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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/37806-8.txt b/37806-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e66e0f --- /dev/null +++ b/37806-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18017 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language", by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 20, 2011 [EBook #37806] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + AUTHOR LIST: "W. L. F. Walter Lynwood Fleming, M.A., Ph.D." 'M.A.' + amended from 'A.M.'. + + ARTICLE FRANCS-TIREURS: "... and prevented him from gaining + information, and that their soldierly qualities improved with + experience." 'improved' amended from 'inproved'. + + ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "... (which, as Franklin discovered, + was erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the + north) ..." 'degrees' amended from 'degress'. + + ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "The alternative course permitted + Franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not pursued, + and in the autumn of 1846 he had followed that route which was + specially commended to him." 'instructions' amended from + 'intructions'. + + ARTICLE FRAUENBURG: "Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received + the rights of a town in 1310." 'Frauenburg' amended from + 'Frauenberg'. + + ARTICLE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS: "Historical and religious + sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was tyrannical + to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy with the + smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe." 'detestation' + amended from 'destestation'. + + ARTICLE FREEMASONRY: "Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was + "made a Free Mason of Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," + seven brethern being named as in attendance at the lodge ..." + 'brethern' amended from 'brethen'. + + ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "... perd (perdit) and perde (perdat) + being generally distinguished as pèr and pèrd, and before a vowel + as pèrt and pèrd." 'distinguished' amended from 'ditinguished'. + + ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "In Early Old French (as in Provençal) + there are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; + with a few exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and + accusative in both numbers, the latter in neither." 'distinguishes' + amended from 'ditinguishes'. + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + + + FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. + SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. + THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. + FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. + FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. + SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. + SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. + EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. + NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. + TENTH " ninth edition and eleven + supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. + ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. + + + COPYRIGHT + + in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention + + by + + THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS + of the + UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE + + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF + ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XI + FRANCISCANS to GIBSON + + New York + + Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. + 342 Madison Avenue + + + Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, + by + The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. + + + VOLUME XI, SLICE I + + Franciscans to French Language + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FRANCISCANS FREDERICK I. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK FREDERICK II. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK, CÉSAR FREDERICK III. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK, SEBASTIAN FREDERICK III. (king of Sicily) + FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN FREDERICK I. (elector of Brandenburg) + FRANCKEN FREDERICK I. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCO-GERMAN WAR FREDERICK II. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANÇOIS DE NEUFCHÂTEAU, LOUIS FREDERICK III. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCONIA FREDERICK IV. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCS-ARCHERS FREDERICK V. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCS-TIREURS FREDERICK I. (duke of Saxony) + FRANEKER FREDERICK II. (duke of Saxony) + FRANK, JAKOB FREDERICK III. (elector of Saxony) + FRANK-ALMOIGN FREDERICK (Maryland, U.S.A.) + FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. + FRANKENBERG FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. + FRANKENHAUSEN FREDERICK CHARLES (KARL NIKOLAUS) + FRANKENSTEIN FREDERICK HENRY + FRANKENTHAL FREDERICK LOUIS + FRANKENWALD FREDERICK WILLIAM I. + FRANKFORT (Indiana, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM II. + FRANKFORT (Kentucky, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM III. + FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. + FRANKFORT-ON-ODER FREDERICK WILLIAM (of Brandenburg) + FRANKINCENSE FRÉDÉRICK-LEMAÎTRE, ANTOINE PROSPER + FRANKING FREDERICKSBURG + FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST FREDERICTON + FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD FREDONIA + FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN FREDRIKSHALD + FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN FREDRIKSTAD + FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL FREE BAPTISTS + FRANKLIN (district of Canada) FREEBENCH + FRANKLIN (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH FEDERATION + FRANKLIN (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND + FRANKLIN (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND + FRANKLIN (Tennessee, U.S.A.) FREEDMEN'S BUREAU + FRANKLIN (freeman) FREEHOLD (New Jersey, U.S.A.) + FRANKLINITE FREEHOLD (law) + FRANK-MARRIAGE FREELAND + FRANKPLEDGE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS + FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON FREEMAN + FRANKS FREEMASONRY + FRANZ, ROBERT FREEPORT + FRANZÉN, FRANS MIKAEL FREE PORTS + FRANZENSBAD FREE REED VIBRATOR + FRANZ JOSEF LAND FREESIA + FRANZOS, KARL EMIL FREE SOIL PARTY + FRASCATI FREE-STONE + FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FREETOWN + FRASER, JAMES FREE TRADE + FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE FREGELLAE + FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS FREIBERG + FRASER (river) FREIBURG + FRASERBURGH FREIBURG IM BREISGAU + FRASERVILLE FREIDANK + FRATER FREIENWALDE + FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE FREIESLEBENITE + FRATICELLI FREIGHT + FRAUD FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND + FRAUENBURG FREIND, JOHN + FRAUENFELD FREINSHEIM, JOHANN + FRAUENLOB FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSÉ + FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM FREISCHÜTZ + FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON FREISING + FRAUSTADT FRÉJUS + FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE + FRÉCHETTE, LOUIS HONORÉ FREMANTLE + FREDEGOND FRÉMIET, EMMANUEL + FREDERIC, HAROLD FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES + FREDERICIA FREMONT (Nebraska, U.S.A.) + FREDERICK (name) FREMONT (Ohio, U.S.A.) + FREDERICK I. (Roman emperor) FRÉMY, EDMOND + FREDERICK II. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER + FREDERICK III. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, NICHOLAS + FREDERICK III. (German king) FRENCH CONGO + FREDERICK II. (king of Denmark) FRENCH GUINEA + FREDERICK III. (king of Denmark) FRENCH LANGUAGE + FREDERICK VIII. (king of Denmark) + + + + +INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH +THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. + + + A. B. R. + ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.L.S. + + Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book + on Classification of Flowering Plants_; &c. + + Fruit. + + A. B. W. K. + SIR ALEXANDER BLACKIE WILLIAM KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S. + + Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University College, London. + Consulting Engineer to Board of Ordnance. + + Friction. + + A. Ca. + ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR. + + Gauss. + + A. E. H. L. + AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of + Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College; formerly Fellow of St + John's College, Cambridge. Secretary to the London Mathematical + Society. + + Function: _Functions of Real Variables_. + + A. E. S. + ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, + Cambridge University. Joint-editor of the _Cambridge Natural + History_. + + Gastrotricha. + + A. Ge. + SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, GEIKIE, SIR A. + + Geology. + + A. Go.* + REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, MA. + + Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. + + Franck, Sebastian; + Gallars. + + A. G. B.* + HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.C.E. + + Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member + of Executive and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E. + + Georgetown, British Guiana. + + A. G. D. + ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R., HIST.S. + + Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of + Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor + of _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. + + Frontenac et Palluau. + + A. H. Sm. + ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. + + Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the + British Museum. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. Author of _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British + Museum_; &c. + + Gem: II. (_in part_). + + A. M.* + REV. ALLEN MENZIES, D.D. + + Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St + Andrews. Author of _History of Religion_; &c. Editor of _Review + of Theology and Philosophy_. + + Free Church of Scotland (_in part_). + + A. M. C. + AGNES MARY CLERKE. + + See the biographical article, CLERKE, AGNES M. + + Galileo. + + A. N. + ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. + + Frigate-Bird; + Gadwall; + Gannet; + Gare Fowl. + + A. N. B. + ALFRED NEAVE BRAYSHAW, LL.B. + + Author of _Bible Notes on the Hebrew Prophets_. + + Friends, Society of. + + A. N. W. + ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. + Author of _A Treatise on Universal Algebra_; &c. + + Geometry: VI. (_in part_) and VII. + + A. R. C. + ALEXANDER ROSS CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. + + Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In + charge of the trigonometrical operations of the Ordnance Survey, + 1854-1881. + + Geodesy (_in part_). + + A. S. M. + ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. + + Gem: II. (_in part_). + + A. W. H.* + ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. + + Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of + Gray's Inn, 1900. + + Frederick II., _Roman Emperor_; + French Revolution: _Republican Calendar_; + Germany: _History (in part) and Bibliography_. + + A. W. W. + ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. + + See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. + + Garrick, David (_in part_). + + B. A. W. R. + HON. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S. + + Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of + _Foundations of Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c._ + + Geometry: VI. (_in part_). + + B. S. P. + BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). + + Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. + + Germany: _Archaeology_. + + C. B.* + CHARLES BÉMONT, LITT.D. (Oxon.). + + See the biographical article, Bémont, C. + + Fustel De Coulanges; + Gascony. + + C. D. W. + HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. + + See the biographical article, WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. + + Friendly Societies: _United States_. + + C. E.* + CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. + + Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. + + Geometry: _History_. + + C. F. A. + CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of + London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold + Harbour_. + + Franco-German War (_in part_); + French Revolutionary Wars: _Military Operations_; + Germany: _Army_; + Gibraltar: _History_. + + C. H. Ha. + CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, M.A., PH.D. + + Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York + City. Member of the American Historical Association. + + Gelasius II. + + C. K. S. + CLEMENT KING SHORTER. + + Editor of _The Sphere_. Author of _Sixty Years of Victorian + Literature_; _Immortal Memories_; _The Brontës, Life and Letters_; + &c. + + Gaskell, Elizabeth. + + C. Mi. + CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. + + Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, + 1895-1900 and 1902-1903. + + Garashanin. + + C. M. K. + SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908). + + Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer + on International Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in + the Levant, 1870-1871, at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, + Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor of Kennedy's _Ethnological and + Linguistic Essays_; _Diplomacy and International Law_. + + Free Ports. + + C. Pf. + CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ÈS.-L. + + Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Études sur le règne de Robert le Pieux_; _Le + Duché mérovingien d'Alsace et la legende de Sainte-Odile_. + + Franks; + Fredegond; + Germanic Laws, Early. + + C. R. B. + CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. + + Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. + Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer + in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. + Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; + _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c. + + Gerard of Cremona. + + C. R. C. + CLAUDE REGNIER CONDER, LL.D. + + Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of + Palestine. Author of _The City of Jerusalem_; _The Bible and the + East_; _The Hittites and their Language_; &c. + + Galilee (_in part_); + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_). + + C. T.* + REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908). + + Formerly Master of St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor, + Cambridge University, 1887-1888. Author of _Geometrical Conies_; + &c. + + Geometrical Continuity. + + C. We. + CECIL WEATHERLY. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. + + Gate. + + C. W. W. + SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). + + Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American + Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the + Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance + Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, + 1895-1898. Author of _From Korti to Khartoum_; _Life of Lord + Clive_; &c. + + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_). + + D. C. + DUGALD CLERK, M.INST.C.E., F.R.S. + + Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the + Clerk Cycle Gas Engine. + + Gas Engine. + + D. F. T. + DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. + + Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_, + comprising _The Classical Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, + and analyses of many other classical works. + + Fugue. + + D. H. + DAVID HANNAY. + + Formerly British Vice-consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short + History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; + &c. + + French Revolutionary Wars: _Naval Operations_. + + E. Br. + ERNEST BARKER, M.A. + + Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, + Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven + Scholar, 1895. + + Fulk, King of Jerusalem. + + E. B. El. + EDWIN BAILEY ELLIOTT, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. + + Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics, and Fellow of Magdalen + College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. + President of London Mathematical Society, 1896-1898. Author of + _Algebra of Quantics_; &c. + + Geometry, IV. + + E. C. B. + RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER; O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin). + + Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of + Palladius" in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_. + + Franciscans; + Friar. + + E. E. + LADY EASTLAKE. + + See the biographical article, EASTLAKE, SIR C. L. + + Gibson, John. + + E. G. + EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND. + + Fryxell; + Garland, John. + + E. J. D. + EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. + + Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. + + Galuppi. + + E. O.* + EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. + + Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the + Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery + at the Universities of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A + Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students_. + + Gastric Ulcer. + + E. Pr. + EDGAR PRESTAGE. + + Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of + Manchester. Commendador Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. + Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and + Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. + + Garção; + Garrett, + + E. W. B. + SIR EDWARD WILLIAM BRABROOK, C.B., F.S.A. + + Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly + Societies, 1891-1904. Author of _Building Societies_; _Provident + Societies and Industrial Welfare_; _Institutions of Thrift_; &c. + + Friendly Societies. + + F. C. C. + FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Geissen). + + Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University + College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of + Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c. + + Funeral Rites. + + F. C. M. + FRANCIS CHARLES MONTAGUE, M.A. + + Astor Professor of European History, University College, London. + Formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Author of _Limits of + Individual Liberty_; chapters in _Cambridge Modern History_; &c. + + French Revolution. + + F. F.* + SIR JAMES FORTESCUE-FLANNERY, BART., M.P., M.INST.C.E. + + Ex-President of the Institute of Marine Engineers. M.P. for the + Maldon Division of Essex, 1910. M.P. for the Shipley Division of + Yorkshire, 1895-1906. + + Fuel: _Liquid_. + + F. G. M. B. + FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. + + Germany: _Ethnography and Early History_. + + F. H. B. + FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. + + Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of Royal School of Mines. + + Frankincense; + Galls. + + F. J. H. + FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. + + Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. + Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. + Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, + Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman + History, especially Roman Britain; &c. + + Gaul. + + F. N. M. + COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. + + Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of + _War and the World's Policy_; _The Leipzig Campaign_; _The Jena + Campaign_. + + Franco-German War (_in part_). + + F. R. C. + FRANK R. CANA. + + Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_. + + French Congo; + German East Africa; + German South-West Africa. + + F. R. H. + FRIEDRICH ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. + + Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. + + Geodesy (_in part_). + + F. S. + FRANCIS STORR. + + Editor of the _Journal of Education_, London. Officer d'Académie + (Paris). + + Games, Classical. + + F. W. R.* + FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, + 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. + + Garnet; + Gem: I. + + G. E. + REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S. + + Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's + Lecturer, 1909. + + Gelderland (_Duchy_). + + G. L. + GEORG LUNGE. + + See the biographical article. LUNGE, G. + + Fuel: _Gaseous_; + Gas: _Manufacture_, II. + + G. Sa. + GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D. + + See the biographical article, SAINTSBURY, G. + + French Literature; + Gautier. + + G. W. T. + REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. + + Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew + and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. + + Ghazali. + + H. B. + HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909). + + Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. + Author of _A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron_. + + Fuel: _Solid_. + + H. B. W. + HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. + + Late Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. + Wollaston Medallist, Geological Society. Author of _The History of + the Geological Society of London_; &c. + + Gaudry. + + H. Ch. + HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. + + Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the + 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the + 10th edition. + + Gambetta; + Garnett, Richard; + George IV. (_in part_). + + H. C. L. + HON. HENRY CABOT LODGE. + + See the biographical article, LODGE, HENRY CABOT. + + Gallatin. + + H. F. Ba. + HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley + Lecturer in Mathematics in the University. Author of _Abel's + Theorem and the Allied Theory_; &c. + + Function: _Functions of Complex Variables_. + + H. L. C. + HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. + + Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly + Professor of Physics in MacGill College, Montreal, and in + University College, London. + + Fusion. + + H. M.* + HUGH MITCHELL. + + Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. + + Gibraltar (_in part_). + + H. M. W. + H. MARSHALL WARD, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. (d. 1905). + + Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British + Mycological Society. Author of _Timber and Some of its Diseases_; + _The Oak_; _Sach's Lectures on the Physiology of Plants_; + _Diseases in Plants_; &c. + + Fungi (_in part_). + + H. N. + HENRY NICOL. + + French Language (_in part_). + + H. R. M. + HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.SC., LL.D. + + Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of _British + Rainfall_. Formerly President of the Royal Meteorological Society. + Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. Corresponding + Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St + Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of _The Realm of Nature_; _The + International Geography_; &c. + + Geography. + + H. W. C. D. + HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls + College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans + and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_. + + Geoffrey, _Archbishop of York_; + Geoffrey of Monmouth; + Gerard; + Gervase of Canterbury; + Gervase of Tilbury. + + H. W. S. + H. WICKHAM STEED. + + Correspondent of _The Times_ at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. + + Garibaldi. + + I. A. + ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. + + Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of + Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of + England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish + Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c. + + Frank, Jakob; + Frankel, Zecharias; + Frankl, Ludwig A.; + Friedmann, Meir; + Gaon; + Geiger (_in part_); + Gersonides. + + J. A. F. + JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of + London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of + St John's College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in + the University. Author of _Magnets and Electric Currents_. + + Galvanometer. + + J. A. H. + JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. + Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_. + + Fuller's Earth. + + J. B. B. + JOHN BAGNALL BURY, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, BURY, J. B. + + Gibbon, Edward. + + J. B. McM. + JOHN BACH MCMASTER, LL.D. + + Professor of American History in the University of Pennsylvania. + Author of _A History of the People of the United States_; &c. + + Garfield, James Abram. + + J. Ga. + JAMES GAIRDNER, LL.D., C.B. + + See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J. + + Gardiner, Stephen. + + J. G. C. A. + JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. + + Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of + Lincoln College; Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, + 1893. + + Galatia. + + J. G. R. + JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of German, University of London. Author of _History of + German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c. + + Freiligrath; + German Literature. + + J. Hn. + JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. + + Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. + Author of _Das Rheinland und die französische Herrschaft_. + + Frederick Augustus I. and II.; + Frederick William I. + + J. H. Gr. + JOHN HILTON GRACE, M.A., F.R.S. + + Lecturer in Mathematics at Peterhouse and Pembroke College, + Cambridge. Fellow of Peterhouse. + + Geometry, V. + + J. H. H. + JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A. + + Author of _Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation_. + + Fust. + + J. H. R. + JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). + + Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family + History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_; &c. + + Geoffrey De Montbray. + + J. Hl. R. + JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. + + Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the + Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of + Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic Studies_; _The Development of the + European Nations_; _The Life of Pitt_; &c. + + Gardane. + + J. Mt. + JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. + + Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of _Historical New + Testament_; &c. + + Galatians, Epistle to the. + + J. P.-B. + JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. + + Editor of the _Guardian_ (London). + + Furniture. + + J. Si. + JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895). + + Author of _A History of Germany_; &c. + + Frederick the Great (_in part_). + + J. S. Bl. + JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. + + Assistant Editor 9th edition _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. + Joint-editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. + + Free Church of Scotland (_in part_). + + J. S. F. + JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S. + + Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on + Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal + Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society + of London. + + Fulgurite; + Gabbro. + + J. T. Be. + JOHN T. BEALBY. + + Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the + _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's + _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. + + Georgia (Russia), (_in part_). + + J. T. C. + JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. + + Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. + Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor + of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to + the Marine Biological Association. + + Gastropoda. + + J. V. B. + JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St. Andrews). + + Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of + _The Apostolic Age_; &c. + + Frommel. + + J. Ws. + JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. + + Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex County Council. Author + of _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_; _French Market Gardening_; + &c. + + Fruit and Flower Farming (_in part_). + + J. W. He. + JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. + + Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. + Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek + and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of + _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c. + + Frederick III. of Prussia; + Germany: _History (in part)_. + + K. S. + KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. + + Author of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c. Editor of the + _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. + + Free Reed Vibrator; + Geige. + + L. D. + LOUIS DUCHESNE. + + See the biographical article, DUCHESNE, L. M. O. + + Gelasius I. + + L. H.* + LOUIS HALPHEN, D.-ÈS.-L. + + Principal of the course of the Faculty of Letters in the + University of Bordeaux. Author of _Le Comté d'Anjou au XI^e + siècle; Recueil des actes angevines_; &c. + + Fulk Nerra; + Geoffrey, Count of Anjou; + Geoffrey Plantaganet. + + L. J. S. + LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. + + Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly + Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. + Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. + + Galena. + + L. V. + LINDA MARY VILLARI. + + See the biographical article, VILLARI, PASQUALE. + + Frederick III. King of Sicily. + + M. G. + MOSES GASTER, PH.D. + + Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. + Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester + Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and + 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, + Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of _History of Rumanian Popular + Literature_; _A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira_; _The Hebrew + Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle_. + + Ghica. + + M. N. T. + MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in + Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. + + Gerousia. + + O. Ba. + OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. + + Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing + Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage. + + Genealogy: _Modern_. + + O. H. + OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. + + Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical + College of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of + _Vectors and Rotors_; _Congruent Figures_; &c. + + Geometry, I., II., and III. + + P. A. + PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDÉRY. + + Professor of the History of Dogma, École pratique des hautes + études, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idées morales chez les + hétérodoxes latines au début du XIII^e siècle_. + + Fraticelli. + + P. A. A. + PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC.JURIS. + + New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von + Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_. + + Germany: _Geography_. + + P. Gi. + PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. + + Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and + University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of + the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of + Comparative Philology_; &c. + + G. + + P. La. + PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. + + Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge + University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. _Author of + Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and editor + of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_. + + Germany: _Geology_. + + P. M. + PAUL MEYER. + + See the biographical article, MEYER, M. P. H. + + French Language (_in part_). + + R. Ad. + ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. + + See the biographical article. ADAMSON, ROBERT. + + Gassendi (_in part_). + + R. A. S. M. + ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. + + St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the + Palestine Exploration Fund. + + Gadara; + Galilee (_in part_); + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_); + Gerasa; + Gerizim; + Gezer; + Gibeon. + + R. Ca. + ROBERT CARRUTHERS, LL.D. (1799-1878). + + Editor of the _Inverness Courier_, 1828-1878. Part-editor of + Chambers's _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_; Lecturer at the + Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh. Author of _History of + Huntingdon_; _Life of Pope_. + + Garrick, David (_in part_). + + R. H. Q. + REV. ROBERT HEBERT QUICK, M.A., (1831-1891). + + Formerly Lecturer on Education, University of Cambridge. Author of + _Essays on Educational Reformers_. + + Froebel. + + R. L.* + RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. + + Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. + Author of Catalogues of _Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in + British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; &c. + + Galago; + Galeopithecus; + Ganodonta; + Gelada; + Gibbon. + + R. N. B. + ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). + + Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of + _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, + 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725_; _Slavonic Europe, + the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; + &c. + + Frederick II. and III. of Denmark and Norway; + Gedymin. + + R. Pr. + ROBERT PRIEBSCH, PH.D. + + Professor of German Philology, University of London. Author of + _Deutsche Handschriften in England_; &c. + + German Language. + + R. P. S. + R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. + + Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, + London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and + Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the + Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of + Architecture_. _Author of Architecture: East and West_; &c. + + Garnier, J. + + R. We. + RICHARD WEBSTER, M.A. (Princeton). + + Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The + Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. + + Franklin, Benjamin. + + S. A. C. + STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. + + Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and + Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, + Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, + 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. Author of + _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses and the + Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament History_; + _Religion of Ancient Palestine, &c._ + + Genealogy: _Biblical_; + Genesis. + + St. C. + VISCOUNT ST CYRES. + + See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF. + + Gallicanism. + + S. R. G. + SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, GARDINER, S. R. + + George I., II., III.; + George IV. (_in part_). + + T. As. + THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.). + + Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly + Scholar at Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897, Conington + Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. + + Frascati Fregellae; + Frascati; + Fregellae; + Fucino,Lago Di; + Fulginiae; + Fusaro, Lago; + Gabii; + Gaeta; + Gallipoli (Italy); + Gela; + Genoa. + + T. Ba. + SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. + + Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the + Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and + Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. + + Geneva Convention. + + T. C. H. + THOMAS CALLAN HODSON. + + Registrar, East London College, University of London. Late Indian + Civil Service. Author of _The Metheis_; &c. + + Genna. + + T. E. H. + THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. + + Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of International + Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Fellow + of the British Academy. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of + _Studies in International Law_; _The Elements of Jurisprudence_; + _Alberici Gentilis de jure belli_; _The Laws of War on Land_; + _Neutral Duties in a Maritime War_; &c. + + Gentili. + + T. G. S. + THOMAS GASKELL SHEARMAN (d. 1900). + + Author of _The Single Tax_; _Natural Taxation_; _Distribution of + Wealth_; &c. + + George, Henry. + + T. H. H.* + COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC. + + Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, + R.G.S. (London), 1887. Author of _The Indian Borderland_; _The + Countries of the King's Award_; _India_; _Tibet_; &c. + + Ganges. + + T. M. L. + REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, D.D. + + Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church + College, Glasgow. Author of _Life of Luther_; &c. + + Gerson (_in part_). + + V. B. L. + VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. + + Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Chief + Superintending Gas Examiner to City of London. + + Gas: _Manufacture_, I. + + V. H. B. + VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC. + + Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of + St John's College, Cambridge. + + Fungi (_in part_). + + W. A. B. C. + REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. + (Bern). + + Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, + St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide du Haut + Dauphiné_; _The Range of the Tödi_; _Guide to Grindelwald_; _Guide + to Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor + of _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1881; &c. + + Frauenfeld; + Frejus; + Fribourg; + Gap; + Garda, Lake of; + Gemmi Pass; + Geneva; + Geneva, Lake of. + + W. A. P. + WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. + + Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St + John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. + + Frederick II. of Prussia (_in part_); + Gentleman; + Gentz, Friedrich; + Germany: _History_ (_in part_) + + W. Ba. + WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D. + + Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, + Budapest. + + Gamaliel. + + W. Be. + SIR WALTER BESANT. + + See the biographical article, BESANT, SIR W. + + Froissart. + + W. C. + SIR WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM. + + Gem, Artificial. + + W. Cu. + THE VEN. WILLIAM CUNNINGHAM, M.A., D.D. + + Archdeacon of Ely. Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, + Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow + of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _Growth of English + Industry and Commerce_; &c. + + Free Trade. + + W. E. D. + WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. + + Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and + Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South + Kensington. Formerly University Demonstrator in the Engineering + Department of Cambridge University. Author of _The Balancing of + Engines_; _Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism_; &c. + + Friction (_in part_). + + W. Fr. + WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). + + Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of + Edinburgh, and Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. + + Fruit and Flower Farming (_in part_). + + W. F. C. + WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. + + Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's + College, London. Editor of Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd + edition). + + Game Laws; + Gaming and Wagering. + + W. Hu. + REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., LITT.D. + + President of the Royal Historical Society 1905-1909. Author of + _History of English Church_, 597-1066; _The Church of England in + the Middle Ages_; _Political History of England, 1760-1801_; &c. + + Freeman, Edward A.; + Froude; + Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. + + W. J. H.* + WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN. + + Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England. Author of _Origin of + the English Rite of Freemasonry_. + + Freemasonry. + + W. L. F. + WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of + _Documentary History of Reconstruction_; &c. + + Freedmen's Bureau. + + W. L. G. + WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. + + Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, + Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford + University. Editor of _Acts of the Privy Council_ (Canadian + Series). + + Gait, Sir Alexander T. + + W. M. R. + WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. + + See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE G. + + Fuseli; + Gaddi; + Gainsborough; + Ghirlandajo, Domenico; + Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo. + + W. R. B.* + WILLIAM RAIMOND BAIRD, LL.D. + + Author of _Manual of American College Fraternities_; &c. Editor + of _The Beta Theta Pi_. + + Fraternities, College. + + W. S. P. + WALTER SUTHERLAND PARKER. + + Deputy Chairman, Fur Section, London Chamber of Commerce. + + Fur. + + + + +PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES + + Franz Josef Land. Galicia. Geraniaceae. + Free Church Federation. Galway. Geranium. + French Guinea. Gambia. German Baptist Brethren. + French West Africa. Gawain. German Catholics. + Friedland. Gelatin. Gettysburg. + Frisian Islands. Genius. Geyser. + Frisians. Gentian. Ghazni. + Fronde, The. Gentianaceae. Ghent. + Fuero. George, Saint. Ghor. + Furnace. George Junior Republic. Giant. + Galapagos Islands. Georgia (U.S.A.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in + the final volume. + + + + + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XI + + + + +FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the +Seraphic Order; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the +habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey), a religious order +founded by St Francis of Assisi (q.v.). It was in 1206 that St Francis +left his father's house and devoted himself to a life of poverty and to +the service of the poor, the sick and the lepers; and in 1209 that he +felt the call to add preaching to his other ministrations, and to lead a +life in the closest imitation of Christ's life. Within a few weeks +disciples began to join themselves to him; the condition was that they +should dispose of all their possessions. When their number was twelve +Francis led the little flock to Rome to obtain the pope's sanction for +their undertaking. Innocent III. received them kindly, but with some +misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of life; these +difficulties were overcome, and the pope accorded a provisional approval +by word of mouth: they were to become clerics and to elect a superior. +Francis was elected and made a promise of obedience to the pope, and the +others promised obedience to Francis. + +This formal inauguration of the institute was in 1209 or (as seems more +probable) 1210. Francis and his associates were first known as +"Penitents of Assisi," and then Francis chose the title of "Minors." On +their return to Assisi they obtained from the Benedictine abbey on Mount +Subasio the use of the little chapel of St Mary of the Angels, called +the Portiuncula, in the plain below Assisi, which became the cradle and +headquarters of the order. Around the Portiuncula they built themselves +huts of branches and twigs, but they had no fixed abode; they wandered +in pairs over the country, dressed in the ordinary clothes of the +peasants, working in the fields to earn their daily bread, sleeping in +barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of the churches, mixing with +the labourers and the poor, with the lepers and the outcasts, ever +joyous--the "joculatores" or "jongleurs" of God--ever carrying out their +mission of preaching to the lowly and to the wretched religion and +repentance and the kingdom of God. The key-note of the movement was the +imitation of the public life of Christ, especially the poverty of +Christ. Francis and his disciples were to aim at possessing nothing, +absolutely nothing, so far as was compatible with life; they were to +earn their bread from day to day by the work of their hands, and only +when they could not do so were they to beg; they were to make no +provision for the morrow, lay by no store, accumulate no capital, +possess no land; their clothes should be the poorest and their dwellings +the meanest; they were forbidden to receive or to handle money. On the +other hand they were bound only to the fast observed in those days by +pious Christians, and were allowed to eat meat--the rule said they +should eat whatever was set before them; no austerities were imposed, +beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived. + +Thus the institute in its original conception was quite different from +the monastic institute, Benedictine or Canon Regular. It was a +confraternity rather than an order, and there was no formal novitiate, +no organization. But the number of brothers increased with extraordinary +rapidity, and the field of work soon extended itself beyond the +neighbourhood of Assisi and even beyond Umbria--within three or four +years there were settlements in Perugia, Cortona, Pisa, Florence and +elsewhere, and missions to the Saracens and Moors were attempted by +Francis himself. About 1217 Franciscan missions set out for Germany, +France, Spain, Hungary and the Holy Land; and in 1219 a number of +provinces were formed, each governed by a provincial minister. These +developments, whereby the little band of Umbrian apostles had grown into +an institute spread all over Europe and even penetrating to the East, +and numbering thousands of members, rendered impossible the continuance +of the original free organization whereby Francis's word and example +were the sufficient practical rule of life for all: it was necessary as +a condition of efficiency and even of existence and permanence that some +kind of organization should be provided. From an early date yearly +meetings or chapters had been held at the Portiuncula, at first attended +by the whole body of friars; but as the institute extended this became +unworkable, and after 1219 the chapter consisted only of the officials, +provincial ministers and others. During Francis's absence in the East +(1219-1220) a deliberate movement was initiated by the two vicars whom +he had left in charge of the order, towards assimilating it to the +monastic orders. Francis hurried back, bringing with him Elias of +Cortona, the provincial minister of Syria, and immediately summoned an +extraordinary general chapter (September 1220). Before it met he had an +interview on the situation with Cardinal Hugolino of Ostia (afterwards +Gregory IX.), the great friend and supporter of both Francis and +Dominic, and he went to Honorius III. at Orvieto and begged that +Hugolino should be appointed the official protector of the order. The +request was granted, and a bull was issued formally approving the order +of Friars Minor, and decreeing that before admission every one must pass +a year's novitiate, and that after profession it was not lawful to leave +the order. By this bull the Friars Minor were constituted an order in +the technical sense of the word. When the chapter assembled, Francis, no +doubt from a genuine feeling that he was not able to govern a great +world-wide order, practically abdicated the post of minister-general by +appointing a vicar, and the policy of turning the Friars Minor into a +great religious order was consistently pursued, especially by Elias, who +a year later became Francis's vicar. + + St Francis's attitude towards this change is of primary importance for + the interpretation of Franciscan history. There can be little doubt + that his affections never altered from his first love, and that he + looked back regretfully on the "Umbrian idyll" that had passed away; + on the other hand, there seems to be no reason for doubting that he + saw that the methods of the early days were now no longer possible, + and that he acquiesced in the inevitable. This seems to be Professor + Goetz's view, who holds that Sabatier's picture of Francis's agonized + sadness at witnessing the destruction of his great creation going on + under his eyes, has no counterpart in fact, and who rejects the view + that the changes were forced on Francis against his better judgment by + Hugolino and Elias (see "Note on Sources" at end of article FRANCIS OF + ASSISI; also ELIAS OF CORTONA); Goetz holds that the only conflict was + the inevitable one between an unrealizable ideal and its practical + working among average men. But there does seem to be evidence that + Francis deplored tendencies towards a departure from the severe + simplicity of life and from the strict observance of poverty which he + considered the ground-idea of his institute. In the final redaction of + his Rule made in 1223 and in his Testament, made after it, he again + clearly asserts his mind on these subjects, especially on poverty; and + in the Testament he forbids any glosses in the interpretation of the + Rule, declaring that it is to be taken simply as it stands. Sabatier's + view as to the difference between the "First Rule" and that of 1223 is + part of his general theory, and is, to say the least, a grave + exaggeration. No doubt the First Rule, which is fully four times as + long, gives a better picture of St Francis's mind and character; the + later Rule has been formed from the earlier by the elimination of the + frequent scripture texts and the edificatory element; but the greater + portion of it stood almost verbally in the earlier. + +On Francis's death in 1226 the government of the order rested in the +hands of Elias until the chapter of 1227. At this chapter Elias was not +elected minister-general; the building of the great basilica and +monastery at Assisi was so manifest a violation of St Francis's ideas +and precepts that it produced a reaction, and John Parenti became St +Francis's first successor. He held fast to St Francis's ideas, but was +not a strong man. At the chapter of 1230 a discussion arose concerning +the binding force of St Francis's Testament, and the interpretation of +certain portions of the Rule, especially concerning poverty, and it was +determined to submit the questions to Pope Gregory IX., who had been St +Francis's friend and had helped in the final redaction of the Rule. He +issued a bull, _Quo elongati_, which declared that as the Testament had +not received the sanction of the general chapter it was not binding on +the order, and also allowed trustees to hold and administer money for +the order. John Parenti and those who wished to maintain St Francis's +institute intact were greatly disturbed by these relaxations; but a +majority of the chapter of 1232, by a sort of _coup d'etat_, proclaimed +Elias minister-general, and John retired, though in those days the +office was for life. Under Elias the order entered on a period of +extraordinary extension and prosperity: the number of friars in all +parts of the world increased wonderfully, new provinces were formed, new +missions to the heathen organized, the Franciscans entered the +universities and vied with the Dominicans as teachers of theology and +canon law, and as a body they became influential in church and state. +With all this side of Elias's policy the great bulk of the order +sympathized; but his rule was despotic and tyrannical and his private +life was lax--at least according to any Franciscan standard, for no +charge of grave irregularity was ever brought against him. And so a +widespread movement against his government arose, the backbone of which +was the university element at Paris and Oxford, and at a dramatic scene +in a chapter held in the presence of Gregory IX. Elias was deposed +(1239). + + The story of these first years after St Francis's death is best told + by Ed. Lempp, _Frère Élie de Cortone_ (1901) (but see the warning at + the end of the article ELIAS OF CORTONA). + +At this time the Franciscans were divided into three parties: there were +the Zealots, or Spirituals, who called for a literal observance of St +Francis's Rule and Testament; they deplored all the developments since +1219, and protested against turning the institute into an order, the +frequentation of the universities and the pursuit of learning; in a +word, they wished to restore the life to what it had been during the +first few years--the hermitages and the huts of twigs, and the care of +the lepers and the nomadic preaching. The Zealots were few in number but +of great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of the +first disciples and the most intimate companions of St Francis. They had +been grievously persecuted under Elias--Br. Leo and others had been +scourged, several had been imprisoned, one while trying to escape was +accidentally killed, and Br. Bernard, the "first disciple," passed a +year in hiding in the forests and mountains hunted like a wild beast. At +the other extreme was a party of relaxation, that abandoned any serious +effort to practise Franciscan poverty and simplicity of life. Between +these two stood the great middle party of moderates, who desired indeed +that the Franciscans should be really poor and simple in their manner of +life, and really pious, but on the other hand approved of the +development of the Order on the lines of other orders, of the +acquisition of influence, of the cultivation of theology and other +sciences, and of the frequenting of the universities. + + The questions of principle at issue in these controversies is + reasonably and clearly stated, from the modern Capuchin standpoint, in + the "Introductory Essay" to _The Friars and how they came to England_, + by Fr. Cuthbert (1903). + +The moderate party was by far the largest, and embraced nearly all the +friars of France, England and Germany. It was the Moderates and not the +Zealots that brought about Elias's deposition, and the next general +ministers belonged to this party. Further relaxations of the law of +poverty, however, caused a reaction, and John of Parma, one of the +Zealots, became minister-general, 1247-1257. Under him the more extreme +of the Zealots took up and exaggerated the theories of the Eternal +Gospel of the Calabrian Cistercian abbot Joachim of Fiore (Floris); some +of their writings were condemned as heretical, and John of Parma, who +was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies, had to resign. He was +succeeded by St Bonaventura (1257-1274), one of the best type of the +middle party. He was a man of high character, a theologian, a mystic, a +holy man and a strong ruler. He set himself with determination to effect +a working compromise, and proceeded with firmness against the extremists +on both sides. But controversy and recrimination and persecution had +stiffened the more ardent among the Zealots into obstinate +fanatics--some of them threw themselves into a movement that may best be +briefly described as a recrudescence of Montanism (see Émile Gebhart's +_Italie mystique_, 1899, cc. v. and vi.), and developed into a number of +sects, some on the fringe of Catholic Christianity and others beyond its +pale. But the majority of the Zealot party, or Spirituals, did not go so +far, and adopted as the principle of Franciscan poverty the formula "a +poor and scanty use" (_usus pauper et tenuis_) of earthly goods, as +opposed to the "moderate use" advocated by the less strict party. The +question thus posed came before the Council of Vienne, 1312, and was +determined, on the whole, decidedly in favour of the stricter view. Some +of the French Zealots were not satisfied and formed a semi-schismatical +body in Provence; twenty-five of them were tried before the Inquisition, +and four were burned alive at Marseilles as obstinate heretics, 1318. +After this the schism in the Order subsided. But the disintegrating +forces produced by the Great Schism and by the other disorders of the +14th century caused among the Franciscans the same relaxations and +corruptions, and also the same reactions and reform movements, as among +the other orders. + +The chief of these reforms was that of the Observants, which began at +Foligno about 1370. The Observant reform was on the basis of the "poor +and scanty use" of worldly goods, but it was organized as an order and +its members freely pursued theological studies; thus it did not +represent the position of the original Zealot party, nor was it the +continuation of it. The Observant reform spread widely throughout Italy +and into France, Spain and Germany. The great promoters of the movement +were St Bernardine of Siena and St John Capistran. The council of +Constance, 1415, allowed the French Observant friaries to be ruled by a +vicar of their own, under the minister-general, and the same privilege +was soon accorded to other countries. By the end of the middle ages the +Observants had some 1400 houses divided into 50 provinces. This movement +produced a "half-reform" among the Conventuals or friars of the +mitigated observance; it also called forth a number of lesser imitations +or congregations of strict observance. + +After many attempts had been made to bring about a working union among +the many observances, in 1517 Leo X. divided the Franciscan order into +two distinct and independent bodies, each with its own minister-general, +its own provinces and provincials and its own general chapter: (1) The +Conventuals, who were authorized to use the various papal dispensations +in regard to the observance of poverty, and were allowed to possess +property and fixed income, corporately, like the monastic orders; (2) +The Observants, who were bound to as close an observance of St Francis's +Rule in regard to poverty and all else as was practically possible. + +At this time a great number of the Conventuals went over to the +Observants, who have ever since been by far the more numerous and +influential branch of the order. Among the Observants in the course of +the sixteenth century arose various reforms, each striving to approach +more and more nearly to St Francis's ideal; the chief of these reforms +were the Alcantarines in Spain (St Peter of Alcantara, St Teresa's +friend, d. 1562), the Riformati in Italy and the Recollects in France: +all of these were semi-independent congregations. The Capuchins (q.v.), +established c. 1525, who claim to be the reform which approaches nearest +in its conception to the original type, became a distinct order of +Franciscans in 1619. Finally Leo XIII. grouped the Franciscans into +three bodies or orders--the Conventuals; the Observants, embracing all +branches of the strict observance, except the Capuchins; and the +Capuchins--which together constitute the "First Order." For the "Second +Order," or the nuns, see CLARA, ST, and CLARES, POOR; and for the "Third +Order" see TERTIARIES. Many of the Tertiaries live a fully monastic life +in community under the usual vows, and are formed into Congregations of +Regular Tertiaries, both men and women. They have been and are still +very numerous, and give themselves up to education, to the care of the +sick and of orphans and to good works of all kinds. + +No order has had so stormy an internal history as the Franciscans; yet +in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings that have +marred Franciscan history, the Friars Minor of every kind have in each +age faithfully and zealously carried on St Francis's great work of +ministering to the spiritual needs of the poor. Always recruited in +large measure from among the poor, they have ever been the order of the +poor, and in their preaching and missions and ministrations they have +ever laid themselves out to meet the needs of the poor. Another great +work of the Franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has +been their missions to the Mahommedans, both in western Asia and in +North Africa, and to the heathens in China, Japan and India, and North +and South America; a great number of the friars were martyred. The news +of the martyrdom of five of his friars in Morocco was one of the joys of +St Francis's closing years. Many of these missions exist to this day. In +the Universities, too, the Franciscans made themselves felt alongside of +the Dominicans, and created a rival school of theology, wherein, as +contrasted with the Aristotelianism of the Dominican school, the +Platonism of the early Christian doctors has been perpetuated. + +The Franciscans came to England in 1224 and immediately made foundations +in Canterbury, London and Oxford; by the middle of the century there +were fifty friaries and over 1200 friars in England; at the Dissolution +there were some 66 Franciscan friaries, whereof some six belonged to the +Observants (for list see _Catholic Dictionary_ and F. A. Gasquet's +_English Monastic Life_, 1904). Though nearly all the English houses +belonged to what has been called the "middle party," as a matter of fact +they practised great poverty, and the commissioners of Henry VIII. often +remark that the Franciscan Friary was the poorest of the religious +houses of a town. The English province was one of the most remarkable in +the order, especially in intellectual achievement; it produced Friar +Roger Bacon, and, with the single exception of St Bonaventure, all the +greatest doctors of the Franciscan theological school--Alexander Hales, +Duns Scotus and Occam. + +The Franciscans have always been the most numerous by far of the +religious orders; it is estimated that about the period of the +Reformation the Friars Minor must have numbered nearly 100,000. At the +present day the statistics are roughly (including lay-brothers): +Observants, 15,000, Conventuals, 1500; to these should be added 9500 +Capuchins, making the total number of Franciscan friars about 26,000. +There are various houses of Observants and Capuchins in England and +Ireland; and the old Irish Conventuals survived the penal times and +still exist. + +There have been four Franciscan popes: Nicholas IV. (1288-1292), Sixtus +IV. (1471-1484), Sixtus V. (1585-1590), Clement XIV. (1769-1774); the +three last were Conventuals. + + The great source for Franciscan history is Wadding's _Annales_; it has + been many times continued, and now extends in 25 vols. fol. to the + year 1622. The story is also told by Helyot, _Hist. des ordres + religieux_ (1714), vol. vii. Abridgments, with references to recent + literature, will be found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden und + Kongregationen_ (1896), i. §§ 37-51; in Wetzer und Welte, + _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), articles "Armut (III.)," "Franciscaner + orden" (this article contains the best account of the inner history + and the polity of the order up to 1886); in Herzog, _Realencyklopädie_ + (3rd ed.), articles "Franz von Assisi" (fullest references to + literature up to 1899), "Fraticellen." Of modern critical studies on + Franciscan origins, K. Müller's _Anfänge des Minoritenordens und der + Bussbruderschaften_ (1885), and various articles by F. Ehrle in + _Archiv für Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ and + _Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie_, deserve special mention. + Eccleston's charming chronicle of "The Coming of the Friars Minor into + England" has been translated into English by the Capuchin Fr. + Cuthbert, who has prefixed an Introductory Essay giving by far the + best account in English of "the Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan + Friars" (_The Friars and how they came to England_, 1903). Fuller + information on the English Franciscans will be found in A. G. Little's + _Grey Friars in Oxford_ (Oxford Hist. Soc., 1892). (E. C. B.) + + + + +FRANCK. The name of Franck has been given indiscriminately but +improperly to painters of the school of Antwerp who belong to the +families of Francken (q.v.) and Vrancx (q.v.). One artist truly entitled +to be called Franck is Gabriel, who entered the gild of Antwerp in 1605, +became its president in 1636 and died in 1639. But his works cannot now +be traced. + + + + +FRANCK, CÉSAR (1822-1890), French musical composer, a Belgian by birth, +who came of German stock, was born at Liége on the 10th of December +1822. Though one of the most remarkable of modern composers, César +Franck laboured for many years in comparative obscurity. After some +preliminary studies at Liége he came to Paris in 1837 and entered the +conservatoire. He at once obtained the first prize for piano, +transposing a fugue at sight to the astonishment of the professors, for +he was only fifteen. He won the prize for the organ in 1841, after which +he settled down in the French capital as teacher of the piano. His +earliest compositions date from this period, and include four trios for +piano and strings, besides several piano pieces. _Ruth_, a biblical +cantata was produced with success at the Conservatoire in 1846. An opera +entitled _Le Valet de ferme_ was written about this time, but has never +been performed. For many years Franck led a retired life, devoting +himself to teaching and to his duties as organist, first at +Saint-Jean-Saint-François, then at Ste Clotilde, where he acquired a +great reputation as an improviser. He also wrote a mass, heard in 1861, +and a quantity of motets, organ pieces and other works of a religious +character. + +Franck was appointed professor of the organ at the Paris conservatoire, +in succession to Benoist, his old master, in 1872, and the following +year he was naturalized a Frenchman. Until then he was esteemed as a +clever and conscientious musician, but he was now about to prove his +title to something more. A revival of his early oratorio, _Ruth_, had +brought his name again before the public, and this was followed by the +production of _Rédemption_, a work for solo, chorus and orchestra, given +under the direction of M. Colonne on the 10th of April 1873. The +unconventionality of the music rather disconcerted the general public, +but the work nevertheless made its mark, and Franck became the central +figure of an enthusiastic circle of pupils and adherents whose devotion +atoned for the comparative indifference of the masses. His creative +power now manifested itself in a series of works of varied kinds, and +the name of Franck began gradually to emerge from its obscurity. The +following is an enumeration of his subsequent compositions: _Rebecca_ +(1881), a biblical idyll for solo, chorus and orchestra; Les Béatitudes, +an oratorio composed between 1870 and 1880, perhaps his greatest work; +the symphonic poems, _Les Éolides_ (1876), _Le Chasseur maudit_ (1883), +_Les Djinns_ (1884), for piano and orchestra; _Psyche_ (1888), for +orchestra and chorus; symphonic variations for piano and orchestra +(1885); symphony in D (1889); quintet for piano and strings (1880); +sonata for piano and violin (1886); string quartet (1889); prelude, +choral and fugue for piano (1884); prelude, aria and finale for piano +(1889); various songs, notably "La Procession" and "Les Cloches du +Soir." Franck also composed two four-act operas, _Hulda_ and _Ghiselle_, +both of which were produced at Monte Carlo after his death, which took +place in Paris on the 8th of November 1890. The second of these was left +by the master in an unfinished state, and the instrumentation was +completed by several of his pupils. + +César Franck's influence on younger French composers has been very +great. Yet his music is German in character rather than French. A more +sincere, modest, self-respecting composer probably never existed. In the +centre of the brilliant French capital he was able to lead a laborious +existence consecrated to his threefold career of organist, teacher and +composer. He never sought to gain the suffrages of the public by +unworthy concessions, but kept straight on his path, ever mindful of an +ideal to be reached and never swerving therefrom. A statue was erected +to the memory of César Franck in Paris on the 22nd of October 1904, the +occasion producing a panegyric from Alfred Bruneau, in which he speaks +of the composer's works as "cathedrals in sound." + + + + +FRANCK, or FRANK [latinized FRANCUS], SEBASTIAN (c. 1499-c. 1543), +German freethinker, was born about 1499 at Donauwörth, whence he +constantly styled himself Franck von Wörd. He entered the university of +Ingoldstadt (March 26, 1515), and proceeded thence to the Dominican +College, incorporated with the university, at Heidelberg. Here he met +his subsequent antagonists, Bucer and Frecht, with whom he seems to have +attended the Augsburg conference (October 1518) at which Luther declared +himself a true son of the Church. He afterwards reckoned the Leipzig +disputation (June-July 1519) and the burning of the papal bull (December +1520) as the beginning of the Reformation. Having taken priest's orders, +he held in 1524 a cure in the neighbourhood of Augsburg, but soon (1525) +went over to the Reformed party at Nuremberg and became preacher at +Gustenfelden. His first work (finished September 1527) was a German +translation with additions (1528) of the first part of the _Diallage_, +or _Conciliatio locorum Scripturae_, directed against Sacramentarians +and Anabaptists by Andrew Althamer, then deacon of St Sebald's at +Nuremberg. On the 17th of March 1528 he married Ottilie Beham, a gifted +lady, whose brothers, pupils of Albrecht Dürer, had got into trouble +through Anabaptist leanings. In the same year he wrote a very popular +treatise against drunkenness. In 1529 he produced a free version +(_Klagbrief der armen Dürftigen in England_) of the famous _Supplycacyon +of the Beggers_, written abroad (1528?) by Simon Fish. Franck, in his +preface, says the original was in English; elsewhere he says it was in +Latin; the theory that his German was really the original is +unwarrantable. Advance in his religious ideas led him to seek the freer +atmosphere of Strassburg in the autumn of 1529. To his translation +(1530) of a Latin _Chronicle and Description_ of Turkey, by a +Transylvanian captive, which had been prefaced by Luther, he added an +appendix holding up the Turks as in many respects an example to +Christians, and presenting, in lieu of the restrictions of Lutheran, +Zwinglian and Anabaptist sects, the vision of an invisible spiritual +church, universal in its scope. To this ideal he remained faithful. At +Strassburg began his intimacy with Caspar Schwenkfeld, a congenial +spirit. Here, too, he published, in 1531, his most important work, the +_Chronica, Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibel_, largely a compilation on the +basis of the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493), and in its treatment of social +and religious questions connected with the Reformation, exhibiting a +strong sympathy with heretics, and an unexampled fairness to all kinds +of freedom in opinion. It is too much to call him "the first of German +historians"; he is a forerunner of Gottfried Arnold, with more vigour +and directness of purpose. Driven from Strassburg by the authorities, +after a short imprisonment in December 1531, he tried to make a living +in 1532 as a soapboiler at Esslingen, removing in 1533 for a better +market to Ulm, where (October 28, 1534) he was admitted as a burgess. + +His _Weltbuch_, a supplement to his _Chronica_, was printed at Tübingen +in 1534; the publication, in the same year, of his _Paradoxa_ at Ulm +brought him into trouble with the authorities. An order for his +banishment was withdrawn on his promise to submit future works for +censure. Not interpreting this as applying to works printed outside Ulm, +he published in 1538 at Augsburg his _Guldin Arch_ (with pagan parallels +to Christian sentiments) and at Frankfort his _Germaniae chronicon_, +with the result that he had to leave Ulm in January 1539. He seems +henceforth to have had no settled abode. At Basel he found work as a +printer, and here, probably, it was that he died in the winter of +1542-1543. He had published in 1539 his _Kriegbüchlein des Friedens_ +(pseudonymous), his _Schrifftliche und ganz gründliche Auslegung des 64 +Psalms_, and his _Das verbütschierte mit sieben Siegeln verschlossene +Buch_ (a biblical index, exhibiting the dissonance of Scripture); in +1541 his _Spruchwörter_ (a collection of proverbs, several times +reprinted with variations); in 1542 a new edition of his _Paradoxa_; and +some smaller works. + +Franck combined the humanist's passion for freedom with the mystic's +devotion to the religion of the spirit. His breadth of human sympathy +led him to positions which the comparative study of religions has made +familiar, but for which his age was unprepared. Luther contemptuously +dismissed him as a "devil's mouth." Pastor Frecht of Nuremberg pursued +him with bitter zeal. But his courage did not fail him, and in his last +year, in a public Latin letter, he exhorted his friend John Campanus to +maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge of heresy. + + See Hegler, in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1899); C. A. Hase, + _Sebastian Franck von Wörd_ (1869); J. F. Smith, in _Theological + Review_ (April 1874); E. Tausch, _Sebastian Franck von Donauwörth und + seine Lehrer_ (1893). (A. Go.*) + + + + +FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN (1663-1727), German Protestant divine, was born +on the 22nd of March 1663 at Lübeck. He was educated at the gymnasium in +Gotha, and afterwards at the universities of Erfurt, Kiel, where he came +under the influence of the pietist Christian Kortholt (1633-1694), and +Leipzig. During his student career he made a special study of Hebrew and +Greek; and in order to learn Hebrew more thoroughly, he for some time +put himself under the instructions of Rabbi Ezra Edzardi at Hamburg. He +graduated at Leipzig, where in 1685 he became a _Privatdozent_. A year +later, by the help of his friend P. Anton, and with the approval and +encouragement of P. J. Spener, he founded the Collegium Philobiblicum, +at which a number of graduates were accustomed to meet for the +systematic study of the Bible, philologically and practically. He next +passed some months at Lüneburg as assistant or curate to the learned +superintendent, C. H. Sandhagen (1639-1697), and there his religious +life was remarkably quickened and deepened. On leaving Lüneburg he spent +some time in Hamburg, where he became a teacher in a private school, and +made the acquaintance of Nikolaus Lange (1659-1720). After a long visit +to Spener, who was at that time a court preacher in Dresden, he +returned to Leipzig in the spring of 1689, and began to give Bible +lectures of an exegetical and practical kind, at the same time resuming +the Collegium Philobiblicum of earlier days. He soon became popular as a +lecturer; but the peculiarities of his teaching almost immediately +aroused a violent opposition on the part of the university authorities; +and before the end of the year he was interdicted from lecturing on the +ground of his alleged pietism. Thus it was that Francke's name first +came to be publicly associated with that of Spener, and with pietism. +Prohibited from lecturing in Leipzig, Francke in 1690 found work at +Erfurt as "deacon" of one of the city churches. Here his evangelistic +fervour attracted multitudes to his preaching, including Roman +Catholics, but at the same time excited the anger of his opponents; and +the result of their opposition was that after a ministry of fifteen +months he was commanded by the civil authorities (27th of September +1691) to leave Erfurt within forty-eight hours. The same year witnessed +the expulsion of Spener from Dresden. + +In December, through Spener's influence, Francke accepted an invitation +to fill the chair of Greek and oriental languages in the new university +of Halle, which was at that time being organized by the elector +Frederick III. of Brandenburg; and at the same time, the chair having no +salary attached to it, he was appointed pastor of Glaucha in the +immediate neighbourhood of the town. He afterwards became professor of +theology. Here, for the next thirty-six years, until his death on the +8th of June 1727, he continued to discharge the twofold office of pastor +and professor with rare energy and success. At the very outset of his +labours he had been profoundly impressed with a sense of his +responsibility towards the numerous outcast children who were growing up +around him in ignorance and crime. After a number of tentative plans, he +resolved in 1695 to institute what is often called a "ragged school," +supported by public charity. A single room was at first sufficient, but +within a year it was found necessary to purchase a house, to which +another was added in 1697. In 1698 there were 100 orphans under his +charge to be clothed and fed, besides 500 children who were taught as +day scholars. The schools grew in importance and are still known as the +_Francke'sche Stiftungen_. The education given was strictly religious. +Hebrew was included, while the Greek and Latin classics were neglected; +the _Homilies_ of Macarius took the place of Thucydides. The same +principle was consistently applied in his university teaching. Even as +professor of Greek he had given great prominence in his lectures to the +study of the Scriptures; but he found a much more congenial sphere when, +in 1698, he was appointed to the chair of theology. Yet his first +courses of lectures in that department were readings and expositions of +the Old and New Testament; and to this, as also to hermeneutics, he +always attached special importance, believing that for theology a sound +exegesis was the one indispensable requisite. "Theologus nascitur in +scripturis," he used to say; but during his occupancy of the theological +chair he lectured at various times upon other branches of theology also. +Amongst his colleagues were Paul Anton (1661-1730), Joachim J. +Breithaupt (1658-1732) and Joachim Lange (1670-1744),--men like-minded +with himself. Through their influence upon the students, Halle became a +centre from which pietism (q.v.) became very widely diffused over +Germany. + + His principal contributions to theological literature were: + _Manuductio ad lectionem Scripturae Sacrae_ (1693); _Praelectiones + hermeneuticae_ (1717); _Commentatio de scopo librorum Veteris et Novi + Testamenti_ (1724); and _Lectiones paraeneticae_ (1726-1736). The + _Manuductio_ was translated into English in 1813, under the title _A + Guide to the Reading and Study of the Holy Scriptures_. An account of + his orphanage, entitled _Segensvolle Fussstapfen_, &c. (1709), which + subsequently passed through several editions, has also been partially + translated, under the title _The Footsteps of Divine Providence: or, + The bountiful Hand of Heaven defraying the Expenses of Faith_. See H. + E. F. Guericke's _A. H. Francke_ (1827), which has been translated + into English (_The Life of A. H. Francke_, 1837); Gustave Kramer's + _Beiträge zur Geschichte A. H. Francke's_ (1861), and _Neue Beiträge_ + (1875); A. Stein, _A. H. Francke_ (3rd ed., 1894); article in + Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 1899); Knuth, _Die + Francke'schen Stiftungen_ (2nd ed., 1903). + + + + + +FRANCKEN. Eleven painters of this family cultivated their art in Antwerp +during the 16th and 17th centuries. Several of these were related to +each other, whilst many bore the same Christian name in succession. +Hence unavoidable confusion in the subsequent classification of +paintings not widely differing in style or execution. When Franz +Francken the first found a rival in Franz Francken the second, he +described himself as the "elder," in contradistinction to his son, who +signed himself the "younger." But when Franz the second was threatened +with competition from Franz the third, he took the name of "the elder," +whilst Franz the third adopted that of Franz "the younger." + +It is possible, though not by any means easy, to sift the works of these +artists. The eldest of the Franckens, Nicholas of Herenthals, died at +Antwerp in 1596, with nothing but the reputation of having been a +painter. None of his works remain. He bequeathed his art to three +children. Jerom Francken, the eldest son, after leaving his father's +house, studied under Franz Floris, whom he afterwards served as an +assistant, and wandered, about 1560, to Paris. In 1566 he was one of the +masters employed to decorate the palace of Fontainebleau, and in 1574 he +obtained the appointment of court painter from Henry III., who had just +returned from Poland and visited Titian at Venice. In 1603, when Van +Mander wrote his biography of Flemish artists, Jerom Francken was still +in Paris living in the then aristocratic Faubourg St Germain. Among his +earliest works we should distinguish a "Nativity" in the Dresden museum, +executed in co-operation with Franz Floris. Another of his important +pieces is the "Abdication of Charles V." in the Amsterdam museum. +Equally interesting is a "Portrait of a Falconer," dated 1558, in the +Brunswick gallery. In style these pieces all recall Franz Floris. Franz, +the second son of Nicholas of Herenthals, is to be kept in memory as +Franz Francken the first. He was born about 1544, matriculated at +Antwerp in 1567, and died there in 1616. He, too, studied under Floris, +and never settled abroad, or lost the hard and gaudy style which he +inherited from his master. Several of his pictures are in the museum of +Antwerp; one dated 1597 in the Dresden museum represents "Christ on the +Road to Golgotha," and is signed by him as D. õ (Den ouden) F. Franck. +Ambrose, the third son of Nicholas of Herenthals, has bequeathed to us +more specimens of his skill than Jerom or Franz the first. He first +started as a partner with Jerom at Fontainebleau, then he returned to +Antwerp, where he passed for his gild in 1573, and he lived at Antwerp +till 1618. His best works are the "Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes" and +the "Martyrdom of St Crispin," both large and ambitious compositions in +the Antwerp museum. In both these pieces a fair amount of power is +displayed, but marred by want of atmosphere and shadow or by hardness of +line and gaudiness of tone. There is not a trace in the three painters +named of the influence of the revival which took place under the lead of +Rubens. Franz Francken the first trained three sons to his profession, +the eldest of whom, though he practised as a master of gild at Antwerp +from 1600 to 1610, left no visible trace of his labours behind. Jerom +the second took service with his uncle Ambrose. He was born in 1578, +passed for his gild in 1607, and in 1620 produced that curious picture +of "Horatius Cocles defending the Sublician Bridge" which still hangs in +the Antwerp museum. The third son of Franz Francken the first is Franz +Francken the second, who signed himself in pictures till 1616 "the +younger," from 1630 till his death "the elder" F. Francken. These +pictures are usually of a small size, and are found in considerable +numbers in continental collections. Franz Francken the second was born +in 1581. In 1605 he entered the gild, of which he subsequently became +the president, and in 1642 he died. His earliest composition is the +"Crucifixion" in the Belvedere at Vienna, dated 1606. His latest +compositions as "the younger" F. Francken are the "Adoration of the +Virgin" (1616) in the gallery of Amsterdam, and the "Woman taken in +Adultery" (1628) in Dresden. From 1616 to 1630 many of his pieces are +signed F. Francken; then come the "Seven Works of Charity" (1630) at +Munich, signed "the elder F. F.," the "Prodigal Son" (1633) at the +Louvre, and other almost countless examples. It is in F. Francken the +second's style that we first have evidence of the struggle which +necessarily arose when the old customs, hardened by Van Orley and +Floris, or Breughel and De Vos, were swept away by Rubens. But F. +Francken the second, as before observed, always clung to small surfaces; +and though he gained some of the freedom of the moderns, he lost but +little of the dryness or gaudiness of the earlier Italo-Flemish +revivalists. F. Francken the third, the last of his name who deserves to +be recorded, passed in the Antwerp gild in 1639 and died at Antwerp in +1667. His practice was chiefly confined to adding figures to the +architectural or landscape pieces of other artists. As Franz Pourbus +sometimes put in the portrait figures for Franz Francken the second, so +Franz Francken the third often introduced the necessary personages into +the works of Pieter Neefs the younger (museums of St Petersburg, Dresden +and the Hague). In a "Moses striking the Rock," dated 1654, of the +Augsburg gallery, this last of the Franckens signs D. õ (Den ouden) F. +Franck. In the pictures of this artist we most clearly discern the +effects of Rubens's example. + + + + +FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). The victories of Prussia in 1866 over the +Austrians and their German allies (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) rendered it +evident to the statesmen and soldiers of France that a struggle between +the two nations could only be a question of time. Army reforms were at +once undertaken, and measures were initiated in France to place the +armament and equipment of the troops on a level with the requirements of +the times. The chassepot, a new breech-loading rifle, immensely superior +to the Prussian needle-gun, was issued; the artillery trains were +thoroughly overhauled, and a new machine-gun, the _mitrailleuse_, from +which much was expected, introduced. Wide schemes of reorganization (due +mainly to Marshal Niel) were set in motion, and, since these required +time to mature, recourse was had to foreign alliances in the hope of +delaying the impending rupture. In the first week of June 1870, General +Lebrun, as a confidential agent of the emperor Napoleon III., was sent +to Vienna to concert a plan of joint operations with Austria against +Prussia. Italy was also to be included in the alliance, and it was +agreed that in case of hostilities the French armies should concentrate +in northern Bavaria, where the Austrians and Italians were to join them, +and the whole immense army thus formed should march via Jena on Berlin. +To what extent Austria and Italy committed themselves to this scheme +remains uncertain, but that the emperor Napoleon believed in their _bona +fides_ is beyond doubt. + +Whether the plan was betrayed to Prussia is also uncertain, and almost +immaterial, for Moltke's plans were based on an accurate estimate of the +time it would take Austria to mobilize and on the effect of a series of +victories on French soil. At any rate Moltke was not taken into +Bismarck's confidence in the affair of Ems in July 1870, and it is to be +presumed that the chancellor had already satisfied himself that the +schemes of operations prepared by the chief of the General Staff fully +provided against all eventualities. These schemes were founded on +Clausewitz's view of the objects to be pursued in a war against +France--in the first place the defeat of the French field armies and in +the second the occupation of Paris. On these lines plans for the +strategic deployment of the Prussian army were prepared by the General +Staff and kept up to date year by year as fresh circumstances (e.g. the +co-operation of the minor German armies) arose and new means of +communication came into existence. The campaign was actually opened on a +revise of 1868-1869, to which was added, on the 6th of May 1870, a +secret memorandum for the General Staff. + + + Strategic deployment of the German armies. + +Under the German organization then existing the preliminary to all +active operations was of necessity full and complete mobilization. Then +followed transport by road and rail to the line selected for the +"strategic deployment," and it was essential that no part of these +operations should be disturbed by action on the part of the enemy. But +no such delay imposed itself of necessity upon the French, and a +vigorous offensive was so much in harmony with their traditions that +the German plan had to be framed so as to meet such emergencies. On the +whole, Moltke concluded that the enemy could not undertake this +offensive before the eighth day after mobilization. At that date about +five French army corps (150,000 men) could be collected near Metz, and +two corps (70,000) near Strassburg; and as it was six days' march from +Metz to the Rhine, no serious attack could be delivered before the +fourteenth day, by which day it could be met by superior forces near +Kirchheimbolanden. Since, however, the transport of the bulk of the +Prussian forces could not begin till the ninth day, their ultimate line +of detrainment need not be fixed until the French plans were disclosed, +and, as it was important to strike at the earliest moment possible, the +deployment was provisionally fixed to be beyond the Rhine on the line +Wittlich-Neunkirchen-Landau. Of the thirteen North German corps three +had to be left behind to guard the eastern frontier and the coast, one +other, the VIII., was practically on the ground already and could +concentrate by road, and the remaining nine were distributed to the nine +through railway lines available. These ten corps were grouped in three +armies, and as the French might violate Belgian neutrality or endeavour +to break into southern Germany, two corps (Prussian Guard and Saxon XII. +corps) were temporarily held back at a central position around Mainz, +whence they could move rapidly up or down the Rhine valley. If Belgian +neutrality remained unmolested, the reserve would join the III. army on +the left wing, giving it a two to one superiority over its adversary; +all three armies would then wheel to the right and combine in an effort +to force the French army into a decisive battle on the Saar on or about +the twenty-third day. As in this wheel the army on the right formed the +pivot and was required only to stand fast, two corps only were allotted +to it; two corps for the present formed the III. army, and the remaining +five were assigned to the II. army in the centre. + +When (16th-17th July) the South German states decided to throw in their +lot with the rest, their three corps were allotted to the III. army, the +Guards and Saxons to the II. army, whilst the three corps originally +left behind were finally distributed one to each army, so that up to the +investment of Metz the order of battle was as follows: + + Headquarters: + The king of Prussia (General v. Moltke, chief of staff). + + I. Army: / (I. corps, v. Manteuffel) + General v. Steinmetz < VII. " v. Zastrow + (C. of S., v. Sperling) | VIII. " v. Goeben + \ (1st) and 3rd cavalry divisions + + Total 85,000 + + / Guard Pr. August of Württemberg + | (II. corps, v. Fransecky) + | III. " v. Alvensleben II. + II. Army: | IV. " v. Alvensleben I. + Prince Frederick Charles < IX. " v. Manstein + (C. of S., v. Stiehle) | X. " v. Voigts-Rhetz + | XII. " (Saxons) crown prince + | of Saxony + \ 5th and 6th cavalry divisions + + Total 210,000 + + / V. corps, v. Kirchbach + | (VI.) " v. Tümpling + | XI. " v. Bose + III. Army: | I. Bavarian, v. der Tann + crown prince of Prussia < II. " v. Hartmann + (C. of S., v. Blumenthal) | Württemberg div. \ v. Werder + | Baden div. / + \ (2nd) and 4th cavalry divisions + + Total 180,000 + ------- + Grand Total 475,000 + + (The units within brackets were those at first retained in Germany.) + + + Positions of the French forces. + +On the French side no such plan of operations was in existence when on +the night of the 15th of July _Krieg mobil_ was telegraphed all over +Prussia. An outline scheme had indeed been prepared as a basis for +agreement with Austria and Italy, but practically no details were fixed, +and the troops were without transport and supplies. Nevertheless, since +speed was the essence of the contract, the troops were hurried up +without waiting for their reserves, and delivered, as Moltke had +foreseen, just where the lie of the railways and convenience of +temporary supply dictated, and the Prussian Intelligence Department was +able to inform Moltke on the 22nd of July (seventh day of mobilization) +that the French stood from right to left in the following order, on or +near the frontier: + + 1st corps Marshal MacMahon, duke of Magenta, Strassburg + 5th corps General de Failly, Saargemünd and Bitche + 2nd corps General Frossard, St Avold + 4th corps General de Ladmirault, Thionville + With, behind them: + 3rd corps Marshal Bazaine, Metz + Guard General Bourbaki, Nancy + 6th corps Marshal Canrobert, Châlons + 7th corps General Félix Douay, Belfort + +If therefore they began a forward movement on the 23rd (eighth day) the +case foreseen by Moltke had arisen, and it became necessary to detrain +the II. army upon the Rhine. Without waiting for further confirmation of +this intelligence, Moltke, with the consent of the king, altered the +arrangements accordingly, a decision which, though foreseen, exercised +the gravest influence on the course of events. As it happened this +decision was premature, for the French could not yet move. Supply trains +had to be organized by requisition from the inhabitants, and even arms +and ammunition procured for such reserves as had succeeded in joining. +Nevertheless, by almost superhuman exertions on the part of the railways +and administrative services, all essential deficiencies were made good, +and by the 28th of July (13th day) the troops had received all that was +absolutely indispensable and might well have been led against the enemy, +who, thanks to Moltke's premature action, were for the moment at a very +serious disadvantage. But the French generals were unequal to their +responsibilities. It is now clear that, had the great Napoleon and his +marshals been in command, they would have made light of the want of +cooking pots, cholera belts, &c., and, by a series of rapid marches, +would have concentrated odds of at least three to one upon the heads of +the Prussian columns as they struggled through the defiles of the Hardt, +and won a victory whose political results might well have proved +decisive. + +To meet this pressing danger, which came to his knowledge during the +course of the 29th, Moltke sent a confidential staff officer, Colonel v. +Verdy du Vernois, to the III. army to impress upon the crown prince the +necessity of an immediate advance to distract the enemy's attention from +the I. and II. armies; but, like the French generals, the crown prince +pleaded that he could not move until his trains were complete. +Fortunately for the Germans, the French intelligence service not only +failed to inform the staff of this extraordinary opportunity, but it +allowed itself to be hypnotized by the most amazing rumours. In +imagination they saw armies of 100,000 men behind every forest, and, to +guard against these dangers, the French troops were marched and +counter-marched along the frontiers in the vain hope of discovering an +ideal defensive position which should afford full scope to the power of +their new weapons. + +As these delays were exerting a most unfavourable effect on public +opinion not only in France but throughout Europe, the emperor decided on +the 1st of August to initiate a movement towards the Saar, chiefly as a +guarantee of good faith to the Austrians and Italians. + +On this day the French corps held the following positions from right to +left: + + 1st corps Hagenau + 2nd corps Forbach + 3rd corps St Avold + 4th corps Bouzonville + 5th corps Bitche + 6th corps Châlons + 7th corps Belfort and Colmar + Guard near Metz + + + Action of Saarbrücken. + +The French 2nd corps was directed to advance on the following morning +direct on Saarbrücken, supported on the flanks by two divisions from the +5th and 3rd corps. The order was duly carried out, and the Prussians +(one battalion, two squadrons and a battery), seeing the overwhelming +numbers opposed to them, fell back fighting and vanished to the +northward, having given a very excellent example of steadiness and +discipline to their enemy.