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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:06:45 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:06:45 -0700 |
| commit | 19ae9f1a8903ae34c36f428c6aa905f1291b9624 (patch) | |
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diff --git a/36903-h/36903-h.htm b/36903-h/36903-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..80ee199 --- /dev/null +++ b/36903-h/36903-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6506 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"> + +<html> + +<head> + + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=us-ascii"> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Marvels Of Pond-life, by Henry J. Slack. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + blockquote { + text-align:justify; + } + + body { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + } + + #booktitle { + letter-spacing:3px; + } + + .figcenter { + padding:1em; + text-align:center; + font-size:0.8em; + border:none; + margin:auto; + text-indent:1em; + } + + .footnote { + font-size:0.9em; + margin-right:10%; + margin-left:10%; + } + + .footnote .label { + position:absolute; + right:84%; + text-align:right; + } + + .fnanchor { + vertical-align:super; + font-size:.8em; + text-decoration: + none; + } + + .h1 { + font-size:2em; + margin:.67em 0; + } + + .h1, + .h2, + .h3, + .h4, + .h5, + .h6 { + font-weight:bolder; + text-align:center; + text-indent:0; + } + + h1, + h2, + h3, + h4, + h5, + h6, + hr { + text-align:center; + } + + .h2 { + font-size:1.5em; + margin:.75em 0; + } + + .h3 { + font-size:1.17em; + margin:.83em 0; + } + + .h4 { + margin:1.12em 0 ; + } + + .h5 { + font-size:.83em; + margin:1.5em 0 ; + } + + h5 { + margin-bottom:1%; + margin-top:1%; + } + + .h6 { + font-size:.75em; + margin:1.67em 0; + } + + hr { + margin-right:25%; + margin-left:25%; + width:50%; + } + + hr.chapter { + margin-top:6em; + margin-bottom:4em; + } + + hr.thin { + margin-right:auto; + margin-left:auto; + margin-top:0%; + margin-bottom:0%; + width:15%; + } + + hr.advert { + margin-right:auto; + margin-left:auto; + margin-top:0%; + margin-bottom:0%; + width:45%; + } + + img.dropimg { + float: left; + margin-left : .4em; + margin-top : -.2em; + margin-right: .5em; + margin-bottom: 0; + border : 0; + } + + p.minus { + text-indent:-5px + } + + p { + text-align:justify; + margin-top:.7em; + margin-bottom:.7em; + text-indent:0; + } + + p.caption { + text-indent:0; + text-align:center; + font-weight:bold; + margin-bottom:2em; + } + + p.noin { + text-align : justify; + margin-top : .1em; + margin-bottom : .1em; + margin-right: 2em; + text-indent : 0; + } + + p.out { + text-align : justify; + margin-top : .1em; + margin-bottom : .1em; + margin-right: 2em; + text-indent : 0em; + } + + p.right { + text-align:right; + } + + p.spacer { + margin-top:2em; + margin-bottom:3em; + } + + .pagenum { +/* visibility:hidden; remove comment out to hide page numbers */ + position:absolute; + right:2%; + font-size:75%; + color:gray; + background-color:inherit; + text-align:right; + text-indent:0; + font-style:normal; + font-weight:normal; + font-variant:normal; + } + + .sc, + .smcap { + font-variant:small-caps; + } + + span.right { + float: right; + margin-right: -5em; + } + + .topbox { + margin-left:15%; + margin-right:15%; + margin-top:5%; + margin-bottom:5%; + padding:1em; + color:black; + border:2px solid black; + } + + </style> + +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Marvels of Pond-life, by Henry J. Slack + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Marvels of Pond-life + A Year's Microscopic Recreations + +Author: Henry J. Slack + +Release Date: July 30, 2011 [EBook #36903] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARVELS OF POND-LIFE *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_cover.jpg" width="400" height="608" alt="cover" title="Cover"> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;"> +<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="i002" title="frontispiece."> +</div> + +<h1 id="booktitle">MARVELS OF POND-LIFE</h1> + +<p class="h4">OR,</p> + +<p class="h3">A YEAR'S MICROSCOPIC RECREATIONS</p> + +<p class="h4">AMONG THE</p> +<p class="h3">POLYPS, INFUSORIA, ROTIFERS, WATER-BEARS,<br> +AND POLYZOA.</p> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<p class="h4">BY</p> + +<p class="h3">HENRY J. SLACK, F.G.S.,<br> +SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY;</p> + +<p class="h4">AUTHOR OF</p> +<p class="h4">'THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROGRESS IN HUMAN AFFAIRS,' ETC. ETC.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="h3"><i>SECOND EDITION.</i></p> + +<p class="h3">ILLUSTRATED WITH COLOURED PLATES AND NUMEROUS WOOD ENGRAVINGS.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="h3">LONDON:<br> +GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS,<br> +5, PATERNOSTER ROW.<br> +MDCCCLXXI.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="h4">PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD,<br> +BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.</p> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + +<p>As this little book is intended to be no more than an +introduction to an agreeable branch of microscopical study, +it is to be hoped it will not require a formal preface; but +a few words may be convenient to indicate its scope and +purpose.</p> + +<p>The common experience of all microscopists confirms the +assertion made by Dr. Goring, that the most fascinating +objects are living creatures of sufficient dimensions to be +easily understood with moderate magnification; and in no +way can objects of this description be so readily obtained, +as by devoting an occasional hour to the examination of the +little ponds which are accessible from almost any situation. +A complete volume of pond lore would not only be a bulky +book—much bigger than the aldermanic tomes which it is +the fashion to call "Manuals," although the great stone +fists in the British Museum would be required to grasp +them comfortably,—but its composition would overtask all +the philosophers of our day. In good truth, a tea-spoonful +of water from a prolific locality often contains a variety of +living forms, every one of which demands a profound +and patient study, if we would know but a few things +concerning it.</p> + +<p>To man, then, is a vast and a minute. Our minds ache +at the contemplation of astronomical immensities, and we +are apt to see the boundless only in prodigious masses,<span class="pagenum">[iv]</span> +countless numbers, and immeasurable spaces. The Creative +Mind knows no such limitations; and the microscope +shows us that, whether the field of nature's operation be +what to our apprehension is great or small, there is no +limit to the exhibition of marvellous skill. If the "undevout +astronomer" be "mad," the undevout microscopist +must be still more so, for if the matter be judged by human +sense, the skill is greater as the operation is more minute; +and not the sun itself, nor the central orb round which he +revolves, with all his attendant worlds, can furnish sublimer +objects of contemplation, than the miraculous assemblage of +forces which make up the life of the smallest creature that +the microscope reveals.</p> + +<p>There is an irresistible charm in the effort to trace +<i>beginnings</i> in nature. We know that we can never +succeed; that each discovery, which conducts back towards +some elementary law or principle, only indicates how much +still lies behind it: but the geologist nevertheless loves to +search out the first or oldest traces of life upon our globe; +and so the microscopist delights to view the simplest +exhibitions of structures and faculties, which reach their +completion in the frame and mind of man. That one great +plan runs through the whole universe is now an universally +accepted truth, and when applied to physiology and natural +history, it leads to most important results.</p> + +<p>The researches of recent philosophers have shown us +that nature cannot be understood by studying the parts of +animals with reference merely to their utility in the +economy of the creature to which they belong. We do, +indeed, find an admirable correspondence between structures +and the services they perform; but every object in +creation, and every part of it, is in harmonious relation to +some grand design, and exhibits a conformity to some +general mode of operation, or some general disposition and +direction of forces, which secures the existence of the<span class="pagenum">[v]</span> +individual or the species, and at the same time works out +the most majestic schemes. Microscopic researches, such +as are within the reach of millions, offer many of the most +beautiful illustrations of these truths; and although the +following pages are confined to such objects as are easily +obtainable from ponds, and relate almost exclusively to the +Infusoria, the Rotifers, the Polyps, and the Polyzoa, it is +hoped that they will assist in associating a few of the highly +suggestive reasonings of science, with one of the most +pleasurable recreations that human ingenuity has devised.</p> + +<p>After a preliminary chapter, which is intended to assist +the young microscopist in some technical matters, that +could not be conveniently introduced into the text, the +observations are distributed in chapters, corresponding with +the twelve calendar months. This arrangement was suggested +by the author's diary of operations for the year +1860, and although it by no means follows that the months +in which particular creatures were then discovered, will be +those in which they will be most readily found in other +years, it was thought advantageous to give a real account +of an actual period of microscopic work, and also that the +plan would facilitate a departure from the dry manner of a +technical treatise. The index will enable any one to use +the book for the purpose of reference, and it will be +observed that the first chapter in which any member of a +group of creatures is introduced, is that in which a general +description of the class is given. The illustrations are +taken from drawings made by the wife of the author from +the actual objects, with the exception of a few instances, in +which the authority is acknowledged. The sketches were +made <i>especially for beginners</i>, and the rule followed, was +not to introduce any details that could not be seen at +one focus, and with the simplest means: more elaborate +representations, though of the highest value to advanced +students, are bewildering at the commencement.<span class="pagenum">[vi]</span></p> + +<p>The ponds referred to are all either close to, or within a +moderate distance of, London;<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but similar objects will in +all probability be obtained from any ponds similarly +situated, and the descriptions and directions given for the +capture of the minute prey will be found generally applicable. +Care has been taken throughout to explain the most +convenient methods of examining the objects, and although +verbal descriptions are poor substitutes for the teachings of +experience, it is hoped that those here given will remove +some difficulties from a pursuit that no intelligent person +can enter upon without pleasure, or consent to abandon +when its elementary difficulties have been mastered, and +the boundless fields of discovery are opened to view. Let +not the novice be startled at the word "discovery." It is +true that few are likely to arrive at new principles or facts +which will inscribe their names upon the roll of fame; but +no one of ordinary powers can look at living objects with +any considerable perseverance, without seeing much that +has never been recorded, and which is nevertheless worthy +of note; and when the mind, by its own exertions, first +arrives at a knowledge of new truth, an emotion is felt +akin to that which more than recompenses the profoundest +philosopher for all his toil.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Many are now (1871) destroyed by the progress of building.<span class="pagenum">[vii]</span></p></div> + +<br> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="150" height="14" alt="i008" title=""> +</div> +<br> + +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<hr class="thin"> + +<p class="h4"> +CHAPTER I.<br> +<br> +MICROSCOPES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.</p> +<br> +<p class="out"><span class="right">PAGE</span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="out">Powers that are most serviceable—Estimated by Focal +length—Length of Body of Microscope and its Effects—Popular +Errors about Great Magnification—Modes of +Stating Magnifying Power—use of an "Erector"—Power +of various Objectives with different Eye-pieces—Examination +of Surface Markings—Methods of Illumination—Direct +and Oblique Light—Stage Aperture—Dark-ground +Illumination—Mode of Softening Light—Microscope +Lamps—Care of the Eyes<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER II.<br> +<br> +JANUARY.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Visit to the Ponds—Confervæ—Spirogyra quinina—Vorticella—Common +Rotifer—Three Divisions of Infusoria—Phytozoa—Protozoa—Rotifera—Tardigrada—Meaning +of these Terms—Euglenæ—Distinction between Animals +and Vegetables—Description of Vorticellæ—Dark-ground +Illumination—Modes of producing it—The +<span class="pagenum">[viii]</span>Nucleus of the Vorticella—Methods of Reproduction—Ciliated +Protozoa—Wheel-bearers or Rotifers—Their +Structure—The Common Rotifer—The young Rotifer +seen inside the old one—an Internal Nursery—"Differentiation" +and "Specialization"—Bisexuality of Rotifers—Their +Zoological Position—Diversities in their +Appearance—Structure of their Gizzard—Description of +Rotifers<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">10</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER III.<br> +<br> +FEBRUARY.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Visit to Hampstead—Small ponds—Water-Fleas—Water-Beetle—Snails—Polyps—Hydra +viridis—The Dipping-tube—A +Glass Cell—The Hydra and its Prey—Chydorus +Sphæricus and Canthocamptus, or Friends and +their Escapes—Cothurnia—Polyp Buds—Catching +Polyps—Mode of Viewing Them—Structure of Polyps—Sarcode—Polyps +Stimulated by Light—Are they Conscious?—Tentacles +and Poison Threads—Paramecium—Trachelius—Motions +of Animalcules, whether Automatic +or directed by a Will—Their Restless Character<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">30</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER IV.</p> + +<p class="h3">MARCH.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Paramecia—Effects of Sunlight—Pterodina patina—Curious +Tail—Use of a Compressorium—Internal Structure +of Pterodina—Metopidia—Trichodina pediculus—Cothurnia—Salpina—Its +Three-sided Box—Protrusion of +its Gizzard Mouth<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">43</a></span></p> +<span class="pagenum">[ix]</span> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER V.<br> +<br> +APRIL.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">The Beautiful Floscule—Mode of Seeking for Tubicolar +Rotifers—Mode of Illuminating the Floscule—Difficulty +of seeing the Transparent Tube—Protrusion of Long +Hairs—Lobes—Gizzard—Hairy Lobes of Floscule not +Rotatory Organs—Glass Troughs—Their Construction +and Use—Movement of Globules in Lobes of Floscule—Chætonotus +larus—Its mode of Swimming—Coleps +hirtus—Devourer of Dead Entomostraca—Dead Rotifer +and Vibriones—Theories of Fermentation and Putrefaction—Euplotes +and Stylonichia—Fecundity of Stylonichia<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">54</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER VI.<br> +<br> +MAY.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Floscularia cornuta—Euchlanis triquetra—Melicerta ringens—Its +Powers as Brickmaker, Architect, and Mason—Mode +of Viewing the Melicerta—Use of Glass Cell—Habits +of Melicerta—Curious Attitudes—Leave their +Tubes at Death—Carchesium—Epistylis—Their Elegant +Tree Forms—A Parasytic Epistylis like the "Old +Man of the Sea"—Halteria and its Leaps—Aspidisca +lynceus<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">69</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER VII.<br> +<br> +JUNE AND JULY.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Lindia torulosa—Œcistes crystallinus—A Professor of +Deportment on Stilts—Philodina—Changes of Form +<span class="pagenum">[x]</span>and Habits—Structure of Gizzard in Philodina Family—Mr. +Gosse's Description—Motions of Rotifers—Indications +of a Will—Remarks on the Motions of Lower +Creatures—Various Theories—Possibility of Reason—Reflex +Actions—Brain of Insects—Consensual Actions—Applications +of Physiological Reasoning to the Movements +of Rotifers and Animalcules<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">76</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER VIII.<br> +<br> +AUGUST.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Mud Coloured by Worms—Their Retreat at Alarm—A +Country Duck-Pond—Contents of its Scum—Cryptomonads—Their +Means of Locomotion—A Triarthra +(Three-limbed Rotifer)—The Brachion or Pitcher Rotifer—Its +Striking Form—Enormous Gizzard—Ciliary +Motion inside this Creature—Large Eye and Brain—Powerful +Tail—Its Functions—Eggs<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">86</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER IX.<br> +<br> +SEPTEMBER.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Microscopic Value of Little Pools—Curious Facts in Appearance +and Disappearance of Animalcules and Rotifers—Mode +of Preserving them in a Glass Jar—Fragments +of Melicerta Tube—Peculiar Shape of Pellets—Amphileptus—Scaridium +longicaudum—A Long-tailed +Rotifer—Stephanoceros Eichornii—A Splendid Rotifer—Its +Gelatinous Bottle—Its Crown of Tentacles—Retreats +on Alarm—Illumination Requisite to see its +Beauties—Its Greediness—Richly-coloured Food—Nervous +Ganglia<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">97</a></span></p> +<span class="pagenum">[xi]</span> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER X.<br> +<br> +OCTOBER.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Stentors and Stephanoceri—Description of Stentors—Mode +of viewing them—Their Abundance—Social +Habits—Solitary Stentors living in Gelatinous Caves—Propagation +by Divers Modes—Cephalosiphon limnias—A +Group of Vaginicolæ—Changes of Shape—A Bubble-blowing +Vorticella<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">107</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER XI.<br> +<br> +NOVEMBER.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Characteristics of the Polyzoa—Details of Structure according +to Allman—Plumatella repens—Its Great +Beauty under proper Illumination—Its Tentacles and +their Cilia—The Mouth and its Guard or Epistome—Intestinal +Tube—How it swallowed a Rotifer, and what +happened—Curiosities of Digestion—Are the Tentacles +capable of Stinging?—Resting Eggs, or "Statoblasts"—Tube +of Plumatella—Its Muscular Fibres—Physiological +Importance of their Structure<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">118</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER XII.<br> +<br> +DECEMBER.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out">Microscopic Hunting in Winter—Water-Bears, or Tardigrada—Their +Comical Behaviour—Mode of viewing +them—Singular Gizzard—Wenham's Compressorium—Achromatic +Condenser—Mouth of the Water-Bear—Water-Bears' +Exposure to Heat—Soluble Albumen—Physiological +and Chemical Reasons why they are not +<span class="pagenum">[xii]</span>killed by Heating or Drying—The Trachelius ovum—Mode +of Swimming—Method of Viewing—By Dark-ground +Illumination—Curious Digestive Tube with +Branches—Multiplication by Division—Change of Form +immediately following this Process—subsequent Appearances<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">128</a></span></p> + +<br> +<br> + +<p class="h4">CHAPTER XIII.</p> + +<br> + +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span>—Remarks on Classification, &c.<span class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">140</a></span></p> + +<br> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="150" height="35" alt="i014" title=""> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[1]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<p class="h2">PLAIN HINTS ON MICROSCOPES AND THEIR +MANAGEMENT.</p> + +<p class="out">Powers that are most serviceable—Estimated by focal length—Length +of body of microscope and its effects—Popular errors about great +magnification—Modes of stating magnified power—Use of an +"Erector"—Power of various objectives with different eye-pieces—Examination +of surface markings—Methods of illumination—Direct +and oblique light—Stage aperture—Dark ground illumination—Mode +of softening light—Microscope lamps—Care of the eyes.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_015.jpg" width="90" height="91" alt="i015" title="T"> +<p class="minus"><b>HE</b> microscope is rapidly becoming the companion +of every intelligent family that can +afford its purchase, and, thanks to the skill of +our opticians, instruments which can be made to answer +the majority of purposes may be purchased for three +or four guineas, while even those whose price is counted +in shillings are by no means to be despised. The most +eminent English makers, Wales, and Tolles, in America, +and Hartnack, in Paris, occupy the first rank, while the +average productions of respectable houses exhibit so +high a degree of excellence as to make comparisons<span class="pagenum">[2]</span> +invidious. We shall not, therefore, indulge in the praises +of particular firms, but simply recommend any reader +entering upon microscopic study to procure an achromatic +instrument, if it can be afforded, and having at +least two powers, one with a focus of an inch or two +thirds of an inch, and the other of half or a quarter. +Cheap microscopes have usually only one eye-piece, +those of a better class have two, and the best are furnished +with three, or even more.</p> + +<p>The magnifying power of a compound microscope +depends upon the focal length of the object-glass (or +glass nearest the object), upon the length of the tube, +and the power of the eye-piece. With regard to object-glasses, +those of shortest focal length have the highest +powers, and the longest eye-pieces have the lowest +powers. The body of a microscope, or principal tube +of which it is composed, is, in the best instruments, +about nine inches long, and a draw tube, capable of +being extended six inches more, is frequently useful. +From simple optical principles, the longer the tube the +higher the power obtained with the same object-glass; +but only object-glasses of very perfect construction will +bear the enlargement of their own imperfections, which +results from the use of long tubes; and consequently for +cheap instruments the opticians often limit the length of +the tube, to suit the capacity of the object-glasses they +can afford to give for the money. Such microscopes +may be good enough for the generality of purposes, but +they do not, with glasses of given focal length, afford +the same magnifying power as is done by instruments +of better construction. The best and most expensive<span class="pagenum">[3]</span> +glasses will not only bear long tubes, but also eye-pieces +of high power, without any practical diminution of the +accuracy of their operation, and this is a great convenience +in natural history investigations. To obtain +it, however, requires such perfection of workmanship +as to be incompatible with cheapness. An experienced +operator will not be satisfied without having an object-glass +at least as high as a quarter, that will bear a deep +eye-piece, but beginners are seldom successful with a +higher power than one of half-inch focus, or thereabouts, +and before trying this, they should familiarise +themselves with the use of one with an inch focus.</p> + +<p>It is a popular error to suppose that enormous magnification +is always an advantage, and that a microscope +is valuable because it makes a flea look as big as a cat +or a camel. The writer has often smiled at the exclamations +of casual visitors, who have been pleased with +his microscopic efforts to entertain them. "Dear me, +what a wonderful instrument; it must be immensely +powerful;" and so forth. These ejaculations have often +followed the use of a low power, and their authors have +been astonished at receiving the explanation that the +best microscope is that which will show the most with +the least magnification, and that accuracy of definition, +not mere increase of bulk, is the great thing +needful.</p> + +<p>Scientific men always compute the apparent enlargement +of the object by <i>one</i> dimension only. Thus, +supposing an object one hundredth of an inch square +were magnified so as to appear one inch square, it +would, in scientific parlance, be magnified to "one hundred<span class="pagenum">[4]</span> +diameters," or one hundred linear; and the figures +100 would be appended to any drawing which might be +made from it. It is, however, obvious that the length +is magnified as well as the breadth; and hence the +magnification of the whole surface, in the instance +specified, would be one hundred times one hundred, or +ten thousand: and this is the way in which magnification +is popularly stated. A few moments' consideration +will show that the scientific method is that which +most readily affords information. Any one can instantly +comprehend the fact of an object being made +to look ten times its real length; but if told that it is +magnified a hundred times, he does not know what this +really means, until he has gone through the process of +finding the square root of a hundred, and learnt that a +hundredfold magnification means a tenfold magnification +of each superficial dimension. If told, for example, +that a hair is magnified six hundred diameters, the +knowledge is at once conveyed that it looks six hundred +times as broad as it is; but a statement that the +same hair is magnified three hundred and sixty +thousand times, only excites a gasping sensation +of wonder, until it is ascertained by calculation that +the big figures only mean what the little figures express. +In these pages the scientific plan will always be followed.</p> + +<p>If expense is not an object, a binocular instrument +should be purchased, and it is well to be provided with +an object-glass as low as three or even four inches focus, +which will allow the whole of objects having the diameter +of half an inch or more to be seen at once. Such a low<span class="pagenum">[5]</span> +power is exceedingly well adapted for the examination +of living insects, or of the exquisite preparations of +entire insects, which can now be had of all opticians. +Microscopes which have a draw tube can be furnished +with an <i>erector</i>, an instrument so called because it +erects the images, which the microscope has turned +upside down, through the crossing of the rays. This is +very convenient for making dissections under the instrument; +and it also gives us the means of reducing +the magnifying power of an object-glass, and thus +obtaining a larger field. The erector is affixed to the +end of the draw tube, and by pulling it out, or thrusting +it in, the rays from the object-glass are intercepted at +different distances, and various degrees of power obtained.</p> + +<p>A binocular microscope is most useful with low +powers from two thirds upwards. A new form, devised +by Mr. Stephenson, acts as an erector, and is very +valuable for dissections. It works with high powers.</p> + +<p>Beginners will be glad to know how to obtain the +magnifying power which different objects require, and +it may be stated that, with a full-sized microscope, a +two-inch object-glass magnifies about twenty-five diameters +with the lowest eye-piece; a one-inch object-glass, +or two thirds, from fifty to sixty diameters; a +half-inch about one hundred; a quarter-inch about two +hundred. The use of deeper eye-pieces adds very considerably +to the power, but in proportions which differ +with different makers. One instrument used by the +writer has three eye-pieces, giving with a two thirds +object-glass powers of sixty one hundred and five, and<span class="pagenum">[6]</span> +one hundred and eighty respectively; and with +a fifth two hundred and forty, four hundred and +thirty, and seven hundred and twenty, which can be +augmented by the use of a draw tube.</p> + +<p>It has been well observed that the illumination of +objects is quite as important as the glasses that are +employed, and the most experienced microscopists have +never done learning in this matter. Most microscopes +are furnished with two mirrors beneath the stage, one +plane and one concave. The first will throw a few +parallel rays through any transparent object properly +placed, and the latter causes a number of rays to +converge, producing a more powerful effect. The first +is usually used in daylight, when the instrument is +near a window (one with a north aspect, out of direct +sunlight, being the best); and the second is often +useful when the source of illumination is a candle or a +lamp. By varying the angle of the mirror the light is +thrown through the object more or less obliquely, and +its quantity should never be sufficient to pain the eye. +Few objects are seen to the best advantage with a +<i>large</i> pencil of perfectly direct light, and the beginner +should practise till the amount of inclination is obtained +which produces the best effect.</p> + +<p>It is advisable that the hole in the stage of the +microscope should be large—at least an inch and a half +each way—so that the entrance of oblique rays is not +obstructed, and it is desirable that the mirror, in +addition to sliding up and down, should have an arm +by which it can be thrown completely out of the +perpendicular plane of the body of the instrument.<span class="pagenum">[7]</span> +This enables such oblique rays to be employed as to +give a dark field, all the light which reaches the eye +being <i>refracted</i> by the object through which it is sent. +The opticians sell special pieces of apparatus for this +purpose, but though they are very useful, they do not +render it less desirable to have the mirror mounted as +described.</p> + +<p>Most microscopes are furnished with a revolving +diaphragm, with three holes, of different sizes, to +diminish the quantity of light that is admitted to the +object. This instrument is of some use, and offers a +ready means of obtaining a very soft agreeable light for +transparent objects, viewed with low powers. For this +purpose cut a circular disk of India or tissue paper, +rather larger than the biggest aperture; scrape a few +little pieces of spermaceti, and place them upon it, then +put the whole on a piece of writing-paper, and hold it +a few inches above the flame of a candle, moving it +gently. If this is dexterously done, the spermaceti will +be melted without singeing the paper, and when it is +cold the disk will be found transparent. Place it over +the hole in the diaphragm, send the light through it, +and the result will be a very soft agreeable effect, well +suited for many purposes, such as viewing sections of +wood, insects mounted whole, after being rendered +transparent, many small water creatures, etc. Another +mode of accomplishing this purpose is to place a +similarly prepared disk of paper on the flat side of a +bull's-eye lens, and transmit the light of a lamp through +it. This plan may be used with higher powers, and +the white opaque light it gives may be directed<span class="pagenum">[8]</span> +at any angle by means of the mirror beneath the +stage.</p> + +<p>An ordinary lamp may be made to answer for microscopic +use, but one of the small paraffine lamps now +sold everywhere for eighteen-pence is singularly convenient. +It is high enough for many purposes, and can +easily be raised by one or more blocks. A paraffine +lamp on a sliding stand is still more handy, and all the +better for a hole with a glass stopper, through which +the fluid can be poured.</p> + +<p>Many people fancy that the eyes are injured by +continual use of the microscope, but this is far from +being the case if reasonable precautions are taken. +The instrument should be inclined at a proper angle, +all excess of light avoided, and the object brought into +focus before it is steadily looked at. Most people +solemnly shut one eye before commencing a microscopic +examination; this is a practical and physiological +mistake. Nature meant both eyes to be open, and +usually resents a prolonged violation of her intentions +in this matter. It requires but a little practice to keep +both eyes open, and only pay attention to what is seen +by that devoted to the microscope. The acquisition of +this habit is facilitated, and other advantages gained, +by a screen to keep out extraneous light. For this +purpose take a piece of thin cardboard about nine +inches square, and cut a round hole in it, just big +enough to admit the tube of the microscope, about two +inches from the bottom, and equidistant from the two +sides. Next cut off the two upper corners of the cardboard, +and give them a pleasant-looking curve. Then<span class="pagenum">[9]</span> +cover the cardboard with black velvet, the commonest, +which is not glossy, answers best, and your screen is +made. Put the hole over the tube of the microscope, +and let the screen rest on the little ledge or rim which +forms an ornamental finish to most instruments. A +piece of cork may be gummed at the back of the screen, +so as to tilt it a little, and diminish its chance of +coming into contact with that important organ the +nose. This little contrivance adds to the clearness and +brilliancy of objects, and is a great accommodation to +the eyes.</p> + +<p>One more oculistic memorandum, and we have done +with this chapter. Do not stare at portions of objects +that are out of focus, and consequently indistinct, as +this injures the eyes more than anything. Remember +the proverb, "None so deaf as those that won't hear," +which naturally suggests for a companion, "None so +blind as those that won't see." It is often impossible +to get every object in the field in focus at one time;—look +only at that which is in focus, and be blind to all +the rest. This is a habit easily acquired, and is one +for which our <i>natural</i> microscopes are exceedingly +grateful; and every judicious observer desires to keep +on the best terms with his eyes.</p> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[10]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<p class="h2">JANUARY.</p> + +<p class="out">Visit to the ponds—Confervæ—Spirogyra quinina—Vorticella—Common +Rotifer—Three divisions of Infusoria—Phytozoa—Protozoa—Rotifera—Tardigrada—Meaning +of these terms—Euglenæ—Distinction +between animals and vegetables—Description of +Vorticellæ—Dark ground illumination—Modes of producing it—The +Nucleus of the Vorticellæ—Methods of reproduction—Ciliated +Protozoa—Wheel bearers or Rotifers—Their structure—The common +Rotifer—The young Rotifer seen inside the old one—An +internal nursery—"Differentiation" and "Specialisation"—Bisexuality +of Rotifers—Their zoological position—Diversities in +their appearance—Structure of their Gizzard—Description of +Rotifers.