace of ferric oxide or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had; that
+by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire is produced;
+that cuperic oxide will give the emerald, gold oxide the ruby, manganic
+oxide the royal purple, and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic oxides
+the rich black onyx.
+
+Professor Faraday as early as 1824 had noticed a change in colour
+gradually produced in glass containing oxide of manganese by exposure to
+the rays of the sun. This observation induced an American gentleman, Mr.
+Thomas Gaffield, a merchant of Boston, to further experiment in this
+direction. His experiments commenced in 1863, and he subjected eighty
+different kinds of glass, coloured and uncoloured, and manufactured in
+many different countries, to this exposure of the sun's rays. He found
+that not only glass having manganese as an element, but nearly every
+species of glass, was so affected, some in shorter and some in longer
+times; that this discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun,
+but to its actinic rays; and that the original colour of the glass could
+be reproduced by reheating the same.
+
+Mr. Gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain the power of
+different coloured glasses to transmit the actinic or chemical rays, and
+found that blue would transmit the most and red and orange the least.
+
+Others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining the best
+materials to be employed in glass-making in producing the clearest and
+most permanent uncoloured light; the best coloured lights for desired
+purposes; glasses having the best effects on the growth of plants; and
+the best class for refracting, dispersing and transmitting both natural
+lights and those great modern artificial lights, gas and electricity.
+
+Another illustration of modern scientific investigation and success in
+glass-making materials is seen at the celebrated German glass works at
+Jena under the management of Professors Ernst Abbe and Dr. Schott,
+commenced in 1881. They, too, found that many substances had each its
+own peculiar effect in the refraction and dispersion of light, and
+introduced no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass making.
+Their special work was the production of glass for the finest scientific
+and optical purposes, and the highest grades of commercial glass. They
+have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass. Their lenses for
+telescopes and microscopes and photographic cameras, and glass and
+prisms, and for all chemical and other scientific work, have a worldwide
+reputation.
+
+So that in materials of composition the old days in which there were
+substantially but two varieties of glass--the old-fashioned standard
+crown, and flint glass--have passed away.
+
+_Methods._--The revolution in the production of glass has been greatly
+aided also by new methods of treatment of the old as well as the new
+materials. For instance, the application of the Siemens regenerative
+furnace, already alluded to in referring to pottery, in place of
+old-fashioned kilns, and by which the amount of smoke is greatly
+diminished, fuel saved, and the colour of the glass improved. Pots are
+used containing the materials to be melted and not heated in the
+presence of the burning fuel, but by the heated gases in separate
+compartments.
+
+Another process is that of M. de la Bastie, added to by others, of
+toughening glass by plunging it while hot and pasty and after it has
+been shaped, annealed, and reheated, into a bath of grease, whereby the
+rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular condition so that it
+is less dense, resists breaking to a greater degree, and presents no
+sharp edges when broken.
+
+Another process is that of making plate glass by the cylinder
+process--rolling it into large sheets.
+
+Other processes are those for producing hollow ware by pressing in
+moulds; for decorating; for surface enamelling of sheet glass whereby
+beautiful lace patterns are transferred from the woven or netted fabric
+itself by using it as a stencil to distribute upon the surface the
+pulverised enamel, which is afterwards burned on; of producing
+_iridescent_ glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of
+delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against the surface of
+hydrochloric acid under pressure, or the fumes of other materials
+volatilised in a reheating furnace.
+
+Then there is Dode's process for platinising glass, by which a
+reflecting mirror is produced without silvering or otherwise coating its
+back, by first applying a thin coating of platinic choride mixed with an
+oil to the surface of the glass and heating the same, by which the
+mirror reflects from its front face. The platinum film is so thin that
+the pencil and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it, the object
+to be copied being seen by reflection.
+
+Again there is the process of making _glass wool or silk_--which is
+glass drawn out into such extremely fine threads that it may be used for
+all purposes of silk threads in the making of fabrics for decorative
+purposes and in some more useful purposes, such as the filtration of
+water and other liquids.
+
+We have already had occasion to refer to Tilghman's sand blast in
+describing pneumatic apparatus. In glass manufacture the process is used
+in etching on glass designs of every kind, both simple and intricate.
+The sand forced by steam, or by compressed air on the exposed portions
+of the glass on which the design rests, will cut the same deeply, or
+most delicately, as the hand and eye of the operator may direct.
+
+_Machines._--In addition to the new styles of furnaces, moulds and
+melting, and rolling mills to which we have alluded, mention may be made
+of annealing and cooling ovens, by which latter the glass is greatly
+improved by being allowed to gradually cool. A large number of
+instruments have been invented for special purposes, such as for making
+the beautiful expensive cut glass, which is flint glass ground by wheels
+of iron, stone, and emery into the desired designs, while water is being
+applied, and then polished by wheels of wood, and pumice, or
+rottenstone; for grinding and polishing glass for lenses; and for
+polishing and finishing plate glass; for applying glass lining to metal
+pipes, tubes, etc.; for the delicate engraving of glass by small
+revolving copper disks, varying in size from the diameter of a cent down
+to one-fifteenth of an inch, cutting the finest blade of grass, a tiny
+bud, the downy wing of an insect, or the faint shadow of an exquisite
+eyebrow.
+
+_Cameo_ cutting and incrustation; porcelain electroplating and moulding
+apparatus, and apparatus for making porcelain plates before drying and
+burning, may be added to the list.
+
+It would be a much longer list to enumerate the various objects made of
+glass unknown or not in common use in former generations. The reader
+must call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks desirable to be
+made from or covered with this lustrous indestructible material, or any
+practicable form of instrument for the transmission of light, and it is
+quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops or instruments in
+factories ready for its making.
+
+
+_Rubber--Goodyear._
+
+The rubber tree, whether in India with its immense trunk towering above
+all its fellows and wearing a lofty crown, hundreds of feet in
+circumference, of mixed green and yellow blossoms; or in South America,
+more slender and shorter but still beautiful in clustered leaves and
+flowers on its long, loosely pendent branches; or in Africa, still more
+slender and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees along the
+water courses, hiding its struggling support and festooning the whole
+forest with its glossy dark green leaves, sweetly scented, pure white,
+star-like flowers, and its orange-like fruit--yields from its veins a
+milk which man has converted into one of the most useful articles of the
+century.
+
+The modes of treating this milky juice varies among the natives of the
+several countries where the trees abound. In Africa they cut or strip
+the bark, and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and smear it
+thickly over their limbs and bodies, and when it dries pull it off and
+cut it into blocks for transportation. In Brazil the juice is collected
+in clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering fire of palm nuts,
+which gives the material its dark brown appearance. They mould the
+softened rubber over clay patterns in the form of shoes, jars, vases,
+tubes, etc., and as they are sticky they carry them separated on poles
+to the large towns and sea ports and sell them in this condition. It was
+some such articles that first attracted the attention of Europeans, who
+during the eighteenth century called the attention of their countrymen
+to them.
+
+It was in 1736 that La Condamine described rubber to the French Academy.
+He afterward resided in the valley of the Amazon ten years, and then he
+and MM. Herissent, Macquer, and Grossat, again by their writings and
+experiments interested the scientific and commercial world in the
+matter.
+
+In 1770 Dr. Priestley published the fact that this rubber had become
+notable for rubbing out pencil marks, bits of it being sold for a high
+price for that purpose. About 1797, some Englishman began to make
+water-proof varnish from it, and to take out patents for the same. This
+was as far as the art had advanced in caoutchouc, or rubber, in the
+eighteenth century.
+
+In 1819 Mr. Mackintosh, of Glasgow, began experimenting with the oil of
+naphtha obtained from gas works as a solvent for India rubber; and so
+successfully that he made a water-proof varnish which was applied to
+fabrics, took out his patent in England in 1823, and thus was started
+the celebrated "Mackintoshes."
+
+In 1825 Thomas C. Wales, a merchant of Boston, conceived the idea of
+sending American boot and shoe lasts to Brazil for use in place of their
+clay models. This soon resulted in sending great quantities of rubber
+overshoes to Europe and America.
+
+The importation of rubber and the manufacture of water-proof garments
+and articles therefrom now rapidly increased in those countries. But
+nothing that could be done would prevent the rubber from getting soft in
+summer and hard and brittle in the winter. Something was needed to
+render the rubber insensible to the changes of temperature.
+
+For fifty years, ever since the manufacturers and inventors of Europe
+and America had learned of the water-proof character of rubber, they had
+been striving to find something to overcome this difficulty. Finally it
+became the lot of one man to supply the want. His name was Charles
+Goodyear.
+
+Born with the century, in New Haven, Connecticut, and receiving but a
+public school education, he engaged with his father in the hardware
+business in Philadelphia. This proving a failure, he, in 1830, turned
+his attention to the improvement of rubber goods. He became almost a
+fanatic on the subject--going from place to place clad in rubber
+fabrics, talking about it to merchants, mechanics, scientists, chemists,
+anybody that would listen, making his experiments constantly; deeply in
+debt on account of his own and his father's business failures, thrown
+into jail for debt for months, continuing his experiments there with
+philosophical, good-natured persistence; out of jail steeped to his lips
+in poverty; his family suffering for the necessaries of life; selling
+the school books of his children for material to continue his work, and
+taking a patent in 1835 for a rubber cement, which did not help him
+much. Finding that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber by
+removing its adhesiveness, he introduced this process, which met with
+great favour, was applied generally to the manufacture of overshoes, and
+helped his condition. But his trials and troubles continued. Finally one
+Nathaniel Haywood suggested the use of sulphurous acid gas, and this was
+found an improvement; but still the rubber would get hard in winter, and
+although not so soft in summer, yet the odour was offensive. Yet by the
+use of this improvement he was enabled to raise more money to get
+Haywood a patent for it, while he became its owner. In the midst of his
+further troubles, and while experimenting with the sulphur mixed with
+rubber he found by accidental burning or partly melting of the two
+together on a stove, that the part in which the sulphur was embedded was
+hard and inelastic, and that the part least impregnated with the sulphur
+was proportionately softer and more elastic. At last the great secret
+was discovered!
+
+And now at this later day, when $50,000,000 worth of rubber goods are
+made annually in the United States alone, the whole immense business is
+still divided into but two classes--hard and soft--hard or vulcanized
+like that called "ebonite," or soft, it may be, as a delicate wafer. And
+these qualities depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of
+sulphur is used, as described in the patents of Goodyear, commencing
+with his French patent of 1844.
+
+Then of course the pirates began their attacks, and he was kept poor in
+defending his patents, and died comparatively so in 1860; but happy in
+his great discovery. He had received, however, the whole world's
+honours--the great council medal at the Nations Fair in London in 1851
+the Cross of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III., and lesser tributes
+from other nations.
+
+It can be imagined the riches that flowed into the laps of Goodyear's
+successors; the wide field opened for new inventions in machines and
+processes; and the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from
+Goodyear's introduction of a new and useful material to man.--A material
+which, takes its place and stands in line with wood, and leather, and
+glass, and iron, and steel!
+
+But rubber and steel as we now know them are not the only new fabrics
+given to mankind by the inventors of the Nineteenth Century.
+
+The work of the silk worm has been rivalled; and a _wool_ as white and
+soft as that clipped from the cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands
+of these magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts from a
+blast furnace.
