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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Marvels of Pond-life, by Henry J. Slack
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Marvels of Pond-life
+       A Year's Microscopic Recreations
+
+Author: Henry J. Slack
+
+Release Date: July 30, 2011 [EBook #36903]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARVELS OF POND-LIFE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                          MARVELS OF POND-LIFE
+
+
+                                   OR,
+
+                    A YEAR'S MICROSCOPIC RECREATIONS
+
+                                AMONG THE
+         POLYPS, INFUSORIA, ROTIFERS, WATER-BEARS, AND POLYZOA.
+
+
+                                   BY
+                         HENRY J. SLACK, F.G.S.,
+              SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY;
+
+                                AUTHOR OF
+        'THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROGRESS IN HUMAN AFFAIRS,' ETC. ETC.
+
+
+                            _SECOND EDITION._
+
+
+              ILLUSTRATED WITH COLOURED PLATES AND NUMEROUS
+                            WOOD ENGRAVINGS.
+
+                                 LONDON:
+                          GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS,
+                           5, PATERNOSTER ROW.
+                               MDCCCLXXI.
+
+                        PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD,
+                           BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+As this little book is intended to be no more than an introduction to an
+agreeable branch of microscopical study, it is to be hoped it will not
+require a formal preface; but a few words may be convenient to indicate
+its scope and purpose.
+
+The common experience of all microscopists confirms the assertion made
+by Dr. Goring, that the most fascinating objects are living creatures of
+sufficient dimensions to be easily understood with moderate
+magnification; and in no way can objects of this description be so
+readily obtained, as by devoting an occasional hour to the examination
+of the little ponds which are accessible from almost any situation. A
+complete volume of pond lore would not only be a bulky book--much bigger
+than the aldermanic tomes which it is the fashion to call "Manuals,"
+although the great stone fists in the British Museum would be required
+to grasp them comfortably,--but its composition would overtask all the
+philosophers of our day. In good truth, a tea-spoonful of water from a
+prolific locality often contains a variety of living forms, every one of
+which demands a profound and patient study, if we would know but a few
+things concerning it.
+
+To man, then, is a vast and a minute. Our minds ache at the
+contemplation of astronomical immensities, and we are apt to see the
+boundless only in prodigious masses, countless numbers, and
+immeasurable spaces. The Creative Mind knows no such limitations; and
+the microscope shows us that, whether the field of nature's operation be
+what to our apprehension is great or small, there is no limit to the
+exhibition of marvellous skill. If the "undevout astronomer" be "mad,"
+the undevout microscopist must be still more so, for if the matter be
+judged by human sense, the skill is greater as the operation is more
+minute; and not the sun itself, nor the central orb round which he
+revolves, with all his attendant worlds, can furnish sublimer objects of
+contemplation, than the miraculous assemblage of forces which make up
+the life of the smallest creature that the microscope reveals.
+
+There is an irresistible charm in the effort to trace _beginnings_ in
+nature. We know that we can never succeed; that each discovery, which
+conducts back towards some elementary law or principle, only indicates
+how much still lies behind it: but the geologist nevertheless loves to
+search out the first or oldest traces of life upon our globe; and so the
+microscopist delights to view the simplest exhibitions of structures and
+faculties, which reach their completion in the frame and mind of man.
+That one great plan runs through the whole universe is now an
+universally accepted truth, and when applied to physiology and natural
+history, it leads to most important results.
+
+The researches of recent philosophers have shown us that nature cannot
+be understood by studying the parts of animals with reference merely to
+their utility in the economy of the creature to which they belong. We
+do, indeed, find an admirable correspondence between structures and the
+services they perform; but every object in creation, and every part of
+it, is in harmonious relation to some grand design, and exhibits a
+conformity to some general mode of operation, or some general
+disposition and direction of forces, which secures the existence of the
+individual or the species, and at the same time works out the most
+majestic schemes. Microscopic researches, such as are within the reach
+of millions, offer many of the most beautiful illustrations of these
+truths; and although the following pages are confined to such objects as
+are easily obtainable from ponds, and relate almost exclusively to the
+Infusoria, the Rotifers, the Polyps, and the Polyzoa, it is hoped that
+they will assist in associating a few of the highly suggestive
+reasonings of science, with one of the most pleasurable recreations that
+human ingenuity has devised.
+
+After a preliminary chapter, which is intended to assist the young
+microscopist in some technical matters, that could not be conveniently
+introduced into the text, the observations are distributed in chapters,
+corresponding with the twelve calendar months. This arrangement was
+suggested by the author's diary of operations for the year 1860, and
+although it by no means follows that the months in which particular
+creatures were then discovered, will be those in which they will be most
+readily found in other years, it was thought advantageous to give a real
+account of an actual period of microscopic work, and also that the plan
+would facilitate a departure from the dry manner of a technical
+treatise. The index will enable any one to use the book for the purpose
+of reference, and it will be observed that the first chapter in which
+any member of a group of creatures is introduced, is that in which a
+general description of the class is given. The illustrations are taken
+from drawings made by the wife of the author from the actual objects,
+with the exception of a few instances, in which the authority is
+acknowledged. The sketches were made _especially for beginners_, and the
+rule followed, was not to introduce any details that could not be seen
+at one focus, and with the simplest means: more elaborate
+representations, though of the highest value to advanced students, are
+bewildering at the commencement.
+
+The ponds referred to are all either close to, or within a moderate
+distance of, London;[1] but similar objects will in all probability be
+obtained from any ponds similarly situated, and the descriptions and
+directions given for the capture of the minute prey will be found
+generally applicable. Care has been taken throughout to explain the most
+convenient methods of examining the objects, and although verbal
+descriptions are poor substitutes for the teachings of experience, it is
+hoped that those here given will remove some difficulties from a pursuit
+that no intelligent person can enter upon without pleasure, or consent
+to abandon when its elementary difficulties have been mastered, and the
+boundless fields of discovery are opened to view. Let not the novice be
+startled at the word "discovery." It is true that few are likely to
+arrive at new principles or facts which will inscribe their names upon
+the roll of fame; but no one of ordinary powers can look at living
+objects with any considerable perseverance, without seeing much that has
+never been recorded, and which is nevertheless worthy of note; and when
+the mind, by its own exertions, first arrives at a knowledge of new
+truth, an emotion is felt akin to that which more than recompenses the
+profoundest philosopher for all his toil.
+
+[1] Many are now (1871) destroyed by the progress of building.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS.
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I.
+
+                    MICROSCOPES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.
+
+    Powers that are most serviceable--Estimated by Focal
+      length--Length of Body of Microscope and its Effects--Popular
+      Errors about Great Magnification--Modes of Stating Magnifying
+      Power--use of an "Erector"--Power of various Objectives with
+      different Eye-pieces--Examination of Surface Markings--Methods
+      of Illumination--Direct and Oblique Light--Stage
+      Aperture--Dark-ground Illumination--Mode of Softening
+      Light--Microscope Lamps--Care of the Eyes
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II.
+
+                                JANUARY.
+
+    Visit to the Ponds--Confervæ--Spirogyra
+      quinina--Vorticella--Common Rotifer--Three Divisions of
+      Infusoria--Phytozoa--Protozoa--Rotifera--Tardigrada--Meaning of
+      these Terms--Euglenæ--Distinction between Animals and
+      Vegetables--Description of Vorticellæ--Dark-ground
+      Illumination--Modes of producing it--The Nucleus of the
+      Vorticella--Methods of Reproduction--Ciliated
+      Protozoa--Wheel-bearers or Rotifers--Their Structure--The Common
+      Rotifer--The young Rotifer seen inside the old one--an Internal
+      Nursery--"Differentiation" and "Specialization"--Bisexuality of
+      Rotifers--Their Zoological Position--Diversities in their
+      Appearance--Structure of their Gizzard--Description of Rotifers
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+                                FEBRUARY.
+
+    Visit to Hampstead--Small
+      ponds--Water-Fleas--Water-Beetle--Snails--Polyps--Hydra
+      viridis--The Dipping-tube--A Glass Cell--The Hydra and its
+      Prey--Chydorus Sphæricus and Canthocamptus, or Friends and their
+      Escapes--Cothurnia--Polyp Buds--Catching Polyps--Mode of Viewing
+      Them--Structure of Polyps--Sarcode--Polyps Stimulated by
+      Light--Are they Conscious?--Tentacles and Poison
+      Threads--Paramecium--Trachelius--Motions of Animalcules, whether
+      Automatic or directed by a Will--Their Restless Character
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV.
+
+                                 MARCH.
+
+    Paramecia--Effects of Sunlight--Pterodina patina--Curious
+      Tail--Use of a Compressorium--Internal Structure of
+      Pterodina--Metopidia--Trichodina
+      pediculus--Cothurnia--Salpina--Its Three-sided Box--Protrusion
+      of its Gizzard Mouth
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V.
+
+                                 APRIL.
+
+    The Beautiful Floscule--Mode of Seeking for Tubicolar
+      Rotifers--Mode of Illuminating the Floscule--Difficulty of
+      seeing the Transparent Tube--Protrusion of Long
+      Hairs--Lobes--Gizzard--Hairy Lobes of Floscule not Rotatory
+      Organs--Glass Troughs--Their Construction and Use--Movement of
+      Globules in Lobes of Floscule--Chætonotus larus--Its mode of
+      Swimming--Coleps hirtus--Devourer of Dead Entomostraca--Dead
+      Rotifer and Vibriones--Theories of Fermentation and
+      Putrefaction--Euplotes and Stylonichia--Fecundity of Stylonichia
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI.
+
+                                  MAY.
+
+    Floscularia cornuta--Euchlanis triquetra--Melicerta ringens--Its
+      Powers as Brickmaker, Architect, and Mason--Mode of Viewing the
+      Melicerta--Use of Glass Cell--Habits of Melicerta--Curious
+      Attitudes--Leave their Tubes at
+      Death--Carchesium--Epistylis--Their Elegant Tree Forms--A
+      Parasytic Epistylis like the "Old Man of the Sea"--Halteria and
+      its Leaps--Aspidisca lynceus
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII.
+
+                             JUNE AND JULY.
+
+    Lindia torulosa--OEcistes crystallinus--A Professor of
+      Deportment on Stilts--Philodina--Changes of Form and
+      Habits--Structure of Gizzard in Philodina Family--Mr. Gosse's
+      Description--Motions of Rotifers--Indications of a Will--Remarks
+      on the Motions of Lower Creatures--Various Theories--Possibility
+      of Reason--Reflex Actions--Brain of Insects--Consensual
+      Actions--Applications of Physiological Reasoning to the
+      Movements of Rotifers and Animalcules
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                                 AUGUST.
+
+    Mud Coloured by Worms--Their Retreat at Alarm--A Country
+      Duck-Pond--Contents of its Scum--Cryptomonads--Their Means of
+      Locomotion--A Triarthra (Three-limbed Rotifer)--The Brachion or
+      Pitcher Rotifer--Its Striking Form--Enormous Gizzard--Ciliary
+      Motion inside this Creature--Large Eye and Brain--Powerful
+      Tail--Its Functions--Eggs
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX.
+
+                               SEPTEMBER.
+
+    Microscopic Value of Little Pools--Curious Facts in Appearance
+      and Disappearance of Animalcules and Rotifers--Mode of
+      Preserving them in a Glass Jar--Fragments of Melicerta
+      Tube--Peculiar Shape of Pellets--Amphileptus--Scaridium
+      longicaudum--A Long-tailed Rotifer--Stephanoceros Eichornii--A
+      Splendid Rotifer--Its Gelatinous Bottle--Its Crown of
+      Tentacles--Retreats on Alarm--Illumination Requisite to see its
+      Beauties--Its Greediness--Richly-coloured Food--Nervous Ganglia
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X.
+
+                                OCTOBER.
+
+    Stentors and Stephanoceri--Description of Stentors--Mode of
+      viewing them--Their Abundance--Social Habits--Solitary Stentors
+      living in Gelatinous Caves--Propagation by Divers
+      Modes--Cephalosiphon limnias--A Group of Vaginicolæ--Changes of
+      Shape--A Bubble-blowing Vorticella
+
+
+                               CHAPTER XI.
+
+                                NOVEMBER.
+
+    Characteristics of the Polyzoa--Details of Structure according
+      to Allman--Plumatella repens--Its Great Beauty under proper
+      Illumination--Its Tentacles and their Cilia--The Mouth and its
+      Guard or Epistome--Intestinal Tube--How it swallowed a Rotifer,
+      and what happened--Curiosities of Digestion--Are the Tentacles
+      capable of Stinging?--Resting Eggs, or "Statoblasts"--Tube of
+      Plumatella--Its Muscular Fibres--Physiological Importance of
+      their Structure
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII.
+
+                                DECEMBER.
+
+    Microscopic Hunting in Winter--Water-Bears, or Tardigrada--Their
+      Comical Behaviour--Mode of viewing them--Singular
+      Gizzard--Wenham's Compressorium--Achromatic Condenser--Mouth of
+      the Water-Bear--Water-Bears' Exposure to Heat--Soluble
+      Albumen--Physiological and Chemical Reasons why they are not
+      killed by Heating or Drying--The Trachelius ovum--Mode of
+      Swimming--Method of Viewing--By Dark-ground
+      Illumination--Curious Digestive Tube with
+      Branches--Multiplication by Division--Change of Form immediately
+      following this Process--subsequent Appearances
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+              CONCLUSION.--Remarks on Classification, &c.
+
+
+
+
+                          MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I.
+
+            PLAIN HINTS ON MICROSCOPES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.
+
+    Powers that are most serviceable--Estimated by focal
+        length--Length of body of microscope and its effects--Popular
+        errors about great magnification--Modes of stating magnified
+        power--Use of an "Erector"--Power of various objectives with
+        different eye-pieces--Examination of surface markings--Methods
+        of illumination--Direct and oblique light--Stage aperture--Dark
+        ground illumination--Mode of softening light--Microscope
+        lamps--Care of the eyes.
+
+
+The microscope is rapidly becoming the companion of every intelligent
+family that can afford its purchase, and, thanks to the skill of our
+opticians, instruments which can be made to answer the majority of
+purposes may be purchased for three or four guineas, while even those
+whose price is counted in shillings are by no means to be despised. The
+most eminent English makers, Wales, and Tolles, in America, and
+Hartnack, in Paris, occupy the first rank, while the average productions
+of respectable houses exhibit so high a degree of excellence as to make
+comparisons invidious. We shall not, therefore, indulge in the praises
+of particular firms, but simply recommend any reader entering upon
+microscopic study to procure an achromatic instrument, if it can be
+afforded, and having at least two powers, one with a focus of an inch or
+two thirds of an inch, and the other of half or a quarter. Cheap
+microscopes have usually only one eye-piece, those of a better class
+have two, and the best are furnished with three, or even more.
+
+The magnifying power of a compound microscope depends upon the focal
+length of the object-glass (or glass nearest the object), upon the
+length of the tube, and the power of the eye-piece. With regard to
+object-glasses, those of shortest focal length have the highest powers,
+and the longest eye-pieces have the lowest powers. The body of a
+microscope, or principal tube of which it is composed, is, in the best
+instruments, about nine inches long, and a draw tube, capable of being
+extended six inches more, is frequently useful. From simple optical
+principles, the longer the tube the higher the power obtained with the
+same object-glass; but only object-glasses of very perfect construction
+will bear the enlargement of their own imperfections, which results from
+the use of long tubes; and consequently for cheap instruments the
+opticians often limit the length of the tube, to suit the capacity of
+the object-glasses they can afford to give for the money. Such
+microscopes may be good enough for the generality of purposes, but they
+do not, with glasses of given focal length, afford the same magnifying
+power as is done by instruments of better construction. The best and
+most expensive glasses will not only bear long tubes, but also
+eye-pieces of high power, without any practical diminution of the
+accuracy of their operation, and this is a great convenience in natural
+history investigations. To obtain it, however, requires such perfection
+of workmanship as to be incompatible with cheapness. An experienced
+operator will not be satisfied without having an object-glass at least
+as high as a quarter, that will bear a deep eye-piece, but beginners are
+seldom successful with a higher power than one of half-inch focus, or
+thereabouts, and before trying this, they should familiarise themselves
+with the use of one with an inch focus.
+
+It is a popular error to suppose that enormous magnification is always
+an advantage, and that a microscope is valuable because it makes a flea
+look as big as a cat or a camel. The writer has often smiled at the
+exclamations of casual visitors, who have been pleased with his
+microscopic efforts to entertain them. "Dear me, what a wonderful
+instrument; it must be immensely powerful;" and so forth. These
+ejaculations have often followed the use of a low power, and their
+authors have been astonished at receiving the explanation that the best
+microscope is that which will show the most with the least
+magnification, and that accuracy of definition, not mere increase of
+bulk, is the great thing needful.
+
+Scientific men always compute the apparent enlargement of the object by
+_one_ dimension only. Thus, supposing an object one hundredth of an inch
+square were magnified so as to appear one inch square, it would, in
+scientific parlance, be magnified to "one hundred diameters," or one
+hundred linear; and the figures 100 would be appended to any drawing
+which might be made from it. It is, however, obvious that the length is
+magnified as well as the breadth; and hence the magnification of the
+whole surface, in the instance specified, would be one hundred times one
+hundred, or ten thousand: and this is the way in which magnification is
+popularly stated. A few moments' consideration will show that the
+scientific method is that which most readily affords information. Any
+one can instantly comprehend the fact of an object being made to look
+ten times its real length; but if told that it is magnified a hundred
+times, he does not know what this really means, until he has gone
+through the process of finding the square root of a hundred, and learnt
+that a hundredfold magnification means a tenfold magnification of each
+superficial dimension. If told, for example, that a hair is magnified
+six hundred diameters, the knowledge is at once conveyed that it looks
+six hundred times as broad as it is; but a statement that the same hair
+is magnified three hundred and sixty thousand times, only excites a
+gasping sensation of wonder, until it is ascertained by calculation that
+the big figures only mean what the little figures express. In these
+pages the scientific plan will always be followed.
+
+If expense is not an object, a binocular instrument should be purchased,
+and it is well to be provided with an object-glass as low as three or
+even four inches focus, which will allow the whole of objects having the
+diameter of half an inch or more to be seen at once. Such a low power
+is exceedingly well adapted for the examination of living insects, or of
+the exquisite preparations of entire insects, which can now be had of
+all opticians. Microscopes which have a draw tube can be furnished with
+an _erector_, an instrument so called because it erects the images,
+which the microscope has turned upside down, through the crossing of the
+rays. This is very convenient for making dissections under the
+instrument; and it also gives us the means of reducing the magnifying
+power of an object-glass, and thus obtaining a larger field. The erector
+is affixed to the end of the draw tube, and by pulling it out, or
+thrusting it in, the rays from the object-glass are intercepted at
+different distances, and various degrees of power obtained.
+
+A binocular microscope is most useful with low powers from two thirds
+upwards. A new form, devised by Mr. Stephenson, acts as an erector, and
+is very valuable for dissections. It works with high powers.
+
+Beginners will be glad to know how to obtain the magnifying power which
+different objects require, and it may be stated that, with a full-sized
+microscope, a two-inch object-glass magnifies about twenty-five
+diameters with the lowest eye-piece; a one-inch object-glass, or two
+thirds, from fifty to sixty diameters; a half-inch about one hundred; a
+quarter-inch about two hundred. The use of deeper eye-pieces adds very
+considerably to the power, but in proportions which differ with
+different makers. One instrument used by the writer has three
+eye-pieces, giving with a two thirds object-glass powers of sixty one
+hundred and five, and one hundred and eighty respectively; and with a
+fifth two hundred and forty, four hundred and thirty, and seven hundred
+and twenty, which can be augmented by the use of a draw tube.
+
+It has been well observed that the illumination of objects is quite as
+important as the glasses that are employed, and the most experienced
+microscopists have never done learning in this matter. Most microscopes
+are furnished with two mirrors beneath the stage, one plane and one
+concave. The first will throw a few parallel rays through any
+transparent object properly placed, and the latter causes a number of
+rays to converge, producing a more powerful effect. The first is usually
+used in daylight, when the instrument is near a window (one with a north
+aspect, out of direct sunlight, being the best); and the second is often
+useful when the source of illumination is a candle or a lamp. By varying
+the angle of the mirror the light is thrown through the object more or
+less obliquely, and its quantity should never be sufficient to pain the
+eye. Few objects are seen to the best advantage with a _large_ pencil of
+perfectly direct light, and the beginner should practise till the amount
+of inclination is obtained which produces the best effect.
+
+It is advisable that the hole in the stage of the microscope should be
+large--at least an inch and a half each way--so that the entrance of
+oblique rays is not obstructed, and it is desirable that the mirror, in
+addition to sliding up and down, should have an arm by which it can be
+thrown completely out of the perpendicular plane of the body of the
+instrument. This enables such oblique rays to be employed as to give a
+dark field, all the light which reaches the eye being _refracted_ by the
+object through which it is sent. The opticians sell special pieces of
+apparatus for this purpose, but though they are very useful, they do not
+render it less desirable to have the mirror mounted as described.
+
+Most microscopes are furnished with a revolving diaphragm, with three
+holes, of different sizes, to diminish the quantity of light that is
+admitted to the object. This instrument is of some use, and offers a
+ready means of obtaining a very soft agreeable light for transparent
+objects, viewed with low powers. For this purpose cut a circular disk of
+India or tissue paper, rather larger than the biggest aperture; scrape a
+few little pieces of spermaceti, and place them upon it, then put the
+whole on a piece of writing-paper, and hold it a few inches above the
+flame of a candle, moving it gently. If this is dexterously done, the
+spermaceti will be melted without singeing the paper, and when it is
+cold the disk will be found transparent. Place it over the hole in the
+diaphragm, send the light through it, and the result will be a very soft
+agreeable effect, well suited for many purposes, such as viewing
+sections of wood, insects mounted whole, after being rendered
+transparent, many small water creatures, etc. Another mode of
+accomplishing this purpose is to place a similarly prepared disk of
+paper on the flat side of a bull's-eye lens, and transmit the light of a
+lamp through it. This plan may be used with higher powers, and the white
+opaque light it gives may be directed at any angle by means of the
+mirror beneath the stage.
+
+An ordinary lamp may be made to answer for microscopic use, but one of
+the small paraffine lamps now sold everywhere for eighteen-pence is
+singularly convenient. It is high enough for many purposes, and can
+easily be raised by one or more blocks. A paraffine lamp on a sliding
+stand is still more handy, and all the better for a hole with a glass
+stopper, through which the fluid can be poured.
+
+Many people fancy that the eyes are injured by continual use of the
+microscope, but this is far from being the case if reasonable
+precautions are taken. The instrument should be inclined at a proper
+angle, all excess of light avoided, and the object brought into focus
+before it is steadily looked at. Most people solemnly shut one eye
+before commencing a microscopic examination; this is a practical and
+physiological mistake. Nature meant both eyes to be open, and usually
+resents a prolonged violation of her intentions in this matter. It
+requires but a little practice to keep both eyes open, and only pay
+attention to what is seen by that devoted to the microscope. The
+acquisition of this habit is facilitated, and other advantages gained,
+by a screen to keep out extraneous light. For this purpose take a piece
+of thin cardboard about nine inches square, and cut a round hole in it,
+just big enough to admit the tube of the microscope, about two inches
+from the bottom, and equidistant from the two sides. Next cut off the
+two upper corners of the cardboard, and give them a pleasant-looking
+curve. Then cover the cardboard with black velvet, the commonest, which
+is not glossy, answers best, and your screen is made. Put the hole over
+the tube of the microscope, and let the screen rest on the little ledge
+or rim which forms an ornamental finish to most instruments. A piece of
+cork may be gummed at the back of the screen, so as to tilt it a little,
+and diminish its chance of coming into contact with that important organ
+the nose. This little contrivance adds to the clearness and brilliancy
+of objects, and is a great accommodation to the eyes.
+
+One more oculistic memorandum, and we have done with this chapter. Do
+not stare at portions of objects that are out of focus, and consequently
+indistinct, as this injures the eyes more than anything. Remember the
+proverb, "None so deaf as those that won't hear," which naturally
+suggests for a companion, "None so blind as those that won't see." It is
+often impossible to get every object in the field in focus at one
+time;--look only at that which is in focus, and be blind to all the
+rest. This is a habit easily acquired, and is one for which our
+_natural_ microscopes are exceedingly grateful; and every judicious
+observer desires to keep on the best terms with his eyes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+JANUARY.
+
+    Visit to the ponds--Confervæ--Spirogyra
+        quinina--Vorticella--Common Rotifer--Three divisions of
+        Infusoria--Phytozoa--Protozoa--Rotifera--Tardigrada--Meaning of
+        these terms--Euglenæ--Distinction between animals and
+        vegetables--Description of Vorticellæ--Dark ground
+        illumination--Modes of producing it--The Nucleus of the
+        Vorticellæ--Methods of reproduction--Ciliated Protozoa--Wheel
+        bearers or Rotifers--Their structure--The common Rotifer--The
+        young Rotifer seen inside the old one--An internal
+        nursery--"Differentiation" and "Specialisation"--Bisexuality of
+        Rotifers--Their zoological position--Diversities in their
+        appearance--Structure of their Gizzard--Description of Rotifers.
+
+
+The winter months are on the whole less favorable to the collection of
+microscopic objects from ponds and streams than the warmer portions of
+the year; but the difference is rather in abundance than in variety, and
+with a very moderate amount of trouble, representatives of the principal
+classes can always be obtained.
+
+On a clear January morning, when the air was keen, but no ice had yet
+skinned over the surface of the water, a visit to some small ponds in an
+open field not far from Kentish Town provided entertainment for several
+days. The ponds were selected from their open airy situation, the
+general clearness of their water, and the abundance of vegetation with
+which they were adorned. Near the margin confervæ abounded, their
+tangled masses of hair-like filaments often matted together, almost with
+the closeness of a felted texture. At intervals, minute bubbles of air,
+with occasionally a few of greater size, indicated that the complex
+processes of vegetable life were actively going on, that the tiny plants
+were decomposing carbonic acid, dexterously combining the carbon--which
+we are most familiar with in the black opaque form of charcoal--to form
+the substance of their delicate translucent tissues, and sending forth
+the oxygen as their contribution to the purification of the adjacent
+water, and the renovation of our atmospheric air. This was a good sign,
+for healthy vegetation is favorable to many of the most interesting
+forms of infusorial life. Accordingly the end of a walking-stick was
+inserted among the green threads, and a skein of them drawn up, dank,
+dripping, and clinging together in a pasty-looking mass. To hold up a
+morsel of this mass, and tell some one not in the secrets of pond-lore
+that its dripping threads were objects of beauty, surpassing human
+productions, in brilliant colour and elegant form, would provoke
+laughter, and suggest the notion that you were poking fun at them, when
+you poked out your stick with the slimy treasure at its end. But let us
+put the green stuff into a bottle, with some water from its native
+haunt, cork it up tight, and carry it away for quiet examination under
+the microscope at home.