[1] The latter contented themselves by +occupying Saarbrücken and its suburb St Johann, and here, as far as the +troops were concerned, the incident closed. Its effect, however, proved +far-reaching. The Prussian staff could not conceive that nothing lay +behind this display of five whole divisions, and immediately took steps +to meet the expected danger. In their excitement, although they had +announced the beginning of the action to the king's headquarters at +Mainz, they forgot to notify the close and its results, so that Moltke +was not in possession of the facts till noon on the 3rd of August. +Meanwhile, Steinmetz, left without instructions and fearing for the +safety of the II. army, the heads of whose columns were still in the +defiles of the Hardt, moved the I. army from the neighbourhood of Merzig +obliquely to his left front, so as to strike the flank of the French +army if it continued its march towards Kaiserslautern, in which +direction it appeared to be heading. + + + Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles and Steinmetz. + +Whilst this order was in process of execution, Moltke, aware that the +II. army was behind time in its march, issued instructions to Steinmetz +for the 4th of August which entailed a withdrawal to the rear, the idea +being that both armies should, if the French advanced, fight a defensive +battle in a selected position farther back. Steinmetz obeyed, though +bitterly resenting the idea of retreat. This movement, further, drew his +left across the roads reserved for the right column of the II. army, and +on receipt of a peremptory order from Prince Frederick Charles to +evacuate the road, Steinmetz telegraphed for instructions direct to the +king, over Moltke's head. In reply he received a telegram from Moltke, +ordering him to clear the road at once, and couched in terms which he +considered as a severe reprimand. An explanatory letter, meant to soften +the rebuke, was delayed in transmission and did not reach him till too +late to modify the orders he had already issued. It must be remembered +that Steinmetz at the front was in a better position to judge the +apparent situation than was Moltke at Mainz, and that all through the +day of the 5th of August he had received intelligence indicating a +change of attitude in the French army. + + + Battle of Spicheren. + +The news of the German victory at Weissenburg on the 4th (see below) had +in fact completely paralysed the French headquarters, and orders were +issued by them during the course of the 5th to concentrate the whole +army of the Rhine on the selected position of Cadenbronn. As a +preliminary, Frossard's corps withdrew from Saarbrücken and began to +entrench a position on the Spicheren heights, 3000 yds. to the +southward. Steinmetz, therefore, being quite unaware of the scheme for a +great battle on the Saar about the 12th of August, felt that the +situation would best be met, and the letter of his instructions strictly +obeyed, by moving his whole command forward to the line of the Saar, and +orders to this effect were issued on the evening of the 5th. In +pursuance of these orders, the advance guard of the 14th division +(Lieutenant General von Kameke) reached Saarbrücken about 9 A.M. on the +6th, where the Germans found to their amazement that the bridges were +intact. To secure this advantage was the obvious duty of the commander +on the spot, and he at once ordered his troops to occupy a line of low +heights beyond the town to serve as a bridge-head. As the leading troops +deployed on the heights Frossard's guns on the Spicheren Plateau opened +fire, and the advanced guard battery replied. The sound of these guns +unchained the whole fighting instinct carefully developed by a long +course of Prussian manoeuvre training. Everywhere, generals and troops +hurried towards the cannon thunder. Kameke, even more in the dark than +Steinmetz as to Moltke's intentions and the strength of his adversaries, +attacked at once, precisely as he would have done at manoeuvres, and in +half an hour his men were committed beyond recall. As each fresh unit +reached the field it was hurried into action where its services were +most needed, and each fresh general as he arrived took a new view of the +combat and issued new orders. On the other side, Frossard, knowing the +strength of his position, called on his neighbours for support, and +determined to hold his ground. Victory seemed certain. There were +sufficient troops within easy reach to have ensured a crushing numerical +superiority. But the other generals had not been trained to mutual +support, and thought only of their own immediate security, and their +staffs were too inexperienced to act upon even good intentions; and, +finding himself in the course of the afternoon left to his own devices, +Frossard began gradually to withdraw, even before the pressure of the +13th German division on his left flank (about 8 P.M.) compelled his +retirement. When darkness ended the battle the Prussians were scarcely +aware of their victory. Steinmetz, who had reached the field about 6 +P.M., rode back to his headquarters without issuing any orders, while +the troops bivouacked where they stood, the units of three army corps +being mixed up in almost inextricable confusion. But whereas out of +42,900 Prussians with 120 guns, who in the morning lay within striking +distance of the enemy, no fewer than 27,000, with 78 guns were actually +engaged; of the French, out of 64,000 with 210 guns only 24,000 with 90 +guns took part in the action. + + + Action of Weissenburg. + +Meanwhile on the German left wing the III. army had begun its advance. +Early on the 4th of August it crossed the frontier and fell upon a +French detachment under Abel Douay, which had been placed near +Weissenburg, partly to cover the Pigeonnier pass, but principally to +consume the supplies accumulated in the little dismantled fortress, as +these could not easily be moved. Against this force of under 4000 men of +all arms, the Germans brought into action successively portions of three +corps, in all over 25,000 men with 90 guns. After six hours' fighting, +in which the Germans lost some 1500 men, the gallant remnant of the +French withdrew deliberately and in good order, notwithstanding the +death of their leader at the critical moment. The Germans were so elated +by their victory over the enemy, whose strength they naturally +overestimated, that they forgot to send cavalry in pursuit, and thus +entirely lost touch with the enemy. + +Next day the advance was resumed, the two Bavarian corps moving via +Mattstall through the foothills of the Vosges, the V. corps on their +left towards Preuschdorf, and the XI. farther to the left again, through +the wooded plain of the Rhine valley. The 4th cavalry division scouted +in advance, and army headquarters moved to Sulz. About noon the advanced +patrols discovered MacMahon's corps in position on the left bank of the +Sauer (see WÖRTH: _Battle of_). As his army was dispersed over a wide +area, the crown prince determined to devote the 6th to concentrating the +troops, and, probably to avoid alarming the enemy, ordered the cavalry +to stand fast. + +At night the outposts of the I. Bavarians and V. corps on the Sauer saw +the fires of the French encampment and heard the noise of railway +traffic, and rightly conjectured the approach of reinforcements. +MacMahon had in fact determined to stand in the very formidable position +he had selected, and he counted on receiving support both from the 7th +corps (two divisions of which were being railed up from Colmar) and from +the 5th corps, which lay around Bitche. It was also quite possible, and +the soundest strategy, to withdraw the bulk of the troops then facing +the German I. and II. armies to his support, and these would reach him +by the 8th. He was therefore justified in accepting battle, though it +was to his interest to delay it as long as possible. + + + Battle of Wörth. + +At dawn on the 6th of August the commander of the V. corps outposts +noticed certain movements in the French lines, and to clear up the +situation brought his guns into action. As at Spicheren, the sound of +the guns set the whole machinery of battle in motion. The French +artillery immediately accepted the Prussian challenge. The I. Bavarians, +having been ordered to be ready to move if they heard artillery fire, +immediately advanced against the French left, encountering presently +such a stubborn resistance that parts of their line began to give way. +The Prussians of the V. corps felt that they could not abandon their +allies, and von Kirchbach, calling on the XI. corps for support, +attacked with the troops at hand. When the crown prince tried to break +off the fight it was too late. Both sides were feeding troops into the +firing line, as and where they could lay hands on them. Up to 2 P.M. the +French fairly held their own, but shortly afterwards their right yielded +to the overwhelming pressure of the XI. corps, and by 3.30 it was in +full retreat. The centre held on for another hour, but in its turn was +compelled to yield, and by 4.30 all organized resistance was at an end. +The débris of the French army was hotly pursued by the German divisional +squadrons towards Reichshofen, where serious panic showed itself. When +at this stage the supports sent by de Failly from Bitche came on the +ground they saw the hopelessness of intervention, and retired whence +they had come. Fortunately for the French, the German 4th cavalry +division, on which the pursuit should have devolved, had been forgotten +by the German staff, and did not reach the front before darkness fell. +Out of a total of 82,000 within reach of the battlefield, the Germans +succeeded in bringing into action 77,500. The French, who might have had +50,000 on the field, deployed only 37,000, and these suffered a +collective loss of no less than 20,100; some regiments losing up to 90% +and still retaining some semblance of discipline and order. + +Under cover of darkness the remnants of the French army escaped. When at +length the 4th cavalry division had succeeded in forcing a way through +the confusion of the battlefield, all touch with the enemy had been +lost, and being without firearms the troopers were checked by the French +stragglers in the woods and the villages, and thus failed to establish +the true line of retreat of the French. Ultimately the latter, having +gained the railway near Lunéville, disappeared from the German front +altogether, and all trace of them was lost until they were discovered, +about the 26th of August, forming part of the army of Châlons, whither +they had been conveyed by rail via Paris. This is a remarkable example +of the strategical value of railways to an army operating in its own +country. + +In the absence of all resistance, the III. army now proceeded to carry +out the original programme of marches laid down in Moltke's memorandum +of the 6th of May, and marching on a broad front through a fertile +district it reached the line of the Moselle in excellent order about the +17th of August, where it halted to await the result of the great battle +of Gravelotte-St Privat. + + + Movements on the Saar. + +We return now to the I. army at Saarbrücken. Its position on the morning +of the 7th of August gave cause for the gravest anxiety. At daylight a +dense fog lay over the country, and through the mist sounds of heavy +firing came from the direction of Forbach, where French stragglers had +rallied during the night. The confusion on the battlefield was +appalling, and the troops in no condition to go forward. Except the 3rd, +5th and 6th cavalry divisions no closed troops were within a day's +march; hence Steinmetz decided to spend the day in reorganizing his +infantry, under cover of his available cavalry. But the German cavalry +and staff were quite new to their task. The 6th cavalry division, which +had bivouacked on the battlefield, sent on only one brigade towards +Forbach, retaining the remainder in reserve. The 5th, thinking that the +6th had already undertaken all that was necessary, withdrew behind the +Saar, and the 3rd, also behind the Saar, reported that the country in +its front was unsuited to cavalry movements, and only sent out a few +officers' patrols. These were well led, but were too few in number, and +their reports were consequently unconvincing. + +In the course of the day Steinmetz became very uneasy, and ultimately he +decided to concentrate his army by retiring the VII. and VIII. corps +behind the river on to the I. (which had arrived near Saarlouis), thus +clearing the Saarbrücken-Metz road for the use of the II. army. But at +this moment Prince Frederick Charles suddenly modified his views. During +the 6th of August his scouts had reported considerable French forces +near Bitche (these were the 5th, de Failly's corps), and early in the +morning of the 7th he received a telegram from Moltke informing him +that MacMahon's beaten army was retreating on the same place (the troops +observed were in fact those which had marched to MacMahon's assistance). +The prince forthwith deflected the march of the Guards, IV. and X. +corps, towards Rohrbach, whilst the IX. and XII. closed up to supporting +distance behind them. Thus, as Steinmetz moved away to the west and +north, Frederick Charles was diverging to the south and east, and a +great gap was opening in the very centre of the German front. This was +closed only by the III. corps, still on the battle-field, and by +portions of the X. near Saargemünd,[2] whilst within striking distance +lay 130,000 French troops, prevented only by the incapacity of their +chiefs from delivering a decisive counter-stroke. + +Fortunately for the Prussians, Moltke at Mainz took a different view. +Receiving absolutely no intelligence from the front during the 7th, he +telegraphed orders to the I. and II. armies (10.25 P.M.) to halt on the +8th, and impressed on Steinmetz the necessity of employing his cavalry +to clear up the situation. The I. army had already begun the marches +ordered by Steinmetz. It was now led back practically to its old +bivouacs amongst the unburied dead. Prince Frederick Charles only +conformed to Moltke's order with the III. and X. corps; the remainder +executed their concentration towards the south and east. + +During the night of the 7th of August Moltke decided that the French +army must be in retreat towards the Moselle and forthwith busied himself +with the preparation of fresh tables of march for the two armies, his +object being to swing up the left wing to outflank the enemy from the +south. This work, and the transfer of headquarters to Homburg, needed +time, hence no fresh orders were issued to either army, and neither +commander would incur the responsibility of moving without any. The I. +army therefore spent a fourth night in bivouac on the battlefield. But +Constantin von Alvensleben, commanding the III. corps, a man of very +different stamp from his colleagues, hearing at first hand that the +French had evacuated St Avold, set his corps in motion early in the +morning of the 10th August down the St Avold-Metz road, reached St Avold +and obtained conclusive evidence that the French were retreating. + + + Advance to the Moselle. + +During the 9th the orders for the advance to the Moselle were issued. +These were based, not on an exact knowledge of where the French army +actually stood, but on the opinion Moltke had formed as to where it +ought to have been on military grounds solely, overlooking the fact that +the French staff were not free to form military decisions but were +compelled to bow to political expediency. + +Actually on the 7th of August the emperor had decided to attack the +Germans on the 8th with the whole Rhine Army, but this decision was +upset by alarmist reports from the beaten army of MacMahon. He then +decided to retreat to the Moselle, as Moltke had foreseen, and there to +draw to himself the remnants of MacMahon's army (now near Lunéville). At +the same time he assigned the executive command over the whole Rhine +Army to Marshal Bazaine. This retreat was begun during the course of the +8th and 9th of August; but on the night of the 9th urgent telegrams from +Paris induced the emperor to suspend the movement, and during the 10th +the whole army took up a strong position on the French Nied. + +Meanwhile the II. German army had received its orders to march in a line +of army corps on a broad front in the general direction of +Pont-à-Mousson, well to the south of Metz. The I. army was to follow by +short marches in échelon on the right; only the III. corps was directed +on Falkenberg, a day's march farther towards Metz along the St +Avold-Metz road. The movement was begun on the 10th, and towards evening +the French army was located on the right front of the III. corps. This +entirely upset Moltke's hypothesis, and called for a complete +modification of his plans, as the III. corps alone could not be expected +to resist the impact of Bazaine's five corps. The III. corps therefore +received orders to stand fast for the moment, and the remainder of the +II. army was instructed to wheel to the right and concentrate for a +great battle to the east of Metz on the 16th or 17th. + +Before, however, these orders had been received the sudden retreat of +the French completely changed the situation. The Germans therefore +continued their movement towards the Moselle. On the 13th the French +took up a fresh position 5 m. to the east of Metz, where they were +located by the cavalry and the advanced guards of the I. army. + + + Battle of Colombey-Borny. + +Again Moltke ordered the I. army to observe and hold the enemy, whilst +the II. was to swing round to the north. The cavalry was to scout beyond +the Moselle and intercept all communication with the heart of France +(see Metz). By this time the whole German army had imbibed the idea that +the French were in full retreat and endeavouring to evade a decisive +struggle. When therefore during the morning of the 14th their outposts +observed signs of retreat in the French position, their impatience could +no longer be restrained; as at Wörth and Spicheren, an outpost commander +brought up his guns, and at the sound of their fire, every unit within +reach spontaneously got under arms (battle of Colombey-Borny). In a +short time, with or without orders, the I., VII., VIII. and IX. corps +were in full march to the battle-field. But the French too turned back +to fight, and an obstinate engagement ensued, at the close of which the +Germans barely held the ground and the French withdrew under cover of +the Metz forts. + +Still, though the fighting had been indecisive, the conviction of +victory remained with the Germans, and the idea of a French retreat +became an obsession. To this idea Moltke gave expression in his orders +issued early on the 15th, in which he laid down that the "fruits of the +victory" of the previous evening could only be reaped by a vigorous +pursuit towards the passages of the Meuse, where it was hoped the French +might yet be overtaken. This order, however, did not allow for the +hopeless inability of the French staff to regulate the movement of +congested masses of men, horses and vehicles, such as were now +accumulated in the streets and environs of Metz. Whilst Bazaine had come +to no definite decision whether to stand and fight or continue to +retreat, and was merely drifting under the impressions of the moment, +the Prussian leaders, in particular Prince Frederick Charles, saw in +imagination the French columns in rapid orderly movement towards the +west, and calculated that at best they could not be overtaken short of +Verdun. + +In this order of ideas the whole of the II. army, followed on its right +rear by two-thirds of the I. army (the I. corps being detached to +observe the eastern side of the fortress), were pushed on towards the +Moselle, the cavalry far in advance towards the Meuse, whilst only the +5th cavalry division was ordered to scout towards the Metz-Verdun road, +and even that was disseminated over far too wide an area. + +Later in the day (15th) Frederick Charles sent orders to the III. corps, +which was on the right flank of his long line of columns and approaching +the Moselle at Corny and Novéant, to march via Gorze to Mars-la-Tour on +the Metz-Verdun road; to the X. corps, strung out along the road from +Thiaucourt to Pont-à-Mousson, to move to Jarny; and for the remainder to +push on westward to seize the Meuse crossings. No definite information +as to the French army reached him in time to modify these instructions. + +Meanwhile the 5th (Rheinbaben's) cavalry division, at about 3 P.M. in +the afternoon, had come into contact with the French cavalry in the +vicinity of Mars-la-Tour, and gleaned intelligence enough to show that +no French infantry had as yet reached Rezonville. The commander of the +X. corps at Thiaucourt, informed of this, became anxious for the +security of his flank during the next day's march and decided to push +out a strong flanking detachment under von Caprivi, to support von +Rheinbaben and maintain touch with the III. corps marching on his right +rear. + + + Battle of Vionville-Mars-la-Tour. + +Von Alvensleben, to whom the 6th cavalry division had meanwhile been +assigned, seems to have received no local intelligence whatsoever; and +at daybreak on the 16th he began his march in two columns, the 6th +division on Mars-la-Tour, the 5th towards the Rezonville-Vionville +plateau. And shortly after 9.15 A.M. he suddenly discovered the truth. +The entire French army lay on his right flank, and his nearest supports +were almost a day's march distant. In this crisis he made up his mind at +once to attack with every available man, and to continue to attack, in +the conviction that his audacity would serve to conceal his weakness. +All day long, therefore, the Brandenburgers of the III. corps, supported +ultimately by the X. corps and part of the IX., attacked again and +again. The enemy was thrice their strength, but very differently led, +and made no adequate use of his superiority (battle of Vionville-Mars-la +Tour). + + + The 17th of August. + +Meanwhile Prince Frederick Charles, at Pont-à-Mousson, was still +confident in the French retreat to the Meuse, and had even issued orders +for the 17th on that assumption. Firing had been heard since 9.15 A.M., +and about noon Alvensleben's first report had reached him, but it was +not till after 2 that he realized the situation. Then, mounting his +horse, he covered the 15 m. to Flavigny over crowded and difficult roads +within the hour, and on his arrival abundantly atoned for his strategic +errors by his unconquerable determination and tactical skill. When +darkness put a stop to the fighting, he considered the position. +Cancelling all previous orders, he called all troops within reach to the +battle-field and resigned himself to wait for them. The situation was +indeed critical. The whole French army of five corps, only half of which +had been engaged, lay in front of him. His own army lay scattered over +an area of 30 m. by 20, and only some 20,000 fresh troops--of the IX. +corps--could reach the field during the forenoon of the 17th. He did not +then know that Moltke had already intervened and had ordered the VII., +VIII. and II. corps[3] to his assistance. Daylight revealed the extreme +exhaustion of both men and horses. The men lay around in hopeless +confusion amongst the killed and wounded, each where sleep had overtaken +him, and thus the extent of the actual losses, heavy enough, could not +be estimated. Across the valley, bugle sounds revealed the French +already alert, and presently a long line of skirmishers approached the +Prussian position. But they halted just beyond rifle range, and it was +soon evident that they were only intended to cover a further withdrawal. +Presently came the welcome intelligence that the reinforcements were +well on their way. + +About noon the king and Moltke drove up to the ground, and there was an +animated discussion as to what the French would do next. Aware of their +withdrawal from his immediate front, Prince Frederick Charles reverted +to his previous idea and insisted that they were in full retreat towards +the north, and that their entrenchments near Point du Jour and St Hubert +(see map in article METZ) were at most a rearguard position. Moltke was +inclined to the same view, but considered the alternative possibility of +a withdrawal towards Metz, and about 2 P.M. orders were issued to meet +these divergent opinions. The whole army was to be drawn up at 6 A.M. on +the 18th in an échelon facing north, so as to be ready for action in +either direction. The king and Moltke then drove to Pont-à-Mousson, and +the troops bivouacked in a state of readiness. The rest of the 17th was +spent in restoring order in the shattered III. and X. corps, and by +nightfall both corps were reported fit for action. Strangely enough, +there were no organized cavalry reconnaissances, and no intelligence of +importance was collected during the night of the 17th-18th. + +Early on the 18th the troops began to move into position in the +following order from left to right: XII. (Saxons), Guards, IX., VIII. +and VII. The X. and III. were retained in reserve. + + + Battle of Gravelotte-Saint Privat. + +The idea of the French retreat was still uppermost in the prince's mind, +and the whole army therefore moved north. But between 10 and 11 A.M. +part of the truth--viz. that the French had their backs to Metz and +stood in battle order from St Hubert northwards--became evident, and +the II. army, pivoting on the I., wheeled to the right and moved +eastward. Suddenly the IX. corps fell right on the centre of the French +line (Amanvillers), and a most desperate encounter began, superior +control, as before, ceasing after the guns had opened fire. Prince +Frederick Charles, however, a little farther north, again asserted his +tactical ability, and about 7 P.M. he brought into position no less than +five army corps for the final attack. The sudden collapse of French +resistance, due to the frontal attack of the Guards (St Privat) and the +turning movement of the Saxons (Roncourt), rendered the use of this mass +unnecessary, but the resolution to use it was there. On the German right +(I. army), about Gravelotte, all superior leading ceased quite early in +the afternoon, and at night the French still showed an unbroken front. +Until midnight, when the prince's victory was reported, the suspense at +headquarters was terrible. The I. army was exhausted, no steps had been +taken to ensure support from the III. army, and the IV. corps (II. army) +lay inactive 30 m. away. + + + Bazaine in Metz. + +This seems a fitting place to discuss the much-disputed point of +Bazaine's conduct in allowing himself to be driven back into Metz when +fortune had thrown into his hands the great opportunity of the 16th and +17th of August. He had been appointed to command on the 10th, but the +presence of the emperor, who only left the front early on the 16th, and +their dislike of Bazaine, exercised a disturbing influence on the +headquarters staff officers. During the retreat to Metz the marshal had +satisfied himself as to the inability of his corps commanders to handle +their troops, and also as to the ill-will of the staff. In the +circumstances he felt that a battle in the open field could only end in +disaster; and, since it was proved that the Germans could outmarch him, +his army was sure to be overtaken and annihilated if he ventured beyond +the shelter of the fortress. But near Metz he could at least inflict +very severe punishment on his assailants, and in any case his presence +in Metz would neutralize a far superior force of the enemy for weeks or +months. What use the French government might choose to make of the +breathing space thus secured was their business, not his; and subsequent +events showed that, had they not forced MacMahon's hand, the existence +of the latter's nucleus army of trained troops might have prevented the +investment of Paris. Bazaine was condemned by court-martial after the +war, but if the case were reheard to-day it is certain that no charge of +treachery could be sustained. + +On the German side the victory at St Privat was at once followed up by +the headquarters. Early on the 19th the investment of Bazaine's army in +Metz was commenced. A new army, the Army of the Meuse (often called the +IV.), was as soon as possible formed of all troops not required for the +maintenance of the investment, and marched off under the command of the +crown prince of Saxony to discover and destroy the remainder of the +French field army, which at this moment was known to be at Châlons. + + + Campaign of Sedan. + +The operations which led to the capture of MacMahon's army in Sedan call +for little explanation. Given seven corps, each capable of averaging 15 +m. a day for a week in succession, opposed to four corps only, shaken by +defeat and unable as a whole to cover more than 5 m. a day, the result +could hardly be doubtful. But Moltke's method of conducting operations +left his opponent many openings which could only be closed by excessive +demands on the marching power of the men. Trusting only to his cavalry +screen to secure information, he was always without any definite fixed +point about which to manoeuvre, for whilst the reports of the screen and +orders based thereon were being transmitted, the enemy was free to move, +and generally their movements were dictated by political expediency, not +by calculable military motives. + +Thus whilst the German army, on a front of nearly 50 m., was marching +due west on Paris, MacMahon, under political pressure, was moving +parallel to them, but on a northerly route, to attempt the relief of +Metz. + +So unexpected was this move and so uncertain the information which +called attention to it, that Moltke did not venture to change at once +the direction of march of the whole army, but he directed the Army of +the Meuse northward on Damvillers and ordered Prince Frederick Charles +to detach two corps from the forces investing Metz to reinforce it. For +the moment, therefore, MacMahon's move had succeeded, and the +opportunity existed for Bazaine to break out. But at the critical moment +the hopeless want of real efficiency in MacMahon's army compelled the +latter so to delay his advance that it became evident to the Germans +that there was no longer any necessity for the III. army to maintain the +direction towards Paris, and that the probable point of contact between +the Meuse army and the French lay nearer to the right wing of the III. +army than to Prince Frederick Charles's investing force before Metz. + +The detachment from the II. army was therefore countermanded, and the +whole III. army changed front to the north, while the Meuse army headed +the French off from the east. The latter came into contact with the head +of the French columns, during the 29th, about Nouart, and on the 30th at +Buzancy (battle of Beaumont); and the French, yielding to the force of +numbers combined with superior moral, were driven north-westward upon +Sedan (q.v.), right across the front of the III. army, which was now +rapidly coming up from the south. + +During the 31st the retreat practically became a rout, and the morning +of the 1st of September found the French crowded around the little +fortress of Sedan, with only one line of retreat to the north-west still +open. By 11 A.M. the XI. corps (III. army) had already closed that line, +and about noon the Saxons (Army of the Meuse) moving round between the +town and the Belgian frontier joined hands with the XI., and the circle +of investment was complete. The battle of Sedan was closed about 4.15 +P.M. by the hoisting of the white flag. Terms were agreed upon during +the night, and the whole French army, with the emperor, passed into +captivity. (F. N. M.) + + + Later operations. + +Thus in five weeks one of the French field armies was imprisoned in +Metz, the other destroyed, and the Germans were free to march upon +Paris. This seemed easy. There could be no organized opposition to their +progress,[4] and Paris, if not so defenceless as in 1814, was more +populous. Starvation was the best method of attacking an overcrowded +fortress, and the Parisians were not thought to be proof against the +deprivation of their accustomed luxuries. Even Moltke hoped that by the +end of October he would be "shooting hares at Creisau," and with this +confidence the German III. and IV. armies left the vicinity of Sedan on +the 4th of September. The march called for no more than good staff +arrangements, and the two armies arrived before Paris a fortnight later +and gradually encircled the place--the III. army on the south, the IV. +on the north side--in the last days of September. Headquarters were +established at Versailles. Meanwhile the Third Empire had fallen, giving +place on the 4th of September to a republican Government of National +Defence, which made its appeal to, and evoked, the spirit of 1792. +Henceforward the French nation, which had left the conduct of the war to +the regular army and had been little more than an excited spectator, +took the burden upon itself. + +The regular army, indeed, still contained more than 500,000 men (chiefly +recruits and reservists), and 50,000 sailors, marines, douaniers, &c., +were also available. But the Garde Mobile, framed by Marshal Niel in +1868, doubled this figure, and the addition of the Garde Nationale, +called into existence on the 15th of September, and including all +able-bodied men of from 31 to 60 years of age, more than trebled it. The +German staff had of course to reckon on the Garde Mobile, and did so +beforehand, but they wholly underestimated both its effective members +and its willingness, while, possessing themselves a system in which all +the military elements of the German nation stood close behind the +troops of the active army, they ignored the potentialities of the Garde +Nationale. + +Meanwhile, both as a contrast to the events that centred on Paris and +because in point of time they were decided for the most part in the +weeks immediately following Sedan, we must briefly allude to the sieges +conducted by the Germans--Paris (q.v.), Metz (q.v.) and Belfort (q.v.) +excepted. Old and ruined as many of them were, the French fortresses +possessed considerable importance in the eyes of the Germans. +Strassburg, in particular, the key of Alsace, the standing menace to +South Germany and the most conspicuous of the spoils of Louis XIV.'s +_Raubkriege_, was an obvious target. Operations were begun on the 9th of +August, three days after Wörth, General v. Werder's corps (Baden troops +and Prussian Landwehr) making the siege. The French commandant, General +Uhrich, surrendered after a stubborn resistance on the 28th of +September. Of the smaller fortresses many, being practically unarmed and +without garrisons, capitulated at once. Toul, defended by Major Huck +with 2000 mobiles, resisted for forty days, and drew upon itself the +efforts of 13,000 men and 100 guns. Verdun, commanded by General Guérin +de Waldersbach, held out till after the fall of Metz. Some of the +fortresses lying to the north of the Prussian line of advance on Paris, +e.g. Mézières, resisted up to January 1871, though of course this was +very largely due to the diminution of pressure caused by the appearance +of new French field armies in October. On the 9th of September a strange +incident took place at the surrender of Laon. A powder magazine was +blown up by the soldiers in charge and 300 French and a few German +soldiers were killed by the explosion. But as the Germans advanced, +their lines of communication were thoroughly organized, and the belt of +country between Paris and the Prussian frontier subdued and garrisoned. +Most of these fortresses were small town enceintes, dating from Vauban's +time, and open, under the new conditions of warfare, to concentric +bombardment from positions formerly out of range, upon which the +besieger could place as many guns as he chose to employ. In addition +they were usually deficient in armament and stores and garrisoned by +newly-raised troops. Belfort, where the defenders strained every nerve +to keep the besiegers out of bombarding range, and Paris formed the only +exceptions to this general rule. + + + The "Défense Nationale." + +The policy of the new French government was defined by Jules Favre on +the 6th of September. "It is for the king of Prussia, who has declared +that he is making war on the Empire and not on France, to stay his hand; +we shall not cede an inch of our territory or a stone of our +fortresses." These proud words, so often ridiculed as empty bombast, +were the prelude of a national effort which re-established France in the +eyes of Europe as a great power, even though provinces and fortresses +were ceded in the peace that that effort proved unable to avert. They +were translated into action by Léon Gambetta, who escaped from Paris in +a balloon on the 7th of October, and established the headquarters of the +defence at Tours, where already the "Delegation" of the central +government--which had decided to remain in Paris--had concentrated the +machinery of government. Thenceforward Gambetta and his principal +assistant de Freycinet directed the whole war in the open country, +co-ordinating it, as best they could with the precarious means of +communication at their disposal, with Trochu's military operations in +and round the capital. His critics--Gambetta's personality was such as +to ensure him numerous enemies among the higher civil and military +officials, over whom, in the interests of _La Patrie_, he rode +rough-shod--have acknowledged the fact, which is patent enough in any +case, that nothing but Gambetta's driving energy enabled France in a few +weeks to create and to equip twelve army corps, representing thirty-six +divisions (600,000 rifles and 1400 guns), after all her organized +regular field troops had been destroyed or neutralized. But it is +claimed that by undue interference with the generals at the front, by +presuming to dictate their plans of campaign, and by forcing them to act +when the troops were unready, Gambetta and de Freycinet nullified the +efforts of themselves and the rest of the nation and subjected France +to a humiliating treaty of peace. We cannot here discuss the justice or +injustice of such a general condemnation, or even whether in individual +instances Gambetta trespassed too far into the special domain of the +soldier. But even the brief narrative given below must at least suggest +to the reader the existence amongst the generals and higher officials of +a dead weight of passive resistance to the Delegation's orders, of +unnecessary distrust of the qualities of the improvised troops, and +above all of the utter fear of responsibility that twenty years of +literal obedience had bred. The closest study of the war cannot lead to +any other conclusion than this, that whether or not Gambetta as a +strategist took the right course in general or in particular cases, no +one else would have taken any course whatever. + +On the approach of the enemy Paris hastened its preparations for defence +to the utmost, while in the provinces, out of reach of the German +cavalry, new army corps were rapidly organized out of the few +constituted regular units not involved in the previous catastrophes, the +depot troops and the mobile national guard. The first-fruits of these +efforts were seen in Beauce, where early in October important masses of +French troops prepared not only to bar the further progress of the +invader but actually to relieve Paris. The so-called "fog of war"--the +armed inhabitants, francs-tireurs, sedentary national guard and +volunteers--prevented the German cavalry from venturing far out from the +infantry camps around Paris, and behind this screen the new 15th army +corps assembled on the Loire. But an untimely demonstration of force +alarmed the Germans, all of whom, from Moltke downwards, had hitherto +disbelieved in the existence of the French new formations, and the still +unready 15th corps found itself the target of an expedition of the I. +Bavarian corps, which drove the defenders out of Orleans after a sharp +struggle, while at the same time another expedition swept the western +part of Beauce, sacked Châteaudun as a punishment for its brave defence, +and returned via Chartres, which was occupied. + +After these events the French forces disappeared from German eyes for +some weeks. D'Aurelle de Paladines, the commander of the "Army of the +Loire" (15th and 16th corps), improvised a camp of instruction at +Salbris in Sologne, several marches out of reach, and subjected his raw +troops to a stern régime of drill and discipline. At the same time an +"Army of the West" began to gather on the side of Le Mans. This army was +almost imaginary, yet rumours of its existence and numbers led the +German commanders into the gravest errors, for they soon came to suspect +that the main army lay on that side and not on the Loire, and this +mistaken impression governed the German dispositions up to the very eve +of the decisive events around Orleans in December. Thus when at last +D'Aurelle took the offensive from Tours (whither he had transported his +forces, now 100,000 strong) against the position of the I. Bavarian +corps near Orleans, he found his task easy. The Bavarians, outnumbered +and unsupported, were defeated with heavy losses in the battle of +Coulmiers (November 9), and, had it not been for the inexperience, want +of combination, and other technical weaknesses of the French, they would +have been annihilated. What the results of such a victory as Coulmiers +might have been, had it been won by a fully organized, smoothly working +army of the same strength, it is difficult to overestimate. As it was, +the retirement of the Bavarians rang the alarm bell all along the line +of the German positions, and that was all. + +Then once again, instead of following up its success, the French army +disappeared from view. The victory had emboldened the "fog of war" to +make renewed efforts, and resistance to the pressure of the German +cavalry grew day by day. The Bavarians were reinforced by two Prussian +divisions and by all available cavalry commands, and constituted as an +"army detachment" under the grand-duke Friedrich Franz of +Mecklenburg-Schwerin to deal with the Army of the Loire, the strength of +which was far from being accurately known. Meantime the capitulation of +Metz on the 28th of October had set free the veterans of Prince +Frederick Charles, the best troops in the German army, for field +operations. The latter were at first misdirected to the upper Seine, and +yet another opportunity arose for the French to raise the siege of +Paris. But D'Aurelle utilized the time he had gained in strengthening +the army and in imparting drill and discipline to the new units which +gathered round the original nucleus of the 15th and 16th corps. All this +was, however, unknown and even unsuspected at the German headquarters, +and the invaders, feeling the approaching crisis, became more than +uneasy as to their prospects of maintaining the siege of Paris. + + + The Orleans campaign. + +At this moment, in the middle of November, the general situation was as +follows: the German III. and Meuse armies, investing Paris, had had to +throw off important detachments to protect the enterprise, which they +had undertaken on the assumption that no further field armies of the +enemy were to be encountered. The maintenance of their communications +with Germany, relatively unimportant when the struggle took place in the +circumstances of field warfare, had become supremely necessary, now that +the army had come to a standstill and undertaken a great siege, which +required heavy guns and constant replenishment of ammunition and stores. +The rapidity of the German invasion had left no time for the proper +organization and full garrisoning of these communications, which were +now threatened, not merely by the Army of the Loire, but by other forces +assembling on the area protected by Langres and Belfort. The latter, +under General Cambriels, were held in check and no more by the Baden +troops and reserve units (XIV. German corps) under General Werder, and +eventually without arousing attention they were able to send 40,000 men +to the Army of the Loire. This army, still around Orleans, thus came to +number perhaps 150,000 men, and opposed to it, about the 14th of +November, the Germans had only the Army Detachment of about 40,000, the +II. army being still distant. It was under these conditions that the +famous Orleans campaign took place. After many vicissitudes of fortune, +and with many misunderstandings between Prince Frederick Charles, Moltke +and the grand-duke, the Germans were ultimately victorious, thanks +principally to the brilliant fighting of the X. corps at +Beaune-la-Rolande (28th of November), which was followed by the battle +of Loigny-Poupry on the 2nd of December and the second capture of +Orleans after heavy fighting on the 4th of December. + +The result of the capture of Orleans was the severance of the two wings +of the French army, henceforward commanded respectively by Chanzy and +Bourbaki. The latter fell back at once and hastily, though not closely +pursued, to Bourges. But Chanzy, opposing the Detachment between +Beaugency and the Forest of Marchenoir, was of sterner metal, and in the +five days' general engagement around Beaugency (December 7-11) the +Germans gained little or no real advantage. Indeed their solitary +material success, the capture of Beaugency, was due chiefly to the fact +that the French there were subjected to conflicting orders from the +military and the governmental authorities. Chanzy then abandoned little +but the field of battle, and on the grand-duke's representations Prince +Frederick Charles, leaving a mere screen to impose upon Bourbaki (who +allowed himself to be deceived and remained inactive), hurried thither +with the II. army. After that Chanzy was rapidly driven north-westward, +though always presenting a stubborn front. The Delegation left Tours and +betook itself to Bordeaux, whence it directed the government for the +rest of the war. But all this continuous marching and fighting, and the +growing severity of the weather, compelled Prince Frederick Charles to +call a halt for a few days. About the 19th of December, therefore, the +Germans (II. army and Detachment) were closed up in the region of +Chartres, Orleans, Auxerre and Fontainebleau, Chanzy along the river +Sarthe about Le Mans and Bourbaki still passive towards Bourges. + +During this, as during other halts, the French government and its +generals occupied themselves with fresh plans of campaign, the former +with an eager desire for results, the latter (Chanzy excepted) with many +misgivings. Ultimately, and fatally, it was decided that Bourbaki, whom +nothing could move towards Orleans, should depart for the south-east, +with a view to relieving Belfort and striking perpendicularly against +the long line of the Germans' communications. This movement, bold to the +point of extreme rashness judged by any theoretical rules of strategy, +seems to have been suggested by de Freycinet. As the execution of it +fell actually into incapable hands, it is difficult to judge what would +have been the result had a Chanzy or a Faidherbe been in command of the +French. At any rate it was vicious in so far as immediate advantages +were sacrificed to hopes of ultimate success which Gambetta and de +Freycinet did wrong to base on Bourbaki's powers of generalship. Late in +December, for good or evil, Bourbaki marched off into Franche-Comté and +ceased to be a factor in the Loire campaign. A mere calculation of time +and space sufficed to show the German headquarters that the moment had +arrived to demolish the stubborn Chanzy. + + + Le Mans. + +Prince Frederick Charles resumed the interrupted offensive, pushing +westward with four corps and four cavalry divisions which converged on +Le Mans. There on the 10th, 11th and 12th of January 1871 a stubbornly +contested battle ended with the retreat of the French, who owed their +defeat solely to the misbehaviour of the Breton mobiles. These, after +deserting their post on the battlefield at a mere threat of the enemy's +infantry, fled in disorder and infected with their terrors the men in +the reserve camps of instruction, which broke up in turn. But Chanzy, +resolute as ever, drew off his field army intact towards Laval, where a +freshly raised corps joined him. The prince's army was far too exhausted +to deliver another effective blow, and the main body of it gradually +drew back into better quarters, while the grand duke departed for the +north to aid in opposing Faidherbe. Some idea of the strain to which the +invaders had been subjected may be gathered from the fact that army +corps, originally 30,000 strong, were in some cases reduced to 10,000 +and even fewer bayonets. And at this moment Bourbaki was at the head of +120,000 men! Indeed, so threatening seemed the situation on the Loire, +though the French south of that river between Gien and Blois were mere +isolated brigades, that the prince hurried back from Le Mans to Orleans +to take personal command. A fresh French corps, bearing the number 25, +and being the twenty-first actually raised during the war, appeared in +the field towards Blois. Chanzy was again at the head of 156,000 men. He +was about to take the offensive against the 40,000 Germans left near Le +Mans when to his bitter disappointment he received the news of the +armistice. "We have still France," he had said to his staff, undeterred +by the news of the capitulation of Paris, but now he had to submit, for +even if his improvised army was still cheerful, there were many +significant tokens that the people at large had sunk into apathy and +hoped to avoid worse terms of peace by discontinuing the contest at +once. + +So ended the critical period of the "Défense nationale." It may be taken +to have lasted from the day of Coulmiers to the last day of Le Mans, and +its central point was the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande. Its +characteristics were, on the German side, inadequacy of the system of +strategy practised, which became palpable as soon as the organs of +reconnaissance met with serious resistance, misjudgment of and indeed +contempt for the fighting powers of "new formations," and the rise of a +spirit of ferocity in the man in the ranks, born of his resentment at +the continuance of the war and the ceaseless sniping of the +franc-tireur's rifle and the peasant's shot-gun. On the French side the +continual efforts of the statesmen to stimulate the generals to decisive +efforts, coupled with actual suggestions as to the plans of the campaign +to be followed (in default, be it said, of the generals themselves +producing such plans), and the professional soldiers' distrust of +half-trained troops, acted and reacted upon one another in such a way as +to neutralize the powerful, if disconnected and erratic, forces that the +war and the Republic had unchained. As for the soldiers themselves, +their most conspicuous qualities were their uncomplaining endurance of +fatigues and wet bivouacs, and in action their capacity for a single +great effort and no more. But they were unreliable in the hands of the +veteran regular general, because they were heterogeneous in recruiting, +and unequal in experience and military qualities, and the French staff +in those days was wholly incapable of moving masses of troops with the +rapidity demanded by the enemy's methods of war, so that on the whole it +is difficult to know whether to wonder more at their missing success or +at their so nearly achieving it. + +The decision, as we have said, was fought out on the Loire and the +Sarthe. Nevertheless the glorious story of the "Défense nationale" +includes two other important campaigns--that of Faidherbe in the north +and that of Bourbaki in the east. + + + Faidherbe's campaign. + +In the north the organization of the new formations was begun by Dr +Testelin and General Farre. Bourbaki held the command for a short time +in November before proceeding to Tours, but the active command in field +operations came into the hands of Faidherbe, a general whose natural +powers, so far from being cramped by years of peace routine and court +repression, had been developed by a career of pioneer warfare and +colonial administration. General Farre was his capable chief of staff. +Troops were raised from fugitives from Metz and Sedan, as well as from +depot troops and the Garde Mobile, and several minor successes were won +by the national troops in the Seine valley, for here, as on the side of +the Loire, mere detachments of the investing army round Paris were +almost powerless. But the capitulation of Metz came too soon for the +full development of these sources of military strength, and the German +I. army under Manteuffel, released from duty at Metz, marched +north-eastward, capturing the minor fortresses on its way. Before +Faidherbe assumed command, Farre had fought several severe actions near +Amiens, but, greatly outnumbered, had been defeated and forced to retire +behind the Somme. Another French general, Briand, had also engaged the +enemy without success near Rouen. Faidherbe assumed the command on the +3rd of December, and promptly moved forward. A general engagement on the +little river Hallue (December 23), east-north-east of Amiens, was fought +with no decisive results, but Faidherbe, feeling that his troops were +only capable of winning victories in the first rush, drew them off on +the 24th. His next effort, at Bapaûme (January 2-3, 1871), was more +successful, but its effects were counterbalanced by the surrender of the +fortress of Péronne (January 9) and the consequent establishment of the +Germans on the line of the Somme. Meanwhile the Rouen troops had been +contained by a strong German detachment, and there was no further chance +of succouring Paris from the north. But Faidherbe, like Chanzy, was far +from despair, and in spite of the deficiencies of his troops in +equipment (50,000 pairs of shoes, supplied by English contractors, +proved to have paper soles), he risked a third great battle at St +Quentin (January 19). This time he was severely defeated, though his +loss in killed and wounded was about equal to that of the Germans, who +were commanded by Goeben. Still the attempt of the Germans to surround +him failed and he drew off his forces with his artillery and trains +unharmed. The Germans, who had been greatly impressed by the solidity of +his army, did not pursue him far, and Faidherbe was preparing for a +fresh effort when he received orders to suspend hostilities. + +The last episode is Bourbaki's campaign in the east, with its mournful +close at Pontarlier. Before the crisis of the last week of November, the +French forces under General Crémer, Cambriels' successor, had been so +far successful in minor enterprises that, as mentioned above, the right +wing of the Loire army, severed from the left by the battle of Orleans +and subsequently held inactive at Bourges and Nevers, was ordered to +Franche Comté to take the offensive against the XIV. corps and other +German troops there, to relieve Belfort and to strike a blow across the +invaders' line of communications. But there were many delays in +execution. The staff work, which was at no time satisfactory in the +French armies of 1870, was complicated by the snow, the bad state of the +roads, and the mountainous nature of the country, and Bourbaki, a brave +general of division in action, but irresolute and pretentious as a +commander in chief, was not the man to cope with the situation. Only the +furious courage and patient endurance of hardships of the rank and file, +and the good qualities of some of the generals, such as Clinchant, +Crémer and Billot, and junior staff officers such as Major Brugère +(afterwards generalissimo of the French army), secured what success was +attained. + + + The campaign in the East. + +Werder, the German commander, warned of the imposing concentration of +the French, evacuated Dijon and Dôle just in time to avoid the blow and +rapidly drew together his forces behind the Ognon above Vesoul. A +furious attack on one of his divisions at Villersexel (January 9) cost +him 2000 prisoners as well as his killed and wounded, and Bourbaki, +heading for Belfort, was actually nearer to the fortress than the +Germans. But at the crisis more time was wasted, Werder (who had almost +lost hope of maintaining himself and had received both encouragement and +stringent instructions to do so) slipped in front of the French, and +took up a long weak line of defence on the river Lisaine, almost within +cannon shot of Belfort. The cumbrous French army moved up and attacked +him there with 150,000 against 60,000 (January 15-17, 1871). It was at +last repulsed, thanks chiefly to Bourbaki's inability to handle his +forces, and, to the bitter disappointment of officers and men alike, he +ordered a retreat, leaving Belfort to its fate. + +Ere this, so urgent was the necessity of assisting Werder, Manteuffel +had been placed at the head of a new Army of the South. Bringing two +corps from the I. army opposing Faidherbe and calling up a third from +the armies around Paris, and a fourth from the II. army, Manteuffel +hurried southward by Langres to the Saône. Then, hearing of Werder's +victory on the Lisaine, he deflected the march so as to cut off +Bourbaki's retreat, drawing off the left flank guard of the latter +(commanded with much _éclat_ and little real effect by Garibaldi) by a +sharp feint attack on Dijon. The pressure of Werder in front and +Manteuffel in flank gradually forced the now thoroughly disheartened +French forces towards the Swiss frontier, and Bourbaki, realizing at +once the ruin of his army and his own incapacity to re-establish its +efficiency, shot himself, though not fatally, on the 26th of January. +Clinchant, his successor, acted promptly enough to remove the immediate +danger, but on the 29th he was informed of the armistice without at the +same time being told that Belfort and the eastern theatre of war had +been on Jules Favre's demand expressly excepted from its operation.[5] +Thus the French, the leaders distracted by doubts and the worn-out +soldiers fully aware that the war was practically over, stood still, +while Manteuffel completed his preparations for hemming them in. On the +1st of February General Clinchant led his troops into Switzerland, where +they were disarmed, interned and well cared for by the authorities of +the neutral state. The rearguard fought a last action with the advancing +Germans before passing the frontier. On the 16th, by order of the French +government, Belfort capitulated, but it was not until the 11th of March +that the Germans took possession of Bitche, the little fortress on the +Vosges, where in the early days of the war de Failly had illustrated so +signally the want of concerted action and the neglect of opportunities +which had throughout proved the bane of the French armies. + +The losses of the Germans during the whole war were 28,000 dead and +101,000 wounded and disabled, those of the French, 156,000 dead (17,000 +of whom died, of sickness and wounds, as prisoners in German hands) and +143,000 wounded and disabled. 720,000 men surrendered to the Germans or +to the authorities of neutral states, and at the close of the war there +were still 250,000 troops on foot, with further resources not +immediately available to the number of 280,000 more. In this connexion, +and as evidence of the respective numerical yields of the German system +working normally and of the French improvised for the emergency, we +quote from Berndt (_Zahl im Kriege_) the following comparative +figures:-- + + End of July French 250,000, Germans 384,000 under arms. + Middle of November " 600,000 " 425,000 " + After the surrender + of Paris and the + disarmament of + Bourbaki's army " 534,000 " 835,000 " + +The date of the armistice was the 28th of January, and that of the +ratification of the treaty of Frankfurt the 23rd of May 1871. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the war is ever increasing in volume, + and the following list only includes a very short selection made + amongst the most important works. + + _General._--German official history, _Der deutsch-französische Krieg_ + (Berlin, 1872-1881; English and French translations); monographs of + the German general staff (_Kriegsgesch. Einzelschriften_); Moltke, + _Gesch. des deutsch-französ. Krieges_ (Berlin, 1891; English + translation) and _Gesammelte Schriften des G. F. M. Grafen v. Moltke_ + (Berlin, 1900- ); French official history, _La Guerre de 1870-1871_ + (Paris, 1902- ) (the fullest and most accurate account); P. + Lehautcourt (General Palat), _Hist. de la guerre de 1870-1871_ (Paris, + 1901-1907); v. Verdy du Vernois, _Studien über den Krieg ... auf + Grundlage_ 1870-1871 (Berlin, 1892-1896); G. Cardinal von Widdern, + _Kritische Tage 1870-1871_ (French translation, _Journées critiques_). + Events preceding the war are dealt with in v. Bernhardi, _Zwischen + zwei Kriegen_; Baron Stoffel, _Rapports militaires_ 1866-1870 (Paris, + 1871; English translation); G. Lehmann, _Die Mobilmachung_ 1870-1871 + (Berlin, 1905). + + For the war in Lorraine: Prince Kraft of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, + _Briefe über Strategie_ (English translation, _Letters on Strategy_); + F. Foch, _Conduite de la guerre_, pt. ii.; H. Bonnal, _Manoeuvre de + Saint Privat_ (Paris, 1904-1906); Maistre, _Spicheren_ (Paris, 1908); + v. Schell, _Die Operationen der I. Armee unter Gen. von Steinmetz_ + (Berlin, 1872; English translation); F. Hoenig, _Taktik der Zukunft_ + (English translation), and _24 Stunden Moltke'schen Strategie_ + (Berlin, 1892; English and French translations). + + For the war in Alsace and Champagne: H. Kunz, _Schlacht von Wörth_ + (Berlin, 1891), and later works by the same author; H. Bonnal, + _Fröschweiler_ (Paris, 1899); Hahnke, _Die Operationen des III. Armee + bis Sedan_ (Berlin, 1873; French translation). + + For the war in the Provinces: v. der Goltz, _Léon Gambetta und seine + Armeen_ (Berlin, 1877); _Die Operationen der II. Armee an die Loire_ + (Berlin, 1875); _Die sieben Tage von Le Mans_ (Berlin, 1873); Kunz, + _Die Zusammensetzung der französ. Provinzialheeren_; de Freycinet, _La + Guerre en province_ (Paris, 1871); L. A. Hale, _The People's War_ + (London, 1904); Hoenig, _Volkskrieg an die Loire_ (Berlin, 1892); + Blume, _Operationen v. Sedan bis zum Ende d. Kriegs_ (Berlin, 1872; + English translation); v. Schell, _Die Operationen der I. Armee unter + Gen. v. Goeben_ (Berlin, 1873; English translation); Count + Wartensleben, _Feldzug der Nordarmee unter Gen. v. Manteuffel_ + (Berlin, 1872), _Operationen der Sudarmee_ (Berlin, 1872; English + translation); Faidherbe, _Campagne de l'armée du nord_ (Paris, 1872). + + For the sieges: Frobenius, _Kriegsgesch. Beispiele d. Festungskriegs + aus d. deutsch.-franz. Kg._ (Berlin, 1899-1900); Goetze, _Tätigkeit + der deutschen Ingenieuren_ (Berlin, 1871; English translation). + + The most useful bibliography is that of General Palat ("P. + Lehautcourt"). (C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This was the celebrated "baptême de feu" of the prince imperial. + + [2] The II. corps had not yet arrived from Germany. + + [3] Of the I. army the I. corps was retained on the east side of + Metz. The II. corps belonged to the II. army, but had not yet reached + the front. + + [4] The 13th corps (Vinoy), which had followed MacMahon's army at + some distance, was not involved in the catastrophe of Sedan, and by + good luck as well as good management evaded the German pursuit and + returned safely to Paris. + + [5] Jules Favre, it appears, neglected to inform Gambetta of the + exception. + + + + +FRANÇOIS DE NEUFCHÂTEAU, NICOLAS LOUIS, COUNT (1750-1828), French +statesman and poet, was born at Saffais near Rozières in Lorraine on the +17th of April 1750, the son of a school-teacher. He studied at the +Jesuit college of Neufchâteau in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen +published a volume of poetry which obtained the approbation of Rousseau +and of Voltaire. Neufchâteau conferred on him its name, and he was +elected member of some of the principal academies of France. In 1783 he +was named _procureur-général_ to the council of Santo Domingo. He had +previously been engaged on a translation of Ariosto, which he finished +before his return to France five years afterwards, but it perished +during the shipwreck which occurred during his voyage home. After the +Revolution he was elected deputy _suppléant_ to the National Assembly, +was charged with the organization of the Department of the Vosges, and +was elected later to the Legislative Assembly, of which he first became +secretary and then president. In 1793 he was imprisoned on account of +the political sentiments, in reality very innocent, of his drama _Pamela +ou la vertu récompensée_ (Théâtre de la Nation, 1st August 1793), but +was set free a few days afterwards at the revolution of the 9th +Thermidor. In 1797 he became minister of the interior, in which office +he distinguished himself by the thoroughness of his administration in +all departments. It is to him that France owes its system of inland +navigation. He inaugurated the museum of the Louvre, and was one of the +promoters of the first universal exhibition of industrial products. From +1804 to 1806 he was president of the Senate, and in that capacity the +duty devolved upon him of soliciting Napoleon to assume the title of +emperor. In 1808 he received the dignity of count. Retiring from public +life in 1814, he occupied himself chiefly in the study of agriculture, +until his death on the 10th of January 1828. + +François de Neufchâteau had very multifarious accomplishments, and +interested himself in a great variety of subjects, but his fame rests +chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the encouragement and +development of the industries of France. His maturer poetical +productions did not fulfil the promise of those of his early years, for +though some of his verses have a superficial elegance, his poetry +generally lacks force and originality. He had considerable +qualifications as a grammarian and critic, as is witnessed by his +editions of the _Provinciales_ and _Pensées_ of Pascal (Paris, 1822 and +1826) and _Gil Blas_ (Paris, 1820). His principal poetical works are +_Poésies diverses_ (1765); _Ode sur les parlements_ (1771); _Nouveaux +Contes moraux_ (1781); _Les Vosges_ (1796); _Fables et contes_ (1814); +and _Les Tropes, ou les figures de mots_ (1817). He was also the author +of a large number of works on agriculture. + + See _Recueil des lettres, circulaires, discours et autres actes + publics émanés du Çte. François pendant ses deux exercices du + ministère de l'intérieur_ (Paris, An. vii.-viii., 2 vols.); _Notice + biographique sur M. le comte François de Neufchâteau_ (1828), by A. F. + de Sillery; H. Bonnelier, _Mémoires sur François de Neufchâteau_ + (Paris, 1829); J. Lamoureux, _Notice historique et littéraire sur la + vie et les écrits de François de Neufchâteau_ (Paris, 1843); E. + Meaume, _Étude historique et biographique sur les Lorrains + révolutionnaires: Palissot, Grégoire, François de Neufchâteau_ (Nancy, + 1882); Ch. Simian, _François de Neufchâteau et les expositions_ + (Paris, 1889). + + + + +FRANCONIA (Ger. _Franken_), the name of one of the stem-duchies of +medieval Germany. It stretched along the valley of the Main from the +Rhine to Bohemia, and was bounded on the north by Saxony and Thuringia, +and on the south by Swabia and Bavaria. It also included a district +around Mainz, Spires and Worms, on the left bank of the Rhine. The word +_Franconia_, first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the +words _France_, _Francia_ and _Franken_, to a portion of the land +occupied by the Franks. + +About the close of the 5th century this territory was conquered by +Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, was afterwards incorporated with the +kingdom of Austrasia, and at a later period came under the rule of +Charlemagne. After the treaty of Verdun in 843 it became the centre of +the East Frankish or German kingdom, and in theory remained so for a +long period, and was for a time the most important of the duchies which +arose on the ruins of the Carolingian empire. The land was divided into +counties, or _gauen_, which were ruled by counts, prominent among whom +were members of the families of Conradine and Babenberg, by whose feuds +it was frequently devastated. Conrad, a member of the former family, who +took the title of "duke in Franconia" about the year 900, was chosen +German king in 911 as the representative of the foremost of the German +races. Conrad handed over the chief authority in Franconia to his +brother Eberhard, who remained on good terms with Conrad's successor +Henry I. the Fowler, but rose against the succeeding king, Otto the +Great, and was killed in battle in 939, when his territories were +divided. The influence of Franconia began to decline under the kings of +the Saxon house. It lacked political unity, had no opportunities for +extension, and soon became divided into Rhenish Franconia (_Francia +rhenensis_, Ger. _Rheinfranken_) and Eastern Franconia (_Francia +orientalis_, Ger. _Ostfranken_). The most influential family in Rhenish +Franconia was that of the Salians, the head of which early in the 10th +century was Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine, and son-in-law of Otto the +Great. This Conrad, his son Otto and his grandson Conrad are sometimes +called dukes of Franconia, and in 1024 his great-grandson Conrad, also +duke of Franconia, was elected German king as Conrad II. and founded the +line of Franconian or Salian emperors. Rhenish Franconia gradually +became a land of free towns and lesser nobles, and under the earlier +Franconian emperors sections passed to the count palatine of the Rhine, +the archbishop of Mainz, the bishops of Worms and Spires and other +clerical and lay nobles; and the name Franconia, or _Francia orientalis_ +as it was then called, was confined to the eastern portion of the duchy. +Clerical authority was becoming predominant in this region. A series of +charters dating from 822 to 1025 had granted considerable powers to the +bishops of Würzburg, who, by the time of the emperor Henry II., +possessed judicial authority over the whole of eastern Franconia. The +duchy was nominally retained by the emperors in their own hands until +1115, when the emperor Henry V., wishing to curb the episcopal influence +in this neighbourhood, appointed his nephew Conrad of Hohenstaufen as +duke of Franconia. Conrad's son Frederick took the title of duke of +Rothenburg instead of duke of Franconia, but in 1196, on the death of +Conrad of Hohenstaufen, son of the emperor Frederick I., the title fell +into disuse. Meanwhile the bishop of Würzburg had regained his former +power in the duchy, and this was confirmed in 1168 by the emperor +Frederick I. + +The title remained in abeyance until the early years of the 15th +century, when it was assumed by John II., bishop of Würzburg, and +retained by his successors until the bishopric was secularized in 1802. +The greater part of the lands were united with Bavaria, and the name +Franconia again fell into abeyance. It was revived in 1837, when Louis +I., king of Bavaria, gave to three northern portions of his kingdom the +names of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia. In 1633 Bernhard, duke of +Saxe-Weimar, hoping to create a principality for himself out of the +ecclesiastical lands, had taken the title of duke of Franconia, but his +hopes were destroyed by his defeat at Nördlingen in 1634. When Germany +was divided into circles by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1500, the name +Franconia was given to that circle which included the eastern part of +the old duchy. The lands formerly comprised in the duchy of Franconia +are now divided between the kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg, the +grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau. + + See J. G. ab Eckhart, _Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis et + episcopatus Wirceburgensis_ (Würzburg, 1729); F. Stein, _Geschichte + Frankens_ (Schweinfurt, 1885-1886); T. Henner, _Die herzogliche Gewalt + der Bischöfe von Würzburg_ (Würzburg, 1874). + + + + +FRANCS-ARCHERS. The institution of the _francs-archers_ was the first +attempt at the formation of regular infantry in France. They were +created by the ordinance of Montils-les-Tours on the 28th of August +1448, which prescribed that in each parish an archer should be chosen +from among the most apt in the use of arms; this archer to be exempt +from the _taille_ and certain obligations, to practise shooting with the +bow on Sundays and feast-days, and to hold himself ready to march fully +equipped at the first signal. Under Charles VII. the _francs-archers_ +distinguished themselves in numerous battles with the English, and +assisted the king to drive them from France. During the succeeding +reigns the institution languished, and finally disappeared in the middle +of the 16th century. The _francs-archers_ were also called +_francs-taupins_. + + See Daniel, _Histoire de la milice française_ (1721); and E. Boutaric, + _Institutions militaires de la France avant les armées permanentes_ + (1863). + + + + +FRANCS-TIREURS ("Free-Shooters"), irregular troops, almost exclusively +infantry, employed by the French in the war of 1870-1871. They were +originally rifle clubs or unofficial military societies formed in the +east of France at the time of the Luxemburg crisis of 1867. The members +were chiefly concerned with the practice of rifle-shooting, and were +expected in war to act as light troops. As under the then system of +conscription the greater part of the nation's military energy was +allowed to run to waste, the francs-tireurs were not only popular, but +efficient workers in their sphere of action. As they wore no uniforms, +were armed with the best existing rifles and elected their own officers, +the government made repeated attempts to bring the societies, which were +at once a valuable asset to the armed strength of France and a possible +menace to internal order, under military discipline. This was +strenuously resisted by the societies, to their sorrow as it turned out, +for the Germans treated captured francs-tireurs as irresponsible +non-combatants found with arms in their hands and usually exacted the +death penalty. In July 1870, at the outbreak of the war, the societies +were brought under the control of the minister of war and organized for +field service, but it was not until the 4th of November--by which time +the _levée en masse_ was in force--that they were placed under the +orders of the generals in the field. After that they were sometimes +organized in large bodies and incorporated in the mass of the armies, +but more usually they continued to work in small bands, blowing up +culverts on the invaders' lines of communication, cutting off small +reconnoitring parties, surprising small posts, &c. It is now +acknowledged, even by the Germans, that though the francs-tireurs did +relatively little active mischief, they paralysed large detachments of +the enemy, contested every step of his advance (as in the Loire +campaign), and prevented him from gaining information, and that their +soldierly qualities improved with experience. Their most celebrated +feats were the blowing up of the Moselle railway bridge at Fontenoy on +the 22nd of January 1871 (see _Les Chasseurs des Vosges_ by +Lieut.-Colonel St Étienne, Toul, 1906), and the heroic defence of +Châteaudun by Lipowski's Paris corps and the francs-tireurs of Cannes +and Nantes (October 18, 1870). It cannot be denied that the original +members of the rifle clubs were joined by many bad characters, but the +patriotism of the majority was unquestionable, for little mercy was +shown by the Germans to those francs-tireurs who fell into their hands. +The severity of the German reprisals is itself the best testimony to the +fear and anxiety inspired by the presence of active bands of +francs-tireurs on the flanks and in rear of the invaders. + + + + +FRANEKER, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, 5 m. E. of +Harlingen on the railway and canal to Leeuwarden. Pop. (1900) 7187. It +was at one time a favourite residence of the Frisian nobility, many of +whom had their castles here, and it possessed a celebrated university, +founded by the Frisian estates in 1585. This was suppressed by Napoleon +I. in 1811, and the endowments were diverted four years later to the +support of an athenaeum, and afterwards of a gymnasium, with which a +physiological cabinet and a botanical garden are connected. Franeker +also possesses a town hall (1591), which contains a _planetarium_, made +by one Eise Eisinga in 1774-1881. The fine observatory was founded about +1780. The church of St Martin (1420) contains several fine tombs of the +15th-17th centuries. The industries of the town include silk-weaving, +woollen-spinning, shipbuilding and pottery-making. It is also a +considerable market for agricultural produce. + + + + +FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791), a Jewish theologian, who founded in Poland, in +the middle of the 18th century, a sect which emanated from Judaism but +ended by merging with Christianity. The sect was the outcome of the +Messianic mysticism of Sabbetai Zebi. It was an antinomian movement in +which the authority of the Jewish law was held to be superseded by +personal freedom. The Jewish authorities, alarmed at the moral laxity +which resulted from the emotional rites of the Frankists, did their +utmost to suppress the sect. But the latter, posing as an anti-Talmudic +protest in behalf of a spiritual religion, won a certain amount of +public sympathy. There was, however, no deep sincerity in the tenets of +the Frankists, for though in 1759 they were baptized _en masse_, amid +much pomp, the Church soon became convinced that Frank was not a genuine +convert. He was imprisoned on a charge of heresy, but on his release in +1763 the empress Maria Theresa patronized him, regarding him as a +propagandist of Christianity among the Jews. He thenceforth lived in +state as baron of Offenbach, and on his death (1791) his daughter Eva +succeeded him as head of the sect. The Frankists gradually merged in the +general Christian body, the movement leaving no permanent trace in the +synagogue. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANK-ALMOIGN (_libera eleemosyna_, free alms), in the English law of +real property, a species of spiritual tenure, whereby a religious +corporation, aggregate or sole, holds lands of the donor to them and +their successors for ever. It was a tenure dating from Saxon times, held +not on the ordinary feudal conditions, but discharged of all services +except the _trinoda necessitas_. But "they which hold in frank-almoign +are bound of right before God to make orisons, prayers, masses and other +divine services for the souls of their grantor or feoffor, and for the +souls of their heirs which are dead, and for the prosperity and good +life and good health of their heirs which are alive. And therefore they +shall do no fealty to their lord, because that this divine service is +better for them before God than any doing of fealty" (Litt. s. 135). It +was the tenure by which the greater number of the monasteries and +religious houses held their lands; it was expressly exempted from the +statute 12 Car. II. c. 24 (1660), by which the other ancient tenures +were abolished, and it is the tenure by which the parochial clergy and +many ecclesiastical and eleemosynary foundations hold their lands at the +present day. As a form of donation, however, it came to an end by the +passing of the statute _Quia Emptores_, for by that statute no new +tenure of frank-almoign could be created, except by the crown. + + See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, where the history + of frank-almoign is given at length. + + + + +FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS (1801-1875), Jewish theologian, one of the founders +of the Breslau school of "historical Judaism." This school attempts to +harmonize critical treatment of the documents of religion with fidelity +to traditional beliefs and observances. For a time at least, the +compromise succeeded in staying the disintegrating effects of the +liberal movement in Judaism. Frankel was the author of several valuable +works, among them _Septuagint Studies_, an _Introduction to the Mishnah_ +(1859), and a similar work on the Palestinian Talmud (1870). He also +edited the _Monatsschrift_, devoted to Jewish learning on modern lines. +But his chief claim to fame rests on his headship of the Breslau +Seminary. This was founded in 1854 for the training of rabbis who should +combine their rabbinic studies with secular courses at the university. +The whole character of the rabbinate has been modified under the +influence of this, the first seminary of the kind. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANKENBERG, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, +on the Zschopau, 7 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway +Niederwiesa-Rosswein. Pop. (1905) 13,303. The principal buildings are +the large Evangelical parish church, restored in 1874-1875, and the +town-hall. Its industries include I extensive woollen, cotton and silk +weaving, dyeing, the manufacture of brushes, furniture and cigars, +iron-founding and machine building. It is well provided with schools, +including one of weaving. + + + + +FRANKENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the principality of +Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on an artificial arm of the Wipper, a tributary +of the Saale, 36 m. N.N.E. of Gotha. Pop. (1905) 6534. It consists of an +old and a new town, the latter mostly rebuilt since a destructive fire +in 1833, and has an old château of the princes of Schwarzburg, three +Protestant churches, a seminary for teachers, a hospital and a modern +town-hall. Its industries include the manufacture of sugar, cigars and +buttons, and there are brine springs, with baths, in the vicinity. At +Frankenhausen a battle was fought on the 15th of May 1525, in which the +insurgent peasants under Thomas Münzer were defeated by the allied +princes of Saxony and Hesse. + + + + +FRANKENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on +the Pausebach, 35 m. S. by W. of Breslau. Pop. (1905) 7890. It is still +surrounded by its medieval walls, has two Evangelical and three Roman +Catholic churches, among the latter the parish church with a curious +overhanging tower, and a monastery. The industries include the +manufacture of artificial manures, bricks, beer and straw hats. There +are also mills for grinding the magnesite found in the neighbourhood. + + + + +FRANKENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the +Isenach, connected with the Rhine by a canal 3 m. in length, 6 m. N.W. +from Mannheim, and on the railways Neunkirchen-Worms and +Frankenthal-Grosskarlbach. Pop. (1905) 18,191. It has two Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, a fine medieval town-hall, two interesting +old gates, remains of its former environing walls, several public +monuments, including one to the veterans of the Napoleonic wars, and a +museum. Its industries include the manufacture of machinery, casks, +corks, soap, dolls and furniture, iron-founding and bell-founding--the +famous "Kaiserglocke" of the Cologne cathedral was cast here. +Frankenthal was formerly famous for its porcelain factory, established +here in 1755 by Paul Anton Hannong of Strassburg, who sold it in 1762 to +the elector palatine Charles Theodore. Its fame is mainly due to the +modellers Konrad Link (1732-1802) and Johann Peter Melchior (d. 1796) +(who worked at Frankenthal between 1779 and 1793). The best products of +this factory are figures and groups representing contemporary life, or +allegorical subjects in the rococo taste of the period, and they are +surpassed only by those of the more famous factory at Meissen. In 1795 +the factory was sold to Peter von Reccum, who removed it to Grünstadt. + +Frankenthal (Franconodal) is mentioned as a village in the 8th century. +A house of Augustinian canons established here in 1119 by Erkenbert, +chamberlain of Worms, was suppressed in 1562 by the elector palatine +Frederick III., who gave its possessions to Protestant refugees from the +Netherlands. In 1577 this colony received town rights from the elector +John Casimir, whose successor fortified the place. From 1623 until 1652, +save for two years, it was occupied by the Spaniards, and in 1688-1689 +it was stormed and burned by the French, the fortifications being razed. +In 1697 it was reconstituted as a town, and under the elector Charles +Theodore it became the capital of the Palatinate. From 1798 to 1814 it +was incorporated in the French department of Mont Tonnerre. + + See Wille, _Stadt u. Festung Frankenthal während des dreissigjährigen + Krieges_ (Heidelberg, 1877); Hildenbrand, Gesch. _der Stadt + Frankenthal_ (1893). For the porcelain see Heuser, _Frankenthaler + Gruppen und Figuren_ (Spires, 1899). + + + + +FRANKENWALD, a mountainous district of Germany, forming the geological +connexion between the Fichtelgebirge and the Thuringian Forest. It is a +broad well-wooded plateau, running for about 30 m. in a north-westerly +direction, descending gently on the north and eastern sides towards the +Saale, but more precipitously to the Bavarian plain in the west, and +attaining its highest elevation in the Kieferle near Steinheid (2900 +ft.). Along the centre lies the watershed between the basins of the Main +and the Saale, belonging to the systems of the Rhine and Elbe +respectively. The principal tributaries of the Main from the Frankenwald +are the Rodach and Hasslach, and of the Saale, the Selbitz. + + See H. Schmid, _Führer durch den Frankenwald_ (Bamberg, 1894); Meyer, + _Thüringen und der Frankenwald_ (15th ed., Leipzig, 1900), and Gümbel, + _Geognostische Beschreibung des Fichtelgebirges mit dem Frankenwald_ + (Gotha, 1879). + + + + +FRANKFORT, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Indiana, +U.S.A., 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 5919; (1900) 7100 (144 +foreign-born); (1910) 8634. Frankfort is served by the Chicago, +Indianapolis & Louisville, the Lake Erie & Western, the Vandalia, and +the Toledo, St Louis & Western railways, and by the Indianapolis & +North-Western Traction Interurban railway (electric). The city is a +division point on the Toledo, St Louis & Western railway, which has +large shops here. Frankfort is a trade centre for an agricultural and +lumbering region; among its manufactures are handles, agricultural +implements and foundry products. The first settlement in the +neighbourhood was made in 1826; in 1830 the town was founded, and in +1875 it was chartered as a city. The city limits were considerably +extended immediately after 1900. + + + + +FRANKFORT, the capital city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Franklin county, on the Kentucky river, about 55 m. E. of Louisville. +Pop. (1890) 7892; (1900) 9487, of whom 3316 were negroes; (1910 census) +10,465. The city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Louisville & +Nashville, and the Frankfort & Cincinnati railways, by the Central +Kentucky Traction Co. (electric), and by steamboat lines to Cincinnati, +Louisville and other river ports. It is built among picturesque hills on +both sides of the river, and is in the midst of the famous Kentucky +"blue grass region" and of a rich lumber-producing region. The most +prominent building is the Capitol, about 400 ft. long and 185 ft. wide, +built of granite and white limestone in the Italian Renaissance style, +with 70 large Ionic columns, and a dome 205 ft. above the terrace line, +supported by 24 other columns. The Capitol was built in 1905-1907 at a +cost of more than $2,000,000; in it are housed the state library and the +library of the Kentucky State Historical Society. At Frankfort, also, +are the state arsenal, the state penitentiary and the state home for +feeble-minded children, and just outside the city limits is the state +coloured normal school. The old capitol (first occupied in 1829) is +still standing. In Franklin cemetery rest the remains of Daniel Boone +and of Theodore O'Hara (1820-1867), a lawyer, soldier, journalist and +poet, who served in the U.S. army in 1846-1848 during the Mexican War, +took part in filibustering expeditions to Cuba, served in the +Confederate army, and is best known as the author of "The Bivouac of the +Dead," a poem written for the burial in Frankfort of some soldiers who +had lost their lives at Buena Vista. Here also are the graves of Richard +M. Johnson, vice-president of the United States in 1837-1841, and the +sculptor Joel T. Hart (1810-1877). The city has a considerable trade +with the surrounding country, in which large quantities of tobacco and +hemp are produced; its manufactures include lumber, brooms, chairs, +shoes, hemp twine, canned vegetables and glass bottles. The total value +of the city's factory product in 1905 was $1,747,338, being 31.6% more +than in 1900. Frankfort (said to have been named after Stephen Frank, +one of an early pioneer party ambushed here by Indians) was founded in +1786 by General James Wilkinson, then deeply interested in trade with +the Spanish at New Orleans, and in the midst of his Spanish intrigues. +In 1792 the city was made the capital of the state. In 1862, during the +famous campaign in Kentucky of General Braxton Bragg (Confederate) and +General D. C. Buell (Federal), Frankfort was occupied for a short time +by Bragg, who, just before being forced out by Buell, took part in the +inauguration of Richard J. Hawes, chosen governor by the Confederates of +the state. Hawes, however, never discharged the duties of his office. +During the bitter contest for the governorship in 1900 between William +Goebel (Democrat) and William S. Taylor (Republican), each of whom +claimed the election, Goebel was assassinated at Frankfort. (See also +KENTUCKY.) Frankfort received a city charter in 1839. + + + + +FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN (Ger. _Frankfurt am Main_), a city of Germany, in the +Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, principally on the right bank of the +Main, 24 m. above its confluence with the Rhine at Mainz, and 16 m. N. +from Darmstadt. Always a place of great trading importance, long the +place of election for the German kings, and until 1866, together with +Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck, one of the four free cities of Germany, it +still retains its position as one of the leading commercial centres of +the German empire. Its situation in the broad and fertile valley of the +Main, the northern horizon formed by the soft outlines of the Taunus +range, is one of great natural beauty, the surrounding country being +richly clad with orchard and forest. + +Frankfort is one of the most interesting, as it is also one of the +wealthiest, of German cities. Apart from its commercial importance, its +position, close to the fashionable watering-places of Homburg, Nauheim +and Wiesbaden, has rendered it "cosmopolitan" in the best sense of the +term. The various stages in the development of the city are clearly +indicated in its general plan and the surviving names of many of its +streets. The line of the original 12th century walls and moat is marked +by the streets of which the names end in _-graben_, from the +Hirschgraben on the W. to the Wollgraben on the E. The space enclosed by +these and by the river on the S. is known as the "old town" +(_Altstadt_). The so-called "new town" (_Neustadt_), added in 1333, +extends to the _Anlagen_, the beautiful gardens and promenades laid out +(1806-1812) on the site of the 17th century fortifications, of which +they faithfully preserve the general ground plan. Of the medieval +fortifications the picturesque Eschenheimer Tor, a round tower 155 ft. +high, dating from 1400 to 1428, the Rententurm (1456) on the Main and +the Kuhhirtenturm (_c._ 1490) in Sachsenhausen, are the sole remains. +Since the demolition of the fortifications the city has greatly +expanded. Sachsenhausen on the south bank of the river, formerly the +seat of a commandery of the Teutonic Order (by treaty with Austria in +1842 all property and rights of the order in Frankfort territory were +sold to the city, except the church and house), is now a quarter of the +city. In other directions also the expansion has been rapid; the village +of Bornheim was incorporated in Frankfort in 1877, the former Hessian +town of Bockenheim in 1895, and the suburbs of Niederrad, Oberrad and +Seckbach in 1900. + +The main development of the city has been to the north of the river, +which is crossed by numerous bridges and flanked by fine quays and +promenades. The Altstadt, though several broad streets have been opened +through it, still preserves many of its narrow alleys and other medieval +features. The Judengasse (Ghetto), down to 1806 the sole Jews' quarter, +has been pulled down, with the exception of the ancestral house of the +Rothschild family--No. 148--which has been restored and retains its +ancient façade. As the Altstadt is mainly occupied by artisans and petty +tradesmen, so the Neustadt is the principal business quarter of the +city, containing the chief public buildings and the principal hotels. +The main arteries of the city are the Zeil, a broad street running from +the Friedberger Anlage to the Rossmarkt and thence continued, by the +Kaiserstrasse, through the fine new quarter built after 1872, to the +magnificent principal railway station; and the Steinweg and +Goethestrasse, which lead by the Bockenheimer Tor to the Bockenheimer +Landstrasse, a broad boulevard intersecting the fashionable residential +suburb to the N.W. + +_Churches._--The principal ecclesiastical building in Frankfort is the +cathedral (Dom). Built of red sandstone, with a massive tower +terminating in a richly ornamented cupola and 300 ft. in height, it is +the most conspicuous object in the city. This building, in which the +Roman emperors were formerly elected and, since 1562, crowned, was +founded in 852 by King Louis the German, and was later known as the +Salvator Kirche. After its reconstruction (1235-1239), it was dedicated +to St Bartholomew. From this period date the nave and the side aisles; +the choir was completed in 1315-1338 and the long transepts in +1346-1354. The cloisters were rebuilt in 1348-1447, and the electoral +chapel, on the south of the choir, was completed in 1355. The tower was +begun in 1415, but remained unfinished. On the 15th of August 1867 the +tower and roof were destroyed by fire and considerable damage was done +to the rest of the edifice. The restoration was immediately taken in +hand, and the whole work was finished in 1881, including the completion +of the tower, according to the plans of the 15th century architect, Hans +von Ingelheim. In the interior is the tomb of the German king Günther of +Schwarzburg, who died in Frankfort in 1349, and that of Rudolph, the +last knight of Sachsenhausen, who died in 1371. Among the other Roman +Catholic churches are the Leonhardskirche, the Liebfrauenkirche (church +of Our Lady) and the Deutschordenskirche (14th century) in +Sachsenhausen. The Leonhardskirche (restored in 1882) was begun in 1219, +it is said on the site of the palace of Charlemagne. It was originally a +three-aisled basilica, but is now a five-aisled _Hallenkirche_; the +choir was added in 1314. It has two Romanesque towers. The +Liebfrauenkirche is first mentioned in 1314 as a collegiate church; the +nave was consecrated in 1340. The choir was added in 1506-1509 and the +whole church thoroughly restored in the second half of the 18th century, +when the tower was built (1770). Of the Protestant churches the oldest +is the Nikolaikirche, which dates from the 13th century; the fine +cast-iron spire erected in 1843 had to be taken down in 1901. The +Paulskirche, the principal Evangelical (Lutheran) church, built between +1786 and 1833, is a red sandstone edifice of no architectural +pretensions, but interesting as the seat of the national parliament of +1848-1849. The Katharinenkirche, built 1678-1681 on the site of an older +building, is famous in Frankfort history as the place where the first +Protestant sermon was preached in 1522. Among the more noteworthy of the +newer Protestant churches are the Peterskirche (1892-1895) in the North +German Renaissance style, with a tower 256 ft. high, standing north from +the Zeil, the Christuskirche (1883) and the Lutherkirche (1889-1893). An +English church, in Early English Gothic style, situated adjacent to the +Bockenheimer Landstrasse, was completed and consecrated in 1906. + +Of the five synagogues, the chief (or Hauptsynagoge), lying in the +Börnestrasse, is an attractive building of red sandstone in the +Moorish-Byzantine style. + +_Public Buildings._--Of the secular buildings in Frankfort, the Römer, +for almost five hundred years the Rathaus (town hall) of the city, is of +prime historical interest. It lies on the Römerberg, a square flanked by +curious medieval houses. It is first mentioned in 1322, was bought with +the adjacent hostelry in 1405 by the city and rearranged as a town hall, +and has since, from time to time, been enlarged