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Hart +and may be reprinted only when these Etexts are free of all fees.] +[Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be used in any sales +of Project Gutenberg Etexts or other materials be they hardware or +software or any other related product without express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.07/27/01*END* + + + + + +Etext prepared by Dianne Bean, Prescott Valley, Arizona. + + + + + +THE INTERDEPENDENCE of LITERATURE + +By GEORGINA PELL CURTIS + + + + +"There is first, the literature of knowledge, and secondly the +literature of power. The function of the first is to teach, the +function or the second is to move; the first is a rudder, the +second an oar or a sail. The first speaks to the mere discursive +understanding, the second speaks ultimately, it may happen, to +the higher understanding or reason, but always through affections +of pleasure and sympathy." + Thomas De Quincey "Essays on the Poets." (Alexander Pope.) + + +B. Herder, +17 South Broadway, St. Louis, Mo. +and 68 Great Russell St., London, W.C. + +1917 + + +PREFACE. + +The author has endeavored in these pages to sketch, in outline, a +subject that has not, as far as she knows, been treated as an +exclusive work by the schoolmen. + +Written more in the narrative style than as a textbook, it is +intended to awaken interest in the subject of the interdependence +of the literatures of all ages and peoples; and with the hope +that a larger and more exhaustive account of a very fascinating +subject may some day be published. + +Chicago, Ill., June, 1916. + + +CONTENTS. +Ancient Babylonian and Early Hebrew +Sanskrit +Persian +Egyptian +Greek +Roman +Heroic Poetry +Scandinavian +Slavonic +Gothic +Chivalrous and Romantic +The Drama +Arabian +Spanish +Portuguese +French +Italian +Dutch +German +Latin Literature and the Reformation +Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Philosophy +English + + +ANCIENT BABYLONIAN AND EARLY HEBREW. + +From the misty ages of bygone centuries to the present day there +has been a gradual interlinking of the literatures of different +countries. From the Orient to the Occident, from Europe to +America, this slow weaving of the thoughts, tastes and beliefs of +people of widely different races has been going on, and forms, +indeed, a history by itself. + +The forerunner and prophet of subsequent Christian literature is +the Hebrew. It is not, however, the first complete written +literature, as it was supposed to be until a few years ago. + +The oldest Semitic texts reach back to the time of Anemurabi, who +was contemporaneous with Abraham, five hundred years before +Moses. These Semites possessed a literature and script which they +largely borrowed from the older non-Semitic races in the +localities where the posterity of Thare and Abraham settled. + +Recent researches in Assyria, Egypt and Babylonia has brought +this older literature and civilization to light; a literature +from which the Hebrews themselves largely drew. Three thousand +years before Abraham emigrated from Chaldea there were sacred +poems in the East not unlike the psalms of David, as well as +heroic poetry describing the creation, and written in nearly the +same order as the Pentateuch of Moses. + +The story of the Deluge, and other incidents recorded in the Old +Testament, together with numerous legends, were known and +treasured by the Ancients as sacred traditions from the earliest +ages of the world. + +We learn from St. Paul that "Moses was skilled in all the +knowledge of the Egyptians." He must therefore have been familiar +not only with the ancient poems and sacred writings, but also +with the scientific, historical, legal and didactic literature of +the times, from which, no doubt, he borrowed all that was best in +the Mosiac Code that he drew up for the Chosen People of God. +This old literature Moses confirmed and purified, even as Christ +at a later period, confirmed and elevated all that was best in +the Hebrew belief. Hence from these Oriental scholars we learn +that the Hebrew was only one of several languages which enjoyed +at different times a development of the highest culture and +polish, although the teaching of the old Rabbis was that the +Bible was the first set of historical and religious books to be +written. Such was the current belief for many ages; and while +this view of the Scriptures is now known to be untrue, they are, +in fact, the most ancient and complete writings now in existence, +although the discovery in Jerusalem, thirty-five or forty years +ago, of the inscriptions of Siloe, take us back about eight +hundred years before Christ; but these Siloeian inscriptions are +not complete examples of literature. + +"The Ancient culture of the East," says Professor A. H. Sayce, +"was pre-eminently a literary one. We have learned that long +before the day of Moses, or even Abraham, there were books and +libraries, readers and writers; that schools existed in which all +the arts and sciences of the day were taught, and that even a +postal service had been organized from one end of Western Asia to +the other. The world into which the Hebrew patriarchs were born, +and of which the book of Genesis tells us, was permeated with a +literary culture whose roots went back to an antiquity of which, +but a short time ago, we could not have dreamed. There were books +in Egypt and Babylonia long before the Pentateuch was written; +the Mosaic age was in fact an age of a widely extended literary +activity, and the Pentateuch was one of the latest fruits of long +centuries of literary growth." + +There is no doubt that these discoveries of modern times have +been a distinct gain to Christianity, as well as to the older +Hebrew literature, for it confirms (if confirmation is needed), +the history of the creation, to find it was believed by the +ancient peoples, whom we have seen were a learned and cultivated +race. + +In the present day the great College of St. Etienne in Jerusalem, +founded by the Dominicans expressly for the study of the +Scriptures, carries on a never ending and widely extended perusal +of the subject. Parties of students are taken over the Holy +Places to study the inscriptions and evidences of Christianity, +and the most learned and brilliant members of the Order are +engaged in research and study that fits them to combat the errors +of the Higher Criticism. Their work, which is of a very superior +order, has attracted attention among scholars of every country in +Europe. + +In the ancient development of the world there came a time when +there was danger of truth being corrupted and mingled with fable +among those who did not follow the guidance of God, as did +Abraham and the patriarchs; then the great lawgiver, Moses, was +given the divine commission to make a written record of the +creation of the world and of man and to transmit it to later +ages; and because he was thus commanded and inspired by God, his +literature represents the most perfect and trustworthy expression +of the primitive revelations. From the very beginning, therefore, +we trace this interdependence of literature. Moses, authorized by +God, turns to all that is best in the older Babylonian, Egyptian +and Indic literature, and uses it to regenerate and uplift the +Hebrew race, so that we see the things contained in the Bible +remained the same truths that God had been teaching from the +beginning of time. The older Egyptian and Babylonian literature +became lost to the world for thousands of years until in the +nineteenth century modern research in the Pyramids and elsewhere, +brought it to light; but the Hebrew literature was passed down to +the Christian era, and thence to our own times, intact. It excels +in beauty, comprehensiveness, and a true religious spirit, any +other writing prior to the advent of Christ. Its poetry, which +ranges from the most extreme simplicity and clearness, to the +loftiest majesty of expression, depicts the pastoral life of the +Patriarchs, the marvellous history of the Hebrew nation, the +beautiful scenery in which they lived and moved, the stately +ceremonial of their liturgy, and the promise of a Messiah. Its +chief strength and charm is that it personifies inanimate +objects, as in the sixty-fourth Psalm, where David says: + +"The beautiful places of the wilderness shall grow fat; and the +hills shall be girded about with joy. The rams of the flock are +clothed, and the vales shall abound with corn they shall shout, +yea they shall sing a hymn." + +And again in the seventeenth Psalm, he says: + +He bowed the Heavens and came down . . . and He flew upon the +wings of the winds . . . He made darkness His covert, His +pavilion round about Him: dark waters in the clouds of the air." + +In time the Hebrew language began to be influenced by others, +although, as a people, they rank with the Greeks and Spaniards as +being very little moulded by any outside influence on their +literature. From the time of Abraham to the age of Moses the old +stock was changed by the intermarriage of some of their race with +the Egyptians and Arabians. During this period their literature +was influenced by Zoroaster, and by the Platonist and Pythagorean +schools. This is especially noticeable in the work of Philo of +Alexandria, who was born a few years B.C. + +Josephus, who first saw the light in A.D. 37; and Numenius, who +lived in the second century, were Jews, who as such remained, +while adopting Greek philosophy. The learned writings of the +Rabbis became known as Rabbinical literature. It is written in a +language that has its roots in the Hebrew and Chaldaic; though it +has also borrowed largely from the Arabian, Greek and Latin. In +the sixteenth century Christian scholars began to make an +extensive study of Hebrew and Rabbinical literature, and they +were not slow to discover the value of these Oriental works. +These writings, however, are subject to change, and it is in the +Bible alone that we find the fundamental teaching of Hebrew +literature. Differing entirely from the Mythological and Oriental +Nations, it taught, as its cardinal principle, the unity of God. +Its historical worth has been recognized by the greatest scholars +in all ages, and it has influenced not only the ancient world, +but also the literature and poetry of the Middle Ages and of +modern times. It forms a contrast to the philosophy of the +Greeks, and to that of Europeans of a later age. When the latter +have tried to explain the great mystery of God and man, they have +invariably failed. In the beautiful writings of the Greeks, +wherein we find the height of artistic expression and polish, +there is a subsequent gradual decline; but such is not the case +in the Old Testament. In every age fresh beauty and hidden +treasure is found in its pages. Another phase of the Bible which +has had a far reaching and lasting effect upon all language and +literature, is its prevailing spirit of types and symbols. This +is conspicuous both in the poetical books and in those that are +didactic or historical. It has had the same influence on the +thoughts and imagination of all Christian people and upon the +poetry and imitative arts of the Middle Ages (and nearly the same +upon later and more cultivated times) that Homer had upon the +Ancients. For in it we find the standard of all our Christian +images and figures, and it gives us a model of imitation that is +far more beautiful in itself, and far more world-wide in its +application than anything we can borrow from the Greeks. We see +this in Dante and Tasso, and in other Christian poets. To the +Hebrew, as the original custodians of the Old Testament, we are +indebted for keeping the faith pure when all other nations either +forgot or abandoned it, or else mixed it up with errors and +idolatry. What Moses records of the creation of the world and the +first ten Fathers, is embodied by the Persians, Indians and +Chinese in whole volumes of mythology, and surrounded by a host +of fanciful traditions. Thus we see in the Hebrew as the chosen +people of God, a nation able to preserve its literature intact +through captivity, dispersion and persecution, for a period of +four thousand years. + + +SANSKRIT. + +Sanskrit has only recently become known to Europe through the +researches of English and German Oriental scholars. It is now +acknowledged to be the auxiliary and foundation of all civilized +speech, and is important as being the language of an extensive +literature which records the life of a wonderful people from a +remote age nearly to the present time. + +The ancient home of the Aryan, or Indo-European race, was in +Central Asia, whence many of its people migrated to the West, and +became the founders of the Persian, Greek and Roman Nations, +besides settling in Spain and England. Other offshoots of the +original Aryans took their lives in their hands and penetrated +the passes of the Himalayas, spreading all over India. Wherever +they went, they seem to have held themselves superior to the +aboriginal people whom they found in possession of the soil. + +"The history of civilization," says a well-known authority on +literature, "is everywhere the history of the Aryan race. The +forefathers of the Greek and Roman, of the Englishman and the +Hindu, dwelt together in India, spoke the same language, and +worshipped the same gods. The languages of Europe and India are +merely different forms of the original Aryan speech. This is +especially true of the words of common family life. Father, +Mother, brother, sister and widow, are substantially the same in +most of the Aryan languages whether spoken on the banks of the +Ganges, the Tiber or the Thames. The word daughter, which occurs +in nearly all of them, is derived from the Sanskrit word +signifying to draw milk, and preserves the memory of the time +when the daughter was the little milkmaid in the primitive Aryan +household." + +The Hindu language is founded on the Sanskrit, of which we may +name the books of the Vedas, 1500 B.C. + +All the poetical works of Asia, China and Japan are taken almost +entirely from the Hindu, while in Southern Russia the meagre +literature of the Kalmucks is borrowed entirely from the same +source. The Ramayana, or great Hindu poem, must have had its +origin in the history-to-be of Christ. It has been translated +into Italian and published in Paris. The Hitopadesa, a collection +of fables and apologues, has been translated into more languages +than any book except the Bible. It has found its way all over the +civilized world, and is the model of the fables of all countries. + +The dramas of Kalidasa, the Hindu Shakespeare, contain many +episodes borrowed from the great Epic poems. The Messenger Cloud +of this poet is not surpassed by any European writer of verse. +The Ramayon and the Mahabharata are the two great Epic poems of +India, and they exceed in conception and magnitude any of the +Epic poems in the world, surpassing the Iliad, the Odyssey and +the Jerusalem Delivered. The Ramayon, of seven Cantos, has +twenty-five thousand verses, and the hero, Rama, in his +wanderings and misfortunes, is not unlike Ulysses. The +Mahabharata records the doings of gods, giants, and heroes, who +are all fighting against each other. It contains two hundred +thousand verses, embodied in eighteen Cantos, and is thought to +be not the work of one man; but different songs sung from the +earliest ages by the people, and gradually blended into one poem. +In it we find the ancient traditions which nearly all people +possess, of a more free, active and primitive state of nature, +whose world of greatness and heroism has been suppressed in later +ages. Among the Hindustans there exists a religion resembling in +part that of Greece, with traces of the Egyptian; and yet +containing in itself many ideas, both moral and philosophical, +which in spite of dissimilarity in detail, is evidently akin to +our doctrines of the Christian religion. In fact, the resemblance +between the Hindu and Christian religion is so remarkable that +some scholars think the Hindu was taken from the Christian. It is +more probable that it was of greater antiquity, and that the +similarity between them springs from the seed of all truth and +all Nature implanted in man by God. Indian and Christian both +teach regeneration. In the Indian creed, as soon as the soul is +touched with the love of divine things it is supposed to drop its +life of sin and become "new born." + +In a higher region all these truths in the lower world which have +to do with divine things, are mysteriously akin to each other. It +needs only the first spark of light from above to make them +instinct with life. + +The Recluses or Gymnosophists of India are not unlike the first +Recluses of Egypt, and the first hermits of the desert in the +Christian era. + +The doctrines of India first obtained a foothold in Europe +through the dogma of Metempsychosis. It was introduced into the +Hellenes by Pythagoras; but never became popular among the +Greeks. This Metempsychosis (or the transmigration of souls) was +believed by the Indians from the earliest period, and their whole +history is built upon it. A very ancient connection can be traced +between India and Egypt, manifested by Castes, which are found +equally in both countries, and by similiar Mythologies. When +Alexander the Great invaded Northern India from Persia, the +Greeks found an Indian Mythology far more like their own than the +Persian or Hebrew. They thought they had met with the same gods +they had been accustomed to worship, though clothed in a +different form and color. They showed their faith in this +discovery by the names of the Indian Hercules and the Indian +Bacchus, later so common among them. + +The worship of Vishnoo and Krishnoo in Hindostan differs very +little from the religion of Buddha and Fo which was established +in China and Thibet during the first century of Christianity. The +former retained caste, while the latter, following the teaching +of Buddha, have repudiated any class distinctions. + +Decimal cyphers originated in Hindostan. + + +PERSIAN. + +In everything appertaining to their religious belief the Persians +bear a close resemblance to the Hebrew, but the poetical part of +their mythology is more similiar to the Northern theology, while +their manners bear a strong resemblance to the Germans. The +spiritual worship of nature, light, fire, and of other pure +elements, is embodied in both the Zend Avesta (Persian) and the +Edda (Scandinavian). The two nations have the same opinion +concerning spirits which rule and fill nature, and this has given +rise to poetical fancies about giants, dwarfs and other beings, +found equally in Persian and Northern Sagas. + +The work of Lokman, existing now only in Arabic, has caused some +people to think that it is of Arabian origin; but it is really +Persian, and of the tenth century B.C. His Apologues are +considered the foundation on which Greek fable was reared. The +Code of Zoroaster, in which the two great principles of the world +are represented by Ormuzd (goodness and