+
+Here we are with the apparatus ready. We have transferred a few threads
+of the conferva from the bottle to the _live box_, spreading out the
+fine fibres with a needle, and adding a drop of water. The cover is then
+gently pressed down, and the whole placed on the stage of the
+microscope, to be examined with a power of about sixty. A light is
+thrown somewhat obliquely by the mirror through the object, the focus
+adjusted, and a beautiful sight rewards the pains. Our mass of conferva
+turns out to contain one of the most elegant species. Fine hair-like
+tubes of an organic material, as transparent as glass, are divided by
+partitions of the same substance into cylindrical cells, through which a
+slender ribbon of emerald green, spangled at intervals with small round
+expansions, is spirally wound. We shall call it the Spiral Conferva, its
+scientific name being _Spirogyra quinina_. Some other species, though
+less elegantly adorned, make a pleasing variety in the microscopic
+scene; and appended to some of the threads is a group of small crystal
+bells, which jerk up and down upon spirally twisted stalks. These are
+the "Bell Flower Animalcules" of old observers, the _Vorticellæ_, or
+Little Vortex-makers of the present day. Other small creatures flit
+about with lively motions, and among them we observe a number of green
+spindles that continually change their shape, while an odd-looking thing
+crawls about, after the manner of certain caterpillars, by bringing his
+head and tail together, shoving himself on a step, and then repeating
+the process, and making another move. He has a kind of snout, behind
+which are two little red eyes, and something like a pig-tail sticks out
+behind. This is the Common Wheel-bearer, _Rotifer vulgaris_, a
+favourite object with microscopists, old and young, and capable, as we
+shall see, of doing something more interesting than taking the crawl we
+have described.
+
+A higher power, say one or two hundred, may be conveniently applied to
+bring out the details of the inhabitants of our live box more
+completely; but if the glasses are good, a linear magnification of sixty
+will show a great deal, with the advantage of a large field, and less
+trouble in following the moving objects of our search.
+
+Having commenced our microscopic proceedings by obtaining some Euglenæ,
+Vorticellæ, and a Rotifer, we are in a position to consider the chief
+characteristics of three great divisions of infusoria, which will often
+engage our attention.
+
+It is well known that animalcules and other small forms of being may be
+found in _infusions_ of hay or other vegetable matter, and hence all
+such and similar objects were called _Infusoria_ by early observers.
+Many groups have been separated from the general mass comprehended under
+this term, and it is now used in various senses. The authors of the
+'Micrographic Dictionary' employ it to designate "a class of microscopic
+_animals_ not furnished with either vessels or nerves, but exhibiting
+internal spherical cavities, motion effected by means of cilia, or
+variable processes formed of the substance of the body, true legs being
+absent." The objection to this definition is, that it to some extent
+represents theories which may not be true. That nerves are absent _all
+through the class_ is an assumption founded merely upon the negative
+evidence of their not having been discovered, and the complete absence
+of "vessels" cannot be affirmed.
+
+In the last edition of 'Pritchard's Infusoria,' to which some of our
+ablest naturalists have contributed, after separating two groups, the
+Desmids, and the Diatoms, as belonging to the vegetable world, the
+remainder of the original family of infusoria are classified as
+_Phytozoa_, _Protozoa_, _Rotifera_, and _Tardigrada_. We shall explain
+these hard names immediately, first remarking that the Desmids and the
+Diatoms, concerning whom we do not intend to speak in these pages, are
+the names of two groups, one distinctly vegetable, while the other,
+although now generally considered so, were formerly held by many
+authorities to be in reality animal. The Desmids occur very commonly in
+fresh water. We have some among our Confervæ. They are most brilliant
+green, and often take forms of a more angular and crystalline character
+than are exhibited by higher plants. The Diatoms are still more common,
+and we see before us in our water-drop some of their simplest
+representatives in the form of minute boats made of silica (flint) and
+moved by means still in dispute.
+
+Leaving out the Desmids and Diatoms, we have said that in Pritchard's
+arrangement the views of those writers are adopted who divide the rest
+of the infusoria into four groups, distinguished with foreign
+long-tailed names, which we will translate and expound. First come the
+_Phytozoa_, under which we recognise our old acquaintance _zoophyte_
+turned upside down. _Zoophytes_ mean animal-plants, _Phytozoa_ mean
+plant-animals. We shall have by-and-bye to speak of some of the members
+of this artificial and unsatisfactory group, and postpone to that time a
+learned disquisition on the difference between animals and plants, a
+difference observable enough if we compare a hippopotamus with a
+cabbage, but which "grows small by degrees, and beautifully less," as we
+contemplate lower forms.
+
+After the _Phytozoa_ come the _Protozoa_, or first forms in which
+animality is distinctly recognised. Under this term are assembled
+creatures of very various organization, from the extreme simplicity of
+the _Proteus_ or _Amoeba_, a little lump of jelly, that moves by
+thrusting out portions of its body, so as to make a sort of extempore
+legs, and in which no organs can be discerned,[2] up to others that are
+highly developed, like our _Vorticellæ_. This group is evidently
+provisional, and jumbles together objects that may be widely separated
+when their true structure and real affinities are discerned.
+
+[2] In some kinds and in some stages of growth this is not strictly
+true.
+
+Following the _Protozoa_, come the _Rotifera_, or Wheel-bearers, of
+which we have obtained an example from our pond, and whose
+characteristics we shall endeavour to delineate when our specimen is
+under view; and last in the list we have the _Tardigrada_,
+"Slow-steppers," or Water Bears, queer little creatures, something like
+new-born puppies, with a double allowance of imperfect feet. These,
+though somewhat connected with the rotifers, are considered to belong to
+a low division of the arachnida (spiders, &c.).
+
+[Illustration: --_a_, motile; and _b_, resting condition of Euglenæ.]
+
+Feeling that we must be merciful with the long-tailed words and
+explanations of classification, we reserve further matter of this kind
+for the opportunities that must arise, and direct our attention to
+living forms by watching the _Euglenæ_ which our water-drop contains. We
+have before us a number of elegant spindle-shaped bodies, somewhat
+thicker in front than behind, and in what may be called the head there
+glitters a brilliant red speck, commonly called an _eye-spot_, although,
+like the eyes of potatoes, it cannot see. Round this eye-spot the
+tissues are clear, like glass; but the body of the creature is of a rich
+vegetable green, which shines and glistens as it catches the light. Some
+swim rapidly with a rollicking motion, while others twist themselves
+into all manner of shapes. Now the once delicate spindle is oddly
+contorted, now it swells out in the middle, like a top, and now it rolls
+itself into a ball. The drawings will afford some idea of these protean
+changes, but they must be seen before their harlequin character can be
+thoroughly appreciated. Some of the specimens exhibit delicate lines
+running lengthwise, and taking a spiral twist as the creature moves
+about; but in none can any mouth be discerned, and their antics,
+although energetic and comical, afford no certain indications of either
+purpose or will. What are they? animals or vegetables? or something
+betwixt and between?
+
+The first impression of any casual observer would be to declare in
+favour of their animality; but before this can be settled, comes the
+question, what is an animal, and how does it differ from a vegetable?
+and upon this the learned do by no means agree. One writer considers the
+presence of _starch_ in any object a proof that it belongs to the
+dominions of Flora, while another would decide the issue by ascertaining
+whether it evolves oxygen and absorbs carbon, as most plants do, or
+whether it evolves carbon and absorbs oxygen, as _decided_ animals do.
+Dr. Carpenter asserts that the distinction between _Protophyta_ and
+_Protozoa_ (first or simplest plants and animals), "lies in the nature
+of their food, and the method of its introduction, for whilst the
+_Protophyte_ obtains the materials of its nutrition from the air and
+moisture that surround it, and possesses the power of detaching oxygen,
+hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen from their previous binary combinations,
+and of uniting them into ternary and quaternary organic compounds
+(chlorophyll, starch, albumen, &c.), the simplest _Protozoa_, in common
+with the highest members of the animal kingdom, seems utterly destitute
+of any such power, makes, so to speak, a stomach for itself in the
+substance of its body, into which it injects the solid particles that
+constitute its food, and within which it subjects them to a regular
+process of digestion."
+
+Unfortunately it is very difficult to apply this simple theory to the
+dubious objects which lie on the border-land of the animal world, and no
+other theory that has been propounded appears to meet all cases. Some
+naturalists do not expect to find a broad line of demarkation between
+the two great divisions of living things, but others characterise such
+an idea as "unphilosophical," in spite of which, however, we incline
+towards it.
+
+Mr. Gosse, whose opinion is entitled to great respect, calls the
+_Euglenæ_ "animals" in his 'Evenings with the Microscope;' but from the
+aggregate of recorded observations it seems that they evolve oxygen, are
+coloured with the colouring matter of plants, reproduce their species in
+a manner analogous to plants, and have in some cases been clearly traced
+to the vegetable world. It is, however, possible that some _Euglenæ_
+forms may be animal and others vegetable, and while their place at
+nature's table is being decided, they must be content to be called
+_Phytozoa_, which, as we have before explained, is merely _Zoophyte_
+turned upside down.
+
+Some authorities have thought their animality proved by the high degree
+of contractility which their tissues evince. This, however, cannot go
+for much, as all physiologists admit contractility to belong to the
+vegetable tissues of the sensitive plant, "Venus' Fly-trap," &c., and a
+little more or less cannot mark the boundary between two orders of
+being.
+
+We shall have occasion again to notice the _Protophytes_, and now pass
+to the _Protozoa_, of which we have a good illustration in the
+_Vorticella_ already spoken of. In the group before us a number of
+elegant bells or vases stand at the end of long stalks, as shown at the
+top of the frontispiece, while round the tops of the bells, the
+vibrations of a wreath or cilia produce little vortices or whirlpools,
+and hence comes the family name. This current brings particles of all
+sorts to the mouth near the rim of the bells, and the creature seems not
+entirely destitute of power to choose or reject the morsels according to
+its taste. Every now and then the stalk of some specimen is suddenly
+twisted into a spiral, and contracted, so as to bring the bell almost to
+the ground. Then the stem gracefully elongates again, and the cilia
+repeat their lively game.
+
+The general effect can be seen very well by a power of about sixty
+linear, but one of them from one to two hundred is necessary to bring
+out the details, and a practised observer will use still more
+magnification with good effect. They should be examined by a moderately
+oblique light, or most of the cilia are apt to be rendered invisible,
+and also by _dark ground_ illumination. This may be accomplished in a
+well-made microscope by turning the mirror quite out of the plane of the
+axis of the instrument, that is to say, on one side of the space the
+body would occupy if it were prolonged. By this means, and by placing
+the lamp at an angle with the mirror, that must be learnt by experiment,
+all the light that reaches the eye has first passed through the object,
+and is refracted by it out of the line it was taking, which would have
+carried it entirely away. Or the object may be illuminated by an
+apparatus called a _spotted lens_, which is a small bull's-eye placed
+under the stage, and having all the centre of its face covered with a
+plaster of black silk. In this method the central or direct rays from
+the mirror are obstructed, but those which strike the edge of the
+bull's-eye are bent towards the object, which they penetrate and
+illuminate if it is sufficiently transparent and refractive. Another
+mode of dark ground illumination is by employing an elegant instrument
+called a _parabolic illuminator_, which need not be described.
+
+[Illustration: Vorticella, with posterior circlet of cilia in process of
+separation, 300 linear.--_Stein._]
+
+[Illustration: Vorticella in process of self-division. A new frontal
+wreath in formation in each of the semi-lunar spaces.]
+
+Different specimens and species of _Vorticellæ_ vary in the length of
+their bells from one three or four thousandth to one hundred and
+twentieth of an inch, and when they are tolerably large, the dark ground
+illumination produces a beautiful effect. The bells shine with a pearly
+iridescent lustre, and their cilia flash with brilliant prismatic
+colours.
+
+[Illustration: Vorticella microstoma, showing alimentary tube, ciliated
+mouth, and formation of a gemma at the base, 300 linear.--_Stein._]
+
+[Illustration: Vorticella microstoma, the encysted animal protruding
+through a supposed rupture of the tunic.]
+
+The _Vorticellina_ belong to the upper division of the _Protozoa_--the
+_ciliata_, or ciliated animalcules, and they have a mouth, an
+oesophagus, and an orifice for the exit of their food.
+
+Many observers used to ascribe to those creatures a complete intestinal
+canal, but such an apparatus is now believed not to exist in any of the
+Infusoria. Food particles, after leaving the oesophagus, are thrust
+forward into the sarcode, or soft flesh, and any cavity thus formed acts
+as a stomach.
+
+The bells or cups are not, as might be fancied from a casual inspection,
+open like wineglasses at the top, but furnished with a retractile disk
+or cover, on which the cilia are arranged. Their stalks are not simple
+stems, but are hollow tubes, which in the genus Vorticella are furnished
+with a muscular band, by whose agency the movements are principally
+made.
+
+Some of the Vorticellids will be observed to leave their stalks, having
+developed cilia round their base, and may be seen to swim about in the
+enjoyment of individual life. They are also capable of becoming
+_encysted_, that is, of secreting a gelatinous cover.
+
+[Illustration: Encysted Vorticella, showing the obliteration of special
+organs by the advancement of the process.--_Pritchard._]
+
+These changes are exhibited in the annexed cuts, which are copied from
+known authorities. By careful observation of the bodies of Vorticellids,
+a contractile vesicle may be observed, which appears to cause a movement
+of fluids, that is probably connected either with respiration or
+secretion.
+
+Another piece of apparatus in this family, but not confined to it, is
+the so-called _nucleus_, which in this case is of a horseshoe shape and
+granular texture, and greater solidity than the surrounding parts. The
+functions of this organ formed the subject of various conjectures, but
+it is now generally held to be an ovary.
+
+[Illustration: Vorticella microstoma, in process of encystment, 300
+linear; in the last the inclosing tunic is plainly developed.--_Stein._]
+
+In common with many of the lower animals, the Vorticellids have three
+ways of multiplying their race. One by _fission_, or division of their
+bodies: another by _buds_, somewhat analogous to those of plants; and
+another by reproductive germs. These processes will come again under our
+notice, and we shall leave the Vorticellids for the present by observing
+that if they are fed with a very small quantity of indigo or carmine,
+the vacuoles or spaces, into which their nutriment passes, will be
+clearly observed. Ehrenberg thought in these and similar creatures that
+every vacuole was a distinct stomach, and that all the stomachs were
+connected by an intestinal canal; hence his name _Polygastrica_, or
+many stomached. In these views he has not been followed by later
+observers, and it is probable he was misled, partly by pushing the
+process of reasoning from the analogies of higher animals much too far,
+and partly by the imperfection of the glasses he employed.
+
+[Illustration: Rotifer vulgaris.--A, mouth, or gizzard; B, contractile
+vesicle.--_Micrographic Dictionary._ N.B.--When the cilia and tail part
+are retracted, and the body shortened, the creature assumes an obtuse
+oval form.]
+
+Having thus briefly considered the Vorticellids we must turn to the
+wheel-bearer, who belongs to a higher race than even the ciliated
+_Protozoa_. We left her crawling about with her snout or proboscis
+protruded, but now she has moored herself by her tail-foot, pulled in
+her nose, and put out two groups of cilia, which look like revolving
+wheels, and a little below them is seen a gizzard in a state of active
+work. After a little while she swims away with her wheels going, and her
+tail, forked at the end, is found to be telescopic, or capable of being
+pulled in and out. As the cilia play, the neighbouring water is
+agitated, and the multitudes of small objects are brought by the
+whirlpools within her ravenous maw. But the strangest thing of all is
+that inside her body is seen a young one; in this case a large and fine
+infant, which, like "a chip of the old block," imitates the parental
+motions, thrusts forth its cilia and works its gizzard.[3] In other
+genera the eggs are hatched externally, but this one is ovoviparous, and
+carries its nursery inside.
+
+[3] This was met with in the summer, but is described here to avoid
+repetition. I do not know whether the eggs are hatched in very cold
+weather.
+
+A very slight investigation is sufficient to show that in the
+wheel-bearer we have made a great advance towards a higher organization
+than we discovered in the preceding creatures. We witness what the
+learned call a "differentiation" of parts and tissues, and a
+"specialization" of organs. The head is plainly distinguishable from the
+body, the skin or integument is distinctly different from the internal
+tissues, behind the eyes we can detect a nervous ganglion or miniature
+brain, the gizzard is a complicated piece of vital mechanism, such as we
+have not met with before, and in various parts of the transparent inside
+we see organs to which particular functions are assigned.
+
+It was at one time thought that Rotifers were hermaphrodite--uniting
+both sexes in one body--but that idea is now generally abandoned, for in
+many species the males have been discovered, and the fair sex may be
+gratified to hear that they are without doubt the "inferior animals."
+Their function is simply to assist the female in producing young, and as
+this can be quickly accomplished, their lives are short, and they are
+not supplied with the gizzard and digestive apparatus, which their
+lady-loves possess. Much discussion has taken place as to the rank which
+the Rotifers hold in the animal kingdom, some naturalists thinking them
+relations of the crabs, and others believing them to belong to the
+family of the worms. Professor Huxley, who adopts the latter view, which
+has the most friends, groups the lower _Annulosa_ together under the
+name of _Annuloida_, in which he includes _Annelides_, or worms of
+various kinds, the _Echinodermata_ (or "spine skins," among which are
+the star-fish and sea hedgehogs), and some other families. He considers
+the Rotifers to be "the permanent forms of Echinoderm larvæ." This does
+not mean that they were ever produced by Echinoderms, and had their
+development checked, but that they resemble them in organization, and
+illustrate a general law, observable in animated beings, namely, that
+the lower creatures are like the imperfect stages of higher animals, and
+that all things are formed according to general principles, and exhibit
+a uniformity of plan.
+
+Mr. Gosse adopts a different view, and while admitting a connection
+between the Rotifers and the worms, adduces important reasons for
+associating them with the insects.
+
+Leaving zoologists to settle their position, we may remark that the
+Rotifers form a very numerous family, presenting very great diversities
+of structure, some of the most interesting of which we shall meet with
+in the course of our rambles; but they all possess a gizzard, which,
+though differing in complexity, is throughout formed upon the same
+principle, and that we must now explain.
+
+We have called the masticatory apparatus of the Rotifers a _gizzard_;
+but Mr. Gosse, who has done most to elucidate its structure, contends
+that it is a _mouth_; and in some species it is frequently protruded,
+and used like the mouth of higher animals. Taking one of the most
+typical forms of this organ, and drawing our illustrations from Mr.
+Gosse's admirable paper in the "Transactions of the Royal Society," we
+may describe it, when completely developed, as consisting of three
+lobes, having a more or less rounded form. The eminent naturalist we
+have named calls the whole organ the _mastax_, and states that it is
+composed of dense muscular fibre. The tube which leads down to it he
+designates the "buccal (mouth) funnel," and the tube that issues from
+it, and conveys the food to the digestive sac or stomach, he calls the
+_oesophagus_, in conformity with the nomenclature applied to creatures
+whose mouths are in the usual place. Inside the mouth-gizzard are placed
+two organs, which work like hammers, and which Mr. Gosse therefore names
+_mallei_. The hammers work against a sort of anvil, which is called
+_incus_, the Latin for that implement. Each hammer consists of two
+portions articulated by a hinge joint. The lower portion, the
+_manubrium_, or handle, gives motion to the upper portion, which from
+its shape is named the _uncus_, or hook. The _unci_ are furnished with
+finger-like processes of teeth, which vary in number. There are five or
+six in the best developed specimens. These hooks or teeth work against
+each other, and against the _incus_, or anvil, which consists of
+distinct articulated portions, of which the principal are two _rami_, or
+branches, jointed so that they can open and close like a pair of shears.
+These two rest upon the third portion, which is called the _fulcrum_.
+Some faint idea of the working of the toothed hammers may be obtained by
+rubbing the knuckles of both hands together, but the motion is more
+complicated, and the _rami_ play their part in the trituration of the
+food. Mr. Gosse states that when an objectionable morsel has got as far
+as this mouth-gizzard, "it is thrown back by a peculiar scoop-like
+action of the _unci_, very curious to witness." The foregoing diagram
+will help the reader to comprehend this description, but no opportunity
+should be lost for viewing this remarkable organ busy at work in the
+living animals.
+
+[Illustration: Gizzard of Notomata.]
+
+The respiration of the Rotifers is supposed to be effected by the
+passage of water through vessels running round them, and called the
+"water vascular system," and in addition to their eyes, which often
+disappear in adult specimens, the organ we described as standing out
+like a pig-tail, as our acquaintance crawled along, is thought to act as
+an _antenna_, or feeler, and brings its possessor in further relation to
+the external world. It is also called the _calcar_, or spur, and is
+furnished with cilia or bristles at its extremity.
+
+Sometimes the particles swallowed by the Common Rotifer are large enough
+for their course to be traced, but there is frequently a great commotion
+and grinding of the gizzard, without any appreciable cause, although
+doubtless something is taken in, and when the creature is tired, or has
+had enough, we see both head and tail retracted, and the body assumes a
+globular form. In another chapter, when viewing a Philodine, we shall
+see how in the family to which the Common Rotifer belongs, the gizzard
+departs from the perfect type.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+FEBRUARY.
+
+    Visit to Hampstead--Small
+        ponds--Water-fleas--Water-beetle--Snails--Polyps--Hydra
+        viridis--The dipping-tube--A glass cell--The Hydra and its
+        prey--Chydorus sphæricus and Canthocamptus, or friends and their
+        escapes--Cothurnia--Polyp buds--Catching Polyps--Mode of viewing
+        them--Structure of Polyps--Sarcode--Polyps stimulated by
+        light--Are they conscious?--Tentacles and poison
+        threads--Paramecium--Trachelius--Motions of Animalcules, whether
+        automatic or directed by a will--Their restless character.
+
+
+It has been a bitterly cold night, and as the sun shines on a clear keen
+morning, and glistens in the hoar-frost which covers the trees, it might
+seem an unpropitious time for visiting the ponds, in search of
+microscopic prey. We will, however, try our luck, and take a brisk trot
+to the top of Hampstead Heath, where the air is still keener, and the
+ice more thick. Arriving at the highest point, London appears on one
+side enveloped in its usual great coat of smoke, through which St.
+Paul's big dome, with a score or two of towers and steeples, can be
+dimly made out; while looking towards Harrow-on-the-Hill, or Barnet, we
+see the advantage of country air in the sharpness with which distant
+objects cut the blue sky. We leave the large ponds for another time,
+and hunt out the little hollows among the furze and fern. One looks
+promising from the bright green vegetation to be discovered under the
+sheet of ice, which is almost firm enough to bear human weight.
+
+Breaking a convenient hole we hook up some of the water-plants, and
+place them in a wide-mouthed vial, which we fill with water, and
+cursorily examine with a pocket-lens. Some water-fleas briskly skipping
+about, and a beautiful little beetle, with an elegant dotted pattern on
+his brown back, and a glistening film of air covering his belly, show
+that we have not been unsuccessful, although we must wait till we get
+home to know the extent of our findings, among which, however, we can
+only discern the graceful spiral shell of a small water-snail, the
+_Planorbis_.
+
+Arriving at home the bottle was left undisturbed for some hours in a
+warm light place, and then on being examined several specimens of that
+beautiful polyp, the _Hydra viridis_, were seen attached to the glass,
+and spreading their delicate tentacles in search of prey. One of the
+polyps is carefully removed by the _dipping-tube_, a small glass tube,
+open at both ends. The forefinger is placed upon the top, and when the
+other end is brought over the object the finger is raised for an
+instant, and as the water rushes in the little hydra comes too, and is
+placed in a glass cell, about half an inch wide, and one tenth of an
+inch deep. These cells are obtained from the opticians, and cemented
+with varnish or marine glue to an ordinary glass slide. After an object
+has been placed in one of them, a little water is taken up in the
+dipping-tube, and the cell filled until the fluid stands in a convex
+heap above its brim. We then select around glass cover, and press it
+gently on the walls of our cell. A few drops of superfluous water
+escape, and we have the cell quite full, and the cover held tight by
+force of the capillary attraction between the water and the glass.
+
+[Illustration: _Hydra viridis_ with developed young one, and bud
+beginning to sprout.]
+
+The polyp deposited in one of these water cages is then transferred to
+the stage of the microscope, and its proceedings watched. At first it
+looks like a shapeless mass of apple-green jelly. Soon, however, the
+tail end of the creature is fixed to the glass, the body elongates, and
+the tentacles (in this case eight) expand something after the manner of
+the leaves of a graceful palm.
+
+By accident two small Water Fleas were imprisoned with the polyp, and
+one (a shrimp-like looking creature, carrying behind her a great bag of
+eggs) came into contact with the tentacles, and seemed paralysed for a
+time. The hydra made no attempt to convey the captive to its mouth, but
+held it tight until another Water Flea, a round merry little fellow
+(_Chydorus sphæricus_), came to the rescue, and assisted _Canthocamptus_
+to escape by tugging at her tail. This friendly action may not have been
+prompted by the intelligence which seemed to suggest it, but those who
+have kept tame soldier-crabs and prawns in an aquarium, will not be
+indisposed to attribute to the crustaceans more brains than they have
+usually credit for. It must, however, be confessed that the subsequent
+conduct of Mrs. Canthocamptus did not indicate the possession of much
+prudence, for she learnt no lesson from experience, but repeatedly swam
+against her enemy's tentacles, suffered many captures, and only escaped
+being devoured through the indifference, or want of appetite, which the
+polyp evinced.
+
+[Illustration: A, _Canthocamptus minutus_; B, _Chydorus sphæricus_; C
+and D, Capsules and poison-thread of polyp; E, _Tricodina pediculus_,
+side view and under view; F, _Kerona polyporum.--Microg. Dict._]
+
+On the body of the _Canthocamptus_ were some small transparent vases or
+bottles, containing living objects, which sprang up and down. These
+were members of the _Vorticella_ family, called _Cothurnia_, and will
+be hereafter described.
+
+[Illustration: _Hydra viridis_, in various shapes.]