by the purchase of +adjoining patrician houses, forming a complex of buildings of various +styles and dates surmounted by a clock tower. The façade was rebuilt +(1896-1898) in late Gothic style. It was here, in the Wahlzimmer (or +election-chamber) that the electors or their plenipotentiaries chose the +German kings, and here in the Kaisersaal (emperors' hall) that the +coronation festival was held, at which the new king or emperor dined +with the electors after having shown himself from the balcony to the +people. The Kaisersaal retained its antique appearance until 1843, when, +as also again in 1904, it was restored and redecorated; it is now +furnished with a series of modern paintings representing the German +kings and Roman emperors from Charlemagne to Francis II., in all +fifty-two, and a statue of the first German emperor, William I. New +municipal buildings adjoining the "Römer" on the north side were erected +in 1900-1903 in German Renaissance style, with a handsome tower 220 ft. +high; beneath it is a public wine-cellar, and on the first storey a +grand municipal hall. The palace of the princes of Thurn and Taxis in +the Eschenheimer Gasse was built (1732-1741) from the designs of Robert +de Cotte, chief architect to Louis XIV. of France. From 1806 to 1810 it +was the residence of Karl von Dalberg, prince-primate of the +Confederation of the Rhine, with whose dominions Frankfort had been +incorporated by Napoleon. From 1816 to 1866 it was the seat of the +German federal diet. It is now annexed to the principal post office +(built 1892-1894), which lies close to it on the Zeil. The Saalhof, +built on the site of the palace erected by Louis the Pious in 822, +overlooking the Main, has a chapel of the 12th century, the substructure +dating from Carolingian times. This is the oldest building in Frankfort. +The façade of the Saalhof in the Saalgasse dates from 1604, the southern +wing with the two gables from 1715 to 1717. Of numerous other medieval +buildings may be mentioned the Leinwandhaus (linendrapers' hall), a 15th +century building reconstructed in 1892 as a municipal museum. In the +Grosser Hirschgraben is the Goethehaus, a 16th century building which +came into the possession of the Goethe family in 1733. Here Goethe lived +from his birth in 1749 until 1775. In 1863 the house was acquired by the +_Freies deutsche Hochstift_ and was opened to the public. It has been +restored, from Goethe's account of it in _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, as +nearly as possible to its condition in the poet's day, and is now +connected with a Goethemuseum (1897), with archives and a library of +25,000 volumes representative of the Goethe period of German literature. + +_Literary and Scientific Institutions._--Few cities of the same size as +Frankfort are so richly endowed with literary, scientific and artistic +institutions, or possess so many handsome buildings appropriated to +their service. The opera-house, erected near the Bockenheimer Tor in +1873-1880, is a magnificent edifice in the style of the Italian +Renaissance and ranks among the finest theatres in Europe. There are +also a theatre (_Schauspielhaus_) in modern Renaissance style +(1899-1902), devoted especially to drama, a splendid concert hall +(_Saalbau_), opened in 1861, and numerous minor places of theatrical +entertainment. The public picture gallery in the Saalhof possesses works +by Hans Holbein, Grünewald, Van Dyck, Teniers, Van der Neer, Hans von +Kulmbach, Lucas Cranach and other masters. The Städel Art Institute +(Städel'sches Kunstinstitut) in Sachsenhausen, founded by the banker J. +F. Städel in 1816, contains a picture gallery and a cabinet of +engravings extremely rich in works of German art. The municipal library, +with 300,000 volumes, boasts among its rarer treasures a Gutenberg +Bible printed at Mainz between 1450 and 1455, another on parchment dated +1462, the _Institutiones Justiniani_ (Mainz, 1468), the _Theuerdank_, +with woodcuts by Hans Schäufelein, and numerous valuable autographs. It +also contains a fine collection of coins. The Bethmann Museum owes its +celebrity principally to Dannecker's "Ariadne," but it also possesses +the original plaster model of Thorwaldsen's "Entrance of Alexander the +Great into Babylon." There may also be mentioned the Industrial Art +Exhibition of the Polytechnic Association and two conservatories of +music. Among the scientific institutions the first place belongs to the +_Senckenberg'sches naturhistorische Museum_, containing valuable +collections of birds and shells. Next must be mentioned the Kunstgewerbe +(museum of arts and crafts) and the Musical Museum, with valuable MSS. +and portraits. Besides the municipal library (_Stadtbibliothek_) +mentioned above there are three others of importance, the Rothschild, +the Senckenberg and the Jewish library (with a well-appointed +reading-room). There are numerous high-grade schools, musical and other +learned societies and excellent hospitals. The last include the large +municipal infirmary and the Senckenberg'sches Stift, a hospital and +almshouses founded by a doctor, Johann C. Senckenberg (d. 1772). The +Royal Institute for experimental therapeutics (_Königl. Institut für +experimentelle Therapie_), moved to Frankfort in 1899, attracts numerous +foreign students, and is especially concerned with the study of +bacteriology and serums. + +_Bridges._--Seven bridges (of which two are railway) cross the Main. The +most interesting of these is the Alte Mainbrücke, a red sandstone +structure of fourteen arches, 815 ft. long, dating from the 14th +century. On it are a mill, a statue of Charlemagne and an iron crucifix +surmounted by a gilded cock. The latter commemorates, according to +tradition, the fowl which was the first living being to cross the bridge +and thus fell a prey to the devil, who in hope of a nobler victim had +sold his assistance to the architect. Antiquaries, however, assert that +it probably marks the spot where criminals were in olden times flung +into the river. Other bridges are the Obermainbrücke of five iron +arches, opened in 1878; an iron foot (suspension) bridge, the +Untermainbrücke; the Wilhelmsbrücke, a fine structure, which from 1849 +to 1890 served as a railway bridge and was then opened as a road bridge; +and two new iron bridges at Gutleuthof and Niederrad (below the city), +which carry the railway traffic from the south to the north bank of the +Main, where all lines converge in a central station of the Prussian +state railways. This station, which was built in 1883-1888 and has +replaced the three stations belonging to private companies, which +formerly stood in juxtaposition on the Anlagen (or promenades) near the +Mainzer Tor, lies some half-mile to the west. The intervening ground +upon which the railway lines and buildings stood was sold for building +sites, the sum obtained being more than sufficient to cover the cost of +the majestic central terminus (the third largest in the world), which, +in addition to spacious and handsome halls for passenger accommodation, +has three glass-covered spans of 180 ft. width each. Yet the exigencies +of traffic demand further extensions, and another large station was in +1909 in process of construction at the east end of the city, devised to +receive the local traffic of lines running eastward, while a through +station for the north to south traffic was projected on a site farther +west of the central terminus. + +Frankfort lies at the junction of lines of railway connecting it +directly with all the important cities of south and central Germany. +Here cross and unite the lines from Berlin to Basel, from Cologne to +Würzburg and Vienna, from Hamburg and Cassel, and from Dresden and +Leipzig to France and Switzerland. The river Main has been dredged so as +to afford heavy barge traffic with the towns of the upper Main and with +the Rhine, and cargo boats load and unload alongside its busy quays. A +well-devised system of electric tramways provides for local +communication within the city and with the outlying suburbs. + +_Trade, Commerce and Industries._--Frankfort has always been more of a +commercial than an industrial town, and though of late years it has +somewhat lost its pre-eminent position as a banking centre it has +counterbalanced the loss in increased industrial development. The +suburbs of Sachsenhausen and Bockenheim have particularly developed +considerable industrial activity, especially in publishing and printing, +brewing and the manufacture of quinine. Other sources of employment are +the cutting of hair for making hats, the production of fancy goods, +type, machinery, soap and perfumery, ready-made clothing, chemicals, +electro-technical apparatus, jewelry and metal wares. Market gardening +is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood and cider largely +manufactured. There are two great fairs held in the town,--the +Ostermesse, or spring fair, and the Herbstmesse, or autumn fair. The +former, which was the original nucleus of all the commercial prosperity +of the city, begins on the second Wednesday before Easter; and the +latter on the second Wednesday before the 8th of September. They last +three weeks, and the last day save one, called the _Nickelchestag_, is +distinguished by the influx of people from the neighbouring country. The +trade in leather is of great and growing importance. A horse fair has +been held twice a year since 1862 under the patronage of the +agricultural society; and the wool market was reinstituted in 1872 by +the German Trade Society (Deutscher Handelsverein). Frankfort has long +been famous as one of the principal banking centres of Europe, and is +now only second to Berlin, in this respect, among German cities, and it +is remarkable for the large business that is done in government stock. +In the 17th century the town was the seat of a great book-trade; but it +has long been distanced in this department by Leipzig. The _Frankfurter +Journal_ was founded in 1615, the _Postzeitung_ in 1616, the _Neue +Frankfurter Zeitung_ in 1859, and the _Frankfurter Presse_ in 1866. + +Of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in Frankfort is +that erected in 1858 in honour of the early German printers. It was +modelled by Ed. von der Launitz and executed by Herr von Kreis. The +statues of Gutenberg, Fust and Schöffer form a group on the top; an +ornamented frieze presents medallions of a number of famous printers; +below these are figures representing the towns of Mainz, Strassburg, +Venice and Frankfort; and on the corners of the pedestal are allegorical +statues of theology, poetry, science and industry. The statue of Goethe +(1844) in the Goetheplatz is by Ludwig von Schwanthaler. The Schiller +statue, erected in 1863, is the work of a Frankfort artist, Johann +Dielmann. A monument in the Bockenheim Anlage, dated 1837, preserves the +memory of Guiollett, the burgomaster, to whom the town is mainly +indebted for the beautiful promenades which occupy the site of the old +fortifications; and similar monuments have been reared to Senckenberg +(1863), Schopenhauer, Klemens Brentano the poet and Samuel Thomas +Sömmerring (1755-1830), the anatomist and inventor of an electric +telegraph. In the Opernplatz is an equestrian statue of the emperor +Wilhelm I. by Buscher. + +_Cemeteries._--The new cemetery (opened in 1828) contains the graves of +Arthur Schopenhauer and Feuerbach, of Passavant the biographer of +Raphael, Ballenberger the artist, Hessemer the architect, Sömmerring, +and Johann Friedrich Böhmer the historian. The Bethmann vault attracts +attention by three bas-reliefs from the chisel of Thorwaldsen; and the +Reichenbach mausoleum is a vast pile designed by Hessemer at the command +of William II. of Hesse, and adorned with sculptures by Zwerger and von +der Lausitz. In the Jewish section, which is walled off from the rest of +the burying-ground, the most remarkable tombs are those of the +Rothschild family. + +_Parks._--In addition to the park in the south-western district, +Frankfort possesses two delightful pleasure grounds, which attract large +numbers of visitors, the Palmengarten in the west and the zoological +garden in the east of the city. The former is remarkable for the +collection of palms purchased in 1868 from the deposed duke Adolph of +Nassau. + +_Government._--The present municipal constitution of the city dates from +1867 and presents some points of difference from the ordinary Prussian +system. Bismarck was desirous of giving the city, in view of its former +freedom, a more liberal constitution than is usual in ordinary cases. +Formerly fifty-four representatives were elected, but provision was made +(in the constitution) for increasing the number, and they at present +number sixty-four, elected for six years. Every two years a third of the +number retire, but they are eligible for re-election. These sixty-four +representatives elect twenty town-councillors, ten of whom receive a +salary and ten do not. The chief burgomaster (Oberbürgermeister) is +nominated by the emperor for twelve years, and the second burgomaster +must receive the emperor's approval. + +Since 1885 the city has been supplied with water of excellent quality +from the Stadtwald, Goldstein and Hinkelstein, and the favourable +sanitary condition of the town is seen in the low death rate. + +_Population._--The population of Frankfort has steadily increased since +the beginning of the 19th century; it amounted in 1817 to 41,458; (1840) +55,269; (1864) 77,372; (1871) 59,265; (1875) 103,136; (1890) 179,985; +and (1905), including the incorporated suburban districts, 334,951, of +whom 175,909 were Protestants, 88,457 Roman Catholics and 21,974 Jews. + +_History._--Excavations around the cathedral have incontestably proved +that Frankfort-on-Main (_Trajectum ad Moenum_) was a settlement in Roman +times and was probably founded in the 1st century of the Christian era. +It may thus be accounted one of the earliest German--the so-called +"Roman"--towns. Numerous places in the valley of the Main are mentioned +in chronicles anterior to the time that Frankfort is first noticed. +Disregarding popular tradition, which connects the origin of the town +with a legend that Charlemagne, when retreating before the Saxons, was +safely conducted across the river by a doe, it may be asserted that the +first genuine historical notice of the town occurs in 793, when Einhard, +Charlemagne's biographer, tells us that he spent the winter in the villa +Frankonovurd. Next year there is mention more than once of a royal +palace here, and the early importance of the place is indicated by the +fact that in this year it was chosen as the seat of the ecclesiastical +council by which image-worship was condemned. The name Frankfort is also +found in several official documents of Charlemagne's reign; and from the +notices that occur in the early chronicles and charters it would appear +that the place was the most populous at least of the numerous villages +of the Main district. During the Carolingian period it was the seat of +no fewer than 16 imperial councils or colloquies. The town was probably +at first built on an island in the river. It was originally governed by +the royal officer or _actor dominicus_, and down even to the close of +the Empire it remained a purely imperial or royal town. It gradually +acquired various privileges, and by the close of the 14th century the +only mark of dependence was the payment of a yearly tax. Louis the Pious +dwelt more frequently at Frankfort than his father Charlemagne had done, +and about 823 he built himself a new palace, the basis of the later +Saalhof. In 822 and 823 two great diets were held in the palace, and at +the former there were present deputies from the eastern Slavs, the Avars +and the Normans. The place continued to be a favourite residence with +Louis the German, who died there in 876, and was the capital of the East +Frankish kingdom. By the rest of the Carolingian kings it was less +frequently visited, and this neglect was naturally greater during the +period of the Saxon and Salic emperors from 919 to 1137. Diets, however, +were held in the town in 951, 1015, 1069 and 1109, and councils in 1000 +and 1006. From a privilege of Henry IV., in 1074, granting the city of +Worms freedom from tax in their trade with several royal cities, it +appears that Frankfort was even then a place of some commercial +importance. + +Under the Hohenstaufens many brilliant diets were held within its walls. +That of 1147 saw, also, the first election of a German king at +Frankfort, in the person of Henry, son of Conrad III. But as the father +outlived the son, it was Frederick I., Barbarossa, who was actually the +first reigning king to be elected here (in 1152). With the beginning of +the 13th century the municipal constitution appears to have taken +definite shape. The chief official was the royal bailiff +(_Schultheiss_), who is first mentioned in 1193, and whose powers were +subsequently enlarged by the abolition, in 1219, of the office of the +royal _Vogt_ or _advocatus_. About this time a body of _Schöffen_ +(_scabini_, jurats), fourteen in number, was formed to assist in the +control of municipal affairs, and with their appointment the first step +was taken towards civic representative government. Soon, however, the +activity of the _Schöffen_ became specifically confined to the +determination of legal disputes, and in their place a new body +(_Collegium_) of counsellors--_Ratmannen_--also fourteen in number, was +appointed for the general administration of local matters. In 1311, the +two burgomasters, now chiefs of the municipality, take the place of the +royal _Schultheiss_. In the 13th century, the Frankfort Fair, which is +first mentioned in 1150, and the origin of which must have been long +anterior to that date, is referred to as being largely frequented. No +fewer than 10 new churches were erected in the years from 1220 to 1270. +It was about the same period, probably in 1240, that the Jews first +settled in the town. In the contest which Louis the Bavarian maintained +with the papacy Frankfort sided with the emperor, and it was +consequently placed under an interdict for 20 years from 1329 to 1349. +On Louis' death it refused to accept the papal conditions of pardon, and +only yielded to Charles IV., the papal nominee, when Günther of +Schwarzburg thought it more prudent to abdicate in his favour. Charles +granted the city a full amnesty, and confirmed its liberties and +privileges. + +By the famous Golden Bull of 1356 Frankfort was declared the seat of the +imperial elections, and it still preserves an official contemporaneous +copy of the original document as the most precious of the eight imperial +bulls in its possession. From the date of the bull to the close of the +Empire Frankfort retained the position of "Wahlstadt," and only five of +the two-and-twenty monarchs who ruled during that period were elected +elsewhere. In 1388-1389 Frankfort assisted the South German towns in +their wars with the princes and nobles (the Städtekrieg), and in a +consequent battle with the troops of the Palatinate, the town banner was +lost and carried to Kronberg, where it was long preserved as a trophy. +On peace being concluded in 1391, the town had to pay 12,562 florins, +and this brought it into great financial difficulties. In the course of +the next 50 years debt was contracted to the amount of 126,772 florins. +The diet at Worms in 1495 chose Frankfort as the seat of the newly +instituted imperial chamber, or "_Reichskammergericht_," and it was not +till 1527 that the chamber was removed to Spires. At the Reformation +Frankfort heartily joined the Protestant party, and in consequence it +was hardly treated both by the emperor Charles V. and by the archbishop +of Mainz. It refused to subscribe the Augsburg Recess, but at the same +time it was not till 1536 that it was persuaded to join the League of +Schmalkalden. On the failure of this confederation it opened its gates +to the imperial general Büren on the 29th of December 1546, although he +had passed by the city, which he considered too strong for the forces +under his command. The emperor was merciful enough to leave it in +possession of its privileges, but he inflicted a fine of 80,000 gold +gulden, and until October 1547 the citizens had to endure the presence +of from 8000 to 10,000 soldiers. This resulted in a pestilence which not +only lessened the population, but threatened to give the death-blow to +the great annual fairs; and at the close of the war it was found that it +had cost the city no less than 228,931 gulden. In 1552 Frankfort was +invested for three weeks by Maurice of Saxony, who was still in arms +against the emperor Charles V., but it continued to hold out till peace +was concluded between the principal combatants. Between 1612 and 1616 +occurred the great Fettmilch insurrection, perhaps the most remarkable +episode in the internal history of Frankfort. The magistracy had been +acquiring more and more the character of an oligarchy; all power was +practically in the hands of a few closely-related families; and the +gravest peculation and malversation took place without hindrance. The +ordinary citizens were roused to assert their rights, and they found a +leader in Vincenz Fettmilch, who carried the contest to dangerous +excesses, but lacked ability to bring it to a successful issue. An +imperial commission was ultimately appointed, and the three principal +culprits and several of their associates were executed in 1616. It was +not till 1801 that the last mouldering head of the Fettmilch company +dropped unnoticed from the Rententurm, the old tower near the bridge. In +the words of Dr Kriegk, _Geschichte von Frankfurt_, (1871), the +insurrection completely destroyed the political power of the gilds, gave +new strength to the supremacy of the patriciate, and brought no further +advantage to the rest of the citizens than a few improvements in the +organization and administration of the magistracy. The Jews, who had +been attacked by the popular party, were solemnly reinstated by imperial +command in all their previous privileges, and received full compensation +for their losses. + +During the Thirty Years' War Frankfort did not escape. In 1631 Gustavus +Adolphus garrisoned it with 600 men, who remained in possession till +they were expelled four years later by the imperial general Lamboy. In +1792 the citizens had to pay 2,000,000 gulden to the French general +Custine; and in 1796 Kléber exacted 8,000,000 francs. The independence +of Frankfort was brought to an end in 1806, on the formation of the +Confederation of the Rhine; and in 1810 it was made the capital of the +grand-duchy of Frankfort, which had an area of 3215 sq. m. with 302,100 +inhabitants, and was divided into the four districts of Frankfort, +Aschaffenburg, Fulda and Hanau. On the reconstitution of Germany in 1815 +it again became a free city, and in the following year it was declared +the seat of the German Confederation. In April 1833 occurred what is +known as the Frankfort Insurrection (Frankfurter Attentat), in which a +number of insurgents led by Georg Bunsen attempted to break up the diet. +The city joined the German Zollverein in 1836. During the revolutionary +period of 1848 the people of Frankfort, where the united German +parliament held its sessions, took a chief part in political movements, +and the streets of the town were more than once the scene of conflict. +In the war of 1866 they were on the Austrian side. On the 16th of July +the Prussian troops, under General Vogel von Falkenstein, entered the +town, and on the 18th of October it was formally incorporated with the +Prussian state. A fine of 6,000,000 florins was exacted. In 1871 the +treaty which concluded the Franco-German War was signed in the Swan +Hotel by Prince Bismarck and Jules Favre, and it is consequently known +as the peace of Frankfort. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Rittweger, _Frankfurt im Jahre 1848_ (1898); R. Jung, + _Das historische Archiv der Stadt Frankfurt_ (1897); A. Horne, + _Geschichte von Frankfurt_ (4th ed., 1903); H. Grotefend, _Quellen zur + Frankfürter Geschichte_ (Frankfort, 1884-1888); J. C. von Fichard, + _Die Entstehung der Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (Frankfort, 1819); G. L. + Kriegk, _Geschichte von Frankfurt_ (Frankfort, 1871); J. F. Böhmer, + _Urkundenbuch der Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (new ed., 1901); B. Weber, + _Zur Reformationsgeschichte der freien Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (1895); + O. Speyer, _Die Frankfurter Revolution 1612-1616_ (1883); and L. + Woerl, _Guide to Frankfort_ (Leipzig, 1898). + + + + +FRANKFORT-ON-ODER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Brandenburg, 50 m. S.E. from Berlin on the main line of railway to +Breslau and at the junction of lines to Cüstrin, Posen and Grossenhain. +Pop. (1905) 64,943. The town proper lies on the left bank of the river +Oder and is connected by a stone bridge (replacing the old historical +wooden structure) 900 ft. long, with the suburb of Damm. The town is +agreeably situated and has broad and handsome streets, among them the +"Linden," a spacious avenue. Above, on the western side, and partly +lying on the site of the old ramparts, is the residential quarter, +consisting mainly of villas and commanding a fine prospect of the Oder +valley. Between this suburb and the town lies the park, in which is a +monument to the poet Ewald Christian von Kleist, who died here of wounds +received in the battle of Kunersdorf. Among the more important public +buildings must be noticed the Evangelical Marienkirche (Oberkirche), a +handsome brick edifice of the 13th century with five aisles, the Roman +Catholic church, the Rathhaus dating from 1607, and bearing on its +southern gable the device of a member of the Hanseatic League, the +government offices and the theatre. The university of Frankfort, founded +in 1506 by Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was removed to Breslau in +1811, and the academical buildings are now occupied by a school. To +compensate it for the loss of its university, Frankfort-on-Oder was long +the seat of the court of appeal for the province, but of this it was +deprived in 1879. There are several handsome public monuments, notably +that to Duke Leopold of Brunswick, who was drowned in the Oder while +attempting to save life, on the 27th of April 1785. The town has a large +garrison, consisting of nearly all arms. Its industries are +considerable, including the manufacture of machinery, metal ware, +chemicals, paper, leather and sugar. Situated on the high road from +Berlin to Silesia, and having an extensive system of water communication +by means of the Oder and its canals to the Vistula and the Elbe, and +being an important railway centre, it has a lively export trade, which +is further fostered by its three annual fairs, held respectively at +_Reminiscere_ (the second Sunday in Lent), St Margaret's day and at +Martinmas. In the neighbourhood are extensive coal fields. + +Frankfort-on-the-Oder owes its origin and name to a settlement of +Franconian merchants here, in the 13th century, on land conquered by the +margrave of Brandenburg from the Wends. In 1253 it was raised to the +rank of a town by the margrave John I. and borrowed from Berlin the +Magdeburg civic constitution. In 1379 it received from King Sigismund, +then margrave of Brandenburg, the right to free navigation of the Oder; +and from 1368 to about 1450 it belonged to the Hanseatic League. The +university, which is referred to above, was opened by the elector +Joachim I. in 1506, was removed in 1516 to Kottbus and restored again to +Frankfort in 1539, at which date the Reformation was introduced. It was +dispersed during the Thirty Years' War and again restored by the Great +Elector, but finally transferred to Breslau in 1811. + +Frankfort has suffered much from the vicissitudes of war. In the 15th +century it successfully withstood sieges by the Hussites (1429 and +1432), by the Poles (1450) and by the duke of Sagan (1477). In the +Thirty Years' War it was successively taken by Gustavus Adolphus (1631), +by Wallenstein (1633), by the elector of Brandenburg (1634), and again +by the Swedes, who held it from 1640 to 1644. During the Seven Years' +War it was taken by the Russians (1759). In 1812 it was occupied by the +French, who remained till March 1813, when the Russians marched in. + + See K. R. Hausen, _Geschichte der Universität und Stadt Frankfurt_ + (1806), and Bieder und Gurnik, _Bilder aus der Geschichte der Stadt + Frankfurt-an-der-Oder_ (1898). + + + + +FRANKINCENSE,[1] or OLIBANUM[2] (Gr. [Greek: libanôtos], later [Greek: +thyos]; Lat., _tus_ or _thus_; Heb., _lebonah_;[3] Ar., _luban_;[4] +Turk., _ghyunluk_; Hind., _ganda-birosa_[5]), a gum-resin obtained from +certain species of trees of the genus _Boswellia_, and natural order +_Burseraceae_. The members of the genus are possessed of the following +characters:--Bark often papyraceous; leaves deciduous, compound, +alternate and imparipinnate, with leaflets serrate or entire; flowers in +racemes or panicles, white, green, yellowish or pink, having a small +persistent, 5-dentate calyx, 5 petals, 10 stamens, a sessile 3 to +5-chambered ovary, a long style, and a 3-lobed stigma; fruit trigonal or +pentagonal; and seed compressed. Sir George Birdwood (_Trans. Lin. Soc._ +xxvii., 1871) distinguishes five species of _Boswellia_: (A) _B. +thurifera_, Colebr. (_B. glabra_ and _B. serrata_, Roxb.), indigenous to +the mountainous tracts of central India and the Coromandel coast, and +_B. papyrifera_ (_Plösslea floribunda_, Endl.) of Abyssinia, which, +though both thuriferous, are not known to yield any of the olibanum of +commerce; and (B) _B. Frereana_ (see ELEMI, vol. x. p. 259), _B. +Bhua-Dajiana_, and _B. Carterii_, the "Yegaar," "Mohr Add," and "Mohr +Madow" of the Somali country, in East Africa, the last species including +a variety, the "Maghrayt d'Sheehaz" of Hadramaut, Arabia, all of which +are sources of true frankincense or olibanum. The trees on the Somali +coast are described by Captain G. B. Kempthorne as growing, without +soil, out of polished marble rocks, to which they are attached by a +thick oval mass of substance resembling a mixture of lime and mortar: +the purer the marble the finer appears to be the growth of the tree. The +young trees, he states, furnish the most valuable gum, the older +yielding merely a clear glutinous fluid resembling copal varnish.[6] To +obtain the frankincense a deep incision is made in the trunk of the +tree, and below it a narrow strip of bark 5 in. in length is peeled off. +When the milk-like juice ("spuma pinguis," Pliny) which exudes has +hardened by exposure to the atmosphere, the incision is deepened. In +about three months the resin has attained the required degree of +consistency. The season for gathering lasts from May until the first +rains in September. The large clear globules are scraped off into +baskets, and the inferior quality that has run down the tree is +collected separately. The coast of south Arabia is yearly visited by +parties of Somalis, who pay the Arabs for the privilege of collecting +frankincense.[7] In the interior of the country about the plain of +Dhofar,[8] during the south-west monsoon, frankincense and other gums +are gathered by the Beni Gurrah Bedouins, and might be obtained by them +in much larger quantities; their lawlessness, however, and the lack of a +safe place of exchange or sale are obstacles to the development of +trade. (See C. Y. Ward, _The Gulf of Aden Pilot_, p. 117, 1863.) Much as +formerly in the region of Sakhalites in Arabia (the tract between Ras +Makalla and Ras Agab),[9] described by Arrian, so now on the sea-coast +of the Somali country, the frankincense when collected is stored in +heaps at various stations. Thence, packed in sheep- and goat-skins, in +quantities of 20 to 40 lb., it is carried on camels to Berbera, for +shipment either to Aden, Makalla and other Arabian ports, or directly to +Bombay.[10] At Bombay, like gum-acacia, it is assorted, and is then +packed for re-exportation to Europe, China and elsewhere.[11] Arrian +relates that it was an import of Barbarike on the Sinthus (Indus). The +idea held by several writers, including Niebuhr, that frankincense was a +product of India, would seem to have originated in a confusion of that +drug with benzoin and other odoriferous substances, and also in the sale +of imported frankincense with the native products of India. The gum +resin of _Boswellia thurifera_ was described by Colebrooke (in _Asiatick +Researches_, ix. 381), and after him by Dr J. Fleming (Ib. xi. 158), as +true frankincense, or olibanum; from this, however, it differs in its +softness, and tendency to melt into a mass[12] (Birdwood, _loc. cit._, +p. 146). It is sold in the village bazaars of Khandeish in India under +the name of _Dup-Salai_, i.e. incense of the "Salai tree"; and according +to Mr F. Porter Smith, M.B. (_Contrib. towards the Mat. Med. and Nat. +Hist, of China_, p. 162, Shanghai, 1871), is used as incense in China. +The last authority also mentions olibanum as a reputed natural product +of China. Bernhard von Breydenbach,[13] Ausonius, Florus and others, +arguing, it would seem, from its Hebrew and Greek names, concluded that +olibanum came from Mount Lebanon; and Chardin (_Voyage en Perse_, &c., +1711) makes the statement that the frankincense tree grows in the +mountains of Persia, particularly Caramania. + +Frankincense, or olibanum, occurs in commerce in semi-opaque, round, +ovate or oblong tears or irregular lumps, which are covered externally +with a white dust, the result of their friction against one another. It +has an amorphous internal structure, a dull fracture; is of a yellow to +yellowish-brown hue, the purer varieties being almost colourless, or +possessing a greenish tinge, and has a somewhat bitter aromatic taste, +and a balsamic odour, which is developed by heating. Immersed in alcohol +it becomes opaque, and with water it yields an emulsion. It contains +about 72% of resin soluble in alcohol (Kurbatow); a large proportion of +gum soluble in water, and apparently identical with gum arabic; and a +small quantity of a colourless inflammable essential oil, one of the +constituents of which is the body oliben, C10H16. Frankincense burns +with a bright white flame, leaving an ash consisting mainly of calcium +carbonate, the remainder being calcium phosphate, and the sulphate, +chloride and carbonate of potassium (Braconnot).[14] Good frankincense, +Pliny tells us, is recognized by its whiteness, size, brittleness and +ready inflammability. That which occurs in globular drops is, he says, +termed "male frankincense"; the most esteemed, he further remarks, is in +breast-shaped drops, formed each by the union of two tears.[15] The best +frankincense, as we learn from Arrian,[16] was formerly exported from +the neighbourhood of Cape Elephant in Africa (the modern Ras Fiel); and +A. von Kremer, in his description of the commerce of the Red Sea +(_Aegypten_, &c., p. 185, ii. Theil, Leipzig, 1863), observes that the +African frankincense, called by the Arabs "asli," is of twice the value +of the Arabian "luban." Captain S. B. Miles (_loc. cit._, p. 64) states +that the best kind of frankincense, known to the Somali as "bedwi" or +"sheheri," comes from the trees "Mohr Add" and "Mohr Madow" (_vide +supra_), and from a taller species of _Boswellia_, the "Boido," and is +sent to Bombay for exportation to Europe; and that an inferior "mayeti," +the produce of the "Yegaar," is exported chiefly to Jeddah and Yemen +ports.[17] The latter may possibly be what Niebuhr alludes to as "Indian +frankincense."[18] Garcias da Horta, in asserting the Arabian origin of +the drug, remarks that the term "Indian" is often applied by the Arabs +to a dark-coloured variety.[19] + +According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xiv. 1; cf. Ovid, _Fasti_ i. 337 sq.), +frankincense was not sacrificially employed in Trojan times. It was used +by the ancient Egyptians in their religious rites, but, as Herodotus +tells us (ii. 86), not in embalming. It constituted a fourth part of the +Jewish incense of the sanctuary (Ex. xxx. 34), and is frequently +mentioned in the Pentateuch. With other spices it was stored in a great +chamber of the house of God at Jerusalem (1 Chron. ix. 29, Neh. xiii. +5-9). On the sacrificial use and import of frankincense and similar +substances see INCENSE. + +In the Red Sea regions frankincense is valued not only for its sweet +odour when burnt, but as a masticatory; and blazing lumps of it are not +infrequently used for illumination instead of oil lamps. Its fumes are +an excellent insectifuge. As a medicine it was in former times in high +repute. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxv. 82) mentions it as an antidote to +hemlock. Avicenna (ed. Plempii, lib. ii. p. 161, Lovanii, 1658, fol.) +recommends it for tumours, ulcers of the head and ears, affections of +the breast, vomiting, dysentery and fevers. In the East frankincense has +been found efficacious as an external application in carbuncles, blind +boils and gangrenous sores, and as an internal agent is given in +gonorrhoea. In China it was an old internal remedy for leprosy and +struma, and is accredited with stimulant, tonic, sedative, astringent +and vulnerary properties. It is not used in modern medicine, being +destitute of any special virtues. (See Waring, _Pharm. of India_, p. +443, &c.; and F. Porter Smith, _op. cit._, p. 162.) + +Common frankincense or thus, _Abietis resina_, is the term applied to a +resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the Norway spruce fir, +_Abies excelsa_, D.C.; when melted in hot water and strained it +constitutes "Burgundy pitch," _Pix abietina_. The concreted turpentine +obtained in the United States by making incisions in the trunk of a +species of pine, _Pinus australis_, is also so designated. It is +commercially known as "scrape," and is similar to the French "galipot" +or "barras." Common frankincense is an ingredient in some ointments and +plasters, and on account of its pleasant odour when burned has been used +in incense as a substitute for olibanum. (See Flückiger and Hanbury, +_Pharmacographia_.) The "black frankincense oil" of the Turks is stated +by Hanbury (_Science Papers_, p. 142, 1876) to be liquid storax. + (F. H. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Stephen Skinner, M.D. (Etymologicon linguae Anglicanae, Lond., + 1671), gives the derivation: "Frankincense, Thus, q.d. Incensum (i.e. + Thus Libere) seu Liberaliter, ut in sacris officiis par est, + adolendum." + + [2] "Sic _olibanum_ dixere pro thure ex Graeco [Greek: o libanos]" + (Salmasius, C. S. _Plinianae exercitationes_, t. ii. p. 926, b. F., + Traj. ad Rhen., 1689 fol.). So also Fuchs (Op. didact. pars. ii. p. + 42, 1604 fol.), "Officinis non sine risu eruditorum, Graeco articulo + adjecto, _Olibanus_ vocatur." The term _olibano_ was used in + ecclesiastical Latin as early as the pontificate of Benedict IX., in + the 11th century. (See Ferd. Ughellus, _Italia sacra_, tom. i. 108, + D., Ven., 1717 fol.) + + [3] So designated from its whiteness (J. G. Stuckius, _Sacror. et + sacrific. gent. descrip._, p. 79, Lugd. Bat., 1695, fol.; Kitto, + _Cycl. Bibl. Lit._ ii. p. 806, 1870); cf. _Laben_, the Somali name + for cream (R. F. Burton, _First Footsteps in E. Africa_, p. 178, + 1856). + + [4] Written _Louan_ by Garcias da Horta (_Aromat. et simpl. + medicament. hist., C. Clusii Atrebatis Exoticorum lib. sept._, p. + 157, 1605, fol.), and stated to have been derived by the Arabs from + the Greek name, the term less commonly used by them being _Conder_: + cf. Sanskrit _Kunda_. According to Colebrooke (in _Asiatick Res._ ix. + p. 379, 1807), the Hindu writers on Materia Medica use for the resin + of _Boswellia thurifera_ the designation _Cunduru_. + + [5] A term applied also to the resinous exudation of _Pinus + longifolia_ (see Dr E. J. Waring, _Pharmacopoeia of India_, p. 52, + Lond., 1868). + + [6] See "Appendix," vol. i. p. 419 of Sir W. C. Harris's _Highland of + Aethiopia_ (2nd ed., Lond., 1844); and _Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc._ + xiii. (1857), p. 136. + + [7] Cruttenden, _Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc._ vii. (1846), p. 121; S. B. + Miles, J. Geog. Soc. (1872). + + [8] Or Dhafar. The incense of "Dofar" is alluded to by Camoens, _Os + Lusiadas_, x. 201. + + [9] H. J. Carter, "Comparative Geog. of the South-East Coast of + Arabia," in _J. Bombay Branch of R. Asiatic Soc._ iii. (Jan. 1851), + p. 296; and Müller, _Geog. Graeci Minores_, i. p. 278 (Paris, 1855). + + [10] J. Vaughan, _Pharm. Journ._ xii. (1853) pp. 227-229; and Ward, + _op. cit._ p. 97. + + [11] Pereira, _Elem. of Mat. Med._ ii. pt. 2, p. 380 (4th ed., 1847). + + [12] "_Boswellia thurifera_," ... says Waring (_Pharm. of India_, p. + 52), "has been thought to yield East Indian olibanum, but there is no + reliable evidence of its so doing." + + [13] "Libanus igitur est mons redolentie & summe aromaticitatis. nam + ibi herbe odorifere crescunt. ibi etiam arbores thurifere coalescunt + quarum gummi electum olibanum a medicis nuncupatur."--_Perigrinatio_, + p. 53 (1502, fol.). + + [14] See, on the chemistry of frankincense, Braconnot, _Ann. de + chimie_, lxviii. (1808) pp. 60-69; Johnston, _Phil. Trans_. (1839), + pp. 301-305; J. Stenhouse, _Ann. der Chem. und Pharm_. xxxv. (1840) + p. 306; and A. Kurbatow, _Zeitsch. für Chem_. (1871), p. 201. + + [15] "Praecipua autem gratia est mammoso, cum haerente lacryma priore + consecuta alia miscuit se" (_Nat. Hist._ xii. 32). One of the Chinese + names for frankincense, _Jú-hiang_, "milk-perfume," is explained by + the _Pen Ts'au_ (xxxiv. 45), a Chinese work, as being derived from + the nipple-like form of its drops. (See E. Bretschneider, _On the + Knowledge possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs_, &c., p. 19, + Lond., 1871.) + + [16] _The Voyage of Nearchus, loc. cit._ + + [17] Vaughan (_Pharm. Journ._ xii. 1853) speaks of the Arabian Luban, + commonly called _Morbat_ or _Shaharree Luban_, as realizing higher + prices in the market than any of the qualities exported from Africa. + The incense of "Esher," i.e. Shihr or Shehr, is mentioned by Marco + Polo, as also by Barbosa. (See Yule, _op. cit._ ii. p. 377.) J. + Raymond Wellsted (_Travels to the City of the Caliphs_, p. 173, + Lond., 1840) distinguishes two kinds of frankincense--"_Meaty_," + selling at $4 per cwt., and an inferior article fetching 20% less. + + [18] "Es scheint, dass selber die Araber ihr eignes Räuchwerk nicht + hoch schätzen; denn die Vornehmen in Jemen brauchen gemeiniglich + indianisches Räuchwerk, ja eine grosse Menge Mastix von der Insel + Scio" (_Beschreibung von Arabien_, p. 143, Kopenh., 1772). + + [19] "De Arabibus minus mirum, qui nigricantem colorem, quo Thus + Indicum praeditum esse vult Dioscorides [lib. i. c. 70], Indum + plerumque vocent, ut ex Myrobalano nigro quem Indum appellant, patet" + (_op. sup. cit._ p. 157). + + + + +FRANKING, a term used for the right of sending letters or postal +packages free (Fr. _franc_) of charge. The privilege was claimed by the +House of Commons in 1660 in "a Bill for erecting and establishing a Post +Office," their demand being that all letters addressed to or sent by +members during the session should be carried free. The clause embodying +this claim was struck out by the Lords, but with the proviso in the Act +as passed for the free carriage of all letters to and from the king and +the great officers of state, and also the single inland letters of the +members of that present parliament during that session only. It seems, +however, that the practice was tolerated until 1764, when by an act +dealing with postage it was legalized, every peer and each member of the +House of Commons being allowed to send free ten letters a day, not +exceeding an ounce in weight, to any part of the United Kingdom, and to +receive fifteen. The act did not restrict the privilege to letters +either actually written by or to the member, and thus the right was very +easily abused, members sending and receiving letters for friends, all +that was necessary being the signature of the peer or M.P. in the corner +of the envelope. Wholesale franking grew usual, and M.P.'s supplied +their friends with envelopes already signed to be used at any time. In +1837 the scandal had become so great that stricter regulations came into +force. The franker had to write the full address, to which he had to add +his name, the post-town and the day of the month; the letter had to be +posted on the day written or the following day at the latest, and in a +post-town not more than 20 m. from the place where the peer or M.P. was +then living. On the 10th of January 1840 parliamentary franking was +abolished on the introduction of the uniform penny rate. + +In the United States the franking privilege was first granted in January +1776 to the soldiers engaged in the American War of Independence. The +right was gradually extended till it included nearly all officials and +members of the public service. By special acts the privilege was +bestowed on presidents and their widows. By an act of the 3rd of March +1845, franking was limited to the president, vice-president, members and +delegates in Congress and postmasters, other officers being required to +keep quarterly accounts of postage and pay it from their contingent +funds. In 1851 free exchange of newspapers was re-established. By an act +of the 3rd of March 1863 the privilege was granted the president and his +private secretary, the vice-president, chiefs of executive departments, +such heads of bureaus and chief clerks as might be designated by the +postmaster-general for official letters only; senators and +representatives in Congress for all correspondence, senders of petitions +to either branch of the legislature, and to publishers of newspapers for +their exchanges. There was a limit as to weight. Members of Congress +could also frank, in matters concerning the federal department of +agriculture, "seeds, roots and cuttings," the weight to be fixed by the +postmaster-general. This act remained in force till the 31st of January +1873, when franking was abolished. Since 1875, by sundry acts, franking +for official correspondence, government publications, seeds, &c., has +been allowed to congressmen, ex-congressmen (for 9 months after the +close of their term), congressmen-elect and other government officials. +By special acts of 1881, 1886, 1902, 1909, respectively, the franking +privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents Garfield, Grant, +McKinley and Cleveland. + + + + +FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST (1810-1894), Austrian poet. He took part in the +revolution of 1848, and his poems on liberty had considerable vogue. His +lyrics are among his best work. He was secretary of the Jewish community +in Vienna, and did a lasting service to education by his visit to the +Orient in 1856. He founded the first modern Jewish school (the Von +Lämmel Schule) in Jerusalem. His brilliant volumes _Nach Jerusalem_ +describing his eastern tour have been translated into English, as is the +case with many of his poems. His collected poems appeared in three +volumes in 1880. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD (1825-1899), English chemist, was born at +Churchtown, near Lancaster, on the 18th of January 1825. After attending +the grammar school at Lancaster he spent six years as an apprentice to a +druggist in that town. In 1845 he went to London and entered Lyon +Playfair's laboratory, subsequently working under R. W. Bunsen at +Marburg. In 1847 he was appointed science-master at Queenwood school, +Hampshire, where he first met J. Tyndall, and in 1851 first professor of +chemistry at Owens College, Manchester. Returning to London six years +later he became lecturer in chemistry at St Bartholomew's hospital, and +in 1863 professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. From an early +age he engaged in original research with great success. + +Analytical problems, such as the isolation of certain organic radicals, +attracted his attention to begin with, but he soon turned to synthetical +studies, and he was only about twenty-five years of age when an +investigation, doubtless suggested by the work of his master, Bunsen, on +cacodyl, yielded the interesting discovery of the organo-metallic +compounds. The theoretical deductions which he drew from the +consideration of these bodies were even more interesting and important +than the bodies themselves. Perceiving a molecular isonomy between them +and the inorganic compounds of the metals from which they may be formed, +he saw their true molecular type in the oxygen, sulphur or chlorine +compounds of those metals, from which he held them to be derived by the +substitution of an organic group for the oxygen, sulphur, &c. In this +way they enabled him to overthrow the theory of conjugate compounds, and +they further led him in 1852 to publish the conception that the atoms of +each elementary substance have a definite saturation capacity, so that +they can only combine with a certain limited number of the atoms of +other elements. The theory of valency thus founded has dominated the +subsequent development of chemical doctrine, and forms the groundwork +upon which the fabric of modern structural chemistry reposes. + +In applied chemistry Frankland's great work was in connexion with +water-supply. Appointed a member of the second royal commission on the +pollution of rivers in 1868, he was provided by the government with a +completely-equipped laboratory, in which, for a period of six years, he +carried on the inquiries necessary for the purposes of that body, and +was thus the means of bringing to light an enormous amount of valuable +information respecting the contamination of rivers by sewage, +trade-refuse, &c., and the purification of water for domestic use. In +1865, when he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann at the School of Mines, he +undertook the duty of making monthly reports to the registrar-general on +the character of the water supplied to London, and these he continued +down to the end of his life. At one time he was an unsparing critic of +its quality, but in later years he became strongly convinced of its +general excellence and wholesomeness. His analyses were both chemical +and bacteriological, and his dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue +for the former at the time of his appointment caused him to spend two +years in devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 he passed a +night on the very top of Mont Blanc in company with John Tyndall. One of +the purposes of the expedition was to discover whether the rate of +combustion of a candle varies with the density of the atmosphere in +which it is burnt, a question which was answered in the negative. Other +observations made by Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of +a series of experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed +that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was thereby +led to investigate the effect produced on luminous flames by varying the +pressure of the atmosphere in which they are burning. He found that +pressure increases luminosity, so that hydrogen, for example, the flame +of which in normal circumstances gives no light, burns with a luminous +flame under a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference +he drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only factor +that determines the light-giving power of a flame. Further, he showed +that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas resembles that of an +incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a gradual change in the +spectrum of an incandescent gas under increasing pressure, the sharp +lines observable when it is extremely attenuated broadening out to +nebulous bands as the pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous +spectrum as the gas approaches a density comparable with that of the +liquid state. An application of these results to solar physics in +conjunction with Sir Norman Lockyer led to the view that at least the +external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the liquid or +solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours. Frankland and +Lockyer were also the discoverers of helium. In 1868 they noticed in the +solar spectrum a bright yellow line which did not correspond to any +substance then known, and which they therefore attributed to the then +hypothetical element, helium. + +Sir Edward Frankland, who was made a K.C.B. in 1897, died on the 9th of +August 1899 while on a holiday at Golaa, Gudbrandsdalen, Norway. + + A memorial lecture delivered by Professor H. E. Armstrong before the + London Chemical Society on the 31st of October 1901 contained many + personal details of Frankland's life, together with a full discussion + of his scientific work; and a volume of _Autobiographical Sketches_ + was printed for private circulation in 1902. His original papers, down + to 1877, were collected and published in that year as _Experimental + Researches in Pure, Applied and Physical Chemistry_. + + + + +FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790), American diplomat, statesman and +scientist, was born on the 17th of January 1706 in a house in Milk +Street, opposite the Old South church, Boston, Massachusetts. He was the +tenth son of Josiah Franklin, and the eighth child and youngest son of +ten children borne by Abiah Folger, his father's second wife. The elder +Franklin was born at Ecton in Northamptonshire, England, where the +strongly Protestant Franklin family may be traced back for nearly four +centuries. He had married young and had migrated from Banbury to Boston, +Massachusetts, in 1685. Benjamin could not remember when he did not know +how to read, and when eight years old he was sent to the Boston grammar +school, being destined by his father for the church as a tithe of his +sons. He spent a year there and a year in a school for writing and +arithmetic, and then at the age of ten he was taken from school to +assist his father in the business of a tallow-chandler and soapboiler. +In his thirteenth year he was apprenticed to his half-brother James, who +was establishing himself in the printing business, and who in 1721 +started the _New England Courant_, one of the earliest newspapers in +America. + +Benjamin's tastes had at first been for the sea rather than the pulpit; +now they inclined rather to intellectual than to other pleasures. At an +early age he had made himself familiar with _The Pilgrim's Progress_, +with Locke, _On the Human Understanding_, and with a volume of _The +Spectator_. Thanks to his father's excellent advice, he gave up writing +doggerel verse (much of which had been printed by his brother and sold +on the streets) and turned to prose composition. His success in +reproducing articles he had read in _The Spectator_ led him to write an +article for his brother's paper, which he slipped under the door of the +printing shop with no name attached, and which was printed and attracted +some attention. After repeated successes of the same sort Benjamin threw +off his disguise and contributed regularly to the _Courant_. When, after +various journalistic indiscretions, James Franklin in 1722 was forbidden +to publish the _Courant_, it appeared with Benjamin's name as that of +the publisher and was received with much favour, chiefly because of the +cleverness of his articles signed "Dr Janus," which, like those +previously signed "Mistress Silence Dogood," gave promise of "Poor +Richard." But Benjamin's management of the paper, and particularly his +free-thinking, displeased the authorities; the relations of the two +brothers gradually grew unfriendly, possibly, as Benjamin thought, +because of his brother's jealousy of his superior ability; and Benjamin +determined to quit his brother's employ and to leave New England. He +made his way first to New York City, and then (October 1723) to +Philadelphia, where he got employment with a printer named Samuel +Keimer.[1] + +A rapid composer and a workman full of resource, Franklin was soon +recognized as the master spirit of the shop. Sir William Keith +(1680-1749), governor of the province, urged him to start in business +for himself, and when Franklin had unsuccessfully appealed to his father +for the means to do so, Keith promised to furnish him with what he +needed for the equipment of a new printing office and sent him to +England to buy the materials. Keith had repeatedly promised to send a +letter of credit by the ship on which Franklin sailed, but when the +Channel was reached and the ship's mails were examined no such letter +was found. Franklin reached London in December 1724, and found +employment first at Palmer's, a famous printing house in Bartholomew +Close, and afterwards at Watts's Printing House. At Palmer's he had set +up a second edition of Wollaston's _Religion of Nature Delineated_. To +refute this book and to prove that there could be no such thing as +religion, he wrote and printed a small pamphlet, _A Dissertation on +Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain_, which brought him some +curious acquaintances, and of which he soon became thoroughly ashamed. +After a year and a half in London, Franklin was persuaded by a friend +named Denham, a Quaker merchant, to return with him to America and +engage in mercantile business; he accordingly gave up printing, but a +few days before sailing he received a tempting offer to remain and give +lessons in swimming--his feats as a swimmer having given him +considerable reputation--and he says that he might have consented "had +the overtures been sooner made." He reached Philadelphia in October +1726, but a few months later Denham died, and Franklin was induced by +large wages to return to his old employer Keimer; with Keimer he +quarrelled repeatedly, thinking himself ill used and kept only to train +apprentices until they could in some degree take his place. In 1728 +Franklin and Hugh Meredith, a fellow-worker at Keimer's, set up in +business for themselves; the capital being furnished by Meredith's +father. In 1730 the partnership was dissolved, and Franklin, through the +financial assistance of two friends, secured the sole management of the +printing house. In September 1729 he bought at a merely nominal price +_The Pennsylvania Gazette_, a weekly newspaper which Keimer had started +nine months before to defeat a similar project of Franklin's, and which +Franklin conducted until 1765. Franklin's superior management of the +paper, his new type, "some spirited remarks" on the controversy between +the Massachusetts assembly and Governor Burnet, brought his paper into +immediate notice, and his success both as a printer and as a journalist +was assured and complete. In 1731 he established in Philadelphia one of +the earliest circulating libraries in America (often said to have been +the earliest), and in 1732 he published the first of his Almanacks, +under the pseudonym of Richard Saunders. These "Poor Richard's +Almanacks" were issued for the next twenty-five years with remarkable +success, the annual sale averaging 10,000 copies, and far exceeding the +sale of any other publication in the colonies. + +Beginning in 1733 Franklin taught himself enough French, Italian, +Spanish and Latin to read these languages with some ease. In 1736 he was +chosen clerk of the General Assembly, and served in this capacity until +1751. In 1737 he had been appointed postmaster at Philadelphia, and +about the same time he organized the first police force and fire company +in the colonies; in 1749, after he had written _Proposals Relating to +the Education of Youth in Pensilvania_, he and twenty-three other +citizens of Philadelphia formed themselves into an association for the +purpose of establishing an academy, which was opened in 1751, was +chartered in 1753, and eventually became the University of Pennsylvania; +in 1727 he organized a debating club, the "Junto," in Philadelphia, and +later he was one of the founders of the American Philosophical Society +(1743; incorporated 1780); he took the lead in the organization of a +militia force, and in the paving of the city streets, improved the +method of street lighting, and assisted in the founding of a city +hospital (1751); in brief, he gave the impulse to nearly every measure +or project for the welfare and prosperity of Philadelphia undertaken in +his day. In 1751 he became a member of the General Assembly of +Pennsylvania, in which he served for thirteen years. In 1753 he and +William Hunter were put in charge of the post service of the colonies, +which he brought in the next ten years to a high state of efficiency and +made a financial success; this position he held until 1774. He visited +nearly every post office in the colonies and increased the mail service +between New York and Philadelphia from once to three times a week in +summer, and from twice a month to once a week in winter. When war with +France appeared imminent in 1754, Franklin was sent to the Albany +Convention, where he submitted his plan for colonial union (see ALBANY, +N.Y.). When the home government sent over General Edward Braddock[2] +with two regiments of British troops, Franklin undertook to secure the +requisite number of horses and waggons for the march against Ft. +Duquesne, and became personally responsible for payment to the +Pennsylvanians who furnished them. Notwithstanding the alarm occasioned +by Braddock's defeat, the old quarrel between the proprietors of +Pennsylvania and the assembly prevented any adequate preparations for +defence; "with incredible meanness" the proprietors had instructed their +governors to approve no act for levying the necessary taxes, unless the +vast estates of the proprietors were by the same act exempted. So great +was the confidence in Franklin in this emergency that early in 1756 the +governor of Pennsylvania placed him in charge of the north-western +frontier of the province, with power to raise troops, issue commissions +and erect blockhouses; and Franklin remained in the wilderness for over +a month, superintending the building of forts and watching the Indians. +In February 1757 the assembly, "finding the proprietary obstinately +persisted in manacling their deputies with instructions inconsistent not +only with the privileges of the people, but with the service of the +crown, resolv'd to petition the king against them," and appointed +Franklin as their agent to present the petition. He arrived in London on +the 27th of July 1757, and shortly afterwards, when, at a conference +with Earl Granville, president of the council, the latter declared that +"the King is the legislator of the colonies," Franklin in reply declared +that the laws of the colonies were to be made by their assemblies, to be +passed upon by the king, and when once approved were no longer subject +to repeal or amendment by the crown. As the assemblies, said he, could +not make permanent laws without the king's consent, "neither could he +make a law for them without theirs." This opposition of views distinctly +raised the issue between the home government and the colonies. As to the +proprietors Franklin succeeded in 1760 in securing an understanding that +the assembly should pass an act exempting from taxation the _unsurveyed_ +waste lands of the Penn estate, the surveyed waste lands being assessed +at the usual rate for other property of that description. Thus the +proprietors finally acknowledged the right of the assembly to tax their +estates. + +The success of Franklin's first foreign mission was, therefore, +substantial and satisfactory. During this sojourn of five years in +England he had made many valuable friends outside of court and political +circles, among whom Hume, Robertson and Adam Smith were conspicuous. In +1759, for his literary and more particularly his scientific attainments, +he received the freedom of the city of Edinburgh and the degree of +doctor of laws from the university of St Andrews. He had been made a +Master of Arts at Harvard and at Yale in 1753, and at the college of +William and Mary in 1756; and in 1762 he received the degree of D.C.L. +at Oxford. While in England he had made active use of his remarkable +talent for pamphleteering. In the clamour for peace following the death +of George II. (25th of October 1760), he was for a vigorous prosecution +of the war with France; he had written what purported to be a chapter +from an old book written by a Spanish Jesuit, _On the Meanes of +Disposing the Enemie to Peace_, which had a great effect; and in the +spring of 1760 there had been published a more elaborate paper written +by Franklin with the assistance of Richard Jackson, agent of +Massachusetts and Connecticut in London, entitled _The Interest of Great +Britain Considered with Regard to Her Colonies, and the Acquisitions of +Canada and Guadeloupe_ (1760). This pamphlet answered the argument that +it would be unsafe to keep Canada because of the added strength that +would thus be given to any possible movement for independence in the +English colonies, by urging that so long as Canada remained French there +could be no safety for the English colonies in North America, nor any +permanent peace in Europe. Tradition reports that this pamphlet had +considerable weight in determining the ministry to retain Canada. + +Franklin sailed again for America in August 1762, hoping to be able to +settle down in quiet and devote the remainder of his life to experiments +in physics. This quiet was interrupted, however, by the "Paxton +Massacre" (Dec. 14, 1763)--the slaughter of a score of Indians +(children, women and old men) at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, by some young +rowdies from the town of Paxton, who then marched upon Philadelphia to +kill a few Christian Indians there. Franklin, appealed to by the +governor, raised a troop sufficient to frighten away the "Paxton boys," +and for the moment there seemed a possibility of an understanding +between Franklin and the proprietors. But the question of taxing the +estates of the proprietors came up in a new form, and a petition from +the assembly was drawn by Franklin, requesting the king "to resume the +government" of Pennsylvania. In the autumn election of 1764 the +influence of the proprietors was exerted against Franklin, and by an +adverse majority of 25 votes in 4000 he failed to be re-elected to the +assembly. The new assembly sent Franklin again to England as its special +agent to take charge of another petition for a change of government, +which, however, came to nothing. Matters of much greater consequence +soon demanded Franklin's attention. + +Early in 1764 Lord Grenville had informed the London agents of the +American colonies that he proposed to lay a portion of the burden left +by the war with France upon the shoulders of the colonists by means of a +stamp duty, unless some other tax equally productive and less +inconvenient were proposed. The natural objection of the colonies, as +voiced, for example, by the assembly of Pennsylvania, was that it was a +cruel thing to tax colonies already taxed beyond their strength, and +surrounded by enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defence, +and that it was an indignity that they should be taxed by a parliament +in which they were not represented; at the same time the Pennsylvania +assembly recognized it as "their duty to grant aid to the crown, +according to their abilities, whenever required of them in the usual +manner." To prevent the introduction of the Stamp Act, which he +characterized as "the mother of mischief," Franklin used every effort, +but the bill was easily passed, and it was thought that the colonists +would soon be reconciled to it. Because he, too, thought so, and because +he recommended John Hughes, a merchant of Philadelphia, for the office +of distributor of stamps, Franklin himself was denounced--he was even +accused of having planned the Stamp Act--and his family in Philadelphia +was in danger of being mobbed. Of Franklin's examination, in February +1766, by the House in Committee of the Whole, as to the effects of the +Stamp Act, Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined +by a parcel of schoolboys, and George Whitefield said: "Dr Franklin has +gained immortal honour by his behaviour at the bar of the House. His +answer was always found equal to the questioner. He stood unappalled, +gave pleasure to his friends and did honour to his country."[3] Franklin +compared the position of the colonies to that of Scotland in the days +before the union, and in the same year (1766) audaciously urged a +similar union with the colonies before it was too late. The knowledge of +colonial affairs gained from Franklin's testimony, probably more than +all other causes combined, determined the immediate repeal of the Stamp +Act. For Franklin this was a great triumph, and the news of it filled +the colonists with delight and restored him to their confidence and +affection. Another bill (the Declaratory Act), however, was almost +immediately passed by the king's party, asserting absolute supremacy of +parliament over the colonies, and in the succeeding parliament, by the +Townshend Acts of 1767, duties were imposed on paper, paints and glass +imported by the colonists; a tax was imposed on tea also. The imposition +of these taxes was bitterly resented in the colonies, where it quickly +crystallized public opinion round the principle of "No taxation without +representation." In spite of the opposition in the colonies to the +Declaratory Act, the Townshend Acts and the tea tax, Franklin continued +to assure the British ministry and the British public of the loyalty of +the colonists. He tried to find some middle ground of reconciliation, +and kept up his quiet work of informing England as to the opinions and +conditions of the colonies, and of moderating the attitude of the +colonies toward the home government; so that, as he said, he was accused +in America of being too much an Englishman, and in England of being too +much an American. He was agent now, not only of Pennsylvania, but also +of New Jersey, of Georgia and of Massachusetts. Hillsborough, who became +secretary of state for the colonies in 1768, refused to recognize +Franklin as agent of Massachusetts, because the governor of +Massachusetts had not approved the appointment, which was by resolution +of the assembly. Franklin contended that the governor, as a mere agent +of the king, could have nothing to do with the assembly's appointment of +its agent to the king; that "the King, and not the King, Lords, and +Commons collectively, is their sovereign; and that the King, with +_their_ respective Parliaments, is their only legislator." Franklin's +influence helped to oust Hillsborough, and Dartmouth, whose name +Franklin suggested, was made secretary In 1772 and promptly recognized +Franklin as the agent of Massachusetts. + +In 1773 there appeared in the _Public Advertiser_ one of Franklin's +cleverest hoaxes, "An Edict of the King of Prussia," proclaiming that +the island of Britain was a colony of Prussia, having been settled by +Angles and Saxons, having been protected by Prussia, having been +defended by Prussia against France in the war just past, and never +having been definitely freed from Prussia's rule; and that, therefore, +Great Britain should now submit to certain taxes laid by Prussia--the +taxes being identical with those laid upon the American colonies by +Great Britain. In the same year occurred the famous episode of the +Hutchinson Letters. These were written by Thomas Hutchinson, Governor of +Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver (1706-1774), his lieutenant-governor, and +others to William Whately, a member of Parliament, and private secretary +to George Grenville, suggesting an increase of the power of the governor +at the expense of the assembly, "an abridgement of what are called +English liberties," and other measures more extreme than those +undertaken by the government. The correspondence was shown to Franklin +by a mysterious "member of parliament" to back up the contention that +the quartering of troops in Boston was suggested, not by the British +ministry, but by Americans and Bostonians. Upon his promise not to +publish the letters Franklin received permission to send them to +Massachusetts, where they were much passed about and were printed, and +they were soon republished in English newspapers. The Massachusetts +assembly on receiving the letters resolved to petition the crown for the +removal of both Hutchinson and Oliver. The petition was refused and was +condemned as scandalous, and Franklin, who took upon himself the +responsibility for the publication of the letters, in the hearing before +the privy council at the Cockpit on the 29th of January 1774 was +insulted and was called a thief by Alexander Wedderburn (the +solicitor-general, who appeared for Hutchinson and Oliver), and was +removed from his position as head of the post office in the American +colonies. + +Satisfied that his usefulness in England was at an end, Franklin +entrusted his agencies to the care of Arthur Lee, and on the 21st of +March 1775 again set sail for Philadelphia. During the last years of his +stay in England there had been repeated attempts to win him (probably +with an under-secretaryship) to the British service, and in these same +years he had done a great work for the colonies by gaining friends for +them among the opposition, and by impressing France with his ability and +the excellence of his case. Upon reaching America, he heard of the +fighting at Lexington and Concord, and with the news of an actual +outbreak of hostilities his feeling toward England seems to have changed +completely. He was no longer a peacemaker, but an ardent war-maker. On +the 6th of May, the day after his arrival in Philadelphia, he was +elected by the assembly of Pennsylvania a delegate to the Continental +Congress in Philadelphia. In October he was elected a member of the +Pennsylvania assembly, but, as members of this body were still required +to take an oath of allegiance to the crown, he refused to serve. In the +Congress he served on as many as ten committees, and upon the +organization of a continental postal system, he was made +postmaster-general, a position he held for one year, when (in 1776) he +was succeeded by his son-in-law, Richard Bache, who had been his deputy. +With Benjamin Harrison, John Dickinson, Thomas Johnson and John Jay he +was appointed in November 1775 to a committee to carry on a secret +correspondence with the friends of America "in Great Britain, Ireland +and other parts of the world." He planned an appeal to the king of +France for aid, and wrote the instructions of Silas Deane who was to +convey it. In April 1776 he went to Montreal with Charles Carroll, +Samuel Chase and John Carroll, as a member of the commission which +conferred with General Arnold, and attempted without success to gain the +co-operation of Canada. Immediately after his return from Montreal he +was a member of the committee of five appointed to draw up the +Declaration of Independence, but he took no actual part himself in +drafting that instrument, aside from suggesting the change or insertion +of a few words in Jefferson's draft. From July 16 to September 28 he +acted as president of the Constitutional Convention of Pennsylvania. + +With John Adams and Edward Rutledge he was selected by Congress to +discuss with Admiral Howe (September 1776, at Staten Island) the terms +of peace proposed by Howe, who had arrived in New York harbour in July +1776, and who had been an intimate friend of Franklin; but the +discussion was fruitless, as the American commissioners refused to treat +"_back_ of this step of independency." On the 26th of September in the +same year Franklin was chosen as commissioner to France to join Arthur +Lee, who was in London, and Silas Deane, who had arrived in France in +June 1776. He collected all the money he could command, between £3000 +and £4000, lent it to Congress before he set sail, and arrived at Paris +on the 22nd of December. He found quarters at Passy,[4] then a suburb of +Paris, in a house belonging to Le Ray de Chaumont, an active friend of +the American cause, who had influential relations with the court, and +through whom he was enabled to be in the fullest communication with the +French government without compromising it in the eyes of Great Britain. + +At the time of Franklin's arrival in Paris he was already one of the +most talked about men in the world. He was a member of every important +learned society in Europe; he was a member, and one of the managers, of +the Royal Society, and was one of eight foreign members of the Royal +Academy of Sciences in Paris. Three editions of his scientific works had +already appeared in Paris, and a new edition had recently appeared in +London. To all these advantages he added a political purpose--the +dismemberment of the British empire--which was entirely congenial to +every citizen of France. "Franklin's reputation," wrote John Adams with +characteristic extravagance, "was more universal than that of Leibnitz +or Newton, Frederick or Voltaire; and his character more esteemed and +beloved than all of them.... If a collection could be made of all the +gazettes of Europe, for the latter half of the 18th century, a greater +number of panegyrical paragraphs upon _le grand Franklin_ would appear, +it is believed, than upon any other man that ever lived." "Franklin's +appearance in the French salons, even before he began to negotiate," +says Friedrich Christoph Schlosser, "was an event of great importance to +the whole of Europe.... His dress, the simplicity of his external +appearance, the friendly meekness of the old man, and the apparent +humility of the Quaker, procured for Freedom a mass of votaries among +the court circles who used to be alarmed at its coarseness and +unsophisticated truths. Such was the number of portraits,[5] busts and +medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris that he would have +been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the +civilized world." + +Franklin's position in France was a difficult one from the start, +because of the delicacy of the task of getting French aid at a time when +France was unready openly to take sides against Great Britain. But on +the 6th of February 1778, after the news of the defeat and surrender of +Burgoyne had reached Europe, a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity +and commerce between France and the United States were signed at Paris +by Franklin, Deane and Lee. On the 28th of October this commission was +discharged and Franklin was appointed sole plenipotentiary to the French +court. Lee, from the beginning of the mission to Paris, seems to have +been possessed of a mania of jealousy toward Franklin, or of +misunderstanding of his acts, and he tried to undermine his influence +with the Continental Congress. John Adams, when he succeeded Deane +(recalled from Paris through Lee's machinations) joined in the chorus of +fault-finding against Franklin, dilated upon his social habits, his +personal slothfulness and his complete lack of business-like system; but +Adams soon came to see that, although careless of details, Franklin was +doing what no other man could have done, and he ceased his harsher +criticism. Even greater than his diplomatic difficulties were Franklin's +financial straits. Drafts were being drawn on him by all the American +agents in Europe, and by the Continental Congress at home. Acting as +American naval agent for the many successful privateers who harried the +English Channel, and for whom he skilfully got every bit of assistance +possible, open and covert, from the French government, he was +continually called upon for funds in these ventures. Of the vessels to +be sent to Paris with American cargoes which were to be sold for the +liquidation of French loans to the colonies made through Beaumarchais, +few arrived; those that did come did not cover Beaumarchais's advances, +and hardly a vessel came from America without word of fresh drafts on +Franklin. After bold and repeated overtures for an exchange of +prisoners--an important matter, both because the American frigates had +no place in which to stow away their prisoners, and because of the +maltreatment of American captives in such prisons as Dartmoor--exchanges +began at the end of March 1779, although there were annoying delays, and +immediately after November 1781 there was a long break in the agreement; +and the Americans discharged from English prisons were constantly in +need of money. Franklin, besides, was constantly called upon to meet the +indebtedness of Lee and of Ralph Izard (1742-1804), and of John Jay, who +in Madrid was being drawn on by the American Congress. In spite of the +poor condition in Europe of the credit of the struggling colonies, and +of the fact that France was almost bankrupt (and in the later years was +at war), and although Necker strenuously resisted the making of any +loans to the colonies, France, largely because of Franklin's appeals, +expended, by loan or gift to the colonies, or in sustenance of the +French arms in America, a sum estimated at $60,000,000. + +In 1781 Franklin, with John Adams, John Jay, Jefferson, who remained in +America, and Henry Laurens, then a prisoner in England, was appointed on +a commission to make peace with Great Britain. In the spring of 1782 +Franklin had been informally negotiating with Shelburne, secretary of +state for the home department, through the medium of Richard Oswald, a +Scotch merchant, and had suggested that England should cede Canada to +the United States in return for the recognition of loyalist claims by +the states. When the formal negotiations began Franklin held closely to +the instructions of Congress to its commissioners, that they should +maintain confidential relations with the French ministers and that they +were "to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce +without their knowledge and concurrence," and were ultimately to be +governed by "their advice and opinion." Jay and Adams disagreed with him +on this point, believing that France intended to curtail the territorial +aspirations of the Americans for her own benefit and for that of her +ally, Spain. At last, after the British government had authorized its +agents to treat with the commissioners as representatives of an +independent power, thus recognizing American independence before the +treaty was made, Franklin acquiesced in the policy of Jay. The +preliminary treaty was signed by the commissioners on the 30th of +November 1782, the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783. Franklin +had repeatedly petitioned Congress for his recall, but his letters were +unanswered or his appeals refused until the 7th of March 1785, when +Congress resolved that he be allowed to return to America; on the 10th +of March Thomas Jefferson, who had joined him in August of the year +before, was appointed to his place. Jefferson, when asked if he replaced +Franklin, replied, "No one can replace him, sir; I am only his +successor." Before Franklin left Paris on the 12th of July 1785 he had +made commercial treaties with Sweden (1783) and Prussia (1785; signed +after Franklin's departure by Jefferson and John Adams). Franklin +arrived in Philadelphia on the 13th of September, disembarking at the +same wharf as when he had first entered the city. He was immediately +elected a member of the municipal council of Philadelphia, becoming its +chairman; and was chosen president of the Supreme Executive Council (the +chief executive officer) of Pennsylvania, and was re-elected in 1786 and +1787, serving from October 1785 to October 1788. In May 1787 he was +elected a delegate to the Convention which drew up the Federal +Constitution, this body thus having a member upon whom all could agree +as chairman, should Washington be absent. He opposed over-centralization +of government and favoured the Connecticut Compromise, and after the +work of the Convention was done used his influence to secure the +adoption of the Constitution.[6] As president of the Pennsylvania +Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Franklin signed a +petition to Congress (12th February 1790) for immediate abolition of +slavery, and six weeks later in his most brilliant manner parodied the +attack on the petition made by James Jackson (1757-1806) of Georgia, +taking off Jackson's quotations of Scripture with pretended texts from +the Koran cited by a member of the Divan of Algiers in opposition to a +petition asking for the prohibition of holding Christians in slavery. +These were his last public acts. His last days were marked by a fine +serenity and calm; he died in his own house in Philadelphia on the 17th +of April 1790, the immediate cause being an abscess in the lungs. He was +buried with his wife in the graveyard (Fifth and Arch Streets) of Christ +Church, Philadelphia. + +Physically Franklin was large, about 5 ft. 10 in. tall, with a +well-rounded, powerful figure; he inherited an excellent constitution +from his parents--"I never knew," says he, "either my father or mother +to have any sickness but that of which they dy'd, he at 89, and she at +85 years of age"--but injured it somewhat by excesses; in early life he +had severe attacks of pleurisy, from one of which, in 1727, it was not +expected that he would recover, and in his later years he was the victim +of stone and gout. When he was sixteen he became a vegetarian for a +time, rather to save money for books than for any other reason, and he +always preached moderation in eating, though he was less consistent in +his practice in this particular than as regards moderate drinking. He +was always enthusiastically fond of swimming, and was a great believer +in fresh air, taking a cold air bath regularly in the morning, when he +sat naked in his bedroom beguiling himself with a book or with writing +for a half-hour or more. He insisted that fresh, cold air was not the +cause of colds, and preached zealously the "gospel of ventilation." He +was a charming talker, with a gay humour and a quiet sarcasm and a +telling use of anecdote for argument. Henri Martin, the French +historian, speaks of him as "of a mind altogether French in its grace +and elasticity." In 1730 he married Deborah Read, in whose father's +house he had lived when he had first come to Philadelphia, to whom he +had been engaged before his first departure from Philadelphia for +London, and who in his absence had married a ne'er-do-well, one Rogers, +who had deserted her. The marriage to Franklin is presumed to have been +a common law marriage, for there was no proof that Miss Read's former +husband was dead, nor that, as was suspected, a former wife, alive when +Rogers married Miss Read, was still alive, and that therefore his +marriage to Deborah was void. His "Debby," or his "dear child," as +Franklin usually addressed her in his letters, received into the family, +soon after her marriage, Franklin's illegitimate son, William Franklin +(1729-1813),[7] with whom she afterwards quarrelled, and whose mother, +tradition says, was Barbara, a servant in the Franklin household. +Another illegitimate child became the wife of John Foxcroft of +Philadelphia. Deborah, who was "as much dispos'd to industry and +frugality as" her husband, was illiterate and shared none of her +husband's tastes for literature and science; her dread of an ocean +voyage kept her in Philadelphia during Franklin's missions to England, +and she died in 1774, while Franklin was in London. She bore him two +children, one a son, Francis Folger, "whom I have seldom since seen +equal'd in everything, and whom to this day [thirty-six years after the +child's death] I cannot think of without a sigh," who died (1736) when +four years old of small-pox, not having been inoculated; the other was +Sarah (1744-1808), who married Richard Bache (1737-1811), Franklin's +successor in 1776-1782 as postmaster-general. Franklin's gallant +relations with women after his wife's death were probably innocent +enough. Best known of his French _amies_ were Mme Helvétius, widow of +the philosopher, and the young Mme Brillon, who corrected her "Papa's" +French and tried to bring him safely into the Roman Catholic Church. +With him in France were his grandsons, William Temple Franklin, William +Franklin's natural son, who acted as private secretary to his +grandfather, and Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798), Sarah's son, whom +he sent to Geneva to be educated, for whom he later asked public office +of Washington, and who became editor of the _Aurora_, one of the leading +journals in the Republican attacks on Washington. + +Franklin early rebelled against New England Puritanism and spent his +Sundays in reading and in study instead of attending church. His +free-thinking ran its extreme course at the time of his publication in +London of _A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain_ +(1725), which he recognized as one of the great _errata_ of his life. He +later called himself a deist, or theist, not discriminating between the +terms. To his favourite sister he wrote: "There are some things in your +New England doctrine and worship which I do not agree with; but I do not +therefore condemn them, or desire to shake your belief or practice of +them." Such was his general attitude. He did not believe in the divinity +of Christ, but thought "his system of morals and his religion, as he +left them to us, the best the world ever saw, or is like to see." His +intense practical-mindedness drew him away from religion, but drove him +to a morality of his own (the "art of virtue," he called it), based on +thirteen virtues each accompanied by a short precept; the virtues were +Temperance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity, +Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility, Chastity and Humility, +the precept accompanying the last-named virtue being "Imitate Jesus and +Socrates." He made a business-like little notebook, ruled off spaces for +the thirteen virtues and the seven days of the week, "determined to give +a week's strict attention to each of the virtues successively ... +[going] thro' a course compleate in thirteen weeks and four courses in a +year," marking for each day a record of his adherence to each of the +precepts. "And conceiving God to be the fountain of wisdom," he "thought +it right and necessary to solicit His assistance for obtaining it," and +drew up the following prayer for daily use: "O powerful Goodness! +bountiful Father! merciful Guide! Increase in me that wisdom which +discovers my truest interest. Strengthen my resolution to perform what +that wisdom dictates. Accept my kind offices to Thy other children, as +the only return in my power for Thy continual favours to me." He was by +no means prone to overmuch introspection, his great interest in the +conduct of others being shown in the wise maxims of Poor Richard, which +were possibly too utilitarian but were wonderfully successful in +instructing American morals. His _Art of Virtue_ on which he worked for +years was never completed or published in any form. + +"Benjamin Franklin, Printer," was Franklin's own favourite description +of himself. He was an excellent compositor and pressman; his +workmanship, clear impressions, black ink and comparative freedom from +errata did much to get him the public printing in Pennsylvania and New +Jersey, and the printing of the paper money[8] and other public matters +in Delaware. The first book with his imprint is _The Psalms of David +Imitated in the Language of the New Testament and apply'd to the +Christian State and Worship. By I. Watts ..., Philadelphia: Printed by +B. F. and H. M. for Thomas Godfrey, and Sold at his Shop, 1729._ The +first novel printed in America was Franklin's reprint in 1744 of +_Pamela_; and the first American translation from the classics which was +printed in America was a version by James Logan (1674-1751) of Cato's +_Moral Distichs_ (1735). In 1744 he published another translation of +Logan's, Cicero _On Old Age_, which Franklin thought typographically the +finest book he had ever printed. In 1733 he had established a press in +Charleston, South Carolina, and soon after did the same in Lancaster, +Pa., in New Haven, Conn., in New York, in Antigua, in Kingston, Jamaica, +and in other places. Personally he had little connexion with the +Philadelphia printing office after 1748, when David Hall became his +partner and took charge of it. But in 1753 he was eagerly engaged in +having several of his improvements incorporated in a new press, and more +than twenty years after was actively interested in John Walter's scheme +of "logography." In France he had a private press in his house in Passy, +on which he printed "bagatelles." Franklin's work as a publisher is for +the most part closely connected with his work in issuing the _Gazette_ +and _Poor Richard's Almanack_ (a summary of the proverbs from which +appeared in the number for 1758, and has often been reprinted--under +such titles as _Father Abraham's Speech_, and _The Way to Wealth_).[9] + +Of much of Franklin's work as an author something has already been said. +Judged as literature, the first place belongs to his _Autobiography_, +which unquestionably ranks among the few great autobiographies ever +written. His style in its simplicity, facility and clearness owed +something to De Foe, something to Cotton Mather, something to Plutarch, +more to Bunyan and to his early attempts to reproduce the manner of the +third volume of the _Spectator_; and not the least to his own careful +study of word usage. From Xenophon's _Memorabilia_ he learned when a boy +the Socratic method of argument. Swift he resembled in the occasional +broadness of his humour, in his brilliantly successful use of sarcasm +and irony,[10] and in his mastery of the hoax. Balzac said of him that +he "invented the lightning-rod, the hoax ('le canard') and the +republic." Among his more famous hoaxes were the "Edict of the King of +Prussia" (1773), already described; the fictitious supplement to the +Boston _Chronicle_, printed on his private press at Passy in 1782, and +containing a letter with an invoice of eight packs of 954 cured, dried, +hooped and painted scalps of rebels, men, women and children, taken by +Indians in the British employ; and another fictitious _Letter from the +Count de Schaumberg to the Baron Hohendorf commanding the Hessian Troops +in America_ (1777)--the count's only anxiety is that not enough men will +be killed to bring him in moneys he needs, and he urges his officer in +command in America "to prolong the war ... for I have made arrangements +for a grand Italian opera, and I do not wish to be obliged to give it +up."