+
+The silk referred to is made from a solution of that inflammable
+material of tremendous force known as gun-cotton, or pyroxylin. Dr.
+Chardonnet was the inventor of the leading form of the article, which he
+introduced and patented about 1888. The solution made is of a viscous
+character, allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices in
+fine streams; and as the solvent part evaporates rapidly these fine
+streams become hard, flexible fibres, which glisten with a beautiful
+lustre and can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the fine
+threads spun by that mysterious master of his craft--the silk worm.
+
+The gusts of wind that drove against the molten lava thrown from the
+crater of Kilauea, producing as it did, a fall of white, metallic,
+hairy-like material resembling wool, suggested to man an industrial
+application of the same method. And at the great works of Krupp at
+Essen, Prussia, for instance, may be witnessed a fine stream of molten
+slag flowing from an iron furnace, and as it falls is met by a strong
+blast of cold air which transforms it into a silky mass as white and
+fine as cotton.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abbe, Prof. Ernst, 412, 473.
+
+  Abbott Museum, N.Y., 242.
+
+  Abrading machines, 332.
+
+  Acetylene, 70, 456.
+
+  Accumulators, 177.
+
+  Achromatic lens, 410.
+
+  Acoustics, 406.
+
+  Addressing machines, 285.
+
+  Aeolipile, 74.
+
+  Affixers, 285.
+
+  African inventions, 340, 476.
+
+  Agriculture, Chap. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
+
+  Agricultural chemistry, 64.
+
+  Agricultural societies, 16.
+
+  Aeronautics. (See Air Ships and Balloons, 169, 445, 448.)
+
+  Air Atomizers, 467.
+
+  Air brakes, 89, 108, 193.
+
+  Air Brushes, 195, 418.
+
+  Air Compressors and propellers, 195.
+
+  Air Drills, 194.
+
+  Air Engines, 89, 193, 194.
+
+  Air propellers. (See Pneumatics.)
+
+  Air Pumps, 55, 113, 194, 195, 196, 197, 404.
+
+  Air Ships, 446, 449.
+
+  Airy, 410.
+
+  "Alabama," The, 261.
+
+  Alarm Locks. (See Locks.)
+
+  Alchemistry and alchemists. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Alcohol, 65.
+
+  Alfred the Great, 386, 457.
+
+  Alembert, D., 167.
+
+  Alhambra, 373.
+
+  Allen, Horatio, 83.
+
+  Allen, Dr. John, 168.
+
+  Allotropic phosphorus. (See Matches.)
+
+  Allen and Yates. (See Puddling.)
+
+  Alloys, 237, 238.
+
+  Altiscope, 413.
+
+  Aluminium, 238.
+
+  Amalgamators, 380.
+
+  American Inventions, 341.
+
+  Ammonia, 191, 215.
+
+  Ammoniacal gas engines, 191.
+
+  Ampere, 122, 130.
+
+  Amontons air engines, 193.
+
+  Ancient smelting. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Anaesthetics, 2, 71.
+
+  Aniline dyes, 69.
+
+  Annealing and tempering, 248.
+
+  Antiseptics, 2, 72.
+
+  Antwerp, Siege of, 261. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Aoisseau, Chas., 466.
+
+  Apollo, 400.
+
+  Applegath, 283, 284.
+
+  Aqueducts, 93, 166, 167.
+
+  Arabs, 253, 274.
+
+  Arabic notation, 2.
+
+  Arago, 122, 410, 411, 416.
+
+  Arc Lamps, 137.
+
+  Archimedes, 9, 165, 185, 442.
+
+  Aristotle, 58.
+
+  Argand burner, 456.
+
+  Arkwright, Richard, 42, 296, 298, 301.
+
+  Arlberg tunnel, 107.
+
+  Armor, plate, 262, 264, 265, 266.
+
+  Arnold, Asa, 301.
+
+  Arnold, watchmaker, 389.
+
+  Armstrong, Sir William G., 176, 263, 264.
+
+  Arquebus. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Artesian Wells, 38.
+
+  Artificial Stone. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Artificial Silk. (See Glass.)
+
+  Arts, Fine, 197, 347, 353, 371, 400, 414, 418.
+
+  Art, Scientific, 228.
+
+  Artificial Teeth. (See Dentistry.)
+
+  Artillery. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Asbestos, 421.
+
+  Assembling machines and system.
+      (See Sewing machines, Watch, and Ordnance.)
+
+  Assyrians, 24.
+
+  Astronomical inventions, 390. (See Horology and Optics.)
+
+  Athens. (See Greece.)
+
+  Athanor, Alchemist's stone. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Atmospheric and Gas pressure, 194.
+
+  Atoms--atomic theory, 59, 60, 453.
+
+  Atomizer, 197, 467.
+
+  Attraction of Gravitation, 2.
+
+  Augurs, 348, 349.
+
+  Auricular instruments, 406.
+
+  Australia, 40.
+
+  Austria, 24, 50, 358.
+
+  Autoharps, 405.
+
+  Automobiles, 89, 435.
+
+  Axes, 340.
+
+
+  B.
+
+  Babbitt, Isaac, metal, 237.
+
+  Babylonians, 384.
+
+  Bach. (See Pianos.)
+
+  Bacon, Roger, 214.
+
+  Bacteria, 213.
+
+  Bailey, 1822; 37.
+
+  Bain, Alex., 147.
+
+  Baling and Bale ties, 51, 52, 53.
+
+  Balloons, 169, 446.
+
+  Band Saw, 348.
+
+  Barber, John, 185.
+
+  Barker's Mill, 171.
+
+  Barlow looms, 305.
+
+  Barlow, Prof., 123.
+
+  Barrel making. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Bartholdi, 105.
+
+  Bastie, 473.
+
+  Batcheller, 318.
+
+  Baths--closets, 178.
+
+  Bath system, Porcelain, 466.
+
+  Battam, Thomas, artificial marble, 466.
+
+  Baude, Peter, 224.
+
+  Beadlestone, metallurgist, 231.
+
+  Bean, B. W., 318.
+
+  Beaulieu, Col. (Ordnance), 264.
+
+  Beating engines. (See Paper.)
+
+  Becher, 58.
+
+  Bechler, 413.
+
+  Becquerel, 44.
+
+  Beds, 355.
+
+  Bed--printing, 282.
+
+  Beer. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Bellaert, Jacob, 280.
+
+  Bell, Alex. Graham, 140, 141, 142, 407, 414.
+
+  Bell, C. A., 408.
+
+  Bell, Sir L., metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Bell's history of metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Bell, Rev. Patrick, 36, 38.
+
+  Bells and Bell making--Metallurgy.
+
+  Bending wood, 349, 357. (See Woodworking.)
+
+  Bennett, Richard, 46.
+
+  Bentham, Sir Sam'l, 242, 342, 349, 374.
+
+  Bergman, 61.
+
+  Berliner, Emile, 408.
+
+  Bernoulli, D., 167.
+
+  Berthollet, 64, 454.
+
+  Berzelius, 60.
+
+  Bessemer, Henry, and process, 176, 232, 233.
+
+  Besson, Prof. J., 75, 242.
+
+  Bicheroux, potter, 465.
+
+  Bicycles, 431.
+
+  Bigelow, E. B., 305.
+
+  Billings, Dr., 210.
+
+  Binding books. (See Printing.)
+
+  Binders, grain and twine, 39.
+
+  Bicycles, 431 to 435.
+
+  Bischof, Simon, 191.
+
+  Blacksmithing. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Blaew of Amsterdam, 281.
+
+  Black, chemist, 58.
+
+  Blair, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Blakely Gun. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Blake, Eli. W., Blake crusher, 376, 377.
+
+  Blanchard, Thos., 268, 343, 344, 350, 356, 369.
+
+  Blasting, 107.
+
+  Blast, steel. (See Bessemer.)
+
+  Blauofen furnace. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Bleaching and Dyeing, 69.
+
+  Blenkinsop, 82.
+
+  Blithe, Walter, 14.
+
+  Block Printing. (See Printing.)
+
+  Blodgett & Lerow, sewing machines, 318.
+
+  Bloomaries. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Blunderbuss, 257.
+
+  Bobbins--spinning, 302.
+
+  Boerhaave, 58.
+
+  Boetius, 365.
+
+  Bohemia, 357.
+
+  Boilers. (See Steam Engineering.)
+
+  "Boke of Husbandry," 1523, 14.
+
+  Bollman bridge, 103.
+
+  Bolting. (See Milling.)
+
+  Bolt making. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Bombards, 254.
+
+  Bombs. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Bomford, Col., 260.
+
+  Bonaparte, 89, 90, 256.
+
+  Bonnets and ladies' hats, 324.
+
+  Bonjeau, M., 325.
+
+  Bonelli, M., 305.
+
+  Book making and binding, 287, 288.
+
+  Boots and shoes, 366 to 371.
+
+  Boring machines, 345, 348.
+
+  Boring square holes, 346.
+
+  Bormann, Genl., 259.
+
+  Bottle stoppers, 358.
+
+  Boulton and Watt, 84, 452.
+
+  Bouton, 415.
+
+  Bourseuil, Chas., 407.
+
+  Boyce, 1799, 35.
+
+  Boyle, Robert, 58, 184, 193, 194.
+
+  Box making. (See Woodworking Machinery.)
+
+  Braiding. (See Sewing Machines.)
+
+  Braithwaite, 83.
+
+  Brakes, bicycle, 433-436.
+
+  Brakes, steam, Railway and Electric, 87, 436.
+
+  Brakes and gins, 297.
+
+  Bramah, Jos., 82, 154, 170, 242, 244, 342, 349, 424.
+
+  Branch, 342.
+
+  Branco, 75.
+
+  Brahe, Tycho, 183, 388.
+
+  Brass, 219.
+
+  Brayton, G. H., 190.
+
+  Brazil, 281, 476, 477.
+
+  Breech-loaders, 257, 263, 264, 265, 269.(See Ordnance.)
+
+  Brewster, Sir David, 410.
+
+  Brickmaking machines, kilns and processes, 457, 464.
+
+  Bridges and Bridge Building, 93 to 104, 197.
+
+  Bright, John, 138.
+
+  Broadwood piano, 403.
+
+  Bronsen, 412.
+
+  Broom-making, 328, 329.
+
+  Brot, 411.
+
+  Brothers of the Bridge, 94.
+
+  Bronze, 218, 219.
+
+  Brooklyn bridge, 98, 99.
+
+  Brown, Sir Saml., 95, 187, 188.
+
+  "Brown Bess," 258.
+
+  Bruce, David, 284.
+
+  Brunel, I. K., 97.
+
+  Brunel, I. M., 351, 367.
+
+  Brunton, 82.
+
+  Brush--Brush light, 137.
+
+  Brushes and Brush making, 330.
+
+  Buchanan's Practical Essays, 244.
+
+  Buckingham, C. L., 148.
+
+  Buffing machines, 365.
+
+  Builders' hardware, 250.
+
+  Buildings, tall, 152, 153.
+
+  Buffers, 437. (See Railways, Elevator, etc., 160, 161.)
+
+  Bunsen, Robt. W., 119, 120, 230.
+
+  Bunsen light, 456.
+
+  Burden, Henry, 95.
+
+  Burdett, Wm., 188.