+
+Watching the hydra it was curious to note the changes of form which
+these creatures are able to assume. Now the tentacles were short and
+thick, and the body squat; now the body was elongated, like the stem of
+a palm tree, and the tentacles hung gracefully from the top. From some
+of the polyps little round buds were growing, while other buds were
+already developed into miniature copies of the parent, and only attached
+by a slender stalk. In a few days many of these left the maternal side,
+fixed their own little tails to the glass, and commenced housekeeping on
+their own account.
+
+Polyps may be obtained at all times of the year by bringing home
+duckweed, conferva, and other water-plants from the ponds. Some hauls
+may be unsuccessful, but if one pond is not propitious others should be
+tried. The plants should be put in a capacious vessel of water, and
+placed in the light, where, if polyps be present, they will show
+themselves within twenty-four hours, either attached to the sides of the
+glass, or hanging from the plants, or suspended head downwards from the
+upper film of the water. They are elegant objects, and may be kept
+without difficulty for some weeks. After being confined in a small
+quantity of water for purposes of examination, they should be carefully
+replaced in the larger vessel, and may thus be used again and again
+without suffering any injury. A low power--a three or two-inch glass--or
+a one-inch, reduced by employing the erector--is the most convenient for
+examining the whole creature, but higher powers are necessary to make
+out its minute structure. They should be viewed with direct and oblique
+light, as transparent and also as opaque objects. In the latter case the
+"Lieberkuhn," or polished silver speculum, is convenient, and if the
+microscope is not furnished with Lister's dark wells, a small piece of
+black paper may be stuck behind the object, by simply wetting it with
+the tongue.[4]
+
+[4] The side silver reflector is useful for illuminating such objects.
+
+Although the polyps are remarkable for the simplicity of their
+organization, they do not the less exhibit the wonderful nature of
+animal life. Their bodies are composed of the substance, called
+_sarcode_, in which is imbedded a colouring matter resembling that in
+the leaves of plants; every part possesses irritability and
+contractility, and they are very sensitive to the stimulus of light. The
+outer layer of their bodies is harder than the inner layer. These
+layers are severally called _ectoderm_ and _endoderm_. They may be cut
+and grafted like trees, and if turned inside out, the new inside digests
+and assimilates as well as the old. Whether any form of consciousness
+can belong to creatures which have no distinct nervous system is open to
+doubt, but it would seem probable from their movements that food and
+light afford them something like a pleasurable sensation in a very
+humble degree. If we were sufficiently acquainted with the secrets of
+molecular combination we might discover that the various functions of
+these simple organisms were discharged by different _particles_,
+although it is only in higher creatures that muscular particles are
+aggregated into muscles, or nerve particles into nerves.
+
+Having examined the general appearance and proceedings of the hydra, let
+us cut off a tentacle, or take a small specimen and gently crush it by
+pressing down the cover of the live box, and place the object so
+prepared under a power of about three hundred linear. If we then
+illuminate it with a moderate quantity of oblique light, we shall
+discover round the edge of the tentacle a number of small cells or
+capsules, from some of which a very slender wire or thread will be
+emitted.[5] These are the stinging organs of the polyp, and resemble
+those which Mr. Gosse has so ably elucidated in the sea anemones. Some
+writers have endeavoured to show that they are not stinging organs at
+all, but so large an amount of evidence to the contrary is accumulated
+in Mr. Gosse's 'Actinologia Britannica,' that no reasonable doubt
+remains. The stinging capsules of the polyp are shown in the annexed
+sketch, and also the way in which they are employed, for it fortunately
+happened that on exposing one of the hydras to pressure in the live box,
+a small worm (_Anguillula_) escaped, which had been pierced with the
+minute weapons which are supposed to convey a poison into the wound. The
+authors of the 'Micrographic Dictionary' think that the prongs of the
+forks, which will be seen to point upwards in the sketch,[6] are
+springs, and occupy a reversed position in the capsule cells, and that
+their function is to throw out the threads. However this may be, the
+polyps, and similarly endowed creatures, have the power of darting out
+their poison threads with considerable force, and Mr. Gosse found that
+the anemone was able to pierce a thick piece of human skin.
+
+[5] See page 34, C and D.
+
+[6] See page 38.
+
+[Illustration: Anguillula pierced by stinging organs of the _Hydra
+viridis_.]
+
+The same excellent observer attributes the emission of the anemone
+poison threads, which he considers hollow, to the injection of a fluid.
+In their quiescent state, he thinks they are drawn in, like the finger
+of a glove, and are forced out as the liquid enters their slender tubes.
+Possibly the polyp stinging organs may have the same structure.
+
+Notwithstanding their dangerous weapons, polyps are often infested with
+a parasite, the _Trichodina pediculus_, as shown in Fig. E, page 49, and
+it must happen that either this visitation is not disagreeable, or that
+the Trichodina is not influenced by the poison.
+
+As the plants in the bottles decayed, some of the animalcules died off
+and others appeared. In one bottle, containing decaying chara,
+_Paramecia_ abounded. The _Paramecia_, of which there are various
+species, have always been favourite objects with microscopists. The
+Germans call them "slipper animalcules," and they vary in size from
+1--96"[7] to 1--1150". They are flat rounded-oblong creatures, with a
+distinct integument or skin, "through which numerous vibratile cilia
+pass in regular rows."[8] They are furnished with a distinct mouth, and
+adult specimens exhibit star-shaped contractile vesicles in great
+perfection.
+
+[7] The usual mode of giving dimensions is by fractions thus expressed:
+1--96" means one ninety-sixth of an inch.
+
+[8] 'Micrographic Dictionary.'
+
+The swarm of specimens before us belong to one species, _Paramecium
+aurelia_, the _Chrysalis animalcule_, and they crowd every portion of
+the little water-drop we have taken up, and examined with a power of
+about one hundred linear. When they are sufficiently quiet a power of
+about four hundred may be used with advantage, and Pritchard recommends
+adding a little indigo and carmine to the water, in order to see the
+cilia more clearly, or rather to render their action more plain. The
+cilia are disposed lengthwise, and Ehrenberg counted in some rows sixty
+or seventy of them, making an aggregate of three thousand six hundred
+and forty organs of motion in one small animated speck. This number
+seems large, but although we have never performed the feat of counting
+them, we should have expected it to prove much greater. Unlike most
+animalcules they are susceptible of being preserved by drying upon
+glass, and we subjoin a figure from Pritchard, of one thus treated, in
+which the star-shaped vesicles are clearly seen. These curious organs
+communicate with other vessels, and, as we have previously stated, are
+probably connected with respiration and excretion.
+
+[Illustration: Paramecium aurelia. A dried specimen showing the
+vesicles.--_Pritchard._]
+
+The genus _Paramecium_ is now confined to those creatures which exhibit
+rows of longitudinal cilia of uniform length, which are destitute of
+hooks, styles, or other organs of motion than the cilia, which have a
+lateral mouth, and no eye-spots. One mode of increase is by division,
+which may be easily observed; another is through the formation of true
+eggs as traced by Balbiani.
+
+Another of the treasures from the pond was a species of _Trachelius_, or
+long-necked ciliated animalcule, which kept darting in and out of a
+slimy den, attached to the leaf of a water-plant. The body was stout and
+fish-shaped, the tail blunt, and the neck furnished with long
+conspicuous cilia, which enabled the advancing and retreating movements
+to be made with great rapidity. The motions of this creature exhibit
+more appearance of purpose and design than is common with animalcules,
+but in proportion as these observations are prolonged, the student will
+be impressed with the difficulty of assuming that anything like a
+reasoning faculty and volition, is proved by movements that bear some
+resemblance to those of higher animals, whose cerebral capacities are
+beyond a doubt. It is, however, almost impossible to witness motions
+which are neither constant nor periodic, without fancying them to be
+dictated by some sort of intelligence. We must, nevertheless, be
+cautious, lest we allow ourselves to be deceived by reasoning so
+seductive, as the vital operations of the lowest organisms may be merely
+illustrations of blind obedience to stimuli, in which category we must
+reckon food, and until we arrive at forms of being which clearly possess
+a ganglionic system, we have no certainty that a real will exists, even
+of the simplest kind; and perhaps we must go still higher before we
+ought to believe in its presence.
+
+Ehrenberg was much struck with the restless character of many
+infusoria--whether he looked at them by day or by night, they were never
+still. In fact their motions are like the involuntary actions which take
+place in the human frame; and if attached to their bodies we observe
+cilia that never sleep, the living membrane of some of our own organs,
+the nose, for example, is similarly ciliated, and keeps up a perpetual
+though unconscious work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MARCH.
+
+    Paramecia--Effects of Sunlight--Pterodina patina--Curious
+        tail--Use of a Compressorium--Internal structure of
+        Pterodina--Metopidia--Trichodina
+        pediculus--Cothurnia--Salpina--Its three-sided box--Protrusion
+        of its gizzard mouth.
+
+
+The _Paramecia_, noticed in the last chapter, have increased and
+multiplied their kind without any fear lest the due adjustment between
+population and food should fail to be preserved. A small drop of the
+scum from the surface of the water in their bottle is an astounding
+sight. They move hither and thither in countless numbers, seldom
+jostling, although thick as herrings in a tub, and in many portions of
+the field the process of self-fissure, or multiplication by division, is
+going on without any symptoms of discomfort on the part of the parent
+creature. This is an interesting sight, but we will not linger over it,
+for the sun is shining, and there is enough warmth in the air to make it
+probable that the ponds will be more prolific than in the cold winter
+months. Sunshine is a great thing for the microscopic hunter; it brings
+swarms of creatures to the surface, and the Rotifers are especially fond
+of its genial beams. Even if we imitate it by a bright lamp, we shall
+attract crowds of live dancing specks to the illuminated side of a
+bottle, and may thus easily effect their capture by the dipping-tube.
+
+[Illustration: Pterodina patina.]
+
+This year the March sunshine was not lost, for on the third of that
+month I obtained a bottleful of conferva from a pond about a mile from
+my house, and lying at the foot of the Highgate hills. Water-fleas were
+immediately discovered in abundance, together with some minute worms,
+and a ferocious-looking larva covered with scales; but what attracted
+most attention was a Rotifer, like a transparent animated soup-plate,
+from near the middle of which depended a tail, which swayed from side to
+side, as the creature swam along. The head exhibited two little red
+eyes; two tufts of cilia rowed the living disk through the water, and
+the gizzard worked with a rapid snapping motion, that left no doubt the
+ciliary whirlpools had brought home no slender stores of invisible food.
+Sometimes the end of the tail acted as a sucker, and fixed the animal
+tightly to the glass, when the wheels were protruded, and the body
+swayed to and fro. Then the sucker action ceased, and as the creature
+swam away, a tuft of cilia was thrust out from the extremity of the
+tail. A power of one hundred linear was sufficient to enable the general
+nature of this beautiful object to be observed, but to bring out the
+details, much greater amplification was required, and this would be
+useless if the little fidget could not be kept still.
+
+[Illustration: Pterodina patina--gizzard.]
+
+The size of the creature, whose name we may as well mention was
+_Pterodina patina_, rendered this practicable, but required some care.
+The longest diameter of the body, which was not quite round, was about
+1--120", so that it was visible to the naked eye, and as a good many
+were swimming together, one could be captured without much difficulty,
+and transferred with a very small drop of water to the live-box. Then
+the cover had to be put on so as to squeeze the animal just enough to
+keep it still without doing it any damage, or completely stopping its
+motions. This was a troublesome task, and often a little overpressure
+prevented its success.
+
+Some observers always use in these cases an instrument called a
+_compressorium_, by which the amount of pressure is regulated by a lever
+or a fine screw; but whether the student possess one or not, he should
+learn to accomplish the same result by dexterously manipulating a
+well-made live-box. We will suppose the _Pterodina_ successfully caged,
+and a power of about one hundred and fifty linear brought to bear upon
+her, for our specimen is of the "female persuasion." This will suffice
+to demonstrate the disposition and relation of the several parts, after
+which one of from four hundred to five hundred linear may be used with
+great advantage, though in this case the illumination must be carefully
+adjusted, and its intensity and obliquity frequently changed, until the
+best effect is obtained.
+
+We find, on thus viewing the Pterodina, that it is a complex, highly
+organized creature, having its body protected by a _carapace_, like the
+shell of a tortoise, but as flexible as a sheet of white gelatine paper,
+which it resembles in appearance. Round the margin of this carapace are
+a number of little bosses or dots, which vary in different individuals.
+The cilia are not disposed, as at first appeared, in two separate and
+distinct disks, but are continuous, as in the annexed sketch. Down each
+side are two long muscular bands, distinctly _striated_, and when they
+contract, the ciliary apparatus is drawn in. As this contraction takes
+place, two apparently elastic bands, to which the ciliary lobes are
+attached, are bent downwards, till they look like the C springs behind a
+gentleman's carriage; and they regain their former position of slight
+curvature, when the cilia are again thrust out.
+
+[Illustration: Pterodina patina--tail-foot.]
+
+The gizzard is three-lobed, and curiously grasped by forked expansions
+of the handles of the hammers. The tail, or tail-foot, can be withdrawn
+or thrust out at the will of the creature; and when in a good position
+for observation, a slight additional pressure will keep it so for
+examination. Delicate muscular longitudinal bands, forked towards the
+end of their course, supply the means of performing some of its motions,
+and one, or perhaps two, spiral threads extend through the upper half of
+its length, and either act as muscles, or as elastic springs for its
+extension. The intestines and other viscera are clearly exhibited, and a
+strong ciliary action conducts the food to the gizzard-mouth.
+
+To return to the tail. One spiral fibre is easily discovered; but I
+have often, and at an interval of months, seen the appearance of two,
+and am in some doubt whether this was a deception, arising from the
+compression employed, or was a genuine indication.
+
+[Illustration: A. Metopidia acuminata, as drawn by Mr. Gosse. B.
+Specimen as seen and described in text. _c._ Mouth or gizzard.]
+
+Where this Rotifer occurs I have usually found it plentiful, but
+unfortunately could obtain no constant supplies after I had determined
+to make a special study of the remarkable tail, which is much more
+complicated than I have described. The _Pterodina_ lived for some time
+in captivity, and for a week or two I could obtain them from my glass
+tank. They were likewise to be found for some weeks in the same part of
+the pond, but not all over it, until one day not a single specimen could
+be discovered, notwithstanding a persevering search nor was I
+afterwards able to get any from that pond during the remainder of the
+year.
+
+[Illustration: Trichodina pediculus.]
+
+Several other Rotifers, with and without carapaces, were among the same
+mass of confervæ, among them a _Metopidia_, with a firm shell, a forked
+jointed tail, and a projection in front which worked like a pickaxe
+among the decaying weed. There were likewise specimens of the
+long-necked animalcules (Trachelii), groups of Vorticella, some
+specimens of Volvox, and a small _Trichodina pediculus_, which, when
+magnified two hundred and sixty linear, was about the size of a sixpence
+and equally round. The edge was beautifully fringed with a circle of
+cilia; in an inner circle was a row of locomotive organs, and the centre
+exhibited vacuoles constantly opening and shutting. This creature, as
+before explained, is often found as a parasite upon the polyps. On one
+occasion a glimpse was caught of a Rotifer similar in shape to the
+common wheel animalcule, but with a yellow inside. Possibly it was the
+object so beautifully delineated by Mr. Gosse, in his "Tenby," and
+described as the "Yellow Philodine," but this must remain in doubt, as
+it managed to escape before it could be secured.
+
+[Illustration: A. Cothurnia imberbis--('Micrograph. Dict.') B and C. The
+specimens described in text. The figures give the _linear_
+magnification.]
+
+By the 18th of the month the Vorticellids were much more plentiful, and
+their changes easily watched; many left their stalks while under the
+microscope, after which some rushed about like animated and demented
+hats, others twirled round like tee-to-tums, while others took a rest
+before commencing their wild career. But the common Vorticellæ were not
+the only or the most interesting representations of their charming
+order, for upon some threads of conferva were descried several elegant
+crystal vases standing upon short foot-stalks, and containing little
+creatures that jumped up and down like "Jack in the box." These were so
+minute, that a power of four hundred and thirty linear was
+advantageously brought to bear upon them. When elongated their bodies
+were somewhat pear-shaped, but more slender, and variegated with
+vacuoles and particles of food. The mouths resembled those of
+Vorticellæ, and put forth circles of vibrating cilia. They were easily
+alarmed, when the cilia were retracted, and down they sank to the bottom
+of their vases, quickly to rise again. In one bottle there were two
+living in friendly juxtaposition. This was not a case of matrimonial
+felicity, nor of Siamese twins, but of _fission_, or reproduction by
+division. The original inhabitant of the tube finding himself too fat,
+or impelled by causes we do not understand, quietly divided himself in
+two, and as the house was big enough, no enlargement was required. How
+many stout puffy gentlemen must envy this process; how convenient to
+have two thin lively specimens of humanity made out of one too obese for
+locomotion. Man is, however, sometimes the victim of his superior
+organization, and no process of "fission" can make the lusty lean.[9]
+
+[9] Balbiani in his 'Recherches sur les Phénomènes Sexuels des
+Infusoires,' speaks of the Vorticellids as the only Infusoria dividing
+longitudinally. In other species such appearances arise from
+conjunction.
+
+The bottles in which these creatures live, in happy ignorance that they
+are called by so crackjaw a name as _Cothurnia imberbis_, were described
+as _Carapaces_ by Ehrenberg, but they bear no resemblance to the shell
+of a turtle or crab. They are thrown off by the animals who preserve no
+other connection with them than the attachment at the bottom.
+
+The Micrographic Dictionary describes the family Ophrydina as
+corresponding to Vorticellina with a carapace. Stein places them with
+Vorticellids, &c., amongst his Peritricha, which are characterised by a
+spiral wreath of cilia round the mouth.
+
+Towards the end of the month a great number of black pear-shaped bodies
+(Stentor niger), visible to the naked eye, were conspicuous in some
+water from the Kentish Town ponds. Upon examination they were found to
+be filled with granules that were red by reflected, and purple by
+transmitted light. Each one had a spiral wreath of cilia, with a mouth
+situated like those of the stentors, hereafter to be described, but none
+of them became stationary, and in a few days they all disappeared. Stein
+divides Ehrenberg's Stentor igneus from S. niger; the creature described
+seems to have agreed with Stein's _igneus_, which he describes as having
+blood-red lilac, cinnabar, or brown-red pigment particles, and as much
+smaller than his S. niger. In the same water were specimens of that
+singular Rotifer, the _Salpina_, about 1--150" long, and furnished with
+a _lorica_, or carapace, resembling a three-sided glass box, closed
+below, and slightly open along the back. At the top of this box were
+four, and at the bottom three, points or horns, and the creature had one
+eye and a forked tail. Keeping him company was another little Rotifer,
+named after its appearance, _Monocerca rattus_, the 'One-tailed Rat.'
+This little animal had green matter in its stomach, which was in
+constant commotion. I ought to have observed that the Salpina repeatedly
+thrust out its gizzard, and used it as an external mouth. In the annexed
+sketch the Salpina is seen in a position that displays the dorsal
+opening of the carapace. Its three-cornered shape is only shown by a
+side view.
+
+[Illustration: Salpina redunca.]
+
+Here we close a brief account of what March winds brought in their
+train. The next chapter will show the good fortune that attended April
+showers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+APRIL.
+
+    The beautiful Floscule--Mode of seeking for Tubicolor
+        Rotifers--Mode of illuminating the Floscule--Difficulty of
+        seeing the transparent tube--Protrusion of long
+        hairs--Lobes--Gizzard--Hairy lobes of Floscule not rotatory
+        organs--Glass troughs--Their construction and use--Movement of
+        globules in lobes of Floscule--Chætonotus larus--Its mode of
+        swimming--Coleps hirtus--Devourer of dead Entomostraca--Dead
+        Rotifer and Vibriones--Theories of fermentation and
+        putrefaction--Euplotes and Stylonichia--Fecundity of
+        Stylonichia.
+
+
+Few living creatures deserve so well the appellation of "beautiful" as
+the _Floscularia ornata_, or Beautiful Floscule, although to contemplate
+a motionless and uncoloured portrait, one would imagine that it
+exhibited no graces of either colour or form. Mr. Gosse has, however,
+done it justice, and the drawing in his "Tenby" is executed with that
+rare combination of scientific accuracy and artistic skill, for which
+the productions of his pencil are renowned.
+
+[Illustration: The Beautiful Floscule. A.--Partially protruded.
+B.--Freely protruded, with three eggs. C.--Appearance of young.
+D.--Floscule seventeen hours old. D'.--Jaws of Floscule, as figured by
+Mr. Gosse.]
+
+Probably the sketches in several works of authority representing the
+long cilia as short bristles, are merely copies from old drawings, from
+objects imperfectly seen under indifferent microscopes, and before
+the refinements of illumination were understood. Be this as it may, any
+reader will be fortunate if on an April, or any other morning, he or she
+effects the capture of one of these exquisite objects, although the
+first impression may not equal previous expectations, as the delicacy of
+the organism is not disclosed by a mode of using the light which answers
+well enough for the common infusoria.
+
+When the Floscules, or other tubicolar Rotifers are specially sought
+for, the best way is to proceed to a pond where slender-leaved
+water-plants grow, and to examine a few branches at a time in a phial of
+water with a pocket-lens. They are all large enough to be discerned, if
+present, in this manner, and as soon as one is found, others may be
+expected, either in the same or in adjacent parts of the pond, for they
+are gregarious in their habits. With many, however, the first finding of
+a Floscule will be an accident, as was the case last April, when a small
+piece of myriophyllum was placed in the live-box, and looked over to see
+what it might contain. The first glimpse revealed an egg-shaped object,
+of a brownish tint, stretching itself upon a stalk, and showing some
+symptoms of hairs or cilia at its head. This was enough to indicate the
+nature of the creature, and to show the necessity for a careful
+management of the light, which being adjusted obliquely, gave quite a
+new character to the scene. The dirty brown hue disappeared, and was
+replaced by brilliant colours; while the hairs, instead of appearing few
+and short, were found to be extremely numerous, very long, and
+glistening like delicate threads of spun glass.
+
+Knowing that the Floscules live in transparent gelatinous tubes, such an
+object was carefully looked for, but in this instance, as is not
+uncommon, it was perfectly free from extraneous matter, and possessed
+nearly the same refractive power as the water, so that displaying it to
+advantage required some little trouble in the way of careful focusing,
+and many experiments as to the best angle at which the mirror should be
+turned to direct the light. When all was accomplished, it was seen that
+the Floscule had her abode in a clear transparent cylinder, like a thin
+confectioner's jar, which she did not touch except at the bottom, to
+which her foot was attached. Lying aside her in the bottle were three
+large eggs, and the slightest shock given to the table, induced her to
+draw back in evident alarm. Immediately afterwards she slowly protruded
+a dense bunch of the fine long hairs, which quivered in the light, and
+shone with a delicate bluish-green lustre, here and there varied by
+opaline tints.
+
+The hairs were thrust out in a mass, somewhat after the mode in which
+the old-fashioned telescope hearth-brooms were made to put forth their
+bristles. As soon as they were completely everted, together with the
+upper portion of the Floscule, six lobes gradually separated, causing
+the hairs to fall on all sides in a graceful shower, and when the
+process was complete, they remained perfectly motionless, in six hollow
+fan-shaped tufts, one being attached to each lobe. Some internal ciliary
+action, quite distinct from the hairs, and which has never been
+precisely understood, caused gentle currents to flow towards the mouth
+in the middle of the lobes, and from the motion of the gizzard,
+imperfectly seen through the integument, and from the rapid filling of
+the stomach with particles of all hues, it was plain that captivity had
+not destroyed the Floscule's appetite, and that the drop of water in the
+live-box contained a good supply of food.
+
+Sometimes the particles swallowed were too small to be discerned,
+although their aggregate effect was visible; but often a monad or larger
+object was ingulfed, but without any ciliary action being visible to
+account for the journey they were evidently compelled to perform. The
+long hairs took no part whatever in the foraging process, and as they do
+not either provide victuals or minister to locomotion, they are clearly
+not, as was supposed by early observers, representatives of the
+"wheels," which the ordinary Rotifers present. Neither can the
+cylindrical jar or bottle be justly deemed to occupy the position of the
+lorica, or carapace which we have before described. The general
+structure of the creature and the nature of its gizzard distinctly
+marked it out as a member of the family we call "Rotifers," but the
+absence of anything like "wheels" proves that those organs are not
+essential characteristics of this class.
+
+Noticeable currents are not always produced when the mouth of this
+Floscule is fully expanded. On one occasion, one having five lobes was
+discovered standing at such an angle in a glass trough that the aperture
+could be looked down into. The position rendered it impossible to use a
+higher power than about two hundred linear, but with this, and the
+employment of carmine, nothing like a vortex was seen during a whole
+evening, although a less power was sufficient to show the ciliary
+whirlpools made by small specimens of _Epistylis_ and _Vaginicola_,
+which were in the small vessel. The density of the integument was
+unfavorable to viewing the action of the gizzard, but it could be
+indistinctly perceived. The contractions and subsequent expansions of
+the cup, formed by the upper part of the creature, may be one way in
+which its food is drawn in, but there is no doubt it can produce
+currents when it thinks proper. Sometimes animalcules in the vicinity of
+Floscules whirl about as if under the influence of such currents. Some
+may be seen to enter the space between the lobes, swim about inside, and
+then get out again, while every now and then one will be sucked in too
+far for retreat.
+
+Above the gizzard in the Horned Floscule,[10] I have seen an appearance
+as if a membrane or curtain was waving to and fro, while another was
+kept in a fixed perpendicular position. Mr. Gosse, speaking of this
+genus, observes "that the whole of the upper part of the body is lined
+with a sensitive, contractile, partially opaque membrane, which a little
+below the disk recedes from the walls of the body, and forms a
+diaphragm, with a highly contractile and versatile central orifice. At
+some distance lower down another diaphragm occurs, and the ample chamber
+thus enclosed forms a kind of _crop_, or receptacle for the captured
+prey."
+
+[10] The Horned Floscules (_F. cornuta_) which I have found, and which
+bred in a glass jar, were not so large as those described by Mr. Dobie,
+as quoted in 'Pritchard's Infusoria.' Mr. Dobie's specimens were 1--40"
+when extended; mine about half that size, five-lobed, and with a long
+slender proboscis, standing in a wavy line outside one lobe. Mr. Dobie
+also describes an _F. campanulata_, with five flattened lobes. The
+'Micrographic Dictionary' pronounces these two species "doubtfully
+distinct." I have three or four times met with a variety of _F. ornata_,
+in which one lobe was much enlarged and flattened, but they had no
+proboscis. In what I take for _F. cornuta_, the horn or proboscis has
+sometimes been a conspicuous object, and at others so fine and
+transparent as to be only visible in certain lights.