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_024.jpg" width="90" height="91" alt="i024" title="T"> +<p class="minus"><b>HE</b> winter months are on the whole less +favorable to the collection of microscopic +objects from ponds and streams than the +warmer portions of the year; but the difference is +rather in abundance than in variety, and with a very +moderate amount of trouble, representatives of the +principal classes can always be obtained.</p> + +<p>On a clear January morning, when the air was keen, +but no ice had yet skinned over the surface of the +water, a visit to some small ponds in an open field not +far from Kentish Town provided entertainment for +several days. The ponds were selected from their open<span class="pagenum">[11]</span> +airy situation, the general clearness of their water, and +the abundance of vegetation with which they were +adorned. Near the margin confervæ abounded, their +tangled masses of hair-like filaments often matted +together, almost with the closeness of a felted texture. +At intervals, minute bubbles of air, with occasionally a +few of greater size, indicated that the complex processes +of vegetable life were actively going on, that the tiny +plants were decomposing carbonic acid, dexterously +combining the carbon—which we are most familiar +with in the black opaque form of charcoal—to form +the substance of their delicate translucent tissues, and +sending forth the oxygen as their contribution to the +purification of the adjacent water, and the renovation +of our atmospheric air. This was a good sign, for +healthy vegetation is favorable to many of the most +interesting forms of infusorial life. Accordingly the +end of a walking-stick was inserted among the green +threads, and a skein of them drawn up, dank, dripping, +and clinging together in a pasty-looking mass. To +hold up a morsel of this mass, and tell some one not in +the secrets of pond-lore that its dripping threads were +objects of beauty, surpassing human productions, in +brilliant colour and elegant form, would provoke +laughter, and suggest the notion that you were poking +fun at them, when you poked out your stick with the +slimy treasure at its end. But let us put the green +stuff into a bottle, with some water from its native +haunt, cork it up tight, and carry it away for quiet +examination under the microscope at home.</p> + +<p>Here we are with the apparatus ready. We have<span class="pagenum">[12]</span> +transferred a few threads of the conferva from the +bottle to the <i>live box</i>, spreading out the fine fibres with +a needle, and adding a drop of water. The cover is +then gently pressed down, and the whole placed on the +stage of the microscope, to be examined with a power +of about sixty. A light is thrown somewhat obliquely +by the mirror through the object, the focus adjusted, +and a beautiful sight rewards the pains. Our mass of +conferva turns out to contain one of the most elegant +species. Fine hair-like tubes of an organic material, +as transparent as glass, are divided by partitions of the +same substance into cylindrical cells, through which a +slender ribbon of emerald green, spangled at intervals +with small round expansions, is spirally wound. We +shall call it the Spiral Conferva, its scientific name +being <i>Spirogyra quinina</i>. Some other species, though +less elegantly adorned, make a pleasing variety in the +microscopic scene; and appended to some of the +threads is a group of small crystal bells, which jerk up +and down upon spirally twisted stalks. These are the +"Bell Flower Animalcules" of old observers, the +<i>Vorticellæ</i>, or Little Vortex-makers of the present day. +Other small creatures flit about with lively motions, +and among them we observe a number of green spindles +that continually change their shape, while an odd-looking +thing crawls about, after the manner of certain +caterpillars, by bringing his head and tail together, +shoving himself on a step, and then repeating the +process, and making another move. He has a kind of +snout, behind which are two little red eyes, and something +like a pig-tail sticks out behind. This is the<span class="pagenum">[13]</span> +Common Wheel-bearer, <i>Rotifer vulgaris</i>, a favourite +object with microscopists, old and young, and capable, +as we shall see, of doing something more interesting +than taking the crawl we have described.</p> + +<p>A higher power, say one or two hundred, may be +conveniently applied to bring out the details of the +inhabitants of our live box more completely; but if the +glasses are good, a linear magnification of sixty will +show a great deal, with the advantage of a large field, +and less trouble in following the moving objects of our +search.</p> + +<p>Having commenced our microscopic proceedings by +obtaining some Euglenæ, Vorticellæ, and a Rotifer, we +are in a position to consider the chief characteristics of +three great divisions of infusoria, which will often +engage our attention.</p> + +<p>It is well known that animalcules and other small +forms of being may be found in <i>infusions</i> of hay or +other vegetable matter, and hence all such and similar +objects were called <i>Infusoria</i> by early observers. Many +groups have been separated from the general mass +comprehended under this term, and it is now used in +various senses. The authors of the 'Micrographic +Dictionary' employ it to designate "a class of microscopic +<i>animals</i> not furnished with either vessels or +nerves, but exhibiting internal spherical cavities, motion +effected by means of cilia, or variable processes +formed of the substance of the body, true legs being +absent." The objection to this definition is, that it +to some extent represents theories which may not be +true. That nerves are absent <i>all through the class</i> is an<span class="pagenum">[14]</span> +assumption founded merely upon the negative evidence +of their not having been discovered, and the complete +absence of "vessels" cannot be affirmed.</p> + +<p>In the last edition of 'Pritchard's Infusoria,' to which +some of our ablest naturalists have contributed, after +separating two groups, the Desmids, and the Diatoms, +as belonging to the vegetable world, the remainder of +the original family of infusoria are classified as <i>Phytozoa</i>, +<i>Protozoa</i>, <i>Rotifera</i>, and <i>Tardigrada</i>. We shall explain +these hard names immediately, first remarking that the +Desmids and the Diatoms, concerning whom we do not +intend to speak in these pages, are the names of two +groups, one distinctly vegetable, while the other, +although now generally considered so, were formerly +held by many authorities to be in reality animal. The +Desmids occur very commonly in fresh water. We have +some among our Confervæ. They are most brilliant +green, and often take forms of a more angular and +crystalline character than are exhibited by higher +plants. The Diatoms are still more common, and we +see before us in our water-drop some of their simplest +representatives in the form of minute boats made of +silica (flint) and moved by means still in dispute.</p> + +<p>Leaving out the Desmids and Diatoms, we have said +that in Pritchard's arrangement the views of those +writers are adopted who divide the rest of the infusoria +into four groups, distinguished with foreign long-tailed +names, which we will translate and expound. First +come the <i>Phytozoa</i>, under which we recognise our old +acquaintance <i>zoophyte</i> turned upside down. <i>Zoophytes</i> +mean animal-plants, <i>Phytozoa</i> mean plant-animals. We<span class="pagenum">[15]</span> +shall have by-and-bye to speak of some of the members +of this artificial and unsatisfactory group, and postpone +to that time a learned disquisition on the difference +between animals and plants, a difference observable +enough if we compare a hippopotamus with a cabbage, +but which "grows small by degrees, and beautifully +less," as we contemplate lower forms.</p> + +<p>After the <i>Phytozoa</i> come the <i>Protozoa</i>, or first forms +in which animality is distinctly recognised. Under this +term are assembled creatures of very various organization, +from the extreme simplicity of the <i>Proteus</i> or +<i>Amœba</i>, a little lump of jelly, that moves by thrusting +out portions of its body, so as to make a sort of extempore +legs, and in which no organs can be discerned,<a name="FNanchor_A_2" id="FNanchor_A_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +up to others that are highly developed, like our <i>Vorticellæ</i>. +This group is evidently provisional, and jumbles +together objects that may be widely separated when +their true structure and real affinities are discerned.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_2" id="Footnote_A_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> In some kinds and in some stages of growth this is not strictly +true.</p></div> + +<p>Following the <i>Protozoa</i>, come the <i>Rotifera</i>, or Wheel-bearers, +of which we have obtained an example from +our pond, and whose characteristics we shall endeavour +to delineate when our specimen is under view; and last +in the list we have the <i>Tardigrada</i>, "Slow-steppers," or +Water Bears, queer little creatures, something like new-born +puppies, with a double allowance of imperfect feet. +These, though somewhat connected with the rotifers, +are considered to belong to a low division of the arachnida +(spiders, &c.).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="300" height="117" alt="i030" title=""> +<span class="caption">a, motile; and b, resting condition of Euglenæ.</span> +</div> + +<p>Feeling that we must be merciful with the long-tailed +<span class="pagenum">[16]</span>words and explanations of classification, we reserve +further matter of this kind for the opportunities that +must arise, and direct our attention to living forms by +watching the <i>Euglenæ</i> which our water-drop contains. +We have before us a number of elegant spindle-shaped +bodies, somewhat thicker in front than behind, and in +what may be called the head there glitters a brilliant +red speck, commonly called an <i>eye-spot</i>, although, like +the eyes of potatoes, it cannot see. Round this eye-spot +the tissues are clear, like glass; but the body of +the creature is of a rich vegetable green, which shines +and glistens as it catches the light. Some swim rapidly +with a rollicking motion, while others twist themselves +into all manner of shapes. Now the once delicate +spindle is oddly contorted, now it swells out in the +middle, like a top, and now it rolls itself into a ball. +The drawings will afford some idea of these protean +changes, but they must be seen before their harlequin +character can be thoroughly appreciated. Some of the +specimens exhibit delicate lines running lengthwise, and +taking a spiral twist as the creature moves about; but +in none can any mouth be discerned, and their antics,<span class="pagenum">[17]</span> +although energetic and comical, afford no certain indications +of either purpose or will. What are they? +animals or vegetables? or something betwixt and +between?</p> + +<p>The first impression of any casual observer would be +to declare in favour of their animality; but before this +can be settled, comes the question, what is an animal, +and how does it differ from a vegetable? and upon this +the learned do by no means agree. One writer considers +the presence of <i>starch</i> in any object a proof that +it belongs to the dominions of Flora, while another +would decide the issue by ascertaining whether it evolves +oxygen and absorbs carbon, as most plants do, or whether +it evolves carbon and absorbs oxygen, as <i>decided</i> animals +do. Dr. Carpenter asserts that the distinction between +<i>Protophyta</i> and <i>Protozoa</i> (first or simplest plants and +animals), "lies in the nature of their food, and the +method of its introduction, for whilst the <i>Protophyte</i> +obtains the materials of its nutrition from the air and +moisture that surround it, and possesses the power of +detaching oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen from +their previous binary combinations, and of uniting them +into ternary and quaternary organic compounds (chlorophyll, +starch, albumen, &c.), the simplest <i>Protozoa</i>, +in common with the highest members of the animal +kingdom, seems utterly destitute of any such power, +makes, so to speak, a stomach for itself in the substance +of its body, into which it injects the solid particles that +constitute its food, and within which it subjects them +to a regular process of digestion."</p> + +<p>Unfortunately it is very difficult to apply this simple<span class="pagenum">[18]</span> +theory to the dubious objects which lie on the border-land +of the animal world, and no other theory that has +been propounded appears to meet all cases. Some +naturalists do not expect to find a broad line of demarkation +between the two great divisions of living +things, but others characterise such an idea as "unphilosophical," +in spite of which, however, we incline +towards it.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gosse, whose opinion is entitled to great respect, +calls the <i>Euglenæ</i> "animals" in his 'Evenings with +the Microscope;' but from the aggregate of recorded +observations it seems that they evolve oxygen, are +coloured with the colouring matter of plants, reproduce +their species in a manner analogous to plants, and have +in some cases been clearly traced to the vegetable +world. It is, however, possible that some <i>Euglenæ</i> +forms may be animal and others vegetable, and while +their place at nature's table is being decided, they must +be content to be called <i>Phytozoa</i>, which, as we have +before explained, is merely <i>Zoophyte</i> turned upside +down.</p> + +<p>Some authorities have thought their animality proved +by the high degree of contractility which their tissues +evince. This, however, cannot go for much, as all +physiologists admit contractility to belong to the vegetable +tissues of the sensitive plant, "Venus' Fly-trap," +&c., and a little more or less cannot mark the boundary +between two orders of being.</p> + +<p>We shall have occasion again to notice the <i>Protophytes</i>, +and now pass to the <i>Protozoa</i>, of which we have +a good illustration in the <i>Vorticella</i> already spoken of.<span class="pagenum">[19]</span> +In the group before us a number of elegant bells or +vases stand at the end of long stalks, as shown at the +top of the frontispiece, while round the tops of the bells, +the vibrations of a wreath or cilia produce little vortices +or whirlpools, and hence comes the family name. This +current brings particles of all sorts to the mouth near +the rim of the bells, and the creature seems not entirely +destitute of power to choose or reject the morsels according +to its taste. Every now and then the stalk of +some specimen is suddenly twisted into a spiral, and +contracted, so as to bring the bell almost to the ground. +Then the stem gracefully elongates again, and the cilia +repeat their lively game.</p> + +<p>The general effect can be seen very well by a power +of about sixty linear, but one of them from one to two +hundred is necessary to bring out the details, and a +practised observer will use still more magnification with +good effect. They should be examined by a moderately +oblique light, or most of the cilia are apt to be rendered +invisible, and also by <i>dark ground</i> illumination. This +may be accomplished in a well-made microscope by +turning the mirror quite out of the plane of the axis of +the instrument, that is to say, on one side of the space +the body would occupy if it were prolonged. By this +means, and by placing the lamp at an angle with the +mirror, that must be learnt by experiment, all the light +that reaches the eye has first passed through the object, +and is refracted by it out of the line it was taking, +which would have carried it entirely away. Or the +object may be illuminated by an apparatus called a +<i>spotted lens</i>, which is a small bull's-eye placed under +<span class="pagenum">[20]</span>the stage, and having all the centre of its face covered +with a plaster of black silk. In this method the central +or direct rays from the mirror are obstructed, but +those which strike the edge of the bull's-eye are bent +towards the object, which they penetrate and illuminate +if it is sufficiently transparent and refractive. Another +mode of dark ground illumination is by employing an +<span class="pagenum">[21]</span>elegant instrument called a <i>parabolic illuminator</i>, which +need not be described.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 529px;"> +<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="529" height="506" alt="i034" title=""> +<span class="caption">Left: Vorticella, with posterior +circlet of cilia in process of separation—Stein.</span> +<br> +<span class="caption">Right: Vorticella in process of self-division. +A new frontal wreath in formation in +each of the semi-lunar spaces.</span> +</div> + +<p>Different specimens and species of <i>Vorticellæ</i> vary in +the length of their bells from one three or four +thousandth to one hundred and twentieth of an inch, +and when they are tolerably large, the dark ground +illumination produces a beautiful effect. The bells +shine with a pearly iridescent lustre, and their cilia +flash with brilliant prismatic colours.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="245" height="195" alt="i035" title=""><br> +<span class="caption">Left: Vorticella microstoma, showing +alimentary tube, ciliated mouth, +and formation of a gemma at the +base, 300 linear.—Stein.</span> +<br> +<span class="caption">Right: Vorticella microstoma, the encysted +animal protruding through +a supposed rupture of the tunic.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Vorticellina</i> belong to the upper division of the +<i>Protozoa</i>—the <i>ciliata</i>, or ciliated animalcules, and they +have a mouth, an œsophagus, and an orifice for the +exit of their food.</p> + +<p>Many observers used to ascribe to those creatures a<span class="pagenum">[22]</span> +complete intestinal canal, but such an apparatus is now +believed not to exist in any of the Infusoria. Food +particles, after leaving the œsophagus, are thrust forward +into the sarcode, or soft flesh, and any cavity thus +formed acts as a stomach.</p> + +<p>The bells or cups are not, as might be fancied from +a casual inspection, open like wineglasses at the top, +but furnished with a retractile disk or cover, on which +the cilia are arranged. Their stalks are not simple +stems, but are hollow tubes, which in the genus Vorticella +are furnished with a muscular band, by whose +agency the movements are principally made.</p> + +<p>Some of the Vorticellids will be observed to leave +their stalks, having developed cilia round their base, +and may be seen to swim about in the enjoyment of +individual life. They are also capable of becoming +<i>encysted</i>, that is, of secreting a gelatinous cover.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="400" height="90" alt="i036" title=""> +<span class="caption">Encysted Vorticella, showing the obliteration of special organs by +the advancement of the process.—Pritchard.</span> +</div> + +<p>These changes are exhibited in the annexed cuts, +which are copied from known authorities. By careful +observation of the bodies of Vorticellids, a contractile +vesicle may be observed, which appears to cause a +movement of fluids, that is probably connected either +with respiration or secretion.<span class="pagenum">[23]</span></p> + +<p>Another piece of apparatus in this family, but not +confined to it, is the so-called <i>nucleus</i>, which in this +case is of a horseshoe shape and granular texture, +and greater solidity than the surrounding parts. The +functions of this organ formed the subject of various +conjectures, but it is now generally held to be an +ovary.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="400" height="143" alt="i037" title=""> +<span class="caption">Vorticella microstoma, in process of encystment, 300 linear; in the +last the inclosing tunic is plainly developed.—Stein.</span> +</div> + +<p>In common with many of the lower animals, the +Vorticellids have three ways of multiplying their race. +One by <i>fission</i>, or division of their bodies: another by +<i>buds</i>, somewhat analogous to those of plants; and another +by reproductive germs. These processes will come +again under our notice, and we shall leave the Vorticellids +for the present by observing that if they are +fed with a very small quantity of indigo or carmine, +the vacuoles or spaces, into which their nutriment +passes, will be clearly observed. Ehrenberg thought +in these and similar creatures that every vacuole +was a distinct stomach, and that all the stomachs +were connected by an intestinal canal; hence his name<span class="pagenum">[24]</span> +<i>Polygastrica</i>, or many stomached. In these views he +has not been followed by later observers, and it is probable +he was misled, partly by pushing the process of +reasoning from the analogies of higher animals much +too far, and partly by the imperfection of the glasses he +employed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="400" height="292" alt="i038" title=""> +<span class="caption">Rotifer vulgaris.—A, mouth, or gizzard; B, contractile +vesicle.—Micrographic Dictionary. +<br> +N.B.—When the cilia and tail part are retracted, and the +body shortened, the creature assumes an obtuse oval form.</span> +</div> + +<p>Having thus briefly considered the Vorticellids we +must turn to the wheel-bearer, who belongs to a +higher race than even the ciliated <i>Protozoa</i>. We left +her crawling about with her snout or proboscis protruded, +but now she has moored herself by her tail-foot, +pulled in her nose, and put out two groups of cilia,<span class="pagenum">[25]</span> +which look like revolving wheels, and a little below +them is seen a gizzard in a state of active work. After +a little while she swims away with her wheels going, +and her tail, forked at the end, is found to be telescopic, +or capable of being pulled in and out. As the cilia +play, the neighbouring water is agitated, and the multitudes +of small objects are brought by the whirlpools +within her ravenous maw. But the strangest thing of +all is that inside her body is seen a young one; in this +case a large and fine infant, which, like "a chip of the +old block," imitates the parental motions, thrusts forth +its cilia and works its gizzard.<a name="FNanchor_A_3" id="FNanchor_A_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> In other genera the +eggs are hatched externally, but this one is ovoviparous, +and carries its nursery inside.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_3" id="Footnote_A_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> This was met with in the summer, but is described here to avoid +repetition. I do not know whether the eggs are hatched in very cold +weather.</p></div> + +<p>A very slight investigation is sufficient to show that +in the wheel-bearer we have made a great advance +towards a higher organization than we discovered in +the preceding creatures. We witness what the learned +call a "differentiation" of parts and tissues, and a +"specialization" of organs. The head is plainly distinguishable +from the body, the skin or integument is +distinctly different from the internal tissues, behind the +eyes we can detect a nervous ganglion or miniature +brain, the gizzard is a complicated piece of vital +mechanism, such as we have not met with before, and +in various parts of the transparent inside we see organs +to which particular functions are assigned.</p> + +<p>It was at one time thought that Rotifers were her<span class="pagenum">[26]</span>maphrodite—uniting +both sexes in one body—but that +idea is now generally abandoned, for in many species +the males have been discovered, and the fair sex may +be gratified to hear that they are without doubt the +"inferior animals." Their function is simply to assist +the female in producing young, and as this can be +quickly accomplished, their lives are short, and they +are not supplied with the gizzard and digestive apparatus, +which their lady-loves possess. Much discussion +has taken place as to the rank which the Rotifers hold +in the animal kingdom, some naturalists thinking them +relations of the crabs, and others believing them to +belong to the family of the worms. Professor Huxley, +who adopts the latter view, which has the most friends, +groups the lower <i>Annulosa</i> together under the name of +<i>Annuloida</i>, in which he includes <i>Annelides</i>, or worms +of various kinds, the <i>Echinodermata</i> (or "spine skins," +among which are the star-fish and sea hedgehogs), and +some other families. He considers the Rotifers to be +"the permanent forms of Echinoderm larvæ." This +does not mean that they were ever produced by +Echinoderms, and had their development checked, but +that they resemble them in organization, and illustrate +a general law, observable in animated beings, namely, +that the lower creatures are like the imperfect stages of +higher animals, and that all things are formed according +to general principles, and exhibit a uniformity of +plan.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gosse adopts a different view, and while admitting +a connection between the Rotifers and the worms,<span class="pagenum">[27]</span> +adduces important reasons for associating them with +the insects.</p> + +<p>Leaving zoologists to settle their position, we may +remark that the Rotifers form a very numerous family, +presenting very great diversities of structure, some of +the most interesting of which we shall meet with in the +course of our rambles; but they all possess a gizzard, +which, though differing in complexity, is throughout +formed upon the same principle, and that we must now +explain.</p> + +<p>We have called the masticatory apparatus of the +Rotifers a <i>gizzard</i>; but Mr. Gosse, who has done most +to elucidate its structure, contends that it is a <i>mouth</i>; +and in some species it is frequently protruded, and used +like the mouth of higher animals. Taking one of the +most typical forms of this organ, and drawing our illustrations +from Mr. Gosse's admirable paper in the +"Transactions of the Royal Society," we may describe +it, when completely developed, as consisting of three +lobes, having a more or less rounded form. The +eminent naturalist we have named calls the whole organ +the <i>mastax</i>, and states that it is composed of dense muscular +fibre. The tube which leads down to it he +designates the "buccal (mouth) funnel," and the tube +that issues from it, and conveys the food to the digestive +sac or stomach, he calls the <i>œsophagus</i>, in conformity +with the nomenclature applied to creatures whose +mouths are in the usual place. Inside the mouth-gizzard +are placed two organs, which work like hammers, +and which Mr. Gosse therefore names <i>mallei</i>. +The hammers work against a sort of anvil, which is +<span class="pagenum">[28]</span>called <i>incus</i>, the Latin for that implement. Each +hammer consists of two portions articulated by a hinge +joint. The lower portion, the <i>manubrium</i>, or handle, +gives motion to the upper portion, which from its +shape is named the <i>uncus</i>, or hook. The <i>unci</i> are +furnished with finger-like processes of teeth, which +vary in number. There are five or six in the best +developed specimens. These hooks or teeth work +against each other, and against the <i>incus</i>, or anvil, +which consists of distinct articulated portions, of which +the principal are two <i>rami</i>, or branches, jointed so that +they can open and close like a pair of shears. These +two rest upon the third portion, which is called the +<i>fulcrum</i>. Some faint idea of the working of the +toothed hammers may be obtained by rubbing the +knuckles of both hands together, but the motion is +more complicated, and the <i>rami</i> play their part in the +trituration of the food. Mr. Gosse states that when +an objectionable morsel has got as far as this mouth-gizzard, +<span class="pagenum">[29]</span>"it is thrown back by a peculiar scoop-like +action of the <i>unci</i>, very curious to witness." The +foregoing diagram will help the reader to comprehend +this description, but no opportunity should be lost for +viewing this remarkable organ busy at work in the +living animals.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="200" height="162" alt="i042" title=""> +<span class="caption">Gizzard of Notomata.</span> +</div> + +<p>The respiration of the Rotifers is supposed to be +effected by the passage of water through vessels running +round them, and called the "water vascular +system," and in addition to their eyes, which often +disappear in adult specimens, the organ we described +as standing out like a pig-tail, as our acquaintance +crawled along, is thought to act as an <i>antenna</i>, or +feeler, and brings its possessor in further relation to +the external world. It is also called the <i>calcar</i>, or +spur, and is furnished with cilia or bristles at its +extremity.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the particles swallowed by the Common +Rotifer are large enough for their course to be traced, +but there is frequently a great commotion and grinding +of the gizzard, without any appreciable cause, although +doubtless something is taken in, and when the creature +is tired, or has had enough, we see both head and tail +retracted, and the body assumes a globular form. In +another chapter, when viewing a Philodine, we shall see +how in the family to which the Common Rotifer +belongs, the gizzard departs from the perfect type.</p> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[30]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<p class="h2">FEBRUARY.</p> + +<p class="out">Visit to Hampstead—Small ponds—Water-fleas—Water-beetle—Snails—Polyps—Hydra +viridis—The dipping-tube—A glass cell—The +Hydra and its prey—Chydorus sphæricus and Canthocamptus, or +friends and their escapes—Cothurnia—Polyp buds—Catching +Polyps—Mode of viewing them—Structure of Polyps—Sarcode—Polyps +stimulated by light—Are they conscious?—Tentacles and +poison threads—Paramecium—Trachelius—Motions of Animalcules, +whether automatic or directed by a will—Their restless character.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_044.jpg" width="91" height="90" alt="i044" title="I"> +<p class="minus"><b>T</b> has been a bitterly cold night, and as the sun +shines on a clear keen morning, and glistens +in the hoar-frost which covers the trees, it +might seem an unpropitious time for visiting the ponds, +in search of microscopic prey. We will, however, +try our luck, and take a brisk trot to the top of +Hampstead Heath, where the air is still keener, and +the ice more thick. Arriving at the highest point, +London appears on one side enveloped in its usual +great coat of smoke, through which St. Paul's big +dome, with a score or two of towers and steeples, can +be dimly made out; while looking towards Harrow-on-the-Hill, +or Barnet, we see the advantage of country +air in the sharpness with which distant objects cut the +blue sky. We leave the large ponds for another time,<span class="pagenum">[31]</span> +and hunt out the little hollows among the furze and +fern. One looks promising from the bright green +vegetation to be discovered under the sheet of ice, +which is almost firm enough to bear human weight.</p> + +<p>Breaking a convenient hole we hook up some of the +water-plants, and place them in a wide-mouthed vial, +which we fill with water, and cursorily examine with a +pocket-lens. Some water-fleas briskly skipping about, +and a beautiful little beetle, with an elegant dotted +pattern on his brown back, and a glistening film of air +covering his belly, show that we have not been unsuccessful, +although we must wait till we get home to +know the extent of our findings, among which, however, +we can only discern the graceful spiral shell of a small +water-snail, the <i>Planorbis</i>.</p> + +<p>Arriving at home the bottle was left undisturbed for +some hours in a warm light place, and then on being +examined several specimens of that beautiful polyp, the +<i>Hydra viridis</i>, were seen attached to the glass, and +spreading their delicate tentacles in search of prey. +One of the polyps is carefully removed by the <i>dipping-tube</i>, +a small glass tube, open at both ends. The forefinger +is placed upon the top, and when the other end +is brought over the object the finger is raised for an +instant, and as the water rushes in the little hydra +comes too, and is placed in a glass cell, about half an +inch wide, and one tenth of an inch deep. These cells +are obtained from the opticians, and cemented with +varnish or marine glue to an ordinary glass slide. +After an object has been placed in one of them, a little +water is taken up in the dipping-tube, and the cell +<span class="pagenum">[32]</span>filled until the fluid stands in a convex heap above its +brim. We then select around glass cover, and press +<span class="pagenum">[33]</span>it gently on the walls of our cell. A few drops of +superfluous water escape, and we have the cell quite +full, and the cover held tight by force of the capillary +attraction between the water and the glass.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="400" height="543" alt="i046" title=""> +<span class="caption">Hydra viridis with developed young one, and bud beginning +to sprout.</span> +</div> + +<p>The polyp deposited in one of these water cages is +then transferred to the stage of the microscope, and its +proceedings watched. At first it looks like a shapeless +mass of apple-green jelly. Soon, however, the tail end +of the creature is fixed to the glass, the body elongates, +and the tentacles (in this case eight) expand something +after the manner of the leaves of a graceful +palm.</p> + +<p>By accident two small Water Fleas were imprisoned +with the polyp, and one (a shrimp-like looking creature, +carrying behind her a great bag of eggs) came +into contact with the tentacles, and seemed paralysed +for a time. The hydra made no attempt to convey the +captive to its mouth, but held it tight until another +Water Flea, a round merry little fellow (<i>Chydorus +sphæricus</i>), came to the rescue, and assisted <i>Canthocamptus</i> +to escape by tugging at her tail. This friendly +action may not have been prompted by the intelligence +which seemed to suggest it, but those who have kept +tame soldier-crabs and prawns in an aquarium, will +not be indisposed to attribute to the crustaceans more +brains than they have usually credit for. It must, +however, be confessed that the subsequent conduct of +Mrs. Canthocamptus did not indicate the possession of +much prudence, for she learnt no lesson from experience, +but repeatedly swam against her enemy's tentacles, +suffered many captures, and only escaped being<span class="pagenum">[34]</span> +devoured through the indifference, or want of appetite, +which the polyp evinced.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="fn5" id="fn5"></a> +<img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="400" height="442" alt="i048" title=""> +<span class="caption">A, Canthocamptus minutus; B, Chydorus sphæricus; C and +D, Capsules and poison-thread of polyp; E, Tricodina pediculus, +side view and under view; F, Kerona polyporum.—Microg. +Dict.</span> +</div> + +<p>On the body of the <i>Canthocamptus</i> were some +small transparent vases or bottles, containing living +objects, which sprang up and down. These were<span class="pagenum">[35]</span> +members of the <i>Vorticella</i> family, called <i>Cothurnia</i>, and +will be hereafter described.