light), and Ahriman +(darkness and sin) are as old as the creation. + +Ormuzd is worshiped in the sun, the stars, and in fire. Zoroaster +explained the history of man as being one long contest between +these two powers until a time to come when Ormuzd would be +victorious over Ahriman. Ormuzd, as the ruler of the universe, +seeks to draw men to the light, to dispel the darkness of +ignorance, and to extend the triumph of virtue over the material +and spiritual world. It may be said of the Persians, as +Tertullian said of the Roman Pagans, "that in their highest moods +and beliefs they were naturally Christian." Among a Persian sect +called the Sufis' there is a belief that nothing exists +absolutely but God; that the human soul is an emanation from His +essence, and will ultimately be restored to Him, and that the +supreme object of life should be a daily approach to the eternal +spirit, so as to form as perfect a union with the divine nature +as possible. How nearly this belief approaches the Christian +doctrine, will be easily seen. + +Persian poetry is nearly all in the form of love stories, of +which the "Misfortunes of Mejnoun and Leila" represent the +Eastern Romeo and Juliet, and may have been known to Shakespeare +in the writing of his own drama. + + +EGYPTIAN. + +Egypt shared with ancient Babylon and Assyria in the civilization +of its primitive literature. It is from five of its Pyramids, +opened in 1881, that valuable writings have been brought to light +that carry us back one thousand years before the time of Moses. + +Their famous "Book of the Dead,"of which many copies are found in +our museums of antiquities, is one instance of their older +civilization. These copies of the original, in the form of +scrolls, are some of them over a hundred feet long, and are +decorated with elaborate pictures and ornamentation. The book +gives conclusive proof of the teaching of the Egyptians of a life +beyond this. Their belief in the journey of the soul after death +to the Underworld, before it is admitted to the Hall of Osiris, +or the abode of light, is akin to the Catholic doctrine of +Purgatory and Heaven. The Egyptian literature is painted or +engraved on monuments, written on papyrus, and buried in tombs, +or under the ruins of temples, hence, as has been said elsewhere, +much of it remained hidden until nineteenth century research +brought it to light. Even at the present time many inscriptions +are still undeciphered. + +Geometry originated with the Egyptians, and their knowledge of +hydrostatics and mechanics (shown in the building of the +Pyramids), and of astronomy and medicine, is of remotest +antiquity. The Greeks borrowed largely from them, and then became +in turn their teacher. The Egyptian priests, from the earliest +age, must have preserved the annals of their country; but they +were destroyed by Cambyses (500 B.C.), who burned the temples +where they were stored. + +In the fourth century B.C., Egypt was conquered by Alexander the +Great, who left it under the rule of the Ptolemies. The next +century after the Alexandrian age the philosophy and literature +of Athens was transferred to Alexandria. The Alexandrian library, +completed by Ptolemy Philadelphus, in the third century before +Christ, was formed for the most part of Greek books and it also +had Greek librarians; so that in the learning and philosophy of +Alexandria at this time, the Eastern and Western systems were +combined. During the first century of the Christian era Egypt +passed from the control of the Greek Kings to that of the Roman +Emperors, under whom it continued to flourish. In the seventh +century the country was conquered by the Saracens, who burned the +great Alexandrian library. Following them came the Arabian +Princes, who protected literature, and revived the Alexandrian +schools, establishing also other seats of learning. But in the +thirteenth century the Turks conquered Egypt, and all its +literary glory henceforth departed. It has had no further +development, and no influence in shaping the literature of +foreign nations. What it might have been if the literary +treasures of Egypt had not been destroyed by Cambyses and the +Saracens, we can only guess. Great literary monuments must have +been lost, which would shed more light on the civilization of the +ancient world. + + +GREEK. + +A modern writer says of the Greeks: + +"All that could beautify the meagre, harmonize the incongruous, +enliven the dull, or convert the crude material of metaphysics +into an elegant department of literature, belongs to the Greeks +themselves, for they are preeminently the 'nation of beauty.' +Endowed with profound sensibility and a lively imagination, +surrounded by all the circumstances that could aid in perfecting +the physical and intellectual powers, the Greeks early acquired +that essential literary and artistic character which produced +their art and literature." + +Whatever the Greeks learned or borrowed from others, by the skill +with which they improved, and the purposes to which they applied +it, became henceforth altogether their own. If they were under +any obligation to those who had lived before them for some few +ideas and hints, the great whole of their intellectual refinement +was undoubtedly the work of their own genius; for the Greeks are +the only people who may be said in almost every instance to have +given birth to their own literature. Their creations stand almost +entirely detached from the previous culture of other nations. At +the same time it is possible to trace a thread running back to +remote antiquity, to show that their first hints of a literature +came from Asia. Their oldest traditions and poems have many +points of resemblance to the most ancient remains of the Asiatic +nations. Some writers say that "this amounts to nothing more than +a few scattered hints or mutilated recollections, and may all be +referred to the common origin of mankind, and the necessary +influence of that district of the world in which mental +improvement of our species was first considered as an object of +general concern." But this proves at least that there was an +older civilization and literature than the Greeks, and that that +civilization had its root in the East. According to their own +testimony the Greeks derived their alphabet from the Phoenicians, +and the first principles of architecture, mathematical science, +detached ideas of philosophy, as well as many of the useful arts +of life, they learned from the Egyptians, or from the earliest +inhabitants of Asia. + +The essential characteristic of the Greeks as a nation was the +development of their own idea, their departure from whatever +original tradition they may have had, and their far-reaching +influence on all subsequent literature throughout the world. They +differed in this from all other nations; for to quote again: + +"the literature of India,with its great antiquity, its language, +which is full of expression, sweetness of tone, and regularity of +structure, and which rivals the most perfect of those western +tongues to which it bears such a resemblance, with all its +richness of imagery and its treasures of thought, has hitherto +been void of any influence on the development of general +literature. China contributed still less, Persia and Arabia were +alike isolated until they were brought in contact with the +European mind through the Crusaders, and the Moorish Empire in +Spain." + +This independence and originality of Greek literature is due in +some measure to the freedom of their institutions from caste; but +another and more powerful cause was that, unlike the Oriental +nations, the Greeks for a long time kept no correct record of +their transactions in war or peace. This absence of authentic +history made their literature become what it is. By the purely +imaginary character of its poetry, and the freedom it enjoyed +from the trammels of particular truths, it acquired a quality +which led Aristotle to consider poetry as more philosophical than +history. + +The Homeric poems are in a great measure the fountainhead from +which the refinement of the Ancients was derived. The history of +the Iliad and the Odyssey represent a state of society warlike it +is true, but governed by intellectual, literary and artistic +power. Philosophy was early cultivated by the Greeks, who first +among all nations distinguished it from religion and mythology. + +Socrates is the founder of the philosophy that is still +recognized in the civilized world. He left no writings behind +him; but by means of lectures, that included question and answer, +his system, known as the dialectics, has come down to us. + +Aesop, who lived 572 B.C., was the author of some fables which +have been translated into nearly every language in the world, and +have served as a model for all subsequent writings of the same +kind. In 322 B.C., the centre of learning owing to the conquests +of Alexander the Great, was moved to Egypt in the city that bears +his name. Here the first three Ptolemies founded a magnificent +library where the literary men of the age were supported by +endowments. The second Ptolemy had the native annals of Egypt and +Judea translated into Greek, and he procured from the Sanhedrim +of Jerusalem the first part of the Sacred Scriptures, which was +later completed and published in Greek for the use of the Jews at +Alexandria. This translation was known as the Septuagint, or +version of the Seventy; and is said to have exercised a more +lasting influence on the civilized world than any book that has +ever appeared in a new language. We are indebted to the Ptolemies +for preserving to our times all the best specimens of Greek +literature that have come down to us. + + +THE NEW TESTAMENT AND THE GREEK FATHERS. + +The interdependence of Greek literature includes some reference +to the Greek fathers and their writings. + +Many of the books of the Old Testament, regarded as canonical by +the Catholic Church; but known as the Apochrypha among +non-Catholics, were written in Greek. A number of them are +historical, and of great value as illustrating the spirit and +thought of the age to which they refer. The other class of +writers includes the work of Christian authors. Greek and Latin +writings wholly different from Pagan literature, began to appear +soon after the first century, and their purifying and ennobling +influence was more and more felt as time passed. The primitive +Christians held these writings of the Greek and Latin fathers in +great esteem, and in the second and third centuries Christianity +counted among its champions many distinguished scholars and +philosophers, particularly among the Greeks. Their writings, +biblical, controversial, doctrinal, historical and homiletical, +covered the whole arena of literature. + +Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, Athanasius, +Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, and John Chrysostom are only a few of +the brilliant names among Greek and Latin writers, who added a +lasting glory to literature and the Church. + + +ROMAN. + +To the Roman belongs the second place in the classic literature +of antiquity. The original tribes that inhabited Italy, the +Etruscans, the Sabines, the Umbrians and the Vituli had no +literature, and it was not until the conquest of Tarentum in 272 +B.C. that the Greeks began to exercise a strong influence on the +Roman mind and taste; but Rome had, properly speaking, no +literature until the conclusion of the first Punic war in 241 +B.C. + +This tendency to imitate the Greek was somewhat modified by Roman +national pride. We catch sight of this spirit in Virgil and +Horace, in Cicero and Caesar. The graceful softening of language +and art among the imaginative Greeks, becomes in the Romans +austere power and majesty, with a tendency to express greatness +by size. These early indications of race characteristics never +died out, as we may see by the contrast between the Apollo +Belvidere of the Greeks, and the Moses of Michelangelo. The +oldest existing example of Latin or Roman literature is the +sacred chant of the Frates Arvales. These latter composed a +college of Priests whose prescribed duty was to offer prayers for +abundant harvests. This took place in the spring, in solemn +dances and processions, not unlike the Bacchic festivals of the +Greeks, although the Roman dances took place in the temple with +closed doors. The dance was called the tripudium from its having +three rhythmical beats. The inscription of this litany of the +Frates was discovered in Rome in 1778, and experts have agreed +that the monument belongs to the reign of Heliogabalus, 218 A.D. +It is said to contain the very words used by the priests in the +earliest times. + +"Most of the old literary monuments in Rome," says a modern +writer, "were written in Saturnian verse, the oldest measure used +by the Latin poets. It was probably derived from the Etruscans, +and until Ennius introduced the heroic hexameter the strains of +the Italian bards flowed in this metre. The structure of the +Saturnian is very simple, and its rhythmical arrangement is found +in the poetry of every age and country. Macaulay adduces as an +example of this measure, the following line from the well-known +nursery song: + + 'The queen was in her parlor, + Eating bread and honey.' + +From this species of verse, which probably prevailed among the +natives of Provence (the Roman Provencia) and into which at a +later period, rhyme was introduced as an embellishment, the +Troubadours derived the metre of their ballad poetry, and thence +introduced it into the rest of Europe." + +Literature with the Romans was not of spontaneous growth; it was +chiefly due to the influence of the Etruscans, who were their +early teachers, they lacked that delicate fancy and imagination +that made the Greeks, even before they emerged from a state of +barbarism, a poetical people. The first written literature of the +Romans was in the form of history, in which they excelled. Like +other nations, they had oral compositions in verse long before +they possessed any written literature. The exploits of heroes +were recited and celebrated by the bards of Rome as they were +among the Northern nations. Yet these lays were so despised by +the Romans that we can scarcely see any trace of their existence +except in certain relics which have been borrowed from true +poetry and converted into the half fabulous history of the infant +ages of Rome. That the Romans, as a people, had no great national +drama, and that their poems never became the groundwork of a +later polished literature was due to the incorporation of +foreigners into their nation who took little interest in the +traditions of their earlier achievements. Father Ennius (239-169 +B.C.), as Horace calls him, was the true founder of Latin poetry. +He enriched the Latin language, gave it new scope and power; and +paid particular attention to its grammatical form. What he has +done was so well done, that it has never been undone, although +later ages added new improvements to the language. In fable Rome +was an imitator of Greece; but nevertheless Phaedrus (16 A.D.) +struck out a new line for himself, and became both a moral +instructor and a political satirist. Celsus, who lived in the +reign of Tiberius, was the author of a work on medicine which is +used as a textbook even in the present advanced state of medical +science. + +The Greek belief in destiny becomes in the Romans stoicism. This +doctrine, found in the writings of Seneca, and in the tragedies +attributed to him, led to the probability that he was their +author. Seneca has had many admirers and imitators in modern +times. The French school of tragic poets took him for their +model. + +Corneille and Racine seem to consider his works real tragedy. + +Cicero's philosophical writings are invaluable in order to +understand the minds of those who came after him. Not only all +Roman philosophy of the time; but a great part of that of the +Middle Ages was Greek philosophy filtered through Latin, and +mostly founded on that of Cicero. But of all the Roman creations, +the most original was jurisprudence. The framework they took from +Athens; but the complete fabric was the work of their own hands. +It was first developed between the consulate of Cicero and the +death of Trajan (180 years), and finally carried to completion +under Hadrian. This system was of such a high order that the +Romans have handed it down to the whole of modern Europe, and +traces of Roman law can be found in the legal formulas of the +entire civilized world. + +After the fall of the Western Empire these laws had little force +until the twelfth century, when Irnerius, a German lawyer, who +had lived in Constantinople, opened a school at Bologna, and thus +brought about a revival in the West of Roman civil law. Students +came to this school from all parts of Europe, and through them +Roman jurisprudence was carried into, and took root in foreign +countries. By common consent the invention of satire is +attributed to the Romans. The originator of the name was Ennius; +but the true exponent of Roman satire was Lucilius, who lived +148-102 B.C. His writings mark a distinct era in Roman literature +and filled no less than thirty volumes, some fragments of which +remain. After his death there was a decline in satire until fifty +years later, when Horace and Juvenal gave it a new impetus, +although their style was different from that of Lucilius. Doctor +Johnson was such an admirer of the two finest of Juvenal's +satires that he took pains to imitate them. + +Boethius, the last of the Roman philosophers, left a work "on the +Consolations of Philosophy," which is known in all modern +languages. A translation was made into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred +in 900 A.D. Virgil (70-19 B.C.) has taken Homer as his model in +his great national poem of the Aeneid. In many passages it is an +imitation of the Iliad and the Odyssey. In his didactic poems, +known as the Bucolics, Virgil has made use of Theocritus, while +in the Georgics he has chosen Hesiod as his model. The later +didactic poets of all ages have imitated Virgil, particularly in +England, where Thomson's Seasons is a thoroughly Virgilian poem. +It is easy to see in Virgil where borrowed methods end and native +strength begins; for, in spite of being close imitators of the +Greek, there is a character peculiar to the writers of Rome by +means of which they have acquired an appearance of dignity and +worthiness all their own. + + +HEROIC POETRY. + +The traditions of all nations go back to an age of heroes. +Nature, also, has had her time of stupendous greatness, a period +of great revolutions in nature, of which we can see traces to +this day; and of huge animals, whose bones are still being dug +up. The history of civilization also has its period of great +achievements, and poetry has had its time of the wonderful and +gigantic. In numerous heroic poems of different nations we can +trace the unity of all heroic personages, as in the Iliad and the +Odyssey of Greece, the Sagas