+
+"From the ventral side of the ample crop that precedes the stomach,
+there springs in _F. ornata_ a perpendicular membrane or veil, partly
+extending across the cavity. This is free, except at the vertical edge,
+by which it is attached to the side of the chamber, and being ample and
+of great delicacy, it continually floats and waves from side to side. At
+the bottom of this _veil_, but on the dorsal side, are placed the jaws,
+consisting of a pair of curved, unjointed, but free _mallei_, with a
+membranous process beneath each."
+
+The Beautiful Floscule could always be made to repeat the process of
+retreating into her den, and coming out again to spread her elegant
+plumes before our eyes, by giving the table a smart knock, and her
+colours and structure were well exhibited by the dark-ground
+illumination, which has been explained in a previous page.
+
+An object like this should be watched at intervals for hours and even
+days, especially if the eggs are nearly ready to give up their infantile
+contents. This was the case with the specimen described, and after a few
+hours a young Floscule escaped, looking very much like a clumsy little
+grub. After a few awkward wriggles the new-born baby became more quiet,
+and on looking at it again at the expiration of seventeen hours, it had
+developed into the shape of a miniature plum-pudding, with five or six
+tiny lobes expanding their tufts of slender hair. Unfortunately its
+further proceedings were not seen, or it would have been interesting to
+note the growth of the foot, and the formation of the gelatinous tube,
+which is probably thrown off in rings.
+
+To view the details of the structure of a Floscule, it must be placed in
+a live-box or compressorium, and if specimens are scarce, they should
+not be allowed to remain in the limited quantity of water those
+contrivances hold, after the observations are concluded, but should be
+carefully removed, and placed in a little vial, such as homoeopathists
+use for their medicine. By such means an individual may be kept alive
+for many days. It is also interesting to place a little branch of the
+plant occupied by Floscules or similar creatures, in a glass trough,
+where they may be made quite at home, and their proceedings agreeably
+watched by a one-inch or two-thirds power. These troughs,[11] which can
+be obtained of the optician, should be of plate glass, about three
+inches long, nearly the same height, and about half an inch wide. If
+narrower, or much taller, they will not stand, which is a great
+inconvenience. The pieces of glass are stuck together with marine glue,
+and a very simple contrivance enables the plants or other objects to be
+pressed near the front, and thus brought into better view. A strip of
+glass, rather narrower than the width of the trough, is dropped into it,
+and allowed to fall to the bottom. Then a piece of glass rather shorter
+than the trough, and rather higher than its front side, is placed so as
+to slope from the front of the bottom towards the back at the top. The
+piece of glass first dropped in keeps it in the right position, and the
+trough is thus made into a V-shaped vessel, wide at the top and
+gradually narrowing. Any object then placed in it will fall till it fits
+some part of the V, where it will remain for observation. A small wedge
+of cork enables the moveable piece of glass to be thrown forwards, until
+it assumes any angle, or is brought parallel to the front of the trough.
+
+[11] The shallow cells with thin sliding covers devised by Mr. Curteis
+(of Baker's), are still more convenient when no pressure is required,
+and the objects are small. When not under the microscope they can be
+kept full of water by immersion in a tumbler.
+
+A power of five or six hundred diameters generally enables a movement of
+small globules to be seen at the extremity of the lobes of the Floscule,
+and the gizzard may be made plain by dissolving the rest of the creature
+in a drop of solution of caustic potash. It also becomes more visible as
+the supply of food falls short. Mr. Gosse describes the body as "lined
+with a yellowish vascular membrane," and young specimens exhibit two red
+eyes, which may or may not be found in adults. When these eyes of
+Rotifers are not readily conspicuous, they must be sought for by opaque
+illumination, or by the dark-ground method which, especially with the
+parabola, is successful in bringing them out.
+
+Naturalists, and possibly the specimens also, do not always agree in
+the number of lobes assigned to the "Beautiful Floscule," and although
+it is easy enough to count them in _some_ positions, the observer may
+have to exercise a good deal of patience before he is certain whether
+they are five or six. For a long evening only five could be discerned in
+the specimen now described, but the next night six were apparent without
+difficulty or doubt. The hairs also will not appear anything like their
+true length or number, unless the object-glass is good, and great care
+is taken not to obscure them by a blaze of ill-directed light.
+
+[Illustration: Chætonotus larus (swimming).]
+
+After the Floscules had been sufficiently admired and put aside, for
+observations to be repeated on future occasions, a Rotifer attracted
+attention by his merry-andrew pranks, throwing himself in all directions
+by means of two long and extremely mobile toes attached to his
+tail-foot. Then came a creature swimming like an otter, thrusting his
+head about on all sides, and looking much more intelligent than most of
+his compeers of the pond. Looked at vertically, he was somewhat
+slipper-shaped, the rounded heel forming his head, then narrowing to a
+waist, and expanding towards the other end, which projected in a fork.
+All round him were long cilia, which were conspicuous near the head, and
+a fine line indicated the passage from his mouth to the stomach, which
+seemed full of granular matter. Presently he took to crawling, or rather
+running, over a thread of conferva, and then his back was elegantly
+arched, and his cilia stood erect like the quills of a porcupine. This
+was the _Chætonotus larus_.
+
+[Illustration: Chætonotus larus (crawling).]
+
+In Pritchard's "Infusoria," the views of those writers are followed who
+rank this animal amongst the Rotifers, and place it in the family
+_Icthidina_. To help out this theory, the cilia upon the ventral surface
+are imagined to form a "band-like rotary organ;" but in truth they bear
+no resemblance whatever to the so-called wheels of the ordinary
+Rotifers, nor is there anything like the gizzard which true Rotifers
+present. Ehrenberg treated it as a Rotifer, and Dujardin placed it among
+the Infusoria, in a particular class, comprehending symmetrical
+organisms. The 'Microscopic Dictionary' remarks that its "structure
+requires further investigation,"[12] and while the learned decide all
+the intricate questions of its zoological rank, the ordinary observer
+will be pleased to watch its singular aspect and lively motions. Its
+size, according to the 'Micrographic Dictionary,' varies from 1--710" to
+1--220", and while its general proceeding may be watched with an inch or
+two-thirds object-glass, and the second eye-piece, a power of five
+hundred linear (obtained by a quarter or a fifth) is required to make
+out the details of its structure. If placed in a live-box with threads
+of conferva, and a little decayed vegetation, it may be observed to
+group about among them, and shake them like a dog.
+
+[12] See a valuable paper by Mr. Gosse, "History of the Hairy-backed
+Animalcules," 'Intellectual Observer,' vol. v, p. 387, in which the
+known species are described and reasons given for following Vogt and
+ranging them with the Turbellarian worms.
+
+We have said that water-fleas were among the inhabitants of a bottle
+filled at the pond, and as they go the way of all flesh, it is common to
+find some odd-looking animalcules ready to devour their mortal remains.
+These are creatures shaped like beer-barrels, upon short legs, and which
+swim with a tubby rolling gait. Looking at one of these little tubs
+lengthwise, a number of lines are seen, as though the edge of each stave
+projected a little above the general level, and transverse markings are
+also apparent, which may be compared to hoops. This is the _Coleps
+hirtus_, which differs from the usual type of Infusoria, by being
+symmetrical, that is, divisible into two equal and similar halves. The
+dimensions of this species vary from 1--570 to 1--430, and its colour
+varies from white to brown. It has been observed to increase by
+transverse self-division, and has two orifices, one at each end, for
+receiving food and ejecting the remains. It often requires some little
+trouble to get a good view of the cilia, which are arranged in
+transverse and longitudinal rows. A power of one hundred and fifty
+linear is convenient for viewing it in motion, but when quiet under
+pressure, one of five or six hundred may be used with advantage.
+
+[Illustration: Coleps hirtus.]
+
+Among the rubbish at the bottom of the bottle, in which the coleps was
+found, was a minute dead Rotifer, the flesh of which was fast
+disappearing, but upon being examined with a power of nine hundred and
+sixty diameters, it was observed to swarm with extremely minute
+_vibriones_, the largest only appearing under that immense magnification
+like chains of bluish-green globules, not bigger than the heads of
+minikin pins, while the smallest were known by a worm-like wriggling,
+although their structure could not be defined. These _vibriones_ are
+probably members of the vegetable world, and they always appear when
+animal matter undergoes putrefaction.
+
+M. Pasteur has brought forward elaborate experiments to show that the
+development of the yeast plant is an act correlative to alcoholic
+fermentation, and in like manner the growth of _vibriones_ may stand in
+correlation to putrefactive decomposition.
+
+[Illustration: A, Euplotes (patella); B, side view of ditto; C,
+stylonichia.]
+
+Ehrenberg considered them animals, and fancied he detected in them a
+plurality of stomachs; but the vegetable theory is the more probable, at
+any rate of the species under our notice, which is often seen, though
+not always so minute.
+
+At this time two interesting animalcules were very plentiful--the
+_Euplotes patella_, and _Stylonichia_, both remarkable as exhibiting an
+advance in organization, which approximates them to the higher animals.
+In addition to cilia they possess _styles_, which take the place of the
+limbs of more elaborately-constructed creatures, and give a variety to
+their means of locomotion. The _Euplotes_ is furnished with an oval
+carapace covering the upper surface, which in different individuals, and
+probably at different ages, exhibits slightly varied markings round its
+margin, which in the specimen drawn above consisted of dots. They can
+run, climb, or swim, and exemplify a singular habit which several of the
+infusoria possess, that of moving for a little time in one direction,
+and then suddenly, and without any apparent cause, reversing it. If the
+reader is fond of learned appellations, he can call this _diastrophy_,
+but we do not know that he will be any the wiser for it.
+
+The Stylonichia are oval animalcules, surrounded by cilia, and having
+moreover a collection of styles, both straight and curved, the latter
+called _uncini_, or little hooks. They swim steadily on, and then dart
+back, but not so far as they have advanced, and may be seen to keep up
+this fidgety motion by the hour together. Pritchard tells us Ehrenberg
+found that a single animalcule lived nine days; during the first
+twenty-four hours it was developed by transverse self-division into
+three animals; these in twenty-four hours formed two each in the same
+manner, so that by self-division only (without ova), these animalcules
+increased three or four-fold in twenty-four hours, and _may thus produce
+a million_ from a single _animalcule in ten days_. Such are the amazing
+powers of reproduction conferred upon these humble creatures, powers
+which are fully employed when the surrounding circumstances are
+favorable, and which, in the aggregate, change the condition of large
+masses of matter, and bring within the circle of life millions upon
+millions of particles every minute of the day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+MAY.
+
+    Floscularia cornuta--Euchlanis triquetra--Melicerta ringens--its
+        powers as brickmaker, architect, and mason--Mode of viewing the
+        Melicerta--Use of glass-cell--Habits of Melicerta--Curious
+        Attitudes--Leave their tubes at
+        death--Carchesium--Epistylis--Their elegant tree forms--A
+        Parasitic Epistylis like the "Old Man of the Sea"--Halteria and
+        its Leaps--Aspidisca Lynceus.
+
+
+May, the first of summer months, and of old famous for floral games,
+which found their latest patrons in the chimney-sweeps of London, is a
+good time for the microscopist among the ponds, for the increase of
+warmth and heat favours both animal and vegetable life, and so we found
+as we carried home some tops of myriophyllum, and soon discovered a
+colony of tubicolor rotifers among the tiny branches. They proved to be
+Floscules, generally resembling the _F. ornata_, described in a previous
+page, but having a long slender proboscis hanging like a loose ringlet
+down one side. The cilia or hairs were not so long as in the Beautiful
+Floscules we had before obtained, nor was their manner of opening so
+elegant; but they were, nevertheless, objects of great interest, and
+were probably specimens of the _Floscularia cornuta_. A swimming rotifer
+in a carapace somewhat fiddle-shaped, with one eye in its forehead, and
+a two-pronged tail sticking out behind (the _Euchlanis triquetra_), also
+served to occupy attention; but a further search among the myriophyllum
+revealed more treasures of the tube-dwelling kind. These were specimens
+of that highly curious Rotifer, the _Melicerta ringens_, who, not
+content with dwelling, like the Floscules, in a gelatinous bottle, is at
+once brickmaker, mason, and architect, and fabricates as pretty a tower
+as it is easy to conceive. The creature itself stands upon a retractile
+foot-stalk, and thrusts out above its battlements a large head, with
+four leaf-like expansions surrounded by cilia. Between the lower lobes,
+or leaves, the gizzard is seen grinding away, and above it is an organ,
+not always displayed, and of which Mr. Gosse was fortunate enough to
+discover the use. This eminent naturalist likens it to the circular
+ventilator sometimes inserted in windows, and he found it was the
+machine for making the yellow ornamental bricks of which the tower is
+composed. Pellet by pellet, or brick by brick, does the Melicerta build
+her house, which widens gradually from the foundation to the summit, and
+every layer is placed with admirable regularity.
+
+In order to obtain the materials for her brickmaking the Melicerta must
+have the power of modifying the direction of the ciliary currents, so as
+to throw a stream of small particles into the mould, which is a muscular
+organ, and capable of secreting a waterproof cement, by which they are
+fastened together. The result is, not to produce anything like the tubes
+made by the caddis-worms out of grains of sand, but entirely to change
+the appearance of the materials employed. All large particles are
+rejected, and only those retained which will form a homogeneous pulp
+with the viscid secretion; and when the process is complete the head of
+the creature is bent down, and the pellet deposited in its appropriate
+place. Each pellet appears originally to possess a more or less conical
+figure, but when they are squeezed together to make a compact wall they
+all tend to a hexagonal form, by which they are able to touch at all
+points, and any holes or interstices are avoided.
+
+According to Professor Williamson the young Melicerta commences her
+house by secreting "a thin hyaline cylinder," and the first row of
+pellets are deposited, not at the base as would be expected, but in a
+ring about the middle of the tube. "At first new additions are made to
+both extremities of the enlarging ring; but the jerking constrictions of
+the animal at length force the caudal end of the cylinder down upon the
+leaf, to which it becomes securely cemented by the same viscous
+secretion as causes the little spheres to cohere."
+
+Round the margins of the lobes or expansions may be seen delicate
+threads towards which others radiate; these are thought by Mr. Gosse to
+be portions of a nervous system, and two calcars or feelers serve as
+organs of relation. The young Melicertas are likewise furnished with a
+pair of eyes, which are probably rudimentary, and disappear as they grow
+up.
+
+The Melicerta tubes, being large enough to be visible to the naked eye,
+are easily crushed in the live-box, and to avoid this, they are
+conveniently viewed in a shallow glass cell, covered up as before
+described. By occasionally changing the water one may be kept for days
+in the same cell, and will reward the pains by frequently exposing its
+flower-like head. Usually the horns or feelers come out first, and then
+a lump of flesh. After this, if all seems right, the wheels appear, and
+make a fine whirlpool, as may be readily seen by the use of a little
+indigo or carmine.
+
+The Melicerta is, however, an awkward object to undertake to show to our
+friends, for as they knock at the door she is apt to turn sulky, and
+when once in this mood it is impossible to say when her fair form will
+reappear. At times the head is wagged about in all directions with
+considerable vehemence, playing singular antics, and distorting her
+lobes so as to exhibit a Punch and Judy profile. When these creatures
+die they leave their tubes, which are often found empty in the ponds
+they frequent. The Melicertas are conveniently viewed with a power of
+from sixty to one hundred linear, and a colony of them may be kept alive
+for some weeks in a glass jar or tank.
+
+Among the remainder of my tiny captives were two beautiful members of
+the Vorticella family, _Epistylis_ and _Carchesium_. The reader will
+remember that in the Vorticella previously described, the bells stood
+upon stalks that were very flexible, and retractile by means of a muscle
+running down their length. The _Epistylis_ is, as its name imports, the
+dweller on a _pillar_. The stem is stiff, or only slightly flexible, and
+has no apparatus by which it can be drawn down. The specimen mentioned
+stood like a palm-tree, and the large oval bells drooped elegantly on
+all sides, as its portrait will show. At times they nodded with a rapid
+jerk.
+
+[Illustration: Epistylis.]
+
+The _Carchesium_ differs from the common _Vorticella_, by branching like
+a tree, but the stems are all retractile, although the trunk seldom
+exercises the power. A group of these creatures presents a spectacle of
+extraordinary beauty--it looks like a tree from fairy-land, in which
+every leaf has a sentient life. In general structure the bells of the
+_Epistylis_ and the _Carchesium_ resemble the common _Vorticella_, and
+like them may be seen with a power of about one hundred linear for
+general effect, and with a higher one for the examination of special
+points. Pritchard notices three species of _Carchesium_, and eighteen of
+_Epistylis_;[13] some of which it is to be hoped will turn out to be
+only varieties.
+
+[13] An interesting _Epistylis_, called _Digitalis_, from its bells
+resembling fox-glove flowers in shape, occurs as a parasite upon the
+_Cyclops quadricornis_, a very common entomostracan in fresh-water
+ponds. At this moment I have a beautiful specimen, branching like a
+bushy tree, and attached to the tail of a _Cyclops_, who can scarcely
+move under his burden, which is like Sinbad's "Old Man of the Sea."
+
+Towards the end of this month rotifers abounded, and polyps were
+plentiful. Among the rotifers was one about a two-hundredth of an inch
+long, protected by a carapace, and having a tail terminating in a single
+style, hence called "Monostyle." There is perhaps no class of creatures
+that present so many curious and unexpected forms as the rotifers; and
+although we have noticed a good many, there are far more that remain to
+be found and described.
+
+The water in which the preceding animals dwelt was enlivened by the
+jumps of the _Halteria_, a little globe surrounded by long fine cilia,
+with which its movements were effected; and its companion was the
+_Aspidisca lynceus_, an oval animalcule, having a distinct cilia or
+_lorica_, and furnished, in addition to cilia, with bristles, which
+enable it to walk and climb as well as swim.
+
+There were also some eggs of rotifers attached to the water plants, in
+which motion could be descried at intervals, and a little red eye
+observed. These eggs are always large in proportion to the creatures
+that lay them, and if they escape being devoured by enemies, may be
+watched until their contents step forth.
+
+In this, as in other months, omission is made of creatures that have
+already come under notice, or our list would assume larger dimensions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+JUNE AND JULY.
+
+    Lindia Torulosa--OEcistes Crystallinus--A professor of
+        deportment on stilts--Philodina--Changes of form and
+        habits--Structure of Gizzard in Philodina family--Mr. Gosse's
+        description--Motions of Rotifers--Indications of a will--Remarks
+        on the motions of lower creatures--Various theories--Possibility
+        of reason--Reflex actions Brain of insects--Consensual
+        actions--Applications of physiological reasoning to the
+        movements of Rotifers and Animalcules.
+
+
+A Pressure of other occupations prevented full use being made of June
+and July, nor was the weather at all propitious. For this reason the
+microscopic doings of these two months are recorded in one chapter.
+
+As usual the Kentish Town ponds were productive of objects, and among
+them were several rotifers not found in the previous months. The first
+of these was a very small worm-like thing, with one eye, a tuft of cilia
+about the mouth, and two toes at the tail end. Had it not been for the
+jaws, which were working like fingers thrust against each other, and
+which were unmistakably of the rotifer pattern, the animal might have
+been supposed to belong to some other class. According to the
+'Micrographic Dictionary,' the _Lindia torulosa_ is 1--75" long, but
+this specimen was only about 1--200". It was possibly very young, and
+did not thrust out its cilia in two distinct tufts, as Cohn describes,
+although it may have had the power of doing so. At times it sprang
+quickly backwards and forwards, bringing its head where its tail was
+before. This object required for its comfortable elucidation a power of
+about six hundred linear.
+
+[Illustration: OEcistes crystallinus.]
+
+Among the common water-plants, which are worth examining as the probable
+abodes of rotifers or infusoria, is the pretty little thing called
+"star-weed," some of which was obtained from the last-mentioned ponds,
+and on examination yielded a specimen of a tube-dwelling rotifer, the
+_OEcistes crystallinus_, which, although less beautiful than the
+Floscules or the Melicerta, is, nevertheless, a pretty and interesting
+object. In this instance a little rough dirty tube, about 1--70" long,
+was observed to contain an animal capable of rising up and expanding a
+round mouth garnished with a wreath of cilia; while a little below, the
+indefatigable and characteristic gizzard of the tribe was in full play.
+A power of two hundred and forty linear sufficed to afford a good view,
+and it was seen that a long, irregular, conical body was supported upon
+a short wrinkled stalk. The usual drawings represent this creature with
+a short bell-shaped body upon a very long slender pedicle. Possibly this
+one might have been able to show himself under this guise, but he did
+not attempt it; his appearance being always pretty much as described,
+which made the foot shorter and the body longer than the measurements
+which naturalists have given, and according to which the whole creature
+is 1--36" long, although the body is only 1--140". The tube of the
+_OEcistes_ is called a "lorica," or carapace; but it has in truth no
+right whatever to the appellation.
+
+Another strange rotifer, of whose name I am uncertain, had an ovalish
+oblong body, and a pair of legs like compasses, twice as long as
+himself. His antics were those of a posture-master, or "Professor of
+Deportment" on stilts. Sometimes he stood bolt upright, bringing his
+legs close together; then they were jauntily crossed, and the body
+carried horizontally; then the two legs would be slightly opened, and
+the body thrown exactly at right-angles to them. These antics were
+repeated all the while the observation lasted, and had a very funny
+effect in proving that drollery is practised, if not understood, in the
+rotatorial world.
+
+[Illustration: Philodina (swimming).]
+
+Another kind of rotifer was abundant--the _Philodina_, which belongs to
+the same family as the common wheel-bearer, namely, the _Philodinæa_.
+The _Philodina_ is a good deal like the common wheel-bearer, or _Rotifer
+vulgaris_, but is usually of a stouter build, and carries his eyes in a
+different place. In the common rotifer these organs are situated on the
+proboscis, while those of the Philodina are lower, and said to be
+"cervical." The changes of form in this rotifer are still more
+remarkable than in the common wheel-bearer. When resting it resembles a
+pear-shaped purse, puckered in at the mouth. Then it thrusts out its
+tail-foot, swells its body to an oval globe, protrudes its feeler, and
+slightly exposes a row of cilia. After this two distinct wheels are
+everted, and as their cilia whirl and spin, the animal is swiftly rowed
+along, until it thinks proper to moor itself fast by the tail-foot, and
+employ all its ciliary power in causing currents to converge towards its
+throat. When it pleases it can elongate the body, till it becomes
+vermiform, and it walks like the common rotifer, by curving its back,
+and bringing its nose and its tail in contact with the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Philodina (crawling).]
+
+The gizzard of this family (_Philodinæa_) presents a considerable
+deviation from the perfect form exhibited by the _Brachions_. According
+to Mr. Gosse, "The _mallei_ and the _incus_ (terms already explained)
+are soldered together into two subquadrantic-globular masses, which
+appear to be muscular, but invested with a solid integument. The
+_manubria_ (handles) may still be recognised in a vertical aspect as
+three loops, of which the central one is chiefly developed, and in a
+vertical aspect as a translucent reniform (kidney-shaped) globe." These
+descriptions are not easy to understand, not from any want of clearness
+or precision in the words employed, but from the complicated character
+of the organ, and its very different appearance under different aspects.
+To make the matter more intelligible, Mr. Gosse adds, "the structure and
+action of an apparatus of this type may be made more clear by a homely
+illustration. Suppose an apple to be divided longitudinally, leaving the
+stalk attached to one half. Let this now be split again longitudinally
+so far as the stalk, but not actually separating either portion from it.
+Draw the two portions slightly apart, and lay them down on their rounded
+surfaces. They now represent the quadrantic masses in repose, the stalk
+being the fulcrum, and the upper surfaces being crossed by the teeth. By
+the contraction of the muscles, of which they are composed, the two
+segments are made to turn upon their long axis, until the points of the
+teeth are brought into contact, and the toothed surfaces rise and
+approach each other. The lower edges do not, however, separate as the
+upper edges approach, but the form of the mass alters, becoming more
+lenticular, so that when the toothed surfaces are brought into their
+closest approximation, the outline has a subcircular figure. It is on
+account of this change of form that I presume the masses themselves to
+be partially composed of muscle."
+
+These remarks, although specially made of the _Rotifer macrurus_, are in
+the main applicable to all the Philodinas, but the student must not
+expect to understand any of the complicated gizzards of the rotifers
+without repeated observations, and no small exercise of patience. It is
+common to call the portions of the Philodine-pattern gizzard
+"stirrup-shaped," but Mr. Gosse has shown them to be _quadrantic_, that
+is, shaped like the quarter of a sphere.
+
+As we are not very well off with subjects for description in these two
+months, we can afford a little time to consider a question that
+continually arises in the mind, on viewing the movements of animalcules,
+and especially of any so highly developed as the rotifers, namely, to
+what extent motions which appear intelligent are really the result of
+anything like a conscious purpose or will. When any of the lower
+animals--a bee, for example--acts in precisely the same way as all bees
+have acted since their proceedings have been observed, we settle the
+question by the use of the term _instinct_. Those who take the lowest
+view of insect life, assume that the bee flies because it has wings, but
+without wishing to use them, and that the nerves exciting them to action
+are in their turn excited, not by volition, but by some physical
+stimulus.
+
+The sight or the smell of flowers is thought by the same reasoners to be
+capable of attracting the insect, which is unconscious of the
+attraction, while proximity of food stimulates the tongue to make the
+movements needful for its acquisition, and so forth. The cells, they
+tell us, are built according to a pattern which the earliest bee was
+impelled to construct by forces that bear no analogy to human reason and
+human will, and so originate all the ordinary processes of bee life.
+Sometimes, however, it happens that man or accident interposes
+particular obstacles, and forthwith there appears a particular
+modification of the orthodox plan, calculated to meet the special
+difficulty. How is this? Does any one of the difficulties which the bee
+or the ant is able to get over, produce precisely that kind of
+electrical disturbance, or polar arrangement of nerve particles that is
+necessary to stimulate the _first_ step of the action by which the
+difficulty is surmounted; and does the new condition thus established
+stimulate the _second_ step, and so forth, or can the bee, within
+certain limits, really _think_, design, and contrive?