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"> +<img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="340" height="199" alt="i049" title=""> +<span class="caption">Hydra viridis, in various shapes.</span> +</div> + +<p>Watching the hydra it was curious to note the +changes of form which these creatures are able to +assume. Now the tentacles were short and thick, and +the body squat; now the body was elongated, like the +stem of a palm tree, and the tentacles hung gracefully +from the top. From some of the polyps little round +buds were growing, while other buds were already +developed into miniature copies of the parent, and only +attached by a slender stalk. In a few days many of +these left the maternal side, fixed their own little tails +to the glass, and commenced housekeeping on their +own account.</p> + +<p>Polyps may be obtained at all times of the year by +bringing home duckweed, conferva, and other water-plants +from the ponds. Some hauls may be unsuccessful, +but if one pond is not propitious others should +be tried. The plants should be put in a capacious<span class="pagenum">[36]</span> +vessel of water, and placed in the light, where, if polyps +be present, they will show themselves within twenty-four +hours, either attached to the sides of the glass, or +hanging from the plants, or suspended head downwards +from the upper film of the water. They are elegant +objects, and may be kept without difficulty for some +weeks. After being confined in a small quantity of +water for purposes of examination, they should be carefully +replaced in the larger vessel, and may thus be +used again and again without suffering any injury. A +low power—a three or two-inch glass—or a one-inch, +reduced by employing the erector—is the most +convenient for examining the whole creature, but +higher powers are necessary to make out its minute +structure. They should be viewed with direct and +oblique light, as transparent and also as opaque +objects. In the latter case the "Lieberkuhn," or +polished silver speculum, is convenient, and if the +microscope is not furnished with Lister's dark wells, +a small piece of black paper may be stuck behind the +object, by simply wetting it with the tongue.<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The side silver reflector is useful for illuminating such objects.</p></div> + +<p>Although the polyps are remarkable for the simplicity +of their organization, they do not the less +exhibit the wonderful nature of animal life. Their +bodies are composed of the substance, called <i>sarcode</i>, +in which is imbedded a colouring matter resembling that +in the leaves of plants; every part possesses irritability +and contractility, and they are very sensitive to the +stimulus of light. The outer layer of their bodies is +<span class="pagenum">[37]</span>harder than the inner layer. These layers are severally +called <i>ectoderm</i> and <i>endoderm</i>. They may be cut and +grafted like trees, and if turned inside out, the new +inside digests and assimilates as well as the old. +Whether any form of consciousness can belong to +creatures which have no distinct nervous system is +open to doubt, but it would seem probable from their +movements that food and light afford them something +like a pleasurable sensation in a very humble degree. +If we were sufficiently acquainted with the secrets of +molecular combination we might discover that the +various functions of these simple organisms were discharged +by different <i>particles</i>, although it is only in +higher creatures that muscular particles are aggregated +into muscles, or nerve particles into nerves.</p> + +<p>Having examined the general appearance and proceedings +of the hydra, let us cut off a tentacle, or take +a small specimen and gently crush it by pressing down +the cover of the live box, and place the object so prepared +under a power of about three hundred linear. If +we then illuminate it with a moderate quantity of oblique +light, we shall discover round the edge of the tentacle +a number of small cells or capsules, from some of +which a very slender wire or thread will be emitted.<a name="FNanchor_A_5" id="FNanchor_A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> +These are the stinging organs of the polyp, and +resemble those which Mr. Gosse has so ably elucidated +in the sea anemones. Some writers have endeavoured +to show that they are not stinging organs at all, but so +large an amount of evidence to the contrary is accumulated +in Mr. Gosse's 'Actinologia Britannica,' +<span class="pagenum">[38]</span>that no reasonable doubt remains. The stinging +capsules of the polyp are shown in the annexed sketch, +and also the way in which they are employed, for it +<span class="pagenum">[39]</span>fortunately happened that on exposing one of the +hydras to pressure in the live box, a small worm +(<i>Anguillula</i>) escaped, which had been pierced with the +minute weapons which are supposed to convey a poison +into the wound. The authors of the 'Micrographic +Dictionary' think that the prongs of the forks, +which will be seen to point upwards in the sketch,<a name="FNanchor_B_6" id="FNanchor_B_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> +are springs, and occupy a reversed position in the +capsule cells, and that their function is to throw out +the threads. However this may be, the polyps, and +similarly endowed creatures, have the power of darting +out their poison threads with considerable force, and +Mr. Gosse found that the anemone was able to pierce +a thick piece of human skin.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p> + <a name="Footnote_A_5" id="Footnote_A_5"></a> + <a href="#FNanchor_A_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> +See illustration <a href="#fn5">above</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p> + <a name="Footnote_B_6" id="Footnote_B_6"></a> + <a href="#FNanchor_B_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> +See illustration <a href="#fn6">below</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="fn6" id="fn6"></a> +<img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="400" height="584" alt="i052" title=""> +<span class="caption">Anguillula pierced by stinging organs of the Hydra viridis.</span> +</div> + +<p>The same excellent observer attributes the emission +of the anemone poison threads, which he considers +hollow, to the injection of a fluid. In their quiescent +state, he thinks they are drawn in, like the finger of a +glove, and are forced out as the liquid enters their +slender tubes. Possibly the polyp stinging organs may +have the same structure.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding their dangerous weapons, polyps +are often infested with a parasite, the <i>Trichodina pediculus</i>, +as shown in Fig. <span class="smcap">E</span>, page 49, and it must happen +that either this visitation is not disagreeable, or that +the Trichodina is not influenced by the poison.</p> + +<p>As the plants in the bottles decayed, some of the +animalcules died off and others appeared. In one +bottle, containing decaying chara, <i>Paramecia</i> abounded. +The <i>Paramecia</i>, of which there are various species, +<span class="pagenum">[40]</span>have always been favourite objects with microscopists. +The Germans call them "slipper animalcules," and +they vary in size from 1—96" +<a name="FNanchor_A_7" id="FNanchor_A_7"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_A_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> to 1—1150". They are +flat rounded-oblong creatures, with a distinct integument +or skin, "through which numerous vibratile cilia +pass in regular rows."<a name="FNanchor_B_8" id="FNanchor_B_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> They are furnished with a +distinct mouth, and adult specimens exhibit star-shaped +contractile vesicles in great perfection.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_7" id="Footnote_A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The usual mode of giving dimensions is by fractions thus +expressed: 1—96" means one ninety-sixth of an inch.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_8" id="Footnote_B_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> 'Micrographic Dictionary.'</p></div> + +<p>The swarm of specimens before us belong to one +species, <i>Paramecium aurelia</i>, the <i>Chrysalis animalcule</i>, +and they crowd every portion of the little water-drop +we have taken up, and examined with a power of about +one hundred linear. When they are sufficiently quiet +a power of about four hundred may be used with +advantage, and Pritchard recommends adding a little +indigo and carmine to the water, in order to see the +cilia more clearly, or rather to render their action more +plain. The cilia are disposed lengthwise, and Ehrenberg +counted in some rows sixty or seventy of them, making +an aggregate of three thousand six hundred and forty +organs of motion in one small animated speck. This +number seems large, but although we have never performed +the feat of counting them, we should have +expected it to prove much greater. Unlike most +animalcules they are susceptible of being preserved by +drying upon glass, and we subjoin a figure from +Pritchard, of one thus treated, in which the star-shaped +vesicles are clearly seen. These curious organs com<span class="pagenum">[41]</span>municate +with other vessels, and, as we have previously +stated, are probably connected with respiration and +excretion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="300" height="140" alt="i055" title=""> +<span class="caption">Paramecium aurelia. +A dried specimen showing the vesicles.—Pritchard.</span> +</div> + +<p>The genus <i>Paramecium</i> is now confined to those +creatures which exhibit rows of longitudinal cilia of +uniform length, which are destitute of hooks, styles, or +other organs of motion than the cilia, which have a +lateral mouth, and no eye-spots. One mode of increase +is by division, which may be easily observed; another +is through the formation of true eggs as traced by +Balbiani.</p> + +<p>Another of the treasures from the pond was a species +of <i>Trachelius</i>, or long-necked ciliated animalcule, which +kept darting in and out of a slimy den, attached to the +leaf of a water-plant. The body was stout and fish-shaped, +the tail blunt, and the neck furnished with long +conspicuous cilia, which enabled the advancing and +retreating movements to be made with great rapidity. +The motions of this creature exhibit more appearance +of purpose and design than is common with animalcules,<span class="pagenum">[42]</span> +but in proportion as these observations are prolonged, +the student will be impressed with the difficulty +of assuming that anything like a reasoning faculty and +volition, is proved by movements that bear some +resemblance to those of higher animals, whose cerebral +capacities are beyond a doubt. It is, however, almost +impossible to witness motions which are neither constant +nor periodic, without fancying them to be dictated +by some sort of intelligence. We must, nevertheless, +be cautious, lest we allow ourselves to be deceived by +reasoning so seductive, as the vital operations of the +lowest organisms may be merely illustrations of blind +obedience to stimuli, in which category we must reckon +food, and until we arrive at forms of being which +clearly possess a ganglionic system, we have no certainty +that a real will exists, even of the simplest kind; +and perhaps we must go still higher before we ought to +believe in its presence.</p> + +<p>Ehrenberg was much struck with the restless character +of many infusoria—whether he looked at them +by day or by night, they were never still. In fact +their motions are like the involuntary actions which +take place in the human frame; and if attached to +their bodies we observe cilia that never sleep, the +living membrane of some of our own organs, the nose, +for example, is similarly ciliated, and keeps up a perpetual +though unconscious work.</p> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[43]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<p class="h2">MARCH.</p> + +<p class="out">Paramecia—Effects of Sunlight—Pterodina patina—Curious tail—Use +of a Compressorium—Internal structure of +Pterodina—Metopidia—Trichodina pediculus—Cothurnia—Salpina—Its +three-sided box—Protrusion of its gizzard mouth.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_057.jpg" width="90" height="91" alt="i057" title="T"> +<p class="minus"><b>HE</b> <i>Paramecia</i>, noticed in the last chapter, +have increased and multiplied their kind +without any fear lest the due adjustment +between population and food should fail to be preserved. +A small drop of the scum from the surface of the water +in their bottle is an astounding sight. They move +hither and thither in countless numbers, seldom +jostling, although thick as herrings in a tub, and in +many portions of the field the process of self-fissure, or +multiplication by division, is going on without any +symptoms of discomfort on the part of the parent creature. +This is an interesting sight, but we will not +linger over it, for the sun is shining, and there is enough +warmth in the air to make it probable that the ponds +will be more prolific than in the cold winter months. +Sunshine is a great thing for the microscopic hunter; +it brings swarms of creatures to the surface, and the +Rotifers are especially fond of its genial beams. Even<span class="pagenum">[44]</span> +if we imitate it by a bright lamp, we shall attract +crowds of live dancing specks to the illuminated side of +a bottle, and may thus easily effect their capture by +the dipping-tube.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="150" height="167" alt="i058" title=""> +<span class="caption">Pterodina patina.</span> +</div> + +<p>This year the March sunshine was not lost, for on +the third of that month I obtained a bottleful of +conferva from a pond about a mile from my house, and +lying at the foot of the Highgate hills. Water-fleas +were immediately discovered in abundance, together +with some minute worms, and a ferocious-looking larva +covered with scales; but what attracted most attention +was a Rotifer, like a transparent animated soup-plate, +from near the middle of which depended a tail, which +swayed from side to side, as the creature swam along. +The head exhibited two little red eyes; two tufts of +cilia rowed the living disk through the water, and the +gizzard worked with a rapid snapping motion, that left +no doubt the ciliary whirlpools had brought home no +slender stores of invisible food. Sometimes the end of +the tail acted as a sucker, and fixed the animal tightly<span class="pagenum">[45]</span> +to the glass, when the wheels were protruded, and the +body swayed to and fro. Then the sucker action +ceased, and as the creature swam away, a tuft of cilia +was thrust out from the extremity of the tail. A power +of one hundred linear was sufficient to enable the +general nature of this beautiful object to be observed, +but to bring out the details, much greater amplification +was required, and this would be useless if the little +fidget could not be kept still.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="200" height="271" alt="i059" title=""> +<span class="caption">450 Pterodina patina—gizzard.</span> +</div> + +<p>The size of the creature, whose name we may as well +mention was <i>Pterodina patina</i>, rendered this practicable, +but required some care. The longest diameter of the +body, which was not quite round, was about 1—120", +so that it was visible to the naked eye, and as a good +many were swimming together, one could be captured +without much difficulty, and transferred with a very +small drop of water to the live-box. Then the cover<span class="pagenum">[46]</span> +had to be put on so as to squeeze the animal just +enough to keep it still without doing it any damage, or +completely stopping its motions. This was a troublesome +task, and often a little overpressure prevented its +success.</p> + +<p>Some observers always use in these cases an instrument +called a <i>compressorium</i>, by which the amount of +pressure is regulated by a lever or a fine screw; but +whether the student possess one or not, he should learn +to accomplish the same result by dexterously manipulating +a well-made live-box. We will suppose the +<i>Pterodina</i> successfully caged, and a power of about one +hundred and fifty linear brought to bear upon her, for +our specimen is of the "female persuasion." This will +suffice to demonstrate the disposition and relation of +the several parts, after which one of from four hundred +to five hundred linear may be used with great advantage, +though in this case the illumination must be +carefully adjusted, and its intensity and obliquity frequently +changed, until the best effect is obtained.</p> + +<p>We find, on thus viewing the Pterodina, that it is +a complex, highly organized creature, having its body +protected by a <i>carapace</i>, like the shell of a tortoise, but +as flexible as a sheet of white gelatine paper, which it +resembles in appearance. Round the margin of this +carapace are a number of little bosses or dots, which +vary in different individuals. The cilia are not disposed, +as at first appeared, in two separate and distinct disks, +but are continuous, as in the annexed sketch. Down +each side are two long muscular bands, distinctly +<i>striated</i>, and when they contract, the ciliary apparatus<span class="pagenum">[47]</span> +is drawn in. As this contraction takes place, two +apparently elastic bands, to which the ciliary lobes are +attached, are bent downwards, till they look like the C +springs behind a gentleman's carriage; and they regain +their former position of slight curvature, when the cilia +are again thrust out.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="200" height="182" alt="i061" title=""> +<span class="caption">Pterodina patina—tail-foot.</span> +</div> + +<p>The gizzard is three-lobed, and curiously grasped by +forked expansions of the handles of the hammers. The +tail, or tail-foot, can be withdrawn or thrust out at the +will of the creature; and when in a good position for +observation, a slight additional pressure will keep it so +for examination. Delicate muscular longitudinal bands, +forked towards the end of their course, supply the means +of performing some of its motions, and one, or perhaps +two, spiral threads extend through the upper half of its +length, and either act as muscles, or as elastic springs for +its extension. The intestines and other viscera are +clearly exhibited, and a strong ciliary action conducts +the food to the gizzard-mouth.</p> + +<p>To return to the tail. One spiral fibre is easily discovered;<span class="pagenum">[48]</span> +but I have often, and at an interval of months, +seen the appearance of two, and am in some doubt +whether this was a deception, arising from the compression +employed, or was a genuine indication.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="400" height="305" alt="i062" title=""> +<span class="caption">A. Metopidia acuminata, as drawn by Mr. Gosse. B. Specimen +as seen and described in text. c. Mouth or gizzard.</span> +</div> + +<p>Where this Rotifer occurs I have usually found it +plentiful, but unfortunately could obtain no constant +supplies after I had determined to make a special study +of the remarkable tail, which is much more complicated +than I have described. The <i>Pterodina</i> lived for some +time in captivity, and for a week or two I could obtain +them from my glass tank. They were likewise to be +found for some weeks in the same part of the pond, but +not all over it, until one day not a single specimen +could be discovered, notwithstanding a persevering search<span class="pagenum">[49]</span> +nor was I afterwards able to get any from that pond +during the remainder of the year.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="200" height="110" alt="i063" title=""> +<span class="caption">Trichodina pediculus.</span> +</div> + +<p>Several other Rotifers, with and without carapaces, +were among the same mass of confervæ, among them +a <i>Metopidia</i>, with a firm shell, a forked jointed tail, and +a projection in front which worked like a pickaxe among +the decaying weed. There were likewise specimens of +the long-necked animalcules (Trachelii), groups of +Vorticella, some specimens of Volvox, and a small +<i>Trichodina pediculus</i>, which, when magnified two hundred +and sixty linear, was about the size of a sixpence +and equally round. The edge was beautifully fringed +with a circle of cilia; in an inner circle was a row of +locomotive organs, and the centre exhibited vacuoles +constantly opening and shutting. This creature, as +before explained, is often found as a parasite upon the +polyps. On one occasion a glimpse was caught of a +Rotifer similar in shape to the common wheel animalcule, +but with a yellow inside. Possibly it was the +object so beautifully delineated by Mr. Gosse, in his +"Tenby," and described as the "Yellow Philodine," +but this must remain in doubt, as it managed to escape +before it could be secured.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum">[50]</span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="400" height="226" alt="i064" title=""> +<span class="caption">A. Cothurnia imberbis—('Micrograph. Dict.') B and C. The specimens described in text. +The figures give the linear magnification.</span> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[51]</span></p> +<p>By the 18th of the month the Vorticellids were much +more plentiful, and their changes easily watched; many +left their stalks while under the microscope, after which +some rushed about like animated and demented hats, +others twirled round like tee-to-tums, while others took +a rest before commencing their wild career. But the +common Vorticellæ were not the only or the most interesting +representations of their charming order, for +upon some threads of conferva were descried several +elegant crystal vases standing upon short foot-stalks, +and containing little creatures that jumped up and down +like "Jack in the box." These were so minute, that a +power of four hundred and thirty linear was advantageously +brought to bear upon them. When elongated +their bodies were somewhat pear-shaped, but more +slender, and variegated with vacuoles and particles of +food. The mouths resembled those of Vorticellæ, and +put forth circles of vibrating cilia. They were easily +alarmed, when the cilia were retracted, and down they +sank to the bottom of their vases, quickly to rise again. +In one bottle there were two living in friendly juxtaposition. +This was not a case of matrimonial felicity, +nor of Siamese twins, but of <i>fission</i>, or reproduction by +division. The original inhabitant of the tube finding +himself too fat, or impelled by causes we do not understand, +quietly divided himself in two, and as the house +was big enough, no enlargement was required. How +many stout puffy gentlemen must envy this process; +how convenient to have two thin lively specimens of +humanity made out of one too obese for locomotion. +Man is, however, sometimes the victim of his superior<span class="pagenum">[52]</span> +organization, and no process of "fission" can make the +lusty lean.<a name="FNanchor_A_9" id="FNanchor_A_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_9" id="Footnote_A_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Balbiani in his 'Recherches sur les Phénomènes Sexuels des Infusoires,' +speaks of the Vorticellids as the only Infusoria dividing longitudinally. +In other species such appearances arise from conjunction.</p></div> + +<p>The bottles in which these creatures live, in happy +ignorance that they are called by so crackjaw a name +as <i>Cothurnia imberbis</i>, were described as <i>Carapaces</i> by +Ehrenberg, but they bear no resemblance to the shell +of a turtle or crab. They are thrown off by the animals +who preserve no other connection with them than the +attachment at the bottom.</p> + +<p>The Micrographic Dictionary describes the family +Ophrydina as corresponding to Vorticellina with a carapace. +Stein places them with Vorticellids, &c., amongst +his Peritricha, which are characterised by a spiral +wreath of cilia round the mouth.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the month a great number of +black pear-shaped bodies (Stentor niger), visible to +the naked eye, were conspicuous in some water from +the Kentish Town ponds. Upon examination they +were found to be filled with granules that were red by +reflected, and purple by transmitted light. Each one +had a spiral wreath of cilia, with a mouth situated like +those of the stentors, hereafter to be described, but none +of them became stationary, and in a few days they all +disappeared. Stein divides Ehrenberg's Stentor igneus +from S. niger; the creature described seems to have +agreed with Stein's <i>igneus</i>, which he describes as having +blood-red lilac, cinnabar, or brown-red pigment particles, +and as much smaller than his S. niger. In the same<span class="pagenum">[53]</span> +water were specimens of that singular Rotifer, the +<i>Salpina</i>, about 1—150" long, and furnished with a +<i>lorica</i>, or carapace, resembling a three-sided glass +box, closed below, and slightly open along the +back. At the top of this box were four, and at the +bottom three, points or horns, and the creature had +one eye and a forked tail. Keeping him company +was another little Rotifer, named after its appearance, +<i>Monocerca rattus</i>, the 'One-tailed Rat.' This little +animal had green matter in its stomach, which was in +constant commotion. I ought to have observed that +the Salpina repeatedly thrust out its gizzard, and used +it as an external mouth. In the annexed sketch the +Salpina is seen in a position that displays the dorsal +opening of the carapace. Its three-cornered shape is +only shown by a side view.</p> + +<p>Here we close a brief account of what March winds +brought in their train. The next chapter will show the +good fortune that attended April showers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="150" height="298" alt="i067" title=""> +<span class="caption">Salpina redunca.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[54]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<p class="h2">APRIL.</p> + +<p class="out">The beautiful Floscule—Mode of seeking for Tubicolor Rotifers—Mode +of illuminating the Floscule—Difficulty of seeing the transparent +tube—Protrusion of long hairs—Lobes—Gizzard—Hairy lobes of +Floscule not rotatory organs—Glass troughs—Their construction +and use—Movement of globules in lobes of Floscule—Chætonotus +larus—Its mode of swimming—Coleps hirtus—Devourer of dead +Entomostraca—Dead Rotifer and Vibriones—Theories of fermentation +and putrefaction—Euplotes and Stylonichia—Fecundity of +Stylonichia.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_068.jpg" width="91" height="90" alt="i068" title="F"> +<p class="minus"><b>EW</b> living creatures deserve so well the appellation +of "beautiful" as the <i>Floscularia ornata</i>, +or Beautiful Floscule, although to contemplate +a motionless and uncoloured portrait, one would +imagine that it exhibited no graces of either colour or +form. Mr. Gosse has, however, done it justice, and +the drawing in his "Tenby" is executed with that +rare combination of scientific accuracy and artistic +skill, for which the productions of his pencil are +renowned.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_069.jpg" width="400" height="245" alt="i069" title=""> +<span class="caption">The Beautiful Floscule. A.—Partially protruded. B.—Freely protruded, with three eggs. C.—Appearance +of young. D.—Floscule seventeen hours old. D'.—Jaws of Floscule, as figured by Mr. Gosse.</span> +</div> + +<p>Probably the sketches in several works of authority +representing the long cilia as short bristles, are merely +copies from old drawings, from objects imperfectly +<span class="pagenum">[55]</span>seen under indifferent microscopes, and before the +refinements of illumination were understood. Be this +as it may, any reader will be fortunate if on an April, +or any other morning, he or she effects the capture of +one of these exquisite objects, although the first impression +may not equal previous expectations, as the +delicacy of the organism is not disclosed by a mode of +using the light which answers well enough for the +common infusoria.</p> + +<p>When the Floscules, or other tubicolar Rotifers are +specially sought for, the best way is to proceed to a +pond where slender-leaved water-plants grow, and to +examine a few branches at a time in a phial of water +with a pocket-lens. They are all large enough to be +discerned, if present, in this manner, and as soon as +one is found, others may be expected, either in the +same or in adjacent parts of the pond, for they are +gregarious in their habits. With many, however, the +first finding of a Floscule will be an accident, as was +the case last April, when a small piece of myriophyllum +was placed in the live-box, and looked over to see +what it might contain. The first glimpse revealed an +egg-shaped object, of a brownish tint, stretching itself +upon a stalk, and showing some symptoms of hairs or +cilia at its head. This was enough to indicate the +nature of the creature, and to show the necessity for a +careful management of the light, which being adjusted +obliquely, gave quite a new character to the scene. +The dirty brown hue disappeared, and was replaced by +brilliant colours; while the hairs, instead of appearing +few and short, were found to be extremely numerous,<span class="pagenum">[56]</span> +very long, and glistening like delicate threads of spun +glass.</p> + +<p>Knowing that the Floscules live in transparent +gelatinous tubes, such an object was carefully looked +for, but in this instance, as is not uncommon, it was +perfectly free from extraneous matter, and possessed +nearly the same refractive power as the water, so that +displaying it to advantage required some little trouble +in the way of careful focusing, and many experiments +as to the best angle at which the mirror should be +turned to direct the light. When all was accomplished, +it was seen that the Floscule had her abode in a clear +transparent cylinder, like a thin confectioner's jar, +which she did not touch except at the bottom, to which +her foot was attached. Lying aside her in the bottle +were three large eggs, and the slightest shock given to +the table, induced her to draw back in evident alarm. +Immediately afterwards she slowly protruded a dense +bunch of the fine long hairs, which quivered in the +light, and shone with a delicate bluish-green lustre, +here and there varied by opaline tints.</p> + +<p>The hairs were thrust out in a mass, somewhat after +the mode in which the old-fashioned telescope hearth-brooms +were made to put forth their bristles. As soon +as they were completely everted, together with the +upper portion of the Floscule, six lobes gradually +separated, causing the hairs to fall on all sides in a +graceful shower, and when the process was complete, +they remained perfectly motionless, in six hollow fan-shaped +tufts, one being attached to each lobe. Some +internal ciliary action, quite distinct from the hairs,<span class="pagenum">[57]</span> +and which has never been precisely understood, caused +gentle currents to flow towards the mouth in the +middle of the lobes, and from the motion of the gizzard, +imperfectly seen through the integument, and from the +rapid filling of the stomach with particles of all hues, +it was plain that captivity had not destroyed the +Floscule's appetite, and that the drop of water in the +live-box contained a good supply of food.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the particles swallowed were too small to +be discerned, although their aggregate effect was +visible; but often a monad or larger object was ingulfed, +but without any ciliary action being visible to +account for the journey they were evidently compelled +to perform. The long hairs took no part whatever in +the foraging process, and as they do not either provide +victuals or minister to locomotion, they are clearly not, +as was supposed by early observers, representatives of +the "wheels," which the ordinary Rotifers present. +Neither can the cylindrical jar or bottle be justly +deemed to occupy the position of the lorica, or carapace +which we have before described. The general structure +of the creature and the nature of its gizzard distinctly +marked it out as a member of the family we call +"Rotifers," but the absence of anything like "wheels" +proves that those organs are not essential characteristics +of this class.</p> + +<p>Noticeable currents are not always produced when +the mouth of this Floscule is fully expanded. On one +occasion, one having five lobes was discovered standing +at such an angle in a glass trough that the aperture +could be looked down into. The position rendered it<span class="pagenum">[58]</span> +impossible to use a higher power than about two +hundred linear, but with this, and the employment of +carmine, nothing like a vortex was seen during a whole +evening, although a less power was sufficient to show +the ciliary whirlpools made by small specimens of +<i>Epistylis</i> and <i>Vaginicola</i>, which were in the small +vessel. The density of the integument was unfavorable +to viewing the action of the gizzard, but it could be +indistinctly perceived. The contractions and subsequent +expansions of the cup, formed by the upper part of the +creature, may be one way in which its food is drawn +in, but there is no doubt it can produce currents when +it thinks proper. Sometimes animalcules in the +vicinity of Floscules whirl about as if under the influence +of such currents. Some may be seen to enter the +space between the lobes, swim about inside, and then +get out again, while every now and then one will be +sucked in too far for retreat.</p> + +<p>Above the gizzard in the Horned Floscule,<a name="FNanchor_A_10" id="FNanchor_A_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> I have +seen an appearance as if a membrane or curtain was +waving to and fro, while another was kept in a fixed +<span class="pagenum">[59]</span>perpendicular position. Mr. Gosse, speaking of this +genus, observes "that the whole of the upper part of +the body is lined with a sensitive, contractile, partially +opaque membrane, which a little below the disk recedes +from the walls of the body, and forms a diaphragm, +with a highly contractile and versatile central orifice. +At some distance lower down another diaphragm +occurs, and the ample chamber thus enclosed forms a +kind of <i>crop</i>, or receptacle for the captured prey."</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_10" id="Footnote_A_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The Horned Floscules (<i>F. cornuta</i>) which I have found, and which +bred in a glass jar, were not so large as those described by Mr. Dobie, +as quoted in 'Pritchard's Infusoria.' Mr. Dobie's specimens were +1—40" when extended; mine about half that size, five-lobed, and with +a long slender proboscis, standing in a wavy line outside one lobe. +Mr. Dobie also describes an <i>F. campanulata</i>, with five flattened lobes. +The 'Micrographic Dictionary' pronounces these two species "doubtfully +distinct." I have three or four times met with a variety of +<i>F. ornata</i>, in which one lobe was much enlarged and flattened, but +they had no proboscis. In what I take for <i>F. cornuta</i>, the horn or +proboscis has sometimes been a conspicuous object, and at others so fine +and transparent as to be only visible in certain lights.