of the North in the Nibelungen-lied, +and the Ramayon of the Orient. Freedom, greatness and heroism are +embodied in these poems, and many of them breathe a martial +spirit. + +We find the same character, however touched by local color, in +all these beautiful traditions of whatever nation or clime; at +the zenith of success, in the spring-time of youth and hope, on +the very eve of joy unutterable, there often seizes on the soul +of man an overwhelming sense of the hollowness and fleetingness +of life. It is this touch of the spiritual which raises these old +heroic poems to such sublime beauty and power. Poetry of this +kind implies a nation, one which is still, or has been, great; +one which has a past, a legendary history, vivid recollections, +and an original and poetical manner of thought, as well as a +clearly defined mythology. + +Poetry of this order--lyric as well as epic--is much more the +child of nature than of art. These great mythological poems for +hundreds of years were never written; but were committed to +memory, sung by the bards, and handed down from one generation to +another until in time they were merged, after the Christian era, +into the historical heroic poems. These in turn were the origin +of the chivalrous poetry which is peculiar to Christian Europe, +and has produced such remarkable effect on the national spirit of +the noblest inhabitants of the world. Nor has this oral poetry +entirely died out. In the present day Mr. Stephen Gwynne has +astonished the world by telling of how he heard aged peasants in +Kerry reciting the classics of Irish-Gaelic literature, legendary +poems and histories that had descended from father to son by oral +tradition; and the same phenomena was found by Mr. Alexander +Carmichael among the Gaelic peasants in the Scottish Highlands +and surrounding islands. It has been said that heroic poetry is +of the people, and that dramatic poetry is the production of city +and society; and cannot exist unless it has a great metropolis to +be the central point of its development, and it is only by the +study of the literature of all nations that we see how +essentially these heroic poems were the foundation of all that +followed them in later ages. + + +SCANDINAVIAN. + +The Scandinavian Nation held, during the Middle Ages, the first +and strongest influence over the poetry and thought of Western +Europe. The oldest and purest remains of the poets of German +Nations are contained in the Scandinavian Edda. Its mythology is +founded on Polytheism; but through it, as through the religion of +all nations of the world, there is a faint gleam of the one +Supreme God, of infinite power, knowledge and wisdom, whose +greatness and justice could not be represented in the form of +ordinary man. Such was the God of the Pagan Germans, and such was +the earliest belief of mankind. + +Perhaps the poet priests of primitive times, who shaped the +imaginative mythology of the North, were conscious of the one +true God; but considered Him above the comprehension of the rude +men of the times, so they invented the deities who were more +nearly akin to the material forces that these people alone +understood. The second part of the first Edda contains the great +Icelandic poems, the first of which is the song of Voland, the +famous northern smith. + +Voland, or Wayland, the Vulcan of the North, is of unknown +antiquity; and his fame, which spread all over Europe, still +lives in the traditions of all the nations of the North. These +poems, although fragmentary, still far surpass the +Nibelungen-lied, and in their powerful pathos and tragic passion +they surpass any ancient poetry except that of Greece. + +The Scandinavians in general, and Icelanders in particular, +traveled over every part of the West, and penetrated into +hitherto unexplored seas, collecting in every quarter the facts +and fancies of the age. In the character of wandering Normans +they exerted a strong influence in shaping poetry, and in +developing the Crusades. They brought back with them to their +Northern homes the Christian and chivalrous poems of the South. +In many of these the likeness to the Icelanders own Northern +Sagas was remarkable, suggesting some still more remote age when +one heroic conception must have dominated all peoples. + +After bringing home these poems of Southern Europe, the +Scandinavians proceeded to adapt them to their own use, giving +them a new force and beauty. The marvellous in Southern poetry +became with them something fraught with deeper meaning; and the +Northern version of the Nibelungen-lied acquired an ascendency in +its strength and poetical beauty, over the German heroic. Hence, +during the Middle Ages, the Scandinavians in general, and +Icelanders in particular, came to possess a peculiar chivalrous +poetry of their own. It was, however, destined to share the same +fate as the great poems of the rest of Europe; first to be +reduced to prose romance, and then broken up into ballads. The +chief cause of this breaking up of the old order of poetry was +due to the Reformation. The national poetry was left to be +carried on by the common people alone, and of course in their +hands was corrupted and mutilated. Scott speaks of this in his +Lay of the Last Minstrel, where he describes the old bard, who + +" 'Tuned to please a peasant's ear +The harp a King had loved to hear." + +These Bards, or Scalds, meaning Smoothers of Language, were +welcome guests in the early ages, at the Courts of Kings and +Princes. Up to the twelfth century, when the Monks and the art of +writing, put an end to their profession, these poets continued to +come from Iceland and travel all over the world. In return for +their songs they received rings and jewels of more or less value; +but never money. We have a list of 230 Scalds who made a name for +themselves from the time of Dagnar Lodbrok to that of Vladimir +II, or from the end of the eighth to the beginning of the +thirteenth century. When Christianity entered Scandinavia the +spirit of the old tradition still remained with the people, and +became their literature under the name of "Folk Sagas," or as we +would call them, fairy tales. These legends are found not only in +modern Scandinavia, but they have made their way into all the +literature of Europe. Jack the Giant Killer, Cinderella, Blue +Beard, the Little Old Woman Cut Shorter, and the Giant who +smelled the blood of an Englishman (the Fee, Fi, Fo, Fum of our +nursery days), were all heroes and heroines of Scandinavian +songs, later adapted in various ways to the use of different +countries. After awhile this lost art revived in the Romances of +chivalry, and in popular ballads. They describe all the changes +in life and society, and are akin to the ballads of the British +Isles. In them we find the common expression of the life and +feelings of a common race. The same stories often influenced the +bards of all countries at different periods. These ballads are +all written in the same form and express a certain poetic feeling +which is not found in the Epic Age. In all countries they had a +refrain, or chorus, which marks the migration of poetry from the +Epic to the Lyric form. + +"This simple voice of song," to quote a modern author, "travelled +onward from mouth to mouth, from heart to heart, the language of +the general sorrows, hopes and memories; strange, and yet near to +every one, centuries old, yet never growing older, since the +human heart, whose history it relates in so many changing images +and notes, remains forever the same." + + +SLAVONIC (RUSSIA). + +Schlegel says of the Russian Nation: + +"Her subjection to the Greek Church was alone sufficient during +the Middle Ages, and is in some measure sufficient even in our +own time, to keep Russia politically and intellectually at a +distance from the rest of the Western world." + +Little if any part was taken by the Slavs in the Crusades. They +had hardly any of the spirit of chivalry, and their belief, +during their period of barbaric heathenism, was not so romantic +and ideal as the Gothic. + +The heroic prose tales of Russia are older and more popular than +her ballads. They are told in the nurseries, and recount the +heroic deeds of Vladimir the Great. The ballads are mostly a +recital of the feuds between the Poles and the Tartars, not +unlike the Border ballads of Scotland. + +Their greatest hero is Yermak, who conquered the Mongols, and in +the fifteenth century won for the Czars the country that is now +called Siberia. Yermak's deeds and praises are sung from one end +of Russia to the other, even at the present day; and the poorest +peasants usually have a colored print representing him on +horseback, nailed to the wall of their cabins. + + +SERBIAN. + +The popular poetry of the Slavic race, which still survives, is +found in its perfection among the Serbians and Dalmatians, while +it is almost extinct among the other nations. It is of unknown +antiquity, and has been handed down from one century to another. + +The Slavs have always been a singing race, and must have been so +from Pagan times, as their songs abound with heathen gods and +customs, dreams, omens, and a true Eastern fatalism. Love and +heroism are the usual themes, and among the Serbians the peculiar +relation of sister and brother forms the principal subject of +interest. + +A Serbian woman who has no brother is considered a fit subject +for sympathy. The Serbian poetry is nearly all Epic, and in this +particular class of verse no modern nation has been so +productive. There is a grand and heroic simplicity in their song, +as it recounts their daily life; the hall where the women sit +spinning near the fire, the windswept mountain side, where the +boys are pasturing their flocks, the village square where youths +and maidens dance, the country ripe for the harvest, and the +forest through which the traveller journeys, all reecho with +song. This Serbian poetry first became generally known in Europe +through Goethe and Grimm in Germany, and Bowring and Lytton in +England. + + +FINNISH. + +The Finnish race reached a high degree of civilization at a very +early period. They have always been distinguished by a love of +poetry, especially for the elegy, and they abound in tales, +legends and proverbs. Until the middle of the twelfth century +they had their own independent kings, since then they have been +alternately conquered by the Russians and Swedes; but like the +Poles, they have preserved a strong national feeling, and have +kept their native language. Their greatest literary monument is +the Kalevala, an epic poem. Elias Lonnrot, its compiler, wandered +from place to place in the remote and isolated country in +Finland, lived with the peasants, and took from them their +popular songs, then he wrote the Kalevala, which bears a strong +resemblance to Hiawatha. Max Muller says that this poem deserves +to be classed as the fifth National Epic in the world, and to +rank with the Mahabharata and the Nibelungen-lied. The songs are +doubtlessly the work of different minds in the earliest ages of +the nation. + + +HUNGARIAN. + +The Magyars, or Hungarians as they are called, came into Europe +from Asia, and first settled between the Don and the Dneiper. +They possessed from remote antiquity a national heroic poetry, +the favourite subject of which was their migration and conquests +under the Seven Leaders. They laid claim to Attila as being of +their nation, and many of their most warlike songs recounted his +deeds and those of the other Gothic heroes. The Magyars have +never taken kindly to foreign influence, and when, in the +fifteenth century, Mathias Corvin tried to bring Italian +influence to bear on them, the result was a decline in +literature, and neglect of the old poems and legends. During the +Turkish invasions the last remnants of the national songs and +traditions disappeared; and under the Austrian rule the +Hungarians have become decidedly Germanized. + +Within the past century Kisfalud has sought to restore the +national legends of his country, and a new impetus has been given +to the restoration and preservation of the Hungarian language and +literature. + + +GOTHIC. + +Gothic poems were sung in the time of Attila; but the Gothic +language and monuments have everywhere perished except in Spain, +where the Spanish Monarchs are anxious to trace their descent +from the Gothic Kings. Attila, Odoascar, Theodoric, and the +Amali, with other heroes, Frankish and Burgundian, all appear in +these old poems. The German songs that Charlemagne had collected +and put in writing are undoubtedly the outcome of these ancient +Gothic poems of the first Christian era. Their substance is found +in the Nibelungen-lied and the Heldenbuch. + +As in the legends of Troy and Iceland, so also in the +Nibelungen-lied, the story centres on a young hero glowing with +beauty and victory, and possessed of loftiness of character; but +who meets with an early and untimely death. Such is Baldur the +Beautiful of Iceland, and such, also, are Hector and Achilles of +Troy. These songs mark the greatness and the waning of the heroic +world In the Nibelungen-lied the final event is a great calamity +that is akin to a half historical event of the North. Odin +descends to the nether world to consult Hela; but she, like the +sphinx of Thebes, will not reply save in an enigma, which enigma +is to entail terrible tragedies, and lead to destruction the +young hero who is the prey of the gods. + +In this we can trace a similarity to the life's history and death +of Christ. In the Middle Ages a passionate love of poetry +developed in the Teutonic race, and caused them to embody +Christianity in verse. The South Germans, and the Saxons in +England, tried to copy the old heroic poems. + +In the time of Theodoric, the Goths began to influence the Roman +language and literature; and it is at this period that Roman +antiquity comes to an end and the Roman writers from that time +are classed as belonging to the Middle Ages. + +The whole history of literature during the Middle Ages was of a +twofold character. The first, Christian and Latin, was found all +over Europe, and made the protection and extension of knowledge, +its chief object. The other was a more insular literature for +each nation, and always in the language of the people. Theodoric +the Goth, Charlemagne, and Alfred the Great, the chief patrons of +the literature of their age, sought to carry on, side by side, +and to improve, these two literatures, the Latin and the +vernacular. They aimed to refine and educate man by the Latin, +and to increase the national spirit by preserving their national +poetry. While these old heroic poems of the different races are +full of interest and charm for us, we must not forget that the +Latin kept alive and preserved from extinction the whole of +classical and Christian antiquity. + +The Middle Ages, so inaptly called "dark," are in truth little +understood. A German writer of the nineteenth century, Friedrich +von Schlegel, says: + +"The nations have their seasons of blossoming, as well as +individuals. The age of the Crusades, of chivalry, romance and +minstrelsy, was an intellectual spring among all the nations of +the West. In literature the time of invention must precede the +refinements of art. Legend must go before history, and poetry +before criticism. Vegetation must precede spring, and spring must +precede the maturity of fruit. + +"The succeeding ages could have had no such burst of intellectual +vigor, if the preparing process had not been going on in the +Middle Ages. They sowed and we reaped." + +Hence, it will be seen that what is looked on as a period of +stagnation and ignorance, was in truth, the waiting time, during +which the inner process of development was going on, soon to +blossom into glorious fruit. + + +CHIVALROUS AND ROMANTIC LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. + +From the time of the first Crusade, A.D. 1093, to the end of the +twelfth century, was the golden age of chivalry in Europe. Hence +the poetry of this period partook of the spirit that was abroad +in the world. Of this chivalrous poetry of the Middle Ages there +are three classifications: The first, taken from old legends, +shows a style of verse peopled with the Gothic, Frankish and +Burgundian heroes who flourished in the time of the great +Northern emigrations; and for these there is usually some +historical foundation, while they are also closely knit to the +traditions of the old heathenish mythology of the Gothic Nations. +The second subject of chivalrous verse was Charlemagne, the +Saracens and Roncesvalle. These were chiefly composed by the +Normans, who, after the Crusades, gave a new direction to +literature. Marked changes were introduced by them, not only into +France, but throughout Europe. They were filled with the spirit +of adventure and enthusiasm, and in their onward march conquered +England and Sicily, and took the lead in the next Crusade. +Essentially a poetic people, the wonderful was the object of all +their admiration and desire. Hence they sang old war songs, +especially of the battle of Roncesvalles in which Roland dies +when the Franks are conquered by the Spaniards and Turks. + +In the tale of a fabulous Crusade, invented in the ninth century, +and which was embodied in poetry by the Normans, the true history +of the Empire became so bewilderingly mixed up with magicians, +genii, sultans, Oriental fables, and comical characters, who met +with astonishing adventures, that it was difficult to distinguish +the true from the false. There was nothing of the romantic and +wonderful in the history of the East, which did not find its way +into the poetry that treated of Charlemagne and Roland, until it +lost all traces of the real wars and achievements of Charlemagne. +The third subject of chivalric verse was Arthur of the Round +Table; but this, at the time, was also invested with Oriental +wonders and attachments. Other chivalric poetry of this epoch had +to do with Godfrey of Bouillon, the Crusades, and old French +tales and fabliaux which were brought into Europe by the oral +narratives of the Crusaders. + +The Northern mythology always abounded with mountain spirits, +mermaids, giants, dwarfs, dragons, elves and mandrakes. These +reappear in the songs of the Crusades, and are elements of the +old Northern and Persian superstitions. All that the East +contributed to the song of the chivalric period was a Southern +magic, and a brilliance of Oriental fancy with which some of the +poems were clothed. + +A Persian poem that became very popular in Europe in the Middle +Ages was Ferdusi's Book of Heroes. It has had a marked influence +on the Arabian "Thousand and One Nights." In this poem of +Ferdusi's we note the contest between light and darkness (an idea +nowhere found in Greek poetry). It seemed to touch the poetical +thought of the age of chivalry; for we find it reproduced in +their songs, mingled with Scriptural and love scenes. + +Next to Chivalric poetry, the age of the Crusaders was +essentially a period of love songs. They attained their