+
+  Burke, Edmund, 182.
+
+  Burns, Robert, 31.
+
+  Butter, 54, 55.
+
+  Button-hole machines, 323.
+
+  Bunsen. (See Chemistry.)
+
+
+  C.
+
+  Cable transportation, 109.
+
+  Caesar, 457.
+
+  Cahill, Thaddeus, 287.
+
+  Caissons, 100.
+
+  Calcium-carbide, 70, 456.
+
+  Calico making and printing, 325, 326.
+
+  California, 382.
+
+  Cameo cutting, 475.
+
+  _Camera obscura_, 414.
+
+  Campbell printing press, 285.
+
+  Canada, 40, 430.
+
+  Canals, and boats for, 84, 106, 107, 109, 110, 440.
+
+  Canal locks, 110.
+
+  Cane woven goods, 308.
+
+  Cannons and firearms, 252-272.
+
+  Cantilever bridges, 103, 104.
+
+  Caoutchouc. (See Rubber, 476.)
+
+  Caps,--gun, 259.
+
+  Car heating, 211.
+
+  Cars, sleeping, 431. (See Railways.)
+
+  Car tracks, 108.
+
+  Car rails, 108.
+
+  Car wheels, 108.
+
+  Carbines, 266. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Carbon--chemistry.
+
+  Carbonating, 68.
+
+  Carborundum, 70.
+
+  Cardan, 183.
+
+  Carding, 298, 300.
+
+  Cardova. (See Leather.)
+
+  Carlyle, 310.
+
+  Carnot. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Carpentry, 339, 352.
+
+  Carpets and Looms, 305.
+
+  Carre Brothers, 214.
+
+  Carriages and carrying machines, 82, 428-437.
+
+  Carthagenians, 164.
+
+  Carts. (See Coaches and Waggons.)
+
+  Cartridges, 267.
+
+  Cartwright, Rev. Edwd., 297.
+
+  Carving machinery, 346.
+
+  Case-shot. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Cash registers, 395.
+
+  Cast iron, 223.
+
+  Catalan furnace, 222. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Cauchy, 410.
+
+  Caus, Salomon de, 75.
+
+  Cavendish, 58.
+
+  Caxton, 280.
+
+  Centennial Exhibition. 1876; 38, 39, 40, 140, 246, 320,
+      352, 353, 393, 402, 430.
+
+  Centrifugal machines (pumps), 172, 173.
+
+  Charcoal. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Chairs. (See Furniture.)
+
+  Chaff separator. (See Milling.)
+
+  Chain wheels--hydraulics, 156.
+
+  Chairs, tables, desks, etc. (See Furniture, 351, 358.)
+
+  Challey, M., 97.
+
+  "Champion harvesters"--Harvesters.
+
+  Chance & Co., Glass makers, 470.
+
+  Channelling shoes. (See Leather.)
+
+  Chanute, Octave, 110.
+
+  Chappe, M., 125.
+
+  Charles I. (See Ordnance;
+    Charles II., 242;
+    Charles V., 387;
+    Charles VIII., 265.)
+
+  Chemistry, 58, 70.
+
+  Chemical Telegraph. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Chester-dial telegraph, 146.
+
+  Chili, 461.
+
+  Chill hardening, 250.
+
+  Chickering pianos, 403.
+
+  Chimes, 196.
+
+  China and Chinese inventions, 24, 52, 165, 222, 241, 253,
+      257, 273, 275, 280, 384, 386, 400, 423, 465.
+
+  Chlorates, 70.
+
+  Chlorine, 237.
+
+  Chlorination, 237.
+
+  Chromium, 70.
+
+  Chronometers, 390, 394.
+
+  Chubb-safes, 422, 425.
+
+  Cigar and cigarette machines, 56, 57.
+
+  Cincinnati Bridge. (See Engineering.)
+
+  Cincinnatus, 17, 31.
+
+  Circulation of blood, 2.
+
+  Civil Engineering, 93-110.
+
+  Clark, Alvan, 412.
+
+  Clavichord, 402.
+
+  Clayton, Dr., 1688, 451.
+
+  Clay, Treatment of. (See Brick and Pottery making.)
+
+  Cleaning grain, etc. (See Mills.)
+
+  Clement, metal worker, 244.
+
+  Clementi, pianist, 403.
+
+  Clepsydra, 384, 385, 386.
+
+  "Clermont." (See Steam Ships.)
+
+  Clippers, Ships, 439.
+
+  Clocks, 384. (See Horology.)
+
+  Clocks, Essential parts of, 386.
+
+  Closets. (See Baths.)
+
+  Cloth, Making, Finishing, 306;
+    Drying, 306;
+    Printing, 306;
+    Creasing and pressing, 306;
+    Cutting, 306-324;
+    Fancy woven, 205-306.
+
+  Clothes. (See Garments.)
+
+  Clover Header, 32.
+
+  Clutches, 161-162.
+
+  Clymer, of Philadelphia, press, 282.
+
+  Coaches, stages, mail, etc., 428-431.
+
+  Coach lace, 306.
+
+  Coal, 225, 378, 380;
+    Coal breakers and cleaners, 378-380.
+
+  Coal gas, 450;
+    Coal tar colors. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Coal mining. (See Ores.)
+
+  Coaling Ships, 110.
+
+  Coehorn, shell, 255.
+
+  Coffin, journalist, 25.
+
+  Coke. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Cold metal punching, working and rolling, 246-247.
+
+  Colding of Denmark, 63.
+
+  Collards, pianos, 403.
+
+  Collen, Henry, 417.
+
+  Collins line. (See Steam Ships.)
+
+  Collinge, 430.
+
+  Coloring cloth, 325.
+
+  Colors and coloring, 464-467.
+
+  Color process. (See Photography, 417, Printing, 290.)
+
+  Colt, revolvers, 260, 267, 322.
+
+  Columbiad, 261.
+
+  Colossus of Rhodes, 34.
+
+  Comminges of France, 255.
+
+  Comminuting machines. (See Grinding.)
+
+  Compartment vessels, 442.
+
+  Compass, 2.
+
+  Compensating devices, 391.
+
+  Compound engines, 87-89.
+
+  Compressed air drills, 376.
+
+  Compressed air and steam, 193, 194, 378.
+
+  Compressed air ordnance, 265, 269.
+
+  Condensers, 87.
+
+  Condamine, 477.
+
+  Conservation of forces, 2.
+
+  Constitution, U.S., 8.
+
+  Convertibility of forces, 2.
+
+  Containers, 175.
+
+  Conveyors, transportation, 152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160.
+
+  Cook, Telegraphy, 127, 146.
+
+  Cooke, Prof. J. P., 59.
+
+  Cooke, James, 25.
+
+  Cooking. (See Stoves.)
+
+  Cooper, Peter, 84.
+
+  Coopering. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Copernicus, 183.
+
+  Copper, 218, 219, etc.
+
+  Corliss, 88.
+
+  Corn: Cultivators, 29-30;
+    Mills, 46;
+    Planters, 28.
+
+  Correlation of forces, 2.
+
+  Cort, Henry, 226-231.
+
+  Corundum, 70, 334.
+
+  Coster, 280.
+
+  Cotton, 42, 43;
+    Gin, 42, 43, 297;
+    Harvester, 40.
+
+  Cotton seed oil, 69.
+
+  Cotton and wool machinery, 298. (See Textiles.)
+
+  "Counterblast to Tobacco," 155.
+
+  Couplers, 437.
+
+  Cowper, 31.
+
+  Cowper, printer, 283.
+
+  Cowley, 77.
+
+  Cradle, grain, 33.
+
+  Cranes and derricks, 110, 152, 153, 171.
+
+  Crecy, (1346). (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Cristofori, pianist, 402.
+
+  Crompton, Saml., 42, 297, 298, 301.
+
+  Crompton, George, 305.
+
+  Crookes, Prof. Wm., 149.
+
+  Crooke tubes, 149.
+
+  Cros, Charles, 407.
+
+  Crushers, stone and ore, 376.
+
+  Crystal Palace, 470.
+
+  Ctesibius, 74, 165, 168, 385.
+
+  Cultivators, 29, 30.
+
+  Curtet, 121.
+
+  Cugnot, 1769, 81.
+
+  Culverin. (See Cannon.)
+
+  Cunard line, 86.
+
+  Cuneus, 115.
+
+  Curtains Shades and Screens, 356.
+
+  Cyanide. Cyanide process, 236.
+
+  Cyclometers, 396.
+
+
+  D.
+
+  Daguerre, 415-416.
+
+  Daguerreotype, 415.
+
+  Dahlgren, Cannon, 264.
+
+  Danks, Rotary puddler, 231.
+
+  Dalton, John, 59-60, 186, 194, 453.
+
+  Damascus Steel, 221. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Dana, Prof., 126.
+
+  Daniell's battery, 119, 126.
+
+  Darby, Abraham, 1777, 95, 225.
+
+  Darwin, Dr., 18th cent., 73.
+
+  Davy, Humphry, Sir, 16, 63, 64, 70, 118, 122, 125,
+      188, 209, 236, 415.
+
+  David's harp, 6.
+
+  Decker, piano, 403.
+
+  Delinter, 43.
+
+  Dentistry, 72.
+
+  Dental Chairs, 72, 358;
+    Drills, 72;
+    Engines, 72;
+    Hammers, 72;
+    Pluggers, 72.
+
+  Deoville, St. Clair, 238.
+
+  Derricks, 110.
+
+  "Deutschland," The, 445.
+
+  Desks, 355.
+
+  De Susine, 192.
+
+  Dewar, Prof., 216.
+
+  Dial Telegraphs. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Diamonds. (See Milling; Polishing; Artificial, 70.)
+
+  Diamond Drill, 375.
+
+  Diana, Temple of, 34.
+
+  Diastase, 54.
+
+  Didot, Francois, 1800, 276.
+
+  Dickenson, 277.
+
+  Digesters. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Differential motion, 301.
+
+  Dioptric Lens, 410.
+
+  Diorama, 415.
+
+  Direct Acting Engines, 88.
+
+  Direct Feed Engines, 88.
+
+  Discoveries, distinct from inventions, 1, 2.
+
+  Disk Plows, 21, 30.
+
+  Distaff and Spindle. (See Textiles, 292.)
+
+  Dodge, James M., 159.
+
+  Doffers, 301.
+
+  Dog Carts. (See Carriages.)
+
+  Dollond, John, 410.
+
+  Donkin, 277.
+
+  Donovan, 454.
+
+  Don Quixote, 222.
+
+  Douglass, Nicholas, 105.
+
+  Draining, 105, 106, 107.
+
+  Drags and Drays. (See Waggons, 430-431.)
+
+  Drais, Baron Von, 432.
+
+  Drake, E. S., Col., 382.
+
+  Draper, J. W., Prof., 412, 416, 450.
+
+  Drawing Machines, Spinning, 296, 298, 301.
+
+  Dredging, 105, 106, 107.
+
+  Dressing; of thread and cloths, 299, 302;
+    of skins. (See Leather.)
+
+  Drills, seeders, 20, 27.
+
+  Drills, stone ore and iron, 375, 378.
+
+  Drying apparatus. (See Kilns.)
+
+  Dreyse, 266.
+
+  Dualine, 270.
+
+  Duboscq, 137.