</p></div> + +<p>"From the ventral side of the ample crop that +precedes the stomach, there springs in <i>F. ornata</i> a +perpendicular membrane or veil, partly extending +across the cavity. This is free, except at the vertical +edge, by which it is attached to the side of the +chamber, and being ample and of great delicacy, it +continually floats and waves from side to side. At the +bottom of this <i>veil</i>, but on the dorsal side, are placed +the jaws, consisting of a pair of curved, unjointed, but +free <i>mallei</i>, with a membranous process beneath each."</p> + +<p>The Beautiful Floscule could always be made to +repeat the process of retreating into her den, and +coming out again to spread her elegant plumes before +our eyes, by giving the table a smart knock, and her +colours and structure were well exhibited by the dark-ground +illumination, which has been explained in a +previous page.</p> + +<p>An object like this should be watched at intervals +for hours and even days, especially if the eggs are +nearly ready to give up their infantile contents. This +was the case with the specimen described, and after a +few hours a young Floscule escaped, looking very much<span class="pagenum">[60]</span> +like a clumsy little grub. After a few awkward +wriggles the new-born baby became more quiet, and on +looking at it again at the expiration of seventeen hours, +it had developed into the shape of a miniature plum-pudding, +with five or six tiny lobes expanding their +tufts of slender hair. Unfortunately its further proceedings +were not seen, or it would have been +interesting to note the growth of the foot, and the +formation of the gelatinous tube, which is probably +thrown off in rings.</p> + +<p>To view the details of the structure of a Floscule, it +must be placed in a live-box or compressorium, and if +specimens are scarce, they should not be allowed to +remain in the limited quantity of water those contrivances +hold, after the observations are concluded, but +should be carefully removed, and placed in a little vial, +such as homœopathists use for their medicine. By +such means an individual may be kept alive for many +days. It is also interesting to place a little branch +of the plant occupied by Floscules or similar creatures, +in a glass trough, where they may be made quite at +home, and their proceedings agreeably watched by a +one-inch or two-thirds power. These troughs,<a name="FNanchor_A_11" id="FNanchor_A_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> which +can be obtained of the optician, should be of plate +glass, about three inches long, nearly the same height, +and about half an inch wide. If narrower, or much +taller, they will not stand, which is a great incon<span class="pagenum">[61]</span>venience. +The pieces of glass are stuck together with +marine glue, and a very simple contrivance enables the +plants or other objects to be pressed near the front, and +thus brought into better view. A strip of glass, rather +narrower than the width of the trough, is dropped into +it, and allowed to fall to the bottom. Then a piece of +glass rather shorter than the trough, and rather higher +than its front side, is placed so as to slope from the +front of the bottom towards the back at the top. The +piece of glass first dropped in keeps it in the right +position, and the trough is thus made into a V-shaped +vessel, wide at the top and gradually narrowing. Any +object then placed in it will fall till it fits some part of +the V, where it will remain for observation. A small +wedge of cork enables the moveable piece of glass to +be thrown forwards, until it assumes any angle, or is +brought parallel to the front of the trough.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_11" id="Footnote_A_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The shallow cells with thin sliding covers devised by Mr. Curteis +(of Baker's), are still more convenient when no pressure is required, +and the objects are small. When not under the microscope they can +be kept full of water by immersion in a tumbler.</p></div> + +<p>A power of five or six hundred diameters generally +enables a movement of small globules to be seen at the +extremity of the lobes of the Floscule, and the gizzard +may be made plain by dissolving the rest of the creature +in a drop of solution of caustic potash. It also becomes +more visible as the supply of food falls short. Mr. +Gosse describes the body as "lined with a yellowish +vascular membrane," and young specimens exhibit two +red eyes, which may or may not be found in adults. +When these eyes of Rotifers are not readily conspicuous, +they must be sought for by opaque illumination, or by +the dark-ground method which, especially with the +parabola, is successful in bringing them out.</p> + +<p>Naturalists, and possibly the specimens also, do not<span class="pagenum">[62]</span> +always agree in the number of lobes assigned to the +"Beautiful Floscule," and although it is easy enough +to count them in <i>some</i> positions, the observer may have +to exercise a good deal of patience before he is certain +whether they are five or six. For a long evening only +five could be discerned in the specimen now described, +but the next night six were apparent without difficulty +or doubt. The hairs also will not appear anything like +their true length or number, unless the object-glass is +good, and great care is taken not to obscure them by a +blaze of ill-directed light.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="300" height="215" alt="i078" title=""> +<span class="caption">Chætonotus larus (swimming).</span> +</div> + +<p>After the Floscules had been sufficiently admired and +put aside, for observations to be repeated on future +occasions, a Rotifer attracted attention by his merry-andrew +pranks, throwing himself in all directions by +means of two long and extremely mobile toes attached +to his tail-foot. Then came a creature swimming like +an otter, thrusting his head about on all sides, and +looking much more intelligent than most of his compeers +of the pond. Looked at vertically, he was somewhat<span class="pagenum">[63]</span> +slipper-shaped, the rounded heel forming his head, then +narrowing to a waist, and expanding towards the other +end, which projected in a fork. All round him were +long cilia, which were conspicuous near the head, and a +fine line indicated the passage from his mouth to the +stomach, which seemed full of granular matter. Presently +he took to crawling, or rather running, over a +thread of conferva, and then his back was elegantly +arched, and his cilia stood erect like the quills of a +porcupine. This was the <i>Chætonotus larus</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_079.jpg" width="300" height="116" alt="i079" title=""> +<span class="caption">Chætonotus larus (crawling).</span> +</div> + +<p>In Pritchard's "Infusoria," the views of those writers +are followed who rank this animal amongst the Rotifers, +and place it in the family <i>Icthidina</i>. To help out this +theory, the cilia upon the ventral surface are imagined +to form a "band-like rotary organ;" but in truth they +bear no resemblance whatever to the so-called wheels of +the ordinary Rotifers, nor is there anything like the +gizzard which true Rotifers present. Ehrenberg treated +it as a Rotifer, and Dujardin placed it among the Infusoria, +in a particular class, comprehending symmetrical +organisms. The 'Microscopic Dictionary' +remarks that its "structure requires further investigation,"<a name="FNanchor_A_12" id="FNanchor_A_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> +<span class="pagenum">[64]</span>and while the learned decide all the intricate +questions of its zoological rank, the ordinary observer +will be pleased to watch its singular aspect and lively +motions. Its size, according to the 'Micrographic +Dictionary,' varies from 1—710" to 1—220", and while +its general proceeding may be watched with an inch or +two-thirds object-glass, and the second eye-piece, a +power of five hundred linear (obtained by a quarter or +a fifth) is required to make out the details of its structure. +If placed in a live-box with threads of conferva, +and a little decayed vegetation, it may be observed to +group about among them, and shake them like a dog.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_12" id="Footnote_A_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See a valuable paper by Mr. Gosse, "History of the Hairy-backed +Animalcules," 'Intellectual Observer,' vol. v, p. 387, in which the +known species are described and reasons given for following Vogt and +ranging them with the Turbellarian worms.</p></div> + +<p>We have said that water-fleas were among the inhabitants +of a bottle filled at the pond, and as they go +the way of all flesh, it is common to find some odd-looking +animalcules ready to devour their mortal +remains. These are creatures shaped like beer-barrels, +upon short legs, and which swim with a tubby rolling +gait. Looking at one of these little tubs lengthwise, a +number of lines are seen, as though the edge of each +stave projected a little above the general level, and +transverse markings are also apparent, which may be +compared to hoops. This is the <i>Coleps hirtus</i>, which +differs from the usual type of Infusoria, by being symmetrical, +that is, divisible into two equal and similar +halves. The dimensions of this species vary from +1—570 to 1—430, and its colour varies from white to +<span class="pagenum">[65]</span>brown. It has been observed to increase by transverse +self-division, and has two orifices, one at each end, for +receiving food and ejecting the remains. It often +requires some little trouble to get a good view of the +cilia, which are arranged in transverse and longitudinal +rows. A power of one hundred and fifty linear is +convenient for viewing it in motion, but when quiet +under pressure, one of five or six hundred may be used +with advantage.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_081.jpg" width="180" height="235" alt="i081" title=""> +<span class="caption">Coleps hirtus.</span> +</div> + +<p>Among the rubbish at the bottom of the bottle, in +which the coleps was found, was a minute dead Rotifer, +the flesh of which was fast disappearing, but upon being +examined with a power of nine hundred and sixty +diameters, it was observed to swarm with extremely +minute <i>vibriones</i>, the largest only appearing under that +immense magnification like chains of bluish-green +globules, not bigger than the heads of minikin pins, +while the smallest were known by a worm-like wriggling, +although their structure could not be defined.<span class="pagenum">[66]</span> +These <i>vibriones</i> are probably members of the vegetable +world, and they always appear when animal matter +undergoes putrefaction.</p> + +<p>M. Pasteur has brought forward elaborate experiments +to show that the development of the yeast plant is an +act correlative to alcoholic fermentation, and in like +manner the growth of <i>vibriones</i> may stand in correlation +to putrefactive decomposition.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="400" height="222" alt="i082" title=""> +<span class="caption">A, Euplotes (patella); B, side view of ditto; C, stylonichia.</span> +</div> + +<p>Ehrenberg considered them animals, and fancied he +detected in them a plurality of stomachs; but the +vegetable theory is the more probable, at any rate of the +species under our notice, which is often seen, though +not always so minute.</p> + +<p>At this time two interesting animalcules were very +plentiful—the <i>Euplotes patella</i>, and <i>Stylonichia</i>, both +remarkable as exhibiting an advance in organization, +which approximates them to the higher animals. In +addition to cilia they possess <i>styles</i>, which take the<span class="pagenum">[67]</span> +place of the limbs of more elaborately-constructed +creatures, and give a variety to their means of locomotion. +The <i>Euplotes</i> is furnished with an oval carapace +covering the upper surface, which in different individuals, +and probably at different ages, exhibits slightly +varied markings round its margin, which in the specimen +drawn above consisted of dots. They can run, climb, +or swim, and exemplify a singular habit which several +of the infusoria possess, that of moving for a little time +in one direction, and then suddenly, and without any +apparent cause, reversing it. If the reader is fond +of learned appellations, he can call this <i>diastrophy</i>, +but we do not know that he will be any the wiser +for it.</p> + +<p>The Stylonichia are oval animalcules, surrounded by +cilia, and having moreover a collection of styles, both +straight and curved, the latter called <i>uncini</i>, or little +hooks. They swim steadily on, and then dart back, but +not so far as they have advanced, and may be seen to +keep up this fidgety motion by the hour together. +Pritchard tells us Ehrenberg found that a single animalcule +lived nine days; during the first twenty-four +hours it was developed by transverse self-division into +three animals; these in twenty-four hours formed two +each in the same manner, so that by self-division only +(without ova), these animalcules increased three or four-fold +in twenty-four hours, and <i>may thus produce a million</i> +from a single <i>animalcule in ten days</i>. Such are the +amazing powers of reproduction conferred upon these +humble creatures, powers which are fully employed +when the surrounding circumstances are favorable,<span class="pagenum">[68]</span> +and which, in the aggregate, change the condition of +large masses of matter, and bring within the circle of +life millions upon millions of particles every minute of +the day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_084.jpg" width="180" height="42" alt="i084" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[69]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<p class="h2">MAY.</p> + +<p class="out">Floscularia cornuta—Euchlanis triquetra—Melicerta ringens—its +powers as brickmaker, architect, and mason—Mode of viewing the +Melicerta—Use of glass-cell—Habits of Melicerta—Curious +Attitudes—Leave their tubes at death—Carchesium—Epistylis—Their +elegant tree forms—A Parasitic Epistylis like the "Old Man +of the Sea"—Halteria and its Leaps—Aspidisca Lynceus.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_085.jpg" width="88" height="90" alt="i085" title="M"> +<p class="minus"><b>AY</b>, the first of summer months, and of old +famous for floral games, which found their +latest patrons in the chimney-sweeps of +London, is a good time for the microscopist among the +ponds, for the increase of warmth and heat favours both +animal and vegetable life, and so we found as we carried +home some tops of myriophyllum, and soon discovered +a colony of tubicolor rotifers among the tiny +branches. They proved to be Floscules, generally +resembling the <i>F. ornata</i>, described in a previous page, +but having a long slender proboscis hanging like a +loose ringlet down one side. The cilia or hairs were +not so long as in the Beautiful Floscules we had before +obtained, nor was their manner of opening so elegant; +but they were, nevertheless, objects of great interest, +and were probably specimens of the <i>Floscularia cornuta</i>. +A swimming rotifer in a carapace somewhat fiddle-shaped,<span class="pagenum">[70]</span> +with one eye in its forehead, and a two-pronged +tail sticking out behind (the <i>Euchlanis triquetra</i>), also +served to occupy attention; but a further search among +the myriophyllum revealed more treasures of the tube-dwelling +kind. These were specimens of that highly +curious Rotifer, the <i>Melicerta ringens</i>, who, not content +with dwelling, like the Floscules, in a gelatinous +bottle, is at once brickmaker, mason, and architect, +and fabricates as pretty a tower as it is easy to conceive. +The creature itself stands upon a retractile foot-stalk, +and thrusts out above its battlements a large +head, with four leaf-like expansions surrounded by +cilia. Between the lower lobes, or leaves, the gizzard +is seen grinding away, and above it is an organ, not +always displayed, and of which Mr. Gosse was fortunate +enough to discover the use. This eminent naturalist +likens it to the circular ventilator sometimes inserted +in windows, and he found it was the machine for +making the yellow ornamental bricks of which the +tower is composed. Pellet by pellet, or brick by brick, +does the Melicerta build her house, which widens +gradually from the foundation to the summit, and every +layer is placed with admirable regularity.</p> + +<p>In order to obtain the materials for her brickmaking +the Melicerta must have the power of modifying the +direction of the ciliary currents, so as to throw a stream +of small particles into the mould, which is a muscular +organ, and capable of secreting a waterproof cement, by +which they are fastened together. The result is, not to +produce anything like the tubes made by the caddis-worms +out of grains of sand, but entirely to change<span class="pagenum">[71]</span> +the appearance of the materials employed. All large +particles are rejected, and only those retained which +will form a homogeneous pulp with the viscid secretion; +and when the process is complete the head of the creature +is bent down, and the pellet deposited in its appropriate +place. Each pellet appears originally to possess +a more or less conical figure, but when they are +squeezed together to make a compact wall they all tend +to a hexagonal form, by which they are able to touch +at all points, and any holes or interstices are avoided.</p> + +<p>According to Professor Williamson the young +Melicerta commences her house by secreting "a thin +hyaline cylinder," and the first row of pellets are +deposited, not at the base as would be expected, but in +a ring about the middle of the tube. "At first new +additions are made to both extremities of the enlarging +ring; but the jerking constrictions of the animal at +length force the caudal end of the cylinder down upon +the leaf, to which it becomes securely cemented by the +same viscous secretion as causes the little spheres to +cohere."</p> + +<p>Round the margins of the lobes or expansions may +be seen delicate threads towards which others radiate; +these are thought by Mr. Gosse to be portions of a +nervous system, and two calcars or feelers serve as +organs of relation. The young Melicertas are likewise +furnished with a pair of eyes, which are probably +rudimentary, and disappear as they grow up.</p> + +<p>The Melicerta tubes, being large enough to be visible +to the naked eye, are easily crushed in the live-box, +and to avoid this, they are conveniently viewed in a<span class="pagenum">[72]</span> +shallow glass cell, covered up as before described. By +occasionally changing the water one may be kept for +days in the same cell, and will reward the pains by frequently +exposing its flower-like head. Usually the +horns or feelers come out first, and then a lump of flesh. +After this, if all seems right, the wheels appear, and +make a fine whirlpool, as may be readily seen by the +use of a little indigo or carmine.</p> + +<p>The Melicerta is, however, an awkward object to +undertake to show to our friends, for as they knock at +the door she is apt to turn sulky, and when once in this +mood it is impossible to say when her fair form will +reappear. At times the head is wagged about in all +directions with considerable vehemence, playing singular +antics, and distorting her lobes so as to exhibit a +Punch and Judy profile. When these creatures die +they leave their tubes, which are often found empty in +the ponds they frequent. The Melicertas are conveniently +viewed with a power of from sixty to one +hundred linear, and a colony of them may be kept alive +for some weeks in a glass jar or tank.</p> + +<p>Among the remainder of my tiny captives were two +beautiful members of the Vorticella family, <i>Epistylis</i> +and <i>Carchesium</i>. The reader will remember that in +the Vorticella previously described, the bells stood upon +stalks that were very flexible, and retractile by means +of a muscle running down their length. The <i>Epistylis</i> +is, as its name imports, the dweller on a <i>pillar</i>. The +stem is stiff, or only slightly flexible, and has no apparatus +by which it can be drawn down. The specimen +mentioned stood like a palm-tree, and the large oval<span class="pagenum">[73]</span> +bells drooped elegantly on all sides, as its portrait will +show. At times they nodded with a rapid jerk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="fn13" id="fn13"></a> +<img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="i089" title=""> +<span class="caption">Epistylis.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Carchesium</i> differs from the common <i>Vorticella</i>, +by branching like a tree, but the stems are all retractile, +although the trunk seldom exercises the power. +A group of these creatures presents a spectacle of extraordinary +beauty—it looks like a tree from fairy-land, +in which every leaf has a sentient life. In general +structure the bells of the <i>Epistylis</i> and the <i>Carchesium</i> +resemble the common <i>Vorticella</i>, and like them may be +seen with a power of about one hundred linear for +general effect, and with a higher one for the examination<span class="pagenum">[74]</span> +of special points. Pritchard notices three species +of <i>Carchesium</i>, and eighteen of <i>Epistylis</i>;<a name="FNanchor_A_13" id="FNanchor_A_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> some of +which it is to be hoped will turn out to be only varieties.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p> + <a name="Footnote_A_13" id="Footnote_A_13"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_A_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> +An interesting <i>Epistylis</i>, called <i>Digitalis</i>, from its bells resembling +fox-glove flowers in shape, occurs as a parasite upon the <i>Cyclops quadricornis</i>, +a very common entomostracan in fresh-water ponds. At this +moment I have a beautiful specimen, branching like a bushy tree, and +attached to the tail of a <i>Cyclops</i>, who can scarcely move under his +burden, which is like Sinbad's "Old Man of the Sea." (See illustration <a href="#fn13">above</a>.)</p></div> + +<p>Towards the end of this month rotifers abounded, and +polyps were plentiful. Among the rotifers was one +about a two-hundredth of an inch long, protected by a +carapace, and having a tail terminating in a single style, +hence called "Monostyle." There is perhaps no class +of creatures that present so many curious and unexpected +forms as the rotifers; and although we have +noticed a good many, there are far more that remain to +be found and described.</p> + +<p>The water in which the preceding animals dwelt was +enlivened by the jumps of the <i>Halteria</i>, a little globe +surrounded by long fine cilia, with which its movements +were effected; and its companion was the <i>Aspidisca +lynceus</i>, an oval animalcule, having a distinct cilia or +<i>lorica</i>, and furnished, in addition to cilia, with bristles, +which enable it to walk and climb as well as swim.</p> + +<p>There were also some eggs of rotifers attached to the +water plants, in which motion could be descried at intervals, +and a little red eye observed. These eggs are +always large in proportion to the creatures that +lay them, and if they escape being devoured by +<span class="pagenum">[75]</span>enemies, may be watched until their contents step +forth.</p> + +<p>In this, as in other months, omission is made of +creatures that have already come under notice, or our +list would assume larger dimensions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="200" height="31" alt="i091" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[76]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<p class="h2">JUNE AND JULY.</p> + +<p class="out">Lindia Torulosa—Œcistes Crystallinus—A professor of deportment on +stilts—Philodina—Changes of form and habits—Structure of +Gizzard in Philodina family—Mr. Gosse's description—Motions of +Rotifers—Indications of a will—Remarks on the motions of lower +creatures—Various theories—Possibility of reason—Reflex actions +Brain of insects—Consensual actions—Applications of physiological +reasoning to the movements of Rotifers and Animalcules.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_092.jpg" width="89" height="90" alt="i092" title="A"> +<p class="minus"> <b>PRESSURE</b> of other occupations prevented +full use being made of June and July, nor +was the weather at all propitious. For this +reason the microscopic doings of these two months are +recorded in one chapter.</p> + +<p>As usual the Kentish Town ponds were productive +of objects, and among them were several rotifers not +found in the previous months. The first of these was a +very small worm-like thing, with one eye, a tuft of cilia +about the mouth, and two toes at the tail end. Had it +not been for the jaws, which were working like fingers +thrust against each other, and which were unmistakably +of the rotifer pattern, the animal might have been +supposed to belong to some other class. According to +the 'Micrographic Dictionary,' the <i>Lindia torulosa</i> is +1—75" long, but this specimen was only about 1—200".<span class="pagenum">[77]</span> +It was possibly very young, and did not thrust out its +cilia in two distinct tufts, as Cohn describes, although +it may have had the power of doing so. At times it +sprang quickly backwards and forwards, bringing its +head where its tail was before. This object required for +its comfortable elucidation a power of about six hundred +linear.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="180" height="394" alt="i093" title=""> +<span class="caption">Œcistes crystallinus.</span> +</div> + +<p>Among the common water-plants, which are worth +examining as the probable abodes of rotifers or infusoria, +is the pretty little thing called "star-weed," +some of which was obtained from the last-mentioned<span class="pagenum">[78]</span> +ponds, and on examination yielded a specimen of a +tube-dwelling rotifer, the <i>Œcistes crystallinus</i>, which, +although less beautiful than the Floscules or the +Melicerta, is, nevertheless, a pretty and interesting +object. In this instance a little rough dirty tube, about +1—70" long, was observed to contain an animal capable +of rising up and expanding a round mouth garnished +with a wreath of cilia; while a little below, the indefatigable +and characteristic gizzard of the tribe was in +full play. A power of two hundred and forty linear +sufficed to afford a good view, and it was seen that a +long, irregular, conical body was supported upon a short +wrinkled stalk. The usual drawings represent this +creature with a short bell-shaped body upon a very long +slender pedicle. Possibly this one might have been able +to show himself under this guise, but he did not attempt +it; his appearance being always pretty much as described, +which made the foot shorter and the body +longer than the measurements which naturalists have +given, and according to which the whole creature is +1—36" long, although the body is only 1—140". The +tube of the <i>Œcistes</i> is called a "lorica," or carapace; +but it has in truth no right whatever to the appellation.</p> + +<p>Another strange rotifer, of whose name I am uncertain, +had an ovalish oblong body, and a pair of legs +like compasses, twice as long as himself. His antics +were those of a posture-master, or "Professor of Deportment" +on stilts. Sometimes he stood bolt upright, +bringing his legs close together; then they were jauntily +crossed, and the body carried horizontally; then the<span class="pagenum">[79]</span> +two legs would be slightly opened, and the body thrown +exactly at right-angles to them. These antics were +repeated all the while the observation lasted, and had a +very funny effect in proving that drollery is practised, +if not understood, in the rotatorial world.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="300" height="243" alt="i095" title=""> +<span class="caption">Philodina (swimming).</span> +</div> + +<p>Another kind of rotifer was abundant—the <i>Philodina</i>, +which belongs to the same family as the common wheel-bearer, +namely, the <i>Philodinæa</i>. The <i>Philodina</i> is a +good deal like the common wheel-bearer, or <i>Rotifer +vulgaris</i>, but is usually of a stouter build, and carries +his eyes in a different place. In the common rotifer +these organs are situated on the proboscis, while those +of the Philodina are lower, and said to be "cervical." +The changes of form in this rotifer are still more +remarkable than in the common wheel-bearer. When +resting it resembles a pear-shaped purse, puckered in at +the mouth. Then it thrusts out its tail-foot, swells its +body to an oval globe, protrudes its feeler, and slightly<span class="pagenum">[80]</span> +exposes a row of cilia. After this two distinct wheels +are everted, and as their cilia whirl and spin, the animal +is swiftly rowed along, until it thinks proper to moor +itself fast by the tail-foot, and employ all its ciliary +power in causing currents to converge towards its +throat. When it pleases it can elongate the body, till +it becomes vermiform, and it walks like the common +rotifer, by curving its back, and bringing its nose and +its tail in contact with the ground.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/i_096.jpg" width="250" height="152" alt="i096" title=""> +<span class="caption">Philodina (crawling).</span> +</div> + +<p>The gizzard of this family (<i>Philodinæa</i>) presents a +considerable deviation from the perfect form exhibited +by the <i>Brachions</i>. According to Mr. Gosse, "The +<i>mallei</i> and the <i>incus</i> (terms already explained) are +soldered together into two subquadrantic-globular +masses, which appear to be muscular, but invested with +a solid integument. The <i>manubria</i> (handles) may still +be recognised in a vertical aspect as three loops, of +which the central one is chiefly developed, and in a +vertical aspect as a translucent reniform (kidney-shaped) +globe." These descriptions are not easy to understand,<span class="pagenum">[81]</span> +not from any want of clearness or precision in the words +employed, but from the complicated character of the +organ, and its very different appearance under different +aspects. To make the matter more intelligible, Mr. +Gosse adds, "the structure and action of an apparatus +of this type may be made more clear by a homely illustration. +Suppose an apple to be divided longitudinally, +leaving the stalk attached to one half. Let this now +be split again longitudinally so far as the stalk, but not +actually separating either portion from it. Draw the +two portions slightly apart, and lay them down on their +rounded surfaces. They now represent the quadrantic +masses in repose, the stalk being the fulcrum, and the +upper surfaces being crossed by the teeth. By the +contraction of the muscles, of which they are composed, +the two segments are made to turn upon their long axis, +until the points of the teeth are brought into contact, +and the toothed surfaces rise and approach each other. +The lower edges do not, however, separate as the upper +edges approach, but the form of the mass alters, becoming +more lenticular, so that when the toothed surfaces +are brought into their closest approximation, the outline +has a subcircular figure. It is on account of this change +of form that I presume the masses themselves to be +partially composed of muscle."</p> + +<p>These remarks, although specially made of the <i>Rotifer +macrurus</i>, are in the main applicable to all the Philodinas, +but the student must not expect to understand +any of the complicated gizzards of the rotifers without +repeated observations, and no small exercise of patience. +It is common to call the portions of the Philodine-pattern<span class="pagenum">[82]</span> +gizzard "stirrup-shaped," but Mr. Gosse has +shown them to be <i>quadrantic</i>, that is, shaped like the +quarter of a sphere.</p> + +<p>As we are not very well off with subjects for description +in these two months, we can afford a little time to +consider a question that continually arises in the mind, +on viewing the movements of animalcules, and especially +of any so highly developed as the rotifers, namely, to +what extent motions which appear intelligent are really +the result of anything like a conscious purpose or will. +When any of the lower animals—a bee, for example—acts +in precisely the same way as all bees have acted +since their proceedings have been observed, we settle +the question by the use of the term <i>instinct</i>. Those who +take the lowest view of insect life, assume that the bee +flies because it has wings, but without wishing to use +them, and that the nerves exciting them to action are +in their turn excited, not by volition, but by some +physical stimulus.</p> + +<p>The sight or the smell of flowers is thought by the +same reasoners to be capable of attracting the insect, +which is unconscious of the attraction, while proximity +of food stimulates the tongue to make the movements +needful for its acquisition, and so forth. The cells, +they tell us, are built according to a pattern which the +earliest bee was impelled to construct by forces that +bear no analogy to human reason and human will, and +so originate all the ordinary processes of bee life. Sometimes, +however, it happens that man or accident interposes +particular obstacles, and forthwith there appears +a particular modification of the orthodox plan, calculated<span class="pagenum">[83]</span> +to meet the special difficulty. How is this? Does +any one of the difficulties which the bee or the ant is +able to get over, produce precisely that kind of electrical +disturbance, or polar arrangement of nerve particles +that is necessary to stimulate the <i>first</i> step of the action +by which the difficulty is surmounted; and does the +new condition thus established stimulate the <i>second</i> +step, and so forth, or can the bee, within certain limits, +really <i>think</i>, design, and contrive?</p> + +<p>No questions are more difficult of solution; but +while protesting against a tendency to undervalue all +life below that of man, we must remember we have in +our bodies processes going on which are not the result +of volition, as when the blood circulates, and its +particles arrange themselves in the pattern required to +form our tissues and organs, and also that many of our +actions belong to the class termed by physiologists, +"reflex," that is, the result of external impressions upon +the nervous system, in which the <i>sentient</i> brain takes no +part. Thus when a strong light stimulates the optic +nerve, the portion of brain with which it is connected +in its turn stimulates the iris to contract the pupil; +and it is supposed that after a man has begun to walk, +through the exercise of his will, he may continue to +walk, by a reflex action; as his feet press the ground +they transmit an impression to the spinal cord, and the +legs receive a fresh impulse to locomotion, although the +mind is completely occupied with other business, and pays +no attention to their proceedings.