[11] + +Closely related to Franklin's political pamphlets are his writings on +economics, which, though undertaken with a political or practical +purpose and not in a purely scientific spirit, rank him as the first +American economist. He wrote in 1729 _A Modest Enquiry into the Nature +and Necessity of a Paper Currency_, which argued that a plentiful +currency will make rates of interest low and will promote immigration +and home manufactures, and which did much to secure the further issue of +paper money in Pennsylvania. After the British Act of 1750 forbidding +the erection or the operating of iron or steel mills in the colonies, +Franklin wrote _Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind and the +Peopling of Countries_ (1751); its thesis was that manufactures come to +be common only with a high degree of social development and with great +density of population, and that Great Britain need not, therefore, fear +the industrial competition of the colonies, but it is better known for +the estimate (adopted by Adam Smith) that the population of the colonies +would double every quarter-century; and for the likeness to +Malthus's[12] "preventive check" of its statement: "The greater the +common fashionable expense of any rank of people the more cautious they +are of marriage." His _Positions to be examined concerning National +Wealth_ (1769) shows that he was greatly influenced by the French +physiocrats after his visit to France in 1767. His _Wail of a Protected +Manufacturer_ voices a protest against protection as raising the cost of +living; and he held that free trade was based on a natural right. He +knew Kames, Hume and Adam Smith, and corresponded with Mirabeau, "the +friend of Man." Some of the more important of his economic theses, as +summarized by W. A. Wetzel, are: that money as coin may have more than +its bullion value; that natural interest is determined by the rent of +land valued at the sum of money loaned--an anticipation of Turgot; that +high wages are not inconsistent with a large foreign trade; that the +value of an article is determined by the amount of labour necessary to +produce the food consumed in making the article; that manufactures are +advantageous but agriculture only is truly productive; and that when +practicable (as he did not think it practicable at the end of the War of +Independence) state revenue should be raised by direct tax. + +Franklin as a scientist[13] and as an inventor has been decried by +experts as an amateur and a dabbler; but it should be remembered that it +was always his hope to retire from public life and devote himself to +science. In the American Philosophical Society (founded 1743) scientific +subjects were much discussed. Franklin wrote a paper on the causes of +earthquakes for his _Gazette_ of the 15th of December 1737; and he +eagerly collected material to uphold his theory that waterspouts and +whirlwinds resulted from the same causes. In 1743, from the circumstance +that an eclipse not visible in Philadelphia because of a storm had been +observed in Boston, where the storm although north-easterly did not +occur until an hour after the eclipse, he surmised that storms move +_against_ the wind along the Atlantic coast. In the year before (1742) +he had planned the "Pennsylvania fire-place," better known as the +"Franklin stove," which saved fuel, heated all the room, and had the +same principle as the hot-air furnace; the stove was never patented by +Franklin, but was described in his pamphlet dated 1744. He was much +engaged at the same time in remedying smoking chimneys, and as late as +1785 wrote to Jan Ingenhousz, physician to the emperor of Austria, on +chimneys and draughts; smoking street lamps he remedied by a simple +contrivance. The study of electricity he took up in 1746 when he first +saw a Leyden jar, in the manipulation of which he became expert and +which he improved by the use of granulated lead in the place of water +for the interior armatures; he recognized that condensation is due to +the dielectric and not to the metal coatings. A note in his diary, dated +the 7th of November 1749, shows that he had then conjectured that +thunder and lightning were electrical manifestations; in the same year +he planned the lightning-rod (long known as "Franklin's rod"), which he +described and recommended to the public in 1753, when the Copley medal +of the Royal Society was awarded him for his discoveries. The famous +experiment with the kite, proving lightning an electrical phenomenon, +was performed by Franklin in June 1752. He overthrew entirely the +"friction" theory of electricity and conceived the idea of plus and +minus charges (1753); he thought the sea the source of electricity. On +light Franklin wrote to David Rittenhouse in June 1784; the sum of his +own conjectures was that the corpuscular theory of Newton was wrong, and +that light was due to the vibration of an elastic aether. He studied +with some care the temperature of the Gulf Stream. In navigation he +suggested many new contrivances, such as water-tight compartments, +floating anchors to lay a ship to in a storm, and dishes that would not +upset during a gale; and beginning in 1757 made repeated experiments +with oil on stormy waters. As a mathematician he devised various +elaborate magic squares and novel magic circles, of which he speaks +apologetically, because they are of no practical use. Always much +interested in agriculture, he made an especial effort (like Robert R. +Livingston) to promote the use of plaster of Paris as a fertiliser. He +took a prominent part in aeronautic experiments during his stay in +France. He made an excellent clock, which because of a slight +improvement introduced by James Ferguson in 1757 was long known as +Ferguson's clock. In medicine Franklin was considered important enough +to be elected to the Royal Medical Society of Paris in 1777, and an +honorary member of the Medical Society of London in 1787. In 1784 he was +on the committee which investigated Mesmer, and the report is a document +of lasting scientific value. Franklin's advocacy of vegetarianism, of +sparing and simple diet, and of temperance in the use of liquors, and of +proper ventilation has already been referred to. His most direct +contribution to medicine was the invention for his own use of bifocal +eyeglasses. + +A summary of so versatile a genius is impossible. His services to +America in England and France rank him as one of the heroes of the +American War of Independence and as the greatest of American diplomats. +Almost the only American scientist of his day, he displayed remarkably +deep as well as remarkably varied abilities in science and deserved the +honours enthusiastically given him by the _savants_ of Europe. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Franklin's works were not collected in his own + lifetime, and he made no effort to publish his writings. _Experiments + and Observations on Electricity_ (London, 1769) was translated into + French by Barbeu Dubourg (Paris, 1773); Vaughan attempted a more + complete edition, _Political, Miscellaneous and Philosophical Pieces_ + (London, 1779); an edition in three volumes appeared after Franklin's + death (London, 1806); what seemed the authentic _Works_, as it was + under the care of Temple Franklin, was published at London (6 vols., + 1817-1819; 3 vols., 1818) and with some additional matter at + Philadelphia (6 vols., 1818). Sparks's edition (10 vols., Boston, + 1836-1842; revised, Philadelphia, 1858) also contained fresh matter; + and there are further additions in the edition of John Bigelow + (Philadelphia, 1887-1888; 5th ed., 1905) and in that by Albert Henry + Smyth (10 vols., New York, 1905-1907). There are important + Frankliniana, about 13,000 papers, in the possession of the American + Philosophical Society, to which they were conveyed by the son of + Temple Franklin's executor, George Fox. Other papers which had been + left to Fox lay for years in barrels in a stable garret; they were + finally cleared out, their owner, Mary Fox, intending to send them to + a paper mill. One barrel went to the mill. The others, it was found, + contained papers belonging to Franklin, and this important collection + was bought and presented to the university of Pennsylvania. The + valuable Frankliniana collected by Henry Stevens were purchased by + Congress in 1885. These MS. collections were first carefully gone over + for the edition of the _Works_ by A. H. Smyth. Franklin's + _Autobiography_ was begun in 1771 as a private chronicle for his son, + Governor William Franklin; the papers, bringing the story of his + father's life down to 1730, were lost by the governor during the War + of Independence, and in 1783 came into the possession of Abel James, + who restored them to Franklin and urged him to complete the sketch. He + wrote a little in 1784, more in 1788, when he furnished a copy to his + friend le Veillard, and a little more in 1790. The original manuscript + was long in the possession of Temple Franklin, who spent years + rearranging the matter in it and making over into politer English his + grandfather's plain-spokenness. So long was the publication delayed + that it was generally believed that Temple Franklin had sold all the + papers to the British government; a French version, _Mémoires de la + vie privée_ (Paris, 1791), was retranslated into English twice in 1793 + (London), and from one of these versions (by Robinson) still another + French version was made (Paris, 1798). Temple Franklin, deciding to + print, got from le Veillard the copy sent to him in 1788 (sending in + return the original with autograph alterations and the final + addition), and from the copy published (London, 1817) an edition + supposed to be authentic and complete. The complete autograph of the + biography, acquired by John Bigelow in 1867 from its French owners, + upon collation with Temple Franklin's edition showed that the latter + contained 1200 emasculations and that it omitted entirely what had + been written in 1790. Bigelow published the complete _Autobiography_ + with additions from Franklin's correspondence and other writings in + 1868; a second edition (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1888) was published + under the title, _The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Written by Himself_. + + In addition to the _Autobiography_ see James Parton, _Life and Times + of Benjamin Franklin_ (2 vols., New York, 1864); John T. Morse, Jr., + _Benjamin Franklin_ (Boston, 1889, in the American Statesmen series); + J. B. McMaster, _Benjamin Franklin as a Man of Letters_ (Boston, 1887, + in American Men of Letters series); Paul L. Ford, _The Many-Sided + Franklin_ (New York, 1899) and _Franklin Bibliography_ (Brooklyn, + 1889); E. E. Hale and E. E. Hale, Jr., _Franklin in France_ (2 vols., + Boston, 1888); J. H. A. Doniol, _Histoire de la participation de la + France a l'établissement des États-Unis d'Amérique_ (Paris, 6 vols., + 1886-1900); S. G. Fisher, _The True Benjamin Franklin_ (Philadelphia, + 1899); E. Robins, _Benjamin Franklin_ (New York, 1898, in the American + Men of Energy series); W. A. Wetzel, "Benjamin Franklin as an + Economist," No. 9, in series 13 of _Johns Hopkins Studies in + Historical and Political Science_; and the prefaces and biographical + matter in A. H. Smyth's edition of the _Works_ (New York, 10 vols., + 1905-1907). (R. We.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Keimer and his sister had come the year before from London, where + he had learned his trade; both were ardent members of the fanatic + band of "French prophets." He proposed founding a new sect with the + help of Franklin, who after leaving his shop ridiculed him for his + long square beard and for keeping the seventh day. Keimer settled in + the Barbadoes about 1730; and in 1731 began to publish at Bridgetown + the semi-weekly _Barbadoes Gazette_. Selections from it called + _Caribbeana_ (1741) and _A Brand Plucked from the Burning, + Exemplified in the Unparalleled Case of Samuel Keimer_ (1718) are + from his pen. He died about 1738. + + [2] The meeting between Franklin, the type of the shrewd, cool + provincial, and Braddock, a blustering, blundering, drinking British + soldier, is dramatically portrayed by Thackeray in the 9th chapter of + _The Virginians_. + + [3] Many questions (about 20 of the first 25) were put by his friends + to draw out what he wished to be known. + + [4] The house is familiar from the drawing of it by Victor Hugo. + + [5] Many of these portraits bore inscriptions, the most famous of + which was Turgot's line, "Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis." + + [6] Notably in a pamphlet comparing the Jews and the + Anti-Federalists. + + [7] William Franklin served on the Canadian frontier with + Pennsylvania troops, becoming captain in 1750; was in the post-office + in 1754-1756; went to England with his father in 1758; was admitted + to legal practice in 1758; in 1763, recommended by Lord Fairfax, + became governor of New Jersey; he left the Whig for the Tory party; + and in the War of Independence was a faithful loyalist, much to the + pain and regret of his father, who, however, was reconciled to him in + part in 1784. He was held as a prisoner from 1776 until exchanged in + 1778; and lived four years in New York, and during the remainder of + his life in England with an annual pension of £800 from the crown. + + [8] For the prevention of counterfeiting continental paper money + Franklin long afterwards suggested the use on the different + denominations of different leaves, having noted the infinite variety + of leaf venation. + + [9] "Seventy-five editions of it have been printed in English, + fifty-six in French, eleven in German and nine in Italian. It has + been translated into Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Welsh, Polish, Gaelic, + Russian, Bohemian, Dutch, Catalan, Chinese, modern Greek and phonetic + writing. It has been printed at least four hundred times, and is + to-day as popular as ever."--P. L. Ford, in _The Many-Sided Franklin_ + (1899). + + [10] Both Swift and Franklin made sport of the typical astrologer + almanack-maker. + + [11] Another hoax was Franklin's parable against religious + persecution thrown into Scriptural form and quoted by him as the + fifty-first chapter of Genesis. In a paper on a "Proposed New Version + of the Bible" he paraphrased a few verses of the first chapter of + Job, making them a satiric attack on royal government; but the + version may well rank with these hoaxes, and even modern writers have + been taken in by it, regarding it as a serious proposal for a + "modernized" version and decrying it as poor taste. Matthew Arnold, + for example, declared this an instance in which Franklin was lacking + in his "imperturbable common sense"; and J. B. McMaster, though + devoting several pages to its discussion, very ingenuously declares + it "beneath criticism." + + [12] Malthus quoted Franklin in his first edition, but it was not + until the second that he introduced the theory of the "preventive + check." Franklin noted the phenomenon with disapproval in his + advocacy of increased population; Malthus with approval in his search + for means to decrease population. + + [13] The title of philosopher as used in Franklin's lifetime referred + neither in England nor in France to him as author of moral maxims, + but to him as a scientist--a "natural philosopher." + + + + +FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786-1847), English rear-admiral and explorer, was +born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire, on the 16th of April 1786. His family was +descended from a line of free-holders or "franklins" from whom some +centuries earlier they had derived their surname; but the small family +estate was sold by his father, who went into business. John, who was the +fifth and youngest son and ninth child, was destined for the church. At +the age of ten he was sent to school at St Ives, and soon afterwards was +transferred to Louth grammar school, which he attended for two years. +About this time his imagination was deeply impressed by a holiday walk +of 12 m. which he made with a companion to look at the sea, and he +determined to be a sailor. In the hope of dispelling this fancy his +father sent him on a trial voyage to Lisbon in a merchantman; but it +being found on his return that his wishes were unchanged he was entered +as a midshipman on board the "Polyphemus," and shortly afterwards took +part in her in the hard-fought battle of Copenhagen (2nd of April 1801). +Two months later he joined the "Investigator," a discovery-ship +commanded by his cousin Captain Matthew Flinders, and under the training +of that able scientific officer was employed in the exploration and +mapping of the coasts of Australia, where he acquired a correctness of +astronomical observation and a skill in surveying which proved of +eminent utility in his future career. He was on board the "Porpoise" +when that ship and the "Cato" were wrecked (18th of August 1803) on a +coral reef off the coast of Australia, and after this misfortune +proceeded to China. Thence he obtained a passage to England in the "Earl +Camden," East Indiaman, commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) Nathaniel +Dance, and performed the duty of signal midshipman in the famous action +of the 15th of February 1804 when Captain Dance repulsed a strong French +squadron led by the redoubtable Admiral Linois. On reaching England he +joined the "Bellerophon," 74, and was in charge of the signals on board +that ship during the battle of Trafalgar. Two years later he joined the +"Bedford," attaining the rank of lieutenant the year after, and served +in her on the Brazil station (whither the "Bedford" went as part of the +convoy which escorted the royal family of Portugal to Rio de Janeiro in +1808), in the blockade of Flushing, and finally in the disastrous +expedition against New Orleans (1814), in which campaign he displayed +such zeal and intelligence as to merit special mention in despatches. + +On peace being established, Franklin turned his attention once more to +the scientific branch of his profession, and sedulously extended his +knowledge of surveying. In 1818 the discovery of a North-West Passage to +the Pacific became again, after a long interval, an object of national +interest, and Lieutenant Franklin was given the command of the "Trent" +in the Arctic expedition, under the orders of Captain Buchan in the +"Dorothea". During a heavy storm the "Dorothea" was so much damaged by +the pack-ice that her reaching England became doubtful, and, much to the +chagrin of young Franklin, the "Trent" was compelled to convoy her home +instead of being allowed to prosecute the voyage alone. This voyage, +however, had brought Franklin into personal intercourse with the leading +scientific men of London, and they were not slow in ascertaining his +peculiar fitness for the command of such an enterprise. To calmness in +danger, promptness and fertility of resource, and excellent seamanship, +he added an ardent desire to promote science for its own sake, together +with a love of truth that led him to do full justice to the merits of +his subordinate officers, without wishing to claim their discoveries as +a captain's right. Furthermore, he possessed a cheerful buoyancy of +mind, sustained by deep religious principle, which was not depressed in +the most gloomy times. It was therefore with full confidence in his +ability and exertions that, in 1819, he was placed in command of an +expedition appointed to proceed overland from the Hudson Bay to the +shores of the Arctic Sea, and to determine the trendings of that coast +eastward of the Coppermine river. At this period the northern coast of +the American continent was known at two isolated points only,--this, the +mouth of the Coppermine river (which, as Franklin discovered, was +erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the north), and +the mouth of the Mackenzie far to the west of it. Lieutenant Franklin +and his party, consisting of Dr Richardson, Midshipmen George Back and +Richard Hood, and a few ordinary boatmen, arrived at the depot of the +Hudson's Bay Company at the end of August 1819, and making an autumnal +journey of 700 m. spent the first winter on the Saskatchewan. Owing to +the supplies which had been promised by the North-West and Hudson's Bay +Companies not being forthcoming the following year, it was not until the +summer of 1821 that the Coppermine was ascended to its mouth, and a +considerable extent of sea-coast to the eastward surveyed. The return +journey led over the region known as the Barren Ground, and was marked +by the most terrible sufferings and privations and the tragic death of +Lieutenant Hood. The survivors of the expedition reached York Factory in +the month of June 1822, having accomplished altogether 5550 m. of +travel. While engaged on this service Franklin was promoted to the rank +of commander (1st of January 1821), and upon his return to England at +the end of 1822 he obtained the post rank of captain and was elected a +fellow of the Royal Society. The narrative of this expedition was +published in the following year and became at once a classic of travel, +and soon after he married Eleanor, the youngest daughter of William +Porden, an eminent architect. + +Early in 1825 he was entrusted with the command of a second overland +expedition, and upon the earnest entreaty of his dying wife, who +encouraged him to place his duty to his country before his love for her, +he set sail without waiting to witness her end. Accompanied as before by +Dr (afterwards Sir) John Richardson and Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) +George Back, he descended the Mackenzie river in the season of 1826 and +traced the North American coast as far as 149° 37' W. long., whilst +Richardson at the head of a separate party connected the mouths of the +Coppermine and Mackenzie rivers. Thus between the years 1819 and 1827 he +had added 1200 m. of coast-line to the American continent, or one-third +of the whole distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific. These exertions +were fully appreciated at home and abroad. He was knighted in 1829, +received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, +was awarded the gold medal of the Geographical Society of Paris, and was +elected corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. The +results of these expeditions are described by Franklin and Dr Richardson +in two magnificent works published in 1824-1829. In 1828 he married his +second wife, Jane, second daughter of John Griffin. His next official +employment was on the Mediterranean station, in command of the +"Rainbow," and his ship soon became proverbial in the squadron for the +happiness and comfort of her officers and crew. As an acknowledgment of +the essential service which he rendered off Patras in the Greek War of +Independence, he received the cross of the Redeemer of Greece from King +Otto, and after his return to England he was created knight commander of +the Guelphic order of Hanover. + +In 1836 he accepted the lieutenant-governorship of Van Diemen's Land (now +Tasmania), and held that post till the end of 1843. His government was +marked by several events of much interest, one of his most popular +measures being the opening of the doors of the legislative council to the +public. He also founded a college, endowing it largely from his private +funds, and in 1838 established a scientific society at Hobart Town (now +called the Royal Society of Tasmania), the meetings of which were held in +Government House and its papers printed at his expense. In his time also +the colony of Victoria was founded by settlers from Tasmania; and towards +its close, transportation to New South Wales having been abolished, the +convicts from every part of the British empire were sent to Tasmania. On +an increase of the lieutenant-governor's salary being voted by the +colonial legislature, Sir John declined to derive any advantage from it +personally, while he secured the augmentation to his successors. He +welcomed eagerly the various expeditions for exploration and surveying +which visited Hobart Town, conspicuous among these, and of especial +interest to himself, being the French and English Antarctic expeditions +of Dumont d'Urville and Sir James C. Ross--the latter commanding the +"Erebus" and "Terror," with which Franklin's own name was afterwards to +be so pathetically connected. A magnetic observatory fixed at Hobart +Town, as a dependency of the central establishment under Colonel Sabine, +was also an object of deep interest up to the moment of his leaving the +colony. That his unflinching efforts for the social and political +advancement of the colony were appreciated was abundantly proved by the +affection and respect shown him by every section of the community on his +departure; and several years afterwards the colonists showed their +remembrance of his virtues and services by sending Lady Franklin a +subscription of £1700 in aid of her efforts for the search and relief of +her husband, and later still by a unanimous vote of the legislature for +the erection of a statue in honour of him at Hobart Town. + +Sir John found on reaching England that there was about to be a renewal +of polar research, and that the confidence of the admiralty in him was +undiminished, as was shown by his being offered the command of an +expedition for the discovery of a North-West Passage to the Pacific. +This offer he accepted. The prestige of Arctic service and of his former +experiences attracted a crowd of volunteers of all classes, from whom +were selected a body of officers conspicuous for talent and energy. +Captain Crozier, who was second in command, had been three voyages with +Sir Edward Parry, and had commanded the "Terror" in Ross's Antarctic +expedition. Captain Fitzjames, who was commander on board the "Erebus," +had been five times gazetted for brilliant conduct in the operations of +the first China war, and in a letter which he wrote from Greenland has +bequeathed some good-natured but masterly sketches of his brother +officers and messmates on this expedition. Thus supported, with crews +carefully chosen (some of whom had been engaged in the whaling service), +victualled for three years, and furnished with every appliance then +known, Franklin's expedition, consisting of the "Erebus" and "Terror" +(129 officers and men), with a transport ship to convey additional +stores as far as Disco in Greenland, sailed from Greenhithe on the 19th +of May 1845. The letters which Franklin despatched from Greenland were +couched in language of cheerful anticipation of success, while those +received from his officers expressed their glowing hope, their +admiration of the seamanlike qualities of their commander, and the +happiness they had in serving under him. The ships were last seen by a +whaler near the entrance of Lancaster Sound, on the 26th of July, and +the deep gloom which settled down upon their subsequent movements was +not finally raised till fourteen years later. + +Franklin's instructions were framed in conjunction with Sir John Barrow +and upon his own suggestions. The experience of Parry had established +the navigability of Lancaster Sound (leading westwards out of Baffin +Bay), whilst Franklin's own surveys had long before satisfied him that a +navigable passage existed along the north coast of America from the Fish +river to Bering Strait. He was therefore directed to push through +Lancaster Sound and its continuation, Barrow Strait, without loss of +time, until he reached the portion of land on which Cape Walker is +situated, or about long. 98° W., and from that point to pursue a course +southward towards the American coast. An explicit prohibition was given +against a westerly course beyond the longitude of 98° W., but he was +allowed the single alternative of previously examining Wellington +Channel (which leads out of Barrow Strait) for a northward route, if the +navigation here were open. + +In 1847, though there was no real public anxiety as to the fate of the +expedition, preparations began to be made for the possible necessity of +sending relief. As time passed, however, and no tidings reached England, +the search began in earnest, and from 1848 onwards expedition after +expedition was despatched in quest of the missing explorers. The work of +these expeditions forms a story of achievement which has no parallel in +maritime annals, and resulted in the discovery and exploration of +thousands of miles of new land within the grim Arctic regions, the +development of the system of sledge travelling, and the discovery of a +second North-West Passage in 1850 (see Polar Regions). Here it is only +necessary to mention the results so far as the search for Franklin was +concerned. In this great national undertaking Lady Franklin's exertions +were unwearied, and she exhausted her private funds in sending out +auxiliary vessels to quarters not comprised in the public search, and by +her pathetic appeals roused the sympathy of the whole civilized world. + +The first traces of the missing ships, consisting of a few scattered +articles, besides three graves, were discovered at Franklin's winter +quarters (1845-1846) on Beechey Island, by Captain (afterwards Sir) +Erasmus Ommanney of the "Assistance," in August 1851, and were brought +home by the "Prince Albert," which had been fitted out by Lady Franklin. +No further tidings were obtained until the spring of 1854, when Dr John +Rae, then conducting a sledging expedition of the Hudson's Bay Company +from Repulse Bay, was told by the Eskimo that (as was inferred) in 1850 +white men, to the number of about forty, had been seen dragging a boat +southward along the west shore of King William's Island, and that later +in the same season the bodies of the whole party were found by the +natives at a point a short distance to the north-west of Back's Great +Fish river, where they had perished from the united effects of cold and +famine. The latter statement was afterwards disproved by the discovery +of skeletons upon the presumed line of route; but indisputable proof was +given that the Eskimo had communicated with members of the missing +expedition, by the various articles obtained from them and brought home +by Dr Rae. In consequence of the information obtained by Dr Rae, a party +in canoes, under Messrs Anderson and Stewart, was sent by government +down the Great Fish river in 1855, and succeeded in obtaining from the +Eskimo at the mouth of the river a considerable number of articles which +had evidently belonged to the Franklin expedition; while others were +picked up on Montreal Island a day's march to the northward. It was +clear, therefore, that a party from the "Erebus" and "Terror" had +endeavoured to reach the settlements of the Hudson's Bay Company by the +Fish river route, and that in making a southerly course it had been +arrested within the channel into which the Great Fish river empties +itself. The admiralty now decided to take no further steps to determine +the exact fate of the expedition, and granted to Dr Rae the reward of +£10,000 which had been offered in 1849 to whosoever should first succeed +in obtaining authentic news of the missing men. It was therefore +reserved for the latest effort of Lady Franklin to develop, not only the +fate of her husband's expedition but also the steps of its progress up +to the very verge of success, mingled indeed with almost unprecedented +disaster. With all her available means, and aided, as she had been +before, by the subscriptions of sympathizing friends, she purchased and +fitted out the little yacht "Fox," which sailed from Aberdeen in July +1857. The command was accepted by Captain (afterwards Sir) Leopold +M'Clintock, whose high reputation had been won in three of the +government expeditions sent out in search of Franklin. Having been +compelled to pass the first winter in Baffin Bay, it was not till the +autumn of 1858 that the "Fox" passed down Prince Regent's Inlet, and put +into winter quarters at Port Kennedy at the eastern end of Bellot +Strait, between North Somerset and Boothia Felix. In the spring of 1859 +three sledging parties went out, Captain (afterwards Sir) Allen Young to +examine Prince of Wales Island, Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Hobson +the north and west coasts of King William's Island, and M'Clintock the +east and south coasts of the latter, the west coast of Boothia, and the +region about the mouth of Great Fish river. This splendid and exhaustive +search added 800 m. of new coast-line to the knowledge of the Arctic +regions, and brought to light the course and fate of the expedition. +From the Eskimo in Boothia many relics were obtained, and reports as to +the fate of the ships and men; and on the west and south coast of King +William's Island were discovered skeletons and remains of articles that +told a terrible tale of disaster. Above all, in a cairn at Point Victory +a precious record was discovered by Lieutenant Hobson that briefly told +the history of the expedition up to April 25, 1848, three years after it +set out full of hope. In 1845-1846 the "Erebus" and "Terror" wintered at +Beechey Island on the S.W. coast of North Devon, in lat. 74° 43' 28" +N., long. 91° 39' 15" W., after having ascended Wellington Channel to +lat. 77° and returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island. This +statement was signed by Graham Gore, lieutenant, and Charles F. des +Voeux, mate, and bore date May 28, 1847. These two officers and six men, +it was further told, left the ships on May 24, 1847 (no doubt for an +exploring journey), at which time all was well. + +Such an amount of successful work has seldom been accomplished by an +Arctic expedition within any one season. The alternative course +permitted Franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not +pursued, and in the autumn of 1846 he had followed that route which was +specially commended to him. But after successfully navigating Peel and +Franklin Straits on his way southward, his progress had been suddenly +and finally arrested by the obstruction of heavy ("palaeocrystic") ice, +which presses down from the north-west through M'Clintock Channel (not +then known to exist) upon King William's Island. It must be remembered +that in the chart which Franklin carried King William's Island was laid +down as a part of the mainland of Boothia, and he therefore could pursue +his way _only_ down its western coast. Upon the margin of the printed +admiralty form on which this brief record was written was an addendum +dated the 25th of April 1848, which extinguished all further hopes of a +successful termination of this grand enterprise. The facts are best +conveyed in the terse and expressive words in which they were written, +and are therefore given _verbatim_: "April 25th, 1848. H.M. Ships +'Terror' and 'Erebus' were deserted on 22nd April, five leagues N.N.W. +of this, having been beset since 12th September 1846. The officers and +crews, consisting of 105 souls under the command of Captain F. R. M. +Crozier, landed in lat. 69° 37' 42" N., long. 98° 41' W. This paper was +found by Lieut. Irving ... where it had been deposited by the late +Commander Gore in June 1847. Sir John Franklin died on the 11th June +1847; and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this +date 9 officers and 15 men." The handwriting is that of Captain +Fitzjames, to whose signature is appended that of Captain Crozier, who +also adds the words of chief importance, namely, that they would "start +on to-morrow 26th April 1848 for Back's Fish river." A briefer record +has never been told of so tragic a story. + +All the party had without doubt been greatly reduced through want of +sufficient food, and the injurious effects of three winters in these +regions. They had attempted to drag with them two boats, besides heavily +laden sledges, and doubtless had soon been compelled to abandon much of +their burden, and leave one boat on the shore of King William's Island, +where it was found by M'Clintock, near the middle of the west coast, +containing two skeletons. The route adopted was the shortest possible, +but their strength and supplies had failed, and at that season of the +year the snow-covered land afforded no subsistence. An old Eskimo woman +stated that these heroic men "fell down and died as they walked," and, +as Sir John Richardson has well said, they "forged the last link of the +North-West Passage with their lives." From all that can be gathered, one +of the ships must have been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water, +and the other, stranded on the shore of King William's Island, lay there +for years, forming a mine of wealth for the neighbouring Eskimo. + +This is all we know of the fate of Franklin and his brave men. His +memory is cherished as one of the most conspicuous of the naval heroes +of Britain, and as one of the most successful and daring of her +explorers. He is certainly entitled to the honour of being the first +discoverer of the North-West Passage; the point reached by the ships +having brought him to within a few miles of the known waters of America, +and on the monument erected to him by his country, in Waterloo Place, +London, this honour is justly awarded to him and his companions,--a fact +which was also affirmed by the president of the Royal Geographical +Society, when presenting their gold medal to Lady Franklin in 1860. On +the 26th of October 1852 Franklin had been promoted to the rank of +rear-admiral. He left an only daughter by his first marriage. Lady +Franklin died in 1875 at the age of eighty-three, and a fortnight after +her death a fine monument was unveiled in Westminster Abbey, +commemorating the heroic deeds and fate of Sir John Franklin, and the +inseparable connexion of Lady Franklin's name with the fame of her +husband. Most of the relics brought home by M'Clintock were presented by +Lady Franklin to the United Service Museum, while those given by Dr Rae +to the admiralty are deposited in Greenwich hospital. In 1864-1869 the +American explorer Captain Hall made two journeys in endeavouring to +trace the remnant of Franklin's party, bringing back a number of +additional relics and some information confirmatory of that given by +M'Clintock, and in 1878 Lieutenant F. Schwatka of the United States army +and a companion made a final land search, but although accomplishing a +remarkable record of travel discovered nothing which threw any fresh +light on the history of the expedition. + + See H. D. Traill, _Life of Sir John Franklin_ (1896). + + + + +FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1903), Federal general in the American +Civil War, was born at York, Pennsylvania, on the 27th of February 1823. +He graduated at West Point, at the head of his class, in 1843, was +commissioned in the Engineer Corps, U.S.A., and served with distinction +in the Mexican War, receiving the brevet of first lieutenant for his +good conduct at Buena Vista, in which action he was on the staff of +General Taylor. After the war he was engaged in miscellaneous +engineering work, becoming a first lieutenant in 1853 and a captain in +1857. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he was made +colonel of a regular infantry regiment, and a few days later +brigadier-general of volunteers. He led a brigade in the first battle of +Bull Run, and on the organization by McClellan of the Army of the +Potomac he received a divisional command. He commanded first a division +and then the VI. Corps in the operations before Richmond in 1862, +earning the brevet of brigadier-general in the U.S. Army; was promoted +major-general, U.S.V., in July 1862; commanded the VI. corps at South +Mountain and Antietam; and at Fredericksburg commanded the "Left Grand +Division" of two corps (I. and VI.). His part in the last battle led to +charges of disobedience and negligence being preferred against him by +the commanding general, General A. E. Burnside, on which the +congressional committee on the conduct of the war reported unfavourably +to Franklin, largely, it seems, because Burnside's orders to Franklin +were not put in evidence. Burnside had issued on the 23rd of January +1863 an order relieving Franklin from duty, and Franklin's only other +service in the war was as commander of the XIX. corps in the abortive +Red River Expedition of 1864. In this expedition he received a severe +wound at the action of Sabine Cross Roads (April 8, 1864), in +consequence of which he took no further active part in the war. He +served for a time on the retiring board, and was captured by the +Confederates on the 11th of July 1864, but escaped the same night. In +1865 he was brevetted major-general in the regular army, and in 1866 he +was retired. After the war General Franklin was vice-president of the +Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, was president of the +commission to lay out Long Island City, N.Y. (1871-1872), of the +commission on the building of the Connecticut state house (1872-1873), +and, from 1880 to 1899, of the board of managers of the national home +for disabled volunteer soldiers; as a commissioner of the United States +to the Paris Exposition of 1889 he was made a grand officer of the +Legion of Honour; and he was for a time a director of the Panama +railway. He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 8th of March 1903. He +wrote a pamphlet, _The Gatling Gun for Service Ashore and Afloat_ +(1874). + + See _A Reply of Major-General William B. Franklin to the Report of the + Joint Committee of Congress on the Conduct of the War_ (New York, + 1863; 2nd ed., 1867), and Jacob L. Greene, _Gen. W. B. Franklin and + the Operations of the Left Wing at the Battle of Fredericksburg_ + (Hartford, 1900). + + + + +FRANKLIN, an organized district of Canada, extending from the Arctic +Circle to the North Pole. It was formed by order-in-council on the 2nd +of October 1895, and includes numerous islands and peninsulas, such as +Banks, Prince Albert, Victoria, Wollaston, King Edward and Baffin Land, +Melville, Bathurst, Prince of Wales and Cockburn Islands. Of these, +Baffin Land alone extends south of the Arctic Circle. The area is +estimated at 500,000 sq. m., but the inhabitants consist of a few +Indians, Eskimo and fur-traders. Musk-oxen, polar bears, foxes and other +valuable fur-bearing animals are found in large numbers. The district is +named after Sir John Franklin. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., with an +area of 29 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1900) 5017, of whom 1250 +were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 5244; (1910 census) 5641. The +principal village, also named Franklin, is about 27 m. S.W. of Boston, +and is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. Franklin +has a public library (housed in the Ray memorial building and containing +7700 volumes in 1910) and is the seat of Dean Academy (Universalist; +founded in 1865), a secondary school for boys and girls. Straw goods, +felt, cotton and woollen goods, pianos and printing presses are +manufactured here. The township was incorporated in 1778, previous to +which it was a part of Wrentham (1673). It was the first of the many +places in the United States named in honour of Benjamin Franklin (who +later contributed books for the public library). Horace Mann was born +here. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a city of Merrimack county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., at the +confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnepesaukee rivers to form the +Merrimac; about 95 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 4085; (1900) 5846 +(1323 foreign-born); (1910) 6132; area, about 14.4 sq. m. Franklin is +served by the Concord Division of the Boston & Maine railway, with a +branch to Bristol (13 m. N.W.) and another connecting at Tilton (about 5 +m. E.) with the White Mountains Division. It contains the villages of +Franklin, Franklin Falls, Webster Place and Lake City, the last a summer +resort. The rivers furnish good water power, which is used in the +manufacture of a variety of commodities, including foundry products, +paper and pulp, woollen goods, hosiery, saws, needles and knitting +machines. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality. +Here, in what was then a part of the town of Salisbury, Daniel Webster +was born, and on the Webster farm is the New Hampshire orphans' home, +established in 1871. The town of Franklin was formed in 1828 by the +union of portions of Salisbury, Sanbornton, Andover and Northfield. The +earliest settlement within its limits was made in 1748 in the portion +taken from Salisbury. Franklin was incorporated as a city in 1895. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a city and the county-seat of Venango county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., at the confluence of French Creek and Allegheny river, about 55 +m. S. by E. of Erie, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 6221; +(1900) 7317 (489 being foreign-born); (1910) 9767. Franklin is served by +the Erie, the Pennsylvania, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the +Franklin & Clearfield railways. Its streets are broad and well paved and +shaded, and there are two public parks, a public library and many +handsome residences. Franklin is the centre of the chief oil region of +the state, and from it great quantities of refined oil are shipped. +Natural gas also abounds. The city's manufacture include oil-well +supplies, boilers, engines, steel castings, iron goods, lumber, bricks, +asbestos goods, manifolding paper and flour. On the site of the present +city the French built in 1754 a fortification, Fort Machault, which +after the capture of Fort Duquesne by the English was a rallying place +for Indians allied with the French. In 1759 the French abandoned and +completely destroyed the fort; and in the following year the English +built in the vicinity Fort Venango, which was captured by the Indians in +1763 during the Conspiracy of Pontiac, the whole garrison being +massacred. In 1787 the United States built Fort Franklin (about 1 m. +above the mouth of French Creek) as a protection against the Indians; in +1796 the troops were removed to a strongly built and well-fortified +wooden building, known as "Old Garrison," at the mouth of French Creek, +and in 1803 they were permanently withdrawn from the neighbourhood. +Franklin was laid out as a town in 1795, was incorporated as a borough +in 1828, and was chartered as a city in 1868. Most of its growth dates +from the discovery of oil in 1860. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a town and the county-seat of Williamson county, Tennessee, +U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on the Harpeth river, and +about 20 m. S.W. of Nashville. Pop. (1900) 2180; (1910) 2924. Franklin +is served by the Louisville & Nashville railway. It is the seat of the +Tennessee Female College and the Battle Ground Academy, and its chief +objects of interest are the battle-ground, the Confederate cemetery and +the Confederate monument. During the Civil War Franklin was the scene of +a minor engagement on the 10th of April 1863, and of a battle, +celebrated as one of the most desperately fought of the war, which took +place on the 30th of November 1864. The Union general Schofield, who was +slowly withdrawing to Nashville before the advance of General J. B. +Hood's army, which he was ordered to hold in check in order to give +Thomas time to prepare for battle (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, § 32), was +unable immediately to cross the Harpeth river and was compelled to +entrench his forces south of the town until his wagon trains and +artillery could be sent over the stream by means of two small bridges. +In the afternoon Schofield's outposts and advanced lines were attacked +by the Confederates in full strength, and instead of withdrawing as +ordered they made a determined stand. Thus the assailants, carrying the +advanced works by storm, rushed upon the main defences on the heels of +the broken advanced guard, and a general engagement was brought on which +lasted from 3.30 until nine o'clock in the evening. Against, it is said, +thirteen separate assaults, all delivered with exceptional fury, +Schofield managed to hold his position, and shortly before midnight he +withdrew across the river in good order. The engagement was indecisive +in its results, but the Union commander's purpose, to hold Hood +momentarily in check, was gained, and Hood's effort to crush Schofield +was unavailing. The losses were very heavy; Hood's effective forces in +the engagement numbered about 27,000, Schofield's about 28,000; the +Confederate losses (excluding cavalry) were about 6500, excluding the +slightly wounded; six general officers were killed (including +Major-General P. R. Cleburne, a brave Irishman who had been a corporal +in the British army), six wounded, and one captured; the Union losses +(excluding cavalry) were 2326. In two of the Confederate brigades all +the general and field officers were killed or wounded. + + See J. D. Cox, _The Battle of Franklin_ (New York, 1897). + + + + +FRANKLIN, a word derived from the Late Lat. _francus_, free, and meaning +primarily a freeman. Subsequently it was used in England to denote a +land-holder who was of free but not of noble birth. Some of the older +English writers occasionally use it to mean a liberal host. The Latin +form of the word is _franchilanus_. + + + + +FRANKLINITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals, consisting of +oxides of iron, manganese and zinc in varying proportions, (Fe, Zn, +Mn)"(Fe, Mn)2"'O4. It occurs as large octahedral crystals often with +rounded edges, and as granular masses. The colour is iron-black and the +lustre metallic; hardness 6, specific gravity 5.2. It thus resembles +magnetite in external characters, but is readily distinguished from this +by the fact that it is only slightly magnetic. It is found in +considerable amount, associated with zinc minerals (zincite and +willemite) in crystalline limestone, at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, +where it is mined as an ore of zinc (containing 5 to 20% of the metal); +after the extraction of the zinc, the residue is used in the manufacture +of spiegeleisen (the mineral containing 15 to 20% of manganese oxides). +Associated with franklinite at Franklin Furnace, and found also at some +other localities, is another member of the spinel group, namely, gahnite +or zinc-spinel, which is a zinc aluminate, ZnAl2O4, with a little of the +zinc replaced by iron and manganese. + + + + +FRANK-MARRIAGE (_liberum maritagium_), in real property law, a species +of estate tail, now obsolete. When a man was seized of land in fee +simple, and gave it to a daughter on marriage, the daughter and her +husband were termed the donees in frank-marriage, because they held the +land granted to them and the heirs of their two bodies free from all +manner of service, except fealty, to the donor or his heirs until the +fourth degree of consanguinity from the donor was passed. This right of +a freeholder so to give away his land at will was first recognized in +the reign of Henry II., and became up to the reign of Elizabeth the most +usual kind of settlement. + + + + +FRANKPLEDGE (Lat. _francum plegium_), an early English institution, +consisting (as defined by Stubbs) of an association for mutual security +whose members, according to Hallam, "were perpetual bail for each +other." The custom whereby the Inhabitants of a district were +responsible for any crime or injury committed by one of their number is +old and widespread; it prevailed in England before the Norman Conquest, +and is an outcome of the earlier principle whereby this responsibility +rested on kinship. Thus a law of Edgar (d. 975) says "and let every man +so order that he have a _borh_ (or surety), and let the borh then bring +and hold him to every justice; and if any one then do wrong and run +away, let the borh bear that which he ought to bear"; and a law of +Canute about 1030 says "and that every one be brought into a hundred and +in borh, and let the borh hold and lead him to every plea." About this +time these societies, each having its headman, were called _frithborhs_, +or peace-borhs, and the Normans translated the Anglo-Saxon word by +frankpledge. But the history of the frankpledge proper begins not +earlier than the time of the Norman Conquest. The laws, which although +called the laws of Edward the Confessor were not drawn up until about +1130, contain a clause about frithborhs which decrees that in every +place societies of ten men shall be formed for mutual security and +reparation. And before this date William the Conqueror had ordered that +"every one who wishes to be regarded as free must be in a pledge, and +that the pledge must hold and bring him to justice if he commits any +offence"; and the laws of Henry I. ordered every person of substance +over twelve years of age to be enrolled in a frankpledge. This +association of ten, or as it often was at a later date of twelve men, +was also called a _tithing_, or _decima_, and in the north of England +was known as _tenmanne_ tale. + +The view of frankpledge (_visus franciplegii_), or the duty of +ascertaining that the law with regard to frankpledges was complied with, +was in the hands of the sheriffs, who held an itinerant court called the +"sheriff's tourn" for this and other purposes. This court was held twice +a year, but in 1217 it was ordered that the view of frankpledge should +only be taken once--at Michaelmas. Introduced at or before the time of +Henry I., the view was regulated by the Assize of Clarendon of 1166 and +by Magna Carta as reissued in 1217. Although the former of these lays +stress upon the fact that the sheriff's supervisory powers are universal +many men did not attend his tourn. Some lords of manors and of hundreds +held a court of their own for view of frankpledge, and in the 13th +century it may be fairly said "of all the franchises, the royal rights +in private hands, view of frankpledge is perhaps the commonest." At the +end of the same century the court for the view of frankpledge was +generally known as the court leet, and was usually a manorial court in +private hands. However, the principle of the frankpledge was still +enforced. Thus Bracton says "every male of the age of twelve years, be +he free be he serf, ought to be in frankpledge," but he allows for +certain exceptions. + +As the word frankpledge denotes, these societies were originally +concerned only with freemen; but the unfree were afterwards admitted, +and during the 13th century the frankpledges were composed chiefly of +villains. From petitions presented to parliament in 1376 it seems that +the view of frankpledge was in active operation at this time, but it +soon began to fall into disuse, and its complete decay coincides with +the new ideas of government introduced by the Tudors. In a formal +fashion courts leet for the view of frankpledge were held in the time of +the jurist Selden, and a few of these have survived until the present +day. Sir F. Palgrave has asserted that the view of frankpledge was +unknown in that part of the country which had been included in the +kingdom of Northumbria. This statement is open to question, but it is +highly probable that the system was not so deeply rooted in this part of +England as elsewhere. The machinery of the frankpledge was probably used +by Henry II. when he introduced the jury of presentment; and commenting +on this connexion F. W. Maitland says "the duty of producing one's +neighbour to answer accusations (the duty of the frankpledges) could +well be converted into the duty of telling tales against him." The +system of frankpledge prevailed in some English boroughs. Sometimes a +court for view of frankpledge, called in some places a _mickleton_, +whereat the mayor or the bailiffs presided, was held for the whole +borough; in other cases the borough was divided into wards, or into +_leets_, each of which had its separate court. + + See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1895); G. Waitz, + _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, Band i. (1880); and W. Stubbs, + _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (1897). + + + + +FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897), English antiquary, was born +on the 20th of March 1826, and was educated at Eton and at Trinity +College, Cambridge. He early showed inclination for antiquarian +pursuits, and in 1851 was appointed assistant in the Antiquities +Department of the British Museum. Here, and as director of the Society +of Antiquaries, an appointment he received in 1858, he made himself the +first authority in England upon medieval antiquities of all +descriptions, upon porcelain, glass, the manufactures of savage nations, +and in general upon all Oriental curiosities and works of art later than +the Classical period. In 1866 the British and medieval antiquities, with +the ethnographical collections, were formed into a distinct department +under his superintendence; and the Christy collection of ethnography in +Victoria Street, London, prior to its amalgamation with the British +Museum collections, was also under his care. He became vice-president +and ultimately president of the Society of Antiquaries, and in 1878 +declined the principal librarianship of the museum. He retired on his +seventieth birthday, 1896, and died on the 21st of May 1897. His ample +fortune was largely devoted to the collection of ceramics and precious +objects of medieval art, most of which became the property of the +nation, either by donation in his lifetime or by bequest at his death. +Although chiefly a medieval antiquary, Franks was also an authority on +classical art, especially Roman remains in Britain: he was also greatly +interested in book-marks and playing-cards, of both of which he formed +important collections. He edited Kemble's _Horae Ferales_, and wrote +numerous memoirs on archaeological subjects. Perhaps his most important +work of this class is the catalogue of his own collection of porcelain. + + + + + +FRANKS. The name Franks seems to have been given in the 4th century to a +group of Germanic peoples dwelling north of the Main and reaching as far +as the shores of the North Sea; south of the Main was the home of the +Alamanni. The names of some of these tribes have come down to us. On the +_Tabula Peutingeriana_ appear the "Chamavi qui et _Pranci_," which +should doubtless read "qui et _Franci_"; these Chamavi apparently dwelt +between the Yssel and the Ems. Later, we find them a little farther +south, on the banks of the Rhine, in the district called Hamalant, and +it is their customs which were brought together in the 9th century in +the document known as the _Lex Francorum Chamavorum_. After the Chamavi +we may mention the Attuarii or Chattuarii, who are referred to by +Ammianus Marcellinus (xx. 10, 2): "Rheno exinde transmisso, regionem +pervasit (Julianus) Francorum quos Atthuarios vocant." Later, the _pagus +Attuariorum_ corresponds to the district of Emmerich and Xanten. It +should be noted that this name occurs again in the middle ages in +Burgundy, not far from Dijon; in all probability a detachment of this +people had settled in that spot in the 5th or 6th century. The Bructeri, +Ampsivarii and Chatti may also be classed among the Frankish tribes. +They are mentioned in a celebrated passage of Sulpicius Alexander, which +is cited by Gregory of Tours (_Historia Francorum_, ii. 9). Sulpicius +shows the general Arbogast, a barbarian in the service of Rome, seeking +to take vengeance on the Franks (392): "Collecto exercitu, transgressus +Rhenum, Bricteros ripae proximos, pagum etiam quem Chamavi incolunt +depopulatus est, nullo unquam occursante, nisi quod pauci ex Ampsivariis +et Catthis Marcomere duce in ulterioribus collium jugis apparuere." It +is evidently this Marcomeres, the chief of these tribes, who is regarded +by later historians as the father of the legendary Faramund (Pharamund) +although in fact Marcomeres has nothing to do with the Salian Franks. + +The earliest mention in history of the name Franks is the entry on the +_Tabula Peutingeriana_, at least if we assume that the term "et Franci" +is not a later emendation. The earliest occurrence of the name in any +author is in the _Vita Aureliani_ of Vopiscus (ch. vii.). When, in 241, +Aurelian, who was then only a tribune, had just defeated some Franks in +the neighbourhood of Mainz and was marching against the Persians, his +troops sang the following refrain: + + Mille Sarmatas, mille _Francos_, semel et semel occidimus; + Mille Persas, quaerimus. + +All these Germanic tribes, which were known from the 3rd century onwards +by the generic name of Franks, doubtless spoke a similar dialect and +were governed by customs which must scarcely have differed from one +another; but this was all they had in common. Each tribe was politically +independent; they formed no confederations. Sometimes two or three +tribes joined forces to wage a war; but, the struggle over, the bond was +broken, and each tribe resumed its isolated life. Waitz holds with some +show of probability that the Franks represent the ancient Istaevones of +Tacitus, the Alamanni and the Saxons representing the Herminones and the +Ingaevones. + +Of all these Frankish tribes one especially was to become prominent, the +tribe of the Salians. They are mentioned for the first time in 358, by +Ammianus Marcellinus (xvii. 8, 3), who says that the Caesar Julian +"petit primos omnium Francos, videlicet eos quos consuetudo Salios +appellavit." As to the origin of the name, it was long held to be +derived from the river Yssel or Saal. It is more probable, however, that +it arose from the fact that the Salians for a long period occupied the +shores of the salt sea.[1] The Salians inhabited the sea-coast, whereas +the Ripuarians dwelt on the banks of the river Rhine. + +The Salians, at the time when they are mentioned by Ammianus, occupied +Toxandria, i.e. the region south of the Meuse, between that river and +the Scheldt. Julian defeated them completely, but allowed them to remain +in Toxandria, not, as of old, as conquerors, but as _foederati_ of the +Romans. They perhaps paid tribute, and they certainly furnished Rome +with soldiers; _Salii seniores_ and _Salii juniores_ are mentioned in +the _Notitia dignitatum_, and Salii appear among the _auxilia palatina_. + +At the end of the 4th century and at the beginning of the 5th, when the +Roman legions withdrew from the banks of the Rhine, the Salians +installed themselves in the district as an independent people. The +place-names became entirely Germanic; the Latin language disappeared; +and the Christian religion suffered a check, for the Franks were to a +man pagans. The Salians were subdivided into a certain number of tribes, +each tribe placing at its head a king, distinguished by his long hair +and chosen from the most noble family (_Historia Francorum_, ii. 9). + +The most ancient of these kings, reigning over the principal tribe, who +is known to us is Chlodio.[2] According to Gregory of Tours Chlodio +dwelt at a place called Dispargum, which it is impossible to identify. +Towards 431 he crossed the great Roman road from Bavay to Cologne, which +was protected by numerous forts and had long arrested the invasions of +the barbarians. He then invaded the territory of Arras, but was severely +defeated at Hesdin-le-Vieux by Aetius, the commander of the Roman army +in Gaul. Chlodio, however, soon took his revenge. He explored the region +of Cambrai, seized that town, and occupied all the country as far as the +Somme. At this time Tournai became the capital of the Salian Franks. + +After Chlodio a certain Meroveus (Merowech) was king of the Salian +Franks. We do not know if he was the son of Chlodio; Gregory of Tours +simply says that he belonged to Chlodio's stock--"de hujus stirpe quidam +Merovechum regem fuisse adserunt,"--and then only gives the fact at +second hand. Perhaps the remarks of the Byzantine historian Priscus may +refer to Meroveus. A king of the Franks having died, his two sons +disputed the power. The elder journeyed into Pannonia to obtain support +from Attila; the younger betook himself to the imperial court at Rome. +"I have seen him," writes Priscus; "he was still very young, and we all +remarked his fair hair which fell upon his shoulders." Aetius welcomed +him warmly and sent him back a friend and _foederatus_. In any case, +eventually, Franks fought (451) in the Roman ranks at the great battle +of Mauriac (the Catalaunian Fields), which arrested the progress of +Attila into Gaul; and in the _Vita Lupi_, which, though undoubtedly of +later date, is a recension of an earlier document, the name of Meroveus +appears among the combatants. Towards 457 Meroveus was succeeded by his +son Childeric. At first Childeric was a faithful _foederatus_ of the +Romans, fighting for them against the Visigoths and the Saxons south of +the Loire; but he soon sought to make himself independent and to extend +his conquests. He died in 481 and was succeeded by his son Clovis, who +conquered the whole of Gaul with the exception of the kingdom of +Burgundy and Provence. Clovis made his authority recognized over the +other Salian tribes (whose kings dwelt at Cambrai and other cities), and +put an end to the domination of the Ripuarian Franks. + +These Ripuarians must have comprised a certain number of Frankish +tribes, such as the Ampsivarii and the Bructeri. They settled in the 5th +century in compact masses on the left bank of the Rhine, but their +progress was slow. It was not until the Christian writer Salvian (who +was born about 400) had already reached a fairly advanced age that they +were able to seize Cologne. The town, however, was recaptured and was +not definitely in their possession until 463. The Ripuarians +subsequently occupied all the country from Cologne to Trier. +Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn and Zülpich were their principal centres, and they +even advanced southward as far as Metz, which appears to have resisted +their attacks. The Roman civilization and the Latin language disappeared +from the countries which they occupied; indeed it seems that the actual +boundaries of the German and French languages nearly coincide with those +of their dominion. In their southward progress the Ripuarians +encountered the Alamanni, who, already masters of Alsace, were +endeavouring to extend their conquests in all directions. There were +numerous battles between the Ripuarians and the Alamanni; and the memory +of one fought at Zülpich has come down to us. In this battle Sigebert, +the king of the Ripuarians, was wounded in the knee and limped during +the remainder of his life--hence his surname Claudus (the Lame). The +Ripuarians long remained allies of Clovis, Sigebert's son Chloderic +fighting under the king of the Salian Franks at Vouillé in 507. Clovis, +however, persuaded Chloderic to assassinate his father, and then posed +as Sigebert's avenger, with the result that Chloderic was himself +assassinated and the Ripuarians raised Clovis on the shield and chose +him as king. Thus the Salian Franks united under their rule all the +Franks on the left bank of the Rhine. During the reigns of Clovis's sons +they again turned their eyes on Germany, and imposed their suzerainty +upon the Franks on the right bank. This country, north of the Main and +the first residence of the Franks, then received the name of _Francia +Orientalis_, and became the origin of one of the duchies into which +Germany was divided in the 10th century--the duchy of Franconia +(Franken). + +The Franks were redoubtable warriors, and were generally of great +stature. Their fair or red hair was brought forward from the crown of +the head towards the forehead, leaving the nape of the neck uncovered; +they shaved the face except the upper lip. They wore fairly close +breeches reaching to the knee and a tunic fastened by brooches. Round +the waist over the tunic was worn a leathern girdle having a broad iron +buckle damascened with silver. From the girdle hung the single-edged +missile axe or _francisca_, the _scramasax_ or short knife, a poniard +and such articles of toilet as scissors, a comb (of wood or bone), &c. +The Franks also used a weapon called the _framea_ (an iron lance set +firmly in a wooden shaft), and bows and arrows. They protected +themselves in battle with a large wooden or wicker shield, the centre of +which was ornamented with an iron boss (_umbo_). Frankish arms and +armour have been found in the cemeteries which abound throughout +northern France, the warriors being buried fully armed. + + See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_ (Göttingen, 1828); K. + Müllenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_ (Berlin, 1883-1900); E. von + Wietersheim, _Geschichte der Völkerwanderung_, 2nd ed., ed. by F. Dahn + (Leipzig, 1880-1881); G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, vol. + i. (4th ed. revised by Zeumer); R. Schröder, "Die Ausbreitung der + salischen Franken," in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, vol. + xix.; K. Lamprecht, _Fränkische Wanderungen und Ansiedelungen_ + (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1882); W. Schultz, _Deutsche Geschichte von der + Urzeit bis zu den Karolingern_, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896); Fustel de + Coulanges, _Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne + France--l'invasion germanique_ (Paris, 1891). Also the articles SALIC + LAW and GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY. (C. Pf.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Their legends are connected with the sea, the name Meroveus + signifying "sea-born." + + [2] The chronicler Fredegarius and the author of the _Liber historiae + Francorum_ make Sunno and Marcomeres his predecessors, but in reality + they were chiefs of other Frankish tribes. The author of the _Liber_ + also claims that Chlodio was the son of Pharamund, but this personage + is quite legendary. In the _Chronicon_ of Fredegarius it is already + affirmed that the Franks are descended from the Trojans. + + + + +FRANZ, ROBERT (1815-1892), German composer, was born at Halle on the +28th of June 1815. One of the most gifted of German song writers, he +suffered in early life, as many musicians have suffered, from the +hostility of his parents to a musical career. He was twenty years old +when, his father's animosity conquered, he was allowed to live in Dessau +to study organ-playing under Schneider. The two years of dry study under +that famous teacher were advantageous chiefly in making him uncommonly +intimate with the works of Bach and Handel, his knowledge of which he +showed in his editions of the _Matthäus Passion_, _Magnificat_, ten +cantatas, and of the _Messiah_ and _L'Allegro_, though some of these +editions have long been a subject of controversy among musicians. In +1843 he published his first book of songs, which ultimately was followed +by some fifty more books, containing in all about 250 songs. At Halle, +Franz filled various public offices, including those of organist to the +city, conductor of the Sing-akademie and of the Symphony concerts, and +he was also a royal music-director and master of the music at the +university. The first book of songs was warmly praised by Schumann and +Liszt, the latter of whom wrote a lengthy review of it in Schumann's +paper, _Die neue Zeitschrift_, which later was published separately. +Deafness had begun to make itself apparent as early as 1841, and Franz +suffered also from a nervous disorder, which in 1868 compelled him to +resign his offices. His future was then provided for by Liszt, Dr +Joachim, Frau Magnus and others, who gave him the receipts of a concert +tour, amounting to some 100,000 marks. Franz died on the 24th of October +1892. On his seventieth birthday he published his first and only +pianoforte piece. It is easy to find here and there among his songs gems +that are hardly less brilliant than the best of Schumann's. Certainly no +musician was ever more thoughtful and more painstaking. In addition to +songs he wrote a setting for double choir of the 117th Psalm, and a +four-part Kyrie; he also edited Astorga's _Stabat Mater_ and Durante's +_Magnificat_. + + + + +FRANZÉN, FRANS MIKAEL (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was born at Uleåborg in +Finland on the 9th of February 1772. At thirteen he entered the +university of Åbo, where he attended the lectures of H. G. Porthan +(1739-1804), a pioneer in the study of Finnish history and legend. He +graduated in 1789, and became "_eloquentiae docens_" in 1792. Three +years later he started on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France and +England, returning in 1796 to accept the office of university librarian +at Åbo. In 1801 he became professor of history and ethics, and in 1808 +was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. On the cession of Finland +to Russia, Franzén removed to Sweden, where he was successively +appointed parish priest of Kumla in the diocese of Strengnäs (1810), +minister of the Clara Church in Stockholm (1824) and bishop of Hernösand +(1831). He died at Säbrå parsonage on the 14th of August 1847. From the +autumn of 1793, when his _Till en ung Flicka_ and _Menniskans anlete_ +were inserted by Kellgren in the _Stockholmspost_, Franzén grew in +popular favour by means of many minor poems of singular simplicity and +truth, as _Till Selma_, _Den gamle knekten_, _Riddar St Göran_, _De Små +blommorna_, _Modren vid vaggan_, _Nyårsmorgonen_ and _Stjernhimmelen_. +His songs _Goda gosse glaset töm_, _Sörj ej den gryende dagen förut_, +_Champagnevinet_ and _Beväringssång_ were widely sung, and in 1797 he +won the prize of the Swedish Academy by his _Sång öfver grefve Filip +Creutz_. Henceforth his muse, touched with the academic spirit, grew +more reflective and didactic. His longer works, as _Emili eller en afton +i Lappland_, and the epics _Svante Sture eller mötet vid Alvastra_, +_Kolumbus eller Amerikas upptäckt_ and _Gustaf Adolf i Tyskland_ (the +last two incomplete), though rich in beauties of detail, are far +inferior to his shorter pieces. + + The poetical works of Franzén are collected under the title + _Skaldestycken_ (7 vols., 1824-1861); new ed., _Samlade dikter_, with + a biography by A. A. Grafström (1867-1869); also a selection (_Valda + dikter_) in 2 vols. (1871). His prose writings, _Om svenska + drottningar_ (Åbo, 1798; Örebro, 1823), _Skrifter i obunden stil_, + vol. i. (1835), _Predikningar_ (5 vols., 1841-1845) and + _Minnesteckningar_, prepared for the Academy (3 vols., 1848-1860), are + marked by faithful portraiture and purity of style. See B. E. + Malmström, in the _Handlingar_ of the Swedish Academy (1852, new + series 1887), vol. ii.; S. A. Hollander, _Minne af F. M. Franzén_ + (Örebro, 1868); F. Cygnaeus, _Teckningar ur F. M. Franzéns lefnad_ + (Helsingfors, 1872); and Gustaf Ljunggren, _Svenska vitterhetens + häfder efter Gustaf III.'s död_, vol. ii. (1876). + + + + +FRANZENSBAD, or KAISER-FRANZENSBAD, a town and watering-place of +Bohemia, Austria, 152 m. W.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 2330. It +is situated at an altitude of about 1500 ft. between the spurs of the +Fichtelgebirge, the Böhmerwald and the Erzgebirge, and lies 4 m. N.W. of +Eger. It possesses a large kursaal, several bathing establishments, a +hospital for poor patients and several parks. There are altogether 12 +mineral springs with saline, alkaline and ferruginous waters, of which +the oldest and most important is the Franzensquelle. One of the springs +gives off carbonic acid gas and another contains a considerable +proportion of lithia salts. The waters, which have an average +temperature between 50.2° F. and 54.5° F., are used both internally and +externally, and are efficacious in cases of anaemia, nervous disorders, +sexual diseases, specially for women, and heart diseases. Franzensbad is +frequently resorted to as an after-cure by patients from Carlsbad and +Marienbad. Another important part of the cure is the so-called _moor_ or +mud-baths, prepared from the peat of the Franzensbad marsh, which is +very rich in mineral substances, like sulphates of iron, of soda and of +potash, organic acids, salt, &c. + +The first information about the springs dates from the 16th century, and +an analysis of the waters was made in 1565. They were first used for +bathing purposes in 1707. But the foundation of Franzensbad as a +watering-place really dates from 1793, when Dr Adler built here the +first _Kurhaus_, and the place received its name after the emperor +Francis I. + + See Dr Loimann, _Franzensbad_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1900). + + + + +FRANZ JOSEF LAND, an arctic archipelago lying E. of Spitsbergen and N. +of Novaya Zemlya, extending northward from about 80° to 82° N., and +between 42° and 64° E. It is described as a lofty glacier-covered land, +reaching an extreme elevation of about 2400 ft. The glaciers front, with +a perpendicular ice-wall, a shore of debris on which a few low plants +are found to grow--poppies, mosses and the like. The islands are +volcanic, the main geological formation being Tertiary or Jurassic +basalt, which occasionally protrudes through the ice-cap in high +isolated blocks near the shore. A connecting island-chain between Franz +Josef Land and Spitzbergen is probable. The bear and fox are the only +land mammals; insects are rare; but the avifauna is of interest, and the +Jackson expedition distinguished several new species. + +August Petermann expressed the opinion that Baffin may have sighted the +west of Franz Josef Land in 1614, but the first actual discovery is due +to Julius Payer, a lieutenant in the Austrian army, who was associated +with Weyprecht in the second polar expedition fitted out by Count +Wilczek on the ship "Tegetthof" in 1872. On the 13th of August 1873, the +"Tegetthof" being then beset, high land was seen to the north-west. +Later in the season Payer led expeditions to Hochstetter and Wilczek +islands, and after a second winter in the ice-bound ship, a difficult +journey was made northward through Austria Sound, which was reported to +separate two large masses of land, Wilczek Land on the east from Zichy +Land on the west, to Cape Fligely, in 82° 5' N., where Rawlinson Sound +branched away to the north-east. Cape Fligely was the highest latitude +attained by Payer, and remained the highest attained in the Old World +till 1895. Payer reported that from Cape Fligely land (Rudolf Land) +stretched north-east to a cape (Cape Sherard Osborn), and mountain +ranges were visible to the north, indicating lands beyond the 83rd +parallel, to which the names King Oscar Land and Petermann Land were +given. In 1879 De Bruyne sighted high land in the Franz Josef Land +region, but otherwise it remained untouched until Leigh Smith, in the +yacht "Eira," explored the whole southern coast from 42° to 54° E. in +1881 and 1882, discovering many islands and sounds, and ascertaining +that the coast of Alexandra Land, in the extreme west, trended to +north-west and north. + +After Leigh Smith came another pause, and no further mention is made of +Franz Josef Land till 1894. In that year Mr Alfred Harmsworth +(afterwards Lord Northcliffe) fitted out an expedition in the ship +"Windward" under the leadership of Mr F. G. Jackson, with the object of +establishing a permanent base from which systematic exploration should +be carried on for successive years and, if practicable, a journey should +be made to the Pole. Mr Jackson and his party landed at "Elmwood" (which +was named from Lord Northcliffe's seat in the Isle of Thanet), near Cape +Flora, at the western extremity of Northbrook Island, on the 7th of +September. After a preliminary reconnaissance to the north, which +afterwards turned out to be vitally important, the summer of 1895 was +spent in exploring the coast to the north-west by a boating expedition. +This expedition visited many of the points seen by Leigh Smith, and +discovered land, which it has been suggested may be the Gillies Land +reported by the Dutch captain Gillies in 1707. In 1896 the +Jackson-Harmsworth expedition worked northwards through an archipelago +for about 70 m. and reached Cape Richthofen, a promontory 700 ft. high, +whence an expanse of open water was seen to the northward, which +received the name of Queen Victoria Sea. To the west, on the opposite +side of a wide opening which was called the British Channel, appeared +glacier-covered land, and an island lay to the northward. The island was +probably the King Oscar Land of Payer. To north and north-east was the +land which had been visited in the reconnaissance of the previous year, +but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the supposed position of +Petermann Land. Thus Zichy Land itself was resolved into a group of +islands, and the outlying land sighted by Payer was found to be islands +also. Meanwhile Nansen, on his southward journey, had approached Franz +Josef Land from the north-east, finding only sea at the north end of +Wilczek Land, and seeing nothing of Payer's Rawlinson Sound, or of the +north end of Austria Sound. Nansen wintered near Cape Norway, only a few +miles from the spot reached by Jackson in 1895. He had finally proved +that a deep oceanic basin lies to the north. On the 17th of June 1896 +the dramatic meeting of Jackson and Nansen took place, and in the same +year the "Windward" revisited "Elmwood" and brought Nansen home, the +work of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition being continued for another +year. As the non-existence of land to the north had been proved, the +attempt to penetrate northwards was abandoned, and the last season was +devoted to a survey and scientific examination of the archipelago, +especially to the west; this was carried out by Messrs Jackson, +Armitage, R. Koettlitz, H. Fisher and W. S. Bruce. + +Further light was thrown on the relations of Franz Josef Land and +Spitsbergen during 1897 by the discoveries of Captain Robertson of +Dundee, and Wyche's Land was circumnavigated by Mr Arnold Pike and Sir +Savile Crossley. The latter voyage was repeated in the following year by +a German expedition under Dr Th. Lerner and Captain Rüdiger. In August +1898 an expedition under Mr Walter Wellman, an American, landed at Cape +Tegetthof. Beginning a northward journey with sledges at the end of the +winter, Wellman met with an accident which compelled him to return, but +not before some exploration had been accomplished, and the eastern +extension of the archipelago fairly well defined. In June 1899 H.R.H. +the duke of Abruzzi started from Christiania in his yacht, the "Stella +Polare," to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly +discovered ocean north of Franz Josef Land. The "Stella Polare" +succeeded in making her way through the British Channel to Crown Prince +Rudolf Land, and wintered in Teplitz Bay, in 81° 33' N. lat. The ship +was nearly wrecked in the autumn, and the party had to spend most of the +winter on shore, the duke of Abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite. +In March 1900 a sledge party of thirteen, under Captain Cagni, started +northwards. They found no trace of Petermann Land, but with great +difficulty crossed the ice to 86° 33' N. lat., 20 m. beyond Nansen's +farthest, and 240 m. from the Pole. The party, with the exception of +three, returned to the ship after an absence of 104 days, and the +"Stella Polare" returned to Tromsö in September 1900. In 1901-1902 the +Baldwin-Ziegler expedition also attempted a northward journey from Franz +Josef Land. + + See _Geographical Journal_, vol. xi., February 1898; F. G. Jackson, _A + Thousand Days in the Arctic_ (1899). + + + + +FRANZOS, KARL EMIL (1848-1904), German novelist, was born of Jewish +parentage on the 25th of October 1848 in Russian Podolia, and spent his +early years at Czortków in Galicia. His father, a district physician, +died early, and the boy, after attending the gymnasium of Czernowitz, +was obliged to teach in order to support himself and prepare for +academic study. He studied law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, +but after passing the examination for employment in the state judicial +service abandoned this career and, becoming a journalist, travelled +extensively in south-east Europe, and visited Asia Minor and Egypt. In +1877 he returned to Vienna, where from 1884 to 1886 he edited the _Neue +illustrierte Zeitung_. In 1887 he removed to Berlin and founded the +fortnightly review _Deutsche Dichtung_. Franzos died on the 28th of +January 1904. His earliest collections of stories and sketches, _Aus +Halb-Asien_, _Land und Leute des östlichen Europas_ (1876) and _Die +Juden von Barnow_ (1877) depict graphically the life and manners of the +races of south-eastern Europe. Among other of his works may be mentioned +the short stories, _Junge Liebe_ (1878), _Stille Geschichten_ (1880), +and the novels _Moschko von Parma_ (1880), _Ein Kampf ums Recht_ (1882), +_Der Präsident_ (1884), _Judith Trachtenberg_ (1890), _Der +Wahrheitsucher_ (1894). + + + + +FRASCATI, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15 +m. S.E. of Rome by rail, and also reached by electric tramway via +Grottaferrata. Pop. (1901) 8453. The town is situated 1056 ft. above the +sea-level, on the N. slopes of the outer crater ring of the Alban Hills, +and commands a very fine view of the Campagna of Rome. The cathedral +contains a memorial tablet to Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, whose +body for some while rested here; his brother, Henry, Cardinal York, +owned a villa at Frascati. The villas of the Roman nobility, with their +beautiful gardens and fountains, are the chief attraction of Frascati. +The earliest in date is the Villa Falconieri, planned by Cardinal +Ruffini before 1550; the most important of the rest are the Villa +Torlonia (formerly Conti), Lancelotti (formerly Piccolomini), Ruffinella +(now belonging to Prince Lancellotti), Aldobrandini, Borghese and +Mondragone (now a Jesuit school). The surrounding country, covered with +remains of ancient villas, is fertile and noted for its wine. Frascati +seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancient villa, which, +under Domitian at any rate, belonged to the imperial house about the 9th +century in which period we find in the _Liber Pontificalis_ the names of +four churches _in Frascata_. The medieval stronghold of the counts of +Tusculum (q.v.), which occupied the site of the ancient city, was +dismantled by the Romans in 1191, and the inhabitants put to the sword +or mutilated. Many of the fugitives naturally took refuge in Frascati. +The see of Tusculum had, however, always had its cathedral church in +Frascati. For the greater part of the middle ages Frascati belonged to +the papacy. + + See G. Tomassetti, _La Via Latina nel medio evo_ (Rome, 1886), 170 + seq.; T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iv. (London, + 1907). (T. As.) + + + + +FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819- ), Scottish philosopher, was born at +Ardchattan, Argyllshire, on the 3rd of September 1819. He was educated +at Glasgow and Edinburgh, where, from 1846 to 1856, he was professor of +Logic at New College. He edited the _North British Review_ from 1850 to +1857, and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church minister, he +succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logic and Metaphysics at +Edinburgh University. In 1859 he became dean of the faculty of arts. He +devoted himself to the study of English philosophers, especially +Berkeley, and published a _Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop +Berkeley with Annotations, &c._ (1871; enlarged 1901), a _Biography of +Berkeley_ (1881), an _Annotated Edition of Locke's Essay_ (1894), the +_Philosophy of Theism_ (1896) and the _Biography of Thomas Reid_ (1898). +He contributed the article on John Locke to the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_. In 1904 he published an autobiography entitled _Biographia +philosophica_, in which he sketched the progress of his intellectual +development. From this work and from his Gifford lectures we learn +objectively what had previously been inferred from his critical works. +After a childhood spent in an austerity which stigmatized as unholy even +the novels of Sir Walter Scott, he began his college career at the age +of fourteen at a time when Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were +lecturing on Moral Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical advance +was stimulated by Thomas Brown's _Cause and Effect_, which introduced +him to the problems which were to occupy his thought. From this point he +fell into the scepticism of Hume. In 1836 Sir William Hamilton was +appointed to the chair of Logic and Metaphysics, and Fraser became his +pupil. He himself says, "I owe more to Hamilton than to any other +influence." It was about this time also that he began his study of +Berkeley and Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for the +conception of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In the +_Biographia_ this "Theistic faith" appears in its full development (see +the concluding chapter), and is especially important as perhaps the +nearest approach to Kantian ethics made by original English philosophy. +Apart from the philosophical interest of the Biographia, the work +contains valuable pictures of the Land of Lorne and Argyllshire society +in the early 19th century, of university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh, +and a history of the _North British Review_. + + + + +FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885), English bishop, was born at Prestbury, in +Gloucestershire, on the 18th of August 1818, and was educated at +Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, and Lincoln College, Oxford. In 1839 he was +Ireland scholar, and took a first class. In 1840 he gained an Oriel +fellowship, and was for some time tutor of the college, but did not take +orders until 1846. He was successively vicar of Cholderton, in +Wiltshire, and rector of Ufton Nervet, in Berkshire; but his subsequent +importance was largely due to W. K. Hamilton, bishop of Salisbury, who +recommended him as an assistant commissioner of education. His report on +the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions, made in May 1859, +was described by Thomas Hughes as "a superb, almost a unique piece of +work." In 1865 he was commissioned to report on the state of education +in the United States and Canada, and his able performance of this task +brought him an offer of the bishopric of Calcutta, which he declined, +but in January 1870 he accepted the see of Manchester. The task before +him was an arduous one, for although his predecessor, James Prince Lee, +had consecrated no fewer than 130 churches, the enormous population was +still greatly in advance of the ecclesiastical machinery. Fraser worked +with the utmost energy, and did even more for the church by the +liberality and geniality which earned him the title of "the bishop of +all denominations." He was prominent in secular as well as religious +works, interesting himself in every movement that promoted health, +morality, or education; and especially serviceable as the friendly, +unofficious counsellor of all classes. His theology was that of a +liberal high-churchman, and his sympathies were broad. In convocation he +seconded a motion for the disuse of the Athanasian Creed, and in the +House of Lords he voted for the abolition of university tests. He died +suddenly on the 22nd of October 1885. + + A biography by Thomas Hughes was published in 1887, and an account of + his Lancashire life by J. W. Diggle (1889), who also edited 2 vols. of + _University and Parochial Sermons_ (1887). + + + + +FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783-1856), Scottish traveller and author, was +born at Reelick in the county of Inverness on the 11th of June 1783. He +was the eldest of the four sons of Edward Satchell Fraser of Reelick, +all of whom found their way to the East, and gave proof of their +ability. In early life he went to the West Indies and thence to India. +In 1815 he made a tour of exploration in the Himalayas, accompanied by +his brother William (d. 1835). When Reza Kuli Mirza and Nejeff Kuli +Mirza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was appointed to +look after them during their stay, and on their return he accompanied +them as far as Constantinople. He was afterwards sent to Persia on a +diplomatic mission by Lord Glenelg, and effected a most remarkable +journey on horseback through Asia Minor to Teheran. His health, however, +was impaired by the exposure. In 1823 he married a daughter of Alexander +Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee, a sister of the historian Patrick +Fraser Tytler. He died at Reelick in January 1856. Fraser is said to +have displayed great skill in water-colours, and several of his drawings +have been engraved; and the astronomical observations which he took +during some of his journeys did considerable service to the cartography +of Asia. The works by which he attained his literary reputation were +accounts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of Eastern +life. In both he employed a vigorous and impassioned style, which was on +the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor faults in taste and +flaws in structure. + + Fraser's earliest writings are: _Journal of a Tour through Part of the + Himala Mountains and to the Sources of the Jumna and the Ganges_ + (1820); _A Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 and + 1822, including some Account of the Countries to the North-East of + Persia_ (1825); and _Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces + on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea_ (1826). His romances include + _The Kuzzilbash, a Tale of Khorasan_ (1828), and its sequel, _The + Persian Adventurer_ (1830); _Allee Neemroo_ (1842); and _The Dark + Falcon_ (1844). He also wrote _An Historical and Descriptive Account + of Persia_ (1834); _A Winter's Journey (Tâtar) from Constantinople to + Teheran_ (1838); _Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, &c._ (1840); + _Mesopotamia and Assyria_ (1842); and _Military Memoirs of Col. James + Skinner_ (1851). + + + + +FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, Bart. (1826-1898), English politician, +author and collector, was born on the 10th of February 1826, the son of +Sir James John Fraser, 3rd baronet, a colonel of the 7th Hussars, who +had served on Wellington's staff at Waterloo. He was educated at Eton +and at Christ Church, Oxford, entered the 1st Life Guards in 1847, but +retired with a captain's rank in 1852. He then set about entering +parliament, and the ups and downs of his political career were rather +remarkable. He was returned for Barnstaple in 1852, but the election was +declared void on account of bribery, and the constituency was +disfranchised for two years. At the election of 1857 Sir William, who +had meantime been defeated at Harwich, was again returned at Barnstaple. +He was, however, defeated in 1859, but was elected in 1863 at Ludlow. +This seat he held for only two years, when he was again defeated and did +not re-enter parliament until 1874, when be was returned for +Kidderminster, a constituency he represented for six years, when he +retired. He was a familiar figure at the Carlton Club, always ready with +a copious collection of anecdotes of Wellington, Disraeli and Napoleon +III. He died on the 17th of August 1898. He was an assiduous collector +of relics; and his library was sold for some £20,000. His own books +comprise _Words on Wellington_ (1889), _Disraeli and his Day_ (1891), +_Hic et Ubique_ (1893), _Napoleon III._ (1896) and the _Waterloo Ball_ +(1897). + + + + +FRASER, the chief river of British Columbia, Canada, rising in two +branches among the Rocky Mountains near 52° 45' N., 118° 30' W. Length +740 m. It first flows N.W. for about 160 m., then rounds the head of the +Cariboo Mountains, and flows directly S. for over 400 m. to Hope, where +it again turns abruptly and flows W. for 80 m., falling into the Gulf of +Georgia at New Westminster. After the junction of the two forks near its +northern extremity, the first important tributary on its southern course +is the Stuart, draining Lakes Stuart, Fraser and François. One hundred +miles lower down the Quesnel, draining a large lake of the same name, +flows in from the east at a town also so named. Farther on the Fraser +receives from the west the Chilcotin, and at Lytton, about 180 m. from +the sea, the Thompson, its largest tributary, flows in from the east, +draining a series of mountain lakes, and receiving at Kamloops the North +Thompson, which flows through deep and impassable canyons. Below Hope +the Lillooet flows in from the north. The Fraser is a typical mountain +stream, rapid and impetuous through all its length, and like most of its +tributaries is in many parts not navigable even by canoes. On its +southern course between Lytton and Yale, while bursting its way through +the Coast Range, it flows through majestic canyons, which, like those of +the Thompson, were the scene of many tragedies during the days of the +gold-rush to the Cariboo district. At Yale, about 80 m. from its mouth, +it becomes navigable, though its course is still very rapid. In the +Cariboo district, comprised within the great bend of the river, near +Tête Jaune Cache, are many valuable gold deposits. With its tributaries +the Fraser drains the whole province from 54° to 49° N., except the +extreme south-eastern corner, which is within the basin of the Columbia +and its tributary the Kootenay. + + + + +FRASERBURGH, a police burgh and seaport, on the N. coast of +Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 7466; (1901), 9105. It is situated +47¼ m. by rail N. of Aberdeen, from which there is a branch line, of +which it is the terminus, of the Great North of Scotland railway. It +takes its name from Sir Alexander Fraser, the ancestor of Lord Saltoun, +whose seat, Philorth House, lies 2 m. to the south. Sir Alexander +obtained for it in 1613 a charter as a burgh of royalty, and also in +1592 a charter for the founding of a university. This latter project, +however, was not carried out, and all that remains of the building +intended for the college is a three-storeyed tower. The old castle of +the Frasers on Kinnaird Head now contains a lighthouse, and close by is +the Wine Tower, with a cave below. The town cross is a fine structure +standing upon a huge hexagon, surmounted by a stone pillar 12 ft. high, +ornamented by the royal and Fraser arms. The port is one of the leading +stations of the herring fishery in the north of Scotland and the head +of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to September) +the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 persons. The fleet +numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual value of the catch exceeds +£200,000. The harbour, originally constructed as a refuge for British +ships of war, is one of the best on the east coast, and has been +improved by the widening of the piers and the extension of the +breakwaters. It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of +access, and affords anchorage for vessels of every size. + + + + +FRASERVILLE (formerly Rivière du Loup en Bas), a town and watering-place +in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada, 107 m. (by water) north-east of +Quebec, on the south shore of the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of +the Rivière du Loup, at the junction of the Intercolonial and +Temiscouata railways. It contains a convent, boys' college, hospital, +several mills, and is a favourite summer resort on account of the +angling and shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1901) 4569. + + + + +FRATER, FRATER HOUSE or FRATERY, a term in architecture for the hall +where the members of a monastery or friary met for meals or refreshment. +The word is by origin the same as "refectory." The older forms, such as +_freitur_, _fraytor_ and the like, show the word to be an adaptation of +the O. Fr. _fraitour_, a shortened form of _refraitour_, from the Med. +Lat. _rejectorium_. The word has been confused with _frater_, a brother +or friar, and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall of +a friary, while "refectory" is used of a monastery. + + + + +FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE, a class of student societies peculiar to the +colleges and universities of the United States and Canada, with certain +common characteristics, and mostly named from two or three letters of +the Greek alphabet; hence they are frequently called "Greek Letter +Societies." They are organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity +comprises a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one +fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges, called +"chapters," in memory of the convocations of monks of medieval times, +are usually designated by Greek letters also. They are nominally secret, +with one exception (_Delta Upsilon_). Each chapter admits members from +the lowest or freshman class, and of course loses its members as the +students depart from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the +same time members of all the four college classes and frequently those +pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a college is +large the material from which fraternity members may be drawn is +correspondingly abundant, and in some of the large colleges (e.g. at +Cornell University and the University of Michigan) there are chapters of +over twenty fraternities. All the fraternities aim to be select and to +pick their members from the mass of incoming students. Where, however, +the material to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities +are numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any +one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men. Many of +the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent selection of +men of about the same tastes at different colleges, acquired a distinct +character and individuality; for instance, _Alpha Delta Phi_ is +literary. + +The first of these fraternities was the _Phi Beta Kappa_, founded at the +College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1776. It was a +little social club of five students: John Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas +Smith, Armistead Smith and John Jones. Its badge was a square silver +medal displaying the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In +1779 it authorized Elisha Parmelee, one of its members, to establish +"meetings" or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being +authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective states. +In 1781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its buildings being +occupied in turn by the British, French and American troops, and the +society ceased to exist. The two branches, however, were +established--that at Yale in 1780 and that at Harvard in 1781. Chapters +were established at Dartmouth in 1787, at Union in 1817, at Bowdoin in +1824 and at Brown in 1830. This society changed its character in 1826 +and became non-secret and purely honorary in character, admitting to +membership a certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in +each class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions +only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies of similar +character among schools of science and engineering are _Sigma Xi_ and +_Tau Beta Pi_. + +In 1825, at Union College, _Kappa Alpha_ was organized, copying in style +of badge, membership restrictions and the like, its predecessor. In 1827 +two other similar societies, _Sigma Phi_ and _Delta Phi_, were founded +at the same place. In 1831 _Sigma Phi_ placed a branch at Hamilton +College and in 1832 _Alpha Delta Phi_ originated there. In 1833 _Psi +Upsilon_, a fourth society, was organized at Union. In 1835 _Alpha Delta +Phi_ placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 _Beta Theta Pi_ +originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities, it will +be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the male students. +In 1910 the total number of men's general fraternities was 32, with 1068 +living chapters, and owning property worth many millions of dollars. In +1864 _Theta Xi_, the first professional fraternity restricting its +membership to students intending to engage in the same profession, was +organized. There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations with some +400 chapters. In addition there are about 100 local societies or +chapters acting as independent units. Some of the older of these, such +as _Kappa Kappa Kappa_ at Dartmouth, _IKA_ at Trinity, _Phi Nu Theta_ at +Wesleyan and _Delta Psi_ at Vermont, are permanent in character, but the +majority of them are purely temporary, designed to maintain an +organization until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general +fraternities. In 1870 the first women's society or "sorority," the +_Kappa Alpha Theta_, was organized at De Pauw University. There were in +1910, 17 general sororities with some 300 active chapters. + +It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant +organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college life +of America and have had a wide influence. Members join in the +impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their organizations +a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contribute with money and +influence to their advancement. + +Almost universally the members of any particular chapter (or part of +them) live together in a lodge or chapter house. The men's fraternities +own hundreds of houses and rent as many more. The fraternities form a +little aristocracy within the college community. Sometimes the line of +separation is invisible, sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this +condition militates against the college discipline and sometimes it +assists it. Conflicts not infrequently occur between the fraternity and +non-fraternity element in a college. + +It can readily be understood how young men living together in the +intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house, having much +the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form among themselves +enduring friendships. In addition each fraternity has a reputation to +maintain, and this engenders an esprit du corps which at times places +loyalty to fraternity interests above loyalty to college interest or the +real advantage of the individual. At commencements and upon other +occasions the former members of the chapters return to their chapter +houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the undergraduates. +The chapter houses are commonly owned by corporations made up of the +alumni. This brings the undergraduates into contact with men of mature +age and often of national fame, who treat their membership as a serious +privilege. + +The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to jealousy and +bitter animosity among those not selected for membership. Some of the +states, notably South Carolina and Arkansas, have by legislation, either +abolished the fraternities at state-controlled institutions or seriously +limited the privileges of their members. The constitutionality of such +legislation has never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen +out of attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the +fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held, may +lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endowment but not at +an institution supported by public funds. In the latter case all +classes of the public are equally entitled to the same educational +privileges and members of the fraternities may not be discriminated +against. + +The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system comprises a +legislative body made up of delegates from the different chapters and an +executive or administrative body elected by the delegates. Few of the +fraternities have any judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems +are sound, and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the +United States, several hundred in number, spend thousands of dollars in +travel and entertainment, and attract much public attention. Most of the +fraternities have an inspection system by which chapters are +periodically visited and kept up to a certain level of excellence. + +The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to eight +times during the college year. The earliest of these was the _Beta Theta +Pi_, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues of their members and +the most prosperous have issued histories. They also publish song books, +music and many ephemeral and local publications. + +The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associations +having headquarters at centres of population. These organizations are +somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable of much exertion and +influence should occasion arise. + +The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students of +colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about it, +however, is that while it is practically uniform throughout the United +States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard, Yale and +Princeton it differs in many respects from its character elsewhere. At +Harvard, although there are chapters of a few of the fraternities, their +influence is insignificant, their place being taken by a group of local +societies, some of them class organizations. At Yale, the regular system +of fraternities obtains in the engineering or technical department (the +Sheffield Scientific School), but in the classical department the +fraternity chapters are called "junior" societies, because they limit +their membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors each +year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain senior +societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones, which are +inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of the fraternities, +are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities themselves. Princeton +has two (secret) literary and fraternal societies, the American Whig and +the Cliosophic, and various local social clubs, with no relationship to +organizations in other colleges and not having Greek letter names. + +At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Virginia), +senior societies or other inter-fraternity societies exert great +influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system. + +Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and imitating the +externals of the college fraternities have sprung up in the high schools +and academies of the country, but have excited the earnest and +apparently united opposition of the authorities of such schools. + + See William Raimond Baird, _American College Fraternities_ (6th ed., + New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, _Cyclopedia of Fraternities_ + (Paterson, N. J., 1899); Henry D. Sheldon, _Student Life and Customs_ + (New York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, _Patterson's College and School + Directory_ (Chicago, 1904); H. K. Kellogg, _College Secret Societies_ + (Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, _Greek Letter Societies_ (Detroit, + 1879). (W. R. B.