greatest +perfection in Provence, whence they spread over the whole of +France, and from there into Germany in the twelfth century. + +Love poetry in Italy failed to attain any degree of perfection +until the time of Petrarch in the fourteenth century; and its +real era in Spain was not until a century later. Love poetry +developed in different ways in Europe, and, as we have seen, at +different times. Except among the Italians it was not so much +borrowed from one nation to another as had been the case with +other branches of literature. + +It is different with Chivalric poetry, which was considered the +common property of all. The form of poetical composition also +varied in each country, and the only thing common to all the +nations was rhyme. Almost all the love poems seem to have been +written to be sung, and this was carried to such lengths that in +the reign of Lewis the Pious of Germany, an edict had to be sent +to the nuns of the German Cloisters by their Bishops, forbidding +them to sing their love songs, or Mynelieder. + + +THE DRAMA. + +The history of the drama may be divided into two classes, the +Christian, which began with the Mystery and Morality plays; and +the Greek, which was eminently classic. These two types were the +foundation of all that came after them. + +The first dawn of the drama was in Greece; for although the +Hindus also had dramatic poetry, it did not arise until there had +been a lengthened intercourse between Greece and India, so that +the latter undoubtedly borrowed from the former. The learned +writers of ancient times agree that both tragedy and comedy were +originally choral song. It has been said that poetry and song are +divided into three periods of a nation's history, that the Epic +has to do with the first awakening of a people, telling of their +legends, or of some great deeds in remote antiquity. This is +followed by the second stage, which embraces elegiac and lyric +poetry and arose in stirring and martial times, during the +development of new forms of government, when each individual +wanted to express his own thoughts and wishes; and the third is +the drama, which can only be born in a period of civilization, +and which, it has been said, implies a nation. + +Hence Greek drama arose at the height of Grecian civilization and +splendor. It originated in the natural love of imitation, of +dancing and singing, especially at the Bacchic feasts. The +custom at these feasts of taking the guise of nymphs and satyrs, +and of wearing masks while they danced and sang in chorus, seems +to have been the beginnings of the Greek drama. + +Ancient tragedy was ideal, and had nothing to do with ordinary +life; it arose from the winter feasts of Bacchus, while comedy +was the outcome of the harvest feasts, and the accompanying +Bacchanalian processions, which were more in the nature of a +frolic than of real acting. The influence of the Middle and New +Greek comedy, especially, that of Menander, on the Roman comedy +of Terence is well defined. Under Ennius and Plautus the Roman +comedy was fairly original; but Terence wrote for the fashionable +set, like Caecilius and Scipio Africanus, and consequently +imitated Greek models very carefully. The drama in Rome never +attained any noteworthy height although the French tragic poets +took Seneca for their model. + +In the time of Lorenzo the Magnificent there was a great revival +in Italy of the ancient classic drama, of which Poliziano was the +most successful exponent. Both he and the later writers, however, +made no attempt to found any National Italian drama--their works +are entirely an imitation of the tragedies of Sophocles and +Euripides, and the comedies of Plautus and Terence. + +The Melodrama, which arose in the seventeenth century, is +distinctly Italian and national, and has been extensively +produced all over the civilized world. Alfieri, in the eighteenth +century, is the greatest and most patriotic of the Italian +tragedians, and he did as much to revive the national character +in modern times as Dante did in the fourteenth century. + +In France we have the dramatic representation of the Mysteries in +the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, introduced by the pilgrims +who had returned from the Crusades. At first these performances +were given in the street, but later a company was formed, called +the "Confraternity of the Passion," the suffering of Christ being +its chief representation. This Mystery is the most ancient +dramatic work of modern Europe, and gives the whole Gospel +narrative from the birth of our Saviour until His death. Being +too long for a play of one act, it was continued from day to day. +What would seem irreverent on a modern stage was regarded as +perfectly simple and natural in the Middle Ages, and it was a +potent factor in teaching the masses the truths of their faith. + +Following these Mysteries of the Passion came a host of other +plays taken from the Old Testament, or from the lives of the +Saints. The earliest "Miracle" on record is the Play of St. +Catherine, which was represented at Dunstable about 1119, written +in French; it was in all probability a rude picture of the +miracles and martyrdom of the saint. + +The stage was divided into three different floors, with Heaven on +top, hell on the ground floor, and the earth between. Frequently +the play would proceed in all three divisions at once, with +angels and devils ascending and descending by means of ladders, +as their help was needed in the different worlds. + +The Devil generally played the part of clown or jester. The +modern puppet play of Punch is a tradition handed down from these +ancient miracles, in which the Evil One was alternately the +conqueror or victim of the human Buffoon; who was also called by +the names of Jester or Vice. + +These early miracle plays were generally written in mixed prose +and verse. + +The oldest manuscript of a miracle play in English is The +Harrowing of Hell, believed to have been written in 1350. + +The Morality plays were the outcome of the Mysteries; they were +either allegorical or else taken from the Parables, or from the +historical events in the Bible. The chief Moralities were +Everyman, Lusty Juventus, Good Counsel, and Repentance. The +oldest English Morality play now extant is The Castle of +Perseverance, written about 1450. It is a dramatic allegory of +human life representing the many conflicting influences that +surround man on his way through the world. Lusty Juventus depicts +in a vivid and humorous way the extravagances and follies of a +young heir surrounded by the virtues and vices, and the misery +which follows a departure from the path of religion and virtue. +Gradually these Moralities were corrupted and became mixed with a +species of comedy called Interludes, a merry and farcical +dialogue. The Four P's, one of the best of these early +Interludes, was written by John Heywood, an entertainer at the +Court of Henry VIII. It turns upon a dispute between a Peddler, a +Palmer, a Pardoner and a Poticary, in which each tries to tell +the greatest lie; plays of this kind are seen in France at the +present day. In the fifteenth century the drama in France became +more secularized and included political events and satire, but +the French were undoubtedly the fathers of drama in the Middle +Ages. Their plays were known a whole century before Spain or +Italy had any theater, while the romantic drama in other +countries of Europe was founded on the early French drama. +Modern drama in France during the time of Corneille, Racine and +Voltaire was almost entirely classic. The French regarded the +Greek standard as the highest art; and sought to imitate it +faithfully, so much so that the French Academy, criticizing a +tragedy of Corneille, said "that the poet, from the fear of +sinning against the rules of art, had chosen rather to sin +against the rules of nature." + +Comic drama in France from the end of the sixteenth to the middle +of the seventeenth century was borrowed from Spain, and had to do +with a multiplication of trap doors, dark lanterns, intrigues, +and puzzling disguises, until Moliere, in his "Precieuses +Ridicules" successfully attacked these follies of his age. + +The Romantic drama, which arose in the second quarter of the +nineteenth century, holds at present the first place in France. +Its chief exponents have been Victor Hugo, the two Dumases, +Sardou and Octave Feuillet. Between them and the followers of the +Classic School there was for some time a lively war. The latter +wanted to exclude the Romanticists from the Theatre Francais, but +without success. In spite of the beauty of its French, and the +polish of its style, this latest form of the drama in France +frequently offends strongly against morality. In Spain the drama +was at all times thoroughly national. Even when they introduced +mythological, Greek or Roman characters, it was always in a +Castilian dress. In this respect Spain stands alone among the +nations of Europe, as it borrowed nothing from France, Italy or +England. Its earliest plays were the Mysteries, which it is +supposed to have obtained from Constantinople, where the ancient +theatre of Greece and Rome was kept up, in a grosser form, far +into the Middle Ages. In later times this Eastern drama became so +corrupt that the Christian Church tried to offset it by +introducing the Mysteries, and it became a common custom every +year at Christmas, for the Manger at Bethlehem, the Worship of +the Shepherds, and the Adoration of the Magi, to be exhibited +before the Altar, just as the Mysteries of the Passion were +introduced during Lent. The Passion Play at Oberammergau and the +Creche, representing the Manger at Bethlehem, as seen in Catholic +Churches at Christmas, are the sole survivals of these ancient +Mysteries. + +The second dramatic period in Spain was pastoral and satirical. +Nothing worthy of note adorns this period in the fifteenth +century. In the sixteenth century de Rueda and Lope de Vega +founded the true national drama of Spain. It was unlike anything +of an earlier period, and yet, resting faithfully on tradition, +it gave a vivid picture of the National Spanish life in all +classes of society. From the gallantries of the "dramas of the +Cloak and Sword," to the historical plays in which Dings and +Princes figure; down to the manners and incidents of common life, +all is essentially Spanish. A fourth class still represented +Scriptural and sacred scenes. Calderon wrote at the height of the +Spanish drama during the reign of Philip II; and after his time +the drama in Spain declined until, in the eighteen century, it +was at its lowest ebb. At this time plays were still held in open +courtyards, and in the daytime, as in the earlier ages. Efforts +were made to subject it to French and Italian rule, but this had +only a limited success; stiff, cold translation from the French +could not please a people who always found in the Spanish drama +an essentially popular entertainment. + +In Germany traces of the drama first appeared in the thirteenth +century, when rude attempts to imitate the Mystery plays were +conducted in churches by the priests. But when the populace tried +to introduce the Burlesque, the performances were banished to the +open fields. Students in the universities took part in them, and +they continued until after the Reformation. Brought into Europe +from Constantinople by the Crusaders and pilgrims, the Mystery +plays became the chief amusement of an illiterate age. +Christianity was first thoroughly impressed on the mind of +Northern Europe by means of them; and the first missionaries +familiarized the rude Goths and Huns with Biblical incidents at a +time when reading was unknown outside of the Cloister. No change +in German drama occurred until the seventeenth century, when +operas after the Italian superseded the Mysteries and Moralities. +The production of this age, however, were characterized by bad +taste and pedantry; and it was not until Goethe brought his +genius to bear on the subject, that the Germans acquired any +drama worthy of the name. Whether in his national play Gotz von +Berlichingen or in his classical drama of Iphigenia, this great +German master stands at the summit of his art. Lessing attacked +French drama as enacted in Germany prior to Goethe, and brought +forward the Shakespearian plays as a model. + +Schiller's Wallenstein obtained a worldwide reputation, and among +the Romantic dramatists Werner's Attila and Grillparzer's +Ancestress are the best examples of the extravagant and fertile +mind of the German romanticist. + +Modern German drama has found the highest art it has ever +attained in the compositions of Richard Wagner, whose operas are +entirely German and National, and mostly founded on the old +German legends. Tannhauser is taken from the epic poem of +"Parzifal," written by Wolfram von Eschenbach in the Middle Ages. +Lohengrin, which is touched on in the "Parzifal," Wagner also +found in the poem of an obscure Bavarian poet; and a more +complete account of the celebrated "Swan Knight" appears in a +collection of stories edited by the brothers Grimm. Lohengrin is +a Knight of the Holy Grail, so part of the legend is borrowed +from ancient Britain. + +All dramatic effort in England before the sixteenth century was +so rude as to be of little account. The Miracle and Mystery plays +were introduced into England in the reign of Henry VI, and many +of them had a personage called "Iniquity," a coarse buffoon, +whose object was to amuse the audience. After the Reformation the +Protestant Bishop Bale wrote plays on the same plan as the +Mysteries, intended to instruct the people in the supposed errors +of Popery. These plays, which deal largely in satire, became +popular and after the era of Henry VIII were known as Interludes. +In the beginning of the sixteenth century real comedy and tragedy +began to exist in a rude form. The oldest known English comedy, +Ralph Royster Doyster, was written by Nicholas Udall, and +describes a character whose comic misadventures are somewhat akin +to Don Quixote. + +The earliest tragedy, Gorboduc, known also Ferrex and Porrex, was +played in the Lower Temple. It is founded on the legends of +fabulous British history. The tragedies of Marlowe and the +legendary plays of Greene come next in order, followed by the +golden age of English drama, from the dawn of the Shakespeare +plays in 1585 until the closing of the theatre in 1645 on the +breaking out of the Civil war in England. For a period of sixty +years the splendid genius of the world's greatest dramatist gave +to mankind a series of plays that have no equal in the literature +of any country or age. + +Contemporaneous with Shakespeare, or coming after him, were +Beaumont and Fletcher, Ben Jonson, Massinger, Ford, and Shirley; +these Elizabethan dramatists took their subjects from the stories +and legends of all countries and ages--or else they depicted the +national life. For this reason English drama has been called +Irregular, in contrast to the Greek, which is called the Regular, +and that of modern France, founded upon the Greek. The chief rule +of the Regular is the Unity of Time, Place and Action. In the +Greek, the time of action was allowed to extend to twenty-four +hours, and the scene to change from place to place in the same +city; but Shakespeare and his contemporaries acknowledged no +fixed limit either of time, place or action. The operation of +their plays covered many different countries, and the time +extended over many years; but the rule that laid down in the +Greek drama the principle that there should be unity of action +(everything being subordinate to a series of events, which form +the thread of the plot), was adopted by Shakespeare and his +contemporaries. It has been called "unity of impression," as +opposed to unity of time and place. + + +ARABIAN. + +The rise and development of Arabian literature occurs at an epoch +when the rest of Europe was struggling through a period of +transition. From the middle of the sixth to the beginning of the +eleventh century, at a time when the Roman dominions were overrun +by Northern hordes, and the Greek Nation was groaning under the +Byzantine power, when both Greek and Latin literature was exposed +to the danger of extinction, the splendor of Arabian literature +reached its zenith and through the mingling of the Troubadours +with the Moors of the Peninsula, and of the Crusaders with the +Arabs, it began to influence the literature of Europe. + +Arabia, peopled by wandering tribes, had no history other than +the songs of the national bards, until after the rise of Mohammed +in the sixth century. The desire of the prophet was to bring his +people back from idolatry and star worship to the primitive and +true worship of God. He studied the Old and New Testament, the +legends of the Talmud and the traditions of Arabian and Persian +mythology, then he wrote the Koran, which became the sacred book +of the Arabians, and in which is traced in outline the true plan +of man's salvation--Death, Resurrection, the Judgment, Paradise +and the place of torment. Good and evil spirits, the four +archangels, Gabriel, Michael, Azrael and Izrafeel, are all found +in the Koran; but clothed with a true Oriental fancy. Besides the +angels there are creatures, partly human and partly spiritual, +called Genii, Peris (or fairies) and Deev (or giants). The Genii +have the power of making themselves seen or invisible at +pleasure. Some of them delight in mischief, and raise whirlwinds, +or lead travellers astray. The Arabians used to say that shooting +stars were arrows shot by the angels against the Genii when they +approached too near the forbidden regions of bliss. + +This fairy mythology of the Arabians was introduced into Europe +by the Troubadours in the eleventh century, and became an +important factor in the literature of Europe. From it, and the +Scandinavian mythology spring all the fairy tales of modern +nations. And these romances of the Koran form the groundwork of +the fabliaux of the Trouveres, and of the romantic epics of +Boccaccio, Tasso, Ariosto, Spenser and Shakespeare. Mohammed's +teaching unified the different tribes of Arabia, and fostered a +feeling of national pride, and a desire for learning. So rapidly +did this develop that in less than a century the Arabian power +and religion, as well as its language, had gained the ascendency +over nearly half of Africa, a third of Asia, and a part of Spain; +and from the ninth century to the sixteenth, the Arabian +literature surpassed that of any nations of the same period. + +This people, who, in a barbarous state had tried to abolish all +cultivation in science and literature, now became the masters of +learning, and they drew from the treasure houses of the countries +that they had acquired by conquest, all the riches of knowledge +at their command. + +The learning of the Chaldeans and of the Magi, the poetry and +fine arts of Asia Minor, the eloquence and intellect of Africa, +all became theirs. + +Greece counts nearly eight centuries