+
+No questions are more difficult of solution; but while protesting
+against a tendency to undervalue all life below that of man, we must
+remember we have in our bodies processes going on which are not the
+result of volition, as when the blood circulates, and its particles
+arrange themselves in the pattern required to form our tissues and
+organs, and also that many of our actions belong to the class termed by
+physiologists, "reflex," that is, the result of external impressions
+upon the nervous system, in which the _sentient_ brain takes no part.
+Thus when a strong light stimulates the optic nerve, the portion of
+brain with which it is connected in its turn stimulates the iris to
+contract the pupil; and it is supposed that after a man has begun to
+walk, through the exercise of his will, he may continue to walk, by a
+reflex action; as his feet press the ground they transmit an impression
+to the spinal cord, and the legs receive a fresh impulse to locomotion,
+although the mind is completely occupied with other business, and pays
+no attention to their proceedings.[14] The ordinary movements of insects
+appear to be of this character, and to be excited by the ganglia
+belonging to the segment to which the moving limbs are attached. Thus a
+centipede will run, after its head has been cut off, and a water-beetle
+(_Dytiscus_) swam energetically when thrown into water after its brain
+had been removed.[15]
+
+[14] See Carpenter's 'Manual of Physiology.'
+
+[15] Carpenter's 'Manual of Physiology,' p. 551.
+
+It must not, however, be assumed that the brain of insects has nothing
+to do with their movements. It is probably the means of co-ordinating or
+directing them to a common end, and gives rise to what are called
+_consensual_ movements, that is, movements which are accompanied or
+stimulated by a sensation, although not controlled by a will. In man
+these actions are frequently exhibited, "as when laughter is provoked by
+some ludicrous sight or sound, or by the remembrance of such at an
+unseasonable hour."[16] Sneezing is another instance of a sensation
+leading to certain motions, without any intervention of the human will.
+
+[16] Ibid., p. 543.
+
+Speaking of these consensual motions, Dr. Carpenter observes, "It is
+probable, from the strong manifestations of emotion, exhibited by many
+of the lower animals, that some of the actions which we assemble under
+the general designation of instinctive are to be referred to this
+group."
+
+The insect brain is composed of a supra-oesophagal ganglion and
+infra-oesophagal one. Von Siebold says, the first corresponds to the
+cerebrum of the vertebrata, and "the second is comparable, perhaps, to
+the cerebellum or spinal cord."[17] The superior ganglion gives off
+nerves to the antennæ and eyes, the lower one to the mandibles, &c. So
+far as is known the insects that exhibit the most intelligence have the
+largest and best developed brains.
+
+[17] 'Anatomy of Invertebrates,' Burnett's trans.
+
+A special volume would be required for anything like a complete
+examination of the little which is known on this subject, but these few
+remarks may assist the microscopic beginner in examining the movements
+of his subjects, and guard against the error of referring to reason and
+volition those which are, probably, either the direct result of
+stimulants applied to the surface (as in nerveless creatures), or the
+indirect (reflex) result of such stimulants in beings like the rotifers,
+who have a nervous system; or the result of _sensations_, which excite
+actions without previously referring the matter to the decision of a
+will. It must not, however, be too readily assumed that the behaviour of
+creatures possessing distinct organs is entirely automatic; and we must
+not forget that even the best physiologists know very little concerning
+the range of functions which the nervous ganglia of the invertebrata are
+able to discharge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+AUGUST.
+
+    Mud coloured by worms--Their retreat at alarm--A country
+        duck-pond--Contents of its scum--Cryptomonads--Their means of
+        locomotion--A Triarthra (three-limbed Rotifer)--The Brachion or
+        Pitcher Rotifer--Its striking form--Enormous gizzard--Ciliary
+        motion inside this creature--Large eye and brain--Powerful
+        tail--Its functions--Eggs.
+
+
+In the beginning of this month a pond in the Finchley Road, a little
+beyond the Highgate Archway, supplied some more specimens of the
+_Pterodina patina_, described in a previous chapter; but towards the
+middle of the month a visit to Chipstead, in Surrey, enabled a new
+region to be explored.
+
+It is always a treat to a Londoner to get down to any of the picturesque
+parts of Surrey; the trees exhibit a richness of foliage and variety of
+colour not seen within the regions of metropolitan smoke; the distance
+glows with the rich purples so much admired in the pictures of Linnel,
+and the sunsets light up earth and sky with the golden tints he is so
+well able to reproduce. Probably the warmth of the soil, and the purity
+of the air, may make Surrey ponds prolific in microscopic life; but of
+this we do not know enough to make a fair comparison, although our own
+dips into them were tolerably lucky.
+
+Walking one day down a lane leading towards Reigate, where the trees
+arched overhead, ferns grew plentifully in the sandy banks, and the
+sunlight flitted through the branches, and chequered the path, we came
+to a shallow pond, or great puddle, which crossed the way, and near the
+edge of the water the eye was struck with patches of crimson colour. On
+attempting to take up a portion of one of these patches the whole
+disappeared, although when the disturbance ceased the rich colour again
+clothed the dingy mud. The appearance was caused by thousands of little
+worms, belonging to the genus _Tubifex_, not uncommon in such
+situations, who thrust themselves out to enjoy the light and air, and
+retreat the moment an alarm is given. Probably both actions belong to
+the class described in the last chapter, as "reflex;" but it would be
+interesting to know whether creatures so humble have any sense of fear.
+These worms will repay observation, but in these pages we eschew all
+their tribe--unless the rotifers be assigned to them--and take ourselves
+once more to our especial subjects.
+
+[Illustration: Cryptomonad--Euglena.]
+
+Knowing that farm-ponds are usually well stocked with microscopic game,
+we made a dip into one more especially assigned to ducks, and obtained
+wondrous little for our pains. We were not, however, discouraged, but
+made an examination of the circumstances, which determined a particular
+course of action. Our piece of water was simply a dirty duck-pond, in
+which no large plants were growing, and which did not even exhibit the
+little disks of duckweed that are common to such situations. There was,
+however, on the surface, in parts, an exceedingly fine scum of pale
+yellow green, and this, armed with a teaspoon, we proceeded to attack.
+By careful skimming, a small bottle was half-filled with minute organic
+particles, which were likely to be interesting in themselves, and pretty
+sure to be the food for something else. A small drop was placed on a
+tablet of the live-box, flattened out by the application of the cover,
+and viewed with a power of two hundred linear, which disclosed swarms of
+brilliant green globes, amongst which were a good sprinkle of minute
+creatures, like the _Euglenæ_ already described, and whose little red
+eyes contrasted vividly with the prevailing emerald hue.
+
+[Illustration: Cryptomonad.]
+
+One of the higher infusoria, whose species I could not identify, was
+devouring them like a porpoise among sprats. It did not, however,
+exhibit any sense in its hungry career; it moved about in all
+directions, gulping down what came in its way, but often permitting the
+escape of the little green things that were almost in its mouth. The
+little globes rolled and whirled about without the faintest indication
+of a purpose, and without exhibiting any instrument with which their
+locomotion was effected. To find out how this was done, a higher power
+was used, and from their extreme minuteness an amplification of seven
+hundred and twenty linear was conveniently employed, although a lower
+one (three or four hundred) disclosed the secret by showing that a
+little whip was flourished about through the neck, which the lower power
+revealed. When highly magnified, each little globe was seen to consist
+of an outer case of a reddish orange colour, which was noticeable on
+looking at the edges, although in the centre it was transparent enough
+to show the brilliant green contents, that resembled the chlorophyll, or
+green colouring matter of plants. From a short neck proceeded the
+whip-like filament, which was lashed and twisted about in all
+directions. These little creatures belong to the monad family, but
+whether they are to be called _Trachelomonads_, or by some other hard
+name, the learned must decide.
+
+The 'Micrographic Dictionary' puts a note of interrogation to the
+assertion of some writers that _Trachelomonads_ have no necks, and draws
+some with such an appendage.
+
+Pritchard's last edition is against necks, and whether the necks or no
+necks are to win, is a mighty question equal at least to the famous
+controversy, which divided the world into "big and little endians in the
+matter of breaking eggs."
+
+A discussion of more importance is, whether these _Cryptomonads_--that
+name will do whatever comes of the neck controversy--are animals or
+vegetables. Lachmann and Mr. Carter affirm that they have detected a
+contractile vesicle, which would assimulate them to the animal series,
+but their general behaviour is vegetable; and the 'Micrographic
+Dictionary' is in favour of referring them to the _Algæ_--that great
+family of simple plants, of which the sea-weeds are the most important
+representatives.
+
+[Illustration: Triarthra.]
+
+When any of the monads swarm, there are sure to be plenty of other
+creatures to eat them up, and in this instance the predaceous
+animalcule, already described, was not the only enemy the little green
+globes had to suffer from, as two sorts of rotifer were frequently met
+with. One of these was a very handsome and singular creature, which in
+some positions had the general contour of a cockatoo, only that the legs
+were wanting, and the head exhibited a monkey face. The "wheels" were
+represented by ciliary tufts, and two bright red eyes twinkled with a
+knowing look. From each shoulder proceeded a long curved spine, and
+about two thirds down the body, and lying between the two long spines, a
+shorter one was articulated, which followed the same curve. A gizzard
+was busy in the breast, and the body terminated in two short toes, which
+grasped a large round egg. Whenever the cilia were drawn in, the three
+spines were thrown up; but they had an independent motion of their own,
+and every now and then were jerked suddenly and violently back, which
+occasioned a rapid change in the creature's position. The gizzard
+appeared to consist of two rounded masses, having several ridges of
+teeth, which worked against each other something like the prominences of
+a coffee-mill. From the three spines, this animal was a _Triarthra_, or
+Three-limbed Rotifer, but the position of the spines, and the toes, made
+it differ from any species described in the 'Micrographic Dictionary,'
+or in Pritchard.
+
+Whether or not this species is to be regarded as having a lorica or not,
+must depend upon the precise meaning attached to that word. At any rate
+the integument was much firmer than in many of the rotifers, and gave an
+efficient support to the spines which a mere skin could not do. As Mr.
+Gosse remarks of an allied genus, the _Polyarthra_, or Many-limbed
+Rotifer, this creature could not be investigated without coming to the
+conclusion "Here again we have true jointed limbs;" a fact of great
+importance in determining the zoological rank of the family, and in
+supporting Mr. Gosse's view some at least bore a strong affinity with
+the group of _Arthropoda_, of which the insects are the principal
+representatives.
+
+[Illustration: Brachionus urceolaris. This drawing has been accidentally
+reversed by the engraver, which alters the relative place of the
+internal organs.]
+
+Another rotifer of even greater interest, which was busy among the
+Cryptomonads, was the Brachion, or "Pitcher Rotifer" (Brachionus). The
+members of this genus will frequently reward the searcher into
+pond-life. Their main characteristic is a cup or pitcher-shaped lorica,
+which is cut or notched at the top into several horns or projections,
+the number of which indicates the species; while two or more similar
+projections ornament the bottom. This lorica is like the shell of a
+tortoise open at both ends; from the top an extremely beautiful wreath
+of cilia is protruded, and also some longer and stiff cilia, or slender
+spines, which do not exhibit the rotatory movement. The ciliary
+apparatus is in reality continuous, but it more often presents the
+appearance of several divisions, and the lateral cilia frequently hang
+over the sides. From the large size of each cilium they are very
+favorable creatures for exhibiting the real nature of the action, which
+gives rise to the rotatory appearance, and which can be easier studied
+than described. By movements, partly from their base, and partly arising
+from the flexibility of their structure, the cilia come alternately in
+and out of view, and when set in a circular pattern, the effect is
+amazingly like the spinning round of a wheel. The internal arrangements
+of the Brachiones are finely displayed, and they have a most aldermanic
+allowance of gizzard, which extends more than half way across each side
+of the median line, and shows all the portions described by Mr. Gosse.
+As the joints of this machine move, and the teeth are brought together,
+one could fancy a sound of mill-work was heard, and the observer is
+fully impressed with a sense of mechanical power.
+
+When the creature is obliging enough to present a full front view, her
+domestic economy is excellently displayed. The prey that is caught in
+her whirlpool is carried down by a strong ciliary current to the
+gizzard, which may be often seen grappling with objects that appear much
+too big for its grasp; and Mr. Gosse was lucky in witnessing an attempt
+to chew up a morsel that did actually prove too large and too tough, and
+which, after many ineffectual efforts, was suddenly cast out. As soon as
+food has passed the gizzard, it is assisted in its journey by more
+ciliary currents, which are noticeable in the capacious stomach, in the
+neighbourhood of which the secreting and other vessels are readily
+observed. Just over the gizzard blazes a great red eye, of a square or
+oblong form, and it reposes upon a large mass of soft granular-looking
+brain, which well justifies Mr. Gosse's epithet "enormous." Whether this
+brain is highly organized enough to be a _thinking_ apparatus, we do not
+know, but it is evidently the cause of a very vigorous and consentaneous
+action of the various organs the Brachion possesses.
+
+A description of the Brachion would be very incomplete if it omitted
+that important organ the tail, which in this family reaches the highest
+point of development. It is a powerful muscular organ, of great size in
+proportion to the animal, capable of complete retraction within the
+carapace, and of being everted wholly, or partially, at will. It
+terminates in two short conical toes, protruded from a tube-like sheath,
+and capable of adhering firmly even to a substance so slippery as glass.
+This tail may be observed to indicate a variety of emotions, if we can
+ascribe such feelings to a rotifer, and it answers many purposes. Now we
+see it cautiously thrust forth, and turned this way and that, exploring
+like an elephant's trunk, and almost as flexible. Now it seizes firm
+hold of some substance, and anchors its proprietor hard and fast. A few
+moments afterwards it lashes out right and left with fury, like the tail
+of a cat in a passion. Then again it will be retracted, and a casual
+observer might not imagine the Brachion to be furnished with such a
+terminal implement.
+
+The Brachiones may often be seen with one or more large eggs stuck
+about the upper part of the tail, and others may be discerned inside.
+One specimen before us has three eggs attached to her in this way. They
+are large oval bodies, with a firm shell. These creatures differ very
+much in appearance, according to the direction in which they are seen,
+and a side view makes them look so different from a full front or back
+aspect, that it would be easy to suppose another animal was under
+observation. The extent to which the ciliary apparatus is protruded, and
+the pattern it forms likewise differs continually; and hence no drawing,
+however correct, is sure to resemble the arrangement that may be
+presented to the observer's eye. But however our little "Pitcher" may be
+viewed, it is sure to prove a spectacle of interest and delight.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SEPTEMBER.
+
+    Microscopic value of little pools--Curious facts in appearance
+        and disappearance of Animalcules and Rotifers--Mode of
+        preserving them in a glass jar--Fragments of Melicerta
+        tube--Peculiar shape of Pellets--Amphileptus--Scaridium
+        Longicaudum--A long-tailed Rotifer--Stephanoceros Eichornii--A
+        splendid Rotifer--Its gelatinous bottle--Its crown of
+        tentacles--Retreats on alarm--Illumination requisite to see its
+        beauties--Its greediness--Richly-coloured Food--Nervous ganglia.
+
+
+Scattered about Hampstead Heath are a number of little pools, not big
+enough to be dignified by the name of ponds. They are generally
+surrounded by furze bushes, and would escape attention if not actually
+looked for. Those which are mere puddles, and have only a brief
+existence in rainy weather, seldom reward the labour of investigation;
+but others are permanent, except after prolonged drought, and afford
+convenient situations for the growth of confervæ, star-weed, and other
+plants. These will nearly always repay the microscopic collector during
+the winter, when he must break the ice to get at their contents; in
+spring, when long chains of frog-spawn afford ocular evidence of the
+prolific properties of the Batrachian reptiles; and in summer, when
+they afford both shade and sunshine to their numerous inhabitants. Small
+beetles, water-spiders, larvæ of gnats, and other insects, rotifers,
+including the tubicolar sorts, and several varieties of infusoria may be
+expected and generally found. There is, however, a curious fact about
+ponds, big and little, which Pritchard remarks upon in his 'Infusoria,'
+and which corresponds with our own experience, that those which have
+proved to be well stocked with any particular creature during one year,
+will very likely contain none of it in the next. There are of course
+exceptions to this rule, but we have often been astonished and
+disappointed at finding the complete change, both in populousness and
+population, that a revolution of twelve months will make; and it would
+be extremely interesting to notice the changes that took place during a
+term of years.
+
+Such researches might unfold some unexpected laws in the succession of
+infusorial life. Those germs which are most widely diffused, will be the
+most likely to be developed in any mass of convenient water; but how and
+why the rarer forms come and go is very imperfectly understood. Slight
+modifications in surrounding circumstances will materially affect the
+result. Thus, if we bring home a handful of conferva, and a few
+water-plants of higher organisation, such as duckweed and anacharis, and
+place the whole in a glass jar full of pond-water, we shall at first
+have a good stock of objects; but they will usually grow less and less,
+until scarcely anything is left. If, however, we introduce a few pieces
+of straw, or a tiny wisp of hay, we shall succeed much better, and not
+only preserve our population longer, but enjoy a succession of animated
+crops. Extensive decomposition of vegetable matter kills off all but
+certain families, such as Paramecia, who enjoy it; on the other hand,
+too little decomposition proves fatal to some creatures, by depriving
+them of their food, and when they have died off, those who depended upon
+them for a living, die too. Different vegetables in decomposition suit
+different creatures, and hay and straw in that state seem to please the
+largest number. An animalcule tank will succeed best when it contains
+two or three kinds of growing plants, which oxygenize the air, and a
+moderate variety of decomposing organisms will supply food without
+making the water offensive.
+
+From these considerations it will be apparent that not only the nature
+of the vegetation of a pond, which is often changed by accidental
+circumstances, but also the quality of the odds and ends that the winds
+may blow into it, or which may fall through the air, will do much to
+determine the character and number of its inhabitants, while the
+quantity of shade or sunshine it enjoys, will also exercise an important
+influence. Hay and other infusions have from the beginning of
+microscopic investigations been employed to obtain the creatures which
+the Germans call "Infusions thierchen" (infusion animalcules), and the
+English "Infusoria;" but very little has yet been done in the way of
+their scientific culture and management.
+
+To return from this digression to our little Hampstead ponds, we
+obtained from one, in September, that was full of star-weed, a number of
+sugar-loaf bodies, adhering to one another, and of a pale yellow brown
+colour. The specimens first examined looked complete in themselves, and
+were taken for eggs of some water creature. Further search, however,
+disclosed aggregations of similar sugar-loaves that had evidently formed
+part of a tubular structure, and the idea at once occurred that they
+were fragments of a Melicerta tube, a conclusion that was verified by
+finding some tubes entire and a dead Melicerta in the rubbish at the
+bottom. All the specimens of Melicerta tubes we had hitherto examined
+were composed of _rounded_ pellets, but these were made of pointed cones
+or sugar-loaves, with the points projecting outwards from the general
+surface. In Pritchard's 'Infusoria,' these pellets are described "as
+small lenticular bodies." The 'Micrographic Dictionary' states that the
+tubes of the Melicerta are composed of "numerous rounded or discoidal
+bodies;" and Mr. Gosse, in his 'Tenby,' which contains an admirable
+description, and an exquisite drawing of this interesting rotifer, calls
+the pellets "round."
+
+[Illustration: Melicerta ringens.]
+
+Not being able to obtain a living specimen of the Melicerta, who made
+her tube of long sugar-loaves, I could not tell whether she differed in
+structure from the usual pattern of her race, but the general appearance
+of the dead body was the same. It is possible that these creatures
+possess some power of modifying the form of their singular bricks, or
+they may at different ages vary the patterns, which matters some
+fortunate possessor of a colony of these animals may be able to
+verify.
+
+[Illustration: Scaridium longicaudum.]
+
+In the sediment of the water containing the Melicerta cases was found an
+animalcule about 1--120" long, covered with cilia, and having a
+proboscis seldom more than a quarter of the length assumed by the body,
+which continually changed its form, sometimes elongating, sometimes
+shortening, and often contracting one side into a deep fissure. It was,
+probably, an _Amphileptus_, though not precisely agreeing with any
+drawing or description I am acquainted with. Another inmate of the same
+water was a lively long-tailed rotifer, with a small oval body, a tuft
+of vibrating cilia and a curved bristle visible among them on one side.
+This creature had a jointed tail-foot, ending in two long style-shaped
+toes, and by means of this appendage executed rapid leaps or springs. It
+was the _Scaridium longicaudum_, and agreed in dimensions tolerably well
+with the size given in the books, namely, total length 1--72". With a
+power of five hundred diameters the muscles of the tail-foot presented
+a beautifully striated appearance.
+
+Towards the end of the month I passed the Vale of Heath Pond, Hampstead,
+and although I had not gone out for the purpose of collecting, was
+fortunately provided with a two-dram bottle. Close by the path the
+_Anacharis alsinastrum_ grew in profusion, quantities of water-snails
+crawled among its branches, and small fish darted in and out, threading
+their mazes with lightning rapidity. Thrusting a walking-stick among the
+mass of vegetation, a few little tufts were drawn up and carefully
+bottled, with the addition of a little water. Returning home, a few
+leaves were placed in the live-box, and on examination with the power of
+sixty diameters they disclosed a specimen of, perhaps, the most
+beautiful of all the rotifers, the _Stephanoceros Eichornii_. In this
+elegant creature an oval body, somewhat expanded at the top, is
+supported upon a tapering stalk, and stands in a gelatinous bottle,
+composed of irregular rings superimposed one upon the other, as if
+thrown off by successive efforts, the upper ones being inverted and
+attached to the body of the animal. But that which constitutes the glory
+of this little being is the crown of five tapering tentacles, each
+having two rows of long cilia arranged on opposing sides, but not in the
+same plane. The ordinary position of the tentacles is that of a graceful
+elliptical curve, first swelling outwards, then bending inwards, until
+their points closely approximate, but each is capable of independent
+motion, and they are seldom quiet for many minutes at a time. The cilia
+can be arranged in parallel rows or in tufts at the will of the
+creature, and their motion appears under control, and susceptible of
+greater modification than is exhibited by the ordinary infusoria.
+
+[Illustration: Stephanoceros Eichornii.]
+
+The Stephanoceros is a member of the Floscule family, but in all the
+specimens I obtained and watched for several weeks, there was an
+important difference in the relation of the tube to the creature. In the
+Floscules I had never seen anything like an adhesion between the tube
+and the animal, but in the Stephanoceros I noticed it continually, and
+always in the manner already described. Like the Floscule, the
+Stephanoceros is readily alarmed, and retreats into her house, carrying
+with her the invaginated portion. In the last edition of 'Pritchard's
+Infusoria,' this case is spoken of as apparently not tubular, but a
+solid gelatinous mass, enveloping the animal as high up as the base of
+the rotatory arms. It is very likely that specimens at different ages,
+and possibly in different seasons, may vary in the structure of their
+abodes; but I am not able to concur in the preceding account, as all the
+tubes I examined resembled sacks turned in at the mouths, and attached
+to the shoulders only of their inmates; and on one occasion I was able
+to look down into a deserted tube, which had not collapsed, as it would
+have done if it had been merely a solid gelatinous mass.
+
+Like the Floscule, the Stephanoceros only reveals her beauties under
+careful illumination. A direct light renders them invisible, and only
+when the requisite obliquity has been obtained, does the exquisite
+character of the structure become displayed. The dark-ground
+illumination is very useful, and makes the ciliary action very distinct.
+At times a view can be obtained, in which the cilia of perhaps a single
+tentacle are all ranged like the steel springs of a musical box. For a
+moment they are quiescent, and then they vibrate in succession, each
+moving thread sparkling in the light. With a clumsy mode of lighting
+them, the cilia look like stumpy bristles, and are often so drawn; but
+precisely the right quantity of light coming in the right direction,
+makes them appear more numerous, and much longer than would at first be
+supposed. When well exhibited the tentacles have a lustre between glass
+and pearl; the body, in a favorable specimen, is like a crystal cup, and
+the food, usually composed of small red and green globes, glows like
+emeralds and rubies, as if in the height of luxury the little epicure
+had more than rivalled Cleopatra's draught, and instead of dissolving,
+swallowed its jewelry whole. So lustrous and varied in colour is the
+whole appearance of the animal under these circumstances, that it is
+frequently alluded to by one of our first artists, to whom it was
+displayed.
+
+It is said by some authors that the tentacles are used to seize prey.
+This never occurred under my observation, although their basal portions
+are often approximated when an object is forced down to the grinding
+apparatus below. The Stephanoceros is a ravenous feeder, and swallows a
+variety of creatures. Green vegetable monads, rich red and brown globes
+of similar characters, and any animalcule that comes in her way is
+acceptable; and even good-sized rotifers do not escape her
+all-consuming maw. On one occasion I noticed one of the loricated sort,
+more than half as long as one of her tentacles, rapidly swallowed, and
+passed downwards without attempting to escape. Objects much too big for
+the gizzard are often gulped down, and probably receive a preliminary
+softening and maceration in the crop. Very often, when food is
+plentiful, the creature is filled to the brim, but still endeavours to
+continue her abundant meal. From the presence of large quantities of
+food and the density of the integuments, the gizzard cannot always be
+seen; but in favorable specimens its teeth may be observed busily at
+work.
+
+At the base of the tentacles small masses of matter may be discovered,
+which are probably nervous ganglia, and other organs; and Ehrenberg
+discovered small vibrating bodies, supposed to be connected with the
+function of respiration. A single egg, as shown in the annexed drawing,
+is often found, and the ovarian is said to develop but few at a time.
+Two red eyes are found in young specimens, but in adults they either
+disappear or are not conspicuous. The Stephanoceri are sociable animals,
+and when one is found, others are probably near at hand. Several may
+often be discovered on the same branch of a small water-plant, of
+various dimensions, and in different stages of growth. The full size is
+about 1--36" in height, and from its magnitude care is required not to
+crush it in the live-box. When specimens are plentiful, some should be
+placed in that convenient receptacle; and others with the plant on which
+they are growing, in a glass cell or trough, where they have more room
+to display their motions, and can with fresh supplies of water, be
+preserved for days and weeks. With occasional renewals from one pond, I
+was able to keep up a stock for about three months, and never had
+objects which gave more pleasure to myself or to my friends.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+OCTOBER.
+
+    Stentors and Stephanoceri--Description of Stentors--Mode of
+        viewing them--Their abundance--Social habits--Solitary Stentors
+        living in Gelatinous caves--Propagation by divers
+        modes--Cephalosiphon Limnias--A group of Vaginicolæ--Changes of
+        shape--A bubble-blowing Vorticella.