+
+  Dudley, Dud, 224.
+
+  Duncan, John, 311.
+
+  Dundas, Charlotte, 84.
+
+  Dundonald, Lord, 451.
+
+  Dundas, Lord, 83, 440.
+
+  Dunlop, J. B., Bicycles, 433.
+
+  Duplex Engines, 88.
+
+  Dulcimer. (See Music.)
+
+  Dust Explosions and Collectors, 50.
+
+  Dutch Paper, 277;
+    Printing, 280.
+
+  Dutch Canals, 107.
+
+  Dutch Clocks, 388, 391.
+
+  Dutch Furnaces and Stoves, 203.
+
+  Dutch Locks, 424.
+
+  Dutch Ships, 439.
+
+  Dutch Ware, 459.
+
+  Dutton, Maj. C. E., 261.
+
+  Dynamometer, 187, 398.
+
+  Dynamite, 270.
+
+  Dynamo Electric Machines, 130, 134, 251.
+
+
+  E.
+
+  Eads, James B., 102.
+
+  Eames of U. S., 234.
+
+  East River Bridge, 98, 99.
+
+  Eddystone Lighthouse, 105.
+
+  Edison, 137, 144, 145, 148, 407, 408.
+
+  Egyptian agriculture, arts and inventions, 5, 13, 42, 45, 58,
+      164, 184, 220, 241, 273, 292, 340, 354, 400, 402, 423,
+      457, 460, 470.
+
+  Eiffel, M., 105.
+
+  Electricity, 5, 111-151.
+
+  Electric Alarms. (See Locks.)
+
+  Electric Batteries, 117-132.
+
+  Electric Cable, 138.
+
+  Electric Heating, 213.
+
+  Electric Lighting, 108, 119, 121 to 137, 360, 456.
+
+  Electro-Chemistry, 70.
+
+  Electro-magnets, 120-133.
+
+  Electro Metallurgy, 70, 238, 249.
+
+  Electrodes, 113, 135.
+
+  Electrolysis, 129, 131.
+
+  Electrometer, 113, 122.
+
+  Electrical Music, 148.
+
+  Electro Plating, 249.
+
+  Electric Railway, 143, 144.
+
+  Electric Signals and Stops, 160, 162.
+
+  Electric Telegraphy, 2, 114, 122, 123, 145, 146, 147.
+
+  Electrotyping, 283, 290.
+
+  Electric Type Printing, 147, 148.
+
+  Electric Type Writer, 287.
+
+  Electric Voters, 396.
+
+  Elevators, 6, 148, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157.
+
+  Eliot, Prof., 410.
+
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 402.
+
+  Elton, John, 46.
+
+  Elvean, Louis T. van, 155.
+
+  Embossing, 346, 347.
+
+  Embossing, weaving, 306.
+
+  Embroidery, 310, 313.
+
+  Emery, abrading, 70, 334.
+
+  Emery, testing machines, 398.
+
+  England, 8, 17, 25, 50, 188.
+
+  Engraving Machines, 290.
+
+  Enamelling. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Enamelled Ware, 459, 468.
+
+  Engineering. (See Civil.)
+    Electric, 143;
+    Hydraulic, 168;
+    Marine, 442;
+    Mining, 373;
+    Steam, 2.
+
+  Eolipile. (See Hero.)
+
+  Erard, pianist, 403.
+
+  Erasmus, 183.
+
+  Ericsson, John, 83, 86, 441, 443, 444.
+
+  Euclid, 9.
+
+  Euler, 167, 173.
+
+  Evans, Oliver, 1755-1819; 46, 47, 48, 81, 83, 87, 154, 374.
+
+  Evaporating, 52.
+
+  Evelyn, John, 1699; 25.
+
+  Evolution of modern inventions, 153.
+
+  Excavating, 105, 106.
+
+  Explosives, 270.
+
+  Eylewein, 167.
+
+
+  F.
+
+  Fabroni, 66, 118.
+
+  Faience, 459, 466.
+
+  Fairbairn, Sir Wm., 100, 176, 226, 440.
+
+  Fairbanks, scales and testing, 397.
+
+  Fahrenheit, 183.
+
+  Fanning Mills, 45.
+
+  Faraday, Michael, 63, 118, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 138,
+      188, 209, 411, 472.
+
+  Fan mills, 41.
+
+  Fare registers, 395.
+
+  Farmer, Moses G., 133, 135, 145.
+
+  Factory life, 298.
+
+  Faure, M. Camille, 120.
+
+  Faur, Faber du, 230.
+
+  Faust, 280.
+
+  Felt making, 325.
+
+  Fermentation, 65, 66, 67.
+
+  Fertilizers--machines and compositions. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Field, Cyrus W., 138.
+
+  Filament-carbon, 360.
+    (See Electric Lighting.)
+
+  Filters, filtering, 167, 180, 181.
+
+  Filter Press, 465.
+
+  Fink bridge, 103.
+
+  Fire-arms, 252-272.
+
+  Fire crackers, 252.
+
+  Fire engines, 76.
+
+  Fire place, 205.
+
+  Fiske, range finder, 266.
+
+  Fiske, 148, 413.
+
+  Fitch, John, 1784, 81.
+
+  Fitzherbert, Sir A., 1523, 14.
+
+  Fireproof safes. (See Locks.)
+
+  Flax machines, 42.
+
+  Flax brakes, 42.
+
+  Flaxman, 464.
+
+  Flax-threshers, 41, 42.
+
+  Fleming, 247.
+
+  Fleshing machines, 364.
+
+  Fletcher, 244.
+
+  Flexible shafts, 350.
+
+  Florence, 459.
+
+  Flour. (See Mills.)
+
+  Fly Shuttle. (See Spinning and Weaving.)
+
+  Foods, preparation of, 53, 54.
+
+  Force feed-seeders, 26.
+
+  Forneyron, 171, 172.
+
+  Forsythe, Rev. Mr., 259, 260.
+
+  Foucault, 137.
+
+  Fourcroy, 64.
+
+  Fourdrinier, 277. (See Paper making.)
+
+  Frackelton, Susan, portable kiln, 465.
+
+  France, 63, 203, 253, 274, 275, 313.
+
+  Francis, S. W., 286.
+
+  Frank, pottery, 463.
+
+  Franklin, Benj., 5, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117, 121, 125,
+      168, 203, 281, 446.
+
+  Franklin Institute, 455.
+
+  Fraunhofer, von, Jos., 61, 412.
+
+  Frederick, Henry, 255.
+
+  Freiberg Mining Academy, Metallurgy, 223.
+
+  Fresnel, 410.
+
+  Frictional Electricity, 111.
+
+  Frieburg Bridge. (See Bridges.)
+
+  Frogs, R. R., 108.
+
+  Flintlock, firearms, 258.
+
+  Froment, 146.
+
+  Frontinus, on Roman aqueducts, 166.
+
+  Fruits, Preparation of, 51, 53.
+
+  Fruit jars, 359.
+
+  Fry, Laura, 467.
+
+  Fulton, Robt., 84-85.
+
+  Furnaces, hot air; hot water, 206, 207.
+
+  Furniture, 351, 354, 359.
+
+  Furniture machinery, 351, 352.
+
+  Fuses, 259.
+
+
+  G.
+
+  Gaffield, Thos., glass, 472.
+
+  Gale, Prof., 126.
+
+  Galileo, 1, 166, 183, 388, 409.
+
+  Gally, self-playing pianos, 406.
+
+  Galton, Capt. Douglas, 205.
+
+  Galvani, 5, 117, 118, 125.
+
+  Galvanism, 112,121.
+
+  Galvanic batteries, 121, 122.
+
+  Galvanic music, 148, 406.
+
+  Galvanometer, 122, 139.
+
+  Gamble, 277.
+
+  Garay, Blasco de, 75.
+
+  Garments, 310-327.
+
+  Gas, 450;
+    illuminating, 69, 185, 450-456.
+
+  Gases, motors, 188, 190.
+
+  Gas checks, 266.
+
+  Gas engines, 76, 18, 184-194.
+
+  Gasoline and stoves, 213.
+
+  Gas pumps, 190.
+
+  Gatling, Dr., gun, 269.
+
+  Gaul, 32, 33.
+
+  Gauss, 126.
+
+  Gay-Lussac, 60, 185, 194, 209.
+
+  Ged, Wm., 281.
+
+  Geissler tubes, 135, 149.
+
+  Generator, Electric, 113.
+
+  Gentleman Farmer, 1768, 20.
+
+  George III., 389.
+
+  German inventions, 50, 203, 255, 313, 387, 391, 430, 473.
+
+  Germ theory, 67.
+
+  German clock and watch making, 387.
+
+  Gibraltar, 253.
+
+  Giffard-injector, 173.
+
+  Gilbert, Dr., 1600, 5, 113.
+
+  Gill, J. G., 268.
+
+  Giers, 234, 250.
+
+  Gin-cotton, 297.
+
+  Gladstone, inventor, 1806, 35.
+
+  Glass, 469, 474.
+
+  Glass, wool, and silk, 474, 480.
+
+  Glazes, 475. (See Porcelain.)
+
+  Glauber, 58.
+
+  Glycerine, 69.
+
+  Gold. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Goodyear, Chas., 434, 476, 478, 479, 480.
+
+  Googe, Barnaby, 14.
+
+  Gompertz, 432.
+
+  Gordon, 82.
+
+  Gothic architecture, 373.
+
+  Governors, 87.
+
+  Graham (chemist), 391.
+
+  Graham. (See Horology.)
+
+  Grain Binder. (See Harvesters.)
+
+  Grain cradles, drills, and seeders. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Grain elevator, 110.
+
+  Grain Separators, 49.
+
+  Gramme, Z., 134, 136, 137.
+
+  Gramophone, 406, 408.
+
+  Graphophone, 406, 408.
+
+  Grass burning stoves, 211.
+
+  Gray, Elisha. (See Electricity.)
+
+  Gray, S., 1729, 114, 125.
+
+  "Great Britain," The, 440.
+
+  "Great Republic," The, 439.
+
+  Great Urgroez, 357.
+
+  Greece and Greek antiquities and inventions, 9, 13, 18, 45,
+      74, 113, 164, 182, 218, 257, 340, 386, 457, 459.
+
+  Grenades, 255.
+
+  Green, N. W., driven well, 383.
+
+  Greenough, J. J., 318.
+
+  Gribeauval, 256.
+
+  Griffith, Julius, 82.
+
+  Griffiths of U. S., 234.
+
+  Grinding by stones, 45 to 49.
+
+  Grinding glass, 475.
+
+  Grindstones, 375.
+
+  Grossat, 477.
+
+  Grover and Baker sewing mach., 320.
+
+  Grooving, 245.
+
+  Grove, Sir Wm. Robert, 119.
+
+  Gruner, 234.
+
+  Gun carriages. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Gun cotton, 270.
+
+  Gun making, 345.
+
+  Gunpowder, 253, 262, 263, 270.
+
+  Gunpowder eng., 192.
+
+  Gun-stock, 345.
+
+  Guericke, Otto von, 113, 183, 193.
+
+  Guillaume, Puy, 253.
+
+  Gurney, 82.
+
+  Guttenberg, John, 280.
+
+
+  H.
+
+  Hales, Dr., 451.
+
+  Hall, John H., 267.