*) + + + + +FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. _frate_, brother), the name given +during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries to a number of religious groups +in Italy, differing widely from each other, but all derived more or less +directly from the Franciscan movement. Fra Salimbene says in his +_Chronicle_ (Parma ed., p. 108): "All who wished to found a new rule +borrowed something from the Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit." +As early as 1238 Gregory IX., in his bull _Quoniam abundavit iniquitas_, +condemned and denounced as forgers (_tanquam falsarios_) all who begged +or preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders, and this +condemnation was repeated by him or his successors. The term Fraticelli +was used contemptuously to denote, not any particular sect, but the +members of orders formed on the fringe of the church. Thus Giovanni +Villani, speaking of the heretic Dolcino, says in his _Chronicle_ (bk. +viii. ch. 84): "He is not a brother of an ordered rule, but a +_fraticello_ without an order." Similarly, John XXII., in his bull +_Sancta Romana et Universalis Ecclesia_ (28th of December 1317), +condemns vaguely those "_profanae multitudinis viri_ commonly called +Fraticelli, or Brethren of the Poor Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguines, or +by all manner of other names." + +Some historians, in their zeal for rigid classification, have regarded +the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted to discover its +dogmas and its founder. Some of the contemporaries of these religious +groups fell into the same error, and in this way the vague term +Fraticelli has sometimes been applied to the disciples of Armanno +Pongilupo of Ferrara (d. 1269), who was undoubtedly a Cathar, and to the +followers of Gerard Segarelli and Dolcino, who were always known among +themselves as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems +absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans as +Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrle (_Arch. f. Lit. u. +Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, ii. 107, &c.), Angelo of Clarino, in +his _De septem tribulationibus_, written to the glory of the Spirituals, +does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as "disciples of the +devil." It is equally absurd to include in the same category the +ignorant Bizocchi and Segarellists and such learned disciples of Michael +of Cesena and Louis of Bavaria as William of Occam and Bonagratia of +Bergamo, who have often been placed under this comprehensive rubric. + +The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most exalted +fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners declared to the +inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the Franciscan order was divided +into three sections--the Conventuals, who were allowed to retain their +real and personal property; the Spirituals or Beguines, who were at that +time the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose +leader was Henry of Ceva (see Gui's _Practica Inquisitionis_, v.). It is +this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned in his bull +_Gloriosam Ecclesiam_ (23rd of January 1318), but without calling them +Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge in Sicily at the time of Pope +Boniface VIII.'s persecution of the Spirituals, and thanks to the good +offices of Frederick of Sicily, a little colony of Franciscans who +rejected all property had soon established itself in the island. Under +Pope Clement V., and more especially under Pope John XXII., fresh +Spirituals joined them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics +soon began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the +Minorites and then as the sole Catholic Church. After being +excommunicated as "schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious +sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines," they +proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cesena had disavowed them) +and then a pope called Celestine (L. Wadding, _Annales_, at date 1313). +The rebels continued to carry on an active propaganda. In Tuscany +particularly the Inquisition made persistent efforts to suppress them; +Florence afflicted them with severe laws, but failed to rouse the +populace against them. The papacy dreaded their social even more than +their dogmatic influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout +Italy the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and the +malcontents who had either left the church or were on the point of +leaving it, were attracted by these communities of needy rebels; and the +tribune Rienzi was at one time disposed to join them. To overcome these +ascetics it was necessary to have recourse to other ascetics, and from +the outset the reformed Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict +Observance, under the direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da +Trinci (d. 1390), Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bernardine of +Siena, had been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy. +These early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the number +of the sectaries and the extent of their influence, Pope Martin V., who +had encouraged the Observants, and particularly Bernardine of Siena, +fulminated two bulls (1418 and 1421) against the heretics, and entrusted +different legates with the task of hunting them down. These measures +failing, he decided, in 1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors +without territorial limitation to make a special crusade against the +heresy of the Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their +duties under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.) were +Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The latter's valuable +_Dialogus contra Fraticellos_ (Baluze and Mansi, _Miscellanea_, iv. +595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of these heretics and of the +activity of the two inquisitors, and shows that the Fraticelli not only +constituted a distinct church but a distinct society. They had a pope +called Rinaldo, who was elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother +named Gabriel. This supreme head of their church they styled "bishop of +Philadelphia," Philadelphia being the mystic name of their community; +under him were bishops, e.g. the bishops of Florence, Venice, &c.; and, +furthermore, a member of the community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore +the title of "Emperor of the Christians." This organization, at least in +so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed among +the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council of Siena +affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an heretical pope +surrounded with a college of cardinals who made no attempt at +concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli were unremittingly +pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect gradually died out after losing +the protection of the common people, whose sympathy was now transferred +to the austere Observants and their miracle-worker Capistrano. From 1466 +to 1471 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471 Tommaso +di Scarlino was sent to Piombino and the littoral of Tuscany to track +out some Fraticelli who had been discovered in those parts. After that +date the name disappears from history. + + See F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhältnis zum Franziskanerorden + und zu den Fraticellen" and "Zur Vorgeschichte des Concils von + Vienne," in _Archiv für Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte des + Mittelalters_, vols. i., ii., iii.; Wetzer and Welte, + _Kirchenlexikon_, s.v. "Fraticellen"; H. C. Lea, _History of the + Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888). + (P. A.) + + + + +FRAUD (Lat. _fraus_, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which has +never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law, and for +legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But as denoting a +cause of action for which damages can be recovered in civil proceedings +it now has a clear and settled meaning. In actions in which damages are +claimed for fraud, the difficulties and obscurities which commonly arise +are due rather to the complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of +modern swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern +law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must first prove +a representation of fact, made either by words, by writing or by +conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere concealment is not actionable +unless it amounts not only to _suppressio veri_, but to _suggestio +falsi_. An expression of opinion or of intention is not enough, unless +it can be shown that the opinion was not really held, or that the +intention was not really entertained, in which case it must be borne in +mind, to use the phrase of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man's mind is +as much a matter of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, it must be +proved that the representation was made without any honest belief in its +truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with a +reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally +established, after much controversy, in the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ in +1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable. Further, +the person aggrieved must prove that the offender made the +representation with the intention that he should act on it, though not +necessarily directly to him, and that he did in fact act in reliance on +it. Lastly, the complainant must prove that, as the direct consequence, +he has suffered actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement. + +As soon as the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ had established, as the general +rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable, a +statutory exception was made to the rule in the case of directors and +promoters of companies who publish prospectuses and similar documents. +By the Directors' Liability Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage +caused by untrue statements in such documents, unless they can prove +that they had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be +true. It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be recovered +in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest belief in its +truth, still any person induced to enter into a contract by a +misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is entitled to avoid +the contract and to obtain a declaration that it is not binding upon +him. This is in accordance with the rule of equity, which since the +Judicature Act prevails in all the courts. Whether the representation is +fraudulent or innocent, the contract is not void, but voidable. The +party misled must exercise his option to avoid the contract without +delay, and before it has become impossible to restore the other party to +the position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he is +too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in order to +assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the misrepresentation +was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of dishonest dealing, though +not a distinct cause of action, is often material as preventing the +acquisition of a right, for which good faith is a necessary condition. +Also a combination or conspiracy by two or more persons to defraud gives +rise to liabilities not very clearly or completely defined. + + + + +FRAUENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Frische +Haff, at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m. S.W. from Königsberg on the +railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500. The cathedral (founded 1329), with six +towers, stands on a commanding eminence adjoining the town and +surrounded by castellated walls and bastions. This is known as +Dom-Frauenburg, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of +Ermeland. Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer +Copernicus bearing the inscription _Astronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen +et gloria utrumque implevit orbem_. There is a small port with +inconsiderable trade. Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received the +rights of a town in 1310. + + + + +FRAUENFELD, the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau, 27 m. by rail +N.E. of Zürich or 14½ m. W. of Romanshorn. It is built on the Murg +stream a little above its junction with the Thur. It is a prosperous +commercial town, being situated at the meeting point of several routes, +while it possesses several industrial establishments, chiefly concerned +with different branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population +(including the neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking, +while there were 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauenfeld is the +artillery depôt for North-East Switzerland. The upper town is the older +part, and centres round the castle, of which the tower dates from the +10th century, though the rest is of a later period. Both stood on land +belonging to the abbot of Reichenau, who, with the count of Kyburg, +founded the town, which is first mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained +all manorial rights till 1803, while the political powers of the +Kyburgers (who were the "protectors" of Reichenau) passed to the +Habsburgs in 1273, and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of +the Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the +meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital of +the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1799 it was +successively occupied by the Austrians and the French. The old Capuchin +convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a vicarage by the Romanist +priest. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +FRAUENLOB, the name by which HEINRICH VON MEISSEN, a German poet of the +13th century, is generally known. He seems to have acquired the +sobriquet because in a famous _Liederstreit_ with his rival Regenbogen +he defended the use of the word _Frau_ (i.e. _frouwe_, = lady) instead +of _Weib_ (_wîp_ = woman). Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble +burgher family. His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he +gradually acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of the +German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph I. in the Marchfeld, in +1286 he was at Prague at the knighting of Wenceslaus (Wenzel) II., and +in 1311 he was present at a knightly festival celebrated by Waldemar of +Brandenburg before Rostock. After this he settled in Mainz, and there +according to the popular account, founded the first school of +Meistersingers (q.v.). He died in 1318, and was buried in the cloisters +of the cathedral at Mainz. His grave is still marked by a copy made in +1783 of the original tombstone of 1318; and in 1842 a monument by +Schwanthaler was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob's poems make a +great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors, and his +versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme. + + Frauenlob's poetry was edited by L. Ettmüller in 1843; a selection + will be found in K. Bartsch, _Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. + Jahrhunderts_ (3rd ed., 1893). An English translation of Frauenlob's + _Cantica canticorum_, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877 + at St Louis, U.S.A. See A. Boerkel, _Frauenlob_ (2nd ed., 1881). + + + + +FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM (c. 1558-1633), English poet, a native of Shropshire, +was born between 1558 and 1560. His name was registered as a pupil of +Shrewsbury School in January 1571/2, and he joined St John's College, +Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of +_Victoria_, dedicated to Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge, +where he remained until he had taken his M.A. degree in 1583. He was +called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised +as a barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of his +patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney's sister Mary, +countess of Pembroke. His last work was published in 1592, and we have +no further knowledge of him until 1633, when he is said to have written +an _Epithalamium_ in honour of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egerton, +7th daughter of the earl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly +have entered. + +His works are: _The Lamentations of Amintas for the death of Phyllis_ +(1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend's, Thomas +Watson's, Latin _Amyntas; The Lawiers Logike, exemplifying the praecepts +of Logike by the practise of the common Lawe_ (1588); _Arcadian +Rhetorike_ (1588); _Abrahami Fransi Insignium, Armorum ... explicatio_ +(1588); _The Countess of Pembroke's Yvychurch_ (1591/2), containing a +translation of Tasso's _Aminta_, a reprint of his earlier version of +Watson, "The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis" (Virgil, +eclogue ii.), a short translation from Heliodorus, and, in the third +part (1592) "Aminta's Dale," a collection of "conceited" tales supposed +to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch; _The Countess of Pembroke's +Emanuell_ (1591); _The Third Part of the Countess of Pembroke's +Ivychurch, entituled Aminta's Dale_ (1592). His _Arcadian Rhetorike_ +owes much to earlier critical treatises, but has a special interest from +its references to Spenser, and Fraunce quotes from the _Faerie Queene_ a +year before the publication of the first books. In "Colin Clout's come +home again," Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his +translations of Virgil's second eclogue. His poems are written in +classical metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries as the best +exponent of Gabriel Harvey's theory. Even Thomas Nashe had a good word +for "sweete Master France." + + _The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell_, hexameters on the nativity and + passion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted by Dr + A. B. Grosart in the third volume of his _Miscellanies of the Fuller + Worthies Library_ (1872). Joseph Hunter in his _Chorus Vatum_ stated + that five of Fraunce's songs were included in Sidney's _Astrophel and + Stella_, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to + Fraunce, but to Thomas Campion. See a life prefixed to the + transcription of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, _Victoria_, by + Professor G. C. Moore Smith, published in Bang's _Materialien zur + Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas_, vol. xiv., 1906. + + + + +FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON (1787-1826), German optician and physicist, was +born at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th of March 1787, the son of a +glazier who died in 1798. He was apprenticed in 1799 to Weichselberger, +a glass-polisher and looking-glass maker. On the 21st of July 1801 he +nearly lost his life by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and +the elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his +extrication from the ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this +sum he obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship, +and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He now +employed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving on metal, +devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on mathematics and +optics. In 1806 he obtained the place of optician in the mathematical +institute which in 1804 had been founded at Munich by Joseph von +Utzschneider, G. Reichenbach and J. Liebherr; and in 1807 arrangements +were made by Utzschneider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand, +a skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, in +which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Wissensch. in +Deutschl._ bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utzschneider, +Fraunhofer established in 1809 an optical institute at Benedictbeuern, +near Munich, of which he in 1818 became sole manager. The institute was +in 1819 removed to Munich, and on Fraunhofer's death came under the +direction of G. Merz. + +Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer was a machine +for polishing mathematically uniform spherical surfaces. He was the +inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of a form of heliometer; and in +1816 he succeeded in constructing for the microscope achromatic glasses +of long focus, consisting of a single lens, the constituent glasses of +which were in juxtaposition, but not cemented together. The great +reflecting telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was +the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic telescopes +that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed his willingness to +furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter. Fraunhofer is especially +known for the researches, published in the _Denkschriften der Münchener +Akademie_ for 1814-1815, by which he laid the foundation of solar and +stellar chemistry. The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest +noted by Dr W. H. Wollaston (_Phil. Trans._, 1802, p. 378), were +independently discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a +theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the light a prism +was interposed, were for the first time carefully observed by +Fraunhofer, and have on that account been designated "Fraunhofer's +lines." He constructed a map of as many as 576 of these lines, the +principal of which he denoted by the letters of the alphabet from A to +G; and by ascertaining their refractive indices he determined that their +relative positions are constant, whether in spectra produced by the +direct rays of the sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and +planets. The spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the +object-glass of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light +passed to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed +that in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were +different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other well-known +solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was not by any action +of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light passing through it that the +lines were produced. He further expressed the belief that the dark lines +D of the solar spectrum coincide with the bright lines of the sodium +flame. He was also the inventor of the diffraction grating. + +In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet at Munich, +and in the following year he received from the king of Bavaria the civil +order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th of June 1826, and was +buried near Reichenbach, whose decease had taken place eight years +previously. On his tomb is the inscription "Approximavit sidera." + + See J. von Utzschneider, _Kurzer Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des Herrn + Dr J. von Fraunhofer_ (Munich, 1826); and G. Merz, _Das Leben und + Wirken Fraunhofers_ (Landshut, 1865). + + + + +FRAUSTADT (Polish, _Wszowa_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with windmills, 50 m. +S.S.W. of Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan. Pop. (including a garrison) +7500. It has three Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a +classical school and a teachers' seminary; the manufactures include +woollen and cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is +a considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was founded by +Silesians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the principality of +Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles XII. defeated the Saxons +on the 13th of February 1706. + + + + +FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC, COMTE DE (1765-1841), French prelate and +statesman, distinguished as an orator and as a controversial writer, was +born of humble parentage at Curières, in the department of Aveyron, on +the 9th of May 1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on +dogmatic theology, known as the "conferences" of Saint Sulpice, +delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, from 1803 to 1809, to +which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid exposition and by his +graceful oratory. The freedom of his language in 1809, when Napoleon had +arrested the pope and declared the annexation of Rome to France, led to +a prohibition of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of +Saint Sulpice in 1811 was followed by his temporary retirement from the +capital. He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his lectures in +1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again compelled him to withdraw +into private life, from which he did not emerge until February 1816. As +court preacher and almoner to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the +period of his greatest public activity and influence. In connexion with +the controversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of +1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled _Vrais Principes de +l'église Gallicane sur la puissance ecclésiastique_, which though +unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received with favour by the +civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of Frayssinous as +bishop of Hermopolis "in partibus," his election to the French Academy, +and his appointment to the grand-mastership of the university, followed +in rapid succession. In 1824, on the accession of Charles X., he became +minister of public instruction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the +administration of Villèle; and about the same time he was created a peer +of France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly marked +by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his lectures under +the title _Défense du christianisme_. The work passed through 15 +editions within 18 years, and was translated into several European +languages. In 1828 he, along with his colleagues in the Villèle +ministry, was compelled to resign office, and the subsequent revolution +of July 1830 led to his retirement to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became +tutor to the duke of Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord) at Prague, where he +continued to live until 1838. He died at St Géniez on the 12th of +December 1841. + + See Bertrand, _Bibl. Sulpicienne_ (t. ii. 135 sq.; iii. 253) for + bibliography, and G. A. Henrion (Paris, 2 vols., 1844) for biography. + + + + +FRÉCHETTE, LOUIS HONORÉ (1839-1908), French-Canadian poet, was born at +Levis, Quebec, on the 16th of November 1839, the son of a contractor. He +was educated in his native province, and called to the Canadian bar in +1864. He started the _Journal de Lévis_, and his revolutionary doctrines +compelled him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years +spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the Liberal +candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament. At the +elections of 1878 and 1882 he was defeated, and thereafter confined +himself to literature. He edited _La Patrie_ and other French papers in +the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed clerk of the Quebec legislative +council. He was long a warm advocate of the political union of Canada +and the United States, but in later life became less ardent, and in 1897 +accepted the honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of +the Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts, and +received numerous honorary degrees. His works include: _Mes Loisirs_ +(1863); _La Voix d'un exilé_ (1867), a satire against the Canadian +government; _Pêle-mêle_ (1877); _Les Fleurs boréales_, and _Les Oiseaux +de neige_ (1880), crowned by the French academy; _La Légende d'un +peuple_ (1887); two historical dramas, _Papineau_ (1880) and _Felix +Poutré_ (1880); _La Noël au Canada_ (1900), and several prose works and +translations. An exponent of local French sentiment, he won the title of +the "Canadian Laureate." He died on the 1st of June 1908. + + + + +FREDEGOND (_Fredigundis_) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Originally a +serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic I., with a +violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his first wife +Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha, Queen Brunhilda's +sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic married Fredegond (567). +This woman exercised a most pernicious influence over him. She forced +him into war against Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the +assassination of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a +malignant struggle against Chilperic's sons by his first wife, +Theodebert, Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she +persistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children. Her +first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of Paris stood +godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond tortured a number of +women whom she accused of having bewitched the child. Her second son +also died in infancy. Finally, she gave birth to a child who afterwards +became king as Clotaire II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, +Chilperic himself perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond +has been accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of +probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter. + +Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the kingdom for her +child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame at Paris, she appealed +to King Guntram of Burgundy, who took Clotaire under his protection and +defended him against his other nephew, Childebert II., king of +Austrasia. From that time until her death Fredegond governed the western +kingdom. She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram +and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot; and made +several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending against him hired +bravoes armed with poisoned _scramasaxes_ (heavy single-edged knives). +After the death of Childebert in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom +of Neustria at the expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some +cities near Paris and defeated Theudebert at the battle of Laffaux, near +Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died quietly in +her bed in 597 soon after her victory. + + See V. N. Augustin Thierry, _Récits des temps mérovingiens_ (Brussels, + 1840); Ulysse Chevalier, _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed.), s.v. + "Frédégonde." (C. Pf.) + + + + +FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist, was born on the +19th of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was educated there, and took to +journalism. He went to live in England as London correspondent of the +_New York Times_ in 1884, and was soon recognized for his ability both +as a writer and as a talker. He wrote several clever early stories, but +it was not till he published _Illumination_ (1896), followed by _Gloria +Mundi_ (1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully +realized. He died in England on the 19th of October 1898. + + + + +FREDERICIA (FRIEDERICIA), a seaport of Denmark, near the S.E. corner of +Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt opposite the island of +Fünen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has railway communication with both south +and north, and a steam ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort +and railway station on Fünen. There is a considerable shipping trade, +and the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and +chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected on the +site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his successor, +Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a powerful fortress. +Free exercise of religion was offered to all who should settle in the +new town, which at first bore the name of Frederiksodde, and only +received its present designation in 1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm +by the Swedish general Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been +dismantled, it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was +not till 1709-1710 that the works were again put in a state of defence. +In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to oppose the Prussians, who +entered on the 2nd of May, and maintained their position against the +Danish gunboats. During the armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was +strengthened, and soon afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which +was brought to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of +July 1849. In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected +in the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the +bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of Thorvaldsen's +pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in the cemetery of the Holy +Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by the same sculptor. On the outbreak +of the war of 1864, the fortress was again strengthened by new works and +an entrenched camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of +April after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly +destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town till the +conclusion of peace. + + + + +FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. _Friedrich_; Ital. _Federigo_; Fr. _Frédéric_ and +_Fédéric_; M.H.G. _Friderîch_; O.H.G. _Fridurîh_, "king or lord of +peace," from O.H.G. _fridu_, A.S. _frith_, "peace," and _rîh_ "rich," "a +ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY), a Christian name borne by +many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of whom are +given below in the following order:--(1) Roman emperors and German +kings; (2) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (3) +other reigning princes in the same order. + + + + +FREDERICK I. (c. 1123-1190), Roman emperor, surnamed "Barbarossa" by the +Italians, was the son of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, +and Judith, daughter of Henry IX. the Black, duke of Bavaria. The +precise date and place of his birth, together with details of his early +life, are wanting; but in 1143 he assisted his maternal uncle, Count +Welf VI., in his attempts to conquer Bavaria, and by his conduct in +several local feuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful +warrior. When his father died in 1147 Frederick became duke of Swabia, +and immediately afterwards accompanied his uncle, the German king Conrad +III., on his disastrous crusade, during which he greatly distinguished +himself and won the complete confidence of the king. Abandoning the +cause of the Welfs, he fought for Conrad against them, and in 1152 the +dying king advised the princes to choose Frederick as his successor to +the exclusion of his own young son. Energetically pressing his +candidature, he was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 4th or 5th of +March 1152, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 9th of the same month, +owing his election partly to his personal qualities, and partly to the +fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival families of Welf +and Waiblingen. + +The new king was anxious to restore the Empire to the position it had +occupied under Charlemagne and Otto the Great, and saw clearly that the +restoration of order in Germany was a necessary preliminary to the +enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy. Issuing a general order for +peace, he was prodigal in his concessions to the nobles. Count Welf was +made duke of Spoleto and margrave of Tuscany; Berthold VI., duke of +Zähringen, was entrusted with extensive rights in Burgundy; and the +king's nephew, Frederick, received the duchy of Swabia. Abroad Frederick +decided a quarrel for the Danish throne in favour of Svend, or Peter as +he is sometimes called, who did homage for his kingdom, and negotiations +were begun with the East Roman emperor, Manuel Comnenus. It was probably +about this time that the king obtained a divorce from his wife Adela, +daughter of Dietpold, margrave of Vohburg and Cham, on the ground of +consanguinity, and made a vain effort to obtain a bride from the court +of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick had communicated the news +of his election to Pope Eugenius III., but neglected to ask for the +papal confirmation. In spite of this omission, however, and of some +trouble arising from a double election to the archbishopric of +Magdeburg, a treaty was concluded between king and pope at Constance in +March 1153, by which Frederick promised in return for his coronation to +make no peace with Roger I. king of Sicily, or with the rebellious +Romans, without the consent of Eugenius, and generally to help and +defend the papacy. + +The journey to Italy made by the king in 1154 was the precursor of five +other expeditions which engaged his main energies for thirty years, +during which the subjugation of the peninsula was the central and +abiding aim of his policy. Meeting the new pope, Adrian IV., near Nepi, +Frederick at first refused to hold his stirrup; but after some +negotiations he consented and received the kiss of peace, which was +followed by his coronation as emperor at Rome on the 18th of June 1155. +As his slender forces were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility +which he aroused, he left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a +new and more formidable campaign. Disorder was again rampant in Germany, +especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored by Frederick's +vigorous measures. Bavaria was transferred from Henry II. Jasomirgott, +margrave of Austria, to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; and the former +was pacified by the erection of his margraviate into a duchy, while +Frederick's step-brother Conrad was invested with the Palatinate of the +Rhine. On the 9th of June 1156 the king was married at Würzburg to +Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the dead count of Upper Burgundy, +Renaud III., when Upper Burgundy or Franche Comté, as it is sometimes +called, was added to his possessions. An expedition into Poland reduced +Duke Boleslaus IV. to an abject submission, after which Frederick +received the homage of the Burgundian nobles at a diet held at Besançon +in October 1157, which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor. +A Swedish archbishop, returning from Rome, had been seized by robbers, +and as Frederick had not punished the offenders Adrian sent two legates +to remonstrate. The papal letter when translated referred to the +imperial crown as a benefice conferred by the pope, and its reading +aroused great indignation. The emperor had to protect the legates from +the fury of the nobles; and afterwards issued a manifesto to his +subjects declaring that he held the Empire from God alone, to which +Adrian replied that he had used the ambiguous word _beneficia_ as +meaning benefits, and not in its feudal sense. + +In June 1158 Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, which +was signalized by the establishment of imperial officers called +_podestas_ in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt and capture of +Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with pope Alexander III., +who excommunicated the emperor on the 2nd of March 1160. During this +visit Frederick summoned the doctors of Bologna to the diet held near +Roncaglia in November 1158, and as a result of their inquiries into the +rights belonging to the kingdom of Italy he obtained a large amount of +wealth. Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick +prevented a conflict between Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and a +number of neighbouring princes, and severely punished the citizens of +Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold. A further visit to +Italy in 1163 saw his plans for the conquest of Sicily checked by the +formation of a powerful league against him, brought together mainly by +the exactions of the _podestas_ and the enforcement of the rights +declared by the doctors of Bologna. Frederick had supported an anti-pope +Victor IV. against Alexander, and on Victor's death in 1163 a new +anti-pope called Paschal III. was chosen to succeed him. Having tried in +vain to secure the general recognition of Victor and Paschal in Europe, +the emperor held a diet at Würzburg in May 1165; and by taking an oath, +followed by many of the clergy and nobles, to remain true to Paschal and +his successors, brought about a schism in the German church. A temporary +alliance with Henry II., king of England, the magnificent celebration of +the canonization of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the restoration +of peace in the Rhineland, occupied Frederick's attention until October +1166, when he made his fourth journey to Italy. Having captured Ancona, +he marched to Rome, stormed the Leonine city, and procured the +enthronement of Paschal, and the coronation of his wife Beatrix; but his +victorious career was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence +which destroyed the German army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to +Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years. Henry the Lion was +again saved from a threatening combination; conflicting claims to +various bishoprics were decided; and the imperial authority was asserted +over Bohemia, Poland and Hungary. Friendly relations were entered into +with the emperor Manuel, and attempts made to come to a better +understanding with Henry II., king of England, and Louis VII., king of +France. + +In 1174, when Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy, the Lombard +league had been formed, and the fortress of Alessandria raised to check +his progress. The campaign was a complete failure. The refusal of Henry +the Lion to bring help into Italy was followed by the defeat of the +emperor at Legnano on the 29th of May 1176, when he was wounded and +believed to be dead. Reaching Pavia, he began negotiations for peace +with Alexander, which ripened into the treaty of Venice in August 1177, +and at the same time a truce with the Lombard league was arranged for +six years. Frederick, loosed from the papal ban, recognized Alexander as +the rightful pope, and in July 1177 knelt before him and kissed his +feet. The possession of the vast estates left by Matilda, marchioness +of Tuscany, and claimed by both pope and emperor, was to be decided by +arbitration, and in October 1178 the emperor was again in Germany. +Various small feuds were suppressed; Henry the Lion was deprived of his +duchy, which was dismembered, and sent into exile; a treaty was made +with the Lombard league at Constance in June 1183; and most important of +all, Frederick's son Henry was betrothed in 1184 to Constance, daughter +of Roger I., king of Sicily, and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, +William II. This betrothal, which threatened to unite Sicily with the +Empire, made it difficult for Frederick, when during his last Italian +expedition in 1184 he met Pope Lucius III. at Verona, to establish +friendly relations with the papacy. Further causes of trouble arose, +moreover, and when the potentates separated the question of Matilda's +estates was undecided; and Lucius had refused to crown Henry or to +recognize the German clergy who had been ordained during the schism. +Frederick then formed an alliance with Milan, where the citizens +witnessed a great festival on the 27th of January 1186. The emperor, who +had been crowned king of Burgundy, or Arles, at Arles on the 30th of +July 1178, had this ceremony repeated; while his son Henry was crowned +king of Italy and married to Constance, who was crowned queen of +Germany. + +The quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new pope Urban III., +and open warfare was begun. But Frederick was soon recalled to Germany +by the news of a revolt raised by Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of +Cologne, in alliance with the pope. The German clergy remained loyal to +the emperor, and hostilities were checked by the death of Urban and the +election of a new pope as Gregory VIII., who adopted a more friendly +policy towards the emperor. In 1188 Philip submitted, and immediately +afterwards Frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious +career of Saladin, who had just taken Jerusalem. After extensive +preparations he left Regensburg in May 1189 at the head of a splendid +army, and having overcome the hostility of the East Roman emperor Isaac +Angelus, marched into Asia Minor. On the 10th of June 1190 Frederick was +either bathing or crossing the river Calycadnus (Geuksu), near Seleucia +(Selefke) in Cilicia, when he was carried away by the stream and +drowned. The place of his burial is unknown, and the legend which says +he still sits in a cavern in the Kyffhäuser mountain in Thuringia +waiting until the need of his country shall call him, is now thought to +refer, at least in its earlier form, to his grandson, the emperor +Frederick II. He left by his wife, Beatrix, five sons, of whom the +eldest afterwards became emperor as Henry VI. + +Frederick's reign, on the whole, was a happy and prosperous time for +Germany. He encouraged the growth of towns, easily suppressed the few +risings against his authority, and took strong and successful measures +to establish order. Even after the severe reverses which he experienced +in Italy, his position in Germany was never seriously weakened; and in +1181, when, almost without striking a blow, he deprived Henry the Lion +of his duchy, he seemed stronger than ever. This power rested upon his +earnest and commanding personality, and also upon the support which he +received from the German church, the possession of a valuable private +domain, and the care with which he exacted feudal dues from his +dependents. + +Frederick I. is said to have taken Charlemagne as his model; but the +contest in which he engaged was entirely different both in character and +results from that in which his great predecessor achieved such a +wonderful temporary success. Though Frederick failed to subdue the +republics, the failure can scarcely be said to reflect either on his +prudence as a statesman or his skill as a general, for his ascendancy +was finally overthrown rather by the ravages of pestilence than by the +might of human arms. In Germany his resolute will and sagacious +administration subdued or disarmed all discontent, and he not only +succeeded in welding the various rival interests into a unity of +devotion to himself against which papal intrigues were comparatively +powerless, but won for the empire a prestige such as it had not +possessed since the time of Otto the Great. The wide contrast between +his German and Italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that, +while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in Italy, he held in +check the power of the nobles in Germany, by conferring municipal +franchises and independent rights on the principal cities. Even in +Italy, though his general course of action was warped by wrong +prepossessions, he in many instances manifested exceptional practical +sagacity in dealing with immediate difficulties and emergencies. +Possessing frank and open manners, untiring and unresting energy, and a +prowess which found its native element in difficulty and danger, he +seemed the embodiment of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age, +and was the model of all the qualities which then won highest +admiration. Stern and ambitious he certainly was, but his aims can +scarcely be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor; and +though he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients almost +diabolically ingenious in their cruelty, yet his general conduct was +marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional. His quarrel with +the papacy was an inherited conflict, not reflecting at all on his +religious faith, but the inevitable consequence of inconsistent theories +of government, which had been created and could be dissipated only by a +long series of events. His interference in the quarrels of the republics +was not only quite justifiable from the relation in which he stood to +them, but seemed absolutely necessary. From the beginning, however, he +treated the Italians, as indeed was only natural, less as rebellious +subjects than as conquered aliens; and it must be admitted that in +regard to them the only effective portion of his procedure was, not his +energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories, but, after +the battle of Legnano, his quiet and cheerful acceptance of the +inevitable, and the consequent complete change in his policy, by which +if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition, he at least did +much to render innoxious for the Empire his previous mistakes. + +In appearance Frederick was a man of well-proportioned, medium stature, +with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard. He delighted in hunting +and the reading of history, was zealous in his attention to public +business, and his private life was unimpeachable. Carlyle's tribute to +him is interesting: "No king so furnished out with apparatus and arena, +with personal faculty to rule and scene to do it in, has appeared +elsewhere. A magnificent, magnanimous man; holding the reins of the +world, not quite in the imaginary sense; scourging anarchy down, and +urging noble effort up, really on a grand scale. A terror to evil-doers +and a praise to well-doers in this world, probably beyond what was ever +seen since." + + The principal contemporary authority for the earlier part of the reign + of Frederick is the _Gesta Friderici imperatoris_, mainly the work of + Otto, bishop of Freising. This is continued from 1156 to 1160 by + Rahewin, a canon of Freising, and from 1160 to 1170 by an anonymous + author. The various annals and chronicles of the period, among which + may be mentioned the _Chronica regia Coloniensis_ and the _Annales + Magdeburgenses_, are also important. Other authorities for the + different periods in Frederick's reign are Tageno of Passau, + _Descriptio expeditionis asiaticae Friderici I._; Burchard, _Historia + Friderici imperatoris magni_; Godfrey of Viterbo, _Carmen de gestis + Friderici I._, which are all found in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica. Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); Otto Morena of + Lodi, _Historia rerum Laudensium_, continued by his son, Acerbus, also + in the _Monumenta_; Ansbert, _Historia de expeditione Friderici, + 1187-1196_, published in the _Fontes rerum Austriacarum. Scriptores_ + (Vienna, 1855 fol.). Many valuable documents are found in the + _Monumenta Germaniae selecta_, Band iv., edited by M. Doeberl (Munich, + 1889-1890). + + The best modern authorities are J. Jastrow, _Deutsche Geschichte im + Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); W. von Giesebrecht, + _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); H. + von Bünau, _Leben und Thaten Friedrichs I._ (Leipzig, 1872); H. Prutz, + _Kaiser Friedrich I._ (Dantzig, 1871-1874); C. Peters, _Die Wahl + Kaiser Friedrichs I._ in the _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, + Band xx. (Göttingen, 1862-1886); W. Gundlach, _Barbarossalieder_ + (Innsbruck, 1899). For a complete bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz, + _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Göttingen, 1894), and U. + Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen âge_, tome + iii. (Paris, 1904). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1194-1250), Roman emperor, king of Sicily and Jerusalem, +was the son of the emperor Henry VI. and Constance, daughter of Roger +I., king of Sicily, and therefore grandson of the emperor Frederick I. +and a member of the Hohenstaufen family. Born at Jesi near Ancona on +the 26th of December 1194, he was baptized by the name of Frederick +Roger, chosen German king at Frankfort in 1196, and after his father's +death crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 17th of May 1198. His +mother, who assumed the government, died in November 1198, leaving Pope +Innocent III. as regent of Sicily and guardian of her son. The young +king passed his early years amid the terrible anarchy in his island +kingdom, which Innocent was powerless to check; but his education was +not neglected, and his character and habits were formed by contact with +men of varied nationalities and interests, while the darker traits of +his nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which he +lived. In 1208 he was declared of age, and soon afterwards Innocent +arranged a marriage, which was celebrated the following year, between +him and Constance, daughter of Alphonso II. king of Aragon, and widow of +Emerich or Imre, king of Hungary. + +The dissatisfaction felt in Germany with the emperor Otto IV. came to a +climax in September 1211, when a number of influential princes met at +Nuremberg, declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to come and +occupy the vacant throne. In spite of the reluctance of his wife, and +the opposition of the Sicilian nobles, he accepted the invitation; and +having recognized the papal supremacy over Sicily, and procured the +coronation of his son Henry as its king, reached Germany after an +adventurous journey in the autumn of 1212. This step was taken with the +approval of the pope, who was anxious to strike a blow at Otto IV. + +Frederick was welcomed in Swabia, and the renown of the Hohenstaufen +name and a liberal distribution of promises made his progress easy. +Having arranged a treaty against Otto with Louis, son of Philip +Augustus, king of France, whom he met at Vaucouleurs, he was chosen +German king a second time at Frankfort on the 5th of December 1212, and +crowned four days later at Mainz. Anxious to retain the support of the +pope, Frederick promulgated a bull at Eger on the 12th of July 1213, by +which he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the +emperor Henry VI. in 1197, gave up the right of spoils and all +interference in episcopal elections, and acknowledged the right of +appeal to Rome. He again affirmed the papal supremacy over Sicily, and +promised to root out heresy in Germany. The victory of his French allies +at Bouvines on the 27th of July 1214 greatly strengthened his position, +and a large part of the Rhineland having fallen into his power, he was +crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1215. His +cause continued to prosper, fresh supporters gathered round his +standard, and in May 1218 the death of Otto freed him from his rival and +left him undisputed ruler of Germany. A further attempt to allay the +pope's apprehension lest Sicily should be united with the Empire had +been made early in 1216, when Frederick, in a letter to Innocent, +promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize his son Henry +as king of Sicily, and to place him under the suzerainty of Rome. Henry +nevertheless was brought to Germany and chosen German king at Frankfort +in April 1220, though Frederick assured the new pope, Honorius III., +that this step had been taken without his consent. The truth, however, +seems to be that he had taken great trouble to secure this election, and +for the purpose had won the support of the spiritual princes by +extensive concessions. In August 1220 Frederick set out for Italy, and +was crowned emperor at Rome on the 22nd of November 1220; after which he +repeated the undertaking he had entered into at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215 +to go on crusade, and made lavish promises to the Church. The clergy +were freed from taxation and from lay jurisdiction, the ban of the +Empire was to follow the ban of the Church, and heretics were to be +severely punished. + +Neglecting his promise to lead a crusade, Frederick was occupied until +1225 in restoring order in Sicily. The island was seething with +disorder, but by stern and sometimes cruel measures the emperor +suppressed the anarchy of the barons, curbed the power of the cities, +and subdued the rebellious Saracens, many of whom, transferred to the +mainland and settled at Nocera, afterwards rendered him valuable +military service. Meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and again; +until under a threat of excommunication, after the fall of Damietta in +1221, Frederick definitely undertook by a treaty made at San Germano in +1225 to set out in August 1227 or to submit to this penalty. His own +interests turned more strongly to the East, when on the 9th of November +1225, after having been a widower since 1222, he married Iolande +(Yolande or Isabella), daughter of John, count of Brienne, titular king +of Jerusalem. John appears to have expected that this alliance would +restore him to his kingdom, but his hopes were dashed to the ground when +Frederick himself assumed the title of king of Jerusalem. The emperor's +next step was an attempt to restore the imperial authority in northern +Italy, and for the purpose a diet was called at Cremona. But the cities, +watchful and suspicious, renewed the Lombard league and took up a +hostile attitude. Frederick's reply was to annul the treaty of Constance +and place the cities under the imperial ban; but he was forced by lack +of military strength to accept the mediation of Pope Honorius and the +maintenance of the _status quo_. + +After these events, which occurred early in 1227, preparations for the +crusade were pressed on, and the emperor sailed from Brindisi on the 8th +of September. A pestilence, however, which attacked his forces compelled +him to land in Italy three days later, and on the 29th of the same month +he was excommunicated by the new pope, Gregory IX. The greater part of +the succeeding year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarrel. +Alarmed at the increase in his opponent's power, Gregory denounced him +in a public letter, to which Frederick replied in a clever document +addressed to the princes of Europe. The reading of this manifesto, +drawing attention to the absolute power claimed by the popes, was +received in Rome with such evidences of approval that Gregory was +compelled to fly to Viterbo. Having lost his wife Isabella on the 8th of +May 1228, Frederick again set sail for Palestine, where he met with +considerable success, the result of diplomatic rather than of military +skill. By a treaty made in February 1229 he secured possession of +Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood. +Entering Jerusalem, he crowned himself king of that city on the 18th of +March 1229. These successes had been won in spite of the hostility of +Gregory, which deprived Frederick of the assistance of many members of +the military orders and of the clergy of Palestine. But although the +emperor's possessions on the Italian mainland had been attacked in his +absence by the papal troops and their allies, Gregory's efforts had +failed to arouse serious opposition in Germany and Sicily; so that when +Frederick returned unexpectedly to Italy in June 1229 he had no +difficulty in driving back his enemies, and compelling the pope to sue +for peace. The result was the treaty of San Germano, arranged in July +1230, by which the emperor, loosed from the ban, promised to respect the +papal territory, and to allow freedom of election and other privileges +to the Sicilian clergy. Frederick was next engaged in completing the +pacification of Sicily. In 1231 a series of laws were published at Melfi +which destroyed the ascendancy of the feudal nobles. Royal officials +were appointed for administrative purposes, large estates were recovered +for the crown, and fortresses were destroyed, while the church was +placed under the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were prohibited. +At the same time certain privileges of self-government were granted to +the towns, representatives from which were summoned to sit in the diet. +In short, by means of a centralized system of government, the king +established an almost absolute monarchical power. + +In Germany, on the other hand, an entirely different policy was pursued. +The concessions granted by Frederick in 1220, together with the +Privilege of Worms, dated the 1st of May 1231, made the German princes +virtually independent. All jurisdiction over their lands was vested in +them, no new mints or toll-centres were to be erected on their domains, +and the imperial authority was restricted to a small and dwindling area. +A fierce attack was also made on the rights of the cities. Compelled to +restore all their lands, their jurisdiction was bounded by their +city-walls; they were forbidden to receive the dependents of the +princes; all trade gilds were declared abolished; and all official +appointments made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were +annulled. A further attack on the Lombard cities at the diet of Ravenna +in 1231 was answered by a renewal of their league, and was soon +connected with unrest in Germany. About 1231 a breach took place between +Frederick and his elder son Henry, who appears to have opposed the +Privilege of Worms and to have favoured the towns against the princes. +After refusing to travel to Italy, Henry changed his mind and submitted +to his father at Aquileia in 1232; and a temporary peace was made with +the Lombard cities in June 1233. But on his return to Germany Henry +again raised the standard of revolt, and made a league with the Lombards +in December 1234. Frederick, meanwhile, having helped Pope Gregory +against the rebellious Romans and having secured the friendship of +France and England, appeared in Germany early in 1235 and put down this +rising without difficulty. Henry was imprisoned, but his associates were +treated leniently. In August 1235 a splendid diet was held at Mainz, +during which the marriage of the emperor with Isabella (1214-1241), +daughter of John, king of England, was celebrated. A general peace +(_Landfrieden_), which became the basis of all such peaces in the +future, was sworn to; a new office, that of imperial justiciar, was +created, and a permanent judicial record was first instituted. Otto of +Brunswick, grandson of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, was made duke of +Brunswick-Lüneburg; and war was declared against the Lombards. + +Frederick was now at the height of his power. His second son, Conrad, +was invested with the duchy of Swabia, and the claim of Wenceslaus, king +of Bohemia, to some lands which had belonged to the German king Philip +was bought off. The attitude of Frederick II. (the Quarrelsome), duke of +Austria, had been considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a +visit paid by Frederick to Italy a war against him was begun. Compelled +to return by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign, the emperor +took command of his troops, seized Austria, Styria and Carinthia, and +declared these territories to be immediately dependent on the Empire. In +January 1237 he secured the election of his son Conrad as German king at +Vienna; and in September went to Italy to prosecute the war which had +broken out with the Lombards in the preceding year. Pope Gregory +attempted to mediate, but the cities refused to accept the insulting +terms offered by Frederick. The emperor gained a great victory over +their forces at Cortenuova in November 1237; but though he met with some +further successes, his failure to take Brescia in October 1238, together +with the changed attitude of Gregory, turned the fortune of war. The +pope had become alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage +between the heiress of Sardinia, Adelasia, and his natural son Enzio, +who afterwards assumed the title of king of Sardinia. But as his +warnings had been disregarded, he issued a document after the emperor's +retreat from Brescia, teeming with complaints against Frederick, and +followed it up by an open alliance with the Lombards, and by the +excommunication of the emperor on the 20th of March 1239. A violent war +of words ensued. Frederick, accused of heresy, blasphemy and other +crimes, called upon all kings and princes to unite against the pope, who +on his side made vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where +his emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching +rebellion. It was, however, impossible to find an anti-king. In Italy, +Spoleto and Ancona were declared part of the imperial dominions, and +Rome itself, faithful on this occasion to the pope, was threatened. A +number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a council called by Gregory were +captured by Enzio at the sea-fight of Meloria, and the emperor was about +to undertake the siege of Rome, when the pope died (August 1241). +Germany was at this time menaced by the Mongols; but Frederick contented +himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them, until in +1242 he was able to pay a short visit to Germany, where he gained some +support from the towns by grants of extensive privileges. + +The successor of Gregory was Pope Celestine IX. But this pontiff died +soon after his election; and after a delay of eighteen months, during +which Frederick marched against Rome on two occasions and devastated the +lands of his opponents, one of his partisans, Sinibaldo Fiesco, was +chosen pope, and took the name of Innocent IV. Negotiations for peace +were begun, but the relations of the Lombard cities to the Empire could +not be adjusted, and when the emperor began again to ravage the papal +territories Innocent fled to Lyons. Hither he summoned a general +council, which met in June 1245; but although Frederick sent his +justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, to represent him, and expressed his +willingness to treat, sentence of excommunication and deposition was +pronounced against him. Once more an interchange of recriminations +began, charged with all the violent hyperbole characteristic of the +controversial style of the age. Accused of violating treaties, breaking +oaths, persecuting the church and abetting heresy, Frederick replied by +an open letter rebutting these charges, and in equally unmeasured terms +denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from the pope +downwards. The source of all the evil was, he declared, the excessive +wealth of the church, which, in retaliation for the sentence of +excommunication, he threatened to confiscate. In vain the mediation of +the saintly king of France, Louis IX., was invoked. Innocent surpassed +his predecessors in the ferocity and unscrupulousness of his attacks on +the emperor (see INNOCENT IV.). War soon became general in Germany and +Italy. Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was chosen German king in +opposition to Frederick in May 1246, but neither he nor his successor, +William II., count of Holland, was successful in driving the +Hohenstaufen from Germany. In Italy, during the emperor's absence, his +cause had been upheld by Enzio and by the ferocious Eccelino da Romano. +In 1246 a formidable conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons +against the emperor's power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was +discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty. The emperor's power seemed +more firmly established than ever, when suddenly the news reached him +that Parma, a stronghold of the imperial authority in the north, had +been surprised, while the garrison was off its guard, by the Guelphs. To +recover the city was a matter of prime importance, and in 1247 Frederick +concentrated his forces round it, building over against it a wooden town +which, in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted, he +named Vittoria. The siege, however, was protracted, and finally, in +February 1248, during the absence of the emperor on a hunting +expedition, was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of the men of +Parma, who stormed the imperial camp. The disaster was complete. The +emperor's forces were destroyed or scattered; the treasury, with the +imperial insignia, together with Frederick's harem and some of the most +trusted of his ministers, fell into the hands of the victors. Thaddeus +of Suessa was hacked to pieces by the mob; the imperial crown was placed +in mockery on the head of a hunch-backed beggar, who was carried back in +triumph into the city. + +Frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes, and for a while with +success. But his old confidence had left him; he had grown moody and +suspicious, and his temper gave a ready handle to his enemies. Pier +della Vigna, accused of treasonable designs, was disgraced; and the once +all-powerful favourite and minister, blinded now and in rags, was +dragged in the emperor's train, as a warning to traitors, till in +despair he dashed out his brains. Then, in May 1248, came the tidings of +Enzio's capture by the Bolognese, and of his hopeless imprisonment, the +captors refusing all offers of ransom. This disaster to his favourite +son broke the emperor's spirit. He retired to southern Italy, and after +a short illness died at Fiorentino on the 13th of December 1250, after +having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of Palermo. He was +buried in the cathedral of that city, where his splendid tomb may still +be seen. By his will he appointed his son Conrad to succeed him in +Germany and Sicily, and Henry, his son by Isabella of England, to be +king of Jerusalem or Arles, neither of which kingdoms, however, he +obtained. Frederick left several illegitimate children: Enzio has +already been referred to; Frederick, who was made the imperial vicar in +Tuscany; and Manfred, his son by the beloved Bianca Lancia or Lanzia, +who was legitimatized just before his father's death, and was appointed +by his will prince of Tarento and regent of Sicily. + +The character of Frederick is one of extraordinary interest and +versatility, and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words _stupor +mundi et immutator mirabilis_. Licentious and luxurious in his manners, +cultured and catholic in his tastes, he united in his person the most +diverse qualities. His Sicilian court was a centre of intellectual +activity. Michael Scott, the translator of some treatises of Aristotle +and of the commentaries of Averroes, Leonard of Pisa, who introduced +Arabic numerals and algebra to the West, and other scholars, Jewish and +Mahommedan as well as Christian, were welcome at his court. Frederick +himself had a knowledge of six languages, was acquainted with +mathematics, philosophy and natural history, and took an interest in +medicine and architecture. In 1224 he founded the university of Naples, +and he was a liberal patron of the medical school at Salerno. He formed +a menagerie of strange animals, and wrote a treatise on falconry (_De +arte venandi cum avibus_) which is remarkable for its accurate +observation of the habits of birds.[1] It was at his court, too, +that--as Dante points out--Italian poetry had its birth. Pier della +Vigna there wrote the first sonnet, and Italian lyrics by Frederick +himself are preserved to us. His wives were kept secluded in oriental +fashion; a harem was maintained at Lucera, and eunuchs were a prominent +feature of his household. His religious ideas have been the subject of +much controversy. The theory of M. Huillard-Bréholles that he wished to +unite to the functions of emperor those of a spiritual pontiff, and +aspired to be the founder of a new religion, is insufficiently supported +by evidence to be credible. Although at times he persecuted heretics +with great cruelty, he tolerated Mahommedans and Jews, and both acts +appear rather to have been the outcome of political considerations than +of religious belief. His jests, which were used by his enemies as a +charge against him, seem to have originated in religious indifference, +or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which anticipated the ideas of a later +age. Frederick's rule in Germany and Italy was a failure, but this fact +may be accounted for by the conditions of the time and the inevitable +conflict with the papacy. In Germany the enactments of 1220 and 1231 +contributed to the disintegration of the Empire and the fall of the +Hohenstaufen, while conflicting interests made the government of Italy a +problem of exceptional difficulty. In Sicily Frederick was more +successful. He quelled disorder, and under his rule the island was +prosperous and contented. His ideas of government were those of an +absolute monarch, and he probably wished to surround himself with some +of the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of Rome. His chief +claim to fame, perhaps, is as a lawgiver. The code of laws which he gave +to Sicily in 1231 bears the impress of his personality, and has been +described as "the fullest and most adequate body of legislation +promulgated by any western ruler since Charlemagne." Without being a +great soldier, Frederick was not unskilful in warfare, but was better +acquainted with the arts of diplomacy. In person he is said to have been +"red, bald and short-sighted," but with good features and a pleasing +countenance. It was seriously believed in Germany for about a century +after his death that Frederick was still alive, and many impostors +attempted to personate him. A legend, afterwards transferred to +Frederick Barbarossa, told how he sat in a cavern in the Kyffhäusser +before a stone table through which his beard had grown, waiting for the +time for him to awake and restore to the Empire the golden age of peace. + + The contemporary documents relating to the reign of Frederick II. are + very numerous. Among the most important are: Richard of San Germano, + _Chronica regni Siciliae_; _Annales Placentini, Gibellini_; Albert of + Stade, _Annales_; Matthew Paris, _Historia major Angliae_; Burchard, + _Chronicon Urspergense_. All these are in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica_. _Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The _Rerum + Italicarum scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), + contains _Annales Mediolanenses_; Nicholas of Jamsilla, _Historia de + rebus gestis Friderici II._, and _Vita Gregorii IX. pontificis_. There + are also the _Epistolarum libri_ of Peter della Vigna, edited by J. R. + Iselin (Basel, 1740); and Salimbene of Parma's _Chronik_, published at + Parma (1857). Many of the documents concerning the history of the time + are found in the _Historia diplomatica Friderici II._, edited by M. + Huillard-Bréholles (Paris, 1852-1861); _Acta imperii selecta. + Urkunden deutscher Könige und Kaiser_, edited by J. F. Böhmer and J. + Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); _Acta imperii inedita seculi XIII. Urkunden + und Briefe zur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs und des Königreichs + Sicilien_, edited by E. Winkelmann (Innsbruck, 1880); _Epistolae + saeculi XIII. selecta e regestis pontificum Romanorum_, edited by C. + Rodenberg, tome i. (Berlin, 1883); P. Pressutti, _Regesta Honorii + papae III_. (Rome, 1888); L. Auvray, _Les Registres de Grégoire IX_. + (Paris, 1890). + + The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der + deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); J. Jastrow, _Deutsche + Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); F. W. + Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite_ (Göttingen, 1859-1865); + "Beiträge zur Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II." in the _Forschungen + zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Göttingen, 1862-1886), and _Die + letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Göttingen, 1871); E. Winkelmann, _Geschichte + Kaiser Friedrichs II und seiner Reiche_ (Berlin, 1865) and _Kaiser + Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889); G. Blondel, _Étude sur la politique de + l'empereur Frédéric II. en Allemagne_ (Paris, 1892); M. Halbe, + _Friedrich II. und der päpstliche Stuhl_ (Berlin, 1888); R. Röhricht, + _Die Kreuzfahrt des Kaisers Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1874); C. Köhler, + _Das Verhältnis Kaiser Friedrichs II. zu den Päpsten seiner Zeit_ + (Breslau, 1888); J. Feiten, _Papst Gregor IX_. (Freiburg, 1886); C. + Rodenberg, _Innocenz IV. und das Königreich Sicilien_ (Halle, 1892); + K. Lamprecht, _Deutsche Geschichte_, Band iii. (Berlin, 1891); M. + Huillard-Bréholles, _Vie et correspondance de Pierre de la Vigne_ + (Paris, 1865); A. del Vecchio, _La legislazione de Federico II_ + (Turin, 1874); and K. Hampe, _Kaiser Friedrich II_. (Munich, 1899). + (A. W. H.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] First printed at Augsburg in 1596; a German edition was published + at Berlin in 1896. + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1415-1493), Roman emperor,--as Frederick IV., German +king, and as Frederick V., archduke of Austria,--son of Ernest of +Habsburg, duke of Styria and Carinthia, was born at Innsbruck on the +21st of September 1415. After his father's death in 1424 he passed his +time at the court of his uncle and guardian, Frederick IV., count of +Tirol. In 1435, together with his brother, Albert the Prodigal, he +undertook the government of Styria and Carinthia, but the peace of these +lands was disturbed by constant feuds between the brothers, which lasted +until Albert's death in 1463. In 1439 the deaths of the German king +Albert II. and of Frederick of Tirol left Frederick the senior member of +the Habsburg family, and guardian of Sigismund, count of Tirol. In the +following year he also became guardian of Ladislaus, the posthumous son +of Albert II., and heir to Bohemia, Hungary and Austria, but these +responsibilities brought only trouble and humiliation in their train. On +the 2nd of February 1440 Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort, +but, owing to his absence from Germany, the coronation was delayed until +the 17th of June 1442, when it took place at Aix-la-Chapelle. + +Disregarding the neutral attitude of the German electors towards the +papal schism, and acting under the influence of Aeneas Sylvius +Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., Frederick in 1445 made a secret +treaty with Pope Eugenius IV. This developed into the Concordat of +Vienna, signed in 1448 with the succeeding pope, Nicholas V., by which +the king, in return for a sum of money and a promise of the imperial +crown, pledged the obedience of the German people to Rome, and so +checked for a time the rising tide of liberty in the German church. +Taking up the quarrel between the Habsburgs and the Swiss cantons, +Frederick invited the Armagnacs to attack his enemies, but after meeting +with a stubborn resistance at St Jacob on the 26th of August 1444, these +allies proved faithless, and the king soon lost every vestige of +authority in Switzerland. In 1451 Frederick, disregarding the revolts in +Austria and Hungary, travelled to Rome, where, on the 16th of March +1452, his marriage with Leonora, daughter of Edward, king of Portugal, +was celebrated, and three days later he was crowned emperor by pope +Nicholas. On his return he found Germany seething with indignation. His +capitulation to the pope was not forgotten; his refusal to attend the +diets, and his apathy in the face of Turkish aggressions, constituted a +serious danger; and plans for his deposition failed only because the +electors could not unite upon a rival king. In 1457 Ladislaus, king of +Hungary and Bohemia, and archduke of Austria, died; Frederick failed to +secure either kingdom, but obtained lower Austria, from which, however, +he was soon driven by his brother Albert, who occupied Vienna. On +Albert's death in 1463 the emperor united upper and lower Austria under +his rule, but these possessions were constantly ravaged by George +Podebrad, king of Bohemia, and by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary. A +visit to Rome in 1468 to discuss measures against the Turks with Pope +Paul II. had no result, and in 1470 Frederick began negotiations for a +marriage between his son Maximilian and Mary, daughter and heiress of +Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The emperor met the duke at Treves +in 1473, when Frederick, disliking to bestow the title of king upon +Charles, left the city secretly, but brought about the marriage after +the duke's death in 1477. Again attacked by Matthias, the emperor was +driven from Vienna, and soon handed over the government of his lands to +Maximilian, whose election as king of the Romans he vainly opposed in +1486. Frederick then retired to Linz, where he passed his time in the +study of botany, alchemy and astronomy, until his death on the 19th of +August 1493. + +Frederick was a listless and incapable ruler, lacking alike the +qualities of the soldier and of the diplomatist, but possessing a +certain cleverness in evading difficulties. With a fine presence, he had +many excellent personal qualities, is spoken of as mild and just, and +had a real love of learning. He had a great belief in the future +greatness of his family, to which he contributed largely by arranging +the marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy, and delighted to +inscribe his books and other articles of value with the letters +A.E.I.O.U. (_Austriae est imperare orbi universo_; or in German, _Alles +Erdreich ist Oesterreich unterthan_). His personality counts for very +little in German history. One chronicler says: "He was a useless +emperor, and the nation during his long reign forgot that she had a +king." His tomb, a magnificent work in red and white marble, is in the +cathedral of St Stephen at Vienna. + + See Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, _De rebus et gestis Friderici III_. + (trans. Th. Ilgen, Leipzig, 1889); J. Chmel, _Geschichte Kaiser + Friedrichs IV. und seines Sohnes Maximilians I_. (Hamburg, 1840); A. + Bachmann, _Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III. und + Maximilians I_. (Leipzig, 1884); A. Huber, _Geschichte Österreichs_ + (Gotha, 1885-1892); and E. M. Fürst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des + Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (c. 1286-1330), surnamed "the Fair," German king and duke +of Austria, was the second son of the German king, Albert I., and +consequently a member of the Habsburg family. In 1298, when his father +was chosen German king, Frederick was invested with some of the family +lands, and in 1306, when his elder brother Rudolph became king of +Bohemia, he succeeded to the duchy of Austria. In 1307 Rudolph died, and +Frederick sought to obtain the Bohemian throne; but an expedition into +that country was a failure, and his father's murder in May 1308 deprived +him of considerable support. He was equally unsuccessful in his efforts +to procure the German crown at this time, and the relations between the +new king, Henry VII., and the Habsburgs were far from friendly. +Frederick asked not only to be confirmed in the possession of Austria, +but to be invested with Moravia, a demand to which Henry refused to +accede; but an arrangement was subsequently made by which the duke +agreed to renounce Moravia in return for a payment of 50,000 marks. +Frederick then became involved in a quarrel with his cousin Louis IV., +duke of Upper Bavaria (afterwards the emperor Louis IV.), over the +guardianship of Henry II., duke of Lower Bavaria. Hostilities broke out, +and on the 9th of November 1313 he was defeated by Louis at the battle +of Gammelsdorf and compelled to renounce his claim. + +Meanwhile the emperor Henry VII. had died in Italy, and a stubborn +contest ensued for the vacant throne. After a long delay Frederick was +chosen German king at Frankfort by a minority of the electors on the +19th of October 1314, while a majority elected Louis of Bavaria. Six +days later Frederick was crowned at Bonn by the archbishop of Cologne, +and war broke out at once between the rivals. During this contest, which +was carried on in a desultory fashion, Frederick drew his chief strength +from southern and eastern Germany, and was supported by the full power +of the Habsburgs. The defeat of his brother Leopold by the Swiss at +Morgarten in November 1315 was a heavy blow to him, but he prolonged the +struggle for seven years. On the 28th of September 1322 a decisive +battle was fought at Mühldorf; Frederick was defeated and sent as a +prisoner to Trausnitz. Here he was retained until three years later a +series of events induced Louis to come to terms. By the treaty of +Trausnitz, signed on the 13th of March 1325, Frederick acknowledged the +kingship of Louis in return for freedom, and promised to return to +captivity unless he could induce his brother Leopold to make a similar +acknowledgment. As Leopold refused to take this step, Frederick, +although released from his oath by Pope John XXII., travelled back to +Bavaria, where he was treated by Louis rather as a friend than as a +prisoner. A suggestion was then made that the kings should rule jointly, +but as this plan aroused some opposition it was agreed that Frederick +should govern Germany while Louis went to Italy for the imperial crown. +But this arrangement did not prove generally acceptable, and the death +of Leopold in 1326 deprived Frederick of a powerful supporter. In these +circumstances he returned to Austria broken down in mind and body, and +on the 13th of January 1330 he died at Gutenstein, and was buried at +Mauerbach, whence his remains were removed in 1783 to the cathedral of +St Stephen at Vienna. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James I., king +of Aragon, and left two daughters. His voluntary return into captivity +is used by Schiller in his poem _Deutsche Treue_, and by J. L. Uhland in +the drama _Ludwig der Bayer_. + + The authorities for the life of Frederick are found in the _Fontes + rerum Germanicarum_, Band i., edited by J. F. Böhmer (Stuttgart, + 1843-1868), and in the _Fontes rerum Austriacarum_, part i. (Vienna, + 1855). Modern works which may be consulted are: E. M. Fürst von + Lichnowsky, G_eschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); Th. + Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ + (Stuttgart, 1888-1893). R. Döbner, _Die Auseinandersetzung zwischen + Ludwig IV. dem Bayer und Friedrich dem Schönen von Österreich_ + (Göttingen, 1875); F. Kurz, _Österreich unter König Friedrich dem + Schönen_ (Linz, 1818); F. Krones, _Handbuch der Geschichte + Österreichs_ (Berlin, 1876-1879); H. Schrohe, _Der Kampf der + Gegenkönige Ludwig und Friedrich_ (Berlin, 1902); W. Friedensburg, + _Ludwig IV. der Bayer und Friedrich von Österreich_ (Göttingen, 1877); + B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_ (Berlin, 1901). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1534-1588), king of Denmark and Norway, son of Christian +III., was born at Hadersleben on the 1st of July 1534. His mother, +Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg, was the elder sister of Catherine, the first +wife of Gustavus Vasa and the mother of Eric XIV. The two little +cousins, born the same year, were destined to be lifelong rivals. At the +age of two Frederick was proclaimed successor to the throne at the +_Rigsdag_ of Copenhagen (October 30th, 1536), and homage was done to him +at Oslo for Norway in 1548. The choice of his governor, the patriotic +historiographer Hans Svaning, was so far fortunate that it ensured the +devotion of the future king of Denmark to everything Danish; but Svaning +was a poor pedagogue, and the wild and wayward lad suffered all his life +from the defects of his early training. Frederick's youthful, innocent +attachment to the daughter of his former tutor, Anna Hardenberg, +indisposed him towards matrimony at the beginning of his reign (1558). +After the hands of Elizabeth of England, Mary of Scotland and Renata of +Lorraine had successively been sought for him, the council of state grew +anxious about the succession, but he finally married his cousin, Sophia +of Mecklenburg, on the 20th of July 1572. + +The reign of Frederick II. falls into two well-defined divisions: (1) a +period of war, 1559-1570; and (2) a period of peace, 1570-1588. The +period of war began with the Ditmarsh expedition, when the independent +peasant-republic of the Ditmarshers of West Holstein, which had stoutly +maintained its independence for centuries against the counts of Holstein +and the Danish kings, was subdued by a Dano-Holstein army of 20,000 men +in 1559, Frederick and his uncles John and Adolphus, dukes of Holstein, +dividing the land between them. Equally triumphant was Frederick in his +war with Sweden, though here the contest was much more severe, lasting +as it did for seven years; whence it is generally described in northern +history as the Scandinavian Seven Years' War. The tension which had +prevailed between the two kingdoms during the last years of Gustavus +Vasa reached breaking point on the accession of Gustavus's eldest son +Eric XIV. There were many causes of quarrel between the two ambitious +young monarchs, but the detention at Copenhagen in 1563 of a splendid +matrimonial embassy on its way to Germany, to negotiate a match between +Eric and Christina of Hesse, which King Frederick for political reasons +was determined to prevent, precipitated hostilities. During the war, +which was marked by extraordinary ferocity throughout, the Danes were +generally victorious on land owing to the genius of Daniel Rantzau, but +at sea the Swedes were almost uniformly triumphant. By 1570 the strife +had degenerated into a barbarous devastation of border provinces; and in +July of the same year both countries accepted the mediation of the +Emperor, and peace was finally concluded at Stettin on Dec. 13, 1570. +During the course of this Seven Years' War Frederick II. had narrowly +escaped the fate of his deposed cousin Eric XIV. The war was very +unpopular in Denmark, and the closing of the Sound against foreign +shipping, in order to starve out Sweden, had exasperated the maritime +powers and all the Baltic states. On New Year's Day 1570 Frederick's +difficulties seemed so overwhelming that he threatened to abdicate; but +the peace of Stettin came in time to reconcile all parties, and though +Frederick had now to relinquish his ambitious dream of re-establishing +the Union of Kalmar, he had at least succeeded in maintaining the +supremacy of Denmark in the north. After the peace Frederick's policy +became still more imperial. He aspired to the dominion of all the seas +which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died he succeeded in +suppressing the pirates who so long had haunted the Baltic and the +German Ocean. He also erected the stately fortress of Kronborg, to guard +the narrow channel of the Sound. Frederick possessed the truly royal +gift of discovering and employing great men, irrespective of personal +preferences and even of personal injuries. With infinite tact and +admirable self-denial he gave free scope to ministers whose superiority +in their various departments he frankly recognized, rarely interfering +personally unless absolutely called upon to do so. His influence, always +great, was increased by his genial and unaffected manners as a host. He +is also remarkable as one of the few kings of the house of Oldenburg who +had no illicit _liaison_. He died at Antvorskov on the 4th of April +1588. No other Danish king was ever so beloved by his people. + + See _Lund_ (_Troels_), _Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af + det XVI. Aarh._ (Copenhagen, 1879); _Danmarks Riges Historie_ + (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. 3; Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, + cap. 4 (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.) + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1609-1670), king of Denmark and Norway, son of Christian +IV. and Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, was born on the 18th of March +1609 at Hadersleben. His position as a younger son profoundly influenced +his future career. In his youth and early manhood there was no prospect +of his ascending the Danish throne, and he consequently became the +instrument of his father's schemes of aggrandizement in Germany. While +still a lad he became successively bishop of Bremen, bishop of Verden +and coadjutor of Halberstadt, while at the age of eighteen he was the +chief commandant of the fortress of Stade. Thus from an early age he had +considerable experience as an administrator, while his general education +was very careful and thorough. He had always a pronounced liking for +literary and scientific studies. On the 1st of October 1643 Frederick +wedded Sophia Amelia of Brunswick Lüneburg, whose energetic, passionate +and ambitious character was profoundly to affect not only Frederick's +destiny but the destiny of Denmark. During the disastrous Swedish War of +1643-1645 Frederick was appointed generalissimo of the duchies by his +father, but the laurels he won were scanty, chiefly owing to his +quarrels with the Earl-Marshal Anders Bille, who commanded the Danish +forces. This was Frederick's first collision with the Danish nobility, +who ever afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust. The death of his +elder brother Christian in June 1647 first opened to him the prospect of +succeeding to the Danish throne, but the question was still unsettled +when Christian IV. died on the 28th of February 1648. Not till the 6th +of July in the same year did Frederick III. receive the homage of his +subjects, and only after he had signed a _Haandfaestning_ or charter, by +which the already diminished royal prerogative was still further +curtailed. It had been doubtful at first whether he would be allowed to +inherit his ancestral throne at all; but Frederick removed the last +scruples of the _Rigsraad_ by unhesitatingly accepting the conditions +imposed upon him. + +The new monarch was a reserved, enigmatical prince, who seldom laughed, +spoke little and wrote less--a striking contrast to Christian IV. But if +he lacked the brilliant qualities of his impulsive, jovial father, he +possessed in a high degree the compensating virtues of moderation, +sobriety and self-control. But with all his good qualities Frederick was +not the man to take a clear view of the political horizon, or even to +recognize his own and his country's limitations. He rightly regarded the +accession of Charles X. of Sweden (June 6th, 1654) as a source of danger +to Denmark. He felt that temperament and policy would combine to make +Charles an aggressive warrior-king: the only uncertainty was in which +direction he would turn his arms first. Charles's invasion of Poland +(July 1654) came as a distinct relief to the Danes, though even the +Polish War was full of latent peril to Denmark. Frederick was resolved +upon a rupture with Sweden at the first convenient opportunity. The +_Rigsdag_ which assembled on the 23rd of February 1657 willingly granted +considerable subsidies for mobilization and other military expenses; on +the 15th of April Frederick III. desired, and on the 23rd of April he +received, the assent of the majority of the _Rigsraad_ to attack +Sweden's German provinces; in the beginning of May the still pending +negotiations with that power were broken off, and on the 1st of June +Frederick signed the manifesto justifying a war which was never formally +declared. The Swedish king traversed all the plans of his enemies by his +passage of the frozen Belts, in January and February 1658 (see CHARLES +X. of Sweden). The effect of this unheard-of achievement on the Danish +government was crushing. Frederick III. at once sued for peace; and, +yielding to the persuasions of the English and French ministers, Charles +finally agreed to be content with mutilating instead of annihilating the +Danish monarchy (treaties of Taastrup, February 18th, and of Roskilde, +February 26th, 1658). The conclusion of peace was followed by a +remarkable episode. Frederick expressed the desire to make the personal +acquaintance of his conqueror; and Charles X. consented to be his guest +for three days (March 3-5) at the castle of Fredriksborg. Splendid +banquets lasting far into the night, private and intimate conversations +between the princes who had only just emerged from a mortal struggle, +seemed to point to nothing but peace and friendship in the future. But +Charles's insatiable lust for conquest, and his ineradicable suspicion +of Denmark, induced him, on the 17th of July, without any reasonable +cause, without a declaration of war, in defiance of all international +equity, to endeavour to despatch an inconvenient neighbour. + +Terror was the first feeling produced at Copenhagen by the landing of +the main Swedish army at Korsör in Zealand. None had anticipated the +possibility of such a sudden and brutal attack, and every one knew that +the Danish capital was very inadequately fortified and garrisoned. +Fortunately Frederick had never been deficient in courage. "I will die +in my nest" were the memorable words with which he rebuked those +counsellors who advised him to seek safety in flight. On the 8th of +August representatives from every class in the capital urged the +necessity of a vigorous resistance; and the citizens of Copenhagen, +headed by the great burgomaster Hans Nansen (q.v.), protested their +unshakable loyalty to the king, and their determination to defend +Copenhagen to the uttermost. The Danes had only three days' warning of +the approaching danger; and the vast and dilapidated line of defence had +at first but 2000 regular defenders. But the government and the people +displayed a memorable and exemplary energy, under the constant +supervision of the king, the queen, and burgomaster Nansen. By the +beginning of September all the breaches were repaired, the walls +bristled with cannon, and 7000 men were under arms. So strong was the +city by this time that Charles X., abandoning his original intention of +carrying the place by assault, began a regular siege; but this also he +was forced to abandon when, on the 29th of October, an auxiliary Dutch +fleet, after reinforcing and reprovisioning the garrison, defeated, in +conjunction with the Danish fleet, the Swedish navy of 44 liners in the +Sound. Thus the Danish capital had saved the Danish monarchy. But it was +Frederick III. who profited most by his spirited defence of the common +interests of the country and the dynasty. The traditional loyalty of the +Danish middle classes was transformed into a boundless enthusiasm for +the king personally, and for a brief period Frederick found himself the +most popular man in his kingdom. He made use of his popularity by +realizing the dream of a lifetime and converting an elective into an +absolute monarchy by the Revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: _History_). +Frederick III. died on the 6th of February 1670 at the castle of +Copenhagen. + + See R. Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, caps. ix. and x. (Cambridge, 1905). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +FREDERICK VIII. (1843- ), king of Denmark, eldest son of King +Christian IX., was born at Copenhagen on the 3rd of June 1843. As crown +prince of Denmark he took part in the war of 1864 against Austria and +Prussia, and subsequently assisted his father in the duties of +government, becoming king on Christian's death in January 1906. In 1869 +Frederick married Louise (b. 1851), daughter of Charles XV., king of +Sweden, by whom he had a family of four sons and four daughters. His +eldest son Christian, crown prince of Denmark (b. 1870), was married in +1898 to Alexandrina (b. 1879), daughter of Frederick Francis III., +grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; and his second son, Charles (b. +1872), who married his cousin Maud, daughter of Edward VII. of Great +Britain, became king of Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905. + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1657-1713), king of Prussia, and (as Frederick III.) +elector of Brandenburg, was the second son of the great elector, +Frederick William, by his first marriage with Louise Henriette, daughter +of Frederick Henry of Orange. Born at Königsberg on the 11th of July +1657, he was educated and greatly influenced by Eberhard Danckelmann, +and became heir to the throne of Brandenburg through the death of his +elder brother, Charles Emil, in 1674. He appears to have taken some part +in public business before the death of his father; and the court at +Berlin was soon disturbed by quarrels between the young prince and his +stepmother, Dorothea of Holstein-Glücksburg. In 1686 Dorothea persuaded +her husband to bequeath outlying portions of his lands to her four sons; +and Frederick, fearing he would be poisoned, left Brandenburg determined +to prevent any diminution of his inheritance. By promising to restore +Schwiebus to Silesia after his accession he won the support of the +emperor Leopold I.; but eventually he gained his end in a peaceable +fashion. Having become elector of Brandenburg in May 1688, he came to +terms with his half-brothers and their mother. In return for a sum of +money these princes renounced their rights under their father's will, +and the new elector thus secured the whole of Frederick William's +territories. After much delay and grumbling he fulfilled his bargain +with Leopold and gave up Schwiebus in 1695. At home and abroad Frederick +continued the policy of the great elector. He helped William of Orange +to make his descent on England; added various places, including the +principality of Neuchâtel, to his lands; and exercised some influence on +the course of European politics by placing his large and efficient army +at the disposal of the emperor and his allies (see BRANDENBURG). He was +present in person at the siege of Bonn in 1689, but was not often in +command of his troops. The elector was very fond of pomp, and, striving +to model his court upon that of Louis XIV., he directed his main +energies towards obtaining for himself the title of king. In spite of +the assistance he had given to the emperor his efforts met with no +success for some years; but towards 1700 Leopold, faced with the +prospect of a new struggle with France, was inclined to view the idea +more favourably. Having insisted upon various conditions, prominent +among them being military aid for the approaching war, he gave the +imperial sanction to Frederick's request in November 1700; whereupon the +elector, hurrying at once to Königsberg, crowned himself with great +ceremony king of Prussia on the 18th of January 1701. According to his +promise the king sent help to the emperor; and during the War of the +Spanish Succession the troops of Brandenburg-Prussia rendered great +assistance to the allies, fighting with distinction at Blenheim and +elsewhere. Frederick, who was deformed through an injury to his spine, +died on the 25th of February 1713. By his extravagance the king +exhausted the treasure amassed by his father, burdened his country with +heavy taxes, and reduced its finances to chaos. His constant obligations +to the emperor drained Brandenburg of money which might have been +employed more profitably at home, and prevented her sovereign from +interfering in the politics of northern Europe. Frederick, however, was +not an unpopular ruler, and by making Prussia into a kingdom he +undoubtedly advanced it several stages towards its future greatness. He +founded the university of Halle, and the Academy of Sciences at Berlin; +welcomed and protected Protestant refugees from France and elsewhere; +and lavished money on the erection of public buildings. + +The king was married three times. His second wife, Sophie Charlotte +(1668-1705), sister of the English king George I., was the friend of +Leibnitz and one of the most cultured princesses of the age; she bore +him his only son, his successor, King Frederick William I. + + See W. Hahn, _Friedrich I., König in Preussen_ (Berlin, 1876); J. G. + Droysen, _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_, Band iv. (Leipzig, + 1872); E. Heyck, _Friedrich I. und die Begründung des preussischen + Königtums_ (Bielefeld, 1901): C. Graf von Dohna, _Mémoires originaux + sur le règne et la cour de Frédéric I^er_ (Berlin, 1883); _Aus dem + Briefwechsel König Friedrichs I. von Preussen und seiner Familie_ + (Berlin, 1901); and T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. + i. (London, 1872). + + + + +FREDERICK II., known as "the Great" (1712-1786), king of Prussia, born +on the 24th of January 1712, was the eldest son of Frederick William I. +He was brought up with extreme rigour, his father devising a scheme of +education which was intended to make him a hardy soldier, and +prescribing for him every detail of his conduct. So great was Frederick +William's horror of everything which did not seem to him practical, that +he strictly excluded Latin from the list of his son's studies. +Frederick, however, had free and generous impulses which could not be +restrained by the sternest system. Encouraged by his mother, and under +the influence of his governess Madame de Roucoulle, and of his first +tutor Duhan, a French refugee, he acquired an excellent knowledge of +French and a taste for literature and music. He even received secret +lessons in Latin, which his father invested with all the charms of +forbidden fruit. As he grew up he became extremely dissatisfied with the +dull and monotonous life he was compelled to lead; and his discontent +was heartily shared by his sister, Wilhelmina, a bright and intelligent +young princess for whom Frederick had a warm affection. + +Frederick William, seeing his son apparently absorbed in frivolous and +effeminate amusements, gradually conceived for him an intense dislike, +which had its share in causing him to break off the negotiations for a +double marriage between the prince of Wales and Wilhelmina, and the +princess Amelia, daughter of George II., and Frederick; for Frederick +had been so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the +English court and to vow that he would marry Amelia or no one. Frederick +William's hatred of his son, openly avowed, displayed itself in violent +outbursts and public insults, and so harsh was his treatment that +Frederick frequently thought of running away and taking refuge at the +English court. He at last resolved to do so during a journey which he +made with the king to south Germany in 1730, when he was eighteen years +of age. He was helped by his two friends, Lieutenant Katte and +Lieutenant Keith; but by the imprudence of the former the secret was +found out. Frederick was placed under arrest, deprived of his rank as +crown prince, tried by court-martial, and imprisoned in the fortress of +Cüstrin. Warned by Frederick, Keith escaped; but Katte delayed his +flight too long, and a court-martial decided that he should be punished +with two years' fortress arrest. But the king was determined by a +terrible example to wake Frederick once for all to a consciousness of +the heavy responsibility of his position. He changed the sentence on +Katte to one of death and ordered the execution to take place in +Frederick's presence, himself arranging its every detail; Frederick's +own fate would depend upon the effect of this terrible object-lesson and +the response he should make to the exhortations of the chaplain sent to +reason with him. On the morning of the 7th of November Katte was +beheaded before Frederick's window, after the crown prince had asked his +pardon and received the answer that there was nothing to forgive. On +Frederick himself lay the terror of death, and the chaplain was able to +send to the king a favourable report of his orthodoxy and his changed +disposition. Frederick William, whose temper was by no means so +ruthlessly Spartan as tradition has painted it,was overjoyed, and +commissioned the clergyman to receive from the prince an oath of filial +obedience, and in exchange for this proof of "his intention to improve +in real earnest" his arrest was to be lightened, pending the earning of +a full pardon. "The whole town shall be his prison," wrote the king; "I +will give him employment, from morning to night, in the departments of +war, and agriculture, and of the government. He shall work at financial +matters, receive accounts, read minutes and make extracts.... But if he +kicks or rears again, he shall forfeit the succession to the crown, and +even, according to circumstances, life itself." + +For about fifteen months Frederick lived in Custrin, busy according to +the royal programme with the details of the Prussian administrative +system. He was very careful not to "kick or rear," and his good conduct +earned him a further stage in the restoration to favour. During this +period of probation he had been deprived of his status as a soldier and +refused the right to wear uniform, while officers and soldiers were +forbidden to give him the military salute; in 1732 he was made colonel +in command of the regiment at Neuruppin. In the following year he +married, in obedience to the king's orders, the princess Elizabeth +Christina, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Bevern. He was given the +estate of Rheinsberg in the neighbourhood of Neuruppin, and there he +lived until he succeeded to the throne. These years were perhaps the +happiest of his life. He discharged his duties with so much spirit and +so conscientiously that he ultimately gained the esteem of Frederick +William, who no longer feared that he would leave the crown to one +unworthy of wearing it. At the same time the crown prince was able to +indulge to the full his personal tastes. He carried on a lively +correspondence with Voltaire and other French men of letters, and was a +diligent student of philosophy, history and poetry. Two of his +best-known works were written at this time--_Considérations sur l'état +present du corps politique de l'Europe_ and his _Anti-Macchiavel_. In +the former he calls attention to the growing strength of Austria and +France, and insists on the necessity of some third power, by which he +clearly means Prussia, counterbalancing their excessive influence. The +second treatise, which was issued by Voltaire in Hague in 1740, contains +a generous exposition of some of the favourite ideas of the 18th-century +philosophers respecting the duties of sovereigns, which may be summed up +in the famous sentence: "the prince is not the absolute master, but only +the first servant of his people." + +On the 31st of May 1740 he became king. He maintained all the forms of +government established by his father, but ruled in a far more +enlightened spirit; he tolerated every form of religious opinion, +abolished the use of torture, was most careful to secure an exact and +impartial administration of justice, and, while keeping the reins of +government strictly in his own hands, allowed every one with a genuine +grievance free access to his presence. The Potsdam regiment of giants +was disbanded, but the real interests of the army were carefully +studied, for Frederick realized that the two pillars of the Prussian +state were sound finances and a strong army. On the 20th of October 1740 +the emperor Charles VI. died. Frederick at once began to make extensive +military preparations, and it was soon clear to all the world that he +intended to enter upon some serious enterprise. He had made up his mind +to assert the ancient claim of the house of Brandenburg to the three +Silesian duchies, which the Austrian rulers of Bohemia had ever denied, +but the Hohenzollerns had never abandoned. Projects for the assertion of +this claim by force of arms had been formed by more than one of +Frederick's predecessors, and the extinction of the male line of the +house of Habsburg may well have seemed to him a unique opportunity for +realizing an ambition traditional in his family. For this resolution he +is often abused still by historians, and at the time he had the approval +of hardly any one out of Prussia. He himself, writing of the scheme in +his _Mémoires_, laid no claim to lofty motives, but candidly confessed +that "it was a means of acquiring reputation and of increasing the power +of the state." He firmly believed, however, in the lawfulness of his +claims; and although his father had recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, +whereby the hereditary dominions of Charles VI. were to descend to his +daughter, Maria Theresa, Frederick insisted that this sanction could +refer only to lands which rightfully belonged to the house of Austria. +He could also urge that, as Charles VI. had not fulfilled the +engagements by which Frederick William's recognition of the Pragmatic +Sanction had been secured, Prussia was freed from her obligation. + +Frederick sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering, in the event of his +rights in Silesia being conceded, to aid Maria Theresa against her +enemies. The queen of Hungary, who regarded the proposal as that of a +mere robber, haughtily declined; whereupon Frederick immediately invaded +Silesia with an army of 30,000 men. His first victory was gained at +Mollwitz on the 10th of April 1741. Under the impression, in consequence +of a furious charge of Austrian cavalry, that the battle was lost, he +rode rapidly away at an early stage of the struggle--a mistake which +gave rise for a time to the groundless idea that he lacked personal +courage. A second Prussian victory was gained at Chotusitz, near Caslau, +on the 17th May 1742; by this time Frederick was master of all the +fortified places of Silesia. Maria Theresa, in the heat of her struggle +with France and the elector of Bavaria, now Charles VII., and pressed by +England to rid herself of Frederick, concluded with him, on the 11th of +June 1742, the peace of Breslau, conceding to Prussia, Upper and Lower +Silesia as far as the Oppa, together with the county of Glatz. Frederick +made good use of the next two years, fortifying his new territory, and +repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war. By the death of the +prince of East Friesland without heirs, he also gained possession of +that country (1744). He knew well that Maria Theresa would not, if she +could help it, allow him to remain in Silesia; accordingly, in 1744, +alarmed by her victories, he arrived at a secret understanding with +France, and pledged himself, with Hesse-Cassel and the palatinate, to +maintain the imperial rights of Charles VII., and to defend his +hereditary Bavarian lands. Frederick began the second Silesian War by +entering Bohemia in August 1744 and taking Prague. By this brilliant but +rash venture he put himself in great danger, and soon had to retreat; +but in 1745 he gained the battles of Hohenfriedberg, Soor and +Hennersdorf; and Leopold of Dessau ("Der alte Dessauer") won for him the +victory of Kesselsdorf in Saxony. The latter victory was decisive, and +the peace of Dresden (December 25, 1745) assured to Frederick a second +time the possession of Silesia. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.) + +Frederick had thus, at the age of thirty-three, raised himself to a +great position in Europe, and henceforth he was the most conspicuous +sovereign of his time. He was a thoroughly absolute ruler, his so-called +ministers being mere clerks whose business was to give effect to his +will. To use his own famous phrase, however, he regarded himself as but +"the first servant of the state"; and during the next eleven years he +proved that the words expressed his inmost conviction and feeling. All +kinds of questions were submitted to him, important and unimportant; and +he is frequently censured for having troubled himself so much with mere +details. But in so far as these details related to expenditure he was +fully justified, for it was absolutely essential for him to have a large +army, and with a small state this was impossible unless he carefully +prevented unnecessary outlay. Being a keen judge of character, he filled +the public offices with faithful, capable, energetic men, who were kept +up to a high standard of duty by the consciousness that their work might +at any time come under his strict supervision. The Academy of Sciences, +which had fallen into contempt during his father's reign, he restored, +infusing into it vigorous life; and he did more to promote elementary +education than any of his predecessors. He did much too for the economic +development of Prussia, especially for agriculture; he established +colonies, peopling them with immigrants, extended the canal system, +drained and diked the great marshes of the Oderbruch, turning them into +rich pasturage, encouraged the planting of fruit trees and of root +crops; and, though in accordance with his ideas of discipline he +maintained serfdom, he did much to lighten the burdens of the peasants. +All kinds of manufacture, too, particularly that of silk, owed much to +his encouragement. To the army he gave unremitting attention, reviewing +it at regular intervals, and sternly punishing negligence on the part of +the officers. Its numbers were raised to 160,000 men, while fortresses +and magazines were always kept in a state of readiness for war. The +influence of the king's example was felt far beyond the limits of his +immediate circle. The nation was proud of his genius, and displayed +something of his energy in all departments of life. Lessing, who as a +youth of twenty came to Berlin in 1749, composed enthusiastic odes in +his honour, and Gleim, the Halberstadt poet, wrote of him as of a kind +of demi-god. These may be taken as fair illustrations of the popular +feeling long before the Seven Years' War. + +He despised German as the language of boors, although it is remarkable +that at a later period, in a French essay on German literature, he +predicted for it a great future. He habitually wrote and spoke French, +and had a strong ambition to rank as a distinguished French author. +Nobody can now read his verses, but his prose writings have a certain +calm simplicity and dignity, without, however, giving evidence of the +splendid mental qualities which he revealed in practical life. To this +period belong his _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de Brandebourg_ and +his poem _L'Art de la guerre_. The latter, judged as literature, is +intolerably dull; but the former is valuable, throwing as it does +considerable light on his personal sympathies as well as on the motives +of important epochs in his career. He continued to correspond with +French writers, and induced a number of them to settle in Berlin, +Maupertuis being president of the Academy. In 1752 Voltaire, who had +repeatedly visited him, came at Frederick's urgent entreaty, and +received a truly royal welcome. The famous Hirsch trial, and Voltaire's +vanity and caprice, greatly lowered him in the esteem of the king, who, +on his side, irritated his guest by often requiring him to correct bad +verses, and by making him the object of rude banter. The publication of +_Doctor Akakia_, which brought down upon the president of the Academy a +storm of ridicule, finally alienated Frederick; while Voltaire's wrongs +culminated in the famous arrest at Frankfort, the most disagreeable +elements of which were due to the misunderstanding of an order by a +subordinate official. + +The king lived as much as possible in a retired mansion, to which he +gave the name of Sanssouci--not the palace so called, which was built +after the Seven Years' War, and was never a favourite residence. He rose +regularly in summer at five, in winter at six, devoting himself to +public business till about eleven. During part of this time, after +coffee, he would aid his reflections by playing on the flute, of which +he was passionately fond, being a really skilful performer. At eleven +came parade, and an hour afterwards, punctually, dinner, which continued +till two, or later, if conversation happened to be particularly +attractive. After dinner he glanced through and signed cabinet orders +written in accordance with his morning instructions, often adding +marginal notes and postscripts, many of which were in a caustic tone. +These disposed of, he amused himself for a couple of hours with literary +work; between six and seven he would converse with his friends or listen +to his reader (a post held for some time by La Mettrie); at seven there +was a concert; and at half-past eight he sat down to supper, which might +go on till midnight. He liked good eating and drinking, although even +here the cost was sharply looked after, the expenses of his kitchen +mounting to no higher figure than £1800 a year. At supper he was always +surrounded by a number of his most intimate friends, mainly Frenchmen; +and he insisted on the conversation being perfectly free. His wit, +however, was often cruel, and any one who responded with too much spirit +was soon made to feel that the licence of talk was to be complete only +on one side. + +At Frederick's court ladies were seldom seen, a circumstance that gave +occasion to much scandal for which there seems to have been no +foundation. The queen he visited only on rare occasions. She had been +forced upon him by his father, and he had never loved her; but he always +treated her with marked respect, and provided her with a generous +income, half of which she gave away in charity. Although without charm, +she was a woman of many noble qualities; and, like her husband, she +wrote French books, some of which attracted a certain attention in their +day. She survived him by eleven years, dying in 1797. + +Maria Theresa had never given up hope that she would recover Silesia; +and as all the neighbouring sovereigns were bitterly jealous of +Frederick, and somewhat afraid of him, she had no difficulty in inducing +several of them to form a scheme for his ruin. Russia and Saxony entered +into it heartily, and France, laying aside her ancient enmity towards +Austria, joined the empress against the common object of dislike. +Frederick, meanwhile, had turned towards England, which saw in him a +possible ally of great importance against the French. A convention +between Prussia and Great Britain was signed in January 1756, and it +proved of incalculable value to both countries, leading as it did to a +close alliance during the administration of Pitt. Through the treachery +of a clerk in the Saxon foreign office Frederick was made aware of the +future which was being prepared for him. Seeing the importance of taking +the initiative, and if possible, of securing Saxony, he suddenly, on the +24th of August 1756, crossed the frontier of that country, and shut in +the Saxon army between Pirna and Königstein, ultimately compelling it, +after a victory gained over the Austrians at Lobositz, to surrender. +Thus began the Seven Years' War, in which, supported by England, +Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel, he had for a long time to oppose Austria, +France, Russia, Saxony and Sweden. Virtually the whole Continent was in +arms against a small state which, a few years before, had been regarded +by most men as beneath serious notice. But it happened that this small +state was led by a man of high military genius, capable of infusing into +others his own undaunted spirit, while his subjects had learned both +from him and his predecessors habits of patience, perseverance and +discipline. In 1757, after defeating the Austrians at Prague, he was +himself defeated by them at Kolin; and by the shameful convention of +Closter-Seven, he was freely exposed to the attack of the French. In +November 1757, however, when Europe looked upon him as ruined, he rid +himself of the French by his splendid victory over them at Rossbach, and +in about a month afterwards, by the still more splendid victory at +Leuthen, he drove the Austrians from Silesia. From this time the French +were kept well employed in the west by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, +who defeated them at Crefeld in 1758, and at Minden in 1759. In the +former year Frederick triumphed, at a heavy cost, over the Russians at +Zorndorf; and although, through lack of his usual foresight, he lost the +battle of Hochkirch, he prevented the Austrians from deriving any real +advantage from their triumph, Silesia still remaining in his hands at +the end of the year. The battle of Kunersdorf, fought on the 12th of +August 1759, was the most disastrous to him in the course of the war. He +had here to contend both with the Russians and the Austrians; and +although at first he had some success, his army was in the end +completely broken. "All is lost save the royal family," he wrote to his +minister Friesenstein; "the consequences of this battle will be worse +than the battle itself. I shall not survive the ruin of the Fatherland. +Adieu for ever!" But he soon recovered from his despair, and in 1760 +gained the important victories of Liegnitz and Torgau. He had now, +however, to act on the defensive, and fortunately for him, the Russians, +on the death of the empress Elizabeth, not only withdrew in 1762 from +the compact against him, but for a time became his allies. On the 29th +of October of that year he gained his last victory over the Austrians at +Freiberg. Europe was by that time sick of war, every power being more or +less exhausted. The result was that, on the 15th of February 1763, a +few days after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, the treaty of +Hubertusburg was signed, Austria confirming Prussia in the possession of +Silesia. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.) + +It would be difficult to overrate the importance of the contribution +thus made by Frederick to the politics of Europe. Prussia was now +universally recognized as one of the great powers of the Continent, and +she definitely took her place in Germany as the rival of Austria. From +this time it was inevitable that there should be a final struggle +between the two nations for predominance, and that the smaller German +states should group themselves around one or the other. Frederick +himself acquired both in Germany and Europe the indefinable influence +which springs from the recognition of great gifts that have been proved +by great deeds. + +His first care after the war was, as far as possible, to enable the +country to recover from the terrific blows by which it had been almost +destroyed; and he was never, either before or after, seen to better +advantage than in the measures he adopted for this end. Although his +resources had been so completely drained that he had been forced to melt +the silver in his palaces and to debase the coinage, his energy soon +brought back the national prosperity. Pomerania and Neumark were freed +from taxation for two years, Silesia for six months. Many nobles whose +lands had been wasted received corn for seed; his war horses were within +a few months to be found on farms all over Prussia; and money was freely +spent in the re-erection of houses which had been destroyed. The coinage +was gradually restored to its proper value, and trade received a +favourable impulse by the foundation of the Bank of Berlin. All these +matters were carefully looked into by Frederick himself, who, while +acting as generously as his circumstances would allow, insisted on +everything being done in the most efficient manner at the least possible +cost. Unfortunately, he adopted the French ideas of excise, and the +French methods of imposing and collecting taxes--a system known as the +Regie. This system secured for him a large revenue, but it led to a vast +amount of petty tyranny, which was all the more intolerable because it +was carried out by French officials. It was continued to the end of +Frederick's reign, and nothing did so much to injure his otherwise +immense popularity. He was quite aware of the discontent the system +excited, and the good-nature with which he tolerated the criticisms +directed against it and him is illustrated by a well-known incident. +Riding along the Jäger Strasse one day, he saw a crowd of people. "See +what it is," he said to the groom who was attending him. "They have +something posted up about your Majesty," said the groom, returning. +Frederick, riding forward, saw a caricature of himself: "King in very +melancholy guise," says Preuss (as translated by Carlyle), "seated on a +stool, a coffee-mill between his knees, diligently grinding with the one +hand, and with the other picking up any bean that might have fallen. +'Hang it lower,' said the king, beckoning his groom with a wave of the +finger; 'lower, that they may not have to hurt their necks about it.' No +sooner were the words spoken, which spread instantly, than there rose +from the whole crowd one universal huzzah of joy. They tore the +caricature into a thousand pieces, and rolled after the king with loud +'_Lebe Hoch_, our Frederick for ever,' as he rode slowly away." There +are scores of anecdotes about Frederick, but not many so well +authenticated as this. + +There was nothing about which Frederick took so much trouble as the +proper administration of justice. He disliked the formalities of the +law, and in one instance, "the miller Arnold case," in connexion with +which he thought injustice had been done to a poor man, he dismissed the +judges, condemned them to a year's fortress arrest, and compelled them +to make good out of their own pockets the loss sustained by their +supposed victim--not a wise proceeding, but one springing from a +generous motive. He once defined himself as "l'avocat du pauvre," and +few things gave him more pleasure than the famous answer of the miller +whose windmill stood on ground which was wanted for the king's garden. +The miller sturdily refused to sell it. "Not at any price?" said the +king's agent; "could not the king take it from you for nothing, if he +chose?" "Have we not the Kammergericht at Berlin?" was the answer, which +became a popular saying in Germany. Soon after he came to the throne +Frederick began to make preparations for a new code. In 1747 appeared +the _Codex Fridericianus_, by which the Prussian judicial body was +established. But a greater monument of Frederick's interest in legal +reform was the _Allgemeines preussisches Landrecht_, completed by the +grand chancellor Count Johann H. C. von Carmer (1721-1801) on the basis +of the _Project des Corporis Juris Fridericiani_, completed in the year +1749-1751 by the eminent jurist Samuel von Cocceji (1679-1755). The +_Landrecht_, a work of vast labour and erudition, combines the two +systems of German and Roman law supplemented by the law of nature; it +was the first German code, but only came into force in 1794, after +Frederick's death. + +Looking ahead after the Seven Years' War, Frederick saw no means of +securing himself so effectually as by cultivating the goodwill of +Russia. In 1764 he accordingly concluded a treaty of alliance with the +empress Catherine for eight years. Six years afterwards, unfortunately +for his fame, he joined in the first partition of Poland, by which he +received Polish Prussia, without Danzig and Thorn, and Great Poland as +far as the river Netze. Prussia was then for the first time made +continuous with Brandenburg and Pomerania. + +The emperor Joseph II. greatly admired Frederick, and visited him at +Neisse, in Silesia, in 1769, a visit which Frederick returned, in +Moravia, in the following year. The young emperor was frank and cordial; +Frederick was more cautious, for he detected under the respectful manner +of Joseph a keen ambition that might one day become dangerous to +Prussia. Ever after these interviews a portrait of the emperor hung +conspicuously in the rooms in which Frederick lived, a circumstance on +which some one remarked. "Ah yes," said Frederick, "I am obliged to keep +that young gentleman in my eye." Nothing came of these suspicions till +1777, when, after the death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, +without children, the emperor took possession of the greater part of his +lands. The elector palatine, who lawfully inherited Bavaria, came to an +arrangement, which was not admitted by his heir, Charles, duke of +Zweibrücken. Under these circumstances the latter appealed to Frederick, +who, resolved that Austria should gain no unnecessary advantage, took +his part, and brought pressure to bear upon the emperor. Ultimately, +greatly against his will, Frederick felt compelled to draw the sword, +and in July 1778 crossed the Bohemian frontier at the head of a powerful +army. No general engagement was fought, and after a great many delays +the treaty of Teschen was signed on the 13th of May 1779. Austria +received the circle of Burgau, and consented that the king of Prussia +should take the Franconian principalities. Frederick never abandoned his +jealousy of Austria, whose ambition he regarded as the chief danger +against which Europe had to guard. He seems to have had no suspicion +that evil days were coming in France. It was Austria which had given +trouble in his time; and if her pride were curbed, he fancied that +Prussia at least would be safe. Hence one of the last important acts of +his life was to form, in 1785, a league of princes (the "Fürstenbund") +for the defence of the imperial constitution, believed to be imperilled +by Joseph's restless activity. The league came to an end after +Frederick's death; but it is of considerable historical interest, as the +first open attempt of Prussia to take the lead in Germany. + +Frederick's chief trust was always in his treasury and his army. By +continual economy he left in the former the immense sum of 70 million +thalers; the latter, at the time of his death, numbered 200,000 men, +disciplined with all the strictness to which he had throughout life +accustomed his troops. He died at Sanssouci on the 17th of August 1786; +his death being hastened by exposure to a storm of rain, stoically +borne, during a military review. He passed away on the eve of tremendous +events, which for a time obscured his fame; but now that he can be +impartially estimated, he is seen to have been in many respects one of +the greatest figures in modern history. + +He was rather below the middle size, in youth inclined to stoutness, +lean in old age, but of vigorous and active habits. An expression of +keen intelligence lighted up his features, and his large, sparkling grey +eyes darted penetrating glances at every one who approached him. In his +later years an old blue uniform with red facings was his usual dress, +and on his breast was generally some Spanish snuff, of which he consumed +large quantities. He shared many of the chief intellectual tendencies of +his age, having no feeling for the highest aspirations of human nature, +but submitting all things to a searching critical analysis. Of +Christianity he always spoke in the mocking tone of the "enlightened" +philosophers, regarding it as the invention of priests; but it is +noteworthy that after the Seven Years' War, the trials of which steadied +his character, he sought to strengthen the church for the sake of its +elevating moral influence. In his judgments of mankind he often talked +as a misanthrope. He was once conversing with Sulzer, who was a school +inspector, about education. Sulzer expressed the opinion that education +had of late years greatly improved. "In former times, your Majesty," he +said, "the notion being that mankind were naturally inclined to evil, a +system of severity prevailed in schools; but now, when we recognize that +the inborn inclination of men is rather to good than to evil, +schoolmasters have adopted a more generous procedure." "Ah, my dear +Sulzer," replied the king, "you don't know this damned race" ("Ach, mein +lieber Sulzer, er kennt nicht diese verdammte Race"). This fearful +saying unquestionably expressed a frequent mood of Frederick's; and he +sometimes acted with great harshness, and seemed to take a malicious +pleasure in tormenting his acquaintances. Yet he was capable of genuine +attachments. He was beautifully loyal to his mother and his sister +Wilhelmina; his letters to the duchess of Gotha are full of a certain +tender reverence; the two Keiths found him a devoted friend. But the +true evidence that beneath his misanthropical moods there was an +enduring sentiment of humanity is afforded by the spirit in which he +exercised his kingly functions. Taking his reign as a whole, it must be +said that he looked upon his power rather as a trust than as a source of +personal advantage; and the trust was faithfully discharged according to +the best lights of his day. He has often been condemned for doing +nothing to encourage German literature; and it is true that he was +supremely indifferent to it. Before he died a tide of intellectual life +was rising all about him; yet he failed to recognize it, declined to +give Lessing even the small post of royal librarian, and thought _Götz +von Berlichingen_ a vulgar imitation of vulgar English models. But when +his taste was formed, German literature did not exist; the choice was +between Racine and Voltaire on the one hand and Gottsched and Gellert on +the other. He survived into the era of Kant, Goethe and Schiller, but he +was not of it, and it would have been unreasonable to expect that he +should in old age pass beyond the limits of his own epoch. As Germans +now generally admit, it was better that he let their literature alone, +since, left to itself, it became a thoroughly independent product. +Indirectly he powerfully promoted it by deepening the national life from +which it sprang. At a time when there was no real bond of cohesion +between the different states, he stirred among them a common enthusiasm; +and in making Prussia great he laid the foundation of a genuinely united +empire. + + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--The main sources for the biography of Frederick + the Great are his own works, which, in the words of Leopold von Ranke, + "deal with the politics and wars of the period with the greatest + possible objectivity, i.e. truthfulness, and form an imperishable + monument of his life and opinions." A magnificent edition of + Frederick's complete works was issued (1846-1857), at the instance of + Frederick William IV., under the supervision of the historian Johann + D. E. Preuss (1785-1868). It is in thirty volumes, of which six + contain verse, seven are historical, two philosophical, and three + military, twelve being made up of correspondence. So long as the + various state archives remained largely inaccessible historians relied + upon this as their chief authority. Among works belonging to this + period may be mentioned Thomas Carlyle, _History of Frederick II. of + Prussia_ (6 vols., London, 1858-1865); J. G. Droysen, _Friedrich der + Grosse_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1876, forming part V. of his + _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_); Ranke, _Friedrich II., König + von Preussen_ (_Werke_, vols. li. and lii.). A great stimulus to the + study of Frederick's history has since been given by the publication + of collections of documents preserved in various archives. Of these + the most important is the great official edition of Frederick's + political correspondence (Berlin, 1879), of which the thirty-first + vol. appeared in 1906. Of later works, based on modern research, may + be mentioned R. Koser, _König Friedrich der Grosse_, Bd. 2 (Stuttgart, + 1893 and 1903; 3rd ed., 1905); Bourdeau, _Le Grand Frédéric_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1900-1902); L. Paul-Dubois, _Frédéric le Grand, d'après sa + correspondance politique_ (Paris, 1903); W. F. Reddaway, _Frederick + the Great and the Rise of Prussia_ (London, 1904). Of the numerous + special studies may be noticed E. Zeller, _Friedrich der Grosse als + Philosoph_ (Berlin, 1886); H. Pigge, _Die Staatstheorie Friedrichs des + Grossen_ (Münster, 1904); T. von Bernhardi, _Friedrich der Grosse als + Feldherr_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1881); Ernest Lavisse, _La Jeunesse du + Grand Frédéric_ (Paris, 1891, 3rd ed., 1899; Eng. transl., London, + 1891); R. Brode, _Friedrich der Grosse und der Konflikt mit seinem + Vater_ (Leipzig, 1904); W. von Bremen, _Friedrich der Grosse_ (Bd. ii. + of _Erzieher des preussischen Heeres_, Berlin, 1905); G. Winter, + _Friedrich der Grosse_ (3 vols. in _Geisteshelden_ series, Berlin, + 1906); _Dreissig Jahre am Hofe Friedrichs des Grossen_. _Aus den + Tagebüchern des Reichsgrafen Ahasuerus Heinrich von Lehndorff, + Kammerherrn der Königin Elisabett Christine von Preussen_ (Gotha, + 1907). The great work on the wars of Frederick is that issued by the + Prussian General Staff: _Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen_ (12 vols. + in three parts, Berlin, 1890-1904). For a full list of other works see + Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde_ (Leipzig, 1906). (J. Si.; W. A. P.). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1831-1888), king of Prussia and German emperor, was born +at Potsdam on the 18th of October 1831, being the eldest son of Prince +William of Prussia, afterwards first German emperor, and the princess +Augusta. He was carefully educated, and in 1849-1850 studied at the +university of Bonn. The next years were spent in military duties and in +travels, in which he was accompanied by Moltke. In 1851 he visited +England on the occasion of the Great Exhibition, and in 1855 became +engaged to Victoria, princess royal of Great Britain, to whom he was +married in London on the 25th of January 1858. On the death of his uncle +in 1861 and the accession of his father, Prince Frederick William, as he +was then always called, became crown prince of Prussia. His education, +the influence of his mother, and perhaps still more that of his wife's +father, the Prince Consort, had made him a strong Liberal, and he was +much distressed at the course of events in Prussia after the appointment +of Bismarck as minister. He was urged by the Liberals to put himself +into open opposition to the government; this he refused to do, but he +remonstrated privately with the king. In June 1863, however, he publicly +dissociated himself from the press ordinances which had just been +published. He ceased to attend meetings of the council of state, and was +much away from Berlin. The opposition of the crown prince to the +ministers was increased during the following year, for he was a warm +friend of the prince of Augustenburg, whose claims to Schleswig-Holstein +Bismarck refused to support. During the war with Denmark he had his +first military experience, being attached to the staff of Marshal von +Wrangel; he performed valuable service in arranging the difficulties +caused by the disputes between the field marshal and the other officers, +and was eventually given a control over him. After the war he continued +to support the prince of Augustenburg and was strongly opposed to the +war with Austria. During the campaign of 1866 he received the command of +an army consisting of four army corps; he was assisted by General von +Blumenthal, as chief of the staff, but took a very active part in +directing the difficult operations by which his army fought its way +through the mountains from Silesia to Bohemia, fighting four engagements +in three days, and showed that he possessed genuine military capacity. +In the decisive battle of Königgrätz the arrival of his army on the +field of battle, after a march of nearly 20 m., secured the victory. +During the negotiations which ended the war he gave valuable assistance +by persuading the king to accept Bismarck's policy as regards peace with +Austria. From this time he was very anxious to see the king of Prussia +unite the whole of Germany, with the title of emperor, and was impatient +of the caution with which Bismarck proceeded. In 1869 he paid a visit to +Italy, and in the same year was present at the opening of the Suez +Canal; on his way he visited the Holy Land. + +He played a conspicuous part in the year 1870-1871, being appointed to +command the armies of the Southern States, General Blumenthal again +being his chief of the staff; his troops won the victory of Wörth, took +an important part in the battle of Sedan, and later in the siege of +Paris. The popularity he won was of political service in preparing the +way for the union of North and South Germany, and he was the foremost +advocate of the imperial idea at the Prussian court. During the years +that followed, little opportunity for political activity was open to +him. He and the crown princess took a great interest in art and +industry, especially in the royal museums; and the excavations conducted +at Olympia and Pergamon with such great results were chiefly due to him. +The crown princess was a keen advocate of the higher education of women, +and it was owing to her exertions that the Victoria Lyceum at Berlin +(which was named after her) was founded. In 1878, when the emperor was +incapacitated by the shot of an assassin, the prince acted for some +months as regent. His palace was the centre of all that was best in the +literary and learned society of the capital. He publicly expressed his +disapproval of the attacks on the Jews in 1878; and the coalition of +Liberal parties founded in 1884 was popularly known as the "crown +prince's party," but he scrupulously refrained from any act that might +embarrass his father's government. For many reasons the accession of the +prince was looked forward to with great hope by a large part of the +nation. Unfortunately he was attacked by cancer in the throat; he spent +the winter of 1887-1888 at San Remo; in January 1888 the operation of +tracheotomy had to be performed. On the death of his father, which took +place on the 9th of March, he at once journeyed to Berlin; but his days +were numbered, and he came to the throne only to die. In these +circumstances his accession could not have the political importance +which would otherwise have attached to it, though it was disfigured by a +vicious outburst of party passion in which the names of the emperor and +the empress were constantly misused. While the Liberals hoped the +emperor would use his power for some signal declaration of policy, the +adherents of Bismarck did not scruple to make bitter attacks on the +empress. The emperor's most important act was a severe reprimand +addressed to Herr von Puttkamer, the reactionary minister of the +interior, which caused his resignation; in the distribution of honours +he chose many who belonged to classes and parties hitherto excluded from +court favour. A serious difference of opinion with the chancellor +regarding the proposal for a marriage between Prince Alexander of +Battenberg and the princess Victoria of Prussia was arranged by the +intervention of Queen Victoria, who visited Berlin to see her dying +son-in-law. He expired at Potsdam on the 15th of June 1888, after a +reign of ninety-nine days. + +After the emperor's death Professor Geffcken, a personal friend, +published in the _Deutsche Rundschau_ extracts from the diary of the +crown prince containing passages which illustrated his differences with +Bismarck during the war of 1870. The object was to injure Bismarck's +reputation, and a very unseemly dispute ensued. Bismarck at first, in a +letter addressed to the new emperor, denied the authenticity of the +extracts on the ground that they were unworthy of the crown prince. +Geffcken was then arrested and imprisoned. He had undoubtedly shown that +he was an injudicious friend, for the diary proved that the prince, in +his enthusiasm for German unity, had allowed himself to consider +projects which would have seriously compromised the relations of Prussia +and Bavaria. The treatment of the crown prince's illness also gave rise +to an acrimonious controversy. It arose from the fact that as early as +May 1887 the German physicians recognized the presence of cancer in the +throat, but Sir Morell Mackenzie, the English specialist who was also +consulted, disputed the correctness of this diagnosis, and advised that +the operation for removal of the larynx, which they had recommended, +should not be undertaken. His advice was followed, and the differences +between the medical men were made the occasion for a considerable +display of national and political animosity. + +The empress VICTORIA, who, after the death of her husband, was known as +the empress Frederick, died on the 5th of August 1901 at the castle of +Friedrichskron, Cronberg, near Homburg v. d. H., where she spent her +last years. Of the emperor's children two, Prince Sigismund (1864-1866) +and Prince Waldemar (1869-1879), died in childhood. He left two sons, +William, his successor as emperor, and Henry, who adopted a naval +career. Of his daughters, the princess Charlotte was married to Bernard, +hereditary prince of Meiningen; the princess Victoria to Prince Adolf of +Schaumburg-Lippe; the princess Sophie to the duke of Sparta, crown +prince of Greece; and the princess Margaretha to Prince Friedrich Karl +of Hesse. + + AUTHORITIES.--M. von Poschinger, _Kaiser Friedrich_ (3 vols., Berlin, + 1898-1900). Adapted into English by Sidney Whitman, _Life of the + Emperor Frederick_ (1901). See also Bismarck, _Reflections and + Reminiscences_; Rennell Rodd, _Frederick, Crown Prince and Emperor_ + (1888); Gustav Freytag, _Der Kronprinz und die deutsche Kaiserkrone_ + (1889; English translation, 1890); Otto Richter, _Kaiser Friedrich + III._ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1903). For his illness, the official + publications, published both in English and German: _Die Krankheit + Kaiser Friedrichs III._ (Berlin, 1888), and Morell Mackenzie, _The + Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble_ (1888). Most of the copies of + the _Deutsche Rundschau_ containing the extracts from the crown + prince's diary were confiscated, but there is an English edition, + published in 1889. (J. W. He.) + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1272-1337), king of Sicily, third son of King Peter of +Aragon and Sicily, and of Constance, daughter of Manfred. Peter died in +1285, leaving Aragon to his eldest son Alphonso, and Sicily to his +second son James. When Alphonso died in 1291 James became king of +Aragon, and left his brother Frederick as regent of Sicily. The war +between the Angevins and the Aragonese for the possession of Sicily was +still in progress, and although the Aragonese were successful in Italy, +James's position in Spain became very insecure to internal troubles and +French attacks. Peace negotiations were begun with Charles II. of Anjou, +but were interrupted by the successive deaths of two popes; at last +under the auspices of Boniface VIII. James concluded a shameful treaty, +by which, in exchange for being left undisturbed in Aragon and promised +possession of Sardinia and Corsica, he gave up Sicily to the Church, for +whom it was to be held by the Angevins (1295). The Sicilians refused to +be made over once more to the hated French whom they had expelled in +1282, and found a national leader in the regent Frederick. In vain the +pope tried to bribe him with promises and dignities; he was determined +to stand by his subjects, and was crowned king by the nobles at Palermo +in 1296. Young, brave and handsome, he won the love and devotion of his +people, and guided them through the long years of storm and stress with +wisdom and ability. Although the second Frederick of Sicily, he called +himself third, being the third son of King Peter. He reformed the +administration and extended the powers of the Sicilian parliament, which +was composed of the barons, the prelates and the representatives of the +towns. + +His refusal to comply with the pope's injunctions led to a renewal of +the war. Frederick landed in Calabria, where he seized several towns, +encouraged revolt in Naples, negotiated with the Ghibellines of Tuscany +and Lombardy, and assisted the house of Colonna against Pope Boniface. +In the meanwhile James, who received many favours from the Church, +married his sister Yolanda to Robert, the third son of Charles II. +Unfortunately for Frederick, a part of the Aragonese nobles of Sicily +favoured King James, and both John of Procida and Ruggiero di Lauria, +the heroes of the war of the Vespers, went over to the Angevins, and the +latter completely defeated the Sicilian fleet off Cape Orlando. +Charles's sons Robert and Philip landed in Sicily, but after capturing +Catania were defeated by Frederick, Philip being taken prisoner (1299), +while several Calabrian towns were captured by the Sicilians. For two +years more the fighting continued with varying success, until Charles of +Valois, who had been sent by Boniface to invade Sicily, was forced to +sue for peace, his army being decimated by the plague, and in August +1302 the treaty of Caltabellotta was signed, by which Frederick was +recognized king of Trinacria (the name Sicily was not to be used) for +his lifetime, and was to marry Eleonora, the daughter of Charles II.; at +his death the kingdom was to revert to the Angevins (this clause was +inserted chiefly to save Charles's face), and his children would receive +compensation elsewhere. Boniface tried to induce King Charles to break +the treaty, but the latter was only too anxious for peace, and finally +in May 1303 the pope ratified it, Frederick agreeing to pay him a +tribute. + +For a few years Sicily enjoyed peace, and the kingdom was reorganized. +But on the descent of the emperor Henry VII., Frederick entered into an +alliance with him, and in violation of the pact of Caltabellotta made +war on the Angevins again (1313) and captured Reggio. He set sail for +Tuscany to cooperate with the emperor, but on the latter's death (1314) +he returned to Sicily. Robert, who had succeeded Charles II. in 1309, +made several raids into the island, which suffered much material injury. +A truce was concluded in 1317, but as the Sicilians helped the north +Italian Ghibellines in the attack on Genoa, and Frederick seized some +Church revenues for military purposes, the pope (John XXII.) +excommunicated him and placed the island under an interdict (1321) which +lasted until 1335. An Angevin fleet and army, under Robert's son +Charles, was defeated at Palermo by Giovanni da Chiaramonte in 1325, and +in 1326 and 1327 there were further Angevin raids on the island, until +the descent into Italy of the emperor Louis the Bavarian distracted +their attention. The election of Pope Benedict XII. (1334), who was +friendly to Frederick, promised a respite; but after fruitless +negotiations the war broke out once more, and Chiaramonte went over to +Robert, owing to a private feud. In 1337 Frederick died at Paternione, +and in spite of the peace of Caltabellotta his son Peter succeeded. +Frederick's great merit was that during his reign the Aragonese dynasty +became thoroughly national and helped to weld the Sicilians into a +united people. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. M. Mira, _Bibliografia Siciliana_ (Palermo, 1875); + of the contemporary authorities N. Speciale's "Historia Sicula" (in + Muratori's _Script. rer. ital._ x.) is the most important; for the + first years of Frederick's reign see M. Amari, _La Guerra del Vespro + Siciliano_ (Florence, 1876), and F. Lanzani, _Storia dei Comuni + italiani_ (Milan, 1882); for the latter years C. Cipolla, _Storia + delle signorie italiane_ (Milan, 1881); also Testa, _Vita di Federigo + di Sicilia_. (L. V.) + + + + +FREDERICK I. (c. 1371-1440), elector of Brandenburg, founder of the +greatness of the House of Hohenzollern, was a son of Frederick V., +burgrave of Nuremberg, and first came into prominence by saving the life +of Sigismund, king of Hungary, at the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. In +1397 he became burgrave of Nuremberg, and after his father's death in +1398 he shared Ansbach, Bayreuth, and the smaller possessions of the +family, with his only brother John, but became sole ruler after his +brother's death in 1420. Loyal at first to King Wenceslaus, the king's +neglect of Germany drove Frederick to take part in his deposition in +1400, and in the election of Rupert III., count palatine of the Rhine, +whom he accompanied to Italy in the following year. In 1401 he married +Elizabeth, or Elsa, daughter of Frederick, duke of Bavaria-Landshut (d. +1393), and after spending some time in family and other feuds, took +service again with King Sigismund in 1409, whom he assisted in his +struggle with the Hungarian rebels. The double election to the German +throne in 1410 first brought Frederick into relation with Brandenburg. +Sigismund, anxious to obtain another vote in the electoral college, +appointed Frederick to exercise the Brandenburg vote on his behalf, and +it was largely through his efforts that Sigismund was chosen German +king. Frederick then passed some time as administrator of Brandenburg, +where he restored a certain degree of order, and was formally invested +with the electorate and margraviate by Sigismund at Constance on the +18th of April 1417 (see BRANDENBURG). He took part in the war against +the Hussites, but became estranged from Sigismund when in 1423 the king +invested Frederick of Wettin, margrave of Meissen, with the vacant +electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg. In 1427 he sold his rights as +burgrave to the town of Nuremberg, and he was a prominent member of the +band of electors who sought to impose reforms upon Sigismund. After +having been an unsuccessful candidate for the German throne in 1438, +Frederick was chosen king of Bohemia in 1440, but declined the proffered +honour. He took part in the election of Frederick III. as German king +in 1440, and died at Radolzburg on the 21st of September in the same +year. In 1902 a bronze statue was erected to his memory at Friesack, and +there is also a marble one of the elector in the "Siegesallee" at +Berlin. + + See A. F. Riedel, _Zehn Jahre aus der Geschichte der Ahnherren des + preussischen Königshauses_ (Berlin, 1851); E. Brandenburg, _König + Sigmund und Kurfürst Friedrich I. von Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1891); and + O. Franklin, _Die deutsche Politik Friedrichs I. Kurfürsten von + Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1851). + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1425-1476), elector palatine of the Rhine, surnamed "the +Victorious," and called by his enemies "wicked Fritz," second son of the +elector palatine Louis III., was born on the 1st of August 1425. He +inherited a part of the Palatinate on his father's death in 1439, but +soon surrendered this inheritance to his elder brother, the elector +Louis IV. On his brother's death in 1449, however, he became guardian of +the young elector Philip, and ruler of the land. In 1451 he persuaded +the nobles to recognize him as elector, on condition that Philip should +be his successor, a scheme which was disliked by the emperor Frederick +III. The elector was successful in various wars with neighbouring +rulers, and was a leading member of the band of princes who formed plans +to secure a more efficient government for Germany, and even discussed +the deposition of Frederick III. Frederick himself was mentioned as a +candidate for the German throne, but the jealousies of the princes +prevented any decisive action, and soon became so acute that in 1459 +they began to fight among themselves. In alliance with Louis IX., duke +of Bavaria-Landshut, Frederick gained several victories during the +struggle, and in 1462 won a decisive battle at Seckenheim over Ulrich +V., count of Württemberg. In 1472 the elector married Clara Tott, or +Dett, the daughter of an Augsburg citizen, and by her he had two sons, +Frederick, who died during his father's lifetime, and Louis (d. 1524), +who founded the line of the counts of Löwenstein. He died at Heidelberg +on the 12th of December 1476, and was succeeded, according to the +compact, by his nephew Philip. Frederick was a cultured prince, and, in +spite of his warlike career, a wise and intelligent ruler. He added +largely to the area of the Palatinate, and did not neglect to further +its internal prosperity. + + See N. Feeser, _Friedrich der Siegreiche, Kurfürst von der Pfalz_ + (Neuburg, 1880); C. J. Kremer, _Geschichte des Kurfürsten Friedrichs + I. von der Pfalz_ (Leipzig, 1765); and K. Menzel, _Kurfürst Friedrich + der Siegreiche von der Pfalz_ (Munich, 1861). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1482-1556), surnamed "the Wise," elector palatine of the +Rhine, fourth son of the elector Philip, was bom on the 9th of December +1482. Of an active and adventurous temperament, he fought under the +emperor Maximilian I. in 1508, and afterwards served the Habsburgs +loyally in other ways. He worked to secure the election of Charles, +afterwards the emperor Charles V., as the successor of Maximilian in +1519; fought in two campaigns against the Turks; and being disappointed +in his hope of obtaining the hand of one of the emperor's sisters, +married in 1535 Dorothea (d. 1580), daughter of Christian II., who had +been driven from the Danish throne. The Habsburgs promised their aid in +securing this crown for Frederick, but, like many previous promises made +to him, this came to nothing. Having spent his time in various parts of +Europe, and incurred heavy debts on account of his expensive tastes, +Frederick became elector palatine by the death of his brother, Louis V., +in March 1544. With regard to the religious troubles of Germany, he took +up at first the rôle of a mediator, but in 1545 he joined the league of +Schmalkalden, and in 1546 broke definitely with the older faith. He gave +a little assistance to the league in its war with Charles, but soon +submitted to the emperor, accepted the _Interim_ issued from Augsburg in +May 1548, and afterwards acted in harmony with Charles. The elector died +on the 26th of February 1556, and as he left no children was succeeded +by his nephew, Otto Henry (1502-1559). He was a great benefactor to the +university of Heidelberg. + + Frederick's life, _Annales de vita et rebus gestis Friderici II. + electoris palatini_ (Frankfort, 1624), was written by his secretary + Hubert Thomas Leodius; this has been translated into German by E. von + Bülow (Breslau, 1849). See also Rott, _Friedrich II. von der Pfalz und + die Reformation_ (Heidelberg, 1904). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1515-1576), called "the Pious," elector palatine of the +Rhine, eldest son of John II., count palatine of Simmern, was born at +Simmern on the 14th of February 1515. In 1537 he married Maria (d. +1567), daughter of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth, and in 1546, mainly as a +result of this union, adopted the reformed doctrines, which had already +made considerable progress in the Palatinate. He lived in comparative +obscurity and poverty until 1557, when he became count palatine of +Simmern by his father's death, succeeding his kinsman, Otto Henry +(1502-1559), as elector palatine two years later. Although inclined to +the views of Calvin rather than to those of Luther, the new elector +showed great anxiety to unite the Protestants; but when these efforts +failed, and the breach between the followers of the two reformers became +wider, he definitely adopted Calvinism. This form of faith was quickly +established in the Palatinate; in its interests the "Heidelberg +Catechism" was drawn up in 1563; and Catholics and Lutherans were +persecuted alike, while the churches were denuded of all their +ornaments. The Lutheran princes wished to root out Calvinism in the +Palatinate, but were not willing to exclude the elector from the +benefits of the religious peace of Augsburg, which were confined to the +adherents of the confession of Augsburg, and the matter came before the +diet in 1566. Boldly defending his position, Frederick refused to give +way an inch, and as the Lutherans were unwilling to proceed to +extremities the emperor Maximilian II. could only warn him to mend his +ways. The elector was an ardent supporter of the Protestants abroad, +whom, rather than the German Lutherans, he regarded as his +co-religionists. He aided the Huguenots in France and the insurgents in +the Netherlands with men and money; one of his sons, John Casimir +(1543-1592), took a prominent part in the French wars of religion, while +another, Christopher, was killed in 1574 fighting for the Dutch at +Mooker Heath. In his later years Frederick failed in his efforts to +prevent the election of a member of the Habsburg family as Roman king, +to secure the abrogation of the "ecclesiastical reservation" clause in +the peace of Augsburg, or to obtain security for Protestants in the +territories of the spiritual princes. He was assiduous in caring for the +material, moral and educational welfare of his electorate, and was a +benefactor to the university of Heidelberg. The elector died at +Heidelberg on the 26th of October 1576, and was succeeded by his elder +surviving son, Louis (1539-1583), who had offended his father by +adopting Lutheranism. + + See A. Kluckhohn, _Friedrich der Fromme_ (Nördlingen, 1877-1879); and + _Briefe Friedrichs des Frommen_, edited by Kluckhohn (Brunswick, + 1868-1872). + + + + +FREDERICK IV. (1574-1610), elector palatine of the Rhine, only surviving +son of the elector Louis VI., was born at Amberg on the 5th of March +1574. His father died in October 1583, when the young elector came under +the guardianship of his uncle John Casimir, an ardent Calvinist, who, in +spite of the wishes of the late elector, a Lutheran, had his nephew +educated in his own form of faith. In January 1592, on the death of John +Casimir, Frederick undertook the government of the Palatinate, and +continued the policy of his uncle, hostility to the Catholic Church and +the Habsburgs, and co-operation with foreign Protestants. He was often +in communication with Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, +and like him was unremitting in his efforts to conclude a league among +the German Protestants, while he sought to weaken the Habsburgs by +refusing aid for the Turkish War. After many delays and disappointments +the Union of Evangelical Estates was actually formed in May 1608, under +the leadership of the elector, and he took a prominent part in directing +the operations of the union until his death, which occurred on the 19th +of September 1610. Frederick was very extravagant, and liked to surround +himself with pomp and luxury. He married in 1593 Louise, daughter of +William the Silent, prince of Orange, and was succeeded by Frederick, +the elder of his two sons. + + See M. Ritter, _Geschichte der deutschen Union_ (Schaffhausen, + 1867-1873); and L. Häusser, _Geschichte der rheinischen Pfalz_ + (Heidelberg, 1856). + + + + + +FREDERICK V. (1596-1632), elector palatine of the Rhine and king of +Bohemia, son of the elector Frederick IV. by his wife, Louisa Juliana, +daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, was born at Amberg on +the 26th of August 1596. He became elector on his father's death in +September 1610, and was under the guardianship of his kinsman, John II., +count palatine of Zweibrücken (d. 1635), until he was declared of age in +July 1614. Having received a good education, Frederick had married +Elizabeth, daughter of the English king James I., in February 1613, and +was the recognized head of the Evangelical Union founded by his father +to protect the interests of the Protestants. In 1619 he stepped into a +larger arena. Before this date the estates of Bohemia, Protestant in +sympathy and dissatisfied with the rule of the Habsburgs, had been in +frequent communication with the elector palatine, and in August 1619, a +few months after the death of the emperor Matthias, they declared his +successor, Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II., deposed, and +chose Frederick as their king. After some hesitation the elector yielded +to the entreaties of Christian I., prince of Anhalt (1568-1630), and +other sanguine supporters, and was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague on +the 4th of November 1619. By this time the emperor Ferdinand was able to +take the aggressive, while Frederick, disappointed at receiving no +assistance either from England or from the Union, had few soldiers and +little money. Consequently on the 8th of November, four days after his +coronation, his forces were easily routed by the imperial army under +Tilly at the White Hill, near Prague, and his short reign in Bohemia +ended abruptly. Soon afterwards the Palatinate was overrun by the +Spaniards and Bavarians, and after a futile attempt to dislodge them, +Frederick, called in derision the "Winter King," sought refuge in the +Netherlands. Having been placed under the imperial ban his electorate +was given in 1623 to Maximilian I. of Bavaria, who also received the +electoral dignity. + +The remainder of Frederick's life was spent in comparative obscurity, +although his restoration was a constant subject of discussion among +European diplomatists. He died at Mainz on the 29th of November 1632, +having had a large family, among his children being Charles Louis +(1617-1680), who regained the Palatinate at the peace of Westphalia in +1648, and Sophia, who married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of +Hanover, and was the mother of George I., king of Great Britain. His +third son was Prince Rupert, the hero of the English civil war, and +another son was Prince Maurice (1620-1652), who also assisted his uncle +Charles I. during the civil war. Having sailed with Rupert to the West +Indies, Maurice was lost at sea in September 1652. + + In addition to the numerous works which treat of the outbreak of the + Thirty Years' War see A. Gindely, _Friedrich V. von der Pfalz_ + (Prague, 1884); J. Krebs, _Die Politik der evangelischen Union im + Jahre 1618_ (Breslau, 1890-1901); M. Ritter, "Friedrich V.," in the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band vii. (Leipzig, 1878); and + _Deutsche Lieder auf den Winterkönig_, edited by R. Wolkan (Prague, + 1899). + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1369-1428), surnamed "the Warlike," elector and duke of +Saxony, was the eldest son of Frederick "the Stern," count of Osterland, +and Catherine, daughter and heiress of Henry VIII., count of Coburg. He +was born at Altenburg on the 29th of March 1369, and was a member of the +family of Wettin. When his father died in 1381 some trouble arose over +the family possessions, and in the following year an arrangement was +made by which Frederick and his brothers shared Meissen and Thuringia +with their uncles Balthasar and William. Frederick's brother George died +in 1402, and his uncle William in 1407. A further dispute then arose, +but in 1410 a treaty was made at Naumburg, when Frederick and his +brother William added the northern part of Meissen to their lands; and +in 1425 the death of William left Frederick sole ruler. In the German +town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of +Nuremberg, and in 1391 did the same for the Teutonic Order against +Ladislaus V., king of Poland and prince of Lithuania. He supported +Rupert III., elector palatine of the Rhine, in his struggle with King +Wenceslaus for the German throne, probably because Wenceslaus refused +to fulfil a promise to give him his sister Anna in marriage. The danger +to Germany from the Hussites induced Frederick to ally himself with the +German and Bohemian king Sigismund; and he took a leading part in the +war against them, during the earlier years of which he met with +considerable success. In the prosecution of this enterprise Frederick +spent large sums of money, for which he received various places in +Bohemia and elsewhere in pledge from Sigismund, who further rewarded him +in January 1423 with the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg; and +Frederick's formal investiture followed at Ofen on the 1st of August +1425. Thus spurred to renewed efforts against the Hussites, the elector +was endeavouring to rouse the German princes to aid him in prosecuting +this war when the Saxon army was almost annihilated at Aussig on the +16th of August 1426. Returning to Saxony, Frederick died at Altenburg on +the 4th of January 1428, and was buried in the cathedral at Meissen. In +1402 he married Catherine of Brunswick, by whom he left four sons and +two daughters. In 1409, in conjunction with his brother William, he +founded the university of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students +who had just left the university of Prague. Frederick's importance as an +historical figure arises from his having obtained the electorate of +Saxe-Wittenberg for the house of Wettin, and transformed the margraviate +of Meissen into the territory which afterwards became the kingdom of +Saxony. In addition to the king of Saxony, the sovereigns of England and +of the Belgians are his direct descendants. + + There is a life of Frederick by G. Spalatin in the _Scriptores rerum + Germanicarum praecipue Saxonicarum_, Band ii., edited by J. B. Mencke + (Leipzig, 1728-1730). See also C. W. Böttiger and Th. Flathe, + _Geschichte des Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, + 1867-1873); and J. G. Horn, _Lebens- und Heldengeschichte Friedrichs + des Streitbaren_ (Leipzig, 1733). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1411-1464), called "the Mild," elector and duke of +Saxony, eldest son of the elector Frederick I., was born on the 22nd of +August 1411. He succeeded his father as elector in 1428, but shared the +family lands with his three brothers, and was at once engaged in +defending Saxony against the attacks of the Hussites. Freed from these +enemies about 1432, and turning his attention to increasing his +possessions, he obtained the burgraviate of Meissen in 1439, and some +part of Lower Lusatia after a struggle with Brandenburg about the same +time. In 1438 it was decided that Frederick, and not his rival, Bernard +IV., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was entitled to exercise the Saxon +electoral vote at the elections for the German throne; and the elector +then aided Albert II. to secure this dignity, performing a similar +service for his own brother-in-law, Frederick, afterwards the emperor +Frederick III., two years later. Family affairs, meanwhile, occupied +Frederick's attention. One brother, Henry, having died in 1435, and +another, Sigismund (d. 1463), having entered the church and become +bishop of Würzburg, Frederick and his brother William (d. 1482) were the +heirs of their childless cousin, Frederick "the Peaceful," who ruled +Thuringia and other parts of the lands of the Wettins. On his death in +1440 the brothers divided Frederick's territory, but this arrangement +was not satisfactory, and war broke out between them in 1446. Both +combatants obtained extraneous aid, but after a desolating struggle +peace was made in January 1451, when William received Thuringia, and +Frederick Altenburg and other districts. The remainder of the elector's +reign was uneventful, and he died at Leipzig on the 7th of September +1464. By his wife, Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Ernest, duke of +Styria, he left two sons and four daughters. In July 1455 occurred the +celebrated _Prinzenraub_, the attempt of a knight named Kunz von +Kaufungen (d. 1455) to abduct Frederick's two sons, Ernest and Albert. +Having carried them off from Altenburg, Kunz was making his way to +Bohemia when the plot was accidentally discovered and the princes +restored. + + See W. Schäfer, _Der Montag vor Kiliani_ (1855); J. Gersdorf, _Einige + Aktenstücke zur Geschichte des sächsischen Prinzenraubes_ (1855); and + T. Carlyle, _Critical and Miscellaneous Essays_, vol. iv. (London, + 1899). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1463-1525), called "the Wise," elector of Saxony, eldest +son of Ernest, elector of Saxony, and Elizabeth, daughter of Albert, +duke of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1508), was born at Torgau, and succeeded his +father as elector in 1486. Retaining the government of Saxony in his own +hands, he shared the other possessions of his family with his brother +John, called "the Stedfast" (1468-1532). Frederick was among the princes +who pressed the need of reform upon the German king Maximilian I. in +1495, and in 1500 he became president of the newly-formed council of +regency (_Reichsregiment_). He took a genuine interest in learning; was +a friend of Georg Spalatin; and in 1502 founded the university of +Wittenberg, where he appointed Luther and Melanchthon to professorships. +In 1493 he had gone as a pilgrim to Jerusalem, and had been made a +knight of the Holy Sepulchre; but, although he remained throughout life +an adherent of the older faith, he seems to have been drawn into +sympathy with the reformers, probably through his connexion with the +university of Wittenberg. In 1520 he refused to put into execution the +papal bull which ordered Luther's writings to be burned and the reformer +to be put under restraint or sent to Rome; and in 1521, after Luther had +been placed under the imperial ban by the diet at Worms, the elector +caused him to be conveyed to his castle at the Wartburg, and afterwards +protected him while he attacked the enemies of the Reformation. In 1519, +Frederick, who alone among the electors refused to be bribed by the +rival candidates for the imperial throne, declined to be a candidate for +this high dignity himself, and assisted to secure the election of +Charles V. He died unmarried at Langau, near Annaberg, on the 5th of May +1525. + + See G. Spalatin, _Das Leben und die Zeitgeschichte Friedrichs des + Weisen_, edited by C. G. Neudecker and L. Preller (Jena, 1851); M. M. + Tutzschmann, _Friedrich der Weise, Kurfürst von Sachsen_ (Grimma, + 1848); and T. Kolde, _Friedrich der Weise und die Anfänge der + Reformation_ (Erlangen, 1881). + + + + +FREDERICK, a city and the county-seat of Frederick county, Maryland, +U.S.A., on Carroll's Creek, a tributary of the Monocacy, 61 m. by rail +W. by N. from Baltimore and 45 m. N.W. from Washington. Pop. (1890) +8193; (1900) 9296, of whom 1535 were negroes; (1910 census) 10,411. It +is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Northern Central railways, and +by two interurban electric lines. Immediately surrounding it is the rich +farming land of the Monocacy valley, but from a distance it appears to +be completely shut in by picturesque hills and mountains; to the E., the +Linga ore Hills; to the W., Catoctin Mountain; and to the S., Sugar Loaf +Mountain. It is built for the most part of brick and stone. Frederick is +the seat of the Maryland school for the deaf and dumb and of the Woman's +College of Frederick (1893; formerly the Frederick Female Seminary, +opened in 1843), which in 1907-1908 had 212 students, 121 of whom were +in the Conservatory of Music. Francis Scott Key and Roger Brooke Taney +were buried here, and a beautiful monument erected to the memory of Key +stands at the entrance to Mount Olivet cemetery. Frederick has a +considerable agricultural trade and is an important manufacturing +centre, its industries including the canning of fruits and vegetables, +and the manufacture of flour, bricks, brushes, leather goods and +hosiery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,937,921, +being 34.7% more than in 1900. The municipality owns and operates its +water-works and electric-lighting plant. Frederick, so named in honour +of Frederick Calvert, son and afterward successor of Charles, Lord +Baltimore, was settled by Germans in 1733, and was laid out as a town in +1745, but was not incorporated until 1817. Here in 1755 General Braddock +prepared for his disastrous expedition against the French at Fort +Duquesne (Pittsburg). During the Civil War the city was occupied on +different occasions by Unionists and Confederates, and was made famous +by Whittier's poem "Barbara Frietchie." + + + + +FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. (1750-1827), king of Saxony, son of the elector +Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden on the 23rd of December 1750. +He succeeded his father under the guardianship of Prince Xavier in 1763, +and was declared of age in 1768. In the following year (January 17, +1769) he married Princess Maria Amelia, daughter of Duke Frederick of +Zweibrücken, by whom he had only one child, Princess Augusta (born June +21, 1782). One of his chief aims was the reduction of taxes and imposts +and of the army. He was always extremely methodical and conscientious, +and a good example to all his officials, whence his surname "the Just." +On account of the claims of his mother on the inheritance of her +brother, the elector of Bavaria, he sided with Frederick the Great in +the short Bavarian succession war of 1778 against Austria. At the peace +of Teschen, which concluded the war, he received 6 million florins, +which he employed partly in regaining those parts of his kingdom which +had been lost, and partly in favour of his relatives. In 1785 he joined +the league of German princes (_Deutscher Fürstenbund_) formed by +Prussia, but without prejudice to his neutrality. Thus he remained +neutral during the quarrel between Austria and Prussia in 1790. In the +following year he declined the crown of Poland. He refused to join the +league against France (February 7, 1792), but when war was declared his +duty to the Empire necessitated his taking part in it. Even after the +peace of Basel (April 5, 1795) he continued the war. But when the French +army, during the following year, advanced into the heart of Germany, he +was compelled by General Jourdan to retreat (August 13, 1796). He +maintained his neutrality during the war between France and Austria in +1805, but in the following year he joined Prussia against France. After +the disastrous battle of Jena he concluded a treaty of peace with +Napoleon at Posen (December 11, 1806), and, assuming the title of king, +he joined the Confederation of the Rhine. But he did not alter the +constitution and administration of his new kingdom. After the peace of +Tilsit (July 9, 1807) he was created by Napoleon grand-duke of Warsaw, +but his sovereignty of Poland was little more than nominal. There was a +kind of friendship between Frederick Augustus and Napoleon. In 1809 +Frederick Augustus fought with him against Austria. On several occasions +(1807, 1812, 1813) Napoleon was entertained at Dresden, and when, on his +return from his disastrous Russian campaign, he passed through Saxony by +Dresden (December 16, 1812), Frederick Augustus remained true to his +friend and ally. It was only during April 1813 that he made overtures to +Austria, but he soon afterwards returned to the side of the French. He +returned to Dresden on the 10th of May and was present at the terrible +battle of August 26 and 27, in which Napoleon's army and his own were +defeated. He fell into the hands of the Allies after their entry into +Leipzig on the 19th of October 1813; and, although he regained his +freedom after the congress of Vienna, he was compelled to give up the +northern part--three-fifths--of his kingdom to Prussia (May 21, 1814). +He entered Dresden on the 7th of July, and was enthusiastically welcomed +by his people. The remainder of his life was spent in repairing the +damages caused by the Napoleonic wars, in developing the agricultural, +commercial and industrial resources of his kingdom, reforming the +administration of justice, establishing hospitals and other charitable +institutions, encouraging art and science and promoting education. He +had a special interest in botany, and originated the beautiful park at +Pillnitz. His reign throughout was characterized by justice, probity, +moderation and prudence. He died on the 5th of May 1827. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The earlier lives, by C. E. Weisse (1811), A. L. + Herrmann (1827), Pölitz (1830), are mere panegyrics. On the other side + see Flathe in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, and Böttiger-Flathe, + _History of Saxony_ (2nd ed., 1867 ff.), vols. ii. and iii.; A. + Bonnefons, _Un Allié de Napoléon, Frédéric Auguste, premier roi de + Saxe_ ... (Paris, 1902); Fritz Friedrich, _Politik Sachsens 1801-1803_ + (1898); P. Rühlmann, _Öffentliche Meinung ... 1806-1813_ (1902). There + are many pamphlets bearing on the Saxon question and on Frederick + Augustus during the years 1814 and 1815. (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. (1797-1854), king of Saxony, eldest son of Prince +Maximilian and of Caroline Maria Theresa of Parma, was born on the 18th +of May 1797. The unsettled times in which his youth was passed +necessitated his frequent change of residence, but care was nevertheless +taken that his education should not be interrupted, and he also +acquired, through his journeys in foreign states (Switzerland 1818, +Montenegro 1838, England and Scotland 1844) and his intercourse with men +of eminence, a special taste for art and for natural science. He was +himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine collection of +engravings on copper. He was twice married--in 1819 (October 7) to the +duchess Caroline, fourth daughter of the emperor Francis I. of Austria +(d. May 22, 1832), and in 1833 (April 4) to Maria, daughter of +Maximilian I. of Bavaria. There were no children of either marriage. +During the government of his uncles (Frederick Augustus I. and Anthony) +he took no part in the administration of the country, though he was the +sole heir to the crown. In 1830 a rising in Dresden led to his being +named joint regent of the kingdom along with King Anthony on the 13th of +September; and in this position his popularity and his wise and liberal +reforms (for instance, in arranging public audiences) speedily quelled +all discontent. On the 6th of June 1836 he succeeded his uncle. Though +he administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality +Saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon Germany in +1848. He elected Liberal ministers, and he was at first in favour of the +programme of German unity put forward at Frankfort, but he refused to +acknowledge the democratic constitution of the German parliament. This +attitude led to the insurrection at Dresden in May 1849, which was +suppressed by the help of Prussian troops. From that time onward his +reign was tranquil and prosperous. Later Count Beust, leader of the +Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal minister and +guided his policy on most occasions. His death occurred accidentally +through the upsetting of his carriage near Brennbühel, between Imst and +Wenns in Tirol (August 9, 1854). Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure +hours chiefly to the study of botany. He made botanical excursions into +different countries, and _Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pflanzen und +Gebirgsarten, gesammelt und beschrieben_, written by him, was published +at Prague by Kedler, 1837. + + See Böttiger-Flathe, _History of Saxony_, vol. iii.; R. Freiherr von + Friesen, _Erinnerungen_ (2 vols., Dresden, 1881); F. F. Graf von + Beust, Aus _drei-viertel Jahrhunderten_ (2 vols., 1887); Flathe, in + _Allg. deutsche Biogr._ (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK CHARLES (FRIEDRICH KARL NIKOLAUS), PRINCE (1828-1885), +Prussian general field marshal, son of Prince Charles of Prussia and +grandson of King Frederick William III., was born in Berlin on the 20th +of March 1828. He was educated for the army, which he entered on his +tenth birthday as second lieutenant in the 14th Foot Guards. He became +first lieutenant in 1844, and in 1846 entered the university of Bonn, +where he stayed for two years, being accompanied throughout by Major von +Roon, afterwards the famous war minister. In 1848 he became a company +commander in his regiment, and soon afterwards served in the +Schleswig-Holstein War on the staff of Marshal von Wrangel, being +present at the battle of Schleswig (April 23, 1848). Later in 1848 he +became _Rittmeister_ in the _Garde du Corps_ cavalry regiment, and in +1849 major in the Guard Hussars. In this year the prince took part in +the campaign against the Baden insurgents, and was wounded at the action +of Wiesenthal while leading a desperate charge against entrenched +infantry. After this experience the wild courage of his youth gave place +to the unshakable resolution which afterwards characterized the prince's +generalship. In 1852 he became colonel, and in 1854 major-general and +commander of a cavalry brigade. In this capacity he was brought closely +in touch with General von Reyher, the chief of the general staff, and +with Moltke. He married, in the same year, Princess Marie Anne of +Anhalt. In 1857 he became commander of the 1st Guard Infantry division, +but very shortly afterwards, on account of disputes concerned with the +training methods then in force, he resigned the appointment. + +In 1858 he visited France, where he minutely investigated the state of +the French army, but it was not long before he was recalled, for in +1859, in consequence of the Franco-Austrian War, Prussia mobilized her +forces, and Frederick Charles was made a divisional commander in the II. +army corps. In this post he was given the liberty of action which had +previously been denied to him. About this time (1860) the prince gave a +lecture to the officers of his command on the French army and its +methods, the substance of which (_Eine militärische Denkschrift von +P.F.K._, Frankfort on Main, 1860) was circulated more widely than the +author intended, and in the French translation gave rise to much +indignation in France. In 1861 Frederick Charles became general of +cavalry. He was then commander of the III. (Brandenburg) army corps. +This post he held from 1860 to 1870, except during the campaigns of 1864 +and 1866, and in it he displayed his real qualities as a troop leader. +His self-imposed task was to raise the military spirit of his troops to +the highest possible level, and ten years of his continuous and thorough +training brought the III. corps to a pitch of real efficiency which the +Guard corps alone, in virtue of its special recruiting powers, slightly +surpassed. Prince Frederick Charles' work was tested to the full when +von Alvensleben and the III. corps engaged the whole French army on the +16th of August 1870. In 1864 the prince once more fought against the +Danes under his old leader "Papa" Wrangel. The Prussian contingent under +Frederick Charles formed a corps of the allied army, and half of it was +drawn from the III. corps. After the storming of the Düppel lines the +prince succeeded Wrangel in the supreme command, with Lieutenant-General +Freiherr von Moltke as his chief of staff. These two great soldiers then +planned and brilliantly carried out the capture of the island of Alsen, +after which the war came to an end. + +In 1860 came the Seven Weeks' War with Austria. Prince Frederick Charles +was appointed to command the I. Army, which he led through the mountains +into Bohemia, driving before him the Austrians and Saxons to the upper +Elbe, where on the 3rd of July took place the decisive battle of +Königgrätz or Sadowa. This was brought on by the initiative of the +leader of the I. Army, which had to bear the brunt of the fighting until +the advance of the II. Army turned the Austrian flank. After the peace +he returned to the III. army corps, which he finally left, in July 1870, +when appointed to command the II. German Army in the war with France. In +the early days of the advance the prince's ruthless energy led to much +friction between the I. and II. Armies (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR), while +his strategical mistakes seriously embarrassed the great headquarters +staff. The advance of the II. Army beyond the Saar to the Moselle and +from that river to the Meuse displayed more energy than careful +strategy, but herein at least the "Red Prince" (as he was called from +the colour of his favourite hussar uniform) was in thorough sympathy +with the king's headquarters on the one hand and the feelings of the +troops on the other. Then came the discovery that the French were not in +front, but to the right rear of the II. Army (August 16). Alvensleben +with the III. corps held the French to their ground at Vionville while +the prince hurried together his scattered forces. He himself directed +with superb tactical skill the last efforts of the Germans at Vionville, +and the victory of St Privat on the 18th was due to his leadership (see +METZ), which shone all the more by contrast with the failures of the I. +Army at Gravelotte. The prince was left in command of the forces which +blockaded Bazaine in Metz, and received the surrender of that place and +of the last remaining field army of the enemy. He was promoted at once +to the rank of general field marshal, and shortly afterwards the II. +Army was despatched to aid in crushing the newly organized army of the +French republic on the Loire. Here again he retrieved strategical errors +by energy and tactical skill, and his work was in the end crowned by the +victory of Le Mans on the 12th of January 1871. Of all the subordinate +leaders on the German side none enjoyed a greater and a better deserved +reputation than the Red Prince. + +He now became inspector-general of the 3rd "army inspection," and a +little later inspector of cavalry, and in the latter post he was largely +instrumental in bringing the German cavalry to the degree of perfection +in manoeuvre and general training which it gradually attained in the +years after the war. He never ceased to improve his own soldierly +qualities by further study and by the conduct of manoevres on a large +scale. His sternness of character kept him aloof from the court and from +his own family, and he spent his leisure months chiefly on his various +country estates. In 1872 and in 1882 he travelled in the Mediterranean +and the Near East. He died on the 15th of June 1885 at Klein-Glienicke +near Berlin, and was buried at the adjacent church of Nikolskoe. His +third daughter, Princess Louise Margareta, was married, in March 1879, +to the duke of Connaught. + + + + +FREDERICK HENRY (1584-1647), prince of Orange, the youngest child of +William the Silent, was born at Delft about six months before his +father's assassination on the 29th of January 1584. His mother, Louise +de Coligny, was daughter of the famous Huguenot leader, Admiral de +Coligny, and was the fourth wife of William the Silent. The boy was +trained to arms by his elder brother, Maurice of Nassau, one of the +first generals of his age. On the death of Maurice in 1625, Frederick +Henry succeeded him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in +the stadtholderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, +Overysel and Gelderland, and in the important posts of captain and +admiral-general of the Union. Frederick Henry proved himself scarcely +inferior to his brother as a general, and a far more capable statesman +and politician. During twenty-two years he remained at the head of +affairs in the United Provinces, and in his time the power of the +stadtholderate reached its highest point. The "Period of Frederick +Henry," as it is usually styled by Dutch writers, is generally accounted +the golden age of the republic. It was marked by great military and +naval triumphs, by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion, and by +a wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature. +The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges and +captures of Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632, of Breda in +1637, of Sas van Ghent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645. During the greater +part of his administration the alliance with France against Spain had +been the pivot of Frederick Henry's foreign policy, but in his last +years he sacrificed the French alliance for the sake of concluding a +separate peace with Spain, by which the United Provinces obtained from +that power all the advantages for which they had for eighty years been +contending. Frederick Henry died on the 14th of March 1647, and was +buried with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The +treaty of Münster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch and the +Spaniards, was not actually signed until the 30th of January 1648, the +illness and death of the stadtholder having caused a delay in the +negotiations. Frederick Henry was married in 1625 to Amalia von Solms, +and left one son, William II. of Orange, and four daughters. + + Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his _Mémoires de + Frédéric Henri_ (Amsterdam, 1743). See _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ vol. iv. + chap. 24, and the bibliography on p. 931. + + + + +FREDERICK LOUIS (1707-1751), prince of Wales, eldest son of George II., +was born at Hanover on the 20th of January 1707. After his grandfather, +George I., became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714, Frederick +was known as duke of Gloucester[1] and made a knight of the Garter, +having previously been betrothed to Wilhelmina Sophia Dorothea +(1709-1758), daughter of Frederick William I., king of Prussia, and +sister of Frederick the Great. Although he was anxious to marry this +lady, the match was rendered impossible by the dislike of George II. and +Frederick William for each other. Soon after his father became king in +1727 Frederick took up his residence in England and in 1729 was created +prince of Wales; but the relations between George II. and his son were +very unfriendly, and there existed between them the jealousy which +Stubbs calls the "incurable bane of royalty." The faults were not all on +one side. The prince's character was not attractive, and the king +refused to make him an adequate allowance. In 1735 Frederick wrote, or +inspired the writing of, the _Histoire du prince Titi_, a book +containing offensive caricatures of both king and queen; and losing no +opportunity of irritating his father, "he made," says Lecky, "his court +the special centre of opposition to the government, and he exerted all +his influence for the ruin of Walpole." After a marriage between the +prince and Lady Diana Spencer, afterwards the wife of John, 4th duke of +Bedford, had been frustrated by Walpole, Frederick was married in April +1736 to Augusta (1719-1772), daughter of Frederick II., duke of +Saxe-Gotha, a union which was welcomed by his parents, but which led to +further trouble between father and son. George proposed to allow the +prince £50,000 a year; but this sum was regarded as insufficient by the +latter, whose appeal to parliament was unsuccessful. After the birth of +his first child, Augusta, in 1737, Frederick was ordered by the king to +quit St James' Palace, and the foreign ambassadors were requested to +refrain from visiting him. The relations between the two were now worse +than before. In 1745 George II. refused to allow his son to command the +British army against the Jacobites. On the 20th of March 1751 the prince +died in London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He left five sons +and two daughters. The sons were George (afterwards King George III.), +Edward Augustus, duke of York and Albany (1739-1767), William Henry, +duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh (1743-1805), Henry Frederick, duke of +Cumberland (1745-1790), and Frederick William (1750-1765); the daughters +were Augusta (1737-1813), wife of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of +Brunswick, and Caroline Matilda (1751-1775), wife of Christian VII., +king of Denmark. + + See Lord Hervey of Ickworth, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, + edited by J. W. Croker (London, 1884); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the + Reign of George II._ (London, 1847); and Sir N. W. Wraxall, _Memoirs_, + edited by H. B. Wheatley, vol. i. (London, 1884). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Frederick was never actually created duke of Gloucester, and when + he was raised to the peerage in 1736 it was as duke of Edinburgh + only. See G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, sub "Gloucester." + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM I. (1688-1740), king of Prussia, son of Frederick I. +by his second marriage was born on the 15th of August 1688. He spent a +considerable time in early youth at the court of his grandfather, the +elector Ernest Augustus of Hanover. On his return to Berlin he was +placed under General von Dohna and Count Finkenstein, who trained him to +the energetic and regular habits which ever afterwards characterized +him. He was soon imbued with a passion for military life, and this was +deepened by acquaintance with the duke of Marlborough (1709), Prince +Eugene, whom he visited during the siege of Tournai, and Prince Leopold +of Anhalt (the "Old Dessauer"). In nearly every respect he was the +opposite of his father, having frugal, simple tastes, a passionate +temper and a determined will. Throughout his life he was always the +protector of the church and of religion. But he detested religious +quarrels and was very tolerant towards his Catholic subjects, except the +Jesuits. His life was simple and puritanical, being founded on the +teaching of the Bible. He was, however, fond of hunting and somewhat +given to drinking. He intensely disliked the French, and highly +disapproved of the imitation of their manners by his father and his +court. When he came to the throne (February 25, 1713) his first act was +to dismiss from the palace every unnecessary official and to regulate +the royal household on principles of the strictest parsimony. The +greater part of the beautiful furniture was sold. His importance for +Prussia is twofold: in internal politics he laid down principles which +continued to be followed long after his death. This was a province +peculiarly suited to his genius; he was one of the greatest +administrators who have ever worn the Prussian crown. His foreign policy +was less successful, though under his rule the kingdom acquired some +extension of territory. + +Thus at the peace of Utrecht (April 11, 1713), after the War of the +Spanish Succession, he acquired the greater part of the duchy of +Gelderland. By the treaty of Schwedt, concluded with Russia on the 6th +of October, he was assured of an important influence in the solution of +the Baltic question, which during the long absence of Charles XII. had +become burning; and Swedish Pomerania, as far as the Peene, was occupied +by Prussia. But Charles XII. on his return turned against the king, +though without success, for the Pomeranian campaign of 1715 ended in +favour of Prussia (fall of Stralsund, December 22). This enabled +Frederick William I. to maintain a more independent attitude towards the +tsar; he refused, for example, to provide him with troops for a campaign +(in Schonen) against the Swedes. When on the 28th of May 1718, in view +of the disturbances in Mecklenburg, he signed at Havelberg the alliance +with Russia, he confined himself to taking up a defensive attitude, and, +on the other hand, on the 14th of August 1719 he also entered into +relations with his former enemies, England and Hanover. And so, by the +treaty of Stockholm (February 1, 1720), Frederick William succeeded in +obtaining the consent of Sweden to the cession of that part of Pomerania +which he had occupied (Usedom, Wollin, Stettin, Hither Pomerania, east +of the Peene) in return for a payment of 2,000,000 thalers. + +While Frederick William I. succeeded in carrying his wishes into effect +in this direction, he was unable to realize another project which he had +much at heart, namely, the Prussian succession to the Lower Rhine +duchies of Jülich and Berg. The treaty concluded in 1725 at Vienna +between the emperor and Spain brought the whole of this question up +again, for both sides had pledged themselves to support the +Palatinate-Sulzbach succession (in the event of the Palatinate-Neuberg +line becoming extinct). Frederick William turned for help to the western +powers, England and France, and secured it by the treaty of alliance +signed at Herrenhausen on the 3rd of September 1725 (League of Hanover). +But since the western powers soon sought to use the military strength of +Prussia for their own ends, Frederick again turned towards the east, +strengthened above all his relations with Russia, which had continued to +be good, and finally, by the treaty of Wüsterhausen (October 12, 1726; +ratified at Berlin, December 23, 1728), even allied himself with his +former adversary, the court of Vienna; though this treaty only +imperfectly safeguarded Prussian interests, inasmuch as Frederick +William consented to renounce his claims to Jülich. But as in the +following years the European situation became more and more favourable +to the house of Habsburg, the latter began to try to withdraw part of +the concessions which it had made to Frederick William. As early as 1728 +Düsseldorf, the capital, was excluded from the guarantee of Berg. +Nevertheless, in the War of the Polish Succession against France +(1734-1735), Frederick William remained faithful to the emperor's cause, +and sent an auxiliary force of 10,000 men. The peace of Vienna, which +terminated the war, led to a reconciliation between France and Austria, +and so to a further estrangement between Frederick William and the +emperor. Moreover, in 1738 the western powers, together with the +emperor, insisted in identical notes on the recognition of the emperor's +right to decide the question of the succession in the Lower Rhine +duchies. A breach with the emperor was now inevitable, and this explains +why in a last treaty (April 5, 1739) Frederick William obtained from +France a guarantee of a part, at least, of Berg (excluding Düsseldorf). + +But Frederick William's failures in foreign policy were more than +compensated for by his splendid services in the internal administration +of Prussia. He saw the necessity of rigid economy not only in his +private life but in the whole administration of the state. During his +reign Prussia obtained for the first time a centralized and uniform +financial administration. It was the king himself who composed and wrote +in the year 1722 the famous instruction for the general directory +(_Generaldirektorium_) of war, finance and domains. When he died the +income of the state was about seven million thalers (£1,050,000). The +consequence was that he paid off the debts incurred by his father, and +left to his successor a well filled treasury. In the administration of +the domains he made three innovations: (1) the private estates of the +king were turned into domains of the crown (August 13, 1713); (2) the +freeing of the serfs on the royal domains (March 22, 1719); (3) the +conversion of the hereditary lease into a short-term lease on the basis +of productiveness. His industrial policy was inspired by the mercantile +spirit. On this account he forbade the importation of foreign +manufactures and the export of raw materials from home, a policy which +had a very good effect on the growth of Prussian industries. + +The work of internal colonization he carried on with especial zeal. Most +notable of all was his _rétablissement_ of East Prussia, to which he +devoted six million thalers (c. £900,000). His policy in respect of the +towns was motived largely by fiscal considerations, but at the same time +he tried also to improve their municipal administration; for example, in +the matter of buildings, of the letting of domain lands and of the +collection of the excise in towns. Frederick William had many opponents +among the nobles because he pressed on the abolition of the old feudal +rights, introduced in East Prussia and Lithuania a general land tax (the +_Generalhufenschoss_), and finally in 1739 attacked in a special edict +the _Legen_, i.e. the expropriation of the peasant proprietors. He did +nothing for the higher learning, and even banished the philosopher +Christian Wolff at forty-eight hours' notice "on pain of the halter," +for teaching, as he believed, fatalist doctrines. Afterwards he modified +his judgment in favour of Wolff, and even, in 1739, recommended the +study of his works. He established many village schools, which he often +visited in person; and after the year 1717 (October 23) all Prussian +parents were obliged to send their children to school (_Schulzwang_). He +was the especial friend of the _Franckische Stiftungen_ at Halle on the +Saale. Under him the people flourished; and although it stood in awe of +his vehement spirit it respected him for his firmness, his honesty of +purpose and his love of justice. He was devoted also to his army, the +number of which he raised from 38,000 to 83,500, so that under him +Prussia became the third military power in the world, coming next after +Russia and France. There was not a more thoroughly drilled or better +appointed force. The Potsdam guard, made up of giants collected from all +parts of Europe, sometimes kidnapped, was a sort of toy with which he +amused himself. The reviewing of his troops was his chief pleasure. But +he was also fond of meeting his friends in the evening in what he called +his Tobacco-College, where amid clouds of tobacco smoke he not only +discussed affairs of state but heard the newest "guard-room jokes." He +died on the 31st of May 1740, leaving behind him his widow, Sophia +Dorothea of Hanover, whom he had married on the 26th of November 1706. +His son was Frederick the Great, who was the opposite of Frederick +William. This opposition became so strong in 1730 that the crown prince +fled from the court, and was later arrested and brought before a +court-martial. A reconciliation was brought about, at first gradually. +In later years the relations between father and son came to be of the +best (see FREDERICK II., king of Prussia). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--D. Fassmann, _Leben und Thaten Friedrich Wilhelms_ (2 + vols., Hamburg and Breslau, 1735, 1741); F. Förster, _Friedrich + Wilhelm I._ (3 vols., Potsdam, 1834 and 1835); C. v. Noorden, + _Historische Vorträge_ (Leipzig, 1884); O. Krauske, "Vom Hofe + Friedrich Wilhelms I.," _Hohenzollernjahrbuch_, v. (1902); R. Koser, + _Friedrich der Grosse als Kronprinz_ (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1901); W. + Oncken, "Sir Charles Hotham und Friedrich Wilhelm I. im Jahre 1730," + _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte_, vol. vii. et seq.; J. + G. Droysen in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vii. (1878), and + in _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_, section iv., vols. ii.-iv. + (2nd ed., 1868 et seq.); L. v. Ranke, _Zwölf Bücher preussischer + Geschichte_ (1874 et seq.); Stenzel, _Geschichte des preussischen + Staates_, iii. (1841); F. Holke, "Strafrechtspflege unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Beiträge zur brandenburgischen Rechtsgeschichte_, iii. + (1894); V. Loewe, "Allodifikation der Leben unter Friedrich Wilhelm + I.," _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte_, xi.; G. + Schmoller, "Epochen der preuss. Finanzpolitik," _Umrisse und + Untersuchungen_ (Leipzig, 1898), "Innere Verwaltung unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Preuss. Jahrbücher_, xxvi., "Städtewesen unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Zeitschrift für preussische Geschichte_, x. et seq.; B. + Reuter, "König Friedrich Wilhelm I. und das General-Direktorium," + _ibid._ xii.; V. Loewe, "Zur Grundungsgeschichte des + General-Direktoriums," _Forschungen_, &c., xiii.; R. Stadelmann, + _Preussens Könige in ihrer Tätigkeit für die Landeskultur_, vol. i. + "Friedrich Wilhelm I." (1878); M. Beheim-Schwarzbach, + _Hohenzollern'sche Kolonizationen_ (Leipzig, 1874); W. Naude, "Die + merkantilistische Wirtschaftspolitik Friedrich Wilhelms I.," + _Historische Zeitschrift_, xc.; M. Lehmann, "Werbung, &c., im Heere + Friedrich Wilhelms I.," _ibid._ lxvii.; Isaacson, "Erbpachtsystem in + der preussischen Domänenverwaltung," _Zeitschrift für preuss. Gesch._ + xi. Cf. also _Hohenzollernjahrbuch_, viii. (1905), for particulars of + his education and death; letters to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau in + the _Acta Borussica_ (1905). English readers will find a picturesque + account of him in Thomas Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_. (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM II. (1744-1797), king of Prussia, son of Augustus +William, second son of King Frederick William I. and of Louise Amalie of +Brunswick, sister of the wife of Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin +on the 25th of September 1744, and became heir to the throne on his +father's death in 1757. The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving +disposition, averse from sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by +nature. His marriage with Elisabeth Christine, daughter of Duke Charles +of Brunswick, contracted in 1765, was dissolved in 1769, and he soon +afterwards married Frederika Louisa, daughter of the landgrave Louis +IX. of Hesse-Darmstadt. Although he had a numerous family by his wife, +he was completely under the influence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, +afterwards created Countess Lichtenau, a woman of strong intellect and +much ambition. He was a man of singularly handsome presence, not without +mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the arts--Beethoven +and Mozart enjoyed his patronage and his private orchestra had a +European reputation. But an artistic temperament was hardly that +required of a king of Prussia on the eve of the Revolution; and +Frederick the Great, who had employed him in various services--notably +in an abortive confidential mission to the court of Russia in +1780--openly expressed his misgivings as to the character of the prince +and his surroundings. + +The misgivings were justified by the event. Frederick William's +accession to the throne (August 17, 1786) was, indeed, followed by a +series of measures for lightening the burdens of the people, reforming +the oppressive French system of tax-collecting introduced by Frederick, +and encouraging trade by the diminution of customs dues and the making +of roads and canals. This gave the new king much popularity with the +mass of the people; while the educated classes were pleased by his +removal of Frederick's ban on the German language by the admission of +German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active encouragement +given to schools and universities. But these reforms were vitiated in +their source. In 1781 Frederick William, then prince of Prussia, +inclined, like many sensual natures, to mysticism, had joined the +Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the influence of Johann Christof +Wöllner (1732-1800), and by him the royal policy was inspired. Wöllner, +whom Frederick the Great had described as a "treacherous and intriguing +priest," had started life as a poor tutor in the family of General von +Itzenplitz, a noble of the mark of Brandenburg, had, after the general's +death and to the scandal of king and nobility, married the general's +daughter, and with his mother-in-law's assistance settled down on a +small estate. By his practical experiments and by his writings he gained +a considerable reputation as an economist; but his ambition was not +content with this, and he sought to extend his influence by joining +first the Freemasons and afterwards (1779) the Rosicrucians. Wöllner, +with his impressive personality and easy if superficial eloquence, was +just the man to lead a movement of this kind. Under his influence the +order spread rapidly, and he soon found himself the supreme director +(_Oberhauptdirektor_) of some 26 "circles," which included in their +membership princes, officers and high officials. As a Rosicrucian +Wöllner dabbled in alchemy and other mystic arts, but he also affected +to be zealous for Christian orthodoxy, imperilled by Frederick II.'s +patronage of "enlightenment," and a few months before Frederick's death +wrote to his friend the Rosicrucian Johann Rudolph von Bischoffswerder +(1741-1803) that his highest ambition was to be placed at the head of +the religious department of the state "as an unworthy instrument in the +hand of Ormesus" (the prince of Prussia's Rosicrucian name) "for the +purpose of saving millions of souls from perdition and bringing back the +whole country to the faith of Jesus Christ." + +Such was the man whom Frederick William II., immediately after his +accession, called to his counsels. On the 26th of August 1786 he was +appointed privy councillor for finance (_Geheimer Oberfinanzrath_), and on +the 2nd of October was ennobled. Though not in name, in fact he was prime +minister; in all internal affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal +and economic reforms of the new reign were the application of his +theories. Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the +king's counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general. These were +the two men who enmeshed the king in a web of Rosicrucian mystery and +intrigue, which hampered whatever healthy development of his policy might +have been possible, and led ultimately to disaster. The opposition to +Wöllner was, indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being +entrusted with the department of religion; but this too in time was +overcome, and on the 3rd of July 1788 he was appointed active privy +councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual department +for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. War was at once declared on what--to +use a later term--we may call the "modernists." The king, so long as +Wöllner was content to condone his immorality (which Bischoffswerder, to +do him justice, condemned), was eager to help the orthodox crusade. On the +9th of July was issued the famous religious edict, which forbade +Evangelical ministers to teach anything not contained in the letter of +their official books, proclaimed the necessity of protecting the Christian +religion against the "enlighteners" (_Aufklärer_), and placed educational +establishments under the supervision of the orthodox clergy. On the 18th +of December a new censorship law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of +all published books; and finally, in 1791, a sort of Protestant +Inquisition was established at Berlin (_Immediat-Examinations-commission_) +to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic appointments. In his zeal +for orthodoxy, indeed, Frederick William outstripped his minister; he even +blamed Wöllner's "idleness and vanity" for the inevitable failure of the +attempt to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one of +his secular offices in order that he might have more time "to devote +himself to the things of God"; in edict after edict the king continued to +the end of his reign to make regulations "in order to maintain in his +states a true and active Christianity, as the path to genuine fear of +God." + +The effects of this policy of blind obscurantism far outweighed any good +that resulted from the king's well-meant efforts at economic and +financial reform; and even this reform was but spasmodic and partial, +and awoke ultimately more discontent than it allayed. But far more +fateful for Prussia was the king's attitude towards the army and foreign +policy. The army was the very foundation of the Prussian state, a truth +which both Frederick William I. and the great Frederick had fully +realized; the army had been their first care, and its efficiency had +been maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick +William, who had no taste for military matters, put his authority as +"War-Lord" into commission under a supreme college of war +(_Oberkriegs-Collegium_) under the duke of Brunswick and General von +Möllendorf. It was the beginning of the process that ended in 1806 at +Jena. + +In the circumstances Frederick William's intervention in European +affairs was not likely to prove of benefit to Prussia. The Dutch +campaign of 1787, entered on for purely family reasons, was indeed +successful; but Prussia received not even the cost of her intervention. +An attempt to intervene in the war of Russia and Austria against Turkey +failed of its object; Prussia did not succeed in obtaining any +concessions of territory from the alarms of the Allies, and the +dismissal of Hertzberg in 1791 marked the final abandonment of the +anti-Austrian tradition of Frederick the Great. For, meanwhile, the +French Revolution had entered upon alarming phases, and in August 1791 +Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz, arranged with the emperor +Leopold to join in supporting the cause of Louis XVI. But neither the +king's character, nor the confusion of the Prussian finances due to his +extravagance, gave promise of any effective action. A formal alliance +was indeed signed on the 7th of February 1792, and Frederick William +took part personally in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. He was hampered, +however, by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the +affairs of Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be +gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy treaty +with the sea powers (April 19, 1794) filled his coffers; but the +insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793, and the +threat of the isolated intervention of Russia, hurried him into the +separate treaty of Basel with the French Republic (April 5, 1795), which +was regarded by the great monarchies as a betrayal, and left Prussia +morally isolated in Europe on the eve of the titanic struggle between +the monarchical principle and the new political creed of the Revolution. +Prussia had paid a heavy price for the territories acquired at the +expense of Poland in 1793 and 1795, and when, on the 16th of November +1797, Frederick William died, he left the state in bankruptcy and +confusion, the army decayed and the monarchy discredited. + +Frederick William II. was twice married: (1) in 1765 to Elizabeth of +Brunswick (d. 1841), by whom he had a daughter, Frederika, afterwards +duchess of York, and from whom he was divorced in 1769; (2) in 1769 to +Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, by whom he had four sons, Frederick +William III., Louis (d. 1796), Henry and William, and two daughters, +Wilhelmina, wife of William of Orange, afterwards William I., king of +the Netherlands, and Augusta, wife of William II., elector of Hesse. +Besides his relations with his _maîtresse en titre_, the countess +Lichtenau, the king--who was a frank polygamist--contracted two +"marriages of the left hand" with Fräulein von Voss and the countess +Dönhoff. + + See article by von Hartmann in _Allgem. deutsche Biog._ (Leipzig, + 1878); Stadelmann, _Preussens Könige in ihrer Tätigkeit für die + Landeskultur_, vol. iii. "Friedrich Wilhelm II." (Leipzig, 1885); + Paulig, _Friedrich Wilhelm II., sein Privatleben u. seine Regierung_ + (Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, 1896). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM III. (1770-1840), king of Prussia, eldest son of King +Frederick William II., was born at Potsdam on the 3rd of August 1770. +His father, then prince of Prussia, was out of favour with Frederick the +Great and entirely under the influence of his mistress; and the boy, +handed over to tutors appointed by the king, lived a solitary and +repressed life which tended to increase the innate weakness of his +character. But though his natural defects of intellect and will-power +were not improved by the pedantic tutoring to which he was submitted, he +grew up pious, honest and well-meaning; and had fate cast him in any but +the most stormy times of his country's history he might well have left +the reputation of a model king. As a soldier he received the usual +training of a Prussian prince, obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became +a colonel commanding in 1790, and took part in the campaigns of 1792-94. +In 1793 he married Louise, daughter of Prince Charles of +Mecklenburg-Strelitz, whom he had met and fallen in love with at +Frankfort (see LOUISE, queen of Prussia). He succeeded to the throne on +the 16th of November 1797 and at once gave earnest of his good +intentions by cutting down the expenses of the royal establishment, +dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most oppressive +abuses of the late reign. Unfortunately, however, he had all the +Hohenzollern tenacity of personal power without the Hohenzollern genius +for using it. Too distrustful to delegate his responsibility to his +ministers, he was too infirm of will to strike out and follow a +consistent course for himself. + +The results of this infirmity of purpose are written large on the +history of Prussia from the treaty of Lunéville in 1801 to the downfall +that followed the campaign of Jena in 1806. By the treaty of Tilsit +(July 9th, 1807) Frederick William had to surrender half his dominions, +and what remained to him was exhausted by French exactions and liable at +any moment to be crushed out of existence by some new whim of Napoleon. +In the dark years that followed it was the indomitable courage of Queen +Louise that helped the weak king not to despair of the state. She +seconded the reforming efforts of Stein and the work of Scharnhorst and +Gneisenau in reorganizing the army, by which the resurrection of Prussia +became a possibility. When Stein was dismissed at the instance of +Napoleon, Hardenberg succeeded him as chancellor (June 1810). In the +following month Queen Louise died, and the king was left alone to deal +with circumstances of ever-increasing difficulty. He was forced to join +Napoleon in the war against Russia; and even when the disastrous +campaign of 1812 had for the time broken the French power, it was not +his own resolution, but the loyal disloyalty of General York in +concluding with Russia the convention of Tauroggen that forced him into +line with the patriotic fervour of his people. + +Once committed to the Russian alliance, however, he became the faithful +henchman of the emperor Alexander, whose fascinating personality +exercised over him to the last a singular power, and began that +influence of Russia at the court of Berlin which was to last till +Frederick William IV.'s supposed Liberalism was to shatter the +cordiality of the _entente_. That during and after the settlement of +1815 Frederick William played a very secondary part in European affairs +is explicable as well by his character as by the absorbing character of +the internal problems of Prussia. He was one of the original +co-signatories of the Holy Alliance, though, in common with most, he +signed it with reluctance; and in the counsels of the Grand Alliance he +allowed himself to be practically subordinated to Alexander and later to +Metternich. In a ruler of his character it is not surprising that the +Revolution and its developments had produced an unconquerable suspicion +of constitutional principles and methods, which the Liberal agitations +in Germany tended to increase. At the various congresses, from +Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) to Verona (1822), therefore, he showed himself +heartily in sympathy with the repressive policy formulated in the +Troppau Protocol. The promise of a constitution, which in the excitement +of the War of Liberation he had made to his people, remained unfulfilled +partly owing to this mental attitude, partly, however, to the all but +insuperable difficulties in the way of its execution. But though +reluctant to play the part of a constitutional king, Frederick William +maintained to the full the traditional character of "first servant of +the state." Though he chastised Liberal professors and turbulent +students, it was in the spirit of a benevolent _Landesvater_; and he +laboured assiduously at the enormous task of administrative +reconstruction necessitated by the problem of welding the heterogeneous +elements of the new Prussian kingdom into a united whole. He was +sincerely religious; but his well-meant efforts to unite the Lutheran +and Reformed Churches, in celebration of the tercentenary of the +Reformation (1817), revealed the limits of his paternal power; eleven +years passed in vain attempts to devise common formulae; a stubborn +Lutheran minority had to be coerced by military force, the confiscation +of their churches and the imprisonment or exile of their pastors; not +till 1834 was outward union secured on the basis of common worship but +separate symbols, the opponents of the measure being forbidden to form +communities of their own. With the Roman Church, too, the king came into +conflict on the vexed question of "mixed marriages," a conflict in which +the Vatican gained an easy victory (see BUNSEN, C. C. J., BARON VON). + +The revolutions of 1830 strengthened Frederick William in his +reactionary tendencies; the question of the constitution was +indefinitely shelved; and in 1831 Prussian troops concentrated on the +frontier helped the task of the Russians in reducing the military rising +in Poland. Yet, in spite of all, Frederick William was beloved by his +subjects, who valued him for the simplicity of his manners, the goodness +of his heart and the memories of the dark days after 1806. He died on +the 7th of June 1840. In 1824 he had contracted a morganatic marriage +with the countess Auguste von Harrach, whom he created Princess von +Liegnitz. He wrote _Luther in Bezug auf die Kirchenagenda von 1822 und +1823_ (Berlin, 1827), _Reminiszenzen aus der Kampagne 1792 in +Frankreich_, and _Journal meiner Brigade in der Kampagne am Rhein 1793_. + + The correspondence (_Briefwechsel_) of King Frederick William III. and + Queen Louise with the emperor Alexander I. has been published + (Leipzig, 1900) and also that between the king and queen (ib. 1903), + both edited by P. Bailleu. See W. Hahn, _Friedrich Wilhelm III. und + Luise_ (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1877); M. W. Duncker, _Aus der Zeit + Friedrichs des Grossen und Friedrich Wilhelms III._ (Leipzig, 1876); + Bishop R. F. Eylert, _Charakterzüge aus dem Leben des Königs von + Preussen Friedrich Wilhelm III._ (3 vols., Magdeburg, 1843-1846). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. (1795-1861), king of Prussia, eldest son of +Frederick William III., was born on the 15th of October 1795. From his +first tutor, Johann Delbrück, he imbibed a love of culture and art, and +possibly also the dash of Liberalism which formed an element of his +complex habit of mind. But after a time Delbrück, suspected of inspiring +his charge with a dislike of the Prussian military caste and even of +belonging to a political secret society, was dismissed, his place being +taken by the pastor and historian Friedrich Ancillon, while a military +governor was also appointed. By Ancillon he was grounded in religion, in +history and political science, his natural taste for the antique and the +picturesque making it easy for his tutor to impress upon him his own +hatred of the Revolution and its principles. This hatred was confirmed +by the sufferings of his country and family in the terrible years after +1806, and his first experience of active soldiering was in the campaigns +that ended in the occupation of Paris by the Allies in 1814. In action +his reckless bravery had earned him rebuke, and in Paris he was remarked +for the exact performance of his military duties, though he found time +to whet his appetite for art in the matchless collections gathered by +Napoleon as the spoil of all Europe. On his return to Berlin he studied +art under the sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and the painter and +architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), proving himself in the +end a good draughtsman, a born architect and an excellent landscape +gardener. At the same time he was being tutored in law by Savigny and in +finance by a series of distinguished masters. In 1823 he married the +princess Elizabeth of Bavaria, who adopted the Lutheran creed. The +union, though childless, was very happy. A long tour in Italy in 1828 +was the beginning of his intimacy with Bunsen and did much to develop +his knowledge of art and love of antiquity. + +On his accession to the throne in 1840 much was expected of a prince so +variously gifted and of so amiable a temper, and his first acts did not +belie popular hopes. He reversed the unfortunate ecclesiastical policy +of his father, allowing a wide liberty of dissent, and releasing the +imprisoned archbishop of Cologne; he modified the strictness of the +press censorship; above all he undertook, in the presence of the +deputations of the provincial diets assembled to greet him on his +accession, to carry out the long-deferred project of creating a central +constitution, which he admitted to be required alike by the royal +promises, the needs of the country and the temper of the times. The +story of the evolution of the Prussian parliament belongs to the history +of Prussia. Here it must suffice to notice Frederick William's personal +share in the question, which was determined by his general attitude of +mind. He was an idealist; but his idealism was of a type the exact +reverse of that which the Revolution in arms had sought to impose upon +Europe. The idea of the sovereignty of the people was to him utterly +abhorrent, and even any delegation of sovereign power on his own part +would have seemed a betrayal of a God-given trust. "I will never," he +declared, "allow to come between Almighty God and this country a blotted +parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to replace the ancient, +sacred bond of loyalty." His vision of the ideal state was that of a +patriarchial monarchy, surrounded and advised by the traditional estates +of the realm--nobles, peasants, burghers--and cemented by the bonds of +evangelical religion; but in which there should be no question of the +sovereign power being vested in any other hands than those of the king +by divine right. In Prussia, with its traditional loyalty and its +old-world caste divisions, he believed that such a conception could be +realized, and he took up an attitude half-way between those who would +have rejected the proposal for a central diet altogether as a dangerous +"thin end of the wedge," and those who would have approximated it more +to the modern conception of a parliament. With a charter, or a +representative system based on population, he would have nothing to do. +The united diet which was opened on the 3rd of February 1847 was no more +than a congregation of the diets instituted by Frederick William III. in +the eight provinces of Prussia. Unrepresentative though it was--for the +industrial working-classes had no share in it--it at once gave voice to +the demand for a constitutional system. + +This demand gained overwhelmingly in force with the revolutionary +outbreaks of 1848. To Frederick William these came as a complete +surprise, and, rudely awakened from his medieval dreamings, he even +allowed himself to be carried away for a while by the popular tide. The +loyalty of the Prussian army remained inviolate; but the king was too +tender-hearted to use military force against his "beloved Berliners," +and when the victory of the populace was thus assured his impressionable +temper yielded to the general enthusiasm. He paraded the streets of +Berlin wrapped in a scarf of the German black and gold, symbol of his +intention to be the leader of the united Germany; and he even wrote to +the indignant tsar in praise of "the glorious German revolution." The +change of sentiment was, however, apparent rather than real. The shadow +of venerable institutions, past or passing, still darkened his +counsels. The united Germany which he was prepared to champion was not +the democratic state which the theorists of the Frankfort national +parliament were evolving on paper with interminable debate, but the old +Holy Roman Empire, the heritage of the house of Habsburg, of which he +was prepared to constitute himself the guardian so long as its lawful +possessors should not have mastered the forces of disorder by which they +were held captive. Finally, when Austria had been excluded from the new +empire, he replied to the parliamentary deputation that came to offer +him the imperial crown that he might have accepted it had it been freely +offered to him by the German princes, but that he would never stoop "to +pick up a crown out of the gutter." + +Whatever may be thought of the manner of this refusal, or of its +immediate motives, it was in itself wise, for the German empire would +have lost immeasurably had it been the cause rather than the result of +the inevitable struggle with Austria, and Bismarck was probably right +when he said that, to weld the heterogeneous elements of Germany into a +united whole, what was needed was, not speeches and resolutions, but a +policy of "blood and iron." In any case Frederick William, uneasy enough +as a constitutional king, would have been impossible as a constitutional +emperor. As it was, his refusal to play this part gave the deathblow to +the parliament and to all hope of the immediate creation of a united +Germany. For Frederick William the position of leader of Germany now +meant the employment of the military force of Prussia to crush the +scattered elements of revolution that survived the collapse of the +national movement. His establishment of the northern confederacy was a +reversion to the traditional policy of Prussia in opposition to Austria, +which, after the emperor Nicholas had crushed the insurrection in +Hungary, was once more free to assert her claims to dominance in +Germany. But Prussia was not ripe for a struggle with Austria, even had +Frederick William found it in his conscience to turn his arms against +his ancient ally, and the result was the humiliating convention of +Olmütz (November 29th, 1850), by which Prussia agreed to surrender her +separatist plans and to restore the old constitution of the +confederation. Yet Frederick William had so far profited by the lessons +of 1848 that he consented to establish (1850) a national parliament, +though with a restricted franchise and limited powers. The House of +Lords (_Herrenhaus_) justified the king's insistence in calling it into +being by its support of Bismarck against the more popular House during +the next reign. + +In religious matters Frederick William was also largely swayed by his +love for the ancient and picturesque. In concert with his friend Bunsen +he laboured to bring about a rapprochement between the Lutheran and +Anglican churches, the first-fruits of which was the establishment of +the Jerusalem bishopric under the joint patronage of Great Britain and +Prussia; but the only result of his efforts was to precipitate the +secession of J. H. Newman and his followers to the Church of Rome. In +general it may be said that Frederick William, in spite of his talents +and his wide knowledge, lived in a dream-land of his own, out of touch +with actuality. The style of his letters reveals a mind enthusiastic and +ill-balanced. In the summer of 1857 he had a stroke of paralysis, and a +second in October. From this time, with the exception of brief +intervals, his mind was completely clouded, and the duties of government +were undertaken by his brother William (afterwards emperor), who on the +7th of October 1858 was formally recognized as regent. Frederick William +died on the 2nd of January 1861. + + Selections from the correspondence (_Briefwechsel_) of Frederick + William IV. and Bunsen were edited by Ranke (Leipzig, 1873); his + proclamations, speeches, &c., from the 6th of March 1848 to the 31st + of May 1851 have been published (Berlin, 1851); also his + correspondence with Bettina von Arnim, _Bettina von Arnim und + Friedrich Wilhelm IV., ungedruckte Briefe und Aktenstücke_, ed. L. + Geiger (Frankfort-on-Main, 1902). See L. von Ranke, _Friedrich Wilhelm + IV., König von Preussen_ (works 51, 52 also in _Allgem. deutsche + Biog._ vol. vii.), especially for the king's education and the inner + history of the debates leading up to the united diet of 1847; H. von + Petersdorff, _König Friedrich Wilhelm IV._ (Stuttgart, 1900); F. + Rachfahl, _Deutschland, König Friedrich Wilhelm IV. und die Berliner + Märzrevolution_ (Halle, 1901); H. von Poschinger (ed.), _Unter + Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Denkwürdigkeiten des Ministers Otto Frhr. von + Manteuffel_, 1848-1858 (3 vols., Berlin, 1900-1901); and _Preussens + auswärtige Politik_, 1850-1858 (3 vols., ib., 1902), documents + selected from those left by Manteuffel; E. Friedberg, _Die Grundlagen + der preussischen Kirchenpolitik unter Friedrich Wilhelm IV._ (Leipzig, + 1882). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM (1620-1688), elector of Brandenburg, usually called +the "Great Elector," was born in Berlin on the 16th of February 1620. +His father was the elector George William, and his mother was Elizabeth +Charlotte, daughter of Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine. +Owing to the disorders which were prevalent in Brandenburg he passed +part of his youth in the Netherlands, studying at the university of +Leiden and learning something of war and statecraft under Frederick +Henry, prince of Orange. During his boyhood a marriage had been +suggested between him and Christina, afterwards queen of Sweden; but +although the idea was revived during the peace negotiations between +Sweden and Brandenburg, it came to nothing, and in 1646 he married +Louise Henriette (d. 1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange, a +lady whose counsel was very helpful to him and who seconded his efforts +for the welfare of his country. + +Having become ruler of Brandenburg and Prussia by his father's death in +December 1640, Frederick William set to work at once to repair the +extensive damage wrought during the Thirty Years' War, still in +progress. After some difficulty he secured his investiture as duke of +Prussia from Wladislaus, king of Poland, in October 1641, but was not +equally successful in crushing the independent tendencies of the estates +of Cleves. It was in Brandenburg, however, that he showed his supreme +skill as a diplomatist and administrator. His disorderly troops were +replaced by an efficient and disciplined force; his patience and +perseverance freed his dominions from the Swedish soldiers; and the +restoration of law and order was followed by a revival of trade and an +increase of material prosperity. After a tedious struggle he succeeded +in centralizing the administration, and controlling and increasing the +revenue, while no department of public life escaped his sedulous care +(see BRANDENBURG). The area of his dominions was largely increased at +the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and this treaty and the treaty of Oliva +in 1660 alike added to his power and prestige. By a clever but +unscrupulous use of his intermediate position between Sweden and Poland +he procured his recognition as independent duke of Prussia from both +powers, and eventually succeeded in crushing the stubborn and lengthened +opposition which was offered to his authority by the estates of the +duchy (see PRUSSIA). After two checks he made his position respected in +Cleves, and in 1666 his title to Cleves, Jülich and Ravensberg was +definitely recognized. His efforts, however, to annex the western part +of the duchy of Pomerania, which he had conquered from the Swedes, +failed owing to the insistence of Louis XIV. at the treaty of St +Germain-en-Laye in 1679, and he was unable to obtain the Silesian +duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau from the emperor Leopold I. after +they had been left without a ruler in 1675. + +Frederick William played an important part in European politics. +Although found once or twice on the side of France, he was generally +loyal to the interests of the empire and the Habsburgs, probably because +his political acumen scented danger to Brandenburg from the aggressive +policy of Louis XIV. He was a Protestant in religion, but he supported +Protestant interests abroad on political rather than on religious +grounds, and sought, but without much success, to strengthen Brandenburg +by allaying the fierce hostility between Lutherans and Calvinists. His +success in founding and organizing the army of Brandenburg-Prussia was +amply demonstrated by the great victory which he gained over the Swedes +at Fehrbellin in June 1675, and by the eagerness with which foreign +powers sought his support. He was also the founder of the Prussian navy. +The elector assisted trade in every possible way. He made the canal +which still bears his name between the Oder and the Spree; established a +trading company; and founded colonies on the west coast of Africa. He +encouraged Flemings to settle in Brandenburg, and both before and after +the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 welcomed large numbers of +Huguenots, who added greatly to the welfare of the country. Education +was not neglected; and if in this direction some of his plans were +abortive, it was from lack of means and opportunity rather than effort +and inclination. It is difficult to overestimate the services of the +great elector to Brandenburg and Prussia. They can only be properly +appreciated by those who compare the condition of his country in 1640 +with its condition in 1688. Both actually and relatively its importance +had increased enormously; poverty had given place to comparative wealth, +and anarchy to a system of government which afterwards made Prussia the +most centralized state in Europe. He had scant sympathy with local +privileges, and in fighting them his conduct was doubtless despotic. His +aim was to make himself an absolute ruler, as he regarded this as the +best guarantee for the internal and external welfare of the state. + +The great elector died at Potsdam from dropsy on the 9th of May 1688, +and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Frederick. His personal +appearance was imposing, and although he was absolutely without scruples +when working for the interests of Brandenburg, he did not lack a sense +of justice and generosity. At all events he deserves the eulogy passed +upon him by Frederick the Great, "_Messieurs; celui-ci a fait de grandes +choses_." His second wife, whom he married in 1668, was Dorothea (d. +1689), daughter of Philip, duke of Holstein-Glücksburg, and widow of +Christian Louis, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg; she bore him four sons and +three daughters. His concluding years were troubled by differences +between his wife and her step-son, Frederick; and influenced by Dorothea +he bequeathed portions of Brandenburg to her four sons, a bequest which +was annulled under his successor. + + See S. de Pufendorf, _De rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni_ + (Leipzig and Berlin, 1733); L. von Orlich, _Friedrich Wilhelm der + grosse Kurfürst_ (Berlin, 1836); K. H. S. Rödenbeck, _Zur Geschichte + Friedrich Wilhelms des grossen Kurfürsten_ (Berlin, 1851); B. + Erdmannsdörffer, _Der grosse Kurfürst_ (Leipzig, 1879); J. G. Droysen, + _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886); M. + Philippson, _Der grosse Kurfürst_ (Berlin, 1897-1903); E. Heyck, _Der + grosse Kurfürst_ (Bielefeld, 1902); Spahn, _Der grosse Kurfürst_ + (Mainz, 1902); H. Landwehr, _Die Kirchenpolitik des grossen + Kurfürsten_ (Berlin, 1894); H. Prutz, _Aus des grossen Kurfürsten + letzten Jahren_ (Berlin, 1897). Also _Urkunden und Aktenstücke zur + Geschichte des Kurfürsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg_ (Berlin, + 1864-1902); T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. i. + (London, 1858); and A. Waddington, _Le Grand Électeur et Louis XIV_ + (Paris, 1905). + + + + +FRÉDÉRICK-LEMAÎTRE, ANTOINE LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1876) French actor, the +son of an architect, was born at Havre on the 28th of July 1800. He +spent two years at the Conservatoire, and made his first appearance at a +variety performance in one of the basement restaurants at the Palais +Royal. At the Ambigu on the 12th of July 1823 he played the part of +Robert Macaire in _L'Auberge des Adréts_. The melodrama was played +seriously on the first night and was received with little favour, but it +was changed on the second night to burlesque, and thanks to him had a +great success. All Paris came to see it, and from that day he was +famous. He created a number of parts that added to his popularity, +especially Cardillac, Cagliostro and Cartouche. His success in the last +led to an engagement at the Porte St Martin, where in 1827 he produced +_Trente ans, ou la vie d'un joueur_, in which his vivid acting made a +profound impression. Afterwards at the Odéon and other theatres he +passed from one success to another, until he put the final touch to his +reputation as an artist by creating the part of Ruy Blas in Victor +Hugo's play. On his return to the Porte St Martin he created the +title-rôle in Balzac's _Vautrin_, which was forbidden a second +presentation, on account, it is said, of the resemblance of the actor's +wig to the well-known _toupet_ worn by Louis Philippe. His last +appearance was at this theatre in 1873 as the old Jew in _Marie Tudor_, +and he died at Paris on the 26th of January 1876. + + + + +FREDERICKSBURG, a city of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the +Rappahannock river, at the head of tide-water navigation, about 60 m. +N. of Richmond and about 55 m. S.S.W. of Washington. Pop. (1890) 4528; +(1900) 5068 (1621 negroes); (1910) 5874. It is served by the Potomac, +Fredericksburg & Piedmont, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac +railways, and by several coasting steamship lines. The city is built on +a series of terraces between the river and hills of considerable height. +The river is here spanned by iron bridges, and just above the city is a +dam 900 ft. long and 18 ft. high. By means of this dam and a canal good +water-power is furnished, and the city's manufactures include flour, +leather, shoes, woollens, silks, wagons, agricultural implements and +excelsior (fine wood-shavings for packing or stuffing). The water-works, +gas and electric-lighting plants are owned and operated by the +municipality. At Fredericksburg are Fredericksburg College (founded in +1893; co-educational), which includes the Kenmore school for girls and +the Saunders memorial school for boys (both preparatory); a Confederate +and a National cemetery (the latter on Marye's Heights), a monument +(erected in 1906) to General Hugh Mercer (c. 1720-1777), whose home for +several years was here and who fell in the battle of Princeton; and a +monument to the memory of Washington's mother, who died here in 1789 and +whose home is still standing. Other buildings of interest are the old +Rising Sun Hotel, a popular resort during Washington's time, and +"Kenmore," the home of Colonel Fielding Lewis, who married a sister of +Washington. The city was named in honour of Frederick, father of George +III., and was incorporated in 1727, long after its first settlement; in +1871 it was re-chartered by act of the General Assembly of Virginia. + +The battle of Fredericksburg in the American Civil War was fought on the +13th of December 1862 between the Union forces (Army of the Potomac) +under Major-General A. E. Burnside and the Confederates (Army of +Northern Virginia) under General R. E. Lee. In the middle of November, +Burnside, newly appointed to command the Army of the Potomac, had +manoeuvred from the neighbourhood of Warrenton with a view to beginning +an offensive move from Fredericksburg and, as a preliminary, to seizing +a foothold beyond the Rappahannock at or near that place. On arriving +near Falmouth, however, he found that the means of crossing that he had +asked for had not been forwarded from Washington, and he sat down to +wait for them, while, on the other side, the Confederate army gradually +assembled south of the Rappahannock in a strong position with the left +on the river above Fredericksburg and the right near Hamilton's Crossing +on the Richmond railway. On the 10th of December Burnside, having by now +received his pontoons, prepared to cross the river and to attack the +Confederate entrenched position on the heights beyond the town. The +respective forces were Union 122,000, Confederate 79,000. Major-General +E. V. Sumner, commanding the Federal right wing (II. and IX. corps), was +to cross at Fredericksburg, Major-General W. B. Franklin with the left +(I. and VI. corps) some miles below, while the centre (III. and V. +corps) under Major-General Joseph Hooker was to connect the two attacks +and to reinforce either at need. The Union artillery took position along +the heights of the north bank to cover the crossing, and no opposition +was encountered opposite Franklin's command, which formed up on the +other side during the 11th and 12th. Opposite Sumner, however, the +Confederate riflemen, hidden in the gardens and houses of +Fredericksburg, caused much trouble and considerable losses to the Union +pioneers, and a forlorn hope of volunteers from the infantry had to be +rowed across under fire before the enemy's skirmishers could be +dislodged. Sumner's two corps crossed on the 12th. The battle took place +next morning. + +Controversy has raged round Burnside's plan of action and in particular +round his orders to Franklin, as to which it can only be said that +whatever chance of success there was in so formidable an undertaking as +attacking the well-posted enemy was thrown away through +misunderstandings, and that nothing but misunderstandings could be +expected from the vague and bewildering orders issued by the general in +command. The actual battle can be described in a few words. Jackson held +the right of Lee's line, Longstreet the left, both entrenched. Franklin, +tied by his instructions, attacked with one division only, which a +little later he supported by two more (I. corps, Major-General J. F. +Reynolds) out of eight or nine available. His left flank was harassed by +the Confederate horse artillery under the young and brilliant Captain +John Pelham, and after breaking the first line of Stonewall Jackson's +corps the assailants were in the end driven back with heavy losses. On +the other flank, where part of Longstreet's corps held the low ridge +opposite Fredericksburg called Marye's Heights, Burnside ordered in the +II. corps under Major-General D. N. Couch about 11 A.M., and +thenceforward division after division, on a front of little more than +800 yds., was sent forward to assault with the bayonet. The "Stone Wall" +along the foot of Marye's was lined with every rifle of Longstreet's +corps that could find room to fire, and above them the Confederate guns +fired heavily on the assailants, whose artillery, on the height beyond +the river, was too far off to assist them. Not a man of the Federals +reached the wall, though the bravest were killed a few paces from it, +and Sumner's and most of Hooker's brigades were broken one after the +other as often as they tried to assault. At night the wrecks of the +right wing were withdrawn. Burnside proposed next day to lead the IX. +corps, which he had formerly commanded, in one mass to the assault of +the Stone Wall, but his subordinates dissuaded him, and on the night of +the 15th the Army of the Potomac withdrew to its camps about Falmouth. +The losses of the Federals were 12,650 men, those of the Confederates +4200, little more than a third of which fell on Longstreet's corps. + + See F. W. Palfrey, _Antietam and Fredericksburg_ (New York, 1881); G. + W. Redway, _Fredericksburg_ (London, 1906); and G. F. R. Henderson, + _Fredericksburg_ (London, 1889). + + + + +FREDERICTON, a city and port of entry of New Brunswick, Canada, capital +of the province, situated on the St John river, 84 m. from its mouth, +and on the Canadian Pacific railway. It stands on a plain bounded on one +side by the river, which is here ¾ m. broad, and on the other by a range +of hills which almost encircle the town. It is regularly built with long +and straight streets, and contains the parliament buildings, government +house, the Anglican cathedral, the provincial university and several +other educational establishments. Fredericton is the chief commercial +centre in the interior of the province, and has also a large trade in +lumber. Its industries include canneries, tanneries and wooden ware +factories. The river is navigable for large steamers up to the city, and +above it by vessels of lighter draught. Two bridges, passenger and +railway, unite the city with the towns of St Marye's and Gibson on the +east side of the river, at its junction with the Nashwaak. The city was +founded in 1785 by Sir Guy Carleton, and made the capital of the +province, in spite of the jealousy of St John, on account of its +superior strategical position. Pop. (1901) 7117. + + + + +FREDONIA, a village of Chautauqua county, New York, U.S.A., about 45 m. +S.W. of Buffalo, and 3 m. from Lake Erie. Pop. (1900) 4127; (1905, state +census) 5148; (1910 census) 5285. Fredonia is served by the Dunkirk, +Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railway, which connects at Dunkirk, 3 m. to +the N., with the Erie, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, +Chicago & St Louis, and the Pennsylvania railways; and by electric +railway to Erie, Buffalo and Dunkirk. It is the seat of a State Normal +School. The Darwin R. Barker public library contained 9700 volumes in +1908. Fredonia is situated in the grape-growing region of western New +York, is an important shipping point for grapes, and has large +grape-vine and general nurseries. The making of wine and of unfermented +grape-juice are important industries of the village. Among other +manufactures are canned goods, coal dealers' supplies, and patent +medicines. The first settlement here was made in 1804, and the place was +called Canandaway until 1817, when the present name was adopted. The +village was incorporated in 1829. Fredonia was one of the first places +in the United States, if not the first, to make use of natural gas for +public purposes. Within the village limits, near a creek, whose waters +showed the presence of gas, a well was sunk in 1821, and the supply of +gas thus tapped was sufficient to light the streets of the village. +Another well was sunk within the village limits in 1858. About 1905 +natural gas was again obtained by deep drilling near Fredonia and came +into general use for heat, light and power. In the Fredonia Baptist +church on the 14th of December 1873 a Woman's Temperance Union was +organized, and from this is sometimes dated the beginning of the Woman's +Christian Temperance Union movement. + + + + +FREDRIKSHALD (FREDERICKSHALD, FRIEDERICHSHALL), a seaport and garrison +town of Norway, in Smaalenene _amt_ (county), 85 m. by rail S. by E. of +Christiania. Pop. (1900) 11,948. It is picturesquely situated on both +banks of the Tistedal river at its outflow to the Ide fjord, surrounded +by several rocky eminences. The chief of these is occupied by the famous +fortress Fredriksten, protected on three sides by precipices, founded by +Frederick III. (1661), and mainly showing, in its present form, the +works of Frederick V. (1766) and Christian VII. (1808). Between it and +the smaller Gyldenlöve fort a monument marks the spot where Charles XII. +was shot in the trenches while besieging the town (1718). The siege, +which was then raised, is further commemorated by a monument to the +brave defence of the brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjörnsen. Fredrikshald +is close to the Swedish frontier, and had previously (1660) withstood +invasion, after which its name was changed from Halden to the present +form in 1665 in honour of Frederick III. The town was almost totally +destroyed by fire in 1759 and 1826. The castle surrendered to the +Swedish crown prince Bernadotte in 1814, and its capture was speedily +followed by the conquest of the kingdom and its union with Sweden. +Fredrikshald is one of the principal ports of the kingdom for the export +of timber. Marble of very fine quality and grain is extensively quarried +and exported for architectural ornamentation and for furniture-making. +Wood-pulp is also exported. The industries embrace granite quarries, +wood-pulp factories, and factories for sugar, tobacco, curtains, +travelling-bags, boots, &c. There are railway communications with +Gothenburg and all parts of Sweden and regular coastal and steamer +services. + + + + +FREDRIKSTAD (FREDERIKSTAD), a seaport and manufacturing town of Norway +in Smaalenene _amt_ (county), 58 m. S. by E. of Christiania by the +Christiania-Gothenburg railway. Pop. (1900) 14,553. It lies at the mouth +and on the eastern shore of Christiania fjord, occupying both banks of +the great river Glommen, which, descending from the richly-wooded +district of Österdal, floats down vast quantities of timber. The new +town on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade, +this place being the principal port in Norway for the export of +pit-props, planed boards, and other varieties of timber. There is also a +great industry in the making of red bricks, owing to the expansion of +Christiania, Gothenburg and other towns. Granite is quarried and +exported. Besides the large number of saw and planing mills, there are +shipbuilding yards, engine and boiler works, cotton and woollen mills, +and factories for acetic acid and naphtha. The harbour, which can be +entered by vessels drawing 14 ft., is kept open in winter by an +ice-breaker. In the vicinity is the island Hankö, the most fashionable +Norwegian seaside resort. The old town on the left bank was founded by +Frederick II. in 1567. It was for a long time strongly fortified, and in +1716 Charles XII. of Sweden made a vain attempt to capture it. + + + + +FREE BAPTISTS, formerly called (but no longer officially) FREEWILL +BAPTISTS, an American denomination holding anti-paedobaptist and +anti-Calvinistic doctrines, and practically identical in creed with the +General Baptists of Great Britain. Many of the early Baptist churches in +Rhode Island and throughout the South were believers in "general +redemption" (hence called "general" Baptists); and there was a largely +attended conference of this Arminian branch of the church at Newport in +1729. But the denomination known as "Free-willers" had its rise in +1779-1780, when anti-Calvinists in Loudon, Barrington and Canterbury, +New Hampshire, seceded and were organized by Benjamin Randall +(1749-1808), a native of New Hampshire. Randall was an itinerant +missionary, who had been preaching for two years before his ordination +in 1780; in the same year he was censured for "heterodox" teaching. The +work of the church suffered a relapse after his death, and a movement to +join the Freewill Baptists with the "Christians," who were led by Elias +Smith (1769-1846) and had been bitterly opposed by Randall, was nearly +successful. Between 1820 and 1830 the denomination made considerable +progress, especially in New England and the Middle West. The Freewill +Baptists were joined in 1841 by many "open-communion Baptists"--those in +the Carolinas who did not join the larger body distinguishing themselves +by the name of Original Freewill Baptists--and soon afterwards by some +of the General Baptists of North Carolina and some of the Six Principle +Baptists of Rhode Island (who had added the "laying on of hands" to the +Five Principles hitherto held); and the abbreviation of the +denominational name to "Free Baptists" suggests their liberal +policy--indeed open communion is the main if not the only hindrance to +union with the "regular" Baptist Church. + +Colleges founded by the denomination, all co-educational, are: Hillsdale +College, opened at Spring Harbor as Michigan Central College in 1844, +and established at Hillsdale, Michigan, in 1855; Bates College, +Lewiston, Maine, 1863, now non-sectarian; Rio Grande College, Rio +Grande, Ohio, 1876; and Parker College, Winnebago City, Minnesota, +opened in 1888. At the close of 1909 there were 1294 ministers, 1303 +churches, and 73,536 members of the denomination in the United States. +_The Morning Star_ of Boston, established in 1826, is the most prominent +journal published by the church. In British North America, according to +a Canadian census bulletin of 1902, there were, in 1901, 24,229 Free +Baptists, of whom 15,502 were inhabitants of New Brunswick, 8355 of Nova +Scotia, 246 of Ontario, and 87 of Quebec. The United Societies of Free +Baptist Young People, an international organization founded in 1888, had +in 1907 about 15,000 members. At the close of 1907 the "Original +Freewill Baptists" had 120 ministers, 167 churches, and 12,000 members, +practically all in the Carolinas. + + See I. D. Stewart, _History of the Free Will Baptists_ (Dover, N. H., + 1862) for 1780-1830, and his edition of the _Minutes of the General + Conference of the Free Will Baptist Connection_ (Boston, 1887); James + B. Taylor, _The Centennial Record of the Free Will Baptists_ (Dover, + 1881); John Buzzell, _Memoir of Elder Benjamin Randall_ (Parsonfield, + Maine, 1827); and P. Richardson, "Randall and the Free Will Baptists," + in _The Christian Review_, vol. xxiii. (Baltimore, 1858). + + + + +FREEBENCH, in English law, the interest which a widow has in the +copyhold lands of her husband, corresponding to dower in the case of +freeholds. It depends upon the custom of the manor, but as a general +rule the widow takes a third for her life of the lands of which her +husband dies seised, but it may be an estate greater or less than a +third. If the husband surrenders his copyhold and the surrenderee is +admitted, or if he contracts for a sale, it will defeat the widow's +freebench. As freebench is regarded as a continuation of the husband's +estate, the widow does not (except by special custom) require to be +admitted. + + + + +FREE CHURCH FEDERATION, a voluntary association of British Nonconformist +churches for co-operation in religious, social and civil work. It was +the outcome of a unifying tendency displayed during the latter part of +the 19th century. About 1890 the proposal that there should be a +Nonconformist Church Congress analogous to the Anglican Church Congress +was seriously considered, and the first was held in Manchester on the +7th of November 1892. In the following year it was resolved that the +basis of representation should be neither personal (as in the Anglican +Church Congress) nor denominational, but territorial. England and Wales +have since been completely covered with a network of local councils, +each of which elects its due proportion of representatives to the +national gathering. This territorial arrangement eliminated all +sectarian distinctions, and also the possibility of committing the +different churches as such to any particular policy. The representatives +of the local councils attend not as denominationalists but as +Evangelical Free Churchmen. The name of the organization was changed +from Congress to National Council as soon as the assembly ceased to be a +fortuitous concourse of atoms, and consisted of duly appointed +representatives from the local councils of every part of England. The +local councils consist of representatives of the Congregational and +Baptist Churches, the Methodist Churches, the Presbyterian Church of +England, the Free Episcopal Churches, the Society of Friends, and such +other Evangelical Churches as the National Council may at any time +admit. The constitution states the following as the objects of the +National Council: (a) To facilitate fraternal intercourse and +co-operation among the Evangelical Free Churches; (b) to assist in the +organization of local councils; (c) to encourage devotional fellowship +and mutual counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious +activities of the Churches; (d) to advocate the New Testament doctrine +of the Church, and to defend the rights of the associated Churches; (e) +to promote the application of the law of Christ in every relation of +human life. Although the objects of the Free Church councils are thus in +their nature and spirit religious rather than political, there are +occasions on which action is taken on great national affairs. Thus a +thorough-going opposition was offered to the Education Act of 1902, and +whole-hearted support accorded to candidates at the general election of +1906 who pledged themselves to altering that measure. + +A striking feature of the movement is the adoption of the parochial +system for the purpose of local work. Each of the associated churches is +requested to look after a parish, not of course with any attempt to +exclude other churches, but as having a special responsibility for those +in that area who are not already connected with some existing church. +Throughout the United Kingdom local councils are formed into +federations, some fifty in number, which are intermediate between them +and the national council. The local councils do what is possible to +prevent overlapping and excessive competition between the churches. They +also combine the forces of the local churches for evangelistic and +general devotional work, open-air services, efforts on behalf of Sunday +observance, and the prevention of gambling. Services are arranged in +connexion with workhouses, hospitals and other public institutions. +Social work of a varied character forms a large part of the operations +of the local councils, and the Free Church Girls' Guild has a function +similar to that of the Anglican Girls' Friendly Society. The national +council engages in mission work on a large scale, and a considerable +number of periodicals, hymn-books for special occasions, and works of +different kinds explaining the history and ideals of the Evangelical +Free Churches have been published. The churches represented in the +National Council have 9966 ministers, 55,828 local preachers, 407,991 +Sunday-school teachers, 3,416,377 Sunday scholars, 2,178,221 +communicants, and sitting accommodation for 8,555,460. + +A remarkable manifestation of this unprecedented reunion was the fact +that a committee of the associated churches prepared and published a +catechism expressing the positive and fundamental agreement of all the +Evangelical Free Churches on the essential doctrines of Christianity +(see _The Contemporary Review_, January 1899). The catechism represents +substantially the creed of not less than 80,000,000 Protestants. It has +been widely circulated throughout Great Britain, the British Colonies +and the United States of America, and has also been translated into +Welsh, French and Italian. + +The movement has spread to all parts of Australia, New Zealand, South +Africa, Jamaica, the United States of America and India. It is perhaps +necessary to add that it differs essentially from the Evangelical +Alliance, inasmuch as its unit is not an individual, private Christian, +but a definitely organized and visible Church. The essential doctrine of +the movement is a particular doctrine of churchmanship which, as +explained in the catechism, regards the Lord Jesus Christ as the sole +and Divine Head of every branch of the Holy Catholic Church throughout +the world. For this reason those who do not accept the deity of Christ +are necessarily excluded from the national council and its local +constituent councils. + + + + +FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, a Protestant episcopal church "essentially one +with the established church of England, but free to go into any parish, +to use a revised edition of the Book of Common Prayer, to associate the +laity with the clergy in the government and work of the church, and to +hold communion with Christians of other denominations." It was founded +in 1844 in opposition to the Tractarian movement, and embodies the +distinctively evangelical elements of the Reformation. It preserves and +maintains to the letter all that is Protestant and evangelical in the +liturgy and services of the Anglican church, while its free constitution +and revised formularies meet the needs of members of that communion who +resent sacerdotal and ritualistic tendencies. There are two dioceses +(northern and southern) each with a bishop, about 30 churches and +ministers, and about 1300 members. + + + + +FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. In one sense the Free Church of Scotland dated +its existence from the Disruption of 1843, in another it claimed to be +the rightful representative of the National Church of Scotland (see +SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF) as it was reformed in 1560.[1] In the +ecclesiastical history of Scotland the Free Churchman sees three great +reforming periods. In his view these deserve to be called reforming on +many accounts, but most especially because in them the independence of +the church, her inherent scriptural right to exercise a spiritual +jurisdiction in which she is responsible to her Divine Head alone, was +both earnestly asserted and practically maintained. The first +reformation extended from 1560, when the church freely held her first +General Assembly, and of her own authority acted on the First Book of +Discipline, to 1592, when her Presbyterian order was finally and fully +ratified by the parliament. The second period began in 1638, when, after +20 years of suspended animation, the Assembly once more shook off +Episcopacy, and terminated in 1649, when the parliament of Scotland +confirmed the church in her liberties in a larger and ampler sense than +before. The third period began in 1834, when the Assembly made use of +what the church believed to be her rights in passing the Veto and Chapel +Acts. It culminated in the Disruption of 1843. + +The fact that the Church, as led first by John Knox and afterwards by +Andrew Melville, claimed an inherent right to exercise a spiritual +jurisdiction is notorious. More apt to be overlooked is the comparative +freedom with which that right was actually used by the church +irrespective of state recognition. That recognition was not given until +after the queen's resignation in 1567;[2] but, for several years before +it came, the church had been holding her Assemblies and settling all +questions of discipline, worship, and administration as they arose, in +accordance with the first book of polity or discipline which had been +drawn up in 1560. Further, in 1581 she, of her own motion, adopted a +second book of a similar character, in which she expressly claimed an +independent and exclusive jurisdiction or power in all matters +ecclesiastical, "which flows directly from God and the Mediator Jesus +Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth, but only +Christ, the only king and governor of his church"; and this claim, +though directly negatived in 1584 by the "Black Acts," which included an +Act of Supremacy over estates spiritual and temporal, continued to be +asserted by the Assemblies, until at last it also was practically +allowed in the act of 1592.[3] This legislation of 1592, however, did +not long remain in force. An act of parliament in 1606, which "reponed, +restored and reintegrated" the estate of bishops to their ancient +dignities, prerogatives and privileges, was followed by several acts of +various subservient assemblies, which, culminating in that of 1618, +practically amounted to a complete surrender of jurisdiction by the +church itself. For twenty years no Assemblies whatever were held. This +interval must necessarily be regarded from the Presbyterian point of +view as having been one of very deep depression. But a second +reformation, characterized by great energy and vigour, began in 1638. +The proceedings of the Assembly of that year, afterwards tardily and +reluctantly acquiesced in by the state, finally issued in the acts of +parliament of 1649, by which the Westminster standards were ratified, +lay-patronage was abolished, and the coronation oath itself framed in +accordance with the principles of Presbyterian church government. +Another period of intense reaction soon set in. No Assemblies were +permitted by Cromwell after 1653; and, soon after the Restoration, +Presbytery was temporarily overthrown by a series of rescissory acts. +Nor was the Revolution Settlement of 1690 so entirely favourable to the +freedom of the church as the legislation of 1649 had been. Prelacy was +abolished, and various obnoxious statutes were repealed, but the acts +rescissory were not cancelled; presbyterianism was re-established, but +the statutory recognition of the Confession of Faith took no notice of +certain qualifications under which that document had originally been +approved by the Assembly of 1647;[4] the old rights of patrons were +again discontinued, but the large powers which had been conferred on +congregations by the act of 1649 were not wholly restored. Nevertheless +the great principle of a distinct ecclesiastical jurisdiction, embodied +in the Confession of Faith, was accepted without reservation, and a +Presbyterian polity effectively confirmed both then and at the +ratification of the treaty of Union. This settlement, however, did not +long subsist unimpaired. In 1712 the act of Queen Anne, restoring +patronage to its ancient footing, was passed in spite of the earnest +remonstrances of the Scottish people. For many years afterwards (until +1784) the Assembly continued to instruct each succeeding commission to +make application to the king and the parliament for redress of the +grievance. But meanwhile a new phase of Scottish ecclesiastical politics +commonly known as Moderatism had been inaugurated, during the prevalence +of which the church became even more indifferent than the lay patrons +themselves to the rights of her congregations with regard to the +"calling" of ministers. From the Free Church point of view, the period +from which the secessions under Ebenezer Erskine and Thomas Gillespie +are dated was also characterized by numerous other abuses on the +Church's part which amounted to a practical surrender of the most +important and distinctive principles of her ancient Presbyterian +polity.