+
+
+October, the finest of our autumn months, is noted for usually granting
+the inhabitants of our dripping climate about twenty pleasant sunshiny
+days, and it is probably on this account somewhat of a favourite with
+the infusorial world, although the cold of its nights and early mornings
+thins their numbers, which reach a maximum in the summer heat. Even in
+the dismal year 1860, October maintained its character, and afforded a
+great many opportunities of animalcule hunting, during which a constant
+supply of Stephanoceri were readily obtained, together with swarms of
+_Stentors_, which are not exceeded in interest by any of the Ciliated
+Protozoa. The Stentors were abundant on the same weed (_Anacharis_),
+that formed the residence of the Stephanoceri, and might be seen in
+large numbers hanging from it like green trumpets, visible to the
+unassisted eye. In the 'Micrographic Dictionary' they are said to
+belong to the Vorticella family, which has already given us several
+beautiful objects, and possess a marvellous power of changing their
+shape. It is, however, better to follow Stein, who separates them from
+the Vorticellids and ranges them in his order Heterotricha, as they have
+two distinct sets of cilia, small ones covering the body and the larger
+ones round the mouth. Those before us are named after this property
+_Stentor polymorphus_,[18] or Many-shaped Stentors, and owe their
+exquisite tint to numberless green vesicles, or small cavities filled
+with colouring matter like that of plants. This, however, is not
+essential to the species which may often be found of other hues. In size
+this Stentor varies from a hundred and twentieth to one twenty-fourth of
+an inch. It is entirely covered with fine cilia, disposed in
+longitudinal rows, and round the head is a spiral wreath of larger and
+very conspicuous cilia leading to the mouth.
+
+[18] See Frontispiece.
+
+Having observed the abundance of these creatures, a few small branches
+to which they were appended, were placed in the glass trough, and viewed
+with powers of sixty and one hundred linear. Some had tumbled down as
+shapeless lumps, others presented broad funnel-shaped bodies; while
+others stretched themselves to great length like the long, narrow
+post-horns which still wake the echoes of a few old-fashioned towns. The
+ciliary motion of the elegant wreath was active and rapid, causing quite
+a stir among all the little particles, alive and dead; and when the
+right sort of food came near the corkscrew entrance to the mouth, down
+it went, and if conspicuous for colour, was subsequently seen apparently
+embedded in little cavities, which Ehrenberg supposed were separate
+stomachs, although that theory is now rejected. One advantage of viewing
+these objects in a sufficient quantity of water, to leave them in
+freedom, is that they frequently turn themselves, so that you can see
+right down into them; and the drawing given in the frontispiece
+represents such a view, which is the most favorable for the exhibition
+of the mouth. To make out the details of their structure, to see the
+nucleus and other organs, the flattening in the live-box is useful, and
+it enables much higher powers to be employed.
+
+[Illustration: A, B, C, D, Stentor polymorphus in different degrees of
+expansion. A large specimen is one twenty-fourth of an inch long.]
+
+After leaving the Anacharis in a glass jar for a few days, the Stentors
+multiplied exceedingly; some clung to the sides of the vessel in
+sociable communities, others hung from the surface of the water, and
+crowds settled upon the stems, visibly changing their tint, as the
+Stentor green was much bluer than that of the plant. Scores swam about
+in all sorts of forms. Now they looked like cylindrical vessels with
+expanding brims, now globular, now oddly distorted, until all semblance
+of the original shape was lost. Many were found in shiny tubes, but
+these were never so lively or green as the free swimmers, but mostly of
+a dingy dirty hue.
+
+These housekeepers were more timid and cautious than the roving tribe.
+They came slowly out of their dens, drew back at the slightest alarm,
+never took their tails from home, and only extended their full length
+when certain not to be disturbed. Some authors have thought they only
+take to private lodgings when they feel a little bit poorly, but others
+dispute this opinion, and I do not think it is correct. I have found
+these Stentors at all seasons, from January to the autumn, but they are
+never so numerous, nor aggregated in numbers like the roving sort.
+Whether they are old folks, who are tired of the world and its gaieties,
+and devote the remainder of their lives to contemplation, or whether
+they are bachelors disappointed in love, I am unable to say; but they
+are very inferior in beauty to the "gay and glittering crowd."[19]
+
+[19] Stein says the colourless variety of S. Polymorphus is sometimes
+found with a tube, and the S. Rössellii very frequently so provided.
+
+For some weeks my Stentors abounded, and then most of them suddenly
+disappeared. They could not have "moved," but probably "went to smash"
+by a process peculiar to infusoria, and which Dujardin politely
+describes as "diffluence." This mode of making an exit from the stage of
+life is more tragical than the ripping up so fashionable in Japan. The
+integument bursts, and its contents disperse in minute particles, that
+in their turn disappear, and scarcely leave a "wrack behind."
+
+The Stentors obey the injunction to "increase and multiply" by
+self-division, which Stein says is always oblique, and the nucleus,
+which plays such an important part in infusoria, is band-like,
+moniliform (bead-shape), or round. When an animalcule increases by
+self-division, a portion of the nucleus goes with each part, and it is
+probably the organ which stimulates the change. It is also concerned in
+other modes of propagation. "The anus is situated on the back close
+beneath the ciliary circle;" and the "contractile vesicle on a level
+with the ciliary wreath." Stein records that in November, 1858, he met
+green Stentors (_Polymorphus_) encysted, and he figures one in a
+gelatinous flask having a stopper in its narrow neck.
+
+Before closing our account of the Stentor, let us revert a moment to the
+ciliary wreath, as it may be made the subject of a curious experiment.
+If, for example, the cilia are viewed at right-angles to their length,
+they will seem to form a delicate frill, in which a quivering motion is
+perceived. But if the table is shaken by a sharp blow, the frill is
+thrown into waves, or takes the form which washerwomen give to certain
+female articles by the use of the Italian iron, and the ciliary motion
+is thus made to take place in different planes, and rendered strikingly
+apparent.
+
+One day turning over the Anacharis in search of subjects, a small brown
+tube was noticed, from which a glassy rod protruded like the feeler of a
+rotifer. Keeping the table quiet, and watching the result, was soon
+rewarded by a further protrusion of the feeler, accompanied by a portion
+of the body of the inmate of the tube. The feeler was thrust on this
+side and on that, as if collecting information for its proprietor, who,
+I suppose, was satisfied with the intelligence, and gradually extended
+herself, until she stood out two thirds in length beyond the tube, and
+set two lobes of one nearly continuous ciliary organ in rapid motion.
+Sometimes the creature, _Cephalosiphon limnias_, bent its neck, if I may
+so speak, to the right, and sometimes to the left, and sometimes stood
+upright, when the true form of the ciliary apparatus could be seen. The
+tube of this creature was opaque, from the adhesion of foreign matter,
+and presented an untidy appearance, strangely contrasting with the
+clear, neat bottles of the Floscules. These Cephalosiphons are very
+whimsical in their ways, and many that were sent to different observers
+never exhibited their ciliary wreaths, but performed sundry antics,
+disguising their true shape.
+
+[Illustration: Cephalosiphon limnias.]
+
+Somewhat like the Cephalosiphon, though much commoner and without the
+siphon, is Limnias ceratophylli, which every collector is sure to meet.
+The length of the Limnias varies, according to Pritchard, from 1--20" to
+1--40". Our Cephalosiphon, when fully extended and magnified one hundred
+and eighty linear, looked about three inches and a half long, and was
+therefore very small. Just below the ciliary lobes the gizzard was seen,
+with its toothed hammers working one against the other. The masticatory
+organ differs from the typical form, as represented in the Brachion; and
+Mr. Gosse observes of Limnias that "each _uncus_ forms, with its
+_ramus_, a well-defined mass of muscle enclosing the solid parts, and in
+form approaching the quadrature of a globe. Across the upper surface of
+the mass the _uncus_ is stretched like three long parallel fingers,
+arched in their common direction, and imbedded in the muscular
+substances, their points just reaching the opposing face of the _ramus_,
+and meeting the points of the opposite _uncus_ when closed."[20]
+
+[20] The terms _uncus_, _ramus_, etc., have been explained in Chapter
+II, page 28.
+
+There is no connection between Limnias or Cephalosiphon and their tubes,
+except that of simple adhesion, which takes place by means of the end of
+their foot-stalks.
+
+In a former chapter we have described an interesting relation of the
+Vorticella, the Cothurnia, whose elegant crystal vases form a very
+artistic abode, characterised by possessing a distinct foot. Other
+species of the same family inhabit vases which have no foot or stalk, or
+live in gelatinous sheaths less accurately fashioned. Sometimes these
+creatures are obliging enough to conform to the specific descriptions
+which eminent naturalists have given of them, and also to the characters
+which the authorities have assigned to the different genera in which
+they have been grouped, but the microscopist will often meet with
+difficulties in the way of classification.
+
+[Illustration: Vaginicola (?) (A, elongated; B, retracted.)]
+
+Attached to a piece of weed were a number of cylindrical masses of
+brownish jelly, with rounded tops, and situated in an irregular and very
+transparent sheath, about twice as high as themselves. Presently they
+all rose up to four times their previous height, put forth a beautiful
+crown of vibrating cilia, and opened a sort of trap-door to their
+internal arrangements. In this position they had a long cylindrical
+form, gracefully curved, but of nearly equal width from the mouth to the
+base, and they readily imbibed particles of carmine, which tinged sundry
+little cavities with its characteristic hue. The slightest disturbance
+caused the ciliary wreaths to be drawn in, and the bodies to be
+retracted, and descend into their house like a conjuring toy, until the
+appearance first described was reproduced.
+
+The general form and structure of these objects was like the drawings
+usually given of _Vaginicola_, which is said not to exist in groups,
+although two individuals are commonly found in one well-shaped cell.
+These creatures, however, did not taper towards the base as Vaginicolæ
+generally do, and perhaps they became aware of this defect in their
+figures, for after a day or two a change appeared, and they assumed a
+more graceful form by swelling out in the middle, and then growing
+slender down to the bottom, very much like the pattern given by
+glass-blowers to little vases of flowers.
+
+It is very important to note the changing appearance of animalcules, and
+where the same individuals can be observed from day to day, these will
+often be found considerable. It is probable that when such particulars
+are fully known, the number of species will be greatly reduced, and the
+study of these organisms considerably simplified. I have called the
+animals just described _Vaginicolæ_, but the reader must be prepared to
+find similar bodies, inhabiting well-formed vases, either solitarily or
+in couples, the latter condition arising from the fission of one
+individual without a corresponding division of the abode.
+
+For a few weeks I continually met with groups living as I have
+described, in what may be called amorphous cells, which were often so
+nearly like the surrounding water in refracting power, as to be
+discerned with some difficulty. No trace could be seen of divisions
+into separate cells, but they all appeared to live happily together in
+one room, and if one went up all went up, and if one went down all went
+down, as if their proceedings were regulated by a community of sensation
+or will.
+
+Another little curiosity was a transparent cup upon a slender stem,
+which stood upright like a wineglass, and supported on its mouth a
+transparent globe. By removing a leaf which prevented the stalk being
+traced to its termination, it was found to be a Vorticella, and after
+two hours the globe was partially drawn in, and reduced in size. Why the
+creature was engaged in blowing this bubble I do not know, and have not
+met with another instance of such conduct.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+NOVEMBER.
+
+    Characteristics of the Polyzoa--Details of structure according
+        to Allman--Plumatella repens--Its great beauty under proper
+        illumination--Its tentacles and their cilia--The mouth and its
+        guard or epistome--Intestinal tube--How it swallowed a Rotifer,
+        and what happened--Curiosities of digestion--Are the tentacles
+        capable of Stinging?--Resting Eggs, or "Statoblasts"--Tube of
+        Plumatella--Its muscular Fibres--Physiological importance of
+        their structure.
+
+
+During the fag end of last month I observed some fragments of a new
+creature among some bits of Anacharis, from the Vale of Heath Pond, and
+searched for complete and intelligible specimens without effect. Luckily
+one evening a scientific neighbour, to whom I had given some of the
+plant for the sake of the beautiful _Stephanoceri_ which inhabited it,
+came in with a glass trough containing a little branch, to which adhered
+a dirty parchment-like ramifying tube, dotted here and there with brown
+oval masses, and having sundry open extremities, from which some
+polyp-shaped animals put forth long pearly tentacles margined with
+vibrating cilia, and making a lively current. The creatures presented an
+organization higher than that of polyps, for there was an evident
+_differentiation_ and complication of parts. They belonged to the
+_Polyzoa_ or _Bryozoa_,[21] a very important division of the _mollusca_.
+The _Polyzoa_ are chiefly marine, and the common "sea-mat," often
+erroneously treated as a _sea-weed_, is a well-known form. A species of
+another order often picked up on our coasts is the _Sertularia_, or
+Sea-Fir, composed of delicate branching stems of a horny-looking
+substance, which, under a pocket-lens, is found to contain an immense
+number of small cells inhabited by Polyps. It is instructive to compare
+the two and note how much more advanced in structure is the Polyzoon
+than the polyp.
+
+[21] _Polyzoa_ means "many animals," in allusion to their habit of
+living in association. _Bryozoa_, "moss-animals," from some forming
+cells having that appearance.
+
+[Illustration: Plumatella repens. Single Polypide enlarged]
+
+Polyzoa were formerly associated with the polyps, to which they bear a
+strong superficial resemblance; but they are of a much higher degree of
+organization, as will be seen by comparing what has been said in a
+former chapter on the _Hydra_, with the description which we now proceed
+to abridge from Dr. Allman's splendid monograph on the fresh-water
+kinds. In order to get a general conception of a Polyzoon, the Professor
+tells us to imagine an alimentary canal, consisting of oesophagus,
+stomach, and intestine, to be furnished at its origin with long ciliated
+tentacles, and to have a single nervous ganglion on one side of the
+oesophagus. We must then conceive the intestine bent back till its
+anal orifice comes near the mouth; and this curved digestive tube to be
+suspended in a bag containing fluid, and having two openings, one for
+the mouth and the other for the vent. A system of muscles enables the
+alimentary tube to be retracted or protruded, the former process pulling
+the bag in, and the latter letting it out. The mouth of the bag is, so
+to speak, tied round the creature's neck just below the tentacles, which
+are the only portions of it that are left free. The investing sack has
+in nearly every case the power of secreting an external sheath, more or
+less solid, and which branches forming numerous cells, in which the
+members of the family live in a socialistic community, having, as it
+were, two lives, one individual, and the other shared in common with the
+rest.
+
+The whole group of tubes and cells, whatever may be the form in which
+they are aggregated, is called the _Polypary_, or, as Dr. Allman
+prefers, the _Coenoecium_ (common house); the creature he names a
+_Polypide_[22] (polyp-like); and the disk which bears the tentacles
+_Lophophore_ (crest-bearer). There are some more hard words to be learnt
+before the student can enjoy himself scientifically among the Polyzoa,
+and we shall be compelled to employ some of them before we have done;
+but will now endeavour to describe what was presented to our view by the
+specimen obtained from the Hampstead Pond.
+
+[22] _Polyzoon_ is preferable, as avoiding confusion with _polypite_,
+used for another class of object.
+
+The general aspect of a branch of _Plumatella repens_--the creature we
+have to describe--is given in the drawing annexed. When all was quiet,
+the mouths of the bags belonging to each cell were slowly everted, and
+out came a numerous bundle of tentacles, which were either spread like
+the corolla of a flower, or permitted to hang dishevelled like the
+snake-locks of Medusa. We will suppose these organs symmetrically
+expanded, and that we are looking down upon them with a magnifying power
+of sixty diameters, the light having been carefully adjusted by turning
+the reflecting mirror a little on one side, to avoid a direct glare. The
+tentacles, each of which curves with a living grace, and displays an
+opaline tint in its glassy structure, do not form a complete circle, for
+at one place we discern two slightly diverging arms of the disk, or
+frame (Lophophore) from which they grow.
+
+These arms support tentacles on each side, and leave a gap between, so
+that the whole pattern is _crescentic_, or crescent-shaped, and not
+circular. Extending as far as the points of the arms, and carried all
+round the crescent, is an extremely delicate membrane, like the finest
+gauze, which unites all the tentacles by their basal portions, and makes
+an elegant retreating curve between every two. Each tentacle exhibits
+two rows of cilia, which scintillate as their vibrations cause them to
+catch the light. The motion of the cilia is invariably _down_ one side
+and _up_ the other, the current or pattern being carried on from one
+tentacle to the other, all through the series. This characteristic, and
+the facility with which each cilium can be distinguished, gives great
+interest and beauty to the spectacle of this wonderful apparatus, by
+which water-currents are made to bathe the tentacles, and assist
+respiration, and also to carry food towards the mouth, over which a sort
+of finger or tongue is stretched to guard the way, and exercise some
+choice as to what particles shall be permitted to pass on. This organ is
+called the _epistome_, from two Greek words, signifying "upon the
+mouth."
+
+If the cell is an old one, it may be covered with so much extraneous
+matter as to obscure the economy within; but we are fortunate in having
+a transparent specimen before us, through which we can see all that goes
+on. The alimentary tube, after forming a capacious cavity, much longer
+than it is broad, turns round and terminates in an orifice near the
+mouth, and just below the integuments. When refuse has to be discharged,
+this orifice is protruded; and after the operation is over, it draws
+back as before. Long muscles, composed of separate threads or fibres,
+pull the creature in and out of its cell, and at the part where the
+stomach ends, and the intestine turns round, is attached a long flexible
+rope, called the _funiculus_, which goes to the bottom of the cell. The
+passage of the food down to the stomach, its digestion, and the eviction
+of the residue, can all be watched; and when a large morsel is
+swallowed, the spectacle is curious in the extreme.
+
+One day a polyzoon caught a large rotifer, (_R. vulgaris_,) which, with
+several others of its tribe, had been walking over the _coenoecium_,
+and swimming amongst the tentacles, as if unconscious of danger. All of
+a sudden it went down the whirlpool leading to the mouth, was rolled up
+by a process that could not be traced, and without an instant's loss of
+time, was seen shooting down in rapid descent to the gulf below, where
+it looked a potato-shaped mass, utterly destitute of its characteristic
+living form. Having been made into a bolus, the unhappy rotifer, who
+never gave the faintest sign of vitality, was tossed up and down from
+the top to the bottom of the stomach, just as a billiard-ball might be
+thrown from the top to the bottom of a stocking. This process went on
+for hours, the ball gradually diminishing in size, until at last it was
+lost in the general brown mass with which the stomach was filled. The
+bottom of the stomach seems well supplied with muscular fibres, to cause
+the constrictions by which this work is chiefly performed, and by
+keeping a colony for a month or two, I had many opportunities of seeing
+my Polyzoa at their meals.
+
+When alarmed the tentacles were quickly retracted, but although these
+creatures are said to dislike the light, and usually keep away from it
+in their native haunts, my specimens had no objection to come out in a
+strong illumination, and seemed perfectly at their ease. They were
+indeed most amiable creatures, and never failed to display their charms
+to admiring visitors, who rewarded them with unmeasured praise. Twice I
+had an opportunity of observing an action I cannot explain, except by
+supposing either that the tentacles of the _Plumatella_ have some
+poisonous action, or that rotifers are susceptible of fear. On these
+occasions the common rotifer was the subject of the experiment. First
+one and then another got among the tentacles, and on escaping seemed
+very poorly. One fellow was, to borrow a phrase from Professor Thomas
+Sayers, "completely doubled up," and two or three seconds--long periods
+in a rotifer's life--elapsed before he came to himself again.
+
+By keeping a colony of the Plumatella for a few weeks in a glass trough,
+and occasionally supplying them with fresh water from an aquarium,
+containing the animalcules, they are easily preserved in good health,
+and as they develop fresh cells, the process of growth may be readily
+watched. This production of fresh individuals enlarges the parent
+colony, but could not be the means of founding a new one, which is
+accomplished by two other modes. A little way down the cells Professor
+Allman discovered an ovary attached to the internal tube by a short
+_peduncle_, or foot stalk, while a testis or male generative organ is
+attached to the _funiculus_, or "little rope," we have already
+described.
+
+July and August are the best times for observing the ovaries, and they
+are most conspicuous in the genera _Alcyonella_ and _Paludicella_. True
+eggs are developed in the ovaries in a manner resembling this mode of
+multiplication in other animals; but there is another kind of egg, or,
+perhaps to speak more properly, a variety of bud, which is extremely
+curious. In looking at our specimens we noticed brown oval bodies in the
+cells; these, on careful examination, presented the appearance of the
+sketch. The centre is dark, covered with a network, which is more
+conspicuous in the lighter coloured and more transparent margins. These
+curious bodies are produced from the funiculus, and act as reserves of
+propagative force, as they are not hatched or developed until they get
+out and find themselves exposed to appropriate circumstances. Professor
+Allman names them _Statoblasts_, or stationary germs, and they bear some
+resemblance to what are called the "winter eggs" of some other
+creatures. The Professor was never able to discover any mode by which
+they were permitted to escape from the cells, and in our colonies none
+were allowed to leave their homes until the death of their parent, and
+the decomposition of its cell had taken place; a process which went on
+contemporaneously with the growth of new cells, until the plant on which
+the _coenoecium_ was situated, rotted away, and then unfortunately
+the whole concern went to pieces.
+
+[Illustration: Plumatella repens on a leaf.]
+
+The tubes of the _Plumatella_, and of most other Polyzoa, are composed
+of two coats, called respectively _endocyst_ and _ectocyst_, that is,
+"inner case" and "outer case." The first is vitally endowed, and
+exhibits vessels and muscular fibres. The second or outer case is thrown
+off by the first. It is a parchment-like substance, strengthened by the
+adhesion of dirt particles, and does not appear to exercise any vital
+functions, but to be merely a covering for protection. The inner layer
+terminates in the neck of the bag before described, as exserted when the
+polypide comes out, and inverted when it goes in. This mode of making a
+case or sheath by inversion of a bag is technically called
+_invagination_, and is readily seen in new and transparent cells.
+
+The movement of _eversion_, or coming out, is chiefly produced by the
+contraction of the endocyst; while the _inversion_, or getting in again,
+is performed by the long muscles, which, when the animal is extended,
+are seen attached to it like ropes. Upon these muscles Professor Allman
+remarks that they are "especially interesting in a physiological point
+of view, as they seem to present us with an example of true muscular
+tissue, reduced to its simplest and essential form. A muscle may here
+be viewed as a beautiful dissection far surpassing the most refined
+preparation of the dissecting needle, for it is composed of a bundle of
+elementary fibres, totally separate from one another through their
+entire course." He further adds, "The fibres of the great retractor
+muscle are distinctly marked by transverse striæ;--a condition, however,
+which is not at all times equally perceptible, and some of our best
+observers have denied to the Polyzoon the existence of striated fibre."
+
+We can confirm the fact of this sort of fibre being present, but we
+fancy a reader not versed in the mysteries of physiology exclaiming,
+'What does it matter whether his fibres are striped or not?'
+
+Physiologists used to suppose there was a strong and marked distinction
+and separation between _striped_ muscles, that is, muscles the fibres of
+which exhibit transverse stripes when magnified, and those which do not.
+Kölliker, however, says this decided separation can no longer be
+maintained,[23] and he gives instances in proof of the connections that
+can be traced between the two forms. In the higher animals the striped
+muscles are the special instruments of _will_, and of movements that
+follow, or are accompanied by, distinct sensations. Striped fibre must
+be regarded as the highest form; and as a muscle of this sort contracts
+in length it increases uniformly in breadth.
+
+[23] 'Manual of Human Microscopic Anatomy,' p. 63.
+
+There are many other genera and species of fresh-water polyzoa besides
+the _Plumatella repens_, and they are found attached to sticks, stones,
+or leaves, generally to the under surface of the latter. They are all
+objects of great interest and beauty, which, whatever their diversity,
+conform sufficiently to one type that the student who has observed one,
+will easily recognise the zoological position of another. They should be
+viewed by transmitted and by dark-ground illumination, which produces
+very beautiful effects. To observe them in the performance of their
+functions, they require more room than the live-box can afford, but are
+well shown in the glass trough, whose moveable diaphragm enables them to
+be brought near enough to the object-glass, for the use of a power of
+about sixty linear for general purposes, and of from one to two hundred
+for the examination of particular parts. For a more detailed examination
+dissection must be employed, but all that we have mentioned can be seen
+without injury to the living animal, if specimens are kept till new
+cells are formed in water, which does not contain enough dirt to render
+their integuments opaque.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+DECEMBER.
+
+    Microscopic Hunting in Winter--Water-bears, or Tardigrada--Their
+        comical behaviour--Mode of viewing them--Singular gizzard--A
+        compressorium--Achromatic condenser--Mouth of the
+        Water-bear--Water-bears' exposure to heat--Soluble
+        albumen--Physiological and chemical reasons why they are not
+        killed by heating and drying--The Trachelius ovum--Mode of
+        swimming--Method of viewing--By dark-ground
+        illumination--Curious digestive tube with
+        branches--Multiplication by division--Change of form immediately
+        following this process--Subsequent appearances.
+
+
+There is always satisfaction in finding a work accomplished; but the
+attempt to delineate some of the marvels of minute creation has been a
+pleasant one, and we approach the completion of our task of recording a
+_Microscopic Year_ with something like regret. The dark, dirty December
+of the great metropolis may not seem a promising time for field
+excursions, but some ponds lie near enough to practicable roads and
+paths to render an occasional dip in them, not of ourselves, but of our
+bottles--an easy and not unpleasant performance; and if the weather is
+unusually bad, we can fall back upon our preserves in bottles and tanks,
+which seldom fail to afford something new, as we have been pretty sure
+to bring home some undeveloped germs with our stock of pond-water and
+plants, and even creatures of considerable size are very likely to have
+escaped detection in our first efforts at examination.
+
+When objects are not over abundant, as is apt to be the case in the cold
+months, it is well to fill a large vial with some water out of the
+aquarium or other large vessel, and watch what living specks may be
+moving about therein. These are readily examined with a pocket-lens, and
+with a little dexterity any promising creature can be fished out with
+the dipping-tube. It is also advisable to shake a mass of vegetation in
+a white basin, as the larger infusoria, &c., may be thrown down; and
+indeed this method (as recommended by Pritchard) is always convenient.
+Even so small a quantity of water as is contained in a glass cell,
+appropriated to the continual examination of polyps or polyzoa, should
+be frequently hunted over with a low power, as in the course of days and
+weeks one race of small animals will disappear, and another take their
+place.