+
+  Hall safes, 422.
+
+  Hamberg, 58.
+
+  Hamblet, 146.
+
+  Hamilton (stove inventor), 212.
+
+  Hammers, steam and air, 88, 244.
+
+  Hanckwitz, Godfrey, 1680, 199.
+
+  Hancock, Walter, 82.
+
+  Handel, 402.
+
+  Hanging Gardens, 34.
+
+  Hardening metals, 249.
+
+  Hardware. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Hargreaves, Jas., 42, 294, 297.
+
+  Harnesses, 431.
+
+  Harp, The, and the Harpsichord, 6, 402.
+
+  Harvesters, 32, 33, 35, 39, 40, 41, 322.
+
+  Hartshorn, spring roller shades, 356.
+
+  Harveyized steel, 234, 249.
+
+  Harrows, 22, 28.
+
+  Hautefeuille, 77.
+
+  Hauteville, Abbe, 185, 389.
+
+  Hat making, 325.
+
+  Haydn, 402.
+
+  Hay, rakes and tedders, 15, 40.
+
+  Headers, 32.
+
+  Heat as power, 186, 187.
+
+  Heating, 86, 199, 210.
+
+  Hebrews, 45, 362, 423.
+
+  Hele, P., 388.
+
+  Helmont, J. van, 58, 184.
+
+  Hell Gate, 107.
+
+  Helmholtz, 66, 131, 141, 403, 406, 407, 411, 417.
+
+  Hendley, Wm., 82.
+
+  Henry, Joseph, 63, 123, 124, 126, 131, 146, 210.
+
+  Henry, rifle, 267.
+
+  Henry, Wm., 78.
+
+  Herissent, M., 477.
+
+  Hermetical sealing, 359.
+
+  Herodotus, 362.
+
+  Hero of Alexander, 5, 9, 74, 76, 87, 89, 165, 171, 404.
+
+  Herring, safes, 421.
+
+  Herschel, 228, 412.
+
+  Hides, treatment of. (See Leather.)
+
+  Hide mills, 364.
+
+  High and low pressure engines, 87, 88.
+
+  Hindoos, 220, 241, 254, 273, 292, 340, 384.
+
+  Hodges, James, of Montreal, 101.
+
+  Hoe, Robert, and son, R. M., 284.
+
+  Hoe drill-seeders, 27.
+
+  Hoes, 29, 30.
+
+  Hoffman, Dr., 464.
+
+  Hoisting, conveying, and storing, 152-163.
+
+  Holland, 18, 255, 257, 275.
+
+  Holley, A. L., 232.
+
+  Holtzapffel, J., 241.
+
+  Homer, 459.
+
+  Hooke, Dr., 388, 389.
+
+  Hoopes and Townsend, 247.
+
+  Hoppers. (See Mills.)
+
+  Hopper boy. (See Mills.)
+
+  Hoosac tunnel, 107.
+
+  Hornblower, 1781, 87.
+
+  Horrocks, 305.
+
+  Horse power, 187.
+
+  Horseshoes, 248.
+
+  Horology, 384-395.
+
+  Hot air engines, 185.
+
+  Hot air blast, 231.
+
+  Hot furnaces. (See Heating.)
+
+  Hot water circulation. (See Heating.)
+
+  Hotchkiss gun, 270.
+
+  Houdin regulator, 137.
+
+  Houses, their construction, 351, 352.
+
+  Houston. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  Howe, Elias, 314-318.
+
+  Howe bridge, 103.
+
+  Howitzer. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Hunt, Walter, 314, 315.
+
+  Hungary, 357.
+
+  Huggins, Dr., 63, 412.
+
+  Hughes, D. E., 147.
+
+  Hugon, 189.
+
+  Hulls, Jonathan, 78.
+
+  Huntsman, Benj., 225.
+
+  "Husbandry, The whole art of." (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Huskisson, 83.
+
+  Hussey, 1833, 37, 38.
+
+  Huxley, 65.
+
+  Huygens, 61, 77, 183, 184, 192, 388, 391.
+
+  Hydraulicising, 174.
+
+  Hydraulic elevators, 156, 157, 164, 165, 166.
+
+  Hydraulic jacks, 174.
+
+  Hydraulic motors, 164-181;
+    pumps, rams, 166, 168;
+    press, 52, 53, 154, 155, 168, 171, 175;
+    testing, 398, 399.
+
+  Hydrogen gas, 454.
+
+  Hydrostatic engines and presses, 166, 190, 194.
+
+
+  I.
+
+  Ida, mountains of, iron, 218.
+
+  Illuminating gas. (See Gas.)
+
+  Impulse pump. (See Ram.)
+
+  Incandescent light, 135, 456.
+
+  Incubators, 207.
+
+  India, 373, 400.
+
+  Industrial mechanics, 328-338.
+
+  Injectors, 173.
+
+  Intensifiers, 174.
+
+  International Exposition, London, 246, 352.
+
+  Invention, what it is, how induced, distinctions, growth,
+      protection of, 1-8.
+
+  Iron, 218.
+
+  Iron Ships. (See Ships.)
+
+  Iridescent glass, 474.
+
+  Ironing machines, 338.
+
+  Italy, 255, 280.
+
+  Ives. F. E. (three-color process), 417.
+
+
+  J.
+
+  Jablochoff, M. Paul, 136.
+
+  Jacks, 245.
+
+  Jacobi, of Russia, 249.
+
+  Jackson, C. T., Dr., 71.
+
+  Jacquard Loom, The, 304, 323, 326.
+
+  Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 304, 305.
+
+  Jenk's ring frame, 302.
+
+  Jenkins, Prof. F., 192.
+
+  Jefferson, Thos., 16,18.
+
+  Jenkin, Prof. Fleeming, 144.
+
+  Jewelry, 333.
+
+  "Jimcrow," 245.
+
+  Johnson, Denis. (See Bicycle.)
+
+  Jones, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Jonval, 172.
+
+  Joule, 2.
+
+  Jupiter, statue of, 34.
+
+
+  K.
+
+  Kaleidoscope, 410.
+
+  Karnes, Lord, 1768, 20.
+
+  Kaolin. (See Lighting.)
+
+  Kay, John, 293, 295.
+
+  "Kearsarge," The, 261.
+
+  Kepler, 183.
+
+  Kennedy, Diss and Cannan, 331.
+
+  Kilns, 463, 464, 465.
+
+  Kinetic energy, Age of, 86.
+
+  Kinetograph, 417.
+
+  Kirchoff, G. R., 62, 412.
+
+  Kitchen and table utensils, 356.
+
+  Knabe piano, 403.
+
+  Knight, Edward, 36, 51, 170, 202, 232, 276, 321, 429.
+
+  Knitting, 307, 308.
+
+  Koenig and Bauer, 283.
+
+  Koenig, acoustics, 407.
+
+  Koops, 277.
+
+  Koster, 1620, rifle, 258.
+
+  Krag-Jorgensen rifle, 268.
+
+  Kramer, 146.
+
+  Krupp, steel, 234.
+
+  Krupp, Fredk., guns, 264.
+
+  Krupp, glass, 480.
+
+  Kutler, Augustin, 258.
+
+
+  L.
+
+  La Condamine, 477.
+
+  Labor organizations, 11.
+
+  Labor, how affected by inventions; reducing, and increasing,
+      152, 153, 162, 163, 293, 308, 380, 381, 460.
+
+  Lace making, 306.
+
+  Laconium, 202.
+
+  Ladd electric machine, 133.
+
+  La Hire, 167, 170.
+
+  Laird, John, 440, 443.
+
+  Lallement, P. (See Bicycle.)
+
+  Lamps and lamp lighting, 359, 450.
+
+  Lancaster, cannon, 263.
+
+  Land reclamation, 107.
+
+  Lane, 1828, 37.
+
+  Lane-Fox light, 137.
+
+  Langen and Otto. (See Gas Engine.)
+
+  Langley, Prof., 4.
+
+  L'Hommedieu, 348.
+
+  Lapping-cotton, 299, 300.
+
+  Lasts, making of, 344, 345.
+
+  Lathes, 241-243, 340, 345, 349;
+    for turning irregular forms of wood, 344.
+
+  Lattice work bridges, 103.
+
+  Laundry, 335.
+
+  Lavoisier, 58, 60, 63.
+
+  Lawn mowers, 40.
+
+  Lazy tongs mechanism, 160.
+
+  Le Bon, 1801, 185, 452.
+
+  Leaching, 236.
+
+  Lead, 219. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Leather, 361-372.
+
+  Leeuwenhoek of Holland, 65.
+
+  Leeu, 280.
+
+  Leckie, 41.
+
+  Le Conte, 63.
+
+  Lefaucheux, M., 267.
+
+  Leibnitz, 183.
+
+  Lenoir, 189.
+
+  Lesage, 121.
+
+  Lescatello, 1662, 24.
+
+  Leyden jar, 114.
+
+  Libavius, 58.
+
+  Liebig, 64.
+
+  Lieberkulm, Dr., 409.
+
+  Light, 2.
+
+  Lighting. (See Lamps and Gas.)
+
+  Light Houses, illumination, 105, 410.
+
+  Linotype, 288, 289, 290.
+
+  Linville bridge, 103.
+
+  Lippersheim, 409.
+
+  Liquid air, 216, 217.
+
+  Livingstone, Dr., 221.
+
+  Livingston, Robt., 84, 85.
+
+  Lixiviation, 236.
+
+  Locks, 420-427.
+
+  Locomotives, 82, 83, 84, 88.
+
+  Looms, 293, 297, 302. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Loomis, Mahlen, 150.
+
+  "London Engineering," 288.
+
+  London exhibition, 1851, 470.
+
+  London Times, 283, 285.
+
+  Lontin regulator, 137.
+
+  Lost arts, 219.
+
+  Louis XI., XIV., 254, 255.
+
+  Lowell, Francis C., 298.
+
+  Lowe, T. S. C., gas, 454, 455.
+
+  Lubricants, 237.
+
+  Lyall, James, 306.
+
+  Lyttleton, 442.
+
+
+  M.
+
+  MacArthur-Forrest, cyanide process, 236.
+
+  Macaulay, Lord, 10.
+
+  Mackintosh, of Glasgow, 477.
+
+  Machine guns, 269.
+
+  Madersperger, Jos., 312.
+
+  Magdeburg, 193.
+
+  Magic lantern. (See Optics.)
+
+  Magnets and Magnetic Electricity, 112, 122, 123, 124, 130, 133.
+
+  Mail bags and locks, 427.
+
+  Mail service, 427.
+
+  Mail marking, 285.
+
+  Majolica. (See Pottery.)
+
+  Malt, 65, 66.
+
+  Man a tool-using animal, 310.
+
+  Manning, 1831, 37.
+
+  Marble, artificial, 468, 469.
+
+  Marine propulsion, 442.
+
+  Marconi, 151.
+
+  Mariotte's law of gases, 184, 194.
+
+  Markers and cutters, 324.
+
+  Markham, 30.
+
+  Marsland, looms, 301.
+
+  Marr, Wm., 421.
+
+  Martin, Prof., 63.
+
+  Marvin's safes, 421.
+
+  McClure's Magazine, 445, 447.
+
+  McCormick reaper, 37, 38.
+
+  McCallum bridge, 103.