<a name="FNanchor_A_14" id="FNanchor_A_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The ordinary move<span class="pagenum">[84]</span>ments +of insects appear to be of this character, and +to be excited by the ganglia belonging to the +segment to which the moving limbs are attached. +Thus a centipede will run, after its head has been cut +off, and a water-beetle (<i>Dytiscus</i>) swam energetically +when thrown into water after its brain had been +removed.<a name="FNanchor_B_15" id="FNanchor_B_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_14" id="Footnote_A_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See Carpenter's 'Manual of Physiology.'</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_15" id="Footnote_B_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Carpenter's 'Manual of Physiology,' p. 551.</p></div> + +<p>It must not, however, be assumed that the brain of +insects has nothing to do with their movements. It is +probably the means of co-ordinating or directing them +to a common end, and gives rise to what are called +<i>consensual</i> movements, that is, movements which are +accompanied or stimulated by a sensation, although +not controlled by a will. In man these actions are +frequently exhibited, "as when laughter is provoked +by some ludicrous sight or sound, or by the remembrance +of such at an unseasonable hour."<a name="FNanchor_A_16" id="FNanchor_A_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Sneezing +is another instance of a sensation leading to certain +motions, without any intervention of the human will.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_16" id="Footnote_A_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Ibid., p. 543.</p></div> + +<p>Speaking of these consensual motions, Dr. Carpenter +observes, "It is probable, from the strong manifestations +of emotion, exhibited by many of the lower +animals, that some of the actions which we assemble +under the general designation of instinctive are to be +referred to this group."</p> + +<p>The insect brain is composed of a supra-œsophagal +ganglion and infra-œsophagal one. Von Siebold says, +the first corresponds to the cerebrum of the vertebrata, +and "the second is comparable, perhaps, to the cere<span class="pagenum">[85]</span>bellum +or spinal cord."<a name="FNanchor_A_17" id="FNanchor_A_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The superior ganglion gives +off nerves to the antennæ and eyes, the lower one to the +mandibles, &c. So far as is known the insects that +exhibit the most intelligence have the largest and best +developed brains.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_17" id="Footnote_A_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> 'Anatomy of Invertebrates,' Burnett's trans.</p></div> + +<p>A special volume would be required for anything like +a complete examination of the little which is known on +this subject, but these few remarks may assist the +microscopic beginner in examining the movements of +his subjects, and guard against the error of referring to +reason and volition those which are, probably, either the +direct result of stimulants applied to the surface (as in +nerveless creatures), or the indirect (reflex) result of +such stimulants in beings like the rotifers, who have a +nervous system; or the result of <i>sensations</i>, which +excite actions without previously referring the matter +to the decision of a will. It must not, however, be +too readily assumed that the behaviour of creatures +possessing distinct organs is entirely automatic; and +we must not forget that even the best physiologists +know very little concerning the range of functions +which the nervous ganglia of the invertebrata are able +to discharge.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 120px;"> +<img src="images/i_101.jpg" width="120" height="15" alt="i101" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[86]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<p class="h2">AUGUST.</p> + +<p class="out">Mud coloured by worms—Their retreat at alarm—A country duck-pond—Contents +of its scum—Cryptomonads—Their means of +locomotion—A Triarthra (three-limbed Rotifer)—The Brachion or +Pitcher Rotifer—Its striking form—Enormous gizzard—Ciliary +motion inside this creature—Large eye and brain—Powerful tail—Its +functions—Eggs.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_102.jpg" width="91" height="90" alt="i102" title="I"> +<p class="minus"><b>N</b> the beginning of this month a pond in the +Finchley Road, a little beyond the Highgate +Archway, supplied some more specimens of +the <i>Pterodina patina</i>, described in a previous chapter; +but towards the middle of the month a visit to +Chipstead, in Surrey, enabled a new region to be +explored.</p> + +<p>It is always a treat to a Londoner to get down to +any of the picturesque parts of Surrey; the trees +exhibit a richness of foliage and variety of colour not +seen within the regions of metropolitan smoke; the +distance glows with the rich purples so much admired +in the pictures of Linnel, and the sunsets light up earth +and sky with the golden tints he is so well able to +reproduce. Probably the warmth of the soil, and the +purity of the air, may make Surrey ponds prolific in<span class="pagenum">[87]</span> +microscopic life; but of this we do not know enough to +make a fair comparison, although our own dips into +them were tolerably lucky.</p> + +<p>Walking one day down a lane leading towards +Reigate, where the trees arched overhead, ferns grew +plentifully in the sandy banks, and the sunlight flitted +through the branches, and chequered the path, we came +to a shallow pond, or great puddle, which crossed the +way, and near the edge of the water the eye was struck +with patches of crimson colour. On attempting to +take up a portion of one of these patches the whole +disappeared, although when the disturbance ceased +the rich colour again clothed the dingy mud. The +appearance was caused by thousands of little worms, +belonging to the genus <i>Tubifex</i>, not uncommon in +such situations, who thrust themselves out to enjoy the +light and air, and retreat the moment an alarm is +given. Probably both actions belong to the class +described in the last chapter, as "reflex;" but it would +be interesting to know whether creatures so humble +have any sense of fear. These worms will repay observation, +but in these pages we eschew all their tribe—unless +the rotifers be assigned to them—and take ourselves +once more to our especial subjects.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="300" height="314" alt="i104" title=""> +<span class="caption">Cryptomonad—Euglena.</span> +</div> + +<p>Knowing that farm-ponds are usually well stocked +with microscopic game, we made a dip into one more +especially assigned to ducks, and obtained wondrous +little for our pains. We were not, however, discouraged, +but made an examination of the circumstances, +which determined a particular course of action. Our +piece of water was simply a dirty duck-pond, in which +<span class="pagenum">[88]</span>no large plants were growing, and which did not even +exhibit the little disks of duckweed that are common +to such situations. There was, however, on the surface, +in parts, an exceedingly fine scum of pale yellow green, +and this, armed with a teaspoon, we proceeded to +attack. By careful skimming, a small bottle was half-filled +with minute organic particles, which were likely +to be interesting in themselves, and pretty sure to be +the food for something else. A small drop was placed +on a tablet of the live-box, flattened out by the application +of the cover, and viewed with a power of two +hundred linear, which disclosed swarms of brilliant +green globes, amongst which were a good sprinkle of +minute creatures, like the <i>Euglenæ</i> already described,<span class="pagenum">[89]</span> +and whose little red eyes contrasted vividly with the +prevailing emerald hue.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/i_105.jpg" width="100" height="192" alt="i105" title=""> +<span class="caption">Cryptomonad.</span> +</div> + +<p>One of the higher infusoria, whose species I could +not identify, was devouring them like a porpoise +among sprats. It did not, however, exhibit any sense +in its hungry career; it moved about in all directions, +gulping down what came in its way, but often permitting +the escape of the little green things that were +almost in its mouth. The little globes rolled and +whirled about without the faintest indication of a +purpose, and without exhibiting any instrument with +which their locomotion was effected. To find out how +this was done, a higher power was used, and from their +extreme minuteness an amplification of seven hundred +and twenty linear was conveniently employed, although +a lower one (three or four hundred) disclosed the secret +by showing that a little whip was flourished about +through the neck, which the lower power revealed. +When highly magnified, each little globe was seen to +consist of an outer case of a reddish orange colour,<span class="pagenum">[90]</span> +which was noticeable on looking at the edges, although +in the centre it was transparent enough to show the +brilliant green contents, that resembled the chlorophyll, +or green colouring matter of plants. From a short +neck proceeded the whip-like filament, which was +lashed and twisted about in all directions. These little +creatures belong to the monad family, but whether they +are to be called <i>Trachelomonads</i>, or by some other hard +name, the learned must decide.</p> + +<p>The 'Micrographic Dictionary' puts a note of +interrogation to the assertion of some writers that +<i>Trachelomonads</i> have no necks, and draws some with +such an appendage.</p> + +<p>Pritchard's last edition is against necks, and whether +the necks or no necks are to win, is a mighty question +equal at least to the famous controversy, which divided +the world into "big and little endians in the matter +of breaking eggs."</p> + +<p>A discussion of more importance is, whether these +<i>Cryptomonads</i>—that name will do whatever comes of +the neck controversy—are animals or vegetables. +Lachmann and Mr. Carter affirm that they have +detected a contractile vesicle, which would assimulate +them to the animal series, but their general behaviour +is vegetable; and the 'Micrographic Dictionary' is in +favour of referring them to the <i>Algæ</i>—that great family +of simple plants, of which the sea-weeds are the most +important representatives.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="i107" title=""> +<span class="caption">Triarthra.</span> +</div> + +<p>When any of the monads swarm, there are sure to +be plenty of other creatures to eat them up, and in +this instance the predaceous animalcule, already +<span class="pagenum">[91]</span>described, was not the only enemy the little green +globes had to suffer from, as two sorts of rotifer were +frequently met with. One of these was a very handsome +and singular creature, which in some positions +had the general contour of a cockatoo, only that the +legs were wanting, and the head exhibited a monkey +face. The "wheels" were represented by ciliary tufts, +and two bright red eyes twinkled with a knowing look. +From each shoulder proceeded a long curved spine, and +about two thirds down the body, and lying between +the two long spines, a shorter one was articulated, +which followed the same curve. A gizzard was busy in +the breast, and the body terminated in two short toes, +which grasped a large round egg. Whenever the cilia +were drawn in, the three spines were thrown up; but +they had an independent motion of their own, and +every now and then were jerked suddenly and violently<span class="pagenum">[92]</span> +back, which occasioned a rapid change in the creature's +position. The gizzard appeared to consist of two +rounded masses, having several ridges of teeth, which +worked against each other something like the prominences +of a coffee-mill. From the three spines, this +animal was a <i>Triarthra</i>, or Three-limbed Rotifer, but +the position of the spines, and the toes, made it differ +from any species described in the 'Micrographic +Dictionary,' or in Pritchard.</p> + +<p>Whether or not this species is to be regarded as +having a lorica or not, must depend upon the precise +meaning attached to that word. At any rate the +integument was much firmer than in many of the +rotifers, and gave an efficient support to the spines +which a mere skin could not do. As Mr. Gosse +remarks of an allied genus, the <i>Polyarthra</i>, or Many-limbed +Rotifer, this creature could not be investigated +without coming to the conclusion "Here again we have +true jointed limbs;" a fact of great importance in +determining the zoological rank of the family, and in +supporting Mr. Gosse's view some at least bore a strong +affinity with the group of <i>Arthropoda</i>, of which the +insects are the principal representatives.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_109.jpg" width="400" height="477" alt="i109" title=""> +<span class="caption">Brachionus urceolaris. +This drawing has been accidentally reversed by the engraver, +which alters the relative place of the internal organs.</span> +</div> + +<p>Another rotifer of even greater interest, which was +busy among the Cryptomonads, was the Brachion, or +"Pitcher Rotifer" (Brachionus). The members of +this genus will frequently reward the searcher into +pond-life. Their main characteristic is a cup or pitcher-shaped +lorica, which is cut or notched at the top into +several horns or projections, the number of which +indicates the species; while two or more similar +<span class="pagenum">[93]</span>projections ornament the bottom. This lorica is like +the shell of a tortoise open at both ends; from the top +an extremely beautiful wreath of cilia is protruded, and +also some longer and stiff cilia, or slender spines, which +do not exhibit the rotatory movement. The ciliary<span class="pagenum">[94]</span> +apparatus is in reality continuous, but it more often +presents the appearance of several divisions, and the +lateral cilia frequently hang over the sides. From the +large size of each cilium they are very favorable +creatures for exhibiting the real nature of the action, +which gives rise to the rotatory appearance, and which +can be easier studied than described. By movements, +partly from their base, and partly arising from the +flexibility of their structure, the cilia come alternately +in and out of view, and when set in a circular pattern, +the effect is amazingly like the spinning round of a wheel. +The internal arrangements of the Brachiones are finely +displayed, and they have a most aldermanic allowance +of gizzard, which extends more than half way across +each side of the median line, and shows all the portions +described by Mr. Gosse. As the joints of this machine +move, and the teeth are brought together, one could +fancy a sound of mill-work was heard, and the observer +is fully impressed with a sense of mechanical power.</p> + +<p>When the creature is obliging enough to present a +full front view, her domestic economy is excellently +displayed. The prey that is caught in her whirlpool is +carried down by a strong ciliary current to the gizzard, +which may be often seen grappling with objects that +appear much too big for its grasp; and Mr. Gosse was +lucky in witnessing an attempt to chew up a morsel +that did actually prove too large and too tough, and +which, after many ineffectual efforts, was suddenly cast +out. As soon as food has passed the gizzard, it is +assisted in its journey by more ciliary currents, which +are noticeable in the capacious stomach, in the neighbourhood<span class="pagenum">[95]</span> +of which the secreting and other vessels are +readily observed. Just over the gizzard blazes a great +red eye, of a square or oblong form, and it reposes +upon a large mass of soft granular-looking brain, +which well justifies Mr. Gosse's epithet "enormous." +Whether this brain is highly organized enough to be a +<i>thinking</i> apparatus, we do not know, but it is evidently +the cause of a very vigorous and consentaneous action +of the various organs the Brachion possesses.</p> + +<p>A description of the Brachion would be very incomplete +if it omitted that important organ the tail, +which in this family reaches the highest point of +development. It is a powerful muscular organ, of +great size in proportion to the animal, capable of complete +retraction within the carapace, and of being +everted wholly, or partially, at will. It terminates in +two short conical toes, protruded from a tube-like +sheath, and capable of adhering firmly even to a substance +so slippery as glass. This tail may be observed +to indicate a variety of emotions, if we can ascribe +such feelings to a rotifer, and it answers many purposes. +Now we see it cautiously thrust forth, and turned this +way and that, exploring like an elephant's trunk, and +almost as flexible. Now it seizes firm hold of some +substance, and anchors its proprietor hard and fast. A +few moments afterwards it lashes out right and left +with fury, like the tail of a cat in a passion. Then +again it will be retracted, and a casual observer might +not imagine the Brachion to be furnished with such a +terminal implement.</p> + +<p>The Brachiones may often be seen with one or more<span class="pagenum">[96]</span> +large eggs stuck about the upper part of the tail, and +others may be discerned inside. One specimen before +us has three eggs attached to her in this way. They +are large oval bodies, with a firm shell. These +creatures differ very much in appearance, according to +the direction in which they are seen, and a side view +makes them look so different from a full front or back +aspect, that it would be easy to suppose another animal +was under observation. The extent to which the +ciliary apparatus is protruded, and the pattern it forms +likewise differs continually; and hence no drawing, +however correct, is sure to resemble the arrangement +that may be presented to the observer's eye. But +however our little "Pitcher" may be viewed, it is sure +to prove a spectacle of interest and delight.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_112.jpg" width="180" height="19" alt="i112" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[97]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<p class="h2">SEPTEMBER.</p> + +<p class="out">Microscopic value of little pools—Curious facts in appearance and +disappearance of Animalcules and Rotifers—Mode of preserving +them in a glass jar—Fragments of Melicerta tube—Peculiar shape +of Pellets—Amphileptus—Scaridium Longicaudum—A long-tailed +Rotifer—Stephanoceros Eichornii—A splendid Rotifer—Its gelatinous +bottle—Its crown of tentacles—Retreats on alarm—Illumination +requisite to see its beauties—Its greediness—Richly-coloured +Food—Nervous ganglia.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_113.jpg" width="92" height="90" alt="i113" title="S"> +<p class="noin"><b>CATTERED</b> about Hampstead Heath are a +number of little pools, not big enough to be +dignified by the name of ponds. They are +generally surrounded by furze bushes, and would escape +attention if not actually looked for. Those which are +mere puddles, and have only a brief existence in rainy +weather, seldom reward the labour of investigation; +but others are permanent, except after prolonged +drought, and afford convenient situations for the +growth of confervæ, star-weed, and other plants. These +will nearly always repay the microscopic collector +during the winter, when he must break the ice to get +at their contents; in spring, when long chains of frog-spawn +afford ocular evidence of the prolific properties<span class="pagenum">[98]</span> +of the Batrachian reptiles; and in summer, when they +afford both shade and sunshine to their numerous +inhabitants. Small beetles, water-spiders, larvæ of +gnats, and other insects, rotifers, including the tubicolar +sorts, and several varieties of infusoria may be +expected and generally found. There is, however, a +curious fact about ponds, big and little, which Pritchard +remarks upon in his 'Infusoria,' and which +corresponds with our own experience, that those which +have proved to be well stocked with any particular +creature during one year, will very likely contain none +of it in the next. There are of course exceptions to +this rule, but we have often been astonished and disappointed +at finding the complete change, both in +populousness and population, that a revolution of +twelve months will make; and it would be extremely +interesting to notice the changes that took place during +a term of years.</p> + +<p>Such researches might unfold some unexpected laws +in the succession of infusorial life. Those germs which +are most widely diffused, will be the most likely to be +developed in any mass of convenient water; but how +and why the rarer forms come and go is very imperfectly +understood. Slight modifications in surrounding +circumstances will materially affect the result. Thus, +if we bring home a handful of conferva, and a few +water-plants of higher organisation, such as duckweed +and anacharis, and place the whole in a glass jar full +of pond-water, we shall at first have a good stock of +objects; but they will usually grow less and less, until +scarcely anything is left. If, however, we introduce a<span class="pagenum">[99]</span> +few pieces of straw, or a tiny wisp of hay, we shall +succeed much better, and not only preserve our population +longer, but enjoy a succession of animated crops. +Extensive decomposition of vegetable matter kills off +all but certain families, such as Paramecia, who enjoy +it; on the other hand, too little decomposition proves +fatal to some creatures, by depriving them of their food, +and when they have died off, those who depended upon +them for a living, die too. Different vegetables in +decomposition suit different creatures, and hay and +straw in that state seem to please the largest number. +An animalcule tank will succeed best when it contains +two or three kinds of growing plants, which oxygenize +the air, and a moderate variety of decomposing organisms +will supply food without making the water +offensive.</p> + +<p>From these considerations it will be apparent that +not only the nature of the vegetation of a pond, which +is often changed by accidental circumstances, but also +the quality of the odds and ends that the winds may +blow into it, or which may fall through the air, will do +much to determine the character and number of its +inhabitants, while the quantity of shade or sunshine it +enjoys, will also exercise an important influence. Hay +and other infusions have from the beginning of microscopic +investigations been employed to obtain the +creatures which the Germans call "Infusions thierchen" +(infusion animalcules), and the English "Infusoria;" +but very little has yet been done in the way of +their scientific culture and management.</p> + +<p>To return from this digression to our little Hampstead<span class="pagenum">[100]</span> +ponds, we obtained from one, in September, that +was full of star-weed, a number of sugar-loaf bodies, +adhering to one another, and of a pale yellow brown +colour. The specimens first examined looked complete +in themselves, and were taken for eggs of some water +creature. Further search, however, disclosed aggregations +of similar sugar-loaves that had evidently formed +part of a tubular structure, and the idea at once +occurred that they were fragments of a Melicerta tube, +a conclusion that was verified by finding some tubes +entire and a dead Melicerta in the rubbish at the +bottom. All the specimens of Melicerta tubes we had +hitherto examined were composed of <i>rounded</i> pellets, +but these were made of pointed cones or sugar-loaves, +with the points projecting outwards from the general +surface. In Pritchard's 'Infusoria,' these pellets are +described "as small lenticular bodies." The 'Micrographic +Dictionary' states that the tubes of the +Melicerta are composed of "numerous rounded or +discoidal bodies;" and Mr. Gosse, in his 'Tenby,' +which contains an admirable description, and an +exquisite drawing of this interesting rotifer, calls the +pellets "round."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="400" height="608" alt="i117" title=""> +<span class="caption">Melicerta ringens.</span> +</div> + +<p>Not being able to obtain a living specimen of the +Melicerta, who made her tube of long sugar-loaves, I +could not tell whether she differed in structure from +the usual pattern of her race, but the general appearance +of the dead body was the same. It is possible +that these creatures possess some power of modifying +the form of their singular bricks, or they may at +different ages vary the patterns, which matters some +<span class="pagenum">[101]</span>fortunate possessor of a colony of these animals may be +able to verify.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="400" height="141" alt="i119" title=""> +<span class="caption">Scaridium longicaudum.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the sediment of the water containing the Melicerta +cases was found an animalcule about 1—120" long, +covered with cilia, and having a proboscis seldom more +than a quarter of the length assumed by the body, +which continually changed its form, sometimes elongating, +sometimes shortening, and often contracting +one side into a deep fissure. It was, probably, an +<i>Amphileptus</i>, though not precisely agreeing with any +drawing or description I am acquainted with. Another +inmate of the same water was a lively long-tailed rotifer, +with a small oval body, a tuft of vibrating cilia and a +curved bristle visible among them on one side. This +creature had a jointed tail-foot, ending in two long +style-shaped toes, and by means of this appendage +executed rapid leaps or springs. It was the <i>Scaridium +longicaudum</i>, and agreed in dimensions tolerably well +with the size given in the books, namely, total length +1—72". With a power of five hundred diameters the<span class="pagenum">[102]</span> +muscles of the tail-foot presented a beautifully striated +appearance.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the month I passed the Vale of +Heath Pond, Hampstead, and although I had not gone +out for the purpose of collecting, was fortunately +provided with a two-dram bottle. Close by the path the +<i>Anacharis alsinastrum</i> grew in profusion, quantities of +water-snails crawled among its branches, and small fish +darted in and out, threading their mazes with lightning +rapidity. Thrusting a walking-stick among the mass +of vegetation, a few little tufts were drawn up and carefully +bottled, with the addition of a little water. +Returning home, a few leaves were placed in the live-box, +and on examination with the power of sixty diameters +they disclosed a specimen of, perhaps, the most +beautiful of all the rotifers, the <i>Stephanoceros Eichornii</i>. +In this elegant creature an oval body, somewhat expanded +at the top, is supported upon a tapering stalk, +and stands in a gelatinous bottle, composed of irregular +rings superimposed one upon the other, as if thrown off +by successive efforts, the upper ones being inverted and +attached to the body of the animal. But that which +constitutes the glory of this little being is the crown of +five tapering tentacles, each having two rows of long +cilia arranged on opposing sides, but not in the same +plane. The ordinary position of the tentacles is that +of a graceful elliptical curve, first swelling outwards, +then bending inwards, until their points closely approximate, +but each is capable of independent motion, and +they are seldom quiet for many minutes at a time. +The cilia can be arranged in parallel rows or in tufts +<span class="pagenum">[103]</span>at the will of the creature, and their motion appears +under control, and susceptible of greater modification +than is exhibited by the ordinary infusoria.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="400" height="602" alt="i121" title=""> +<span class="caption">Stephanoceros Eichornii.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Stephanoceros is a member of the Floscule +family, but in all the specimens I obtained and watched +for several weeks, there was an important difference in +the relation of the tube to the creature. In the Floscules +I had never seen anything like an adhesion +between the tube and the animal, but in the Stephanoceros +I noticed it continually, and always in the manner +already described. Like the Floscule, the Stephanoceros +is readily alarmed, and retreats into her house, +carrying with her the invaginated portion. In the last +edition of 'Pritchard's Infusoria,' this case is spoken of +as apparently not tubular, but a solid gelatinous mass, +enveloping the animal as high up as the base of the +rotatory arms. It is very likely that specimens at +different ages, and possibly in different seasons, may +vary in the structure of their abodes; but I am not +able to concur in the preceding account, as all the +tubes I examined resembled sacks turned in at the +mouths, and attached to the shoulders only of their +inmates; and on one occasion I was able to look down +into a deserted tube, which had not collapsed, as it +would have done if it had been merely a solid gelatinous +mass.</p> + +<p>Like the Floscule, the Stephanoceros only reveals +her beauties under careful illumination. A direct light +renders them invisible, and only when the requisite +obliquity has been obtained, does the exquisite character +of the structure become displayed. The dark-ground<span class="pagenum">[104]</span> +illumination is very useful, and makes the +ciliary action very distinct. At times a view can be +obtained, in which the cilia of perhaps a single tentacle +are all ranged like the steel springs of a musical box. +For a moment they are quiescent, and then they vibrate +in succession, each moving thread sparkling in the +light. With a clumsy mode of lighting them, the cilia +look like stumpy bristles, and are often so drawn; but +precisely the right quantity of light coming in the +right direction, makes them appear more numerous, +and much longer than would at first be supposed. +When well exhibited the tentacles have a lustre between +glass and pearl; the body, in a favorable specimen, is +like a crystal cup, and the food, usually composed of +small red and green globes, glows like emeralds and +rubies, as if in the height of luxury the little epicure +had more than rivalled Cleopatra's draught, and instead +of dissolving, swallowed its jewelry whole. So lustrous +and varied in colour is the whole appearance of the +animal under these circumstances, that it is frequently +alluded to by one of our first artists, to whom it was +displayed.</p> + +<p>It is said by some authors that the tentacles are used +to seize prey. This never occurred under my observation, +although their basal portions are often approximated +when an object is forced down to the grinding +apparatus below. The Stephanoceros is a ravenous +feeder, and swallows a variety of creatures. Green +vegetable monads, rich red and brown globes of similar +characters, and any animalcule that comes in her way +is acceptable; and even good-sized rotifers do not<span class="pagenum">[105]</span> +escape her all-consuming maw. On one occasion I +noticed one of the loricated sort, more than half as +long as one of her tentacles, rapidly swallowed, and +passed downwards without attempting to escape. +Objects much too big for the gizzard are often gulped +down, and probably receive a preliminary softening and +maceration in the crop. Very often, when food is +plentiful, the creature is filled to the brim, but still +endeavours to continue her abundant meal. From the +presence of large quantities of food and the density of +the integuments, the gizzard cannot always be seen; +but in favorable specimens its teeth may be observed +busily at work.</p> + +<p>At the base of the tentacles small masses of matter +may be discovered, which are probably nervous ganglia, +and other organs; and Ehrenberg discovered small +vibrating bodies, supposed to be connected with the +function of respiration. A single egg, as shown in the +annexed drawing, is often found, and the ovarian is said +to develop but few at a time. Two red eyes are found +in young specimens, but in adults they either disappear +or are not conspicuous. The Stephanoceri are sociable +animals, and when one is found, others are probably +near at hand. Several may often be discovered on the +same branch of a small water-plant, of various dimensions, +and in different stages of growth. The full size +is about 1—36" in height, and from its magnitude care +is required not to crush it in the live-box. When +specimens are plentiful, some should be placed in that +convenient receptacle; and others with the plant on +which they are growing, in a glass cell or trough,<span class="pagenum">[106]</span> +where they have more room to display their motions, +and can with fresh supplies of water, be preserved for +days and weeks. With occasional renewals from one +pond, I was able to keep up a stock for about three +months, and never had objects which gave more pleasure +to myself or to my friends.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_126.jpg" width="180" height="40" alt="i126" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[107]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<p class="h2">OCTOBER.</p> + +<p class="out">Stentors and Stephanoceri—Description of Stentors—Mode of viewing +them—Their abundance—Social habits—Solitary Stentors living in +Gelatinous caves—Propagation by divers modes—Cephalosiphon +Limnias—A group of Vaginicolæ—Changes of shape—A bubble-blowing +Vorticella.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_127.jpg" width="89" height="90" alt="i127" title="O"> +<p class="minus"><b>CTOBER</b>, the finest of our autumn months, is +noted for usually granting the inhabitants of +our dripping climate about twenty pleasant +sunshiny days, and it is probably on this account somewhat +of a favourite with the infusorial world, although +the cold of its nights and early mornings thins their +numbers, which reach a maximum in the summer heat. +Even in the dismal year 1860, October maintained its +character, and afforded a great many opportunities of +animalcule hunting, during which a constant supply of +Stephanoceri were readily obtained, together with +swarms of <i>Stentors</i>, which are not exceeded in interest +by any of the Ciliated Protozoa. The Stentors were +abundant on the same weed (<i>Anacharis</i>), that formed +the residence of the Stephanoceri, and might be seen +in large numbers hanging from it like green trumpets, +visible to the unassisted eye. In the 'Micrographic<span class="pagenum">[108]</span> +Dictionary' they are said to belong to the Vorticella +family, which has already given us several beautiful +objects, and possess a marvellous power of changing +their shape. It is, however, better to follow Stein, who +separates them from the Vorticellids and ranges them +in his order Heterotricha, as they have two distinct +sets of cilia, small ones covering the body and the +larger ones round the mouth. Those before us are +named after this property <i>Stentor polymorphus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_A_18" id="FNanchor_A_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> or +Many-shaped Stentors, and owe their exquisite tint to +numberless green vesicles, or small cavities filled with +colouring matter like that of plants. This, however, is +not essential to the species which may often be found +of other hues. In size this Stentor varies from a +hundred and twentieth to one twenty-fourth of an +inch. It is entirely covered with fine cilia, disposed in +longitudinal rows, and round the head is a spiral +wreath of larger and very conspicuous cilia leading to +the mouth.