from the Trojan war to the +summit of her literary development. From the foundation of Rome +till the age of Augustus the same number of centuries passed over +the Roman world; while in French literature the age of Louis XIV +was twelve centuries removed from the advent of Clovis; but in +Arabian literature, from the time of the family of the Abassides, +who mounted the throne in 750--and who introduced a passionate +love for poetry, science and art--until the time of Al Mamoun, +the Augustus of Arabia, there elapsed only one hundred and fifty +years, a rate of progress in the development of literature among +a nation that has no parallel in history. + +Tournaments first originated among the Arabs, and thence found +their way into France and Italy. Gunpowder was known to them a +century before it appeared in Europe, and they were in possession +of the compass in the eleventh century, and this notwithstanding +the fact that a German chemist is supposed to have discovered +gunpowder a century after the Arabs made use of it, while the +compass is more frequently supposed to be a French or Italian +invention of the thirteenth century. + +Botany and chemistry were more familiar to them than they were to +the Greeks or Romans. Bagdad and Cordova had famous schools of +astronomy and medicine, and here in the tenth and eleventh +centuries the Arabians were the teachers of the world. Students +came to them from France and other parts of Europe; and their +progress, especially in arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, was +marvellous. The poetry of the Arabs is rhymed like ours, and is +always the poetry of passion and love; but it is in their prose +works, the Arabian tales of the Thousand and One Nights, that +they have become most famous. Their richness of fancy in these +prose tales is different from that of the other chivalric +nations. The supernatural world is identical in both; but the +moral world is different. The Arabian tales, like the old +chivalric romances, take us to the realms of fairyland, but the +human beings they introduce are very unlike. Their people are +less noble and heroic, more moved by love and passion, and they +depict women by turn as slaves and divinities. The original +author of the Arabian Nights is unknown; but the book has become +a household possession in every civilized country in the world. + + +SPANISH. + +For six centuries before the advent of the Arabs in Spain the +country was under the Roman yoke, and had adopted the language +and arts of the Romans; but in the eighth century the overthrow +of the Romans, the coming of the Arabs, and contact with Arabian +civilization--as well as the struggle against their Moorish +invaders--began to develop in the Spaniards a spirit that was the +foundation of their national literature. No other people have +ever possessed in so strong a degree the true national feeling- +-no other has produced such a uniformly pure, deeply religious, +and elevated tone, in poetry and literature. Their poetry +remained at all times free from any foreign influence, and is +entirely romantic, while the Christian chivalric poetry of the +Middle Ages remained with them longer than with any other nation, +and received from their hands a more finished and elegant polish. + +After the Moorish conquest the Spaniards withdrew to the +mountains of Asturias; they took with them a corrupted form of +the Latin language, as they had received it from the Romans; +reaching these mountains, they found themselves thrown with the +Iberians (the earliest of the Spanish races). These people had +remained half barbaric, had resisted both Romans and Goths, and +retained their original or Basque language. Coming now in contact +with them, the Christian Spaniards learned their language. Later +they met with another tribe of their own race who had remained +with the Arabians, known as the Mocarabes, a people of superior +refinement and civilization. Hence a new dialect from these +contending elements was gradually formed, and became known, like +the other languages of southern Europe, as the Romanic. The +distinguishing feature of Spanish literature, from its birth, to +the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, is religious faith and +knightly loyalty. Qualities which sustained the whole nation in +its struggle against the infidel Moors. + +The first great Spanish work is the poem of the Cid. It is the +only epic Spain has ever produced, and is the most ancient of any +in the Romance language. It is also valuable as a faithful +picture of the manners and characters of the eleventh century. +Indeed, the chief characteristic of Spanish song and poetry is +its delineation of the national life. It is said that the Cid is +the foremost poem produced in Europe from the thousand years that +marked the decline of Greek and Roman civilization, to the +appearance of the Divine Comedy. The Count Lucanor, a work of the +fourteenth century, was one of the earliest prose writings in the +Spanish tongue, as the Decameron, which was written about the +same time, was the first in Italian. Both are narrative tales; +but their moral tone is very dissimilar--the Decameron was +written to amuse, while the Count Lucanor is addressed to a grave +and serious nation. These stories have frequently been +dramatized, and one of them gave Shakespeare the outline of his +Taming of the Shrew. + +Alfonso the Wise, in the thirteenth century, was the author of a +legislative code known as Las Sieta Partides, or the Seven Parts. +It forms the Spanish common law, and has been the foundation of +Spanish Jurisprudence ever since; and being used also in the +colonies of Spain, it has, since the Louisiana Purchase, become +in some cases the law in our own country. + +Juan Ruiz, who lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, +wrote a poem, partly fiction and partly allegorical, called the +Battle of Don Carnival, which strongly resembles Chaucer; both +poets found their material in northern French verse. + +Santob, a Jew in the fourteenth century, wrote a poem called the +Dance of Death, which became a favourite subject with both +painters and poets for several succeeding ages. + +The literature of Spain may be divided into four classes--the old +Ballads, the Chronicles, the Romances of Chivalry, and the Drama. +The most interesting of the old ballads are historical; but there +are also ballads that have to do with private life wherein appear +the effusions of love, the shafts of satire, the descriptions of +pastoral life, and the oddities of burlesque. One and all, +however, faithfully represent Spanish life. No such popular +poetry is found in any other language. The English and Scotch +ballads belong to a more barbarous state of society, and their +verse is less dignified and lofty than that of the Spaniards, who +were uplifted by a deep religious sense, and an unswerving +loyalty to their sovereign. A state of feeling that elevated them +far above the men and events of border feuds, and the wars of +rival Barons. + +The great Spanish heroes, the Cid, Bernardo del Carpo, and +Pelayo, are to this day a vital part of the belief and poetry of +the lower classes in Spain, and are revered as they were hundreds +of years ago. The wandering Mulateers still sing of Guarinos and +of the defeat at Roncesvalles as they did when Don Quixote heard +them on his way to Toboso; and the street showmen in Seville +rehearse to this day the same wonderful adventures that the Don +saw in the Inn at Montesinos. The Chronicles developed among the +more refined and educated classes. The most celebrated is the +Chronicle of Spain, written by Alfonso the Wise. It starts with +the creation of the world, and ends with the death of Alfonso's +father, St. Ferdinand. It contains all the time-honored +traditions of the country, as well as exact historical truth. The +story of the Cid is supposed to be taken from this work. + +From the time of Alfonso the Wise to the accession of Charles V +(or from the thirteenth century to the sixteenth), Spain was +flooded by romantic chronicles. The most celebrated is that of +Don Roderick, or an account of the reign of King Roderick in the +eighth century, the conquest of the country by the Moors, and the +efforts to wrest it from them. On this chronicle Robert Southey +has founded most of his poem of Roderic the Last of the Goths. +Whether resting on truth or fable, these old records struck their +roots deep down in the hearts of the people; and their romance, +their chivalry, their antique traditions, and their varied +legends, form a rich deposit from which all the nations of Europe +have drawn material for their own literature. It was not until +the fourteenth century that the romances of chivalry--known in +France two centuries earlier in the stories of Arthur and the +Round Table, and the deeds of Charlemagne--found their way across +the Pyrenees. + +Spain, so essentially the land of knighthood, welcomed them +eagerly, and speedily produced a number of like romances which +were translated into French and became famous. The most +celebrated is Amadis, written by de Lobeira, a Portuguese. Its +sole purpose is to set forth the type of a perfect knight, sans +peur et sans reproche. Amadis is an imaginative character; but he +is the first of a long line of doers of knightly deeds, +culminating in Don Quixote, whose adventures have charmed and +delighted the Spaniards, as well as the men of other nations. + +Provencal literature began to have an influence on the Spanish in +1113, after the crown of Provence had been transferred from Arles +to Barcelona by the marriage of the then Provencal heiress to +Beranger, Count of Barcelona. This introduction of the Provencal +literature into northeastern Spain had a beneficial result on the +two literatures, fusing them into a more vigorous spirit. + +Spain had always maintained the closest relations with the See of +Rome, and numerous Spanish students were educated at the Italian +Universities, hence the Italian literature had some influence on +the Spanish, more lasting as a whole than the effects of +Provencal literature. From 1407 to 1454 King John II tried to +form an Italian school in Spain, gathering around him a poetical +court. This Italian influence extended into the sixteenth +century. Diego de Mendoza, during the reign of Charles V wrote a +clever satirical prose work called Lazarillo de Tormes, which +became the foundation of a class of fiction of which Gil Blas, by +Le Sage, is the best known and most celebrated example. + +Except for the Cid, Spain had no historical narrative poems of +any account, and her prose historical works, especially on the +discovery and conquest of America, are of a purely local +character, and had no influence outside of Spain. The beginning +of the eighteenth century saw the accession to the throne of +Philip V, a grandson of Louis XIV; and this brought a strong +French influence into the country, which for a time dominated the +national literature. + +A new poetical system founded on Boileau was introduced by Luzan +in his Art of Poetry; but it did not seem to bring about any real +advance in literature; and it was not until Spain threw off this +foreign yoke, that any revival in her literature took place. It +is due to a monk, Benito Feyjoo, in the middle of the eighteen +century that a renaissance in Spanish literature took place. +Feyjoo, a devout Catholic, labored to bring to light scientific +truths, and to show how they harmonized with the true Catholic +spirit. In the same century Isla, a Jesuit, undertook with entire +success, to purify the Spanish pulpit, which had become lowered +both in style and tone. His history of Friar Gerund, which +slightly resembles Don Quixote, aimed a blow at bombastic +oratory, causing it soon to die out. Proverbs which Cervantes had +styled "short sentences drawn from long experience," have always +been a distinctive Spanish product, and can be traced back to the +earliest ages of the country. No fewer than 24,000 have been +collected, and many more circulate among the lower classes which +have not been recorded in writing. + + +PORTUGUESE. + +The earliest imitators in Europe of the bucolic poetry of Virgil, +were the Portuguese; and as a people they thought that the +pastoral life was the ideal model for poetry. This idea is +strongly brought out by Ribeyro in the sixteenth century. + +The great number of Mocarbians that settled in Portugal infused +into them as a nation, a stronger Orientalism than is found +elsewhere in Europe, and their poetry was of an enthusiastic +order, more marked than that of the Spaniards. + +Henry of Burgundy, who married a daughter of Alfonso XI of Spain, +in the eleventh century, introduced Provencal poetry. The +Cancioneros, or courtly ballads, in imitation of the Provencal, +were sung by wandering minstrels, and Portuguese poetry retained +its Provencal character until the end of the fourteenth century. + +In the fifteenth century, the Portuguese invaded Africa, and +Vasco de Gama pointed out to Europe the new and unknown route to +India. Fifteen years later, toward the close of the century, a +Portuguese kingdom was founded in Hindostan, causing a strong +counter-current of Orientalism to invade Portugal. The people +awoke to a desire for greatness; and poetry and the arts +flourished. This period, extending into the sixteenth century, is +called the golden age of Portuguese literature. + +The Os Lusiades, an epic poem, that has been called "one of the +noblest monuments ever raised to the national glory of any +people," was written by Luis de Camoens, a Portuguese of the +sixteenth century. It is intensely patriotic, although it is +touched by both Greek mythology, and the Italian style, which +during this epoch had been slightly blended with the Portuguese. +Portugal had little or no influence on the literature of any +nation but her own, receiving her strongest impressions from +outsiders. In the eighteenth century she was dominated both in +taste and manners by the French, and the beginning of the +nineteenth century found her a great admirer and imitator of +English literature. + +National songs are known to have been sung in Portugal during the +earliest times; but none of them have come down to us. They were +doubtless similar to the other bardic songs of Europe. + + +FRENCH. + +It is in the first ages of national existence that the +foundations of national character and poetry are laid; and the +farther back that history is studied, the more closely do we find +the different peoples of the world united in their literature. +Its first history in France is undoubtedly that of the +Troubadours. Provence, where it originated, early became an +independent kingdom, while in the north the literature of the +Trouveres became the foundation of the national literature of +France. Latin was the language of the country after its conquest +by Julius Caesar; then came the Northern hordes, when language +became corrupted, until, in the time of Charlemagne, German was +the Court language, Latin the written language, and the Romance +dialect, still in its barbaric state, was the speech of the +people. The Gauls in the North, who used the Romance, were also +called the Roman-Wallons; they were distinguished from +Charlemagne's German subjects, while in the South the natives +were called the Romans-Provencaux. + +In the tenth century the Normans invaded France, and infused +another element in the language, which gradually became Norman- +French; and from the twelfth century the two dialects were known +as Provencal and French. The Provencal dialect, although much +changed, is still spoken in Provence, Languedoc, Catalonia, +Valencia, Majorca, and Minorca, while the French was brought, by +gradual polish, to its present perfection. + +The Troubadours who flourished for three centuries, from 950 to +1250, used the Romance language in their poems. The brilliance of +this period of literature, its sudden rise, and as sudden +disappearance, is not unlike the rise and fall of the Arabian +literature. + +Among the thousands of poets who flourished during this time, +none ever wrote anything of any special note. The love, romance +and imagination of these poems breathes that chivalry toward +women, amounting almost to veneration, which was a feature of +this class of poetry. It is therefore to be regretted that as +actual tales, shorn of the poetical and chivalric setting, there +was something left to be desired. The immorality of the +incidents, and the coarseness of the language, makes this "Gay +Science," as the Troubadours called it, unfit to be classed with +the best literature. In 1092 the crown of Provence passing to the +Count of Barcelona brought a more refined taste into the +Provencal poetry; the arts and the sciences of the Arabians +obtained a foothold in the country; rhyme--the method used in +Arabian poetry, was adopted by the Troubadours, and from them has +been handed down to the nations of modern Europe. + +This period has been described as "one that shone out at once +over Provence and all the south of Europe, like an electric flash +in the midst of profound darkness, illuminating all things with +the splendor of its flame." + +During the Crusades many of the Troubadours departed for the Holy +Land. In the history of the world there is no event that fired +the poetry and imagination of the people like these holy wars, +and religious enthusiasm began to influence the poetry of the +time. When the Plantagenet kings of England assumed by right the +sovereignty over Languedoc (as Provence was called), a new +impetus was given to the Provencal poetry, as well as a wider +scope, when it was introduced into England. Chaucer, the father +of English literature, found in the Provencal literature all his +first models. + +With the decline of the Troubadours occurred the rise of the +Trouveres in northern France. + +In the tenth century Normany was invaded by Rollo the Dane, who +incorporated himself and his followers with the Normans. They +adopted the Norman-French; but gave it a power and scope it had +hitherto lacked. While the Romance-Provencal in the South was a +language of sweetness and beauty, the Northern language after the +advent of Rollo, was strong and warlike. Its poetry, which +differed from the love chansons of the South, was the song of +brave warriors, recounting the heroic deeds of their ancestors. + +The Langue d'oui, as this Northern speech was called, became, in +the twelfth century, the universal medium of literature. The +poets and story writers called themselves Trouveres, and they +invented the fabliaux, the dramatic mysteries and romances of +ancient chivalry. The first great literary work of this class is +a marvellous history of the early kings of England, commencing +with Brutus, a grandson of Aeneas, who, sailing among many +enchanted Isles, at length settles in England, where he meets +Arthur of the Round Table, and the old wizard, Merlin, one of the +most popular creations of the Middle Ages. Born of this legend +were some of the best known of modern