+
+  McKay, ships, 439.
+
+  McKay, shoe machines, 369.
+
+  McMillan bicycle, 433.
+
+  Mary, Queen, 402.
+
+  Mason, Prof. O. T., 458.
+
+  Massachusetts, mills, 298, 369.
+
+  Massachusetts, shoe making, 370.
+
+  Master locks, 423, 426.
+
+  Matches, 199, 200, 201.
+
+  Matting, 309, 312.
+
+  Maudsley, Henry, 243, 349.
+
+  Maurice of Nassau, 255.
+
+  Maurice, Peter, 167.
+
+  Mauser rifle, 269.
+
+  Mausoleum, 34.
+
+  Maxim electric light, 137.
+
+  Maxwell, 417.
+
+  Mayer, Prof., 404.
+
+  Meares, 1800, 35.
+
+  Meat, Preparation of, 55.
+
+  Mechanical powers, 4.
+
+  Medicine and surgery, 70, 71, 72.
+
+  Meigs, General M. C., 102.
+
+  Meikle, 1786, 41.
+
+  Megaphone, 407.
+
+  Melville, David, 452.
+
+  Menai Straits bridges, 96.
+
+  Mendeljeff, 2.
+
+  Menzies of Scotland, 41.
+
+  Mergenthaler, 288.
+
+  Merrimac and Monitor, 268, 441.
+
+  Metals and Metallurgy, 218-239.
+
+  Metal founding, 249.
+
+  Metal working and turning, 240;
+    boring, planing, 251;
+    hammering, shaping, 240;
+    modern metal
+    working plant, 250.
+
+  Metal, personal ware, buckles, clasps, hooks, buttons, etc.,
+      250.
+
+  Meters, gas and water, 178.
+
+  Mexico, 281, 292.
+
+  Microphone, 148.
+
+  Microscope, 409.
+
+  Middlings purifier, 49, 50.
+
+  Milk, milkers, 54, 55.
+
+  Millet, 30.
+
+  Mills, 45 to 51.
+
+  Milling, high, low, 49.
+
+  Miller, wood working, 342.
+
+  Miller and Taylor, 81.
+
+  Millwright, The Young, 47.
+
+  Milton, 105, 218.
+
+  Mineral wool, minerals and mining, 373-383.
+
+  Minneapolis mills, 50.
+
+  Mitrailleuses, 269.
+
+  Modern machinery, its commencement, 364.
+
+  Mohl, von, Hugo, 67.
+
+  Moigno, Abbe, 411.
+
+  Mold, aging. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Moulding. (See Wood-working and Glass making.)
+
+  Monks, 387.
+
+  "Monitor," The, 268, 441.
+
+  Montgolfier, 169.
+
+  Moody, Paul, 298.
+
+  Moors, 253.
+
+  Morin, Genl., 209, 238.
+
+  Morland, Sir Sam'l, 77.
+
+  Morrison, Chas., 115.
+
+  Morse, S. B. F., 126, 127, 128, 129.
+
+  Mortars, 253.
+
+  Mortise making, 345.
+
+  Morton, Dr. W. T. G., 71.
+
+  Motor vehicles, 435.
+
+  Mont Cenis Tunnel, 107.
+
+  Mowers, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
+
+  Moxon, Jos., 242.
+
+  Mozart, 402.
+
+  Murdock, Wm., 185, 452.
+
+  Music, 400-406.
+
+  Musical instruments, 6, 400.
+
+  Musical electrical apparatus, 406.
+
+  Muschenbroeck, Prof., 1745, 114, 115.
+
+  Mushet, iron and steel, 234.
+
+  Muskets. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Muzzle loaders, 263, 264.
+
+
+  N.
+
+  National Assembly, France, 9.
+
+  Napoleon. (See Bonaparte.)
+
+  Naphtha, 454.
+
+  Nasmyth, 243, 245.
+
+  Needle, 310, 313.
+
+  Needle gun, 266.
+
+  Niedringhaus, 468.
+
+  Netting. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Newcomen, 5, 77, 78, 79, 167, 187.
+
+  Newbold, Chas., 19.
+
+  Newbury, Wm., 348.
+
+  Newton, Sir Isaac, 9, 11, 61, 114, 167, 183, 414.
+
+  Niagara bridges, 97, 98, 104.
+
+  Niagara power, 171, 172.
+
+  Nicholson and Carlisle, 118.
+
+  Nicholson, Wm., of England, 282.
+
+  Nickel. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Niepce, Jas. N., 415.
+
+  Nitro-glycerine, 270.
+
+  Noah's Ark, 438.
+
+  Nobel, A., 192.
+
+  Nollet, Prof., 132.
+
+  Noria, The, 165.
+
+  Norway, 266, 430, 439.
+
+  Nozzles, flexible, 174;
+    water, 179.
+
+
+  O.
+
+  Oersted, 121, 130.
+
+  Ogle, 1822, 36.
+
+  Ohm, G. S., 125.
+
+  Oils and fats, 69.
+
+  Oil cloth, 306.
+
+  Oil lamps, 359.
+
+  Oil stoves and furnaces, 190, 212.
+
+  Oiling waves, 446.
+
+  Oil wells, 190, 382.
+
+  Omnibus. (See Stages and Carriers.)
+
+  Opening and blowing machines, cotton, 299.
+
+  Opthalmoscope, 411.
+
+  Optical instruments, 409-412.
+
+  Ordnance, arms, explosives, 252 to 272.
+
+  Ores, treatment of, 229, 250, 251, 373 to 380.
+
+  Ore separators, 379. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Organs, 404.
+
+  Ornamental iron work. (See Metal Working.)
+
+  Ornamental wood work. (See Wood Working.)
+
+  Oscillating engines. (See Steam.)
+
+  Osmund furnaces. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Otis elevators, 155.
+
+  Otto, Nicolaus A., Otto engine, 190, 191.
+
+  Oxygen, 58, 453. (See Priestley.)
+
+
+  P.
+
+  Paddle wheels and vessels, 443.
+
+  Paints, 466.
+
+  Painting, 418, 419, 459.
+
+  Painting machines, 193, 418, 467.
+
+  Paixhans, Genl., 261, 264.
+
+  Page, Prof. C. G., 132, 141.
+
+  Page, Ralph, 224.
+
+  Palissy, Bernard, 458.
+
+  Palmer, stage-coaches, 429.
+
+  Palladius, 32.
+
+  Panoramas, 415.
+
+  Paper and printing, 273-291.
+
+  Paper bag machinery, 279.
+
+  Papin, 5, 77, 184, 192, 193.
+
+  Papyrus, 273, 274.
+
+  Paraffine. (See Oils.)
+
+  Parchment, 274.
+
+  Parkinson, Thos., 194.
+
+  Parliament, House of, 209.
+
+  Parquetry. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Parrott, gun, 264.
+
+  Parthenon, 373.
+
+  Partridge, Reuben, matches, 200.
+
+  Pascal, 166, 168, 170, 183.
+
+  Pasteur, 68.
+
+  Patents, their origin and purpose, 8, 21.
+
+  Pattern making. (See Wood, Metal, and Textiles.)
+
+  Pauley, Col., 266.
+
+  Pegs, 367, 368.
+
+  Pencils, 418.
+
+  Pendulum. (See Horology.)
+
+  Pendulum machines, 365.
+
+  Penelope, 306.
+
+  Pennsylvania fireplace, 203.
+
+  Percussion caps, 259, 260.
+
+  Percy. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Permutation locks, 425.
+
+  Pernot, 234.
+
+  Perin & Co., saws, 348.
+
+  Persians, 362.
+
+  Petroleum, 359, 382.
+
+  Petzold, 403.
+
+  Pfaff, 121.
+
+  Pharos of Alexandria, 34.
+
+  Phelps, G. M., 147.
+
+  Ph[oe]nicians, 439, 459.
+
+  "Ph[oe]nix," The. (See Ships.)
+
+  Phonautograph, 141, 407.
+
+  Phonograph, 2, 406.
+
+  Phonophone, 414.
+
+  Phonoscope, 414.
+
+  Photophone, 414.
+
+  Phosphorus matches, 200.
+
+  Photochromoscope, 417.
+
+  Photography, 410, 414, 416, 418.
+
+  Photo-processes, 417.
+
+  Piano, 6, 401-404.
+
+  Picking machine, 298, 299.
+
+  Picker-motion, looms, 297.
+
+  Piezometer, 262.
+
+  Pigments, 70.
+
+  Pitt, inventor, 1786, 33.
+
+  Pixii, 131.
+
+  Planes, 340, 350. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Planing machines, 245, 349, 350. (See Wood-working.)
+
+  Plante, G., 120.
+
+  Planters. (See Chap. III.)
+
+  Plaster, 469.
+
+  Plato, 385.
+
+  Platt, Sir Hugh, 14.
+
+  Platt, Senator, 35.
+
+  Pliny, 32, 164, 223, 227, 273, 340.
+
+  Ploughs, 5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27,
+      28, 29, 30.
+
+  Plucknett, 1808, 35.
+
+  Pneumatics, 165, 182 to 198.
+
+  Pneumatic machines, 195, 197, 198.
+
+  Pneumatic propellers, 444.
+
+  Pneumatic tires, 433.
+
+  Pneumatic tubes and transmission, 159, 196.
+
+  Polemoscope, 413.
+
+  Polishing glass, 475.
+
+  Pope, Alexander, 394.
+
+  Porcelain, 465, 466.
+
+  Poririer (match machine), 201.
+
+  Porta Baptista, 414.
+
+  Porta G. della, 75.
+
+  Portable engines, 88.
+
+  Potato planters, 28.
+
+  Potassium, 236.
+
+  Potter, Humphrey, 78.
+
+  Pottery, 457-469.
+
+  Pousard, 465.
+
+  Powder, 253.
+
+  Power, measure of, 187.
+
+  Prehistoric inventions. (See beginning of each Chapter.)
+
+  Pressing machines, 51, 52, 53.
+
+  Priestley, 58, 453, 477.
+
+  "Princeton," The, 443.
+
+  Printing press, 2, 6, 273-291.
+
+  Prince of Orange, 255.
+
+  Projectiles, 253-270.
+
+  Prometheus, 199, 200.
+
+  Protoplasm, 67.
+
+  Prussia, 266.
+
+  Providence, R. I., Tool Co., 322.
+
+  Psalteries, 401.
+
+  Ptah, 241.
+
+  Puckle's patent breech loader, 258, 259.
+
+  Puddling, 226, 227, 231.
+
+  Pug mills, 461.
+
+  Pullman car, 107.
+
+  Pulp, 275-279.
+
+  Pumps, 187.
+
+  Ptolemy, 428.
+
+  Puillet, 411.
+
+  Puy Guillaume, battle of, 1338, 258.
+
+  Pyramids, 34, 93.
+
+
+  Q.
+
+  Quadruplex telegraphy. (See Telegraphy.)
+
+  "Queen Ann's Pocket Piece," 256.
+
+  Queen of Sheba, 326.
+
+  Quern, 45.
+
+  Quilting machine, 324.
+
+
+  R.
+
+  Radcliffe, 305.
+
+  Radiation and radiators, 205, 206.
+
+  Railways, rails and tracks, 106, 108;
+    cars, 108, 109;
+    frogs, 108.