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p> + <a name="Footnote_A_18" id="Footnote_A_18"></a> + <a href="#FNanchor_A_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> +See <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>.</p></div> + +<p>Having observed the abundance of these creatures, a +few small branches to which they were appended, were +placed in the glass trough, and viewed with powers of +sixty and one hundred linear. Some had tumbled +down as shapeless lumps, others presented broad +funnel-shaped bodies; while others stretched themselves +to great length like the long, narrow post-horns which +still wake the echoes of a few old-fashioned towns. +The ciliary motion of the elegant wreath was active +and rapid, causing quite a stir among all the little +particles, alive and dead; and when the right sort of +<span class="pagenum">[109]</span>food came near the corkscrew entrance to the mouth, +down it went, and if conspicuous for colour, was +subsequently seen apparently embedded in little +cavities, which Ehrenberg supposed were separate +stomachs, although that theory is now rejected. One +advantage of viewing these objects in a sufficient +quantity of water, to leave them in freedom, is that +they frequently turn themselves, so that you can see +right down into them; and the drawing given in the +frontispiece represents such a view, which is the most +favorable for the exhibition of the mouth. To make<span class="pagenum">[110]</span> +out the details of their structure, to see the nucleus +and other organs, the flattening in the live-box is +useful, and it enables much higher powers to be employed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="400" height="319" alt="i129" title=""> +<span class="caption">A, B, C, D, Stentor polymorphus in different degrees of expansion. +A large specimen is one twenty-fourth of an inch +long.</span> +</div> + +<p>After leaving the Anacharis in a glass jar for a few +days, the Stentors multiplied exceedingly; some clung +to the sides of the vessel in sociable communities, +others hung from the surface of the water, and crowds +settled upon the stems, visibly changing their tint, as +the Stentor green was much bluer than that of the +plant. Scores swam about in all sorts of forms. Now +they looked like cylindrical vessels with expanding +brims, now globular, now oddly distorted, until all +semblance of the original shape was lost. Many were +found in shiny tubes, but these were never so lively or +green as the free swimmers, but mostly of a dingy +dirty hue.</p> + +<p>These housekeepers were more timid and cautious +than the roving tribe. They came slowly out of their +dens, drew back at the slightest alarm, never took their +tails from home, and only extended their full length +when certain not to be disturbed. Some authors have +thought they only take to private lodgings when they +feel a little bit poorly, but others dispute this opinion, +and I do not think it is correct. I have found these +Stentors at all seasons, from January to the autumn, +but they are never so numerous, nor aggregated in +numbers like the roving sort. Whether they are old +folks, who are tired of the world and its gaieties, and +devote the remainder of their lives to contemplation, or +whether they are bachelors disappointed in love, I am<span class="pagenum">[111]</span> +unable to say; but they are very inferior in beauty to +the "gay and glittering crowd."<a name="FNanchor_A_19" id="FNanchor_A_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_19" id="Footnote_A_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Stein says the colourless variety of S. Polymorphus is sometimes +found with a tube, and the S. Rössellii very frequently so provided.</p></div> + +<p>For some weeks my Stentors abounded, and then +most of them suddenly disappeared. They could not +have "moved," but probably "went to smash" by a +process peculiar to infusoria, and which Dujardin +politely describes as "diffluence." This mode of +making an exit from the stage of life is more tragical +than the ripping up so fashionable in Japan. The +integument bursts, and its contents disperse in minute +particles, that in their turn disappear, and scarcely +leave a "wrack behind."</p> + +<p>The Stentors obey the injunction to "increase and +multiply" by self-division, which Stein says is always +oblique, and the nucleus, which plays such an important +part in infusoria, is band-like, moniliform (bead-shape), +or round. When an animalcule increases by +self-division, a portion of the nucleus goes with each +part, and it is probably the organ which stimulates the +change. It is also concerned in other modes of propagation. +"The anus is situated on the back close +beneath the ciliary circle;" and the "contractile vesicle +on a level with the ciliary wreath." Stein records that +in November, 1858, he met green Stentors (<i>Polymorphus</i>) +encysted, and he figures one in a gelatinous +flask having a stopper in its narrow neck.</p> + +<p>Before closing our account of the Stentor, let us +revert a moment to the ciliary wreath, as it may be +made the subject of a curious experiment. If, for +<span class="pagenum">[112]</span>example, the cilia are viewed at right-angles to their +length, they will seem to form a delicate frill, in which +a quivering motion is perceived. But if the table is +shaken by a sharp blow, the frill is thrown into waves, +or takes the form which washerwomen give to certain +female articles by the use of the Italian iron, and the +ciliary motion is thus made to take place in different +planes, and rendered strikingly apparent.</p> + +<p>One day turning over the Anacharis in search of +subjects, a small brown tube was noticed, from which +a glassy rod protruded like the feeler of a rotifer. +Keeping the table quiet, and watching the result, was +soon rewarded by a further protrusion of the feeler, +accompanied by a portion of the body of the inmate of +the tube. The feeler was thrust on this side and on +that, as if collecting information for its proprietor, who, +I suppose, was satisfied with the intelligence, and +gradually extended herself, until she stood out two +thirds in length beyond the tube, and set two lobes of +one nearly continuous ciliary organ in rapid motion. +Sometimes the creature, <i>Cephalosiphon limnias</i>, bent +its neck, if I may so speak, to the right, and sometimes +to the left, and sometimes stood upright, when the +true form of the ciliary apparatus could be seen. The +tube of this creature was opaque, from the adhesion of +foreign matter, and presented an untidy appearance, +strangely contrasting with the clear, neat bottles of the +Floscules. These Cephalosiphons are very whimsical +in their ways, and many that were sent to different +observers never exhibited their ciliary wreaths, but +performed sundry antics, disguising their true shape.<span class="pagenum">[113]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_133.jpg" width="180" height="592" alt="i133" title=""> +<span class="caption">Cephalosiphon limnias.</span> +</div> + +<p>Somewhat like the Cephalosiphon, though much +commoner and without the siphon, is Limnias ceratophylli, +which every collector is sure to meet. The +length of the Limnias varies, according to Pritchard, +from 1—20" to 1—40". Our Cephalosiphon, when fully +extended and magnified one hundred and eighty linear,<span class="pagenum">[114]</span> +looked about three inches and a half long, and was +therefore very small. Just below the ciliary lobes the +gizzard was seen, with its toothed hammers working one +against the other. The masticatory organ differs from +the typical form, as represented in the Brachion; and Mr. +Gosse observes of Limnias that "each <i>uncus</i> forms, with +its <i>ramus</i>, a well-defined mass of muscle enclosing the +solid parts, and in form approaching the quadrature of +a globe. Across the upper surface of the mass the +<i>uncus</i> is stretched like three long parallel fingers, +arched in their common direction, and imbedded in the +muscular substances, their points just reaching the +opposing face of the <i>ramus</i>, and meeting the points of +the opposite <i>uncus</i> when closed."<a name="FNanchor_A_20" id="FNanchor_A_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_20" id="Footnote_A_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The terms <i>uncus</i>, <i>ramus</i>, etc., have been explained in Chapter II, +page 28.</p></div> + +<p>There is no connection between Limnias or Cephalosiphon +and their tubes, except that of simple adhesion, +which takes place by means of the end of their foot-stalks.</p> + +<p>In a former chapter we have described an interesting +relation of the Vorticella, the Cothurnia, whose elegant +crystal vases form a very artistic abode, characterised +by possessing a distinct foot. Other species of the +same family inhabit vases which have no foot or stalk, +or live in gelatinous sheaths less accurately fashioned. +Sometimes these creatures are obliging enough to +conform to the specific descriptions which eminent +naturalists have given of them, and also to the characters +which the authorities have assigned to the +different genera in which they have been grouped, but +<span class="pagenum">[115]</span>the microscopist will often meet with difficulties in the +way of classification.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_135.jpg" width="400" height="249" alt="i135" title=""> +<span class="caption">Vaginicola (?) (A, elongated; B, retracted.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Attached to a piece of weed were a number of cylindrical +masses of brownish jelly, with rounded tops, and +situated in an irregular and very transparent sheath, +about twice as high as themselves. Presently they all +rose up to four times their previous height, put forth a +beautiful crown of vibrating cilia, and opened a sort of +trap-door to their internal arrangements. In this +position they had a long cylindrical form, gracefully +curved, but of nearly equal width from the mouth to +the base, and they readily imbibed particles of carmine, +which tinged sundry little cavities with its characteristic +hue. The slightest disturbance caused the ciliary<span class="pagenum">[116]</span> +wreaths to be drawn in, and the bodies to be retracted, +and descend into their house like a conjuring toy, until +the appearance first described was reproduced.</p> + +<p>The general form and structure of these objects was +like the drawings usually given of <i>Vaginicola</i>, which is +said not to exist in groups, although two individuals +are commonly found in one well-shaped cell. These +creatures, however, did not taper towards the base as +Vaginicolæ generally do, and perhaps they became +aware of this defect in their figures, for after a day or +two a change appeared, and they assumed a more +graceful form by swelling out in the middle, and then +growing slender down to the bottom, very much like +the pattern given by glass-blowers to little vases of +flowers.</p> + +<p>It is very important to note the changing appearance +of animalcules, and where the same individuals can be +observed from day to day, these will often be found +considerable. It is probable that when such particulars +are fully known, the number of species will be greatly +reduced, and the study of these organisms considerably +simplified. I have called the animals just described +<i>Vaginicolæ</i>, but the reader must be prepared to find +similar bodies, inhabiting well-formed vases, either +solitarily or in couples, the latter condition arising +from the fission of one individual without a corresponding +division of the abode.</p> + +<p>For a few weeks I continually met with groups living +as I have described, in what may be called amorphous +cells, which were often so nearly like the surrounding +water in refracting power, as to be discerned with some<span class="pagenum">[117]</span> +difficulty. No trace could be seen of divisions into +separate cells, but they all appeared to live happily +together in one room, and if one went up all went +up, and if one went down all went down, as if their +proceedings were regulated by a community of sensation +or will.</p> + +<p>Another little curiosity was a transparent cup upon a +slender stem, which stood upright like a wineglass, +and supported on its mouth a transparent globe. By +removing a leaf which prevented the stalk being traced +to its termination, it was found to be a Vorticella, and +after two hours the globe was partially drawn in, and +reduced in size. Why the creature was engaged in +blowing this bubble I do not know, and have not met +with another instance of such conduct.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/i_137.jpg" width="200" height="23" alt="i137" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[118]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<p class="h2">NOVEMBER.</p> + +<p class="out">Characteristics of the Polyzoa—Details of structure according to +Allman—Plumatella repens—Its great beauty under proper illumination—Its +tentacles and their cilia—The mouth and its guard +or epistome—Intestinal tube—How it swallowed a Rotifer, and +what happened—Curiosities of digestion—Are the tentacles capable +of Stinging?—Resting Eggs, or "Statoblasts"—Tube of Plumatella—Its +muscular Fibres—Physiological importance of their +structure.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_138.jpg" width="90" height="90" alt="138" title="D"> +<p class="minus"><b>URING</b> the fag end of last month I observed +some fragments of a new creature among +some bits of Anacharis, from the Vale of +Heath Pond, and searched for complete and intelligible +specimens without effect. Luckily one evening a +scientific neighbour, to whom I had given some of the +plant for the sake of the beautiful <i>Stephanoceri</i> which +inhabited it, came in with a glass trough containing a +little branch, to which adhered a dirty parchment-like +ramifying tube, dotted here and there with brown oval +masses, and having sundry open extremities, from +which some polyp-shaped animals put forth long pearly +tentacles margined with vibrating cilia, and making +a lively current. The creatures presented an organization +higher than that of polyps, for there was an +<span class="pagenum">[119]</span>evident <i>differentiation</i> and complication of parts. They +belonged to the <i>Polyzoa</i> or <i>Bryozoa</i>,<a name="FNanchor_A_21" id="FNanchor_A_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> a very important +division of the <i>mollusca</i>. The <i>Polyzoa</i> are chiefly +marine, and the common "sea-mat," often erroneously +treated as a <i>sea-weed</i>, is a well-known form. A species +of another order often picked up on our coasts is the +<i>Sertularia</i>, or Sea-Fir, composed of delicate branching +stems of a horny-looking substance, which, under a +pocket-lens, is found to contain an immense number of +small cells inhabited by Polyps. It is instructive to +compare the two and note how much more advanced in +structure is the Polyzoon than the polyp.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_21" id="Footnote_A_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Polyzoa</i> means "many animals," in allusion to their habit of living +in association. <i>Bryozoa</i>, "moss-animals," from some forming cells +having that appearance.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_139.jpg" width="400" height="603" alt="i139" title=""> +<span class="caption">Plumatella repens. Single Polypide enlarged</span> +</div> + +<p>Polyzoa were formerly associated with the polyps, to +which they bear a strong superficial resemblance; but +they are of a much higher degree of organization, as +will be seen by comparing what has been said in a +former chapter on the <i>Hydra</i>, with the description +which we now proceed to abridge from Dr. Allman's +splendid monograph on the fresh-water kinds. In +order to get a general conception of a Polyzoon, the +Professor tells us to imagine an alimentary canal, +consisting of œsophagus, stomach, and intestine, to be +furnished at its origin with long ciliated tentacles, and +to have a single nervous ganglion on one side of the +œsophagus. We must then conceive the intestine bent +back till its anal orifice comes near the mouth; and +this curved digestive tube to be suspended in a bag +containing fluid, and having two openings, one for the +<span class="pagenum">[120]</span>mouth and the other for the vent. A system of +muscles enables the alimentary tube to be retracted or +protruded, the former process pulling the bag in, and +the latter letting it out. The mouth of the bag is, so +to speak, tied round the creature's neck just below the +tentacles, which are the only portions of it that are +left free. The investing sack has in nearly every case +the power of secreting an external sheath, more or less +solid, and which branches forming numerous cells, in +which the members of the family live in a socialistic +community, having, as it were, two lives, one individual, +and the other shared in common with the rest.</p> + +<p>The whole group of tubes and cells, whatever may be +the form in which they are aggregated, is called the +<i>Polypary</i>, or, as Dr. Allman prefers, the <i>Cœnœcium</i> +(common house); the creature he names a <i>Polypide</i><a name="FNanchor_A_22" id="FNanchor_A_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> +(polyp-like); and the disk which bears the tentacles +<i>Lophophore</i> (crest-bearer). There are some more hard +words to be learnt before the student can enjoy himself +scientifically among the Polyzoa, and we shall be +compelled to employ some of them before we have +done; but will now endeavour to describe what was +presented to our view by the specimen obtained from +the Hampstead Pond.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_22" id="Footnote_A_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Polyzoon</i> is preferable, as avoiding confusion with <i>polypite</i>, used +for another class of object.</p></div> + +<p>The general aspect of a branch of <i>Plumatella repens</i>—the +creature we have to describe—is given in the +drawing annexed. When all was quiet, the mouths of +the bags belonging to each cell were slowly everted, +and out came a numerous bundle of tentacles, which +<span class="pagenum">[121]</span>were either spread like the corolla of a flower, or +permitted to hang dishevelled like the snake-locks of +Medusa. We will suppose these organs symmetrically +expanded, and that we are looking down upon them +with a magnifying power of sixty diameters, the light +having been carefully adjusted by turning the reflecting +mirror a little on one side, to avoid a direct glare. +The tentacles, each of which curves with a living grace, +and displays an opaline tint in its glassy structure, do +not form a complete circle, for at one place we discern +two slightly diverging arms of the disk, or frame +(Lophophore) from which they grow.</p> + +<p>These arms support tentacles on each side, and leave +a gap between, so that the whole pattern is <i>crescentic</i>, +or crescent-shaped, and not circular. Extending as far +as the points of the arms, and carried all round the +crescent, is an extremely delicate membrane, like the +finest gauze, which unites all the tentacles by their +basal portions, and makes an elegant retreating curve +between every two. Each tentacle exhibits two rows +of cilia, which scintillate as their vibrations cause them +to catch the light. The motion of the cilia is invariably +<i>down</i> one side and <i>up</i> the other, the current +or pattern being carried on from one tentacle to the +other, all through the series. This characteristic, and +the facility with which each cilium can be distinguished, +gives great interest and beauty to the spectacle +of this wonderful apparatus, by which water-currents +are made to bathe the tentacles, and assist +respiration, and also to carry food towards the mouth, +over which a sort of finger or tongue is stretched to<span class="pagenum">[122]</span> +guard the way, and exercise some choice as to what +particles shall be permitted to pass on. This organ is +called the <i>epistome</i>, from two Greek words, signifying +"upon the mouth."</p> + +<p>If the cell is an old one, it may be covered with so +much extraneous matter as to obscure the economy +within; but we are fortunate in having a transparent +specimen before us, through which we can see all that +goes on. The alimentary tube, after forming a capacious +cavity, much longer than it is broad, turns round and +terminates in an orifice near the mouth, and just below +the integuments. When refuse has to be discharged, +this orifice is protruded; and after the operation is +over, it draws back as before. Long muscles, composed +of separate threads or fibres, pull the creature in and out +of its cell, and at the part where the stomach ends, and +the intestine turns round, is attached a long flexible +rope, called the <i>funiculus</i>, which goes to the bottom of +the cell. The passage of the food down to the stomach, +its digestion, and the eviction of the residue, can all be +watched; and when a large morsel is swallowed, the +spectacle is curious in the extreme.</p> + +<p>One day a polyzoon caught a large rotifer, (<i>R. vulgaris</i>,) +which, with several others of its tribe, had been +walking over the <i>cœnœcium</i>, and swimming amongst +the tentacles, as if unconscious of danger. All of a +sudden it went down the whirlpool leading to the mouth, +was rolled up by a process that could not be traced, +and without an instant's loss of time, was seen shooting +down in rapid descent to the gulf below, where it looked +a potato-shaped mass, utterly destitute of its characteristic<span class="pagenum">[123]</span> +living form. Having been made into a bolus, +the unhappy rotifer, who never gave the faintest sign of +vitality, was tossed up and down from the top to the +bottom of the stomach, just as a billiard-ball might be +thrown from the top to the bottom of a stocking. +This process went on for hours, the ball gradually +diminishing in size, until at last it was lost in the +general brown mass with which the stomach was filled. +The bottom of the stomach seems well supplied with +muscular fibres, to cause the constrictions by which +this work is chiefly performed, and by keeping a colony +for a month or two, I had many opportunities of seeing +my Polyzoa at their meals.</p> + +<p>When alarmed the tentacles were quickly retracted, +but although these creatures are said to dislike the light, +and usually keep away from it in their native haunts, +my specimens had no objection to come out in a strong +illumination, and seemed perfectly at their ease. They +were indeed most amiable creatures, and never failed to +display their charms to admiring visitors, who rewarded +them with unmeasured praise. Twice I had an opportunity +of observing an action I cannot explain, except +by supposing either that the tentacles of the <i>Plumatella</i> +have some poisonous action, or that rotifers are +susceptible of fear. On these occasions the common +rotifer was the subject of the experiment. First one +and then another got among the tentacles, and on +escaping seemed very poorly. One fellow was, to borrow +a phrase from Professor Thomas Sayers, "completely +doubled up," and two or three seconds—long periods in +a rotifer's life—elapsed before he came to himself again.<span class="pagenum">[124]</span></p> + +<p>By keeping a colony of the Plumatella for a few weeks +in a glass trough, and occasionally supplying them with +fresh water from an aquarium, containing the animalcules, +they are easily preserved in good health, and as +they develop fresh cells, the process of growth may be +readily watched. This production of fresh individuals +enlarges the parent colony, but could not be the means +of founding a new one, which is accomplished by two +other modes. A little way down the cells Professor +Allman discovered an ovary attached to the internal +tube by a short <i>peduncle</i>, or foot stalk, while a testis or +male generative organ is attached to the <i>funiculus</i>, or +"little rope," we have already described.</p> + +<p>July and August are the best times for observing the +ovaries, and they are most conspicuous in the genera +<i>Alcyonella</i> and <i>Paludicella</i>. True eggs are developed in +the ovaries in a manner resembling this mode of multiplication +in other animals; but there is another kind +of egg, or, perhaps to speak more properly, a variety of +bud, which is extremely curious. In looking at our +specimens we noticed brown oval bodies in the cells; +these, on careful examination, presented the appearance +of the sketch. The centre is dark, covered with a network, +which is more conspicuous in the lighter coloured +and more transparent margins. These curious bodies +are produced from the funiculus, and act as reserves of +propagative force, as they are not hatched or developed +until they get out and find themselves exposed to appropriate +circumstances. Professor Allman names +them <i>Statoblasts</i>, or stationary germs, and they bear +some resemblance to what are called the "winter eggs" +<span class="pagenum">[125]</span>of some other creatures. The Professor was never able +to discover any mode by which they were permitted to +escape from the cells, and in our colonies none were +allowed to leave their homes until the death of their +parent, and the decomposition of its cell had taken +place; a process which went on contemporaneously with +the growth of new cells, until the plant on which the +<i>cœnœcium</i> was situated, rotted away, and then unfortunately +the whole concern went to pieces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_148.jpg" width="400" height="619" alt="i148" title=""> +<span class="caption">Plumatella repens on a leaf.</span> +</div> + +<p>The tubes of the <i>Plumatella</i>, and of most other Polyzoa, +are composed of two coats, called respectively +<i>endocyst</i> and <i>ectocyst</i>, that is, "inner case" and "outer +case." The first is vitally endowed, and exhibits vessels +and muscular fibres. The second or outer case is +thrown off by the first. It is a parchment-like substance, +strengthened by the adhesion of dirt particles, and does +not appear to exercise any vital functions, but to be +merely a covering for protection. The inner layer +terminates in the neck of the bag before described, as +exserted when the polypide comes out, and inverted +when it goes in. This mode of making a case or sheath +by inversion of a bag is technically called <i>invagination</i>, +and is readily seen in new and transparent cells.</p> + +<p>The movement of <i>eversion</i>, or coming out, is chiefly +produced by the contraction of the endocyst; while the +<i>inversion</i>, or getting in again, is performed by the long +muscles, which, when the animal is extended, are seen +attached to it like ropes. Upon these muscles Professor +Allman remarks that they are "especially interesting +in a physiological point of view, as they seem +to present us with an example of true muscular tissue,<span class="pagenum">[126]</span> +reduced to its simplest and essential form. A muscle +may here be viewed as a beautiful dissection far surpassing +the most refined preparation of the dissecting +needle, for it is composed of a bundle of elementary +fibres, totally separate from one another through their +entire course." He further adds, "The fibres of the +great retractor muscle are distinctly marked by transverse +striæ;—a condition, however, which is not at all +times equally perceptible, and some of our best observers +have denied to the Polyzoon the existence of +striated fibre."</p> + +<p>We can confirm the fact of this sort of fibre being +present, but we fancy a reader not versed in the +mysteries of physiology exclaiming, 'What does it +matter whether his fibres are striped or not?'</p> + +<p>Physiologists used to suppose there was a strong and +marked distinction and separation between <i>striped</i> +muscles, that is, muscles the fibres of which exhibit +transverse stripes when magnified, and those which do +not. Kölliker, however, says this decided separation +can no longer be maintained,<a name="FNanchor_A_23" id="FNanchor_A_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> and he gives instances +in proof of the connections that can be traced between +the two forms. In the higher animals the striped +muscles are the special instruments of <i>will</i>, and of movements +that follow, or are accompanied by, distinct sensations. +Striped fibre must be regarded as the highest +form; and as a muscle of this sort contracts in length +it increases uniformly in breadth.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_23" id="Footnote_A_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> 'Manual of Human Microscopic Anatomy,' p. 63.</p></div> + +<p>There are many other genera and species of fresh-water +polyzoa besides the <i>Plumatella repens</i>, and they +<span class="pagenum">[127]</span>are found attached to sticks, stones, or leaves, generally +to the under surface of the latter. They are all objects +of great interest and beauty, which, whatever their diversity, +conform sufficiently to one type that the student +who has observed one, will easily recognise the zoological +position of another. They should be viewed by transmitted +and by dark-ground illumination, which produces +very beautiful effects. To observe them in the performance +of their functions, they require more room than +the live-box can afford, but are well shown in the glass +trough, whose moveable diaphragm enables them to be +brought near enough to the object-glass, for the use of +a power of about sixty linear for general purposes, and +of from one to two hundred for the examination of +particular parts. For a more detailed examination +dissection must be employed, but all that we have mentioned +can be seen without injury to the living animal, +if specimens are kept till new cells are formed in water, +which does not contain enough dirt to render their integuments +opaque.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_151.jpg" width="180" height="22" alt="i151" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[128]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<p class="h2">DECEMBER.</p> + +<p class="out">Microscopic Hunting in Winter—Water-bears, or Tardigrada—Their +comical behaviour—Mode of viewing them—Singular gizzard—A +compressorium—Achromatic condenser—Mouth of the +Water-bear—Water-bears' exposure to heat—Soluble +albumen—Physiological and chemical reasons why they are not killed by +heating and drying—The Trachelius ovum—Mode of swimming—Method +of viewing—By dark-ground illumination—Curious digestive +tube with branches—Multiplication by division—Change of +form immediately following this process—Subsequent appearances.</p> + +<br> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_152.jpg" width="91" height="90" alt="i152" title="T"> +<p class="minus"><b>HERE</b> is always satisfaction in finding a work +accomplished; but the attempt to delineate +some of the marvels of minute creation has +been a pleasant one, and we approach the completion of +our task of recording a <i>Microscopic Year</i> with something +like regret. The dark, dirty December of the +great metropolis may not seem a promising time for +field excursions, but some ponds lie near enough to +practicable roads and paths to render an occasional dip +in them, not of ourselves, but of our bottles—an +easy and not unpleasant performance; and if the +weather is unusually bad, we can fall back upon our +preserves in bottles and tanks, which seldom fail to +afford something new, as we have been pretty sure to +bring home some undeveloped germs with our stock of<span class="pagenum">[129]</span> +pond-water and plants, and even creatures of considerable +size are very likely to have escaped detection +in our first efforts at examination.</p> + +<p>When objects are not over abundant, as is apt to be +the case in the cold months, it is well to fill a large vial +with some water out of the aquarium or other large +vessel, and watch what living specks may be moving +about therein. These are readily examined with a +pocket-lens, and with a little dexterity any promising +creature can be fished out with the dipping-tube. It is +also advisable to shake a mass of vegetation in a white +basin, as the larger infusoria, &c., may be thrown +down; and indeed this method (as recommended by +Pritchard) is always convenient. Even so small a +quantity of water as is contained in a glass cell, appropriated +to the continual examination of polyps or +polyzoa, should be frequently hunted over with a low +power, as in the course of days and weeks one race of +small animals will disappear, and another take their +place.</p> + +<p>Following these various methods in December, we +obtained many specimens; but the most interesting was +found by taking up small branches of the Anacharis +with a pair of forceps, and putting them into a glass +trough to see what inhabitants they might possess. +One of these trials was rewarded by the appearance of +a little puppy-shaped animal very busy pawing about +with eight imperfect legs, but not making much progress +with all his efforts. It was evident that we had +obtained one of the <i>Tardigrada</i> (slow-steppers), or +Water-Bears, and a very comical amusing little fellow<span class="pagenum">[130]</span> +he was. The figure was like that of a new-born puppy, +or "unlicked" bear cub; each of the eight legs were +provided with four serviceable claws, there was no +tail, and the blunt head was susceptible of considerable +alteration of shape. He was grubbing about among +some bits of decayed vegetation, and from the mass of +green matter in his stomach, it was evident that he was +not one of that painfully numerous class in England—the +starving poor.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_154.jpg" width="300" height="168" alt="i154" title=""> +<span class="caption">Water-Bear.