romances. The word romance, +which in the early history of France was used to distinguish the +common dialect from the Latin, was later applied to all +imaginative and inventive tales. Of this class was "Tristam de +Leonois," written in 1190; the "San Graal," and "Lancelot." In +the same century appeared "Alexander," a poem which became so +celebrated that poetry, written in the same measure, is to this +day called Alexandrine verse. + +A poetess known as Marie of France, wrote twelve lays to +celebrate the glories of the Round Table. She addresses herself +to a king supposed to be Henry VI, and has made extensive use of +early British legends. Chaucer and other English poets, have +drawn many inspirations from her poems. + +The Trouveres not only originated the romances of chivalry; but +they also invented allegorical poems. The most celebrated is the +"Romance of the Rose," written in the thirteenth century. It +consisted of 20,000 verses, and although tedious, because of its +length, it was universally admired, and became the foundation of +all subsequent allegory among the different nations. The poetry +of the Trouveres was unlike anything in antiquity, and unlike, +too, to what came after it. It dealt with high-minded love and +honor, the devotion of the strong to the weak, and the +supernatural in fiction. All this, which formed part of its +composition, has been attributed to both the Arabians and the +Germans; but it was in truth a peculiar production of the +Normans, the most active and enterprising people in Europe, a +nation who pushed into Russia, Constantinople, England, France, +Sicily and Syria. A treasury of a later date, from which the +Trouveres drew their fabliaux in the thirteenth century, was a +collection of Indian tales that had been translated into Latin in +the tenth century. These fabliaux show that inventiveness, +gaiety, and simple, yet delightful esprit, which is found nowhere +but among the French. The Arabian tales, which had found their +way into France, were also turned into verse, while the anecdotes +that were picked up in the castles and towns of France, furnished +other material for the fabliaux. These tales were the common +property of the country at large, and are the source from which +Boccaccio, La Fontaine, and others drew their inspiration. Some +of them became famous and have been passed down from one age to +another. + +The Renard of Goethe, and the Zaire of Voltaire were taken from +the old fabliaux. In the fourteenth century the coming of the +Popes and the Roman Court to Avignon introduced an Italian +element, and the language of Tuscany took the place of the +Provencal among the upper classes. + +La Fontaine, called the "Prince of Fablists," appeared in the +seventeenth century. Many of his fables were borrowed from +ancient sources; but clothed in a new dress. He has been closely +imitated by his Confreres and by the fablists of other nations; +but has easily remained the most renowned of them all. + +The philosophy of Descartes in the sixteenth century prepared the +way for Locke, Newton and Leibnitz; and his system, although now +little used, was really the foundation of what followed. He is +said to have given new and fresher impulse to mathematical and +philosophical study than any other student, either ancient or +modern. + +Pascal, a contemporary of Descartes, is renowned for his +Provencal Letters, a book that has become a classic in France. It +is full of wit, and of exquisite beauty of language; but its +teaching is pure sophistry. Pascal first set the example of +writing about religion in a tone of mock levity, especially when +by so doing, he could abuse the Jesuits. In the end this weapon +of keen and delicate satire was turned against Christianity +itself, when Voltaire in the eighteenth century recognized its +possibilities, and made use of it. + +The older French literature in the sixteenth century had become +so neglected, and was so lacking in cultivation; so little +adapted to poetry, that the nation seemed in danger of losing all +its earlier traditions. For a hundred years France was given over +to profane and light literature. Montaigne, Charyon, Ronsard and +de Balzac are some of the names of this period. The death of a +cat or dog was made the subject of a poem that was no real +poetry. It is due to the women of France--to Madame de +Rambouillet and her confreres, and to the literary coteries that +arose in the middle of the seventeenth century--that French +literature acquired a deeper and more serious tone. This period +was followed by the founding of the French Academy, of which +Cardinal Richelieu was the chief patron. The tragic dramatists, +Corneille and Racine, now appeared on the literary horizon. +Racine's language and versification was said to be far superior +to either Milton in English or Virgil in Latin. + +In tragedy the French stand pre-eminent; but it is matter for +regret that their subjects are never taken from their own +nation--they rarely represent French heroes; and it is a weakness +of their literature that they make no direct appeal to the +national feeling. There is a close connection between the +classical dramas of Racine and Corneille, and such works as +Pope's Iliad, Addison's Cato and Dryden's Alexander's Feast, +showing the general interest in Greek and Roman subjects during +their time. + +The older poetry of the chivalric period was entirely discarded, +though it would have been possible to unite the old chivalric +spirit, the freedom and romance of mediaeval times, with the +later renaissance, as was done by other nations. The French +literature is more closely formed on the model of the earlier +refined nations of antiquity, as the Roman was on the Greek. + +The later French poetry of the seventeenth century came into +opposition with the teaching of Rousseau, this gave birth to a +taste for English poetry and the classic poetry of France was a +copy of the descriptive poetry of England. In the eighteenth +century prose writings superseded verse. At this time the English +had taken the lead in literature, and modern French philosophy +was built on that of Bacon and Locke. It was no part of the plan +of the English philosophers, however, to inculcate such ideas as +the French philosophers drew from their writings. Bacon, who was +profoundly Christian, believed that man alone was the type of +God, and nature the work of God's hands; but the French leaders +in philosophy went beyond this, they deified nature, and threw +aside as mysticism whatever could not be proved by sense. +Voltaire made use of all the wonderful greatness of science, as +revealed by Bacon and Newton, not to exalt the Creator; but to +lower man to the level of the brute. Like the old Greek sophists, +who defended first one side of a question, and then the one +diametrically opposed to it, Voltaire would write one book in +favor of God, and another to deny Him; but it is not difficult to +see which is his real belief. This perverted philosophy of +Voltaire in turn reacted on the English mind, and particularly on +history. We see its workings in both Gibbon and Hume. The "little +philosophy" which "inclineth a man's mind to atheism," led the +eighteenth century philosophers to fancy that Newton's +discoveries meant that everything could be attained without +religion, and that the only true and wide vision could be reached +by the senses alone. They taught a pure materialism, to their own +undoing; for it is not possible to thus lightly throw aside our +great links with the past, in which both Christian and heathen, +knowingly and unknowingly, in mediaeval poetry, in heroic ballad, +and in Egyptian prose, testified to the existence of God. + +The nineteenth century in France has been rich in dramatists, +novelists, historians and poets, as well as in science and +learning of all kinds; but it has had no especial power, or aim, +and its opinions are constantly changing. The early novelists +were strongly directed by the writings of Sir Walter Scott, while +later ones have sought to imitate Victor Hugo and George Sand. +The literature of this period has had no effect outside of +France. Poetry has not risen any higher than Alfred de Musset; +and any further greatness in French poetry must come from a +revival of their own ancient poems and legends. + +Poetry that deals only with the present becomes local, and in the +end is influenced by the constant caprice and change of fashion +instead of by the deep, heart-stirring beliefs of a strong and +united people. + + +ITALIAN. + +The first general language of Italy was the Latin, and so +strongly was the Italian mind dominated by the influence of +ancient Rome that her earliest writers sought to keep alive the +Roman tradition. This spirit of freedom led to the establishment +of the Italian Republics, and after the Lombard cities threw off +the yoke of Frederick Barbarossa they turned their chief +attention to education and literature. The spirit of chivalry and +chivalric poetry never took such root in Italy as it did in other +European countries. Nevertheless, Italy was not uninfluenced by +the Crusades, and the Arabs, establishing a celebrated school of +medicine at Salerno, gave a new impetus to the study of the +classics. In Bologna was opened a school of jurisprudence, where +Roman law was studied, and these schools, or universities soon +appeared in other parts of Italy. + +The Italians devoted more time to the study of law and history, +and to making translations from the Greek philosophers, than to +the cultivation of chivalric poetry, although many of the Italian +poets wrote in Provencal and French; and Italian Troubadours made +journeys to the European Courts. + +It has been said that the only poetry that has any real power +over a people is that which is written or composed in their own +language. This is especially true of Italy. Following this early +Latin period came Dante, the most glorious, and inventive of the +Italian poets, and indeed one of the greatest masters of verse in +the world. He perfected the Tuscan, or Florentine dialect, which +was gradually becoming the literary language of Italy. Petrarch, +who succeeded Dante, is greatest in his Italian poems, and it is +by these that he is best known, while his Latin works, which he +hoped would bring him fame, have been almost forgotten. + +In the fifteenth century the use of the national language in +literature entirely died out, through the rise of the Humanists, +and the craze for Greek and Latin classics; but toward the end of +the fifteenth century, under Lorenzo de'Medici and Leo X, +interest in their own literature among the Italians began to +revive again. Ariosto and Tasso wrote their magnificent epics; +and once more Italian poetry was read and appreciated, and +reached the height of its renown. Again in the seventeenth +century it declined under the influence of the Marini school; +whose bad taste and labored and bombastic style, was +unfortunately imitated in both France and Spain. In the +eighteenth century, under the patronage of Benedict XIV, the +Arcadian poets of the Marini school were banished from +literature, and other and more brilliant writers arose, possessed +of the true national feeling. Under Pope Pius VI, by whom he was +liberally patronized, Quirico Visconti undertook his "Pio +Clementine Museum," and his "Greek and Roman Iconography," said +to be the two greatest archaeological works of all ages. + +With the rise of Napoleon, Italy was flooded with French +writings, and French translations, not always of the best, and +even the French language was used instead of the Italian. The +Italian literature again suffered a decline, and it was not until +after the treaty of Vienna in 1815 that the foreign influence was +again shaken off. It will thus be seen that it was when Italian +poets wrote in their own language that their greatest and most +lasting success was attained. During the periods when a craze for +imitating foreign works existed, the national languages +deteriorated. In Germany, under the Emperor Maximilian, a crown +was publicly bestowed on any poet who achieved success in Latin +verse, while no reward or emolument was given to those who wrote +in German. The religion of Humanism in Italy went to such lengths +that many seemed to lose not only their belief but also their +good sense, as they considered it vulgar to talk of the Deity in +the language of the Bible. God was spoken of in the plural--gods. +The Father was Jupiter, the Son, Apollo; and the Devil, Pluto; +but these various errors had no lasting or far-reaching +influence. The Divine Comedy, the most powerful and lifelike +exponent of the thoughts and feelings of the age in which Dante +lived--an allegory, written in the form of a vision, at a time +when men believed that the things that are unseen are eternal--is +the most perfect and magnificent monument of earthly love, +refined and spiritualized, that has ever been written. It stands +alone; for no man of any country, coming after Dante, has been +able to write from the same motive, and in the same spirit, that +he did. Petrarch, the next greatest after Dante, is chiefly +celebrated for his lyrical poems, which were used as models by +all the most celebrated poets of the South of Europe. They are +written in two forms, the canzone taken from the Provencals, and +the sonnet, taken from the Sicilians. Petrarch kept up a wide +correspondence with the literary men of Europe; and through his +influence a sort of literary republic arose which joined together +the literati of many different countries. Boccaccio, next in rank +to Petrarch, evolved a poetry consisting of Norman wit and +Provencal love, joined to an elaborate setting of his own. He +took Livy and Cicero for his models, and tried to combine ancient +mythology with Christian history, the result being that his +writings were not so fine as they would have been had they +displayed a greater freedom a of style. His most celebrated work +is the Decameron, the idea of which is taken from an old Hindu +romance which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century. +Most of these tales have also been found in the ancient French +fabliaux, and while Boccaccio cannot be said to have really +invented them, he did clothe them anew, and his tales in their +turn have been translated into all the European languages. + +It is due to Cosmo and Lorenzo de' Medici, and to Pope Leo X, +that there was such a glorious development of the fine arts in +the fifteenth century, an era whose benefits have been felt among +the cultivated nations for over three hundred years. + +At the same time Poliziano created the pastoral tragedy, which +served to revive the study of Virgil. Other poets seizing on the +old romance of the Trouveres, added to them an element of +mockery, in place of the old religious belief. This new spirit +was adopted by Ariosto. From the East he borrowed the magic and +sorcery interwoven in the adventures of his knights and ladies, +giants and magicians. It remained for Torquato Tasso to revive +the heroic epic in his Jerusalem Delivered, in which he depicts +the struggle between the Christians and Saracens. Neither the +Siege of Trod, nor the Adventures of Aeneas could compare with +the splendid dramatic element in Tasso's immortal poem, which has +been said to combine the classic and the romantic style in a new +and unusual degree. + +In the sixteenth century Strapparola, an Italian novelist, wrote +a number of fairy tales, which have been a treasure house for +later writers, and to which we are indebted for Puss in Boots, +Fortunio, and other stories which have now become familiar in the +nursery lore of most modern nations. Bandello, in the same +century, was a novelist from whom Shakespeare and other English +dramatists have borrowed much material. + +One thing which is peculiar to Italy, and which has found its way +into nearly the whole civilized world, is Italian Opera or +melodrama. It was an outcome of the Pastoral drama, and first +took shape in 1594 under Rinuccini, a Florentine. But the true +father of Italian opera is Metastasio, who flourished in the +eighteenth century. He regarded opera as the national drama of +Italy, and raised it to a plane that it has ever since retained; +though of late years it has become more the fashion to cultivate +German opera. + + +DUTCH. + +Erasmus said of Ghent at the end of the fifteenth century that +there was no city in Europe that could compare with it in +greatness, power, and the cultivation of its people. The lays of +the minstrels and the chivalric romances of other nations were +translated into Dutch. In the middle of the thirteenth century +Reynard the Fox was rendered into the same language, while this +era also saw a translation of the Bible made into Flemish rhyme. + +The close of the fourteenth century saw the rise of some +wandering poets called Sprekers, who visited the courts of Kings +and Princes and became so popular that in the fifteenth century +they were federated into different societies that became known as +"Chambers of Rhetoric," somewhat similar to the German Guilds of +the Meistersingers. These societies spread rapidly through the +country, and from rhyme the members passed to the mystery plays, +and to the beginnings of the drama. + +The Court of Burgundy in the fifteenth century brought a strong +French element into the literature of the Dutch nation, and the +poets and chroniclers of that age are chiefly Flemish. + +The taste for Greek and Latin was introduced into Holland in the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by Erasmus and Grotius, the two +most learned men among the Dutch literati of their age. + +Hooft in the seventeenth century made an extensive study of +Italian poetry, and succeeded in imparting to his tragic and +lyric verse a certain quality of sweetness and volume which it +has since retained. His style, which also embraces tragedy, has +been extensively imitated by his own countrymen. + +Nearly the whole of the eighteenth century passed without any +advancement in Dutch literature. The country experienced the +French influence, in common with the rest of Europe; and French +works and translations abounded. Toward the close of this century +German taste began to predominate, and a young Dutchman, Van +Effen, founded a magazine in French, called the "Spectator," +which was in imitation of, and on the same lines as the English +magazine of the same name. Many native writers arose at this time +and gained distinction in poetry, prose and the drama; but the +overthrow of the Dutch Republic, and the confusion attending it, +for a time extinguished the national literature, and the +beginning of the nineteenth century saw the country flooded with +poor translations of foreign books, and all the noble national +literature was forgotten. This evil was partly remedied in the +latter part of the nineteenth century; but as a whole, the Dutch +literature, while it has been influenced by foreign taste, has +had little or no weight outside of its own nation, and has not in +any way shaped the