+
+  Railway cars, 436, 437.
+
+  Rakes. (See Agriculture.)
+
+  Ramage Press, 281.
+
+  Ramseye, David, 1630, 76.
+
+  Ramelli, Cardan, 75.
+
+  Ramsey, David, 1738, 168, 389.
+
+  Ram, water. (See Pumps.)
+
+  Randolph, David M., 367.
+
+  Randolph, Elder and Co., 440.
+
+  Ranges. (See Stoves.)
+
+  Range finder, 413.
+
+  Raphael, 418.
+
+  Rawhides. (See Leather.)
+
+  Read, Nathan, 1791, 87.
+
+  Reapers. (See Harvesters, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38.)
+
+  Reichenbach, 382.
+
+  Reis, Prof., 141, 407.
+
+  Refining metals, 227.
+
+  Refrigeration, 213, 214, 216.
+
+  Regenerators, 465.
+
+  Regenerative furnace. (See Metallurgy, also, 464.)
+
+  Registers, 395.
+
+  Regulators, Electric, 137;
+    time, 137.
+
+  Rennie, 244.
+
+  Repeating watches, 389.
+
+  Reservoirs, 166, 180.
+
+  Resonators, 404.
+
+  Revault, 1605, 75.
+
+  Revolvers. (See Fire Arms.)
+
+  Rhode Island, 298.
+
+  Ribbon making, 306.
+
+  Rickel, Dr., 451.
+
+  Rider bridge, 103.
+
+  Riehle, testing mach., 398.
+
+  Rifles, 258, 259, 260.
+
+  Rifled cannon, 262, 263.
+
+  Ring frame-spinning, 302.
+
+  Ritter, 118, 121.
+
+  Riveting, 176.
+
+  Road carriage, steam, 83.
+
+  Roads, 106, 107.
+
+  Road making, 106.
+
+  Robia, Luca della, 459.
+
+  Robert, Louis, 276.
+
+  Roberts, 244.
+
+  Rock drilling, 107.
+
+  Rockers, ore, 235.
+
+  Rockets, 253.
+
+  Rodman, General, gun, 264.
+
+  Roebling, John A., engineer, 98, 99.
+
+  Roebling, Washington, 98, 100.
+
+  Roentgen, X rays, 149.
+
+  Rohes, M. Beau de, 189.
+
+  Rogers, Saml. B., metallurgist, 229, 230.
+
+  Rogers, type maker, 289.
+
+  Roller press, 283, 284.
+
+  Roman arts, inventions, etc., 10, 13, 14, 45, 93, 164, 166,
+      178, 202, 274, 457, 459.
+
+  Rookwood pottery, 467.
+
+  Romagnosi, G. D., 121.
+
+  Roscoe, Prof. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Rose, H., 238.
+
+  Rotary engines. (See Steam.)
+
+  Rotary printing press, 284. (See Printing.)
+
+  Rotary pumps. (See Water and Steam Eng.)
+
+  Roving, spinning, 298, 299.
+
+  Rubber, 69, 434.
+
+  Ruhmkorff coil, 132.
+
+  Rumford, Count, 63.
+
+  Rumsey, James, 81, 168.
+
+  Russia, 40, 254, 430.
+
+  Russian leather, 362.
+
+  Rust, Saml., 282.
+
+  Ruth, 16.
+
+
+  S.
+
+  Sabot, projectiles, 262, 263.
+
+  Safes and locks, 420-427.
+
+  Safety valves, 87.
+
+  Saint, Thomas, sewing machine, 311.
+
+  Salman, scales maker, 396.
+
+  Salonen, 1807, mower, 36.
+
+  Samians and Samos, 459.
+
+  Sand blast, 332, 334, 475.
+
+  Sand filters. (See Filters.)
+
+  Sandwich, Earl, 1699, 25.
+
+  Saracens, 274.
+
+  Sarnstrom, Prof., 234.
+
+  Savery, Thos., 5, 77.
+
+  Saws, 340, 341, 342, 348, 351.
+
+  Saw mills, 341, 342.
+
+  Saxton, Jos., 131.
+
+  Scales, 395.
+
+  Scaliger, 183.
+
+  Scandinavians, 363.
+
+  Scarborough, 85.
+
+  Schilling, Baron, 126.
+
+  Schoenbein, 270.
+
+  Schapper, Hartman, 241.
+
+  Schoeffer, Peter, 270.
+
+  Schreiber, 403.
+
+  Schrotter (matches), 200.
+
+  Schweigger, S. C., 126.
+
+  Scoops, 178.
+
+  Scotland, 19, 20, 33.
+
+  Scott, phonautograph, 141, 407.
+
+  Scott, Sir Walter, 45, 80.
+
+  Scott, Gen. W., 260.
+
+  Scott, Rich'd, 420.
+
+  Scouring machines. (See Leather and Cloth, and Grain.)
+
+  Screw, Archimedean. (See Ships and Propeller.)
+
+  Screw, press, 52.
+
+  Screw propeller, 85, 443.
+
+  Screw making, 245, 246.
+
+  Scythians, 362, 428.
+
+  Scythes, 32, 33, 35.
+
+  Seed drills, 24, 25, 26, 27.
+
+  Seely, F. A., 3.
+
+  Self-playing Instruments, 406.
+
+  Seguin, 83.
+
+  Sellers, Wm., 234, 247.
+
+  Separators, Grain, 48, 49;
+    milk, 54;
+    ore, 379. (See Mills.)
+
+  Seppings, Sir Robert, 440.
+
+  Serrin, 137.
+
+  Serviere, 166.
+
+  Seward, Wm. H., 3.
+
+  Seven Wonders, The, 34, 35.
+
+  Sewing machines, 311-323.
+
+  Sewer construction, 107.
+
+  Shades and screens, 356.
+
+  Shaping machines, 245.
+
+  Sharp's carbine, 267.
+
+  Shaw, Joshua, 260.
+
+  Sheele, 415.
+
+  Sheet metal ware, 250.
+
+  Shells, 264.
+
+  Shingle making, 350.
+
+  Shinar, Brick making in, 457.
+
+  Ships, war, and others, 261, 343, 438-449.
+
+  Shoes and machinery, 365-371.
+
+  Sholes, inventor, type writing, 286.
+
+  Shrapnel, 259.
+
+  Shuttles, 293. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Sickle, 32, 33.
+
+  Side wheel steamboats, 85.
+
+  Siemens, Dr. Werner, 133.
+
+  Siemens, Wm., Sir., 144, 171.
+
+  Siemens and Halske, 144, 146.
+
+  Siemens, C. L., 147, 234, 465.
+
+  Silk making. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Silk, artificial. (See Glass.)
+
+  Silver, 219.
+
+  Singer, sewing machine, 319, 320.
+
+  Sinking shafts, Mode of, 106, 107.
+
+  Skiving. (See Leather.)
+
+  Slade, J. T., 155.
+
+  Slater, Thomas, 298.
+
+  Slaughtering, 55.
+
+  Sleighs, 430, 431.
+
+  Slide, rest, 243, 349.
+
+  Slotting machines, 245.
+
+  Small arms, 266. (See Ordnance.)
+
+  Small, Jas., 1784, 18.
+
+  Smeaton, 87, 105.
+
+  Smelting, 220. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Smiles, Self Help, 95.
+
+  Smith & Wesson, revolvers, 269.
+
+  Snellus, 234.
+
+  Snow ploughs, 109.
+
+  Soda, pulp, 278.
+
+  Solarmeter, 413.
+
+  Solomon's temple, 242.
+
+  Somerset, Marquis of Worcester. (See Steam.)
+
+  Sound, 406. (See Acoustics.)
+
+  Sowing, 23.
+
+  Spanish inventions, 25, 75, 253, 274, 280, 292.
+
+  Spectacles. (See Optics.)
+
+  Spectrum, analysis, 60, 61, 62, 63, 412.
+
+  Spectroscope, 2, 412.
+
+  Speed Indicators, 396.
+
+  Spencer, gun, 267.
+
+  Spencer, metal coating, 249.
+
+  Spinet, 402.
+
+  Spinning, 6, 292, 296, 300. (See Textiles.)
+
+  "Spinning Jenny," 297.
+
+  Spinning Mule, 297, 300.
+
+  "Spiritalia," 404.
+
+  Splitting, leather, 366.
+
+  Spooling, 302.
+
+  Springfield musket, 268.
+
+  Spun glass. (See Spinning and 474.)
+
+  Stamp mills and metal working, 236, 250.
+
+  Standard time, 394.
+
+  Stanhope, Earl, 282.
+
+  St. Gothard tunnel, 107.
+
+  St. Louis bridge, 102.
+
+  Steam engines, 2, 5, 73 to 95;
+    boilers, 86;
+    heating, 207;
+    pumps, 79, 81, 88.
+
+  Steam ships, 2, 84, 85, 440.
+
+  Stearns, 145.
+
+  Steel, manufacture of. (See Metallurgy.)
+
+  Steinheil, 126, 412.
+
+  Steinway, pianos, 403.
+
+  Stenographing, 290.
+
+  Stereoscope, 410, 411.
+
+  Stereotyping, 281.
+
+  Sterilisation, 54, 213.
+
+  Stephenson, Geo., 82, 83, 84, 85, 98.
+
+  Stephenson, Robert, 98, 100, 101, 155.
+
+  Stevens, John C., 84, 85, 86, 443.
+
+  Stevinus, 166.
+
+  Stitching machines. (See Sewing.)
+
+  Stocking making, 307.
+
+  Stone cutting, carving and dressing, 374, 375.
+
+  Stone crushing, 376.
+
+  Stone, artificial, 468.
+
+  Storage battery, 120.
+
+  Storm, W. M. (Gunpowder Engine,) 192.
+
+  Store service, 152, 153, 158, 159.
+
+  Stoves, 200-206.
+
+  Street, Robert, 185.
+
+  Street sweeping, 331.
+
+  Stow, 350.
+
+  Stueckofen, metallurgy, 224.
+
+  Sturgeon, inventor, 122, 123, 124.
+
+  Sturtevant, B. F. (shoes), 368.
+
+  Submarine blasting, etc., 107.
+
+  Suez canal, 107.
+
+  Sugar, 69.
+
+  Sun-dial, 384.
+
+  Subdivision of labor, 392. (See Ordnance and Sewing Machines.)
+
+  Surgery and instruments, 70.
+
+  Suspension bridges, 95, 96-100.
+
+  Swan, light, 137.
+
+  Sweden, 266.
+
+  Sweeping machines, 331.
+
+  Swiss manufactures, (See Watches, etc.)
+
+  Switzerland, 16, 46, 391.
+
+  Symington, 81, 83, 85.
+
+  Syphon recorder, 139.
+
+
+  T.
+
+  T-rail, 108.
+
+  Tables, 354. (See Furniture.)
+
+  Tachenius, 58.
+
+  Tack making, 344.
+
+  Tainter, C. S., 408, 414.
+
+  Takamine, 68.
+
+  Talus, or Perdix, saw inventor, 340.
+
+  Tanning. (See Leather.)
+
+  Tapestry, 275.
+
+  Teasling, 306.
+
+  Tedders, 40.
+
+  Telegraph, 124-128, 139, 140.
+
+  Telegraphic pictures, 419.
+
+  Telephone, 2, 140, 141, 142, 406.