+
+Following these various methods in December, we obtained many specimens;
+but the most interesting was found by taking up small branches of the
+Anacharis with a pair of forceps, and putting them into a glass trough
+to see what inhabitants they might possess. One of these trials was
+rewarded by the appearance of a little puppy-shaped animal very busy
+pawing about with eight imperfect legs, but not making much progress
+with all his efforts. It was evident that we had obtained one of the
+_Tardigrada_ (slow-steppers), or Water-Bears, and a very comical amusing
+little fellow he was. The figure was like that of a new-born puppy, or
+"unlicked" bear cub; each of the eight legs were provided with four
+serviceable claws, there was no tail, and the blunt head was susceptible
+of considerable alteration of shape. He was grubbing about among some
+bits of decayed vegetation, and from the mass of green matter in his
+stomach, it was evident that he was not one of that painfully numerous
+class in England--the starving poor.
+
+[Illustration: Water-Bear.]
+
+A power of one hundred and five linear, obtained with a two-thirds
+object-glass, and the second eye-piece, enabled all his motions and
+general structure to be exhibited, and showed that he possessed a sort
+of gizzard, whose details would require more magnification to bring out.
+Accordingly the dipping-tube was carefully held just over him, the
+finger removed, and luckily in went the little gentleman with the
+ascending current. He was cautiously transferred to a Compressorium,[24]
+an apparatus by which the approach of two thin plates of glass can be
+regulated by the action of a spring and a screw; and just enough
+pressure was employed to keep him from changing his place, although he
+was able to move his tiny limbs. Thus arranged, he was placed under a
+power of two hundred and forty linear, and illuminated by an achromatic
+condenser,[25] to make the fine structure of his gizzard as plain as
+possible. It was then seen that this curious organ contains several
+prominences or teeth, and is composed of muscular fibres, radiating in
+every direction. From the front of the gizzard proceed two rods, which
+meet in a point, and are supposed to represent the maxillæ or jaws of
+insects, while between them is a tube or channel, through which the food
+is passed. The mouth is _suctorial_, and the two horny rods, with their
+central piece or pieces, are protrusile. They were frequently brought as
+far as the outer lips (if we may so call the margins of the mouth), but
+we did not witness an actual protrusion, except when the lips
+accompanied them, and formed a small round pouting orifice. The skin of
+the animal was tough and somewhat loose, and wrinkled during the
+contractions its proprietor made. The interior of the body exhibited an
+immense multitude of globular particles of various sizes in constant
+motion, but not moving in any vessels, or performing a distinct
+circulation.
+
+[24] The best forms of this instrument are made by Messrs. R. & J. Beck,
+the glass plates being held in their places by flat-headed screws, and
+not by cement. This plan was devised by the author, and makes it easy to
+renew the glasses when broken.
+
+[25] The achromatic condenser is a frame capable of supporting an
+object-glass, lower than that employed for vision, through which the
+light passes to the object in quantities and directions determined by
+stops of various shapes. The appearances mentioned can be seen without
+it, though not so well.
+
+My specimens had no visible eyes, and these organs are, according to
+Pritchard's book, "variable and fugacious." The same authority remarks,
+"In most vital phenomena they very closely accord with the rotatoria;
+thus like these they can be revived after being put into hot water at
+113° to 118°, but are destroyed by immersion in boiling water. They may
+be gradually heated to 216°, 252°, and even 261°. It is also by their
+capability of resuscitation after being dried that they are able to
+sustain their vitality in such localities as the roofs of houses, where
+at one time they are subjected to great heat and excessive drought, and
+at another are immersed in water."
+
+When vital processes are not stopped by excess of temperature, as is the
+case with the higher animals, the power of resisting heat without
+destruction depends upon the condition of the albumen. Soluble albumen,
+or, as it should be called, _Albuminate of Soda_ (for a small quantity
+of that alkali is present and chemically united with it), after having
+been _thoroughly dried_, may be heated without loss of its solubility;
+although if the same temperature was applied before it was dry, that
+solubility would be destroyed, and it would no longer be a fit
+constituent of a living creature. As Dr. Carpenter observes, this fact
+is of much interest in explaining the tenacity of life in the
+Tardigrada.
+
+The movements of the water-bears, although slow, evince a decided
+purpose and ability to make all parts work together for one common
+object; and as might be expected from this fact, and also from the
+repetition of distinct, although not articulated limbs, they are
+provided with a nervous apparatus of considerable development, in the
+shape of a chain of a ganglia and a brain, with connecting filaments.
+From these and other circumstances naturalists consider the Tardigrada
+to belong to the great family of _Spiders_, of which they are,
+physiologically speaking, _poor relations_. Siebold says "they form the
+transition from the Arachnoidæ to the Annelides."[26] Like the spiders
+they cast their skin; and, although I was not fortunate enough to
+witness this operation--called in the language of the learned _ecdysis_,
+which means putting its clothes off--I found an empty hide, which,
+making allowance for the comparative size of the creatures, looked tough
+and strong as that of a rhinoceros, and showed that the stripping
+process extended to the tips of the claws. The 'Micrographic Dictionary'
+states that the Tardigrada lay but few eggs at a time, and these are
+"usually deposited during the ecdysis, the exuviæ serving as a
+protection to them during the process of hatching." Thus Mrs. Water-Bear
+makes a nursery out of her old skin, a device as ingenious as
+unexpected. The water-bears are said to be hermaphrodites, but this is
+improbable.
+
+[26] 'Anatomy of the Invertebrata,' Burnett's trans., p. 364.
+
+The _Plumatella repens_, described in a former chapter, was kept in a
+glass trough, to which some fresh water was added every few days, taken
+from a glass jar that had been standing many weeks with growing
+anacharis in it. One day a singular creature made its appearance in the
+trough; when magnified sixty diameters it resembled an oval bladder,
+with a sort of proboscis attached to it. At one part it was
+longitudinally constricted, and evidently possessed some branched and
+complicated internal vessel. The surface was ciliated, and the neck or
+proboscis acted as a rudder, and enabled the creature to execute rapid
+turns. It swam up and down, and round about, sometimes rotating on its
+axis, at others keeping the same side uppermost, but did not exhibit the
+faintest sign of intelligence in its movements, except an occasional
+finger-like bend of the proboscis, upon which the cilia seemed thicker
+than upon the body. It was big enough to be observed as a moving white
+speck by the naked eye, when the vessel containing it was held to catch
+the light slantingly; but a power of one hundred and five was
+conveniently employed to enable its structure to be discerned. Under
+this power, when the animal was resting or moving slowly, a mouth was
+perceived on the left side of the proboscis, which was usually, though
+not always, curved to the right. The mouth was a round or oval orifice,
+and when illuminated by the parabola, its lips or margin looked
+thickened, and of a pale blue, and ciliated, while the rest of the body
+assumed a pinkish pearly tint.
+
+Below the mouth came a funnel-shaped tube or oesophagus, having some
+folds or plaits on its sides, and terminating in a broad digestive tube,
+distinct from the nucleus, and ramifying like a tree. The constriction
+before mentioned, which was always seen in certain positions, although
+it varied _very considerably_ in depth and width, drew up the integument
+towards the main trunk of the digestive tube, and thus the animal had a
+distinct ventral and dorsal side. The branches of the tube stopped
+somewhat abruptly just before reaching the surface, and were often
+observed to end in small round vacuoles or vesicles.
+
+[Illustration: Trachelius ovum (slightly flattened).]
+
+At the bottom of the bladder, opposite the mouth, in some specimens were
+large round cavities or cells, filled with smaller cells, or partially
+transparent granules. These varied in number from one to two or three,
+and were replaced in other specimens by masses that did not present the
+same regular form or rounded outline. In one instance an amorphous
+structure of this kind gradually divided itself, and seemed in the
+course of forming two cells, but the end of the process was
+unfortunately not seen. The annexed drawing will readily enable the
+animal to be recognised. It shows the mouth very plainly, and a current
+of small particles moving towards it. The oesophagus terminates in a
+digestive tube, like the trunk of a tree, from which numerous branches
+spring. This arrangement is probably analogous to that of the
+phlebenterous mollusks described by Quatrefages, in which the
+ramifications of the stomach answer the purpose of arteries, and convey
+the nutrient fluid to various parts of the body. It is also likely that
+they minister to the function of respiration.
+
+The cilia on the surface, which are arranged in parallel lines, are best
+observed when the animal is slightly flattened in a live-box; but this
+process produces a considerable derangement in the relative position of
+the internal parts, and they can only be well seen when it is immersed
+in plenty of water, and is polite enough to stand still, and submit his
+digestive economy to a steady gaze. The only way to succeed in this
+undertaking is to have a large stock of patience as well as a convenient
+cell or trough. The table must be kept steady, and the prisoner watched
+from time to time, and at last he will be found ready for display.
+
+Pritchard says this animal, whose name is _Trachelius ovum_, is an
+inhabitant of stagnant bog water, and has been found encysted. My
+specimens could not be called plentiful, but for several weeks I could
+generally find two or three, by filling a four-ounce vial from the glass
+jar, and examining its contents with a pocket-lens. If none were
+present, another dip was made, and usually with success.
+
+One evening I caught a good specimen by means of the dipping-tube, and
+cautiously let it out, accompanied by a drop of water, on the glass
+floor of the live-box. A glance with the pocket-lens showed all was
+right, and the cover was very gently put on, but it had scarcely touched
+the creature when it became crumpled up and in confusion. On one or two
+former occasions I had been unfortunate enough to give my captives a
+squeeze too much, with the usual result of a rupture of their
+integuments and an escape of globules and fluids from the regions
+within. Now, however, there was no such rupture and no such escape, but
+instead of a smooth, comely surface, my Trachelius had lost all title to
+his specific designation, _ovum_, for instead of bearing any resemblance
+to an egg, it was more like an Irishman's hat after having a bit of a
+"shindy" at Donnybrook Fair.
+
+I was greatly puzzled with this aspect of things, and still more so when
+my deranged specimen twirled and bumped about with considerable
+velocity, and in all directions. Presently a decided constriction
+appeared about half-way below the mouth and proboscis, and in transverse
+direction. The ciliary motion became very violent in the lower half just
+below the constriction, while the proboscis worked hard to make its half
+go another way. For some minutes there was a tug of war, and at length
+away went proboscis with his portion, still much crumpled by the fight,
+and left the other bit to roam at will, gradually smooth his puckers,
+and assume the appearance of a respectable well-to-do animalcule.
+
+[Illustration: _Trachelius ovum_, three hours after division.]
+
+Three hours after the "fission" the proboscis half was not unlike the
+former self of the late "entire," but with diminished body and larger
+neck; while the remaining portion had assumed a flask form, and would
+not have been known by his dearest acquaintance. The portraits of the
+_dis-United States_ were quickly taken, and, as bed-time had arrived,
+they were left to darkness and themselves. The next morning a change had
+come over the "spirit of their dream." Both were quiet, or sedately
+moving, and they were nearly alike. The proboscis fellow had increased
+and rounded his body, and diminished his nose; while Mr. Flask had grown
+round also, and evinced an intention of cultivating a proboscis himself.
+Twenty-seven hours after the separation, both had made considerable
+progress in arranging and developing their insides, which had been
+thrown into great confusion by the way in which the original animal had
+been wrenched in half, and in both a granular mass was forming opposite
+the mouth end. The proboscis portion, which may perhaps be termed the
+_mother_, was more advanced than her progeny, but both had a great deal
+to do if they meant to exhibit the original figure, and develop a set of
+bowels as elegantly branched. Whether they would have succeeded or not
+under happier circumstances I cannot tell, but unfortunately the Fate
+who carries the scissors cut short their days.
+
+In all other animalcules in which I had observed the process of
+multiplication by self-division, it seemed to go on smoothly, and with
+no discomfort to either the dividend or the quotient, and it may be that
+in the fission of the _Trachelius ovum_ I witnessed what the doctors
+would call a bad case. Indeed it may have been prematurely brought on,
+and aggravated by the squeeze in the live-box. It is, however, probable,
+from the stronger texture and greater organic development of this
+animalcule, that it does not divide so easily as the softer and simpler
+kinds.
+
+Frequent examination of this animalcule has created a strong doubt in my
+mind whether it is rightly placed in our "systems." My own impression is
+that it belongs to a higher class.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+The creatures described in the preceding pages range from very simple to
+highly complicated forms, and in describing them some attention has been
+paid to the general principles of classification. The step is a wide one
+from the little masses of living jelly that constitute Amoebæ to the
+Rotifers, supplied with organs of sensation--eyes, feelers (calcars),
+and the long cilia in the Floscularians, which seem to convey impression
+like the whiskers of a cat--together with elaborate machinery for
+catching, grinding up, and digesting their prey, and which are also well
+furnished with respiratory and excretory apparatus, ovaries, &c. In the
+polypi and polyzoa may be observed those resemblances in appearance
+which induced early naturalists to group them together, and also the
+wide difference of organization which marks the higher rank to which the
+latter have attained. Amongst the ciliated infusoria important
+gradations and differences will also be noticed, some having only one
+sort of cilia, others two sorts, and others, again, supplied, in
+addition to cilia, with hooks and styles. No perfectly satisfactory
+classification of the infusoria has yet been devised, and the life
+history of a great many is still very imperfectly known. On the whole,
+the tendency of research is to place many of them higher than they used
+to stand after Ehrenberg's supposition of their having a plurality of
+distinct stomachs, &c., was given up. Balbiani and others have shown
+numerous cases of their forming their eggs by a process analogous to
+that of higher animals. Some really are, and others closely resemble,
+the larval conditions of creatures higher in the scale, and the
+contracted vesicle with its channel bears resemblance to what is called
+the "water vascular system" of worms.
+
+Zoological classification depends very much on morphology, that is, the
+tracing of particular structures, or parts, through all their stages,
+from the lowest to the highest forms in which they are exhibited. In
+this way the swimming bladder of a fish is shown to be a rudimentary
+lung, though it has no respiratory functions, and Mr. Kitchen Parker has
+found in the imperfect skull of the tadpole a rudimentary appearance of
+bones belonging to the human ear. The comparative anatomist, after a
+wide survey of the objects before him, arranges them into groups. He
+asks what are the characteristic things to be affirmed concerning all
+the A's that cannot be said of all the B's; or of all the C's that marks
+their difference from the A's or the D's. Careful investigation upon
+these methods shows affinities where they were not previously
+expected--birds and reptiles being close relations, for example, instead
+of distant connections--and they lessen the value for purposes of
+classification of peculiarities that might have been deemed of the
+highest importance.
+
+Professor Huxley divides the vertebrates into ITHYCOIDS, comprising
+fishes and amphibia, which, besides other characteristics, have gills at
+some period of their existence; SAUROIDS (reptiles and birds), which
+have no gills, and possess certain developmental characteristics in
+common; and, lastly, MAMMALS. The Insecta, Myriopoda, Arachnidæ, and
+Crustacea, he remarks, "without doubt present so many characters in
+common as to form a very natural assemblage. All are provided with
+articulated limbs attached to a segmented body skeleton, the latter,
+like the skeleton of the limbs, being an 'exoskeleton,' or a bordering
+of that layer which corresponds with the outer part of the vertebrates.
+In others, at any rate in the embryonic condition, the nervous system is
+composed of a double chain of ganglia, united by longitudinal
+commissures, and the gullet passed between two of these commissures. No
+one of the members of these four classes is known to possess vibratile
+cilia. The great majority of these animals have a distinct heart,
+provided with valvular apertures, which are in communication with a
+peri-visceral cavity containing corpusculated blood." These four classes
+have constituted the larger group or "province" of _Articulata_ or
+_Arthropoda_. Professor Huxley thinks that, notwithstanding "the marked
+differences" between the Annelida (worms) and the preceding Arthropods
+(joint-foots), their resemblances outweighing them--"the characters of
+the nervous system, and the frequently segmented body, with imperfect
+lateral appendages of the Annelida, necessitates their assemblage with
+the Arthropoda in one great division, or sub-kingdom, of ANNULOSA."
+
+Tracing analogies between the Echinodermata (sea urchins, star-fish,
+&c.) and the Scolecida (intestinal worms), he places them together as
+_Annuloida_.
+
+Cephalopoda, Pteropoda, Pulmo-gasteropoda, and Branchio-gasteropoda,
+having resemblances of nervous system, and "all possessing that
+remarkable buccal apparatus, the Odontophore," are placed together by
+him as ODONTOPHORA. The Odontophores (tooth-bearers) are familiar to
+microscopists as the so-called _palates_ of mollusca. Placing with the
+above the lamellibranchial mollusks (mollusks with gills formed of
+lamellæ or little plates), Ascidioida (ascidians), Brachiopoda
+(lamp-sheds), and Polyzoa, in spite of their differences, he forms
+another great group, ANNULOIDA.
+
+The Actinozoa (anemonies, &c.) and the Hydrozoa (polyps) constitute the
+COELENTERA of Frey and Leuckart. "In all these animals," says
+Professor Huxley, "the substance of the body is differentiated into
+those histological elements which have been termed cells, and the latter
+are previously disposed in two layers, one external and one internal,
+constituting the ectoderm and endoderm. Among animals which possess this
+histological structure the Coelenterata stand alone in having an
+alimentary canal, which is open at its inner end and communicates freely
+by this aperture with the general cavity of the body," and "all (unless
+the Ctenophora should prove a partial exception to the rule) are
+provided with very remarkable organs of offence or defence, called
+thread-cells or nematocysts." In describing the Polyps we have given
+illustrations of these weapons.
+
+The remaining classes, which have been roughly associated as _Protozoa_,
+must evidently be rearranged. Sponges, Rhizopods (Amoebæ, &c.), and
+Gregarines, have strong resemblances, but recent researches may place
+the former higher. The Infusoria comprehend creatures too various to
+remain under one head, and very many of them too highly organized to be
+called "protozoons," or first life-forms.
+
+Those who wish to pursue this subject further may consult Professor
+Huxley's 'Elements of Comparative Anatomy,' from which the preceding
+quotations have been taken.
+
+A system of classification founded upon anatomical and developmental
+considerations frequently differs considerably from one we might arrive
+at if all the creatures were arranged according to the perfection of
+their faculties and the extent and accuracy of their relations to the
+external world. Such a classification would not in any way supersede the
+former, but it would prove very instructive and offer many valuable
+suggestions. Some years since, Professor Owen proposed to divide the
+Vertebrates according to the perfection of their brains, but other
+anatomists did not find his divisions sufficiently coincident with
+facts. Very little has been done towards an exact science of human
+phrenology. The difficulties remain pretty much as they were many years
+ago, and our comparative phrenology, if we may use such a term, is in a
+very imperfect state. When we come to the lower animals we do not know
+what peculiarities of the brain of an ant make it the recipient of a
+higher instinct, or give its possessor greater capacities for dealing
+with new and unexpected difficulties than are possessed by most other
+insects, and if any reader has a marine aquarium, and will make a few
+experiments in taming prawns, and watching their proceedings, he will
+discover symptoms of intelligence beyond what the structure of the
+creature would have led him to expect.
+
+Animals usually possess some one leading characteristic to which their
+general structure is subordinated. Man stands alone in having the whole
+of his organization conformed to the demands of a thinking, ruling
+brain. To pass at once to the other extreme, we observe in the lower
+infusoria a restless locomotion, probably subservient to respiration,
+but utterly inconsistent with a well developed life of relation, or with
+manifestations of thought. The life of an animalcule may be summed up as
+a brief and restricted, but vigorous organic energy, and if the amount
+of change which a single creature can make in the external world, is
+inconceivably small, the labours of the entire race alter the conditions
+of a prodigious amount of matter. Microscopic vegetable life is an
+important agent in purifying water from the taint of decomposing
+organisms. By evolving oxygen it brings putrescent particles under the
+influence of a species of combustion, which, though slow, is as
+effectual as that which a furnace could accomplish. In this way minute
+moulds burn up decaying wood.
+
+Microscopic animal life helps the regenerative process, and, together
+with the minute vegetable life, restores to the organic system myriads
+of tons of matter, which death and decay would have handed over to the
+inorganic world. In a very small pond or tank the quantity of this kind
+of work is soon appreciable, and if we reflect on the amazing amount of
+water all over the globe, including seas and oceans, which swarm with
+infusoria, the total effect produced in a single year must seem
+considerable, even when compared with that portion of the earth's crust
+that is subject to alteration from all other causes put together. If we
+add to the labour of the Infusoria those of other creatures whose
+organization can only be discovered by the microscope, and take in the
+foraminifera, polyps, polyzoa, &c., we shall have to record still larger
+obligations to minute forms of living things. The coral polyp builds
+reefs that constitute the chief characteristic of certain regions in the
+Pacific; foraminifera are forming or helping to form strata of
+considerable extent, while diatoms are making deposits many feet in
+thickness, composed of myriads of their silicious shells, or adding
+their contributions of silex, very large in the aggregate, to all
+sedimentary rocks. Testimony of this kind of work is found by the
+navigator who examines the ice in arctic seas, and it comes up with
+soundings from the ocean depths.
+
+On the surface of the earth the amount of change produced is equally
+remarkable, although it leaves less permanent traces behind. As a rule
+no decomposition of organized matter takes place, no death of plants or
+animals, without infusorial life making its appearance, and disposing of
+no small portion of the spoil. Even in our climate the mass of matter
+thus annually affected is very large; but what must it not be in moist
+tropical lands, where every particle seems alive, and the race of life
+and death goes on at a speed, and to an extent scarcely conceivable by
+those who have not witnessed it.
+
+Thus, if we look at the world of minute forms which the microscope
+reveals, there opens before us a spectacle of boundless extent. We see
+life manifested by the specks of jelly containing particles not
+aggregated into structure, and we see it gradually ascending in
+complexities of organization. In creatures whose habits and appearance
+seem most remote from our own, we find the elementary developments of
+the organs and powers that constitute our glory, and give us our power.
+Such studies assist us to conceive of the universe as a Cosmos, or
+Beautifully Organized Whole; and, although we cannot tell the object for
+which a single portion received its precise form, we trace everywhere
+relations of structure to means of existence and enjoyment, and are led
+to the conviction that all the actions and arrangements of the organic
+or inorganic worlds are due to a definite direction and co-ordination of
+a few simple forces, which implicitly and unerringly obey the dictates
+of an Omniscient Mind.
+
+               PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
+
+
+
+
+NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS
+
+
+RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS
+
+5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
+
+DEDICATED TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD LYTTON.
+
+_In one handsome Volume, Foolscap Quarto, cloth gilt, price 25s._
+
+
+WOMANKIND IN WESTERN EUROPE,
+
+FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+BY THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A.
+
+_Illustrated with numerous Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings._
+
+    "It is something more than a drawing-room ornament. It is an
+    elaborate and careful summary of all that one of our most
+    learned antiquaries, after years of pleasant labour on a very
+    pleasant subject, has been able to learn as to the condition of
+    women from the earliest times. It is beautifully illustrated,
+    both in colours--mainly from ancient illuminations--and also by
+    a profusion of woodcuts, portraying the various fashions by
+    which successive ages of our history have been marked."--_The
+    Times._
+
+_In one handsome Volume, Super-royal Quarto, cloth gilt, price 21s._
+
+
+RURAL CHURCHES THEIR HISTORIES, ARCHITECTURE, AND ANTIQUITIES.
+
+BY SIDNEY CORNER.
+
+_With Coloured Illustrations from Paintings by the Author._
+
+    Illustrations of some of those of the Churches of our country
+    that are most interesting, either from their associations or
+    from the picturesque beauty of their situations; each
+    Illustration being accompanied by a full descriptive account of
+    the History, Architecture, and Antiquities of the Church,
+    together with information on subjects of interest in its
+    neighbourhood.
+
+_Large Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, price 10s. 6d._
+
+
+GRAVEMOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
+
+BY LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A.
+
+_Illustrated with more than Three Hundred Illustrations._
+
+_The Books in this Catalogue may be ordered through any Bookseller, or
+the Publisher will forward them direct (post paid) on receipt of their
+value in Postage Stamps or Post-Office Order._
+
+
+
+
+NEW EDITION OF THE WORKS OF GRACE AGUILAR.
+
+
+    This elegant Edition, large crown 8vo, is printed from new type,
+    on paper made especially for the series, handsomely bound, and
+    illustrated by the leading Artists of the day.
+
+
+_HOME INFLUENCE._
+
+A Tale for Mothers and Daughters. Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt,
+5_s._
+
+
+_THE MOTHER'S RECOMPENSE._
+
+A Sequel to Home Influence. With Illustrations, Crown 8vo, cloth gilt,
+6_s._
+
+
+_WOMAN'S FRIENDSHIP._
+
+A Story of Domestic Life. Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 5_s._
+
+
+_THE VALE OF CEDARS; OR, THE MARTYR._
+
+Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 5_s._
+
+
+_THE DAYS OF BRUCE._
+
+A Story from Scottish History. Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 6_s._
+
+
+_HOME SCENES AND HEART STUDIES._
+
+Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 5_s._
+
+
+_THE WOMEN OF ISRAEL._
+
+Characters and Sketches from the Holy Scriptures. Illustrated.
+Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 6_s._
+
+
+CRITICISMS ON GRACE AGUILAR'S WORKS.
+
+    HOME INFLUENCE.--"To those who really knew Grace Aguilar, all
+    eulogium falls short of her deserts, and she has left a blank in
+    her particular walk of literature, which we never expect to see
+    filled up."--_Pilgrimages to English Shrines, by Mrs. S. C.
+    Hall._
+
+    MOTHER'S RECOMPENSE.--"'The Mother's Recompense' forms a
+    fitting close to its predecessor, 'Home Influence'. The results
+    of maternal care are fully developed, its rich rewards are set
+    forth, and its lesson and its moral are powerfully
+    enforced."--_Morning Post._
+
+    WOMAN'S FRIENDSHIP.--"We congratulate Miss Aguilar on the
+    spirit, motive, and composition of this story. Her aims are
+    eminently moral, and her cause comes recommended by the most
+    beautiful associations. These, connected with the skill here
+    evinced in their development, ensure the success of her
+    labours."--_Illustrated News._
+
+    VALE OF CEDARS.--"The Authoress of this most fascinating
+    volume has selected for her field one of the most remarkable
+    eras in modern history--the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella....