</span> +</div> + +<p>A power of one hundred and five linear, obtained +with a two-thirds object-glass, and the second eye-piece, +enabled all his motions and general structure to be exhibited, +and showed that he possessed a sort of gizzard, +whose details would require more magnification to bring +out. Accordingly the dipping-tube was carefully held +just over him, the finger removed, and luckily in went +the little gentleman with the ascending current. He +was cautiously transferred to a Compressorium,<a name="FNanchor_A_24" id="FNanchor_A_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> an +<span class="pagenum">[131]</span>apparatus by which the approach of two thin plates +of glass can be regulated by the action of a spring and +a screw; and just enough pressure was employed to +keep him from changing his place, although he was +able to move his tiny limbs. Thus arranged, he +was placed under a power of two hundred and forty +linear, and illuminated by an achromatic condenser,<a name="FNanchor_B_25" id="FNanchor_B_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> to +make the fine structure of his gizzard as plain as possible. +It was then seen that this curious organ contains +several prominences or teeth, and is composed of muscular +fibres, radiating in every direction. From the +front of the gizzard proceed two rods, which meet in a +point, and are supposed to represent the maxillæ or +jaws of insects, while between them is a tube or channel, +through which the food is passed. The mouth is +<i>suctorial</i>, and the two horny rods, with their central +piece or pieces, are protrusile. They were frequently +brought as far as the outer lips (if we may so call the +margins of the mouth), but we did not witness an actual +protrusion, except when the lips accompanied them, +and formed a small round pouting orifice. The skin of +the animal was tough and somewhat loose, and wrinkled +during the contractions its proprietor made. The interior +of the body exhibited an immense multitude of +globular particles of various sizes in constant motion, +but not moving in any vessels, or performing a distinct +circulation.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_24" id="Footnote_A_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The best forms of this instrument are made by Messrs. R. & J. +Beck, the glass plates being held in their places by flat-headed screws, +and not by cement. This plan was devised by the author, and makes +it easy to renew the glasses when broken.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_25" id="Footnote_B_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The achromatic condenser is a frame capable of supporting an +object-glass, lower than that employed for vision, through which the +light passes to the object in quantities and directions determined by +stops of various shapes. The appearances mentioned can be seen +without it, though not so well.</p></div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[132]</span></p> +<p>My specimens had no visible eyes, and these organs +are, according to Pritchard's book, "variable and fugacious." +The same authority remarks, "In most vital +phenomena they very closely accord with the rotatoria; +thus like these they can be revived after being put into +hot water at 113° to 118°, but are destroyed by immersion +in boiling water. They may be gradually heated +to 216°, 252°, and even 261°. It is also by their capability +of resuscitation after being dried that they are +able to sustain their vitality in such localities as the +roofs of houses, where at one time they are subjected to +great heat and excessive drought, and at another are +immersed in water."</p> + +<p>When vital processes are not stopped by excess of +temperature, as is the case with the higher animals, the +power of resisting heat without destruction depends +upon the condition of the albumen. Soluble albumen, +or, as it should be called, <i>Albuminate of Soda</i> (for a +small quantity of that alkali is present and chemically +united with it), after having been <i>thoroughly dried</i>, may +be heated without loss of its solubility; although if the +same temperature was applied before it was dry, that +solubility would be destroyed, and it would no longer +be a fit constituent of a living creature. As Dr. Carpenter +observes, this fact is of much interest in explaining +the tenacity of life in the Tardigrada.</p> + +<p>The movements of the water-bears, although slow, +evince a decided purpose and ability to make all parts +work together for one common object; and as might +be expected from this fact, and also from the +repetition of distinct, although not articulated limbs,<span class="pagenum">[133]</span> +they are provided with a nervous apparatus of considerable +development, in the shape of a chain of a +ganglia and a brain, with connecting filaments. From +these and other circumstances naturalists consider the +Tardigrada to belong to the great family of <i>Spiders</i>, +of which they are, physiologically speaking, <i>poor +relations</i>. Siebold says "they form the transition +from the Arachnoidæ to the Annelides."<a name="FNanchor_A_26" id="FNanchor_A_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Like +the spiders they cast their skin; and, although I +was not fortunate enough to witness this operation—called +in the language of the learned <i>ecdysis</i>, which +means putting its clothes off—I found an empty hide, +which, making allowance for the comparative size of +the creatures, looked tough and strong as that of a +rhinoceros, and showed that the stripping process extended +to the tips of the claws. The 'Micrographic +Dictionary' states that the Tardigrada lay but few eggs +at a time, and these are "usually deposited during the +ecdysis, the exuviæ serving as a protection to them +during the process of hatching." Thus Mrs. Water-Bear +makes a nursery out of her old skin, a device as +ingenious as unexpected. The water-bears are said to +be hermaphrodites, but this is improbable.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_26" id="Footnote_A_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> 'Anatomy of the Invertebrata,' Burnett's trans., p. 364.</p></div> + +<p>The <i>Plumatella repens</i>, described in a former chapter, +was kept in a glass trough, to which some fresh water +was added every few days, taken from a glass jar that had +been standing many weeks with growing anacharis in it. +One day a singular creature made its appearance in the +trough; when magnified sixty diameters it resembled +an oval bladder, with a sort of proboscis attached to it. +<span class="pagenum">[134]</span>At one part it was longitudinally constricted, and +evidently possessed some branched and complicated +internal vessel. The surface was ciliated, and the neck +or proboscis acted as a rudder, and enabled the creature +to execute rapid turns. It swam up and down, and +round about, sometimes rotating on its axis, at others +keeping the same side uppermost, but did not exhibit +the faintest sign of intelligence in its movements, except +an occasional finger-like bend of the proboscis, +upon which the cilia seemed thicker than upon the +body. It was big enough to be observed as a moving +white speck by the naked eye, when the vessel containing +it was held to catch the light slantingly; but a +power of one hundred and five was conveniently employed +to enable its structure to be discerned. Under +this power, when the animal was resting or moving +slowly, a mouth was perceived on the left side of the +proboscis, which was usually, though not always, curved +to the right. The mouth was a round or oval orifice, +and when illuminated by the parabola, its lips or +margin looked thickened, and of a pale blue, and +ciliated, while the rest of the body assumed a pinkish +pearly tint.</p> + +<p>Below the mouth came a funnel-shaped tube or +œsophagus, having some folds or plaits on its sides, and +terminating in a broad digestive tube, distinct from the +nucleus, and ramifying like a tree. The constriction +before mentioned, which was always seen in certain +positions, although it varied <i>very considerably</i> in depth +and width, drew up the integument towards the main +trunk of the digestive tube, and thus the animal had a<span class="pagenum">[135]</span> +distinct ventral and dorsal side. The branches of the +tube stopped somewhat abruptly just before reaching +the surface, and were often observed to end in small +round vacuoles or vesicles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;"> +<img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="280" height="368" alt="i159" title=""> +<span class="caption">Trachelius ovum (slightly flattened).</span> +</div> + +<p>At the bottom of the bladder, opposite the mouth, in +some specimens were large round cavities or cells, filled +with smaller cells, or partially transparent granules. +These varied in number from one to two or three, and +were replaced in other specimens by masses that did +not present the same regular form or rounded outline. +In one instance an amorphous structure of this kind +gradually divided itself, and seemed in the course of +forming two cells, but the end of the process was unfortunately +not seen. The annexed drawing will readily +enable the animal to be recognised. It shows the mouth +very plainly, and a current of small particles moving<span class="pagenum">[136]</span> +towards it. The œsophagus terminates in a digestive +tube, like the trunk of a tree, from which numerous +branches spring. This arrangement is probably analogous +to that of the phlebenterous mollusks described by +Quatrefages, in which the ramifications of the stomach +answer the purpose of arteries, and convey the nutrient +fluid to various parts of the body. It is also likely +that they minister to the function of respiration.</p> + +<p>The cilia on the surface, which are arranged in +parallel lines, are best observed when the animal is +slightly flattened in a live-box; but this process produces +a considerable derangement in the relative position +of the internal parts, and they can only be well seen +when it is immersed in plenty of water, and is polite +enough to stand still, and submit his digestive economy +to a steady gaze. The only way to succeed in this +undertaking is to have a large stock of patience as well +as a convenient cell or trough. The table must be kept +steady, and the prisoner watched from time to time, +and at last he will be found ready for display.</p> + +<p>Pritchard says this animal, whose name is <i>Trachelius</i> +<i>ovum</i>, is an inhabitant of stagnant bog water, and has +been found encysted. My specimens could not be +called plentiful, but for several weeks I could generally +find two or three, by filling a four-ounce vial from the +glass jar, and examining its contents with a pocket-lens. +If none were present, another dip was made, and usually +with success.</p> + +<p>One evening I caught a good specimen by means of +the dipping-tube, and cautiously let it out, accompanied +by a drop of water, on the glass floor of the live-box.<span class="pagenum">[137]</span> +A glance with the pocket-lens showed all was right, and +the cover was very gently put on, but it had scarcely +touched the creature when it became crumpled up and +in confusion. On one or two former occasions I had +been unfortunate enough to give my captives a squeeze +too much, with the usual result of a rupture of their +integuments and an escape of globules and fluids from +the regions within. Now, however, there was no such +rupture and no such escape, but instead of a smooth, +comely surface, my Trachelius had lost all title to his +specific designation, <i>ovum</i>, for instead of bearing any +resemblance to an egg, it was more like an Irishman's +hat after having a bit of a "shindy" at Donnybrook +Fair.</p> + +<p>I was greatly puzzled with this aspect of things, and +still more so when my deranged specimen twirled and +bumped about with considerable velocity, and in all +directions. Presently a decided constriction appeared +about half-way below the mouth and proboscis, and in +transverse direction. The ciliary motion became very +violent in the lower half just below the constriction, +while the proboscis worked hard to make its half go +another way. For some minutes there was a tug of war, +and at length away went proboscis with his portion, +still much crumpled by the fight, and left the other +bit to roam at will, gradually smooth his puckers, +and assume the appearance of a respectable well-to-do +animalcule.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_162.jpg" width="300" height="147" alt="i162" title=""> +<span class="caption">Trachelius ovum, three hours after division.</span> +</div> + +<p>Three hours after the "fission" the proboscis half +was not unlike the former self of the late "entire," but +with diminished body and larger neck; while the re<span class="pagenum">[138]</span>maining +portion had assumed a flask form, and would +not have been known by his dearest acquaintance. The +portraits of the <i>dis-United States</i> were quickly taken, +and, as bed-time had arrived, they were left to darkness +and themselves. The next morning a change had come +over the "spirit of their dream." Both were quiet, or +sedately moving, and they were nearly alike. The +proboscis fellow had increased and rounded his body, +and diminished his nose; while Mr. Flask had grown +round also, and evinced an intention of cultivating a +proboscis himself. Twenty-seven hours after the +separation, both had made considerable progress in +arranging and developing their insides, which had been +thrown into great confusion by the way in which the +original animal had been wrenched in half, and in both +a granular mass was forming opposite the mouth end. +The proboscis portion, which may perhaps be termed +the <i>mother</i>, was more advanced than her progeny, but +both had a great deal to do if they meant to exhibit the +original figure, and develop a set of bowels as elegantly +branched. Whether they would have succeeded or not +under happier circumstances I cannot tell, but unfortunately<span class="pagenum">[139]</span> +the Fate who carries the scissors cut short their +days.</p> + +<p>In all other animalcules in which I had observed the +process of multiplication by self-division, it seemed to +go on smoothly, and with no discomfort to either the +dividend or the quotient, and it may be that in the +fission of the <i>Trachelius ovum</i> I witnessed what the +doctors would call a bad case. Indeed it may have +been prematurely brought on, and aggravated by the +squeeze in the live-box. It is, however, probable, from +the stronger texture and greater organic development +of this animalcule, that it does not divide so easily as +the softer and simpler kinds.</p> + +<p>Frequent examination of this animalcule has created +a strong doubt in my mind whether it is rightly placed +in our "systems." My own impression is that it +belongs to a higher class.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_163.jpg" width="180" height="18" alt="i163" title=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[140]</span> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<p class="h2">CONCLUSION.</p> + +<img class="dropimg" src="images/i_164.jpg" width="91" height="90" alt="i164" title="T"> +<p class="minus"><b>HE</b> creatures described in the preceding pages +range from very simple to highly complicated +forms, and in describing them some attention +has been paid to the general principles of classification. +The step is a wide one from the little masses of living +jelly that constitute Amœbæ to the Rotifers, supplied +with organs of sensation—eyes, feelers (calcars), and the +long cilia in the Floscularians, which seem to convey +impression like the whiskers of a cat—together with +elaborate machinery for catching, grinding up, and +digesting their prey, and which are also well furnished +with respiratory and excretory apparatus, ovaries, &c. +In the polypi and polyzoa may be observed those +resemblances in appearance which induced early naturalists +to group them together, and also the wide difference +of organization which marks the higher rank +to which the latter have attained. Amongst the ciliated +infusoria important gradations and differences will also +be noticed, some having only one sort of cilia, others +two sorts, and others, again, supplied, in addition to +cilia, with hooks and styles. No perfectly satisfactory<span class="pagenum">[141]</span> +classification of the infusoria has yet been devised, and +the life history of a great many is still very imperfectly +known. On the whole, the tendency of research is to +place many of them higher than they used to stand +after Ehrenberg's supposition of their having a plurality +of distinct stomachs, &c., was given up. Balbiani and +others have shown numerous cases of their forming +their eggs by a process analogous to that of higher +animals. Some really are, and others closely resemble, +the larval conditions of creatures higher in the scale, and +the contracted vesicle with its channel bears resemblance +to what is called the "water vascular system" of +worms.</p> + +<p>Zoological classification depends very much on morphology, +that is, the tracing of particular structures, +or parts, through all their stages, from the lowest to the +highest forms in which they are exhibited. In this +way the swimming bladder of a fish is shown to be a +rudimentary lung, though it has no respiratory functions, +and Mr. Kitchen Parker has found in the imperfect +skull of the tadpole a rudimentary appearance of +bones belonging to the human ear. The comparative +anatomist, after a wide survey of the objects before +him, arranges them into groups. He asks what are the +characteristic things to be affirmed concerning all the A's +that cannot be said of all the B's; or of all the C's that +marks their difference from the A's or the D's. Careful +investigation upon these methods shows affinities where +they were not previously expected—birds and reptiles +being close relations, for example, instead of distant +connections—and they lessen the value for purposes of<span class="pagenum">[142]</span> +classification of peculiarities that might have been +deemed of the highest importance.</p> + +<p>Professor Huxley divides the vertebrates into <span class="smcap">Ithycoids</span>, +comprising fishes and amphibia, which, besides +other characteristics, have gills at some period of their existence; +<span class="smcap">Sauroids</span> (reptiles and birds), which have no +gills, and possess certain developmental characteristics in +common; and, lastly, <span class="smcap">Mammals</span>. The Insecta, Myriopoda, +Arachnidæ, and Crustacea, he remarks, "without +doubt present so many characters in common as to +form a very natural assemblage. All are provided +with articulated limbs attached to a segmented body +skeleton, the latter, like the skeleton of the limbs, +being an 'exoskeleton,' or a bordering of that layer +which corresponds with the outer part of the vertebrates. +In others, at any rate in the embryonic condition, +the nervous system is composed of a double +chain of ganglia, united by longitudinal commissures, +and the gullet passed between two of these commissures. +No one of the members of these four classes is known +to possess vibratile cilia. The great majority of these +animals have a distinct heart, provided with valvular +apertures, which are in communication with a peri-visceral +cavity containing corpusculated blood." These +four classes have constituted the larger group or +"province" of <i>Articulata</i> or <i>Arthropoda</i>. Professor +Huxley thinks that, notwithstanding "the marked differences" +between the Annelida (worms) and the preceding +Arthropods (joint-foots), their resemblances outweighing +them—"the characters of the nervous system, +and the frequently segmented body, with imperfect<span class="pagenum">[143]</span> +lateral appendages of the Annelida, necessitates their +assemblage with the Arthropoda in one great division, +or sub-kingdom, of <span class="smcap">Annulosa</span>."</p> + +<p>Tracing analogies between the Echinodermata (sea +urchins, star-fish, &c.) and the Scolecida (intestinal +worms), he places them together as <i>Annuloida</i>.</p> + +<p>Cephalopoda, Pteropoda, Pulmo-gasteropoda, and +Branchio-gasteropoda, having resemblances of nervous +system, and "all possessing that remarkable buccal +apparatus, the Odontophore," are placed together by +him as <span class="smcap">Odontophora</span>. The Odontophores (tooth-bearers) +are familiar to microscopists as the so-called <i>palates</i> of +mollusca. Placing with the above the lamellibranchial +mollusks (mollusks with gills formed of lamellæ or +little plates), Ascidioida (ascidians), Brachiopoda (lamp-sheds), +and Polyzoa, in spite of their differences, he +forms another great group, <span class="smcap">Annuloida</span>.</p> + +<p>The Actinozoa (anemonies, &c.) and the Hydrozoa +(polyps) constitute the <span class="smcap">Cœlentera</span> of Frey and Leuckart. +"In all these animals," says Professor Huxley, "the +substance of the body is differentiated into those histological +elements which have been termed cells, and the +latter are previously disposed in two layers, one external +and one internal, constituting the ectoderm and endoderm. +Among animals which possess this histological +structure the Cœlenterata stand alone in having an +alimentary canal, which is open at its inner end and +communicates freely by this aperture with the general +cavity of the body," and "all (unless the Ctenophora +should prove a partial exception to the rule) are provided +with very remarkable organs of offence or defence,<span class="pagenum">[144]</span> +called thread-cells or nematocysts." In describing the +Polyps we have given illustrations of these weapons.</p> + +<p>The remaining classes, which have been roughly +associated as <i>Protozoa</i>, must evidently be rearranged. +Sponges, Rhizopods (Amœbæ, &c.), and Gregarines, +have strong resemblances, but recent researches +may place the former higher. The Infusoria comprehend +creatures too various to remain under one head, +and very many of them too highly organized to be +called "protozoons," or first life-forms.</p> + +<p>Those who wish to pursue this subject further may +consult Professor Huxley's 'Elements of Comparative +Anatomy,' from which the preceding quotations have +been taken.</p> + +<p>A system of classification founded upon anatomical +and developmental considerations frequently differs considerably +from one we might arrive at if all the creatures +were arranged according to the perfection of their +faculties and the extent and accuracy of their relations +to the external world. Such a classification would not +in any way supersede the former, but it would prove +very instructive and offer many valuable suggestions. +Some years since, Professor Owen proposed to divide the +Vertebrates according to the perfection of their brains, +but other anatomists did not find his divisions sufficiently +coincident with facts. Very little has been done +towards an exact science of human phrenology. The +difficulties remain pretty much as they were many years +ago, and our comparative phrenology, if we may use such +a term, is in a very imperfect state. When we come to +the lower animals we do not know what peculiarities<span class="pagenum">[145]</span> +of the brain of an ant make it the recipient of a higher +instinct, or give its possessor greater capacities for +dealing with new and unexpected difficulties than are +possessed by most other insects, and if any reader has +a marine aquarium, and will make a few experiments +in taming prawns, and watching their proceedings, he +will discover symptoms of intelligence beyond what the +structure of the creature would have led him to expect.</p> + +<p>Animals usually possess some one leading characteristic +to which their general structure is subordinated. +Man stands alone in having the whole of his organization +conformed to the demands of a thinking, ruling +brain. To pass at once to the other extreme, we +observe in the lower infusoria a restless locomotion, +probably subservient to respiration, but utterly inconsistent +with a well developed life of relation, or +with manifestations of thought. The life of an animalcule +may be summed up as a brief and restricted, +but vigorous organic energy, and if the amount of +change which a single creature can make in the external +world, is inconceivably small, the labours of the +entire race alter the conditions of a prodigious amount +of matter. Microscopic vegetable life is an important +agent in purifying water from the taint of decomposing +organisms. By evolving oxygen it brings putrescent +particles under the influence of a species of combustion, +which, though slow, is as effectual as that which a +furnace could accomplish. In this way minute moulds +burn up decaying wood.</p> + +<p>Microscopic animal life helps the regenerative process, +and, together with the minute vegetable life,<span class="pagenum">[146]</span> +restores to the organic system myriads of tons of +matter, which death and decay would have handed +over to the inorganic world. In a very small pond +or tank the quantity of this kind of work is soon +appreciable, and if we reflect on the amazing amount +of water all over the globe, including seas and oceans, +which swarm with infusoria, the total effect produced in +a single year must seem considerable, even when compared +with that portion of the earth's crust that is +subject to alteration from all other causes put together. +If we add to the labour of the Infusoria those of other +creatures whose organization can only be discovered +by the microscope, and take in the foraminifera, polyps, +polyzoa, &c., we shall have to record still larger obligations +to minute forms of living things. The coral +polyp builds reefs that constitute the chief characteristic +of certain regions in the Pacific; foraminifera are +forming or helping to form strata of considerable +extent, while diatoms are making deposits many feet in +thickness, composed of myriads of their silicious shells, +or adding their contributions of silex, very large in +the aggregate, to all sedimentary rocks. Testimony of +this kind of work is found by the navigator who +examines the ice in arctic seas, and it comes up with +soundings from the ocean depths.</p> + +<p>On the surface of the earth the amount of change +produced is equally remarkable, although it leaves less +permanent traces behind. As a rule no decomposition +of organized matter takes place, no death of plants or +animals, without infusorial life making its appearance, +and disposing of no small portion of the spoil. Even<span class="pagenum">[147]</span> +in our climate the mass of matter thus annually +affected is very large; but what must it not be in +moist tropical lands, where every particle seems alive, +and the race of life and death goes on at a speed, and +to an extent scarcely conceivable by those who have +not witnessed it.</p> + +<p>Thus, if we look at the world of minute forms which +the microscope reveals, there opens before us a spectacle +of boundless extent. We see life manifested by +the specks of jelly containing particles not aggregated +into structure, and we see it gradually ascending in complexities +of organization. In creatures whose habits and +appearance seem most remote from our own, we find +the elementary developments of the organs and powers +that constitute our glory, and give us our power. Such +studies assist us to conceive of the universe as a +Cosmos, or Beautifully Organized Whole; and, although +we cannot tell the object for which a single +portion received its precise form, we trace everywhere +relations of structure to means of existence and enjoyment, +and are led to the conviction that all the +actions and arrangements of the organic or inorganic +worlds are due to a definite direction and co-ordination +of a few simple forces, which implicitly and unerringly +obey the dictates of an Omniscient Mind.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/i_171.jpg" width="180" height="19" alt="i171" title=""> +</div> + +<br> + +<p class="h4">PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.</p> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<span class="pagenum">[149]</span><span class="pagenum">[149]</span> + +<div class="topbox" > +<p class="h2">NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS</p> + +<p class="h5">RECENTLY PUBLISHED +<br> +BY</p> + +<p class="h2"><b>GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS</b></p> + +<p class="h4">5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h5">DEDICATED TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD LYTTON.</p> + +<p class="h6"><i>In one handsome Volume, Foolscap Quarto, cloth gilt, price 25s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><b>WOMANKIND IN WESTERN EUROPE,</b></p> + +<p class="h4">FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By THOMAS WRIGHT</span>, M.A., F.S.A. +<br> +<i>Illustrated with numerous Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"It is something more than a drawing-room ornament. It is an elaborate and careful +summary of all that one of our most learned antiquaries, after years of pleasant labour +on a very pleasant subject, has been able to learn as to the condition of women from the +earliest times. It is beautifully illustrated, both in colours—mainly from ancient +illuminations—and also by a profusion of woodcuts, portraying the various fashions by +which successive ages of our history have been marked."—<i>The Times.</i></p></blockquote> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p><i>In one handsome Volume, Super-royal Quarto, cloth gilt, price 21s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><b>RURAL CHURCHES</b></p> + +<p class="h4">THEIR HISTORIES, ARCHITECTURE, AND ANTIQUITIES.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By SIDNEY CORNER.</span></p> + +<p class="h6"><i>With Coloured Illustrations from Paintings by the Author.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>Illustrations of some of those of the Churches of our country that are +most interesting, either from their associations or from the picturesque +beauty of their situations; each Illustration being accompanied by a +full descriptive account of the History, Architecture, and Antiquities +of the Church, together with information on subjects of interest in its +neighbourhood.</p></blockquote> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p><i>Large Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, price 10s. 6d.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><b>GRAVEMOUNDS</b></p> + +<p class="h4">AND THEIR CONTENTS.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A.</p> + +<p class="h6"><i>Illustrated with more than Three Hundred Illustrations.</i></p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[150]</span></p><p><i>The Books in this Catalogue may be ordered through any Bookseller, or the Publisher will forward +them direct (post paid) on receipt of their value in Postage Stamps or Post-Office Order.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h2">NEW EDITION OF THE WORKS</p> + +<p class="h4">OF</p> + +<p class="h2">GRACE AGUILAR.</p> + +<blockquote><p>This elegant Edition, large crown 8vo, is printed from new type, on +paper made especially for the series, handsomely bound, and illustrated by +the leading Artists of the day.</p></blockquote> + +<p class="h3"><i>HOME INFLUENCE.</i></p> + +<p>A Tale for Mothers and Daughters. Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><i>THE MOTHER'S RECOMPENSE.</i></p> + +<p>A Sequel to Home Influence. With Illustrations, Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><i>WOMAN'S FRIENDSHIP.</i></p> + +<p>A Story of Domestic Life. Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><i>THE VALE OF CEDARS; OR, THE MARTYR.</i></p> + +<p>Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><i>THE DAYS OF BRUCE.</i></p> + +<p>A Story from Scottish History. Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><i>HOME SCENES AND HEART STUDIES.</i></p> + +<p>Crown 8vo, Illustrated, cloth gilt, 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><i>THE WOMEN OF ISRAEL.</i></p> + +<p>Characters and Sketches from the Holy Scriptures. Illustrated. +Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="h3"><span class="smcap">Criticisms on Grace Aguilar's Works.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p><b>HOME INFLUENCE.</b>—"To those who really knew Grace Aguilar, all eulogium falls +short of her deserts, and she has left a blank in her particular walk of literature, +which we never expect to see filled up."—<i>Pilgrimages to English Shrines, by Mrs. +S. C. Hall.</i></p> + +<p><b>MOTHER'S RECOMPENSE.</b>—"'The Mother's Recompense' forms a fitting close to +its predecessor, 'Home Influence'. The results of maternal care are fully developed, +its rich rewards are set forth, and its lesson and its moral are powerfully +enforced."—<i>Morning Post.</i></p> + +<p><b>WOMAN'S FRIENDSHIP.</b>—"We congratulate Miss Aguilar on the spirit, motive, +and composition of this story. Her aims are eminently moral, and her cause comes +recommended by the most beautiful associations. These, connected with the skill here +evinced in their development, ensure the success of her labours."—<i>Illustrated News.</i></p> + +<p><b>VALE OF CEDARS.</b>—"The Authoress of this most fascinating volume has selected +for her field one of the most remarkable eras in modern history—the reigns of Ferdinand +and Isabella.... It is marked by much power of description, and by a woman's +delicacy of touch, and it will add to its writer's well-earned reputation."—<i>Eclectic +Review.</i></p> + +<p><b>DAYS OF BRUCE.</b>—"The tale is well told, the interest warmly sustained throughout, +and the delineation of female character is marked by a delicate sense of moral beauty. +It is a work that may be confided to the hands of a daughter by her parent."—<i>Court +Journal.</i></p> + +<p><b>HOME SCENES.</b>—"Grace Aguilar knew the female heart better than any writer of +our day, and in every fiction from her pen we trace the same masterly analysis and +development of the motives and feelings of woman's nature."—<i>Critic.</i></p> + +<p><b>WOMEN OF ISRAEL.</b>—"A work that is sufficient of itself to create and crown a +reputation."—<i>Mrs. S. C. Hall.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.<span class="pagenum">[151]</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h2"><i>SHILLING GIFT BOOKS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.</i></p> + +<p class="h4">Each Book sent Post Free for 12 Stamps.</p> + +<p class="h2">UNION JACK; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY MRS. S. C. HALL.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"Mrs. Hall has written a charming story. The scene is laid in Ireland. The +characters are for the most part Irish, and the name of the tale is 'Union Jack.' +It is written with much simplicity, and is calculated to amuse men and women as +well as children, for whom it is professedly written."—<i>Western Daily Mercury.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE TOWN OF TOYS; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY SARA WOOD.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"One of the best of the series; the narrative is clearly and concisely written, +the subject matter is good, and above all it is replete with that sustained interest, +without which children's stories become worse than useless."—<i>English Churchman.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">NO MAN'S LAND; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY T. MILLER.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"A series of very amusing and instructive tales for children, written by a +talented author."—<i>Brighton Gazette.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE SEA SPLEENWORT; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE HEIR OF REDCLYFFE."</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"A capital little book for children, both amusing and instructive."—<i>Liverpool +Daily Post.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">LOTTIE'S HALF-SOVEREIGN; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY MRS. RUSSELL GRAY.