+
+  Telescope, 2, 409.
+
+  Telpherage, 144.
+
+  Telford, 95, 96.
+
+  Tennyson, 67.
+
+  Tesla, 145.
+
+  Testing machines, 398.
+
+  Textiles, 292-309.
+
+  Thermo-electricity, 112, 120.
+
+  Theodore of Samos, 340.
+
+  Thimonnier, 313.
+
+  Thomson, Sir Wm., 63, 139.
+
+  Thompson, Robt. Wm., 433, 435.
+
+  Thompson & Houston, 137.
+
+  "Three color process," 417.
+
+  Thread making. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Threshing machines, 40, 41.
+
+  Throstle, 296.
+
+  Thurston, Prof. R. H., 86.
+
+  Tiles, 350.
+
+  Tilghman, B. F., sand blast, 332, 475.
+
+  Time locks, 425.
+
+  Time measuring of the ancients, 384.
+
+  Tissier, 238.
+
+  Tobacco and machinery, 55, 56, 57.
+
+  Tools, primitive, 310, 328, 339.
+
+  Torpedo vessels, 271, 445.
+
+  Torpedoes, 271.
+
+  Torricelli, 166, 183.
+
+  Tour, Cagniard de la, 65.
+
+  Towne's lattice bridge, 103.
+
+  Traction railways and engines, 436.
+
+  Transplanters, 29.
+
+  Transportation, 107, 109.
+
+  Treadwell, Daniel, 284.
+
+  Tresca, M., 247.
+
+  Trevithick, Richard, 81, 82.
+
+  Tripler, C. E., liquid air, 216.
+
+  Trolley lines. (See Electric, etc.)
+
+  Trough batteries. (See Electricity.)
+
+  Truss bridges, 102, 103.
+
+  Tubal Cain, 218, 239.
+
+  Tubes and tubing, making, 248.
+
+  Tubular bridges, 100, 102.
+
+  Tull, Jethro, 1680-1740, 14, 25.
+
+  Tungsten. (See Metals.)
+
+  Tunnels, 106, 107.
+
+  Turbines, 89, 168, 171, 172.
+
+  Turning, Art of, 242, 339, 344.
+
+  Tusser, Thomas, 14.
+
+  Tweddle, 176.
+
+  Twine binders. (See Harvesters.)
+
+  Twinings (inventor, refrigerator), 215.
+
+  Tympanum, 164.
+
+  Tyndall, John, 411, 412.
+
+  Type, 280, 281.
+
+  Type Distributor, 279.
+
+  Type setter, 278, 279.
+
+  Type writers, 6, 286.
+
+
+  V.
+
+  Vail, Alfred, 126.
+
+  Valerius, 388.
+
+  Valves, valve gear, 87, 89.
+
+  Vapor engines, 190-192.
+
+  Vapor stoves, 200-206, 212.
+
+  Varley, Alfred, 133.
+
+  Varro, 32.
+
+  Vegetable cutters, 51.
+
+  Velocipedes, 431.
+
+  Venetians, 280.
+
+  Ventilation, 209.
+
+  Veneering, 351.
+
+  Vestibule cars, 437.
+
+  Vick, Henry de, clockmaker, 387.
+
+  Victoria bridge. (See Bridges.)
+
+  Vienna, 38.
+
+  Vienna exposition, 348.
+
+  Vince, Leonardo de, 75.
+
+  Virgil, 32.
+
+  Virginal, 6, 402.
+
+  Vitruvius, 227.
+
+  Volta, voltaic electricity, 112, 117, 118, 112 to 120, 125, 133, 134,
+      249.
+
+  Von Alteneck, H., 138.
+
+  Von Drais, 432.
+
+  Vortex theory, 2;
+    Vortex wheel, 171.
+
+  Voting machines, 395.
+
+  Vulcan, 246.
+
+  Vulcanisation. (See Rubber.)
+
+
+  W.
+
+  Waggons, 431.
+
+  Walker, John (matches), 200.
+
+  Walker, Joseph, 367.
+
+  Wales, Thos. C., 477.
+
+  Wallace and Maxim, 137.
+
+  Wall paper, 275, 279.
+
+  Walter, John, 285.
+
+  Watches, 391. (See Clocks.)
+
+  Waltham watches, 393.
+
+  War, effect on by inventions, 271, 272.
+
+  Washington, 15, 16.
+
+  Washing and ironing machines, 335-338.
+
+  Wasp, first paper maker, 273.
+
+  Watches. (See Horology.)
+
+  Water. (See Hydraulics.)
+
+  Water clocks, 385, 386.
+
+  Water closets, 178.
+
+  Water distribution, 167, 178;
+    gas, 454.
+
+  Water wheels, 165;
+    mills, 167;
+    engines, 178.
+
+  Water frame. (See Spinning.)
+
+  Water metres, 178;
+    scoops, 178.
+
+  Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, 59.
+
+  Watt, James, 5, 8, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 154, 167, 170, 176,
+      182, 203, 206, 296, 341, 460.
+
+  Watson, Bishop, 451.
+
+  Weaving, 6, 292, 304. (See Textiles.)
+
+  Weaver's shuttle, 307.
+
+  Weber piano, 403.
+
+  Webster, Daniel, 91.
+
+  Wedgwood, 459, 460, 464.
+
+  Weeks, Jos., 364.
+
+  Weighing, scales, etc., 396, 397, 398.
+
+  Weisenthal, C. F., 310, 312.
+
+  Welding, 248.
+
+  Wellington, Duke of, 83.
+
+  Wells, making and boring of, 373, 379-383;
+    driven, 382;
+    Artesian, 381.
+
+  Welsbach lamp, 456.
+
+  Westinghouse, electric light, 137, 138.
+
+  Weston, Sir Richard, 14.
+
+  Weston, electrician, 137.
+
+  West (destroyer of bacteria), 213.
+
+  Whaleback ships, 438.
+
+  Wheat, its cultivation, 25, 26.
+
+  Wheatstone, Chas., 127, 133, 146, 147, 410.
+
+  Wheeler and Wilson, 319.
+
+  Wheelbarrow, seeder, 24.
+
+  Whewell, 166.
+
+  Whitehurst, Geo., 168.
+
+  Whitney, Eli, cotton gin, 42, 43, 297.
+
+  Whitworth, Sir J., 244, 246, 263.
+
+  Wilde, electric magnet, 133.
+
+  Wilder, safes, 421.
+
+  Wilkes, 277.
+
+  William of Malmesbury, 75.
+
+  Wilson, A. B., sewing machinery,  319.
+
+  Wilson, Genl. John M., 180.
+
+  Winchester rifle, 267.
+
+  Wind mills, wheels, etc., 404. (See Mills.)
+
+  Window glass, window screens, 359.
+
+  Wine making. (See Chemistry.)
+
+  Winter, Sir John, 225.
+
+  Wire working, 250.
+
+  Wire wound gun, 263.
+
+  Wireless telegraphy, 150, 151.
+
+  Wolf, aeronaut, 447.
+
+  Woehler, chemist, 238.
+
+  Wollaston, 60, 249, 412.
+
+  Woodbridge, Dr. W. E., 262, 263.
+
+  Woodbury, Oscar D. and E. C., 330.
+
+  Woodworth, Wm., planing machinery, 349.
+
+  Wood, lathe turning, 344.
+
+  Wood, bending and trenting of, 347, 352, 356.
+
+  Wood working machinery, 242, 339, 352, 369.
+
+  Woods, variety and beauty, 352.
+
+  Wood carving, 346.
+
+  Wool. (See Spinning, Weaving, Textiles.)
+
+  Wool, mineral, 474, 480.
+
+  Wooden shoes, making of, 367.
+
+  Worcester, Marquis of, 5, 75, 77, 81.
+
+  Work shop, a modern, 251.
+
+  World's fair, 1851, 36, 38.
+
+  Woven goods, variety of, 308, 309.
+
+  Wright (gas engine), 188.
+
+  Wren, architect, 209.
+
+  Wyatt of Lichfield, 294, 295.
+
+
+  X.
+
+  X rays, 149, 150.
+
+  Xyloplasty, 347.
+
+
+  Y.
+
+  Yale, Linus, Jr., locks, 425.
+
+  Yankee clippers, 438.
+
+  Yarn. (See Weaving, etc.)
+
+  Yeast, 65.
+
+  York, Duke of, 124, 125.
+
+  Young of America, 63, 417.
+
+  Young, Arthur, 1741-1800, 14, 15.
+
+  Youmans, Prof., 450.
+
+
+  Z.
+
+  Zanon, 1764, 24.
+
+  Zech, Jacob, 388.
+
+  Zeppelin, Count, 446.
+
+  Zimmermann, self-playing pianos, 406.
+
+  Zinc, 236.
+
+  Zinc batteries. (See Electricity.)
+
+
+
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES.
+
+_Price 5s. each net._
+
+
+  Religious Progress in the Century.
+      By W. H. Withrow, M. A., D. D., F. R. S. C.
+
+  Literature of the Century.
+      By Professor A. B. de Mille, M. A.
+
+  Progress of South Africa in the Century.
+      By George McCall Theal, D. Lit., LL. D.
+
+  Medicine, Surgery, and Hygiene in the Century.
+      By Ezra Hurlburt Stafford, M. D.
+
+  Progress of India, Japan, and China in the Century.
+      By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., LL. D., &c.
+
+  Progress of the United States of America in the Century.
+      By Prof. Wm. Peterfield Trent, M. A., LL. D.
+
+  Continental Rulers in the Century.
+      By Percy M. Thornton, LL. B., M. P.
+
+  British Sovereigns in the Century.
+      By T. H. S. Escott, M. A.
+
+  Progress of British Empire in the Century.
+      By James Stanley Little.
+
+  Progress of Canada in the Century.
+      By J. Castell Hopkins, F. S. S.
+
+  Progress of Australasia in the Century.
+      By T. A. Coghlan, F. S. S., and Thomas T. Ewing.
+
+  Progress of New Zealand in the Century.
+      By R. F. Irvine, M. A., and O. T. J. Alpers, M. A.
+
+  Political Progress of the Century.
+      By Thomas Macknight.
+
+  Discoveries and Explorations of the Century.
+      By Professor C. G. D. Roberts, M. A.
+
+  Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century.
+      By H. de Beltgens Gibbins, D. Lit., M. A., F. R. G. S.
+
+  Inventions of the Century.
+      By William H. Doolittle.
+
+  Wars of the Century, and the Development of Military Science.
+      By Professor Oscar Browning, M. A.
+
+  Naval Battles of the Century.
+      By Rear-Admiral Francis John Higginson.
+
+  Naval Development of the Century.
+      By Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, K. C. B.
+
+  Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Jefferson to
+  Fillmore).
+      By Francis Bellamy.
+
+  Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Pierce to
+  McKinley).
+      Francis Knowles.
+
+  The Fine Arts in the Century.
+      By William Sharp.
+
+  Progress of Education in the Century.
+      By James Laughlin Hughes and Louis R. Klemm, Ph. D.
+
+  Temperance and Social Progress of the Century.
+      By the Hon. John G. Woolley, M. A.
+
+  Progress of Science in the Century.
+      By Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M. A.
+
+
+
+
+Edinburgh:
+
+Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inventions in the Century, by
+William Henry Doolittle
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