+    It is marked by much power of description, and by a woman's
+    delicacy of touch, and it will add to its writer's well-earned
+    reputation."--_Eclectic Review._
+
+    DAYS OF BRUCE.--"The tale is well told, the interest warmly
+    sustained throughout, and the delineation of female character is
+    marked by a delicate sense of moral beauty. It is a work that
+    may be confided to the hands of a daughter by her
+    parent."--_Court Journal._
+
+    HOME SCENES.--"Grace Aguilar knew the female heart better than
+    any writer of our day, and in every fiction from her pen we
+    trace the same masterly analysis and development of the motives
+    and feelings of woman's nature."--_Critic._
+
+    WOMEN OF ISRAEL.--"A work that is sufficient of itself to
+    create and crown a reputation."--_Mrs. S. C. Hall._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+_SHILLING GIFT BOOKS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE._
+
+
+Each Book sent Post Free for 12 Stamps.
+
+
+UNION JACK; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY MRS. S. C. HALL.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "Mrs. Hall has written a charming story. The scene is laid in
+    Ireland. The characters are for the most part Irish, and the
+    name of the tale is 'Union Jack.' It is written with much
+    simplicity, and is calculated to amuse men and women as well as
+    children, for whom it is professedly written."--_Western Daily
+    Mercury._
+
+
+THE TOWN OF TOYS; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY SARA WOOD.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "One of the best of the series; the narrative is clearly and
+    concisely written, the subject matter is good, and above all it
+    is replete with that sustained interest, without which
+    children's stories become worse than useless."--_English
+    Churchman._
+
+
+NO MAN'S LAND; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY T. MILLER.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "A series of very amusing and instructive tales for children,
+    written by a talented author."--_Brighton Gazette._
+
+
+THE SEA SPLEENWORT; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE HEIR OF REDCLYFFE."
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "A capital little book for children, both amusing and
+    instructive."--_Liverpool Daily Post._
+
+
+LOTTIE'S HALF-SOVEREIGN; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY MRS. RUSSELL GRAY.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "The story before us is a most delightful one, and such as may
+    be placed in the hands of any child with the utmost
+    confidence."--_Hull Advertiser._
+
+
+THE SHEPHERD LORD; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY JULIA CORNER.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "We cannot imagine a better book for children educated at home;
+    it combines the fascination of romance with the truth of
+    history, and will be eagerly devoured by the youth of both
+    sexes."--_Somerset County Herald._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
+
+
+THE CAPTIVE'S DAUGHTER; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY W. HEARD HILLYARD.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "If one were asked to select a series of stories most suitable
+    for presents to children, and affording real pleasure in their
+    perusal to 'children of a larger growth,' very few would
+    hesitate to name this series as the very first and best of the
+    class."--_Coventry Herald._
+
+
+THE ORPHANS OF ELFHOLM; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY FRANCES BROWNE.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "A book to be prized by the young, for its several tales are
+    well written and full of touching interest."--_City Press._
+
+
+WHEN WE WERE YOUNG; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY THE AUTHOR OF "A TRAP TO CATCH A SUNBEAM."
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "The precept of moral courage which it inculcates, coupled with
+    its excellent tone throughout, stamps it at once as being of the
+    right sort."--_English Churchman._
+
+
+NOT CLEVER; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY FRANCES M. WILBRAHAM.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "Pure in tone, full of interest, well got up, and
+    cheap."--_Hereford Times._
+
+
+DEAR CHARLOTTE'S BOYS; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY EMILY TAYLOR.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "We are glad to receive a volume of these pretty stories. There
+    is something refreshing in them, scarcely to be found in any
+    other publication."--_City Press._
+
+
+THE STORY OF NELSON; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY W. H. G. KINGSTON.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "Mr. Kingston, with great skill, brings out the stirring events
+    of the great Admiral's life from the lips of an old Greenwich
+    pensioner. The story is told with all the enthusiasm of a true
+    'Salt,' and has the further merit of capital descriptive
+    writing."--_Plymouth Journal._
+
+
+BLIND URSULA; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY MRS. WEBB.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "A domestic tale of humble life, which will well repay perusal.
+    There is an excellent tone, moral and religious, throughout the
+    narrative."--_Leeds Intelligencer._
+
+
+SEA-SHELL ISLAND; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY G. E. SARGENT.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "An exceeding pretty story."--_Somersetshire County Herald._
+
+
+WHICH WAS THE BRAVEST? AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY L. A. HALL.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "A tale of the Christmas holidays on the banks of the Shannon,
+    intended to show, by the conduct of a party of young people,
+    that rashness and disobedience are no proofs of courage. It
+    should be widely spread, for the spirit of the little book is
+    excellent. The engravings are appropriate and
+    pleasing."--_Plymouth Journal._
+
+
+THE CLOCKMAKER OF LYONS; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY E. M. PIPER.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "An interesting tale, forming one of Messrs. Groombridge's
+    Series of Gift Books, and by no means the worst of the
+    series."--_Cheltenham Journal._
+
+
+THE ANGEL UNAWARES; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY MARY HOWITT.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "A pretty story of kindness rewarded by success. Tho principal
+    actors are children, and the teaching of the story, while it is
+    full of point for older learners, is adapted especially to the
+    capacity of youth."--_Plymouth and Devonport Journal._
+
+
+HISTORICAL DRAMAS.
+
+BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE HEIR OF REDCLYFFE."
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "Combines amusement with instruction in a way that must please
+    the rising generation."--_Renfrewshire Independent._
+
+
+LOST IN THE WOOD; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY MRS. GILCHRIST.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "Perfectly healthy in tone, and highly interesting, these tales
+    are indeed most suitable for family reading."--_Gloucester
+    Mercury._
+
+
+RAINBOW'S REST; AND OTHER STORIES.
+
+BY THOMAS HOOD.
+
+Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1_s._
+
+    "These are excellent stories for children, and nicely got up and
+    illustrated."--_Paisley Herald._
+
+A COMPLETE SET OF THE TWENTY VOLUMES, VIZ.:--
+
+  UNION JACK. By Mrs. S. C. HALL.
+  TOWN OF TOYS. By SARA WOOD.
+  NO MAN'S LAND. By T. MILLER.
+  SEA SPLEENWORT. By Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe."
+  LOTTIE'S HALF-SOVEREIGN. By Mrs. RUSSELL GRAY.
+  THE SHEPHERD LORD. By JULIA CORNER.
+  THE CAPTIVE'S DAUGHTER. By W. HEARD HILLYARD.
+  THE ORPHANS OF ELFHOLM. By FRANCES BROWNE.
+  WHEN WE WERE YOUNG. By Author of "A Trap to Catch a Sunbeam."
+  NOT CLEVER. By FRANCES M. WILBRAHAM.
+  DEAR CHARLOTTE'S BOYS. By EMILY TAYLOR.
+  STORY OF NELSON. By W. H. G. KINGSTON.
+  BLIND URSULA. By Mrs. WEBB.
+  SEA-SHELL ISLAND. By G. E. SARGENT.
+  WHICH WAS THE BRAVEST? By L. A. HALL.
+  THE CLOCKMAKER OF LYONS. By E. M. PIPER.
+  THE ANGEL UNAWARES. By MARY HOWITT.
+  HISTORICAL DRAMAS. By Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe."
+  LOST IN THE WOOD. By Mrs. GILCHRIST.
+  RAINBOW'S REST. By THOMAS HOOD.
+
+Enclosed in a Box, 20s.
+
+    "We have read most of them with great care, for we are very
+    watchful over books for the young, and can assure our readers
+    they are well worth a mother's attention. They vary in interest
+    and in moral value, but all of them are calculated both to amuse
+    and instruct. Some convey valuable historical information,
+    others lessons in natural history, and most of them convey a
+    healthy moral influence. All are subservient to religion as well
+    as morals, but they are not tinctured with any _ism_, nor do
+    they inculcate any peculiar tenets."--_British Mothers'
+    Journal._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+GROOMBRIDGE'S SHILLING PRACTICAL MANUALS.
+
+_Each Book sent post-free on receipt of the price._
+
+
+    1. HOME-MADE WINES. How to Make and Keep them, with remarks on
+        preparing the fruit, fining, bottling, and storing. By G. VINE.
+        Contains Apple, Apricot, Beer, Bilberry, Blackberry, Cherry,
+        Clary, Cowslip, Currant, Damson, Elderberry, Gooseberry, Ginger,
+        Grape, Greengage, Lemon, Malt, Mixed Fruit, Mulberry, Orange,
+        Parsnip, Raspberry, Rhubarb, Raisin, Sloe, Strawberry, Turnip,
+        Vine Leaf, and Mead.
+
+    2. CARVING MADE EASY; or, Practical Instructions for Diners
+        Out. Illustrated with Engravings of Fish, Flesh, and Fowl, and
+        appropriate instructions, whereby a complete and skilful
+        knowledge of the useful art of Carving may be attained, and the
+        usages of the Dinner Table duly observed. By A. MERRYTHOUGHT.
+
+    3. COTTAGE COOKERY. Containing Simple Instructions upon Money,
+        Time, Management of Provisions, Firing, Utensils, Choice of
+        Provisions, Modes of Cooking, Stews, Soups, Broths, Puddings,
+        Pies, Fat, Pastry, Vegetables, Modes of Dressing Meat, Bread,
+        Cakes, Buns, Salting or Curing Meat, Frugality and Cheap
+        Cookery, Charitable Cookery, Cookery for the Sick and Young
+        Children. By ESTHER COPLEY.
+
+    4. COTTAGE FARMING; or, How to Cultivate from Two to Twenty
+        Acres, including the Management of Cows, Pigs, and Poultry. By
+        MARTIN DOYLE. Contains, On Enclosing a Farm, Land Drainage,
+        Manures, Management of a Two-acre Farm, Cow Keeping, The Dairy,
+        Pig Keeping, Bees and Poultry, Management of a Ten-acre Farm,
+        Flax and Rape, Management of a Farm of Twenty Acres, Farm
+        Buildings, etc.
+
+    5. SINGING MADE EASIER FOR AMATEURS, explaining the pure
+        Italian Method of Producing and Cultivating the Voice; the
+        Management of the Breath; the best way of Improving the Ear;
+        with much other valuable information equally valuable to
+        Professional Singers and Amateurs.
+
+    6. MARKET GARDENING, giving in detail the various methods
+        adopted by Gardeners in growing the Strawberry, Rhubarb,
+        Filberts, Early Potatoes, Asparagus, Sea Kale, Cabbages,
+        Cauliflowers, Celery, Beans, Peas, Brussels Sprouts, Spinach,
+        Radishes, Lettuce, Onions, Carrots, Turnips, Water Cress, etc.
+        By JAMES CUTHILL, F.R.H.S.
+
+    7. CLERK'S DICTIONARY OF COMMERCIAL TERMS; containing
+        Explanations of upwards of Three Hundred Terms used in Business
+        and Merchants' Offices. By the Author of "Common Blunders in
+        Speaking and Writing Corrected."
+
+        "An indispensable book for all young men entering a
+        counting-house for the first time."
+
+    8. THE CAT, Its History and Diseases, with Method of
+        Administering Medicine. By the Honourable LADY CUST.
+
+    9. ELOCUTION MADE EASY for Clergymen, Public Speakers, and
+        Readers, Lecturers, Actors, Theatrical Amateurs, and all who
+        wish to speak well and effectively in Public or Private. By
+        CHARLES HARTLEY. Contents: Cultivation of the Speaking Voice,
+        Management of the Voice, Pausing, Taking Breath, Pitch,
+        Articulation, Pronunciation, The Aspirate, The Letter R,
+        Emphasis, Tone, Movement, Feeling and Passion, Verse, Scriptural
+        Reading, Stammering and Stuttering, Action, Acting, Reciting,
+        etc.
+
+    10. ORATORY MADE EASY. A Guide to the Composition of Speeches.
+        By CHARLES HARTLEY. Contents: Introduction, Power of Art,
+        Various Kinds of Oratory, Prepared Speech, Constructing a
+        Speech, Short Speeches, Command of Language, Reading and
+        Thinking, Style, Hasty Composition, Forming a Style, Copiousness
+        and Conciseness, Diction or Language, Purity and Propriety,
+        Misapplied Words, Monosyllables, Specific Terms, Variety of
+        Language, Too Great Care about Words, Epithets, Precision,
+        Synonymes, Perspicuity, Long and Short Sentences, Tropes and
+        Figures, Metaphor, Simile, etc.
+
+    11. THE GRAMMATICAL REMEMBRANCER; or, Aids for correct
+        Speaking, Writing, and Spelling, for Adults. By CHARLES HARTLEY.
+        Contents: Introduction, Neglect of English Grammar, Divisions of
+        Grammar, Parts of Speech, The Article, The Silent H, Nouns,
+        Formation of the Plural, Genders of Nouns, Cases of Nouns,
+        Comparison of Adjectives, Personal Pronouns, Relative Pronouns,
+        Demonstrative Pronouns, Regular and Irregular Verbs, Shall and
+        Will, The Adverb, Misapplication of Words, Division of Words,
+        Capital Letters, Rules for Spelling, Double _l_ and _p_, A Short
+        Syntax, Punctuation, etc.
+
+    12. THE CANARY. Its History, Varieties, Management, and
+        Breeding, with Coloured Frontispiece. By RICHARD AVIS. Contains,
+        History of the Canary, Varieties of the Canary, Food and General
+        Management, Cages, Breeding, Education of the Young, Mules,
+        Diseases, etc.
+
+    13. BIRD PRESERVING and Bird Mounting, and the Preservation of
+        Birds' Eggs, with a Chapter on Bird Catching. By RICHARD AVIS.
+
+    14. WINE GUIDE; or, Practical Hints on the Purchase and
+        Management of Foreign Wines, their History, and a complete
+        catalogue of all those in present use, together with remarks
+        upon the treatment of Spirits, Bottled Beer, and Cider. To which
+        is appended Instructions for the Cellar, and other information
+        valuable to the Consumer as well as the Dealer. By FREDERICK C.
+        MILLS.
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
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+THE PROMINENT FEATURES OF RECREATIVE SCIENCE.
+
+    APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE, including Photography and the
+    Stereoscope, Electro-Metallurgy, etc., with all their minute and
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+
+    ESSAYS ON THE RESULT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, as witnessed by the
+    civilization of the Nineteenth Century, which derives so much of
+    its strength and moral excellence from the STEAM-ENGINE, the
+    ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, and other applications of scientific
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+
+    BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT SCIENTIFIC MEN AND ANALYSIS OF OLD AND
+    NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
+
+    ILLUSTRATIONS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA and Diagrams of Optical,
+    Mechanical, and other principles as required by the subject
+    matter of the papers published in the work.
+
+    NATURAL HISTORY occupies a prominent position among the various
+    subjects dealt with, including HOME RECREATIONS, of which the
+    love of Nature may be said to be the basis. The Management of
+    Collections of Living Animals, the Preparation of Specimens by
+    Taxidermy, and the arrangement of Cabinets of Insects, Birds,
+    Shells, Plants, etc., etc.
+
+    EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY AND RECREATIONS IN CHEMISTRY are
+    introduced with a view to explain principles and give a zest to
+    study.
+
+    RECREATIVE SCIENCE is in all respects popular in tone and
+    attractive in its subjects. It is compiled by writers of the
+    highest eminence in the several departments of Scientific
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+    and Intellectual Progress. An Instructor in First Principles,
+    and an Exhibitor of the Accomplishments of Research.
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully
+coloured full-page Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
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+THE MICROSCOPE
+
+A Popular Description of some of the most Beautiful and Instructive
+Objects for Exhibition.
+
+With Directions for the Arrangement of the Instruments and the
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+
+BY THE HON. MRS. WARD.
+
+    "This elegant book deserves at our hands especial commendation
+    for many reasons. There is no book that we know of that we would
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+    interest in the science of Microscopy. The Illustrations are
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+    outlay."--_Electrician._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
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+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 12 beautifully
+coloured full-page Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
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+THE TELESCOPE A FAMILIAR SKETCH
+
+COMBINING A SPECIAL NOTICE OF OBJECTS COMING WITHIN THE RANGE OF A SMALL
+TELESCOPE
+
+With a Detail of the most Interesting Discoveries which have been made
+with the assistance of powerful Telescopes, concerning the Phenomena
+of the Heavenly Bodies.
+
+BY THE HON. MRS. WARD.
+
+    "It is with pleasure that we direct the reader's attention to a
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+BY THE REV. W. HOUGHTON, M.A., F.L.S.
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+    rarely issued from the press."--_Art Journal._
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+    "Contrives to furnish a large amount of interesting natural
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+    condensed into a small compass."--_Land and Water._
+
+    "This pretty little volume forms one of the best little books on
+    popular Natural History, and is admirably adapted as a present
+    to the young"--_Birmingham Daily Journal._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
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+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully
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+SEA-SIDE WALKS OF A NATURALIST WITH HIS CHILDREN.
+
+BY THE REV. W. HOUGHTON, M.A., F.L.S.
+
+    "The wonders of the sea-shore are detailed in an easy, pleasant
+    and lucid style."--_Examiner._
+
+    "The book is very attractive, and its usefulness is enhanced by
+    its many careful illustrations."--_Daily Telegraph._
+
+    "Families visiting the sea-side should provide themselves with
+    this convenient and instructive work."--_The Queen._
+
+    "It is pleasingly written, and the scientific information is
+    correct and well selected."--_Athenæum._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully
+coloured full-page Plates and 90 Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
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+
+FIELD FLOWERS A HANDY BOOK FOR THE RAMBLING BOTANIST, SUGGESTING WHAT TO
+LOOK FOR AND WHERE TO GO IN THE OUTDOOR STUDY OF BRITISH PLANTS.
+
+BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD, F.R.H.S.
+
+    "It will serve as an excellent introduction to the practical
+    study of wild flowers."--_The Queen._
+
+    "We cannot praise too highly the illustrations which crowd the
+    pages of this handbook; the coloured plates are especially
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+    most prominent flowers of the field, the heaths, and the
+    hedgerows."--_Examiner._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, illustrated with 8 beautifully
+coloured Plates and 40 Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
+
+
+THE FERN GARDEN HOW TO MAKE, KEEP, AND ENJOY IT OR, FERN CULTURE MADE
+EASY.
+
+BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD, F.R.H.S.
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  FERNS IN GENERAL
+  FERN COLLECTING
+  HOW TO FORM AN OUTDOOR FERNERY
+  CULTIVATION OF ROCK FERNS
+  CULTIVATION OF MARSH FERNS
+  FERNS IN POTS
+  THE FERN HOUSE
+  THE FERNERY AT THE FIRESIDE
+  MANAGEMENT OF FERN CASES
+  THE ART OF MULTIPLYING FERNS
+  BRITISH FERNS
+  CULTIVATION OF GREENHOUSE
+  STOVE FERNS
+  SELECT GREENHOUSE FERNS
+  SELECT STOVE FERNS
+  TREE FERNS
+  FERN ALLIES
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 12 beautifully
+coloured Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
+
+
+THE CANARY
+
+ITS VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, AND BREEDING WITH PORTRAITS OF THE AUTHOR'S
+OWN BIRDS.
+
+BY THE REV. FRANCIS SMITH.
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  A PLEA FOR THE CANARY
+  ORIGIN OF OUR OWN CANARIA
+  THE WILD CANARY
+  OUR LIZARDS
+  OUR YORKSHIRE SPANGLES
+  OUR NORWICH YELLOWS
+  OUR LONDON FANCY BIRDS
+  OUR BELGIANS
+  OUR GREEN BIRDS
+  OUR CINNAMONS
+  OUR TURNCRESTS
+  THE DOMINIE AND THE GERMANS
+  PREPARATIONS FOR BREEDING
+  NEST BOXES AND NESTS
+  OUR FIRST BIRDS
+  OUR MISFORTUNES
+  OUR INFIRMARY
+  ON CAGES
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Post 8vo, cloth gilt, with Woodcut Illustrations, price 5s.
+
+
+THE ROSE BOOK A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE ROSE.
+
+COMPRISING
+
+    The Formation of the Rosarium; the Characters of Species and
+    Varieties; Modes of Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training,
+    and Preparing for Exhibition; and the Management of Roses in all
+    Seasons.
+
+BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD, F.R.H.S.
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  THE FAMILIES OF WILD ROSES
+  THE FAMILIES OF CULTIVATED ROSES
+  SUMMER ROSES
+  FORMING THE ROSARIUM
+  CULTURE OF ROSES IN THE OPEN GROUND
+  AUTUMN PLANTING
+  SPRING PLANTING
+  PRUNING, DISBUDDING, AND SEASONAL MANAGEMENT
+  CLIMBING ROSES
+  PILLAR ROSES
+  YELLOW ROSES
+  ROSES IN POTS
+  ROSES IN BEDS
+  ROSES IN GREAT TOWNS
+  TEA ROSES IN TOWNS
+  VARIOUS MODES OF PROPAGATING
+  SELECT LISTS OF ROSES
+  REMINDERS OF MONTHLY WORK IN ROSE GARDEN
+  HINTS TO BEGINNERS
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS FOR YOUNG NATURALISTS
+
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 16 beautifully
+coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 5s.
+
+
+NESTS AND EGGS OF FAMILIAR BIRDS.
+
+Described and Illustrated with an account of the Haunts and Habits of
+the Feathered Architects, and their Times and Modes of Building.
+
+BY H. G. ADAMS.
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully
+coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
+
+
+BEAUTIFUL BUTTERFLIES DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED.
+
+    With an Introductory chapter, containing the History of a
+    Butterfly through all its Changes and Transformations. A
+    Description of its Structure in the Larva, Pupa, and Imago
+    states, with an Explanation of the scientific terms used by
+    Naturalists in reference thereto, with observations upon the
+    Poetical and other associations of the Insect.
+
+BY H. G. ADAMS.
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully
+coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
+
+
+BEAUTIFUL SHELLS THEIR NATURE, STRUCTURE, AND USES FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED.
+
+With Directions for Collecting, Clearing and Arranging them in the
+Cabinet.
+
+Descriptions of the most remarkable Species, and of the creatures
+which inhabit them, and explanations of the meaning of their scientific
+names, and of the terms used in Conchology.
+
+BY H. G. ADAMS.
+
+GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully
+coloured Plates and Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
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+HUMMING BIRDS, DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED.
+
+With an introductory Sketch of their Structure, Plumage, Haunts, Habits,
+etc.
+
+BY H. G. ADAMS.
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+
+NEW EDITION OF THE WORKS OF ANNA LISLE.
+
+This elegant edition, large crown 8vo, is handsomely bound in cloth,
+gilt edges, suitable for presentation, and Illustrated by the leading
+artists of the day.
+
+In One Volume, large crown 8vo, Illustrated, price 6s.
+
+
+SELF AND SELF-SACRIFICE OR, NELLY'S STORY.
+
+BY ANNA LISLE.
+
+    "A very beautiful story, with characters well drawn, scenery
+    vividly described, and interest admirably sustained. The
+    tendency of the volume is not only unexceptionable, but
+    excellent in a Christian point of view. We have seldom seen a
+    book in which the best and highest aim is so manifest without
+    the attractiveness of the tale being at all lessened by the
+    embodiment of religious principles."--_Eclectic Review._
+
+    "The story is so delightful, and the whole spirit of the book so
+    pure, that it compels our admiration."--_Daily News._
+
+    "Since 'Currer Bell' we have read nothing more genuine, nor more
+    touching. 'Nelly's Story' has power to carry the reader right
+    through with it, and can hardly fail to impress a moral of
+    inestimable importance."--_Carlisle Journal._
+
+    "Admirably written, pervaded throughout by fine, correct, and
+    wholesome sentiments."--_Morning Post._
+
+    "Its excellent moral tone, and keen observation, are sure to
+    render the book widely popular."--_John Bull._
+
+    "'Nelly's Story' is a good one. It is one of the best we have
+    read for a long time."--_Bucks Advertiser._
+
+    "Abounding in interest. We can hardly conceive a more suitable
+    gift-book."--_Lady's Newspaper._
+
+    "Will be welcomed, read, and talked about."--_Gentleman's
+    Magazine._
+
+    "'Nelly's Story' is told in such a good and pleasant way, and
+    withal is so useful and world-like, that we trust it may bring
+    to its authoress the fame that she is well able to
+    support."--_Tait's Magazine._
+
+    "We recognise and proclaim in the authoress of this thrilling
+    tale a quality beyond mere ability--genius of a very high order.
+    We claim for Anna Lisle a place amongst the most distinguished
+    writers of her age. The story is a brilliant effort of refined
+    and sanctified imagination throughout, quite as fascinating as
+    anything in the way of story, whether told by Scott, Stowe,
+    Dickens, or Currer Bell."--_Sentinel._
+
+In One Volume, large crown 8vo, Illustrated, price 5s.
+
+
+QUICKSANDS A TALE.
+
+BY ANNA LISLE.
+
+    "It is a thoroughly woman's book. We can fairly say that we have
+    seldom met with a graver or more striking warning against the
+    consequences of over eagerness about worldly position and
+    advantages, more forcibly and, at the same time, gracefully
+    conveyed."--_Literary Gazette._
+
+    "Contains a great deal of quiet and powerful writing. Marty, the
+    maid of Mrs. Grey, might pass for a creation of Dickens. The
+    moral of 'Quicksands' is at once comprehensive and
+    striking."--_Weekly Mail._
+
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+Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 full-page Wood Engravings,
+price 2s. 6d.
+
+
+INVENTION AND DISCOVERY A COLLECTION OF INTERESTING ANECDOTES.
+
+BY RALPH AND CHANDOS TEMPLE.
+
+    "Has a point and object, and a good one--nicely worked
+    out."--_Saturday Review._
+
+    "We can recommend this book as a Christmas present, and one
+    which has given us no small pleasure."--_Literary Churchman._
+
+    "Exceedingly well-timed. A volume which should be added to every
+    working-man's club in England."--Notes and Queries.
+
+    "Exhibits a conscientious regard for accuracy."--_Athenæum._
+
+    "The tendency is to instil the principle of self-help and the
+    advantage of earnest purpose."--_Bell's Messenger._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 full-page Wood Engravings,
+price 2s. 6d.
+
+
+ENTERPRISE AND ADVENTURE A COLLECTION OF INTERESTING ANECDOTES.
+
+BY RALPH AND CHANDOS TEMPLE.
+
+    "Very handsomely got up. The 'Temple Anecdotes' will be one of
+    the most popular of Christmas books."--_Standard._
+
+    "A sensible, well-written book."--_Globe._
+
+    "We know of no work which will make a more acceptable present
+    than this extremely handsome and really useful book."--_Era._
+
+    "As a present for boys, nothing can be better."--_Daily News._
+
+    "The anecdotes are told with a clearness and simplicity that
+    cannot fail to give pleasure."--_Spectator._
+
+GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Marvels of Pond-life, by Henry J. Slack
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