literature of other peoples. + + +GERMAN. + +Germany, like the other Northern nations, had primitive war songs +sung by the bards. Her mythology is akin to the Scandinavian, and +like the latter she assigns a high place to women. Tacitus says: +"It is believed that there is something holy and prophetic about +them, and therefore the warriors neither despise their counsels +nor disregard their responses." + +This German paganism was eminently fanciful--it peopled the +earth, air and sea with supernatural beings--the rivers had their +Undines, the caverns their Gnomes, the woods their Sprites, and +the ocean its Nixes. Besides these, there were a host of +mythological figures--the Walkyres or bridal maidens, the river +maids; and the white women, Hertha and Frigga. These legends have +formed a rich treasure house from which later German authors have +freely drawn for song or story. Before the Christian age Germany +had no literature and the first national work that can be +dignified by the name is a translation of the Bible into +Moeso-Gothic by Ulphilas, a bishop of the Goths, in the fourth +century A.D. This is a Catholic work that antedated Luther by a +thousand years. + +Bishop Ulphilas invented an alphabet of Runic, Greek and Roman +letters, and this translation of the Bible remained the only +literary monument of the Germans for four hundred years. The +minstrel lays of this period were later collected by Charlemagne, +of which two specimens have come down to us. Like the Icelandic, +Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian, old English, and old Saxon, they are +in a measure called alliteration, that is, a repetition of the +sound without the regular rhyme at the end of lines, or such as +we call rhyme. This circumstance made Klopstock, at a later +period, try to banish rhyme as not being correct according to +ancient usage. One of these poems, the Hildebrand-lied, belongs +to the time of Theodoric the Great. The songs collected by +Charlemagne, were later remodelled and have come down to us as +the Heldenbuch and the Nibelungen-lied. The intellectual light in +Germany went out with the death of Charlemagne, except in the +cloisters. + +The Normans on the West and the Hungarians in the East menaced +the country, and the only important literary work of the time is +a poem written by a monk at the close of the ninth century. It is +called "Ludwig's Lied;" and celebrates the triumph of Louis over +the Normans. Roswitha, a nun in the tenth century, wrote some +Christian dramas in Latin that are remarkable as coming from the +pen of a woman in the Middle Ages. + +The invasions of the Hungarians and Slavs in the eleventh century +effectually prevented the blossoming of any literary effort, +except for some poems known as the Lombard Cycle, in which the +rude pagan legends of antiquity were blended with the dawnings of +Christianity. But in 1138, when Conrad III became Emperor of +Germany, his accession was followed by the Crusades, which spread +a flame of enthusiasm and chivalry among the Germans. + +In 1149 Conrad and Louis VII of France joined forces to lead a +Crusade to the Holy Land, and thus the German and French nobility +became intimately acquainted, and Provencal poetry soon began to +have an effect on German literature. + +Emperors and nobles held court and received their foreign guests +with splendid display and hospitality. Poets and singers were +welcomed, and the chivalric literature was soon taken up by the +Suabian minstrels who became known as the Minnesingers. + +From 1150 to 1300 was the golden age of Suabian literature and +German chivalry. During this period numerous romances of chivalry +were translated into German. + +They have been divided into different classes, or cycles. + +The first, and most ancient, have to do with Arthur and the +Knights of the Round Table. Their origin is Anglo-Norman, and +they were probably taken from old Welsh chronicles in an early +age, and were known in Britain and Brittany before the poets +began to put them in rhyme. + +The most popular of these romances was the San Graal, or Holy +Grail, a subject that has engaged some of the best poets of all +countries. In this legend the Cup, which was supposed to have +been used at the Last Supper, in some way is brought to Golgotha +during the Crucifixion, and is used to preserve some of the blood +that flows from Christ's side, when it is opened by the soldier's +spear. Joseph of Arimathea is thought to have brought this +precious Cup to Europe, and to have given it into the keeping of +Sir Parsifal. Knowledge of its whereabouts was then lost, so that +knights and heroes make it the object of long and fruitless +quests. + +The second cycle of romance has to do with Charlemagne, and is +mostly in the form of translations from French literature. + +The third, or classic cycle, relates to the great ones of ancient +times, presented in the role of chivalry. These embrace stories +of Alexander the Great, the Aeneid, and the Trojan war. During +this period there were two classes of songs in Germany; the +minstrelsy, most in favor with the nobility; and the old ballads, +which were most popular with the people. The latter were +gradually collected by different poets of the time, especially by +Wolfram of Eschenbach and put into epic verse, in which form they +have come down to us as the Heldenbuch (or book of heroes), and +the Nibelungen-lied. + +The Heldenbuch relates the deeds of Theodoric and Attila and the +outpouring of the Goths into the Roman Empire. In the +Nibelungen-lied the hero is Siegfried, the Achilles of the North, +the embodiment of beauty, courage and virtue. The same personages +are met with in these German legends, as in the Scandinavian +mythology, only in the latter they take on a more godlike form. +The German Brunhild, in the Scandinavian story becomes a +Valkyriur. + +The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries witnessed the decline of +the romanticists, the loss of most of the Southern culture, and +all the literature of this time is at a low ebb, partly owing to +the wars of the Germans against the Huns. + +The fourteenth century was productive of one class of literature +that was common to all Europe; namely, simple and humorous fables +and satires. "Reynard the Fox" was one of the earliest of these +fables, and remained a great favorite with the Germans, being +finally immortalized by Goethe. The same author has made us +familiar with a personage who figures in an interesting legend of +the fifteenth century. Doctor Faust, or Faustus, is a magician +who by unlawful arts gains a mastery over nature. This legend +became the foundation of a number of stories and dramas, and was +put into verse by Christopher Marlowe, the English dramatist. + +The end of the sixteenth century saw a craze for Latin in +Germany. The national tongue was neglected and national poetry +was translated into Latin verse. German poets wrote in the same +classic language, and the university lectures were all delivered +in the same tongue. The seventeenth century saw the Thirty Years' +War, during which all literary activity was completely paralyzed, +and in the course of these thirty years a whole generation, +especially among the lower classes, had grown up unable either to +read or write. But after the Treaty of Westphalia matters began +to improve, and a desire to cultivate the native language awoke. +In 1688 German superseded Latin in the universities. Novels were +published; and about this time appeared a German translation of +Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" that became very popular. Poets wrote +plays in the style of Terence, or copied English models; and even +in the present day the Germans recall with pride the fact that +the Shakespearean plays were appreciated by them during and after +the Elizabethan age much more than they were by the English +Nation. + +Science under Leibnitz also began to take shape in this century, +while Opitz wrote operas in imitation of the Italian style; and +translations from the Italian Marini came into vogue. In the +eighteenth century arose the Saxonic and Swiss schools of +literature, neither of which was devoted to national works. +Gottsched, the founder and imitator of French standards in art +and poetry, is known as the leader in the Saxonic school at +Leipsic, and an advocate of classical poetry. + +Bodmer cultivated the English style, and retired to Switzerland +with his friends, where they founded the Swiss school. The +English lyric and elegiac poets had a wonderful influence in +Germany. The followers of this school who were, or pretended to +be, poets, began to write "Seasons" in imitation of Thomson; and +the novels of the time were full of shepherds and shepherdesses. +The craze spread to France, where the French Court took up the +fad of living in rustic lodges, and Marie Antoinette posed as a +shepherdess tending sheep. Each of these poets had numerous +followers, of whom Rambler is known as the German Horace. + +Frederick the Great preferred French works, and no one seems to +have thought of starting a German school except Klopstock, who +stands almost alone in the literature of his time and country. A +man of lofty ideals, he believed that Christianity on the one +hand and Gothic mythology on the other, should be the chief +elements in all new European poetry and inspiration. Had he been +encouraged by the German Court he would have been as powerful for +good in German literature during the eighteenth century, as +Voltaire was powerful for evil in France. Wielland, a friend of +Klopstock, and a romantic poet, might have been the German +Ariosto had he not abandoned poetry for prose. He tried to copy +the Greek, in which he failed to excel. During this conflict in +Germany between the French and English school, German literature +was much influenced by Macpherson's Ossian, and Scotch names are +found in a great many German works of this period. The literature +of Germany attained its highest beauty and finish in the +eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and its people may well be +proud of the splendid names that adorn that period. The Gottingen +School, which embraced Goethe and Schiller, includes love, +philosophy and the classics for its theme, with a touch of the +bucolic, modelled after Virgil, as in the "Louise" of Voss. But +it remained for the Romantic School, founded by Novalis, the two +Schlegels and Tieck, to oppose the study of the classic antique +on the ground that it killed all native originality and power. +They turned to the Middle Ages, and drew from its rich stores all +that was noblest and best. The lays of the Minnesingers were +revived--the true German spirit was cultivated, and the romantic +German imagination responded readily, so that during the dark +period of the French invasion, the national feeling was preserved +pure and untouched by means of these stirring and patriotic songs +of the past. + +About the same time as the advent of the Romanticists in Germany +appeared Walpole's "Castle of Otranto" in England, which is +supposed to belong to the same school of literature and to have +been influenced by the German. Scott was also numbered in this +class; and it is from these old German legends of the +Minnesingers that Richard Wagner has drawn the material for +Lohengrin, Parsifal, and others of his magnificent operas. In one +department German scholars have attained a high standard, and +that is as historians of ancient classical literature. + +Their researches into the language, religion, philosophy, social +economy, arts and sciences of ancient nations, has brought to +light much for which the student of literature will always be +their debtor. + + +LATIN LITERATURE AND THE REFORMATION. + +It has been said that the literati of the Middle Ages--the monks +and schoolmen--sought to keep the people in ignorance by writing +in Latin. Those who so think can ill have studied the trend of +events in Europe for several hundred years before the +Reformation, or its bearing on literature. + +After the fall of the Roman Empire vast hordes of barbarians +invaded Europe. In every country the language was in a state of +transition. One nation often spoke two or three different +dialects according to locality. In England the Gaelic, +Anglo-Saxon, the Cymric (or Welsh) and the Norman-French all had +their day. Under these circumstances it was impossible to have a +literature in the language of the people until, in the course of +time, the national languages were formed, and during this period +of transition the Latin was the language of literature, the one +medium of communication between the literati of different +countries; and had it not been for the preservation of learning +in the cloisters during these ages, all knowledge, and +literature, and even Christianity itself, would have been lost. +The monks, therefore, deserve more credit than is usually meted +out to them by hasty or superficial critics. + +In the earliest ages Ireland was the seat of the greatest +learning in Europe. While England was still plunged in barbarism, +and France and Germany could boast of no cultivation, Ireland was +full of monasteries where learned men disseminated knowledge. The +Latin language thus became a means for preserving the records of +history, and it has also been a treasure house of stories, +furnishing material for much of the poetry of Europe. One of +these legends gave Scott the story of the combat between Marmion +and the Spectre Knight. + +It has been said that the Ancients did not know how to hold +converse with nature, and that little or no sign of it can be +found in their writings. Matthew Arnold has traced to a Celtic +source the sympathy with, and deep communing with nature that +first appeared among European poets. Under the patronage of +Charlemagne the cloisters and brotherhoods became even more +learned and cultivated than they had been before. Whatever the +people knew of tilling the soil, of the arts of civilization, and +of the truths of religion, they learned from the monks. By their +influence States were rendered more secure, and it is to the +monks alone that Western Europe is indebted for the superiority +she attained over the Byzantines on the one hand (who were +possessed of far more hereditary knowledge than she), and over +the Arabs on the other, who had the advantage of eternal power. +The cloisters were either the abode, or the educators, of such +men as the Venerable Bede, Lanfranc and Anselm, Duns Scotius, +William of Malmesbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth (who preserved the +legends of Arthur, of King Lear, and Cymbeline), of Geraldus +Cambrensis, of St. Thomas a Kempis, of Matthew Paris, a +Benedictine monk, and of Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar, who +came very near guessing several important truths which have since +been made known to the world by later scholars. + +The Bible was protected and cherished from age to age in these +cloisters, where it was, in fact, preserved solely by the labors +of the monks, who translated it by hand, with illuminated border +and text. When a new religious house was opened, it would obtain +from some older monastery a copy of one of these priceless copies +of the Sacred Scriptures; and then this new house in its turn, +would set to work to multiply the number of Bibles, through the +labor of its monks and brothers. + +The German translation of the Bible was made in classic High +Dutch, and many later writers have fashioned their style from it, +although modern scholars, Catholic and Protestant, have found +many faults in it, especially whole passages, wherein Luther has +erred. This craze for High Dutch caused the historians of both +Denmark and Sweden to utter a vigorous protest against the influx +of High Dutch literature into their respective countries in the +sixteenth century. They averred it was ruining the native +language and literature; but, in spite of this, Lutheranism got a +firm foothold in both these nations. + +In the sixteenth century the poetry of all Southern Europe was +affected by the upheaval caused by Luther and his teachings, +while in the Northern countries it was even worse; for, as a +great German author (von Schlegel), has said: + +"The old creed could not be driven into contempt without carrying +along with it a variety of images, allusions, poetic traditions +and legends, and modes of composition, all more or less connected +with the old faith." + +The struggle that we can trace (in all the works Luther has left) +of his own internal conflict between light and darkness, faith +and passion, God and himself, is a type and indication of what +took place in literature during the Reformation, when the old was +in opposition to the new. + + +SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PHILOSOPHY. + +Eighteenth century philosophy in France, Germany and England was +a very different thing from the philosophy of the Ancients. The +latter, says a profound German writer, "recognized in time and +space an endless theatre for the display of the eternal, and of +the living pulsation of eternal love. By the contemplation of +such things, however imperfect, the natural, even the merely +sensible man, was affected by a stupendous feeling of admiration, +well calculated to prepare the way for religious thoughts. It +extended and ennobled his soul to thus regard the past, present, +and future." + +French philosophy took its rise in the seventeenth century, but +the philosophers of that age--Descartes, Bayle and others-- +assumed the soul of man to be the starting point in all +investigations of physical science. The eighteenth century +philosophers went a step further and rejected all idea of God and +the soul. Voltaire, De Montesquieu, D'Holbach, D'Alembert, +Diderot, Helvetius and the Abbe Raynal, are the chief minds who +shaped the thought of France in the eighteenth century, and by +their cynicism, sensuality, and contempt for law and order, +helped to pave the war for the horrors of the French Revolution. +What they offered to the world the lower classes could only grasp +in its most material sense, and they wrested it indeed to their +own, and to others, destruction. + +Voltaire, Diderot, D'Holbach and their school in France, with +Hume, Bolingbroke and Gibbon in England, formed a coterie whose +desire it was to edit a vast encyclopaedia, giving the latest +discoveries, in philosophy and science in particular, and in +literature in general. These men became known as the +Encyclopaedists, and their history is fully set forth by +Condillac. They rejected all divine revelation and taught that +all religious belief was the working of a disordered mind, and +that physical sensibility is the origin of all our thoughts. +Alternately gross or flippant, or else both, the French +philosophers offered nothing pure or elevating in philosophic +thought. Their teaching spread to England, where the philosophy +of the eighteenth century, less gross than the French, is chiefly +distinguished for being cold and indifferent, rather than +actively opposed, to religion. Hume is a type of the class of +thinkers whom we find uncertain and unworthy of confidence. The +histories of Hume, Robertson and Gibbon are the offspring of this +degraded material philosophy of the eighteenth century. They +surpassed the histories of other nations in comprehensiveness and +power, and became standard works in France and Germany, but in +all of them we can trace a lack of true philosophy, due to the +blighting influence of the eighteenth century skepticism; for, as +the greatest minds, in which Christianity and science are +blended, have agreed--"without some reasonable and due idea of +the destiny and end of man, it is impossible to form just and +consistent opinions on the progress of events, and the +development and fortunes of nations. History stripped of +philosophy becomes simply a lifeless heap of useless materials, +without either inward unity, right purpose, or worthy result; +while philosophy severed from history results in a disturbed +existence of different sects, allied to formality." + +The originator of English philosophy was John Locke, whose +teachings were closely allied to the sensual philosophy of the +French. It remained for the Scottish school under Thomas Reid to +combat both the sensualistic philosophy of Voltaire and Locke, +and the skepticism of Hume. Reid was a sincere lover of truth, a +man of lofty character, and his philosophy, such as it is, is the +purest that can be found, more akin to the profound reasoning of +Plato. + +In Italy, during the eighteenth century, the theory that +experience is the only ground of knowledge, as taught by Locke +and Condillac, gained some followers; but none of them were men +of any great influence. Gallupi in the beginning of the +nineteenth century endeavored to reform this philosophy; others +took up his work, and the result was a change of thought similar +to that brought about by Reid in England and Scotland. + +The earlier German philosophers were influenced by the grosser +forms of the science, as found in Locke and Helvetius. Leibnitz +and Wolf taught pure Idealism, as did Bishop Berkeley in England. +It remained for Kant to create a new era in modern philosophy. +His system vas what has become known as the Rationalistic, or +what we can know by pure reason. Kant was followed by Lessing, +Herder, Hegel, Fichte, and a host of others. + +These German philosophers of the eighteenth and nineteenth +centuries have had a powerful influence in shaping literature in +England, France, Denmark, Sweden and America. The mystic and +profound German mind has often been led astray; but its +intellectual strength cannot be questioned. Schelling was the +author of theories in philosophy that have been adopted and +imitated by both Coleridge and Wordsworth, while Van Hartmann +teaches that there is but one last principle of philosophy, known +by Spinoza as substance, by Fichte as the absolute I., by Plato +and Hegel as the absolute Idea, by Schopenhauer as Will, and by +himself as a blind, impersonal, unconscious, all-pervading Will +and Idea, independent of brain, and in its essence purely +spiritual, and he taught that there could be no peace for man's +heart or intellect until religion, philosophy and science were +recognized as one root, stem and leaves all of the same living +tree. + +It is curious to trace how these various philosophies, recognized +by Van Hartmann under different names to be one, can be merged +into the sublime Christian philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, who +taught that religion, philosophy and science were indeed +one--root, stem and leaves of the one life-giving tree, which is +God. + +All that is deepest and most profound is to be found in this +modern German philosophy, which is diametrically opposed to the +flippant and sensual philosophy of the Voltarian school. However +far the German philosophers are from true philosophy as seen in +the light of Christian truth, they command a respect as earnest +thinkers and workers, which it is impossible to accord the +eighteenth century French school. + + +ENGLISH. + +No country in the beginning owed so much to the language and +literature of other nations as the English. + +Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Norman-French, Cymric and Gaelic have all +been moulded into its literature. + +Three periods stand out in its history--the first beginning with +the end of the Roman occupation, to the Norman conquest--this +includes the literature of the Celtic, Latin and Anglo-Saxon +tongues. The second from the Norman conquest to the time of Henry +VIII, embracing the literature of the Norman-French, the Latin +and Anglo-Saxon; the gradual evolution of the Anglo-Saxon into +English; and the literature of the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries. + +The third period includes the Reformation, and the golden age of +Elizabethan literature; followed by the Restoration, Revolution, +and the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. + +Another division is called the Old English, Early English, and +Middle English. The latter was used by Chaucer, and with a little +care in reading can readily be understood by any educated person +at the present day, though it contains many words nationalized +from the French. It is a curious fact that the Anglo-Saxons, who +in the present day, through their descendants, the English, have +the strongest national life and literature, cannot boast of such +a treasure house of ancient literature as is possessed by the +Irish and Welsh. + +Ireland has its bardic songs and historical legends older than +the ninth century, at which time appeared the "Psalter of +Cashel," which has come down to the present day. + +There are also prose chronicles, said to be the outcome of others +of a still earlier period, and which give a contemporary history +of the country in the Gaelic language of the fifth century. There +is no other modern nation in Europe that can point to such a +literary past. The Scotch Celts had early metrical verse, of +which the Ossian, wherein is related the heroic deeds of Fingal, +was supposed to have been sung by all the ancient Celtic bards. +In the eighteenth century, Macpherson, a Scotchman, found some of +these poems sung in the Highlands of Scotland; and, making a +careful study of them, he translated all he could find from the +Gaelic into English, and gave them to the world. At the time of +publication, in 1762, their authenticity was questioned, and even +at the present day scholars are divided in their opinion as to +their genuineness. The literature of the Cymric Celts, the +early inhabitants of Britain, has given us the glorious legends +of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. All the bardic +songs refer to this mighty prince, who resisted the Saxon +invaders, and whose deeds were sung by all the Welsh Britons. +Some of these people took refuge in France, and gradually the +fame of their legends spread all over Europe, and were eagerly +seized upon and rendered into song, by the chivalric poets of all +countries. From these tales Geoffrey of Monmouth in the twelfth +century compiled a Latin historical work of Britain, while in +later times Tennyson in England, and Richard Wagner in Germany, +have made the deeds of Arthur and his Knights the theme of some +of their most magnificent creations. + +Other ancient Welsh writings are still extant, among them the +Triads, which is a work that has come down from primitive times. +It comprises a collection of historical and mythological maxims, +traditions, theological doctrines, and rules for constructing +verse. + +The Mabinogi, or "Tales of Youth," are old Welsh romances similar +to the Norse Sagas, which are supposed by critics to date from a +very rude and early age. + +The Anglo-Saxon is very different from these ancient literatures. +It has no legends or romances, no national themes, and its early +prose and verse were written more in the style of religious +narrative, and to give practical information, than to amuse. + +The poems of Beowulf, a thorough Norse Saga, embodies the doings +of the Anglo-Saxons before they emigrated to England, and must +have been written long before they set foot on English soil. +Older than Beowulf is the lyric poem of Widsith, which has some +historical interest as depicting the doings of kings, princes and +warriors. It contains traces of the epic, which in Beowulf, whose +English poem is next in point of time, is more markedly +developed. + +During the fifth and sixth centuries the Germanic tribes who +emigrated to Britain brought with them a heathen literature. The +oldest fragment now extant are the Hexenspruche and the Charms. +They have elements of Christian teaching in them, which would +seem to imply that the Church tried to give them a Christian +setting. In some respects they resemble the old Sanskrit, and are +supposed to be among the earliest examples of lyric poetry in +England. + +Alfred the Great improved the Anglo-Saxon prose and soon after +his time a translation of the Bible in that language was made, +forming the second known copy in a national language, the first +being the Moeso-Gothic of Bishop Ulphilus. The Saxon Chronicles, +dating from the time of Alfred to 1154 were copies of the Latin +Chronicles kept in the monasteries. + +The twelfth and thirteenth centuries saw the age of the Crusades, +which added a new impulse to learning through the co-mingling of +different races. French poetry was translated into English, +which, in the thirteenth century, in its evolution from the +Anglo-Saxon became a fixed language. Classical learning in this +age was generally diffused through the schoolmen, of whom +Lanfranc, Anselm, John of Salisbury, Duns Scotius, William of +Malmesbury, and other great names of this period, mentioned +elsewhere, are instances. + +In the thirteenth century appeared also the Gesta Romanorum, a +collection of fables, traditions, and various pictures of +society, changing with the different countries that the stories +dealt with. The romance of Apollonius in this collection gave +Chaucer the plots for two or three of his tales, and furnished +Cowers with the theme for most of his celebrated poem, the +Confessio Amantis. This poem, in its turn, suggested to +Shakespeare the outlines for his characters of Pericles, Prince +of Tyre, and the Merchant of Venice. Other and less celebrated +works are also taken from the Gesta Romanorum. + +After the accession of the Norman kings of England, the chief +literary works in England for two centuries are those of the +Norman poets. Wace in the twelfth century wrote in French his +"Brut d'Angleterre." Brutus was the mythical son of Aeneas, and +the founder of Britain. The Britons were settled in Cornwall, +Wales and Bretagne, and were distinguished for traditionary +legends, which had been collected by Godfrey of Monmouth in 1138. +They formed the groundwork for Wace's poem, which was written in +1160, and from that time proved to be an inexhaustible treasury +from which romantic writers of fiction drew their materials. + +From this source Shakespeare obtained King Lear; Sackville found +his Ferrex and Porrex; and Milton and other poets are also +indebted to these legends. They furnished, also, the romances of +chivalry for the English Court, and have had an effect on English +poetry that can be seen even in the present day. The six romances +of the British cycle, celebrating Arthur, his Knights, and the +Round Table, were written in the last part of the twelfth +century, at the instigation of Henry II. They were the work of +Englishmen; but were composed in French, and from them the poets +of France fashioned a number of metrical romances. + +Geoffrey Chaucer in the fourteenth century borrowed freely from +French, Latin and Italian works. The comic Fabliaux and the +allegorical poetry of the Trouveres and Troubadours furnished him +with many of his incidents and characters. The Romance of the +Rose was taken from a French poem of the thirteenth century. + +Troilus and Cressida is regarded as a translation from Boccaccio, +and Chaucer's Legend of Good Women is founded on Ovid's Epistles. +John Lydgate, a Benedictine monk in the fifteenth century, wrote +poetry in imitation of Chaucer, taking his ideas from the Gesta +Romanorum, while Thomas Mallory, a priest in the time of Edward +IV, has given us one of the best specimens of old English in the +romantic prose fiction of Morte d'Arthur, in which the author has +told in one tale the whole history of the Round Table. + +The "Bruce" of the Scotch John Barbour in the same century, gives +the adventures of King Robert, from which Sir Walter Scott has +drawn largely for his "Lord of the Isles." + +The close of the fifteenth century saw a passion develop for +Scotch poetry, which speedily became the fashion. Henry the +Minstrel, or Blind Harry, wrote his "Wallace," which is full of +picturesque incident and passionate fervor. + +Robert Henryson wrote his Robin and Makyne, a charming pastoral, +which has come down to us in Percy's Reliques. + +Gavin Douglas, Scotch Bishop of Dunkeld in the beginning of the +sixteenth century, translated the Aeneid into English. This is +the earliest known attempt in the British Isles to render +classical poetry into the national language. + +In the sixteenth century Erasmus gave a new impulse in England to +the study of Latin and Greek, and Sir Thomas More in his "Utopia" +(wherein he imagines an ideal commonwealth with community of +property), unconsciously gave birth to a word (utopia), which has +ever since been used to designate the ideally impossible. + +Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, in the same century made a +translation of the Aeneid and wrote sonnets and lyrical poems. +The sonnet he borrowed from Petrarch, giving it the amatory tone +common to the Italians. He also took from the Italian poets the +blank verse of his Aeneid, a style in which the best poetry of +England has since been written. + +The genius of John Milton has been greatly hampered by the +self-inflicted laws under which he labored, conditions which did +not affect Dante and Tasso, who were his models; for Milton +denied in a great measure the use of history, tradition and +symbolism. Of this defect he was sensible, so he tried to make +amends for it by borrowing fables and allegories out of the Koran +and Talmud. English poetry has inclined more to the style of +Milton than to that of Spenser, who was thoroughly embued with +the romantic spirit of the Teutons and the Troubadours, though, +like Milton, he was influenced by Tasso; and unlike him, by +Ariosto. His Faerie Queene, Gloriana, is supposed to be the +beloved of the courtly Arthur of the British legends. + +The English poets of the Elizabethan age were under deep +obligations to the Italian poets, especially Tasso; and this is +particularly true of Spenser, many critics think his eighty-first +sonnet is almost a literal translation of Tasso. Be that as it +may, the obligations of many English poets of the age to the +Italians, is unmistakable. + +After the Puritan period the English language and literature was +strongly influenced by the French, and in both Pope and Addison +there is a marked leaning toward French poetry. Pope's +translation of Homer while it lacks the simple majesty and +naturalness of the original (a trait which Bryant in the +nineteenth century happily caught), nevertheless gave to the +English world the opportunity to become somewhat acquainted with +the incomparable poet of antiquity. + +Thomson's descriptive poetry of nature found many imitators in +Germany and France, and a taste for outdoor life and simplicity +became the rage, so that some years after the author of the +"Castle of Indolence" had passed away, Marie Antoinette in her +rustic bower, "Little Trianon," pretended to like to keep sheep +and pose as a shepherdess, as has been said elsewhere. + +Percy's Reliques of ancient English poetry, in 1765 opened a +storehouse of the fine old English ballads, which speedily became +popular through the patronage of Scott, who made them his +textbook for a variety of subjects. These poems, with +Macpherson's "Fingal" introduced a new school of poetry into +England. The originals of Scott were these romances of chivalry, +and even Byron has not disdained to follow the same trend in the +pilgrimage of his "Childe Harold." The nineteenth century poets +and novelists do not seem to have borrowed especially from any +foreign element; but in history Niebuhr's researches in Germany +have greatly influenced Arnold in his "Roman History." The close +of the nineteenth century and opening of the twentieth is chiefly +remarkable for the interdependence of literature through the +magazines and reviews. Translations of any striking or brilliant +articles are immediately made, and appear in the magazines of +different countries almost as soon as the originals, so that the +literature of the future bids fair to become more cosmopolitan, +and perhaps less strongly directed by racial and social influence +than in the past. + +And yet--in studying the literature of ancient and modern +times--we are struck by the unity in diversity of its history, +just as a world-wide traveller comes to see the similarity of +nature everywhere. In literature strange analogies occur in ages +and races remote from each other, as, when the mother in the old +North country Scotch ballad sings to her child, and says: + +"The wild wind is ravin,' thy minnies heart's sair, +The wild wind is ravin,' but ye dinna care." + +And we find nearly the same verse in the song of Danae to the +infant Perseus: + +"The salt spume that is blown o'er thy locks, +Thou heedst not, nor the roar of the gale; +Sleep babe, sleep the sea, +And sleep my sea of trouble." + +There is also the story of the Greek child who in ancient times +sang nearly the same invocation for fair weather that we used in +our nursery days, when, with noses flattened against the window +pane, we uttered our sing-song: + +"Rain, rain, go to Spain." + +And in blindman's buff, perhaps the most ancient of games, we +have words that have come down from remote times. The blindfolded +one says: + +"I go a-hunting a brassy fly." + +To which the others answer: + +"A-hunting thou goest; but shalt not come nigh." + +And there are the marvellous stories of the Giant Killer, and the +wonders of Puss in Boots and Cinderella, which have descended to +us from that vast cloud-country of bygone ages; that dreamland of +fairy imagery, which is as real to the little maid in the +twentieth century as it was to her young sisters in the shadow of +the Pyramids, on the banks of the Tiber and the Ganges, in the +neighborhood of solemn Druid Temples, or among the fjords and +floes of the far-off Icelandic country, in centuries long since +gone by. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Interdependence of Literature, by Curtis + diff --git a/old/ntrdp10.zip b/old/ntrdp10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..096c5ef --- /dev/null +++ b/old/ntrdp10.zip |