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"The story before us is a most delightful one, and such as may be placed in +the hands of any child with the utmost confidence."—<i>Hull Advertiser.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE SHEPHERD LORD; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY JULIA CORNER.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"We cannot imagine a better book for children educated at home; it combines +the fascination of romance with the truth of history, and will be eagerly +devoured by the youth of both sexes."—<i>Somerset County Herald.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE CAPTIVE'S DAUGHTER; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY W. HEARD HILLYARD.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"If one were asked to select a series of stories most suitable for presents to +children, and affording real pleasure in their perusal to 'children of a larger +growth,' very few would hesitate to name this series as the very first and best of +the class."—<i>Coventry Herald.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE ORPHANS OF ELFHOLM; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY FRANCES BROWNE.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"A book to be prized by the young, for its several tales are well written and +full of touching interest."—<i>City Press.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">WHEN WE WERE YOUNG; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY THE AUTHOR OF "A TRAP TO CATCH A SUNBEAM."</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"The precept of moral courage which it inculcates, coupled with its excellent +tone throughout, stamps it at once as being of the right sort."—<i>English Churchman.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">NOT CLEVER; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY FRANCES M. WILBRAHAM.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"Pure in tone, full of interest, well got up, and cheap."—<i>Hereford Times.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">DEAR CHARLOTTE'S BOYS; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY EMILY TAYLOR.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"We are glad to receive a volume of these pretty stories. There is something +refreshing in them, scarcely to be found in any other publication."—<i>City Press.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE STORY OF NELSON; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY W. H. G. KINGSTON.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"Mr. Kingston, with great skill, brings out the stirring events of the great +Admiral's life from the lips of an old Greenwich pensioner. The story is told with +all the enthusiasm of a true 'Salt,' and has the further merit of capital descriptive +writing."—<i>Plymouth Journal.</i></p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum">[153]</span></p> + +<p class="h2">BLIND URSULA; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY MRS. WEBB.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"A domestic tale of humble life, which will well repay perusal. There is an +excellent tone, moral and religious, throughout the narrative."—<i>Leeds Intelligencer.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">SEA-SHELL ISLAND; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY G. E. SARGENT.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"An exceeding pretty story."—<i>Somersetshire County Herald.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">WHICH WAS THE BRAVEST? AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY L. A. HALL.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"A tale of the Christmas holidays on the banks of the Shannon, intended to +show, by the conduct of a party of young people, that rashness and disobedience +are no proofs of courage. It should be widely spread, for the spirit of the little +book is excellent. The engravings are appropriate and pleasing."—<i>Plymouth +Journal.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE CLOCKMAKER OF LYONS; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY E. M. PIPER.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"An interesting tale, forming one of Messrs. Groombridge's Series of Gift +Books, and by no means the worst of the series."—<i>Cheltenham Journal.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">THE ANGEL UNAWARES; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY MARY HOWITT.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"A pretty story of kindness rewarded by success. Tho principal actors are +children, and the teaching of the story, while it is full of point for older learners, +is adapted especially to the capacity of youth."—<i>Plymouth and Devonport Journal.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">HISTORICAL DRAMAS.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE HEIR OF REDCLYFFE."</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"Combines amusement with instruction in a way that must please the rising +generation."—<i>Renfrewshire Independent.</i></p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum">[154]</span></p> + +<p class="h2">LOST IN THE WOOD; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY MRS. GILCHRIST.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"Perfectly healthy in tone, and highly interesting, these tales are indeed +most suitable for family reading."—<i>Gloucester Mercury.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">RAINBOW'S REST; AND OTHER STORIES.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY THOMAS HOOD.</p> + +<p class="h6">Illustrated with 15 Wood Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p>"These are excellent stories for children, and nicely got up and illustrated."—<i>Paisley +Herald.</i></p></blockquote> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p>*A COMPLETE SET OF THE TWENTY VOLUMES, VIZ.:—</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="noin"> +UNION JACK. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">S. C. Hall</span>.<br> +TOWN OF TOYS. By <span class="smcap">Sara Wood</span>.<br> +NO MAN'S LAND. By <span class="smcap">T. Miller</span>.<br> +SEA SPLEENWORT. By Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe."<br> +LOTTIE'S HALF-SOVEREIGN. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Russell Gray</span>.<br> +THE SHEPHERD LORD. By <span class="smcap">Julia Corner</span>.<br> +THE CAPTIVE'S DAUGHTER. By <span class="smcap">W. Heard Hillyard</span>.<br> +THE ORPHANS OF ELFHOLM. By <span class="smcap">Frances Browne</span>.<br> +WHEN WE WERE YOUNG. By Author of "A Trap to Catch a Sunbeam."<br> +NOT CLEVER. By <span class="smcap">Frances M. Wilbraham</span>.<br> +DEAR CHARLOTTE'S BOYS. By <span class="smcap">Emily Taylor</span>.<br> +STORY OF NELSON. By <span class="smcap">W. H. G. Kingston</span>.<br> +BLIND URSULA. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Webb</span>.<br> +SEA-SHELL ISLAND. By <span class="smcap">G. E. Sargent</span>.<br> +WHICH WAS THE BRAVEST? By <span class="smcap">L. A. Hall</span>.<br> +THE CLOCKMAKER OF LYONS. By <span class="smcap">E. M. Piper</span>.<br> +THE ANGEL UNAWARES. By <span class="smcap">Mary Howitt</span>.<br> +HISTORICAL DRAMAS. By Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe."<br> +LOST IN THE WOOD. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Gilchrist</span>.<br> +RAINBOW'S REST. By <span class="smcap">Thomas Hood</span>.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>Enclosed in a Box, <b>20s.</b></p> + +<blockquote><p>"We have read most of them with great care, for we are very watchful over +books for the young, and can assure our readers they are well worth a mother's +attention. They vary in interest and in moral value, but all of them are calculated +both to amuse and instruct. Some convey valuable historical information, +others lessons in natural history, and most of them convey a healthy moral influence. +All are subservient to religion as well as morals, but they are not tinctured +with any <i>ism</i>, nor do they inculcate any peculiar tenets."—<i>British Mothers' +Journal.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.<span class="pagenum">[155]</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h2">GROOMBRIDGE'S SHILLING PRACTICAL MANUALS.</p> + +<p><i>Each Book sent post-free on receipt of the price.</i></p> + +<blockquote><p class="noin"><b>1. HOME-MADE WINES.</b> How to Make and Keep +them, with remarks on preparing the fruit, fining, bottling, +and storing. By <span class="smcap">G. VINE.</span> Contains Apple, Apricot, Beer, +Bilberry, Blackberry, Cherry, Clary, Cowslip, Currant, Damson, +Elderberry, Gooseberry, Ginger, Grape, Greengage, Lemon, +Malt, Mixed Fruit, Mulberry, Orange, Parsnip, Raspberry, Rhubarb, +Raisin, Sloe, Strawberry, Turnip, Vine Leaf, and Mead.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>2. CARVING MADE EASY</b>; or, Practical Instructions +for Diners Out. Illustrated with Engravings of Fish, +Flesh, and Fowl, and appropriate instructions, whereby a +complete and skilful knowledge of the useful art of Carving +may be attained, and the usages of the Dinner Table duly +observed. By <span class="smcap">A. Merrythought</span>.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>3. COTTAGE COOKERY.</b> Containing Simple Instructions +upon Money, Time, Management of Provisions, Firing, +Utensils, Choice of Provisions, Modes of Cooking, Stews, +Soups, Broths, Puddings, Pies, Fat, Pastry, Vegetables, Modes +of Dressing Meat, Bread, Cakes, Buns, Salting or Curing Meat, +Frugality and Cheap Cookery, Charitable Cookery, Cookery +for the Sick and Young Children. By <span class="smcap">Esther Copley</span>.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>4. COTTAGE FARMING</b>; or, How to Cultivate from +Two to Twenty Acres, including the Management of Cows, +Pigs, and Poultry. By <span class="smcap">Martin Doyle</span>. Contains, On Enclosing +a Farm, Land Drainage, Manures, Management of a +Two-acre Farm, Cow Keeping, The Dairy, Pig Keeping, Bees +and Poultry, Management of a Ten-acre Farm, Flax and Rape, +Management of a Farm of Twenty Acres, Farm Buildings, etc.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>5. SINGING MADE EASIER FOR AMATEURS</b>, +explaining the pure Italian Method of Producing and Cultivating +the Voice; the Management of the Breath; the best +way of Improving the Ear; with much other valuable information +equally valuable to Professional Singers and Amateurs.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>6. MARKET GARDENING</b>, giving in detail the +various methods adopted by Gardeners in growing the Strawberry, +Rhubarb, Filberts, Early Potatoes, Asparagus, Sea +Kale, Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Celery, Beans, Peas, Brussels +Sprouts, Spinach, Radishes, Lettuce, Onions, Carrots, Turnips, +Water Cress, etc. By <span class="smcap">James Cuthill</span>, F.R.H.S.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>7. CLERK'S DICTIONARY OF COMMERCIAL</b> +TERMS; containing Explanations of upwards of Three +Hundred Terms used in Business and Merchants' Offices. +By the Author of "Common Blunders in Speaking and +Writing Corrected."</p> + +<p class="noin">"An indispensable book for all young men entering a counting-house for the first time."</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>8. THE CAT</b>, Its History and Diseases, with Method +of Administering Medicine. By the Honourable <span class="smcap">Lady Cust</span>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum">[156]</span></p> +<p class="noin"><b>9. ELOCUTION MADE EASY</b> for Clergymen, Public +Speakers, and Readers, Lecturers, Actors, Theatrical Amateurs, +and all who wish to speak well and effectively in Public +or Private. By <span class="smcap">Charles Hartley</span>. Contents: Cultivation +of the Speaking Voice, Management of the Voice, Pausing, +Taking Breath, Pitch, Articulation, Pronunciation, The +Aspirate, The Letter R, Emphasis, Tone, Movement, Feeling +and Passion, Verse, Scriptural Reading, Stammering and +Stuttering, Action, Acting, Reciting, etc.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>10. ORATORY MADE EASY.</b> A Guide to the Composition +of Speeches. By <span class="smcap">Charles Hartley</span>. Contents: Introduction, +Power of Art, Various Kinds of Oratory, Prepared +Speech, Constructing a Speech, Short Speeches, Command +of Language, Reading and Thinking, Style, Hasty Composition, +Forming a Style, Copiousness and Conciseness, Diction +or Language, Purity and Propriety, Misapplied Words, +Monosyllables, Specific Terms, Variety of Language, Too +Great Care about Words, Epithets, Precision, Synonymes, +Perspicuity, Long and Short Sentences, Tropes and Figures, +Metaphor, Simile, etc.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>11. THE GRAMMATICAL REMEMBRANCER</b>; or, +Aids for correct Speaking, Writing, and Spelling, for Adults. +By <span class="smcap">Charles Hartley</span>. Contents: Introduction, Neglect of +English Grammar, Divisions of Grammar, Parts of Speech, +The Article, The Silent H, Nouns, Formation of the Plural, +Genders of Nouns, Cases of Nouns, Comparison of Adjectives, +Personal Pronouns, Relative Pronouns, Demonstrative Pronouns, +Regular and Irregular Verbs, Shall and Will, The Adverb, +Misapplication of Words, Division of Words, Capital +Letters, Rules for Spelling, Double <i>l</i> and <i>p</i>, A Short Syntax, +Punctuation, etc.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>12. THE CANARY.</b> Its History, Varieties, Management, +and Breeding, with Coloured Frontispiece. By <span class="smcap">Richard +Avis</span>. Contains, History of the Canary, Varieties of the +Canary, Food and General Management, Cages, Breeding, +Education of the Young, Mules, Diseases, etc.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>13. BIRD PRESERVING</b> and Bird Mounting, and the +Preservation of Birds' Eggs, with a Chapter on Bird Catching. +By <span class="smcap">Richard Avis</span>.</p> + +<p class="noin"><b>14. WINE GUIDE</b>; or, Practical Hints on the Purchase +and Management of Foreign Wines, their History, and +a complete catalogue of all those in present use, together with +remarks upon the treatment of Spirits, Bottled Beer, and +Cider. To which is appended Instructions for the Cellar, and +other information valuable to the Consumer as well as the +Dealer. By <span class="smcap">Frederick C. Mills</span>.</p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, <span class="smcap">5, Paternoster Row, London</span>.<span class="pagenum">[157]</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h2">ELEGANT PRIZE OR GIFT BOOK FOR BOYS.</p> + +<blockquote><p>In Three handsome Volumes, fcap. quarto, gilt edges, Illustrated with Eleven +Hundred Beautiful Engravings, price Twenty-four Shillings.</p></blockquote> + +<p class="h2">RECREATIVE SCIENCE</p> + +<p class="h4">A RECORD AND REMEMBRANCER OF INTELLECTUAL OBSERVATION</p> + +<p class="h5">IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">Astronomy</span>, <span class="smcap">Chemistry</span>, <span class="smcap">Botany</span>, <span class="smcap">Geology</span>, <span class="smcap">Mechanics</span>, <span class="smcap">Meteorology</span>, +<span class="smcap">Microscopy</span>, <span class="smcap">Physiology</span>, <span class="smcap">Zoology</span>, etc., etc.</p> + +<p class="h3">THE PROMINENT FEATURES OF RECREATIVE SCIENCE.</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Applications of Science</span>, including Photography and the Stereoscope, Electro-Metallurgy, +etc., with all their minute and recreative manipulations.</p> + +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Essays on the Result of Scientific Research</span>, as witnessed by the civilization +of the Nineteenth Century, which derives so much of its strength +and moral excellence from the <span class="smcap">Steam-engine</span>, the <span class="smcap">Electric Telegraph</span>, +and other applications of scientific principles.</p> + +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Biographies of Eminent Scientific Men and Analysis of Old and New +Scientific Books.</span></p> + +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Illustrations of Natural Phenomena</span> and Diagrams of Optical, Mechanical, +and other principles as required by the subject matter of the papers published +in the work.</p> + +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Natural History</span> occupies a prominent position among the various subjects +dealt with, including <span class="smcap">Home Recreations</span>, of which the love of Nature +may be said to be the basis. The Management of Collections of Living +Animals, the Preparation of Specimens by Taxidermy, and the arrangement +of Cabinets of Insects, Birds, Shells, Plants, etc., etc.</p> + +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Experimental Philosophy and Recreations in Chemistry</span> are introduced +with a view to explain principles and give a zest to study.</p> + +<p class="out"><span class="smcap">Recreative Science</span> is in all respects popular in tone and attractive in its +subjects. It is compiled by writers of the highest eminence in the several +departments of Scientific Knowledge. In a word, it is a Record of Discovery, +Observation, and Intellectual Progress. An Instructor in First +Principles, and an Exhibitor of the Accomplishments of Research.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[158]</span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured +full-page Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">THE MICROSCOPE</p> + +<p class="h5">A Popular Description of some of the most Beautiful and Instructive +Objects for Exhibition.</p> + +<p>With Directions for the Arrangement of the Instruments and the Collection +and Mounting of Objects.</p> + +<p class="h2"><span class="smcap">By the Hon. Mrs. WARD.</span></p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<blockquote> +<p>"This elegant book deserves at our hands especial commendation for +many reasons. There is no book that we know of that we would more +willingly place in the hands of a beginner to create an interest in the science +of Microscopy. The Illustrations are beautiful, coloured to represent nature, +and all original. To our readers we cannot give better advice than to +become purchasers of the book—they will not regret the outlay."—<i>Electrician.</i></p> +</blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 12 beautifully +coloured full-page Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">THE TELESCOPE</p> + +<p class="h4">A FAMILIAR SKETCH</p> + +<p class="h6"><span class="smcap">Combining a Special Notice of Objects coming within the Range +Of a Small Telescope</span><br> +<br> +With a Detail of the most Interesting Discoveries which have been made +with the assistance of powerful Telescopes, concerning the Phenomena +of the Heavenly Bodies.</p> + +<p class="h4"><span class="smcap">By the Hon. Mrs. WARD.</span></p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<blockquote> +<p>"It is with pleasure that we direct the reader's attention to a little gem +lately published by the Hon. Mrs. <span class="smcap">Ward</span>. One of the most admirable little +works on one of the most sublime subjects that has been given to the world. +The main design of the book is to show how much may be done in astronomy +with ordinary powers and instruments. We have no hesitation in +saying that we never saw a work of the kind that is so perfect. The illustrations +are admirable, and are all original."—<i>Western Daily Press.</i></p> +</blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[159]</span></p> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 full-page coloured +Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">COUNTRY WALKS OF A NATURALIST WITH HIS CHILDREN.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By the Rev. W. HOUGHTON</span>, M.A., F.L.S.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<blockquote><p>"A fresher, pleasanter, or more profitable book than this has rarely +issued from the press."—<i>Art Journal.</i></p> + +<p>"Contrives to furnish a large amount of interesting natural history in +brief compass and in a picturesque and engaging manner."—<i>Pall Mall +Gazette.</i></p> + +<p>"It is wonderful what a very large amount of most instructive matter +connected with the animal and plant world the writer has condensed into +a small compass."—<i>Land and Water.</i></p> + +<p>"This pretty little volume forms one of the best little books on popular +Natural History, and is admirably adapted as a present to the young"—<i>Birmingham +Daily Journal.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured +full-page Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">SEA-SIDE WALKS OF A NATURALIST WITH HIS CHILDREN.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By the Rev. W. HOUGHTON</span>, M.A., F.L.S.</p> + +<blockquote><p>"The wonders of the sea-shore are detailed in an easy, pleasant and +lucid style."—<i>Examiner.</i></p> + +<p>"The book is very attractive, and its usefulness is enhanced by its many +careful illustrations."—<i>Daily Telegraph.</i></p> + +<p>"Families visiting the sea-side should provide themselves with this convenient +and instructive work."—<i>The Queen.</i></p> + +<p>"It is pleasingly written, and the scientific information is correct and +well selected."—<i>Athenæum.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[160]</span></p> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully +coloured full-page Plates and 90 Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">FIELD FLOWERS</p> + +<p class="h5">A HANDY BOOK FOR THE RAMBLING BOTANIST,</p> + +<p class="h5">SUGGESTING</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">What to Look for and Where to Go in the Outdoor Study of</span> +BRITISH PLANTS.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By SHIRLEY HIBBERD</span>, F.R.H.S.</p> + +<blockquote><p>"It will serve as an excellent introduction to the practical study of wild +flowers."—<i>The Queen.</i></p> + +<p>"We cannot praise too highly the illustrations which crowd the pages +of this handbook; the coloured plates are especially attractive, and serve +to bring before us very distinctly the most prominent flowers of the field, +the heaths, and the hedgerows."—<i>Examiner.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured +Plates and 40 Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">THE FERN GARDEN</p> + +<p class="h4">HOW TO MAKE, KEEP, AND ENJOY IT OR, FERN CULTURE MADE EASY.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By SHIRLEY HIBBERD</span>, F.R.H.S.</p> + +<p class="h5">CONTENTS.</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="noin"> +<span class="smcap">Ferns in General</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Fern Collecting</span><br> +<span class="smcap">How to Form an Outdoor Fernery</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Cultivation of Rock Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Cultivation of Marsh Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Ferns in Pots</span><br> +<span class="smcap">The Fern House</span><br> +<span class="smcap">The Fernery at the Fireside</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Management of Fern Cases</span><br> +<span class="smcap">The Art of Multiplying Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">British Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Cultivation of Greenhouse</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Stove Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Select Greenhouse Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Select Stove Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Tree Ferns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Fern Allies</span></p> +</blockquote> +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[161]</span></p> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 12 beautifully +coloured Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">THE CANARY</p> + +<p class="h4">ITS VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, AND BREEDING WITH PORTRAITS OF THE AUTHOR'S OWN BIRDS.</p> + +<p class="h2"><span class="smcap">By the Rev. FRANCIS SMITH.</span></p> + +<p class="h5">CONTENTS.</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="noin"> +<span class="smcap">A Plea for the Canary</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Origin of Our Own Canaria</span><br> +<span class="smcap">The Wild Canary</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Lizards</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Yorkshire Spangles</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Norwich Yellows</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our London Fancy Birds</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Belgians</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Green Birds</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Cinnamons</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Turncrests</span><br> +<span class="smcap">The Dominie and the Germans</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Preparations for Breeding</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Nest Boxes and Nests</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our First Birds</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Misfortunes</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Our Infirmary</span><br> +<span class="smcap">On Cages</span></p> +</blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Post 8vo, cloth gilt, with Woodcut Illustrations, price 5s.</p> + +<p class="h2">THE ROSE BOOK</p> + +<p class="h4">A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE ROSE</p> + +<p class="h5">COMPRISING</p> + +<blockquote><p>The Formation of the Rosarium; the Characters of Species and Varieties; +Modes of Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training, and Preparing +for Exhibition; and the Management of Roses in all Seasons.</p></blockquote> + +<p class="h4"><span class="smcap">By SHIRLEY HIBBERD</span>, F.R.H.S.</p> + +<p>CONTENTS.</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="noin"> +<span class="smcap">The Families of Wild Roses</span><br> +<span class="smcap">The Families of Cultivated Roses</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Summer Roses</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Forming the Rosarium</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Culture of Roses in the Open Ground</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Autumn Planting</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Spring Planting</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Pruning, Disbudding, and Seasonal Management</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Climbing Roses</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Pillar Roses</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Yellow Roses</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Roses in Pots</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Roses in Beds</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Roses in Great Towns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Tea Roses in Towns</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Various Modes of Propagating</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Select Lists of Roses</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Reminders of Monthly Work In Rose Garden</span><br> +<span class="smcap">Hints To Beginners</span></p> +</blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[162]</span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="chapter"> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h2">BOOKS FOR YOUNG NATURALISTS</p> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 16 beautifully +coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 5s.</p> + +<p class="h2">NESTS AND EGGS OF FAMILIAR BIRDS.</p> + +<p>Described and Illustrated with an account of the Haunts and Habits of +the Feathered Architects, and their Times and Modes of Building.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By H. G. ADAMS.</span></p> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully +coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">BEAUTIFUL BUTTERFLIES</p> + +<p class="h4">DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED.</p> + +<p>With an Introductory chapter, containing the History of a Butterfly +through all its Changes and Transformations. A Description of its Structure +in the Larva, Pupa, and Imago states, with an Explanation of the +scientific terms used by Naturalists in reference thereto, with observations +upon the Poetical and other associations of the Insect.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By H. G. ADAMS.</span></p> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully +coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">BEAUTIFUL SHELLS</p> + +<p class="h4">THEIR NATURE, STRUCTURE, AND USES +FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED.</p> + +<p>With Directions for Collecting, Clearing and Arranging them in the +Cabinet.</p> + +<p>Descriptions of the most remarkable Species, and of the creatures +which inhabit them, and explanations of the meaning of their scientific +names, and of the terms used in Conchology.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By H. G. ADAMS.</span></p> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully +coloured Plates and Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">HUMMING BIRDS.</p> + +<p class="h4">DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED.</p> + +<p class="h5">WITH AN</p> + +<p>Introductory Sketch of their Structure, Plumage, Haunts, Habits, etc.</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">By H. G. ADAMS.</span></p> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[163]</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h4">NEW EDITION OF THE WORKS +<br> +OF</p> + +<p class="h4">ANNA LISLE.</p> + +<p>This elegant edition, large crown 8vo, is handsomely bound in cloth, gilt +edges, suitable for presentation, and Illustrated by the +leading artists of the day.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p>In One Volume, large crown 8vo, Illustrated, price 6s.</p> + +<p class="h2">SELF AND SELF-SACRIFICE +<br> +OR,</p> + +<p class="h2">NELLY'S STORY.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY ANNA LISLE.</p> + +<blockquote><p>"A very beautiful story, with characters well drawn, scenery vividly described, and +interest admirably sustained. The tendency of the volume is not only unexceptionable, +but excellent in a Christian point of view. We have seldom seen a book in which the +best and highest aim is so manifest without the attractiveness of the tale being at all +lessened by the embodiment of religious principles."—<i>Eclectic Review.</i></p> + +<p>"The story is so delightful, and the whole spirit of the book so pure, that it compels +our admiration."—<i>Daily News.</i></p> + +<p>"Since 'Currer Bell' we have read nothing more genuine, nor more touching. +'Nelly's Story' has power to carry the reader right through with it, and can hardly fail +to impress a moral of inestimable importance."—<i>Carlisle Journal.</i></p> + +<p>"Admirably written, pervaded throughout by fine, correct, and wholesome sentiments."—<i>Morning +Post.</i></p> + +<p>"Its excellent moral tone, and keen observation, are sure to render the book widely +popular."—<i>John Bull.</i></p> + +<p>"'Nelly's Story' is a good one. It is one of the best we have read for a long time."—<i>Bucks +Advertiser.</i></p> + +<p>"Abounding in interest. We can hardly conceive a more suitable gift-book."—<i>Lady's +Newspaper.</i></p> + +<p>"Will be welcomed, read, and talked about."—<i>Gentleman's Magazine.</i></p> + +<p>"'Nelly's Story' is told in such a good and pleasant way, and withal is so useful and +world-like, that we trust it may bring to its authoress the fame that she is well able to +support."—<i>Tait's Magazine.</i></p> + +<p>"We recognise and proclaim in the authoress of this thrilling tale a quality beyond +mere ability—genius of a very high order. We claim for Anna Lisle a place amongst +the most distinguished writers of her age. The story is a brilliant effort of refined and +sanctified imagination throughout, quite as fascinating as anything in the way of story, +whether told by Scott, Stowe, Dickens, or Currer Bell."—<i>Sentinel.</i></p></blockquote> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">In One Volume, large crown 8vo, Illustrated, price 5s.</p> + +<p class="h2">QUICKSANDS</p> + +<p class="h4">A TALE.</p> + +<p class="h5">BY ANNA LISLE.</p> + +<blockquote><p>"It is a thoroughly woman's book. We can fairly say that we have seldom met with +a graver or more striking warning against the consequences of over eagerness about +worldly position and advantages, more forcibly and, at the same time, gracefully conveyed."—<i>Literary +Gazette.</i></p> + +<p>"Contains a great deal of quiet and powerful writing. Marty, the maid of Mrs. +Grey, might pass for a creation of Dickens. The moral of 'Quicksands' is at once comprehensive +and striking."—<i>Weekly Mail.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[164]</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="spacer"> </p> + +<div class="topbox"> +<p class="h3">GIFT BOOKS FOR BOYS.</p> + +<p class="h6">Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 full-page Wood Engravings, +price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">INVENTION AND DISCOVERY</p> + +<p class="h4">A COLLECTION +OF +INTERESTING ANECDOTES.<br> +<br> +by</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">RALPH and CHANDOS TEMPLE.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p>"Has a point and object, and a good one—nicely worked out."—<i>Saturday +Review.</i></p> + +<p>"We can recommend this book as a Christmas present, and one which +has given us no small pleasure."—<i>Literary Churchman.</i></p> + +<p>"Exceedingly well-timed. A volume which should be added to every +working-man's club in England."—Notes and Queries.</p> + +<p>"Exhibits a conscientious regard for accuracy."—<i>Athenæum.</i></p> + +<p>"The tendency is to instil the principle of self-help and the advantage +of earnest purpose."—<i>Bell's Messenger.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.</p> + +<hr class="advert"> + +<p class="h6">Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 full-page Wood Engravings, +price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="h2">ENTERPRISE AND ADVENTURE</p> + +<p class="h4">A COLLECTION +OF +INTERESTING ANECDOTES.<br> +<br> +BY</p> + +<p class="h5"><span class="smcap">RALPH and CHANDOS TEMPLE.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p>"Very handsomely got up. The 'Temple Anecdotes' will be one of +the most popular of Christmas books."—<i>Standard.</i></p> + +<p>"A sensible, well-written book."—<i>Globe.</i></p> + +<p>"We know of no work which will make a more acceptable present +than this extremely handsome and really useful book."—<i>Era.</i></p> + +<p>"As a present for boys, nothing can be better."—<i>Daily News.</i></p> + +<p>"The anecdotes are told with a clearness and simplicity that cannot +fail to give pleasure."—<i>Spectator.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.<span class="pagenum">[165]</span></p> +</div> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Marvels of Pond-life, by Henry J. 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