[5] Towards the beginning of the present century there were many +circumstances, both within and without the church, which conspired to +bring about an evangelical and popular reaction against this reign of +"Moderatism." The result was a protracted struggle, which is commonly +referred to as the Ten Years' Conflict, and which has been aptly +described as the last battle in the long war which for nearly 300 years +had been waged within the church itself, between the friends and the +foes of the doctrine of an exclusive ecclesiastical jurisdiction. That +final struggle may be said to have begun with the passing in 1834 of the +"Veto" Act, by which it was declared to be a fundamental law of the +church that no pastor should be intruded on a congregation contrary to +the will of the people,[6] and by which it was provided that the simple +dissent of a majority of heads of families in a parish should be enough +to warrant a presbytery in rejecting a presentee. The question of the +legality of this measure soon came to be tried in the civil courts; and +it was ultimately answered in a sense unfavourable to the church by the +decision (1838) of the court of session in the Auchterarder case, to the +effect that a presbytery had no right to reject a presentee simply +because the parishioners protested against his settlement, but was bound +to disregard the veto (see CHALMERS, THOMAS). This decision elicited +from the Assembly of that year a new declaration of the doctrine of the +spiritual independence of the church. The "exclusive jurisdiction of the +civil courts in regard to the civil rights and emoluments secured by law +to the church and the ministers thereof" was acknowledged without +qualification; and continued implicit obedience to their decisions with +reference to these rights and emoluments was pledged. At the same time +it was insisted on "that, as is declared in the Confession of Faith of +this National Established Church, 'the Lord Jesus Christ, as King and +Head of the church, hath therein appointed a government in the hand of +church officers distinct from the civil magistrate'; and that in all +matters touching the doctrine, discipline and government of the church +her judicatories possess an exclusive jurisdiction, founded on the Word +of God, which power ecclesiastical" (in the words of the Second Book of +Discipline) "flows immediately from God and the Mediator the Lord Jesus +Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth, but only +Christ, the only spiritual King and Governor of His Kirk." And it was +resolved to assert, and at all hazards defend, this spiritual +jurisdiction, and firmly to enforce obedience to the same upon the +office-bearers and members of the church. The decision of the court of +session having been confirmed by the House of Lords early in 1839, it +was decided in the Assembly of that year that the church, while +acquiescing in the loss of the temporalities at Auchterarder, should +reaffirm the principle of non-intrusion as an integral part of the +constitution of the Reformed Church of Scotland, and that a committee +should be appointed to confer with the government with a view to the +prevention, if possible, of any further collision between the civil and +ecclesiastical authorities. While the conference with the government had +no better result than an unsuccessful attempt at compromise by means of +Lord Aberdeen's Bill, which embodied the principle of a dissent with +reasons, still graver complications were arising out of the Marnoch and +other cases.[7] In the circumstances it was resolved by the Assembly of +1842 to transmit to the queen, by the hands of the lord high +commissioner, a "claim, declaration, and protest," complaining of the +encroachments of the court of session,[8] and also an address praying +for the abolition of patronage. The home secretary's answer (received in +January 1843) gave no hope of redress. Meanwhile the position of the +evangelical party had been further hampered by the decision of the +court of session declaring the ministers of chapels of ease to be +unqualified to sit in any church court. A final appeal to parliament by +petition was made in March 1843, when, by a majority of 135 (211 against +76), the House of Commons declined to attempt any redress of the +grievances of the Scottish Church.[9] At the first session of the +following General Assembly (18th May 1843) the reply of the +non-intrusion party was made in a protest, signed by upwards of 200 +commissioners, to the effect that since, in their opinion, the recent +decisions of the civil courts, and the still more recent sanction of +these decisions by the legislature, had made it impossible at that time +to hold a free Assembly of the church as by law established, they +therefore "protest that it shall be lawful for us, and such other +commissioners as may concur with us, to withdraw to a separate place of +meeting, for the purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who +adhere to us--maintaining with us the Confession of Faith and standards +of the Church of Scotland as heretofore understood--for separating in an +orderly way from the Establishment, and thereupon adopting such measures +as may be competent to us, in humble dependence on God's grace and the +aid of His Holy Spirit, for the advancement of His glory, the extension +of the gospel of our Lord and Saviour, and the administration of the +affairs of Christ's house according to His holy word." The reading of +this document was followed by the withdrawal of the entire non-intrusion +party to another place of meeting, where the first Assembly of the Free +Church was constituted, with Dr Thomas Chalmers as moderator. This +Assembly sat from the 18th to the 30th of May, and transacted a large +amount of important business. On Tuesday the 23rd, 396[10] ministers and +professors publicly adhibited their names to the Act of Separation and +deed of demission by which they renounced all claim to the benefices +they had held in connexion with the Establishment, declaring them to be +vacant, and consenting to their being dealt with as such. By this +impressive proceeding the signatories voluntarily surrendered an annual +income amounting to fully £100,000. + +The first care of the voluntarily disestablished church was to provide +incomes for her clergy and places of worship for her people. As early as +1841 indeed the leading principle of a "sustentation fund" for the +support of the ministry had been announced by Dr Robert Smith Candlish; +and at "Convocation," a private unofficial meeting of the members of the +evangelical or non-intrusion party held in November 1842, Dr Chalmers +was prepared with a carefully matured scheme according to which "each +congregation should do its part in sustaining the whole, and the whole +should sustain each congregation." Between November 1842 and May 1843, +647 associations had been formed; and at the first Assembly it was +announced that upwards of £17,000 had already been contributed. At the +close of the first financial year (1843-1844) it was reported that the +fund had exceeded £61,000. It was participated in by 583 ministers; and +470 drew the full equal dividend of £105. Each successive year showed a +steady increase in the gross amount of the fund; but owing to an almost +equally rapid increase of the number of new ministerial charges +participating in its benefits, the stipend payable to each minister did +not for many years reach the sum of £150 which had been aimed at as a +minimum. Thus in 1844-1845 the fund had risen to £76,180, but the +ministers had also increased to 627, and the equal dividend therefore +was only £122. During the first ten years the annual income averaged +£84,057; during the next decade £108,643; and during the third £130,246. +The minimum of £150 was reached at last in 1868; and subsequently the +balance remaining after that minimum had been provided was treated as a +surplus fund, and distributed among those ministers whose congregations +have contributed at certain specified rates per member. In 1878 the +total amount received for this fund was upwards of £177,000; in this +1075 ministers participated. The full equal dividend of £157 was paid to +766 ministers; and additional grants of £36 and £18 were paid out of +the surplus fund to 632 and 129 ministers respectively. + +To provide for the erection of the buildings which, it was foreseen, +would be necessary, a general building fund, in which all should share +alike, was also organized, and local building funds were as far as +possible established in each parish, with the result that at the first +Assembly a sum of £104,776 was reported as already available. By May +1844 a further sum of £123,060 had been collected, and 470 churches were +reported as completed or nearly so. In the following year £131,737 was +raised and 60 additional churches were built. At the end of four years +considerably more than 700 churches had been provided. + +During the winter session 1843-1844 the divinity students who had joined +the Free Church continued their studies under Dr Chalmers and Dr David +Welsh (1793-1845); and at the Assembly of 1844 arrangements were made +for the erection of suitable collegiate buildings. The New College, +Edinburgh, was built in 1847 at a cost of £46,506; and divinity halls +were subsequently set up also in Glasgow and Aberdeen. In 1878 there +were 13 professors of theology, with an aggregate of 230 students,--the +numbers at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen respectively being 129, 69 +and 32. + +A somewhat unforeseen result of the Disruption was the necessity for a +duplicate system of elementary schools. At the 1843 Assembly it was for +the first time announced by Dr Welsh that "schools to a certain extent +must be opened to afford a suitable sphere of occupation for parochial +and still more for private teachers of schools, who are threatened with +deprivation of their present office on account of their opinions upon +the church question." The suggestion was taken up with very great +energy, with the result that in May 1845, 280 schools had been set up, +while in May 1847 this number had risen to 513, with an attendance of +upwards of 44,000 scholars. In 1869 it was stated in an authoritative +document laid before members of parliament that at that time there were +connected with and supported by the Free Church 598 schools (including +two normal schools), with 633 teachers and 64,115 scholars. The school +buildings had been erected at a cost of £220,000, of which the committee +of privy council had contributed £35,000, while the remainder had been +raised by voluntary effort. Annual payments made to teachers, &c., as at +1869, amounted to £16,000. In accordance with certain provisions of the +Education Act of 1872 most of the schools of the Free Church were +voluntarily transferred, without compensation, to the local school +boards. The normal schools are now transferred to the state. + +It has been seen already that during the period of the Ten Years' +Conflict the non-intrusion party strenuously denied that in any one +respect it was departing from acknowledged principles of the National +Church. It continued to do so after the Disruption. In 1846, however, it +was found to have become necessary, "in consequence of the late change +in the outward condition of the church," to amend the "questions and +formula" to be used at the licensing of probationers and the ordination +of office-bearers. These were amended accordingly; and at the same time +it was declared that, "while the church firmly maintains the same +scriptural principles as to the duties of nations and their rulers in +reference to true religion and the Church of Christ for which she has +hitherto contended, she disclaims intolerant or persecuting principles, +and does not regard her Confession of Faith, or any portion thereof when +fairly interpreted, as favouring intolerance or persecution, or consider +that her office-bearers by subscribing it profess any principles +inconsistent with liberty of conscience and the right of private +judgment." The main difference between the "formula" of the Free Church +and that of the Established Church (as at the year 1900) was that the +former referred to the Confession of Faith simply as "approven by +General Assemblies of this Church," while the latter described it as +"approven by the General Assemblies of this National Church, and +ratified by law in the year 1690, and frequently confirmed by divers +Acts of Parliament since that time." The former inserted an additional +clause,--"I also approve of the general principles respecting the +jurisdiction of the church, and her subjection to Christ as her only +Head, which are contained in the Claim of Right and in the Protest +referred to in the questions already put to me"; and also added the +words which are here distinguished by italics,--"And I promise that +through the grace of God I shall firmly and constantly adhere to the +same, and to the utmost of my power shall in my station assert, +maintain, and defend the said doctrine, worship, discipline and +government of this church by kirk-sessions, presbyteries, provincial +synods, and general assemblies, _together with the liberty and exclusive +jurisdiction thereof_; and that I shall, in my practice, conform myself +to the said worship and submit to the said discipline [and] government, +_and exclusive jurisdiction_, and not endeavour directly or indirectly +the prejudice or subversion of the same." In the year 1851 an act and +declaration anent the publication of the subordinate standards and other +authoritative documents of the Free Church of Scotland was passed, in +which the historical fact is recalled that the Church of Scotland had +formally consented to adopt the Confession of Faith, catechisms, +directory of public worship, and form of church government agreed upon +by the Westminster Assembly; and it is declared that "these several +formularies, as ratified, with certain explanations, by divers Acts of +Assembly in the years 1645, 1646, and particularly in 1647, this church +continues till this day to acknowledge as her subordinate standards of +doctrine, worship and government."[11] + +In 1858 circumstances arose which, in the opinion of many, seemed fitted +to demonstrate to the Free Church that her freedom was an illusion, and +that all her sacrifices had been made in vain. John Macmillan, minister +of Cardross, accused of immorality, had been tried and found guilty by +the Free Presbytery of Dumbarton. Appeal having been taken to the synod, +an attempt was there made to revive one particular charge, of which he +had been finally acquitted by the presbytery; and this attempt was +successful in the General Assembly. That ultimate court of review did +not confine itself to the points appealed, but went into the merits of +the whole case as it had originally come before the presbytery. The +result was a sentence of suspension. Macmillan, believing that the +Assembly had acted with some irregularity, applied to the court of +session for an interdict against the execution of that sentence; and for +this act he was summoned to the bar of the Assembly to say whether or +not it was the case that he had thus appealed. Having answered in the +affirmative, he was deposed on the spot. Forthwith he raised a new +action (his previous application for an interdict had been refused) +concluding for reduction of the spiritual sentence of deposition and for +substantial damages. The defences lodged by the Free Church were to the +effect that the civil courts had no right to review and reduce spiritual +sentences, or to decide whether the General Assembly of the Free Church +had acted irregularly or not. Judgments adverse to the defenders were +delivered on these points; and appeals were taken to the House of Lords. +But before the case could be heard there, the lord president took an +opportunity in the court of session to point out to the pursuer that, +inasmuch as the particular General Assembly against which the action was +brought had ceased to exist, it could not therefore be made in any +circumstances to pay damages, and that the action of reduction of the +spiritual sentence, being only auxiliary to the claim of damages, ought +therefore to be dismissed. He further pointed out that Macmillan might +obtain redress in another way, should he be able to prove malice against +individuals. Very soon after this deliverance of the lord president, the +case as it had stood against the Free Church was withdrawn, and +Macmillan gave notice of an action of a wholly different kind. But this +last was not persevered in. The appeals which had been taken to the +House of Lords were, in these circumstances, also departed from by the +Free Church. The case did not advance sufficiently to show how far the +courts of law would be prepared to go in the direction of recognizing +voluntary tribunals and a kind of secondary exclusive jurisdiction +founded on contract.[12] But, whether recognized or not, the church for +her part continued to believe that she had an inherent spiritual +jurisdiction, and remained unmoved in her determination to act in +accordance with that resolution "notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble +or persecution may arise."[13] + +In 1863 a motion was made and unanimously carried in the Free Church +Assembly for the appointment of a committee to confer with a +corresponding committee of the United Presbyterian Synod, and with the +representatives of such other disestablished churches as might be +willing to meet and deliberate with a view to an incorporating union. +Formal negotiations between the representatives of these two churches +were begun shortly afterwards, which resulted in a report laid before +the following Assembly. From this document it appeared that the +committees of the two churches were not at one on the question as to the +relation of the civil magistrate to the church. While on the part of the +Free Church it was maintained that he "may lawfully acknowledge, as +being in accordance with the Word of God, the creed and jurisdiction of +the church," and that "it is his duty, when necessary and expedient, to +employ the national resources in aid of the church, provided always that +in doing so, while reserving to himself full control over the +temporalities which are his own gift, he abstain from all authoritative +interference in the internal government of the church," it was declared +by the committee of the United Presbyterian Church that, "inasmuch as +the civil magistrate has no authority in spiritual things, and as the +employment of force in such matters is opposed to the spirit and +precepts of Christianity, it is not within his province to legislate as +to what is true in religion, to prescribe a creed or form of worship to +his subjects, or to endow the church from national resources." In other +words, while the Free Church maintained that in certain circumstances it +was lawful and even incumbent on the magistrate to endow the church and +on the church to accept his endowment, the United Presbyterians +maintained that in no case was this lawful either for the one party or +for the other. Thus in a very short time it had been made perfectly +evident that a union between the two bodies, if accomplished at all, +could only be brought about on the understanding that the question as to +the lawfulness of state endowments should be an open one. The Free +Church Assembly, by increasing majorities, manifested a readiness for +union, even although unanimity had not been attained on that theoretical +point. But there was a minority which did not sympathize in this +readiness, and after ten years of fruitless effort it was in 1873 found +to be expedient that the idea of union with the United Presbyterians +should for the time be abandoned. Other negotiations, however, which had +been entered upon with the Reformed Presbyterian Church at a somewhat +later date proved more successful; and a majority of the ministers of +that church with their congregations were united with the Free Church in +1876. (J. S. Bl.) + +In the last quarter of the 19th century the Free Church continued to be +the most active, theologically, of the Scottish Churches. The College +chairs were almost uniformly filled by advanced critics or theologians, +inspired more or less by Professor A. B. Davidson. Dr A. B. Bruce, +author of _The Training of the Twelve_, &c., was appointed to the chair +of apologetics and New Testament exegesis in the Glasgow College in +1875; Henry Drummond (author of _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_, +&c.) was made lecturer in natural science in the same college in 1877 +and became professor in 1884; and Dr George Adam Smith (author of _The +Twelve Prophets_, &c.) was called to the Hebrew chair in 1892. Attempts +were made between 1890 and 1895 to bring all these professors except +Davidson (similar attacks were also made on Dr Marcus Dods, afterwards +principal of the New College, Edinburgh) to the bar of the Assembly for +unsound teaching or writing; but in every case these were abortive, the +Assembly never taking any step beyond warning the accused that their +primary duty was to teach and defend the church's faith as embodied in +the confession. In 1892 the Free Church, following the example of the +United Presbyterian Church and the Church of Scotland (1889), passed a +Declaratory Act relaxing the stringency of subscription to the +confession, with the result that a small number of ministers and +congregations, mostly in the Highlands, severed their connexion with the +church and formed the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, on strictly +and straitly orthodox lines. In 1907 this body had twenty congregations +and twelve ministers. + +The Free Church always regarded herself as a National Church, and during +this period she sought actively to be true to that character by +providing church ordinances for the increasing population of Scotland +and applying herself to the new problems of non-church-going, and of the +changing habits of the people. Her Assembly's committee on religion and +morals worked toward the same ends as the similar organization of the +Established Church, and in her, as in the other churches, the standard +of parochial and congregational activity was raised and new methods of +operation devised. She passed legislation on the difficult problem of +ridding the church of inefficient ministers. The use of instrumental +music was sanctioned in Free Churches during this period. An association +was formed in 1891 to promote the ends of edification, order and +reverence in the public services of the church, and published in 1898 _A +New Directory for Public Worship_ which does not provide set forms of +prayer, but directions as to the matter of prayer in the various +services. The Free Church took a large share in the study of hymnology +and church music, which led to the production of _The Church Hymnary_. +From 1885 to 1895 much of the energy of all the Presbyterian churches +was absorbed by the disestablishment agitation. In the former year the +Free Church, having almost entirely shed the establishment principle on +which it was founded, began to rival the United Presbyterian Church in +its resolutions calling for the disestablishment of the Church of +Scotland. In spite of the offers of the Establishment Assembly to confer +with the dissenting churches about union, the assaults upon its status +waxed in vigour, till in 1893 the Free Church hailed the result of the +general election as a verdict of the constituencies in favour of +disestablishment, and insisted upon the government of the day taking up +Sir Charles Cameron's bill. + +During the last four or five years of the century the Free and United +Presbyterian churches, which after the failure of their union +negotiations in 1873 had been connected together by a Mutual Eligibility +Act enabling a congregation of one church to call a minister from the +other, devoted their energy to the arrangement of an incorporating +union. The Synod of the United Presbyterian Church resolved in 1896 to +"take steps towards union," and in the following year the Free Assembly +responded by appointing a committee to confer with a committee of the +other church. The joint committee discovered a "remarkable and happy +agreement" between the doctrinal standards, rules and methods of the two +bodies, and with very little concessions on either side a common +constitution and common "questions and formula" for the admission of +ministers and office-bearers were arranged. A minority, always growing +smaller, of the Free Church Assembly, protested against the proposed +union, and threatened if it were carried through to test its legality in +the courts. To meet this opposition, the suggestion is understood to +have been made that an act of parliament should be applied for to +legalize the union; but this was not done, and the union was carried +through on the understanding that the question of the lawfulness of +church establishments should be an open one. + +The supreme courts of the churches met for the last time in their +respective places of meeting on the 30th of October 1900, and on the +following day the joint meeting took place at which the union was +completed, and the United Free Church of Scotland (q.v.) entered on its +career. The protesting and dissenting minority at once claimed to be +the Free Church. They met outside the Free Assembly Hall on the 31st of +October, and, failing to gain admission to it, withdrew to another hall, +where they elected Mr Colin Bannatyne their moderator and held the +remaining sittings of the Assembly. It was reported that between 16,000 +and 17,000 names had been received of persons adhering to the +anti-unionist principle. At the Assembly of 1901 it was stated that the +Free Church had twenty-five ministers and at least sixty-three +congregations. The character of the church is indicated by the fact that +its office-bearers were the faithful survivors of the decreasing +minority of the Old Free Church, which had protested against the +disestablishment resolutions, against the relaxation of subscription, +against toleration of the teaching of the Glasgow professors, and +against the use in worship of organs or of human hymns. Her +congregations were mostly in the Gaelic-speaking districts of Scotland. +She was confronted with a very arduous undertaking; her congregations +grew in number, but were far from each other and there were not nearly +enough ministers. The Highlands were filled, by the Union, with +exasperation and dispeace which could not soon subside. The church met +with no sympathy or assistance at the hands of the United Free Church, +and her work was conducted at first under considerable hardships, nor +was her position one to appeal to the general popular sentiment of +Scotland. But the little church continued her course with indomitable +courage and without any compromise of principle. The Declaratory Act of +1892 was repealed after a consultation of presbyteries, and the old +principles as to worship were declared. A professor was obliged to +withdraw a book he had written, in which the results of criticism, with +regard to the Synoptic Gospels, had been accepted and applied. The +desire of the Church of Scotland to obtain relaxation of her formula was +declared to make union with her impossible. Along with this unbending +attitude, signs of material growth were not wanting. The revenue of the +church increased; the grant from the sustentation fund was in 1901 only +£75, but from 1903 onwards it was £167. + +The decision of the House of Lords in 1904 did not bring the trials of +the Free Church to an end. In the absence of any arrangement with the +United Free Church, she could only gain possession of the property +declared to belong to her by an application in each particular case to +the Court of Session, and a series of law-suits began which were trying +to all parties. In the year 1905 the Free Church Assembly met in the +historic Free Church Assembly Hall, but it did not meet there again. +Having been left by the awards of the commission without any station in +the foreign mission field, the Free Church resolved to start a foreign +mission of her own. The urgent task confronting the church was that of +supplying ordinances to her congregations. The latter numbered 200 in +1907, and the church had as yet only 74 ordained ministers, so that many +of the manses allocated to her by the commissioners were not yet +occupied, and catechists and elders were called to conduct services +where possible. The gallant stand this little church had made for +principles which were no longer represented by any Presbyterian church +outside the establishment attracted to her much interest and many hopes +that she might be successful in her endeavours to do something for the +religious life of Scotland. + + See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, for bibliography and statistics. (A. M.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "It is her being free, not her being established, that + constitutes the real historical and hereditary identity of the + Reformed National Church of Scotland." See _Act and Declaration, + &c._, of Free Assembly, 1851. + + [2] In the act _Anent the true and holy Kirk, and of those that are + declared not to be of the same_. This act was supplemented by that of + 1579, _Anent the Jurisdiction of the Kirk_. + + [3] The Second Book of Discipline was not formally recognized in that + act; but all former acts against "the jurisdiction and discipline of + the true Kirk as the same is used and exercised within the realm" + were abolished; and all "liberties, privileges, immunities and + freedoms whatsoever" previously granted were ratified and approved. + + [4] The most important of these had reference to the full right of a + constituted church to the enjoyment of an absolutely unrestricted + freedom in convening Assemblies. This very point on one occasion at + least threatened to be the cause of serious misunderstandings between + William and the people of Scotland. The difficulties were happily + smoothed, however, by the wisdom and tact of William Carstares. + + [5] See _Act and Declaration_ of Free Assembly, 1851. + + [6] This principle had been asserted even by an Assembly so late as + that of 1736, and had been invariably presupposed in the "call," + which had never ceased to be regarded as an indispensable + prerequisite for the settlement of a minister. + + [7] According to the Free Church "Protest" of 1843 it was in these + cases decided (1) that the courts of the church were liable to be + compelled to intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations; (2) that + the civil courts had power to interfere with and interdict the + preaching of the gospel and administration of ordinances as + authorized and enjoined by the church; (3) that the civil courts had + power to suspend spiritual censures pronounced by the courts of the + church, and to interdict their execution as to spiritual effects, + functions and privileges; (4) that deposed ministers, and + probationers deprived of their licence, could be restored by the + mandate of the civil courts to the spiritual office and status of + which the church courts had deprived them; (5) that the right of + membership in ecclesiastical courts could be determined by the civil + courts; (6) that the civil courts had power to supersede the majority + of a church court of the Establishment in regard to the exercise of + its spiritual functions as a church court, and to authorize the + minority to exercise the said functions in opposition to the court + itself and to the superior judicatories of the church; (7) that + processes of ecclesiastical discipline could be arrested by the civil + courts; and (8) that without the sanction of the civil courts no + increased provision could be made for the spiritual care of a parish, + although such provision left all civil rights and patrimonial + interests untouched. + + [8] The narrative and argument of this elaborate and able document + cannot be reproduced here. In substance it is a claim "as of right" + on behalf of the church and of the nation and people of Scotland that + the church shall freely possess and enjoy her liberties, government, + discipline, rights and privileges according to law, and that she + shall be protected therein from the foresaid unconstitutional and + illegal encroachments of the said court of session, and her people + secured in their Christian and constitutional rights and liberties. + This claim is followed by the "declaration" that the Assembly cannot + intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations, or carry on the + government of Christ's church subject to the coercion of the court of + session; and by the "protest" that all acts of the parliament of + Great Britain passed without the consent of the Scottish church and + nation, in alteration or derogation of the government, discipline, + rights and privileges of the church, as also all sentences of courts + in contravention of said government, discipline, rights and + privileges, "are and shall be in themselves void and null, and of no + legal force or effect." + + [9] The Scottish members voted with the minority in the proportion of + 25 to 12. + + [10] The number ultimately rose to 474. + + [11] By this formal recognition of the qualifications to the + Confession of Faith made in 1647 the scruples of the majority of the + Associate Synod of Original Seceders were removed, and 27 ministers, + along with a considerable number of their people, joined the Free + Church in the following year. + + [12] See Taylor Innes, _Law of Creeds in Scotland_, p. 258 seq. + + [13] The language of Dr Buchanan, for example, in 1860 was (_mutatis + mutandis_) the same as that which he had employed in 1838 in moving + the Independence resolution already referred to. + + + + +FREEDMEN'S BUREAU (officially the BUREAU OF FREEDMEN, REFUGEES AND +ABANDONED LANDS), a bureau created in the United States war department +by an act of Congress, 3rd of March 1865, to last one year, but +continued until 1872 by later acts passed over the president's veto. Its +establishment was due partly to the fear entertained by the North that +the Southerners if left to deal with the blacks would attempt to +re-establish some form of slavery, partly to the necessity for extending +relief to needy negroes and whites in the lately conquered South, and +partly to the need of creating some commission or bureau to take charge +of lands confiscated in the South. During the Civil War a million +negroes fell into the hands of the Federals and had to be cared for. +Able-bodied blacks were enlisted in the army, and the women, children +and old men were settled in large camps on confiscated Southern +property, where they were cared for alternately by the war department +and by the treasury department until the organization of the Freedmen's +Bureau. At the head of the bureau was a commissioner, General O. O. +Howard, and under him in each Southern state was an assistant +commissioner with a corps of local superintendents, agents and +inspectors. The officials had the broadest possible authority in all +matters that concerned the blacks. The work of the bureau may be +classified as follows: (1) distributing rations and medical supplies +among the blacks; (2) establishing schools for them and aiding +benevolent societies to establish schools and churches; (3) regulating +labour and contracts; (4) taking charge of confiscated lands; and (5) +administering justice in cases in which blacks were concerned. For +several years the ex-slaves were under the almost absolute control of +the bureau. Whether this control had a good or bad effect is still +disputed, the Southern whites and many Northerners holding that the +results of the bureau's work were distinctly bad, while others hold that +much good resulted from its work. There is now no doubt, however, that +while most of the higher officials of the bureau were good men, the +subordinate agents were generally without character or judgment and that +their interference between the races caused permanent discord. Much +necessary relief work was done, but demoralization was also caused by +it, and later the institution was used by its officials as a means of +securing negro votes. In educating the blacks the bureau made some +progress, but the instruction imparted by the missionary teachers +resulted in giving the ex-slaves notions of liberty and racial equality +that led to much trouble, finally resulting in the hostility of the +whites to negro education. The secession of the blacks from the white +churches was aided and encouraged by the bureau. The whole field of +labour and contracts was covered by minute regulations, which, good in +theory, were absurd in practice, and which failed altogether, but not +until labour had been disorganized for several years. The administration +of justice by the bureau agents amounted simply to a ceaseless +persecution of the whites who had dealings with the blacks, and bloody +conflicts sometimes resulted. The law creating the bureau provided for +the division of the confiscated property among the negroes, and though +carried out only in parts of South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, it +caused the negroes to believe that they were to be cared for at the +expense of their former masters. This belief made them subject to +swindling schemes perpetrated by certain bureau agents and others who +promised to secure lands for them. When negro suffrage was imposed by +Congress upon the Southern States, the bureau aided the Union League +(q.v.) in organizing the blacks into a political party opposed to the +whites. A large majority of the bureau officials secured office through +their control of the blacks. The failure of the bureau system and its +discontinuance in the midst of reconstruction without harm to the +blacks, and the intense hostility of the Southern whites to the +institution caused by the irritating conduct of bureau officials, are +indications that the institution was not well conceived nor wisely +administered. + + See P. S. Pierce, _The Freedmen's Bureau_ (Iowa City, 1904); _Report + of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction_ (Washington, 1866); W. L. + Fleming (ed.), _Documents relating to Reconstruction_ (Cleveland, O., + 1906); W. L. Fleming, _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_ (New + York, 1905); and James W. Garner, _Reconstruction in Mississippi_ (New + York, 1901). (W. L. F.) + + + + +FREEHOLD, a town and the county-seat of Monmouth county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., in the township of Freehold, about 25 m. E. by N. of Trenton. +Pop. (1890) 2932; (1900) 2934, of whom 215 were foreign-born and 126 +were negroes; (1905) 3064; (1910) 3233. Freehold is served by the +Pennsylvania and the Central of New Jersey railways. It is the trade +centre of one of the most productive agricultural districts of the state +and has various manufactures, including carriages, carpets and rugs, +files, shirts, underwear, and canned beans and peas. The town is the +seat of two boarding schools for boys: the Freehold Military School and +the New Jersey Military Academy (chartered, 1900; founded in 1844 as the +Freehold Institute). One of the residences in the town dates from 1755. +A settlement was made in the township about 1650, and the township was +incorporated in 1693. In 1715 the town was founded and was made the +county-seat; it was long commonly known (from the county) as Monmouth +Court-House, but afterwards took (from the township) the name Freehold, +and in 1869 it was incorporated as the Town of Freehold. An important +battle of the War of Independence, known as the battle of Monmouth, was +fought near the court-house on the 28th of June 1778. A short distance +N.W. of the court-house is a park in which there is a monument, unveiled +on the 13th of November 1884 in commemoration of the battle; the base is +of Quincy granite and the shaft is of Concord granite. Surmounting the +shaft is a statue representing "Liberty Triumphant" (the height to the +top of which is about 100 ft.). The monument is adorned with five bronze +reliefs, designed and modelled by James E. Kelly (b. 1855); one of these +reliefs represents "Molly Pitcher" (d. 1832), a national heroine, who, +when her husband (John C. Hays), an artillerist, was rendered insensible +during the battle, served the gun in his place and prevented its capture +by the British.[1] Joel Parker (1816-1888), governor of New Jersey in +1863-1866 and 1872-1875, was long a resident of Freehold, and the +erection of the monument was largely due to his efforts. A bronze tablet +on a boulder in front of the present court-house, commemorating the old +court-house, used as a hospital in the battle of Monmouth, was unveiled +in 1907. Freehold was the birthplace and home of Dr Thomas Henderson +(1743-1824), a Whig or Patriot leader in New Jersey, an officer in the +War of Independence, and a member of the Continental Congress in +1779-1780 and of the national House of Representatives in 1795-1797. + +The name Freehold was first used of a Presbyterian church established +about 1692 by Scottish exiles who came to East Jersey in 1682-1685 and +built what was called the "Old Scots' Church" near the present railway +station of Wickatunk in Marlboro' township, Monmouth county. In this +church, in December 1706, John Boyd (d. 1709) was ordained--the first +recorded Presbyterian ordination in America. The church was the first +regularly constituted Presbyterian church. No trace of the building now +remains in the burying-ground where Boyd was interred, and where the +Presbyterian Synod of New Jersey in 1900 raised a granite monument to +his memory; his tombstone is preserved by the Presbyterian Historical +Society in Philadelphia. John Tennent (1706-1732) became pastor of the +Freehold church in 1730, when a new church was built by the Old Scots +congregation on White Hill in the present township of Manalapan (then a +part of Freehold township), near the railway station and village called +Tennent; his brother William (1705-1777), whose trance, in which he +thought he saw the glories of heaven, was a matter of much discussion in +his time, was pastor in 1733-1777. In 1751-1753 the present "Old Tennent +Church," then called the Freehold Church, was erected on (or near) the +same site as the building of 1730; in it Whitefield preached and in the +older building David Brainerd and his Indian converts met. In 1859 this +church (whose corporate name is "The First Presbyterian Church of the +County of Monmouth") adopted the name of Tennent, partly to distinguish +it from the Presbyterian church organized at Monmouth Court-House (now +Freehold) in 1838. + + See Frank R. Symmes, _History of the Old Tennent Church_ (2nd ed., + Cranbury, New Jersey, 1904). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Her maiden name was Mary Ludwig. "Molly Pitcher" was a nickname + given to her by the soldiers in reference to her carrying water to + soldiers overcome by heat in the battle of Monmouth. She married Hays + in 1769; Hays died soon after the war, and later she married one + George McCauley. She lived for more than forty years at Carlisle, + Penn., where a monument was erected to her memory in 1876. + + + + +FREEHOLD, in the English law of real property, an estate in land, not +being less than an estate for life. An estate for a term of years, no +matter how long, was considered inferior in dignity to an estate for +life, and unworthy of a freeman (see ESTATE). "Some time before the +reign of Henry II., but apparently not so early as Domesday, the +expression _liberum tenementum_ was introduced to designate land held by +a freeman by a free tenure. Thus freehold tenure is the sum of the +rights and duties which constitute the relation of a free tenant to his +lord."[1] In this sense freehold is distinguished from copyhold, which +is a tenure having its origin in the relation of lord and villein (see +COPYHOLD). Freehold is also distinguished from leasehold, which is an +estate for a fixed number of years only. By analogy the interest of a +person who holds an office for life is sometimes said to be a freehold +interest. The term _customary freeholds_ is applied to a kind of +copyhold tenure in the north of England, viz. tenure by copy of +court-roll, but not, as in other cases, expressed to be at the will of +the lord. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Digby's _History of the Law of Real Property_. + + + + +FREELAND, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 20 m. +S. of Wilkes-Barre, in the E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 1730; +(1900) 5254 (1339 foreign-born, many being Slavs); (1910) 6197. Freeland +is served by the Lehigh Valley railway and by electric railway to Upper +Lehigh (1 m. distant, served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey) and +to other neighbouring places. The borough is built on Broad Mountain, +nearly 2000 ft. above sea-level, and the chief industry is the mining of +coal at the numerous surrounding collieries. Freeland is the seat of the +Mining and Mechanical Institute of the Anthracite Region, chartered in +1894, modelled after the German _Steigerschulen_, with elementary and +secondary departments and a night school for workmen. The borough has +foundries and machine shops of considerable importance, and manufactures +silk, overalls, beer and hames. Freeland was first settled about 1842, +was laid out in 1870, and was incorporated in 1876. + + + + +FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892), English historian, was born at +Harborne, Staffordshire, on the 2nd of August 1823. He lost both his +parents in infancy, was brought up by a grandmother, and was educated at +private schools and by a private tutor. He was a studious and precocious +boy, more interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics +than in boyish things. He obtained a scholarship at Trinity College, +Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was elected +fellow of his college (1845). While at Oxford he was much influenced by +the High Church movement, and thought seriously of taking orders, but +abandoned the idea. He married a daughter of his former tutor, the Rev. +R. Gutch, in 1847, and entered on a life of study. Ecclesiastical +architecture attracted him strongly. He visited many churches and began +a practice, which he pursued throughout his life, of making drawings of +buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink. His first +book, save for his share in a volume of English verse, was a _History of +Architecture_ (1849). Though he had not then seen any buildings outside +England, it contains a good sketch of the development of the art. It is +full of youthful enthusiasm and is written in florid language. After +some changes of residence he bought a house called Somerleaze, near +Wells, Somerset, and settled there in 1860. + +Freeman's life was one of strenuous literary work. He wrote many books, +and countless articles for reviews, newspapers and other publications, +and was a constant contributor to the _Saturday Review_ until 1878, when +he ceased to write for it for political reasons. His _Saturday Review_ +articles corrected many errors and raised the level of historical +knowledge among the educated classes, but as a reviewer he was apt to +forget that a book may have blemishes and yet be praiseworthy. For some +years he was an active county magistrate. He was deeply interested in +politics, was a follower of Mr Gladstone, and approved the Home Rule +Bill of 1886, but objected to the later proposal to retain the Irish +members at Westminster. To be returned to Parliament was one of his few +ambitions, and in 1868 he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign +rather than domestic politics had the first place with him. Historical +and religious sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was +tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy with the +smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe. He took a prominent +part in the agitation which followed "the Bulgarian atrocities"; his +speeches were intemperate, and he was accused of uttering the words +"Perish India!" at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, was a +misrepresentation of his words. He was made a knight commander of the +order of the Saviour by the king of Greece, and also received an order +from the prince of Montenegro. + +Freeman advanced the study of history in England in two special +directions, by insistence on the unity of history, and by teaching the +importance and right use of original authorities. History is not, he +urges, to be divided "by a middle wall of partition" into ancient and +modern, nor broken into fragments as though the history of each nation +stood apart. It is more than a collection of narratives; it is a +science, "the science of man in his political character." The historical +student, then, cannot afford to be indifferent to any part of the record +of man's political being; but as his abilities for study are limited, he +will, while reckoning all history to be within his range, have his own +special range within which he will master every detail (_Rede Lecture_). +Freeman's range included Greek, Roman and the earlier part of English +history, together with some portions of foreign medieval history, and he +had a scholarly though general knowledge of the rest of the history of +the European world. He regarded the abiding life of Rome as "the central +truth of European history," the bond of its unity, and he undertook his +_History of Sicily_ (1891-1894) partly because it illustrated this +unity. Further, he urges that all historical study is valueless which +does not take in a knowledge of original authorities, and he teaches +both by example and precept what authorities should be thus described, +and how they are to be weighed and used. He did not use manuscript +authorities, and for most of his work he had no need to do so. The +authorities which he needed were already in print, and his books would +not have been better if he had disinterred a few more facts from +unprinted sources. + +His reputation as a historian will chiefly rest on his _History of the +Norman Conquest_ (1867-1876), his longest completed book. In common with +his works generally, it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment +and research, critical ability, a remarkable degree of accuracy, and a +certain insight into the past which he gained from his practical +experience of men and institutions. He is almost exclusively a political +historian. His saying that "history is past politics and politics are +present history" is significant of this limitation of his work, which +left on one side subjects of the deepest interest in a nation's life. In +dealing with constitutional matters he sometimes attaches too much +weight to words and formal aspects. This gives certain of his arguments +an air of pedantry, and seems to lead him to find evidences of +continuity in institutions which in reality and spirit were different +from what they once had been. As a rule his estimates of character are +remarkably able. It is true that he is sometimes swayed by prejudice, +but this is the common lot of great historians; they cannot altogether +avoid sharing in the feelings of the past, for they live in it, and +Freeman did so to an extraordinary degree. Yet if he judges too +favourably the leaders of the national party in England on the eve of +the Norman Conquest, that is a small matter to set against the insight +which he exhibits in writing of Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William the +Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick the Second and many more. In +width of view, thoroughness of investigation and honesty of purpose he +is unsurpassed by any historian. He never conceals nor wilfully +misrepresents anything, and he reckoned no labour too great which might +help him to draw a truthful picture of the past. When a place had any +important connexion with his work he invariably visited it. He travelled +much, always to gain knowledge, and generally to complete his historical +equipment. His collected articles and essays on places of historical +interest are perhaps the most pleasing of his writings, but they deal +exclusively with historical associations and architectural features. The +quantity of work which he turned out is enormous, for the fifteen large +volumes which contain his _Norman Conquest_, his unfinished _History of +Sicily_, his _William Rufus_ (1882), and his _Essays_ (1872-1879), and +the crowd of his smaller books, are matched in amount by his uncollected +contributions to periodicals. In respect of matter his historical work +is uniformly excellent. In respect of form and style the case is +different. Though his sentences themselves are not wordy, he is +extremely diffuse in treatment, habitually repeating an idea in +successive sentences of much the same import. While this habit was +doubtless aggravated by the amount of his journalistic work, it seems +originally to have sprung from what may be called a professorial spirit, +which occasionally appears in the tone of his remarks. He was anxious to +make sure that his readers would understand his exact meaning, and to +guard them against all possible misconceptions. His lengthy explanations +are the more grievous because he insists on the same points in several +of his books. His prolixity was increased by his unwillingness, when +writing without prescribed limits, to leave out any detail, however +unimportant. His passion for details not only swelled his volumes to a +portentous size, but was fatal to artistic construction. The length of +his books has hindered their usefulness. They were written for the +public at large, but few save professed students, who can admire and +value his exhaustiveness, will read the many hundreds of pages which he +devotes to a short period of history. In some of his smaller books, +however, he shows great powers of condensation and arrangement, and +writes tersely enough. His style is correct, lucid and virile, but +generally nothing more, and his endeavour to use as far as possible only +words of Teutonic origin limited his vocabulary and makes his sentences +somewhat monotonous. While Froude often strayed away from his +authorities, Freeman kept his authorities always before his eyes, and +his narrative is here and there little more than a translation of their +words. Accordingly, while it has nothing of Froude's carelessness and +inaccuracy, it has nothing of his charm of style. Yet now and again he +rises to the level of some heroic event, and parts of his chapter on the +"Campaign of Hastings" and of his record of the wars of Syracuse and +Athens, his reflections on the visit of Basil the Second to the church +of the Virgin on the Acropolis, and some other passages in his books, +are fine pieces of eloquent writing. + +The high quality of Freeman's work was acknowledged by all competent +judges. He was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Cambridge _honoris +causa_, and when he visited the United States on a lecturing tour was +warmly received at various places of learning. He served on the royal +commission on ecclesiastical courts appointed in 1881. In 1884 he was +appointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford. His lectures +were thinly attended, for he did not care to adapt them to the +requirements of the university examinations, and he was not perhaps well +fitted to teach young men. But he exercised a wholesome influence over +the more earnest students of history among the resident graduates. From +1886 he was forced by ill-health to spend much of his time abroad, and +he died of smallpox at Alicante on the 16th of March 1892, while on a +tour in Spain. Freeman had a strongly marked personality. Though +impatient in temper and occasionally rude, he was tender-hearted and +generous. His rudeness to strangers was partly caused by shyness and +partly by a childlike inability to conceal his feelings. Eminently +truthful, he could not understand that some verbal insincerities are +necessary to social life. He had a peculiar faculty for friendship, and +his friends always found him sympathetic and affectionate. In their +society he would talk well and showed a keen sense of humour. He +considered it his duty to expose careless and ignorant writers, and +certainly enjoyed doing so. He worked hard and methodically, often had +several pieces of work in hand, and kept a daily record of the time +which he devoted to each of them. His tastes were curiously limited. No +art interested him except architecture, which he studied throughout his +life; and he cared little for literature which was not either historical +or political. In later life he ceased to hold the theological opinions +of his youth, but remained a devout churchman. + + See W. R. W. Stephens, _Life and Letters of E. A. Freeman_ (London, + 1895); Frederic Harrison, _Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill and other Literary + Estimates_ (London, 1899); James Bryce, "E. A. Freeman," _Eng. Hist. + Rev._, July 1892. (W. Hu.) + + + + +FREEMAN, primarily one who is free, as opposed to a slave or serf (see +FEUDALISM; SLAVERY). The term is more specifically applied to one who +possesses the freedom of a city, borough or company. Before the passing +of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, each English borough admitted +freemen according to its own peculiar custom and by-laws. The rights and +privileges of a freeman, though varying in different boroughs, generally +included the right to vote at a parliamentary election of the borough, +and exemption from all tolls and dues. The act of 1835 respected +existing usages, and every person who was then an admitted freeman +remained one, retaining at the same time all his former rights and +privileges. The admission of freemen is now regulated by the Municipal +Corporations Act 1882. By section 201 of that act the term "freeman" +includes any person of the class whose rights and interests were +reserved by the act of 1835 under the name either of freemen or of +burgesses. By section 202 no person can be admitted a freeman by gift or +by purchase; that is, only birth, servitude or marriage are +qualifications. The Honorary Freedom of Boroughs Act 1885, however, +makes an exception, as by that act the council of every borough may from +time to time admit persons of distinction to be honorary freemen of the +borough. The town clerk of every borough keeps a list, which is called +"the freeman's roll," and when any person claims to be admitted a +freeman in respect of birth, servitude or marriage, the mayor examines +the claim, and if it is established the claimant's name is enrolled by +the town clerk. + +A person may become a freeman or freewoman of one of the London livery +companies by (1) apprenticeship or servitude; (2) patrimony; (3) +redemption; (4) gift. This last is purely honorary. The most usual form +of acquiring freedom was by serving apprenticeship to a freeman, free +both of a company and of the city of London. By an act of common council +of 1836 apprenticeship was permitted to freemen of the city who had not +taken up the freedom of a company. By an act of common council of 1889 +the term of service was reduced from seven years to four years. Freedom +by patrimony is always granted to children of a person who has been duly +admitted to the freedom. Freedom by redemption or purchase requires the +payment of certain entrance fees, which vary with the standing of the +company. In the Grocers' Company freedom by redemption does not exist, +and in such companies as still have a trade, e.g. the Apothecaries and +Stationers, it is limited to members of the trade. + + See W. C. Hazlitt, _The Livery Companies of the City of London_ + (1892). + + + + +FREEMASONRY. According to an old "Charge" delivered to initiates, +Freemasonry is declared to be an "ancient and honourable institution: +ancient no doubt it is, as having subsisted from time immemorial; and +honourable it must be acknowledged to be, as by a natural tendency it +conduces to make those so who are obedient to its precepts ... to so +high an eminence has its credit been advanced that in every age Monarchs +themselves have been promoters of the art, have not thought it +derogatory from their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the trowel, +have patronised our mysteries and joined in our Assemblies." For many +years the craft has been conducted without respect to clime, colour, +caste or creed. + +_History._--The precise origin of the society has yet to be ascertained, +but is not likely to be, as the early records are lost; there is, +however, ample evidence remaining to justify the claim for its antiquity +and its honourable character. Much has been written as to its eventful +past, based upon actual records, but still more which has served only to +amuse or repel inquirers, and led not a few to believe that the +fraternity has no trustworthy history. An unfavourable opinion of the +historians of the craft generally may fairly have been held during the +18th and early in the 19th centuries, but happily since the middle of +the latter century quite a different principle has animated those +brethren who have sought to make the facts of masonic history known to +the brotherhood, as well as worth the study of students in general. The +idea that it would require an investigator to be a member of the "mystic +tie" in order to qualify as a reader of masonic history has been +exploded. The evidences collected concerning the institution during the +last five hundred years, or more, may now be examined and tested in the +most severe manner by literary and critical experts (whether opposed or +favourable to the body), who cannot fail to accept the claims made as +to its great antiquity and continuity, as the lineal descendant of those +craftsmen who raised the cathedrals and other great English buildings +during the middle ages. + + It is only needful to refer to the old works on freemasonry, and to + compare them with the accepted histories of the present time, to be + assured that such strictures as above are more than justified. The + premier work on the subject was published in London in 1723, the Rev. + James Anderson being the author of the historical portion, + introductory to the first "Book of Constitutions" of the original + Grand Lodge of England. Dr Anderson gravely states that "Grand Master + Moses often marshalled the Israelites into a regular and general + lodge, whilst in the wilderness.... King Solomon was Grand Master of + the lodge at Jerusalem.[1]... Nebuchadnezzar became the Grand Master + Mason," &c., devoting many more pages to similar absurdities, but + dismisses the important modern innovation (1716-1717) of a Grand Lodge + with a few lines noteworthy for their brief and indefinite character. + + In 1738 a second edition was issued, dedicated to the prince of Wales + ("a Master Mason and master of a lodge"), and was the work of the same + brother (as respects the historical part), the additions being mainly + on the same lines as the former volume, only, if possible, still more + ridiculous and extravagant; e.g. Cyrus constituted Jerubbabel + "provincial grand master in Judah"; Charles Martel was "the Right + Worshipful Grand Master of France, and Edward I. being deeply engaged + in wars left the craft to the care of several successive grand + masters" (duly enumerated). Such loose statements may now pass + unheeded, but unfortunately they do not exhaust the objections to Dr + Anderson's method of writing history. The excerpt concerning St Alban + (apparently made from Coles's _Ancient Constitutions_, 1728-1729) has + the unwarranted additional title of Grand Master conferred on that + saint, and the extract concerning King Æthelstan and Prince Edwin from + the "Old MS. Charges" (given in the first edition) contains still more + unauthorized modern terms, with the year added of 926; thus misleading + most seriously those who accept the volume as trustworthy, because + written by the accredited historian of the Grand Lodge, Junior Grand + Warden in 1723. These examples hardly increase our confidence in the + author's accuracy when Dr Anderson comes to treat of the origin of the + premier Grand Lodge; but he is our only informant as to that important + event, and if his version of the occurrence is declined, we are + absolutely without any information. + +In considering the early history of Freemasonry, from a purely +matter-of-fact standpoint, it will be well to settle as a necessary +preliminary what the term did and does now include or mean, and how far +back the inquiry should be conducted, as well as on what lines. If the +view of the subject herein taken be correct, it will be useless to load +the investigation by devoting considerable space to a consideration of +the laws and customs of still older societies which may have been +utilized and imitated by the fraternity, but which in no sense can be +accepted as the actual forbears of the present society of Free and +Accepted Masons. They were predecessors, or possibly prototypes, but not +near relatives or progenitors of the Freemasons.[2] + +The Mother Grand Lodge of the world is that of England, which was +inaugurated in the metropolis on St John Baptist's day 1717 by four or +more old lodges, three of which still flourish. There were other lodges +also in London and the country at the time, but whether they were +invited to the meeting is not now known. Probably not, as existing +records of the period preserve a sphinx-like silence thereon. Likewise +there were many scores of lodges at work in Scotland, and undoubtedly in +Ireland the craft was widely patronized. Whatever the ceremonies may +have been which were then known as Freemasonry in Great Britain and +Ireland, they were practically alike, and the venerable _Old Charges_ or +MS. constitutions, dating back several centuries, were rightly held by +them as the title-deeds of their masonic inheritance. + +It was a bold thing to do, thus to start a governing body for the +fraternity quite different in many respects to all preceding +organizations, and to brand as irregular all lodges which declined to +accept such authority; but the very originality and audacity of its +promoters appears to have led to its success, and it was not long before +most of the lodges of the pre-Grand-Lodge era joined and accepted +"constitution" by warrant of the Grand Master. Not only so, but Ireland +quickly followed the lead, so early as 1725 there being a Grand Lodge +for that country which must have been formed even still earlier, and +probably by lodges started before any were authorized in the English +counties. In Scotland the change was not made until 1736, many lodges +even then holding aloof from such an organization. Indeed, out of some +hundred lodges known to have been active then, only thirty-three +responded and agreed to fall into line, though several joined later; +some, however, kept separate down to the end of the 19th century, while +others never united. Many of these lodges have records of the 17th +century though not then newly formed; one in particular, the oldest (the +Lodge of Edinburgh, No. 1), possesses minutes so far back as the year +1599. + +It is important to bear in mind that all the regular lodges throughout +the world, and likewise all the Grand Lodges, directly or indirectly, +have sprung from one or other of the three governing bodies named; +Ireland and Scotland following the example set by their masonic mother +of England in having Grand Lodges of their own. It is not proved how the +latter two became acquainted with Freemasonry as a secret society, +guided more or less by the operative MS. _Constitutions_ or _Charges_ +common to the three bodies, not met with elsewhere; but the credit of a +Grand Lodge being established to control the lodges belongs to England. + +It may be a startling declaration, but it is well authenticated, that +there is no other Freemasonry, as the term is now understood, than what +which has been so derived. In other words, the lodges and Grand Lodges +in both hemispheres trace their origin and authority back to England for +working what are known as the Three Degrees, controlled by regular Grand +Lodges. That being so, a history of modern Freemasonry, the direct +offspring of the British parents aforesaid, should first of all +establish the descent of the three Grand Lodges from the Freemasonry of +earlier days; such continuity, of five centuries or more, being a _sine +qua non_ of antiquity and regularity. + +It will be found that from the early part of the 18th century back to +the 16th century existing records testify to the assemblies of lodges, +mainly operative, but partly speculative, in Great Britain, whose +guiding stars and common heritage were the _Old Charges_, and that when +their actual minutes and transactions cease to be traced by reason of +their loss, these same MS. _Constitutions_ furnish testimony of the +still older working of such combinations of freemasons or masons, +without the assistance, countenance or authority of any other masonic +body; consequently such documents still preserved, of the 14th and later +centuries (numbering about seventy, mostly in form of rolls), with the +existing lodge minutes referred to of the 16th century, down to the +establishment of the premier Grand Lodge in 1717, prove the continuity +of the society. Indeed so universally has this claim been admitted, that +in popular usage the term Freemason is only now applied to those who +belong to this particular fraternity, that of _mason_ being applicable +to one who follows that trade, or honourable calling, as a builder. + +There is no evidence that during this long period any other organization +of any kind, religious, philosophical, mystical or otherwise, materially +or even slightly influenced the customs of the fraternity, though they +may have done so; but so far as is known the lodges were of much the +same character throughout, and consisted really of operatives (who +enjoyed practically a monopoly for some time of the trade as masons or +freemasons), and, in part, of "speculatives," i.e. noblemen, gentlemen +and men of other trades, who were admitted as honorary members. + +Assuming then that the freemasons of the present day are the sole +inheritors of the system arranged at the so-called "Revival of 1717," +which was a development from an operative body to one partly +speculative, and that, so far back as the MS. Records extend and furnish +any light, they must have worked in Lodges in secret throughout the +period noted, a history of Freemasonry should be mainly devoted to +giving particulars, as far as possible, of the lodges, their traditions, +customs and laws, based upon actual documents which can be tested and +verified by members and non-members alike. + +It has been the rule to treat, more or less fully, of the influence +exerted on the fraternity by the Ancient Mysteries, the Essenes, Roman +Colleges, Culdees, Hermeticism, Fehm-Gerichte _et hoc genus omne_, +especially the _Steinmetzen_, the Craft Gilds and the Companionage of +France, &c.; but in view of the separate and independent character of +the freemasons, it appears to be quite unnecessary, and the time so +employed would be better devoted to a more thorough search after +additional evidences of the activity of the craft, especially during the +crucial period overlapping the second decade of the 18th century, so as +to discover information as to the transmitted secrets of the medieval +masons, which, after all, may simply have been what Gaspard Monge +felicitously entitles "Descriptive Geometry, or the Art and Science of +Masonic Symbolism." + +The rules and regulations of the masons were embodied in what are known +as the _Old Charges_; the senior known copy being the _Regius MS._ +(British Museum Bibl. Reg. 17 A, i.), which, however, is not so +exclusively devoted to masonry as the later copies. David Casley, in his +catalogue of the MSS. in the King's Library (1734), unfortunately styled +the little gem _A Poem of Moral Duties_; and owing to this +misdescription its true character was not recognized until the year +1839, and then by a non-mason (Mr Halliwell-Phillipps), who had it +reproduced in 1840 and brought out an improved edition in 1844. Its date +has been approximately fixed at 1390 by Casley and other authorities. + +The curious legend of the craft, therein made known, deals first of all +with the number of unemployed in early days and the necessity of finding +work, "that they myght gete here lyvynge therby." Euclid was consulted, +and recommended the "onest craft of good masonry," and the genesis of +the society is found "yn Egypte lande." By a rapid transition, but "mony +erys afterwarde," we are told that the "Craft com ynto England yn tyme +of good kynge Adelstonus (Æthelstan) day," who called an assembly of the +masons, when fifteen articles and as many more points were agreed to for +the government of the craft, each being duly described. Each brother was +instructed that-- + + "He must love wel God, and holy Churche algate + And hys mayster also, that he ys wythe." + + "The thrydde poynt must be severle. + With the prentes knowe hyt wele, + Hys mayster cownsel he kepe and close, + And hys felows by hys goode purpose; + The prevetyse of the chamber telle he no mon, + Ny yn the logge whatsever they done, + Whatsever thou heryst, or syste hem do, + Telle hyt no mon, whersever thou go." + +The rules generally, besides referring to trade regulations, are as a +whole suggestive of the Ten Commandments in an extended form, winding up +with the legend of the _Ars quatuor coronatorum_, as an incentive to a +faithful discharge of the numerous obligations. A second part introduces +a more lengthy account of the origin of masonry, in which Noah's flood +and the Tower of Babylon are mentioned as well as the great skill of +Euclid, who-- + + "Through hye grace of Crist yn heven, + He commensed yn the syens seven"; + +The "seven sciences" are duly named and explained. The compiler +apparently was a priest, line 629 reading "And, when ye gospel _me rede +schal_," thus also accounting for the many religious injunctions in the +MS.; the last hundred lines are evidently based upon _Urbanitatis_ +(Cott. MS. Caligula A 11, fol. 88) and _Instructions for a Parish +Priest_ (Cott. MS. Claudius A 11, fol. 27), instructions such as lads +and even men would need who were ignorant of the customs of polite +society, correct deportment at church and in the presence of their +social superiors. + +The recital of the legend of the _Quatuor Coronati_ has been held by +Herr Findel in his _History of Freemasonry_ (_Allgemeine Geschichte der +Freimaurerei_, 1862; English editions, 1866-1869) to prove that British +Freemasonry was derived from Germany, but without any justification, +the legend being met with in England centuries prior to the date of the +_Regius MS._, and long prior to its incorporation in masonic legends on +the Continent. + +The next MS., in order, is known as the "Cooke" (Ad. MS. 23,198, British +Museum), because Matthew Cooke published a fair reproduction of the +document in 1861; and it is deemed by competent paleographers to date +from the first part of the 15th century. There are two versions of the +_Old Charges_ in this little book, purchased for the British Museum in +1859. The compiler was probably a mason and familiar with several copies +of these MS. _Constitutions_, two of which he utilizes and comments +upon; he quotes from a MS. copy of the _Policronicon_ the manner in +which a written account of the sciences was preserved in the two +historic stones at the time of the Flood, and generally makes known the +traditions of the society as well as the laws which were to govern the +members. + +Its introduction into England through Egypt is noted (where the Children +of Israel "lernyd ye craft of Masonry"), also the "lande of behest" +(Jerusalem) and the Temple of Solomon (who "confirmed ye chargys yt +David his Fadir" had made). Then masonry in France is interestingly +described; and St Alban and "Æthelstane with his yongest sone" (the +Edwin of the later MSS.) became the chosen mediums subsequently, as with +the other _Charges_, portions of the Old Testament are often cited in +order to convey a correct idea to the neophyte, who is to hear the +document read, as to these sciences which are declared to be free in +themselves (_fre in hem selfe_). Of all crafts followed by man in this +world "Masonry hathe the moste notabilite," as confirmed by "Elders that +were bi for us of masons [who] had these chargys wryten," and "as is +write and taught in ye boke of our charges." + +Until quite recently no representative or survival of this particular +version had been traced, but in 1890 one was discovered of 1687 (since +known as the _William Watson MS._). Of some seventy copies of these old +scrolls which have been unearthed, by far the greater proportion have +been made public since 1860. They have all much in common, though often +curious differences are to be detected; are of English origin, no matter +where used; and when complete, as they mostly are, whether of the 16th +or subsequent centuries, are noteworthy for an invocation or prayer +which begins the recital:-- + + "The mighte of the ffather of heaven + And the wysedome of the glorious Sonne + through the grace and the goodnes of the holly + ghoste yt been three p'sons and one God + be with us at or beginning and give us grace + so to gou'ne us here in or lyving that wee maye + come to his blisse that nevr shall have ending.--Amen." + + (_Grand Lodge MS. No. 1_, A.D. 1583.) + +They are chiefly of the 17th century and nearly all located in England; +particulars may be found in Hughan's _Old Charges of the British +Freemasons_ (1872, 1895 and supplement 1906).[3] The chief scrolls, with +some others, have been reproduced in facsimile in six volumes of the +_Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha_; and the collection in Yorkshire has +been published separately, either in the _West Yorkshire Reprints_ or +the _Ancient York Masonic Rolls_. Several have been transcribed and +issued in other works. + +These scrolls give considerable information as to the traditions and +customs of the craft, together with the regulations for its government, +and were required to be read to apprentices long after the peculiar +rules ceased to be acted upon, each lodge apparently having one or more +copies kept for the purpose. The old Lodge of Aberdeen ordered in 1670 +that the Charge was to be "read at ye entering of everie entered +prenteise"; another at Alnwick in 1701 provided-- + + "Noe Mason shall take any apprentice [but he must] + Enter him and give him his Charge, within one whole year after"; + +and still another at Swallwell (now No. 48 Gateshead) demanded that +"the Apprentices shall have their Charge given at the time of +Registering, or within thirty days after"; the minutes inserting such +entries accordingly even so late as 1754, nearly twenty years after the +lodge had cast in its lot with the Grand Lodge of England. + +Their Christian character is further emphasized by the "First Charge +that you shall be true men to God and the holy Church"; the _York MS. +No. 6_ beseeches the brethren "at every meeting and assembly they pray +heartily for all Christians"; the _Melrose MS. No. 2_ (1674) mentions +"Merchants and all other Christian men," and the _Aberdeen MS._ (1670) +terms the invocation "A Prayer before the Meeting." Until the Grand +Lodge era, Freemasonry was thus wholly Christian. The _York MS. No. 4_ +of 1693 contains a singular error in the admonitory lines:-- + + "The [n] one of the elders takeing the Booke and that + hee or shee that is to be made mason, shall lay their + hands thereon and the charge shall be given." + +This particular reading was cited by Hughan in 1871, but was considered +doubtful; Findel,[4] however, confirmed it, on his visit to York under +the guidance of the celebrated masonic student the late Rev. A. F. A. +Woodford. The mistake was due possibly to the transcriber, who had an +older roll before him, confusing "they," sometimes written "the," with +"she," or reading that portion, which is often in Latin, as _ille vel +illa_, instead of _ille vel illi_. + +In some of the _Codices_, about the middle of the 17th century and +later, New Articles are inserted, such as would be suitable for an +organization similar to the Masons' Company of London, which had one, at +least, of the _Old Charges_ in its possession according to inventories +of 1665 and 1676; and likewise in 1722, termed _The Book of the +Constitutions of the Accepted Masons_. Save its mention ("Book wrote on +parchment") by Sir Francis Palgrave in the _Edinburgh Review_ (April +1839) as being in existence "not long since," this valuable document has +been lost sight of for many years. + +That there were signs and other secrets preserved and used by the +brethren throughout this mainly operative period may be gathered from +discreet references in these old MSS. The _Institutions in parchment_ +(22nd of November 1696) of the Dumfries Kilwinning Lodge (No. 53, +Scotland) contain a copy of the oath taken "when any man should be +made":-- + + "These Charges which we now reherse to you and all others ye secrets + and misterys belonging to free masons you shall faithfully and truly + keep, together with ye Counsell of ye assembly or lodge, or any other + lodge, or brother, or fellow." + +"Then after ye oath taken and the book kissed" (i.e. the Bible) the +"precepts" are read, the first being:-- + + "You shall be true men to God and his holy Church, and that you do not + countenance or maintaine any eror, faction, schism or herisey, in ye + church to ye best of your understanding." (_History of No. 53_, by + James Smith.) + +The _Grand Lodge MS. No. 2_ provides that "You shall keepe secret ye +obscure and intricate pts. of ye science, not disclosinge them to any +but such as study and use ye same." + +The _Harleian MS. No. 2054_ (Brit. Mus.) is still more explicit, termed +_The ffree Masons Orders and Constitutions_, and is in the handwriting +of Randle Holme (author of the _Academie of Armory_, 1688), who was a +member of a lodge in Cheshire. Following the MS. _Constitutions_, in the +same handwriting, about 1650, is a scrap of paper with the obligation:-- + + "There is sevrall words and signes of a free Mason to be revailed to + yu wch as yu will answr. before God at the Great and terrible day of + judgmt. yu keep secret and not to revaile the same to any in the + heares of any p'son, but to the Mrs and fellows of the Society of Free + Masons, so helpe me God, &c." (W. H. Rylands, _Mas. Mag._, 1882.) + +It is not yet settled who were the actual designers or architects of the +grand old English cathedrals. Credit has been claimed for church +dignitaries, to the exclusion more or less of the master masons, to whom +presumably of right the distinction belonged. In early days the title +"architect" is not met with, unless the term "Ingenator" had that +meaning, which is doubtful. As to this interesting question, and as to +the subject of building generally, an historical account of Master and +Free Masons (_Discourses upon Architecture in England_, by the Rev. +James Dallaway, 1833), and _Notes on the Superintendents of English +Buildings in the Middle Ages_ (by Wyatt Papworth, 1887), should be +consulted. Both writers were non-masons. The former observes: "The +honour due to the original founders of these edifices is almost +invariably transferred to the ecclesiastics under whose patronage they +rose, rather than to the skill and design of the master mason, or +professional architect, because the only historians were monks.... They +were probably not so well versed in geometrical science as the master +masons, for mathematics formed a part of monastic learning in a very +limited degree." In the _Journal of Proceedings R.I.B.A._ vol. iv. +(1887), a skilful critic (W. H. White) declares that Papworth, in that +valuable collection of facts, has contrived to annihilate all the +professional idols of the century, setting up in their place nothing +except the master mason. The brotherhood of Bridge-builders,[5] that +travelled far and wide to build bridges, and the travelling bodies of +Freemasons,[6] he believes never existed; nor was William of Wykeham the +designer of the colleges attributed to him. It seems well-nigh +impossible to disprove the statements made by Papworth, because they are +all so well grounded on attested facts; and the attempt to connect the +Abbey of Cluny, or men trained at Cluny, with the original or +preliminary designs of the great buildings erected during the middle +ages, at least during the 12th and 13th centuries, is also a failure. +The whole question is ably and fully treated in the _History of +Freemasonry_ by Robert Freke Gould (1886-1887), particularly in chapter +vi. on "Medieval Operative Masonry," and in his _Concise History_ +(1903). + +The lodge is often met with, either as the _tabulatum domicialem_ (1200, +at St Alban's Abbey) or actually so named in the _Fabric Rolls_ of York +Minster (1370), _ye loge_ being situated close to the fane in course of +erection; it was used as a place in which the stones were prepared in +private for the structure, as well as occupied at meal-time, &c. Each +mason was required to "swere upon ye boke yt he sall trewly ande bysyli +at his power hold and kepe holy all ye poyntes of yis forsayde +ordinance" (_Ordinacio Cementanorum_). + +As to the term _free_-mason, from the 14th century, it is held by some +authorities that it described simply those men who worked "freestone," +but there is abundant evidence to prove that, whatever may have been +intended at first, _free_-mason soon had a much wider signification, the +prefix _free_ being also employed by carpenters (1666), sewers (15th +century, tailors at Exeter) and others, presumably to indicate they were +free to follow their trades in certain localities. On this point Mr +Gould well observes: "The class of persons from whom the Freemasons of +Warrington (1646), Staffordshire (1686), Chester, York, London and their +congeners in the 17th century derived the descriptive title, which +became the inheritance of the Grand Lodge of England, were _free men_, +and masons of Gilds or Companies" (_History_, vol. ii. p. 160). Dr +Brentano may also be cited: "Wherever the Craft Guilds were legally +acknowledged, we find foremost, that the right to exercise their craft, +and sell their manufactures, depended upon the freedom of their city" +(_Development of Guilds_, &c., p. 65). In like manner, the privilege of +working as a mason was not conferred before candidates had been "made +free." The regular free-masons would not work with men, even if they had +a knowledge of their trade, "if _un_free," but styled them "Cowans," a +course justified by the king's "Maister of Work," William Schaw, whose +_Statutis and Ordinanceis_ (28th December 1598) required that "Na +maister or fellow of craft ressaue any _cowanis_ to wirk in his societie +or companye, nor send nane of his servants to wirk wt. cowanis, under +the pane of twentie pounds." Gradually, however, the rule was relaxed, +in time such monopoly practically ceased, and the word "cowan" is only +known in connexion with speculative Freemasonry. Sir Walter Scott, as a +member of Lodge St David (No. 36), was familiar with the word and used +it in _Rob Roy_. In 1707 a cowan was described in the minutes of Mother +Lodge Kilwinning, as a mason "without the word," thus one who was not a +_free_ mason (_History of the Lodge of Edinburgh No. 1_, by D. Murray +Lyon, 1900). + +In the _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford, vol. iv., 1897) under +"Freemason" it is noted that three views have been propounded:--(1) "The +suggestion that _free-mason_ stands for free-stone-mason would appear +unworthy of attention, but for the curious fact that the earliest known +instances of any similar appellation are _mestre mason de franche peer_ +(Act 25 Edw. III., 1350), and _sculptores lapidum liberorum_, alleged to +occur in a document of 1217; the coincidence, however, seems to be +merely accidental. (2) The view most generally held is that freemasons +were those who were free of the masons' guild. Against this explanation +many forcible objections have been brought by Mr G. W. Speth, who +suggests (3) that the itinerant masons were called free because they +claimed exemption from the control of the local guilds of the towns in +which they temporarily settled. (4) Perhaps the best hypothesis is that +the term refers to the medieval practice of emancipating skilled +artisans, in order that they might be able to travel and render their +services wherever any great building was in process of construction." +The late secretary of the Quatuor Coronati Lodge (No. 2076, London) has +thus had his view sanctioned by "the highest tribunal in the Republic of +Letters so far as Philology is concerned" (Dr W. J. Chetwode Crawley in +_Ars Quatuor Coronatorum_, 1898). Still it cannot be denied that members +of lodges in the 16th and following centuries exercised the privilege of +making _free_ masons and denied the freedom of working to cowans (also +called _un_-freemen) who had not been so made free; "the Masownys of the +luge" being the only ones recognized as _free_masons. As to the prefix +being derived from the word _frere_, a sufficient answer is the fact +that frequent reference is made to "Brother _free_masons," so that no +ground for that supposition exists (cf. articles by Mr Gould in the +_Freemason_ for September 1898 on "Free and Freemasonry"). + +There are numerous indications of masonic activity in the British lodges +of the 17th century, especially in Scotland; the existing records, +however, of the southern part of the United Kingdom, though few, are of +importance, some only having been made known in recent years. These +concern the Masons' Company of London, whose valuable minutes and other +documents are ably described and commented upon by Edward Conder, jr., +in his _Hole Crafte and Fellowship of Masons_ (1894), the author then +being the Master of that ancient company. It was incorporated in 1677 by +Charles II., who graciously met the wishes of the members, but as a +company the information "that is to be found in the Corporation Records +at Guildhall proves very clearly that in 1376 the Masons' Company +existed and was represented in the court of common council." The title +then favoured was "Masons," the entry of the term "Freemasons" being +crossed out. Herbert erroneously overlooked the correction, and stated +in his _History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies_ (vol. i.) that the +Freemasons returned two, and the Masons four members, but subsequently +amalgamated; whereas the revised entry was for the "Masons" only. The +Company obtained a grant of arms in 1472 (12th year Hen. VIII.), one of +the first of the kind, being thus described:--"A feld of Sablys A +Cheveron silver grailed thre Castellis of the same garnysshed wt. dores +and wyndows of the feld in the Cheveron or Cumpas of Black of Blak"; it +is the authority (if any) for all later armorial bearings having a +chevron and castles, assumed by other masonic organizations. This +precious document was only discovered in 1871, having been missing for a +long time, thus doubtless accounting for the erroneous representations +met with, not having the correct blazon to follow. The oldest masonic +motto known is "God is our Guide" on Kerwin's tomb in St Helen's church, +Bishopgate, of 1594; that of "In the Lord is all our trust" not being +traced until the next century. Supporters consisting of two doric +columns are mentioned in 1688 by Randle Holme, but the Grand Lodge of +England in the following century used Beavers as operative builders. Its +first motto was "In the beginning was the Word" (in Greek), exchanged a +few years onward for "Relief and Truth," the rival Grand Lodge (Atholl +Masons) selecting "Holiness to the Lord" (in Hebrew), and the final +selection at the "Union of December 1813" being _Audi Vide Tace_. + +Mr Conder's discovery of a lodge of "Accepted Masons" being held under +the wing of the Company was a great surprise, dating as the records do +from 1620 to 1621 (the earliest of the kind yet traced in England), when +seven were made masons, all of whom were free of the Company _before_, +three being of the Livery; the entry commencing "Att the making masons." +The meetings were entitled the "Acception," and the members of the lodge +were called _Accepted_ Masons, being those so _accepted_ and initiated, +the term never otherwise being met with in the Records. An additional +fee had to be paid by a member of the Company to join the "Acception," +and any not belonging thereto were mulct in twice the sum; though even +then such "acceptance" did not qualify for membership of the superior +body; the fees for the "Acception" being £1 and £2 respectively. In +1638-1639, when Nicholas Stone entered the lodge (he was Master of the +Company 1632-1633) the banquet cost a considerable sum, showing that the +number of brethren present must have been large. + +Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was "made a Free Mason of +Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," seven brethern being named as +in attendance at the lodge, 16th of October 1646) states that he +"received a summons to appear at a Lodge to be held next day at Masons' +Hall, London." Accordingly on the 11th of March 1682 he attended and saw +six gentlemen "admitted into the Fellowship of Free Masons," of whom +three only belonged to the Company; the Master, however, Mr Thomas Wise, +the two wardens and six others being present on the occasion as members +in their _dual_ capacity. Ashmole adds: "We all dyned at the Halfe Moone +Tavern in Cheapside at a noble dinner prepaired at the charge of the +new-accepted Masons." + +It is almost certain that there was not an operative mason present at +the Lodge held in 1646, and at the one which met in 1682 there was a +strong representation of the speculative branch. Before the year 1654 +the Company was known as that of the Freemasons for some time, but after +then the old title of Masons was reverted to, the terms "Acception" and +"Accepted" belonging to the speculative Lodge, which, however, in all +probability either became independent or ceased to work soon after 1682. +It is very interesting to note that subsequently (but never before) the +longer designation is met with of "Free and Accepted Masons," and is +thus a combination of operative and speculative usage. + +Mr Conder is of opinion that in the Records "there is no evidence of any +particular ceremony attending the position of Master Mason, possibly it +consisted of administering a different oath from the one taken by the +apprentices on being entered." There is much to favour this supposition, +and it may provide the key to the _vexata quaestio_ as to the plurality +of degrees prior to the Grand Lodge era. The fellow-crafts were +recruited from those apprentices who had served their time and had their +essay (or sufficient trial of their skill) duly passed; they and the +Masters, by the _Schaw Statutes_ of 1598, being only admitted in the +presence of "sex Maisteris and _twa enterit prenteissis_." As a rule a +master mason meant one who was master of his trade, i.e. duly qualified; +but it sometimes described employers as distinct from journeymen +Freemasons; being also a compliment conferred on honorary members +during the 17th century in particular. + +In Dr Plot's _History of Staffordshire_ (1686) is a remarkable account +of the "Society of Freemasons," which, being by an unfriendly critic, is +all the more valuable. He states that the custom had spread "more or +less all over the nation"; persons of the most eminent quality did not +disdain to enter the Fellowship; they had "a large _parchment volum_ +containing the History and Rules of the Craft of Masonry"; St Amphibal, +St Alban, King Athelstan and Edwin are mentioned, and these "charges and +manners" were "after perusal approved by King Hen. 6 and his council, +both as to Masters and Fellows of this right Worshipfull craft." It is +but fair to add that notwithstanding the service he rendered the Society +by his lengthy description, that credulous historian remarks of its +history that there is nothing he ever "met with more false or +incoherent." + +The author of the _Academie of Armory_, previously noted, knew better +what he was writing about in that work of 1688 in which he declares: "I +cannot but Honor the Fellowship of the Masons because of its Antiquity; +and the more, _as being a member of that Society, called Free Masons_" +Mr Rylands states that in _Harl. MS. 5955_ is a collection of the +engraved plates for a second volume of this important work, one being +devoted to the Arms of the Society, the columns, as supporters, having +globes thereon, from which possibly are derived the two pillars, with +such ornaments or additions seen in lodge rooms at a later period. + +In the same year "A Tripos or Speech delivered at a commencement in the +University of Dublin held there July 11, 1688, by John Jones, then A.B., +afterwards D.D.," contained "notable evidence concerning Freemasonry in +Dublin." The Tripos was included in Sir Walter Scott's edition of Dean +Swift's works (1814), but as Dr Chetwode Crawley points out, though +noticed by the Rev. Dr George Oliver (the voluminous Masonic author), he +failed to realize its historical importance. The satirical and withal +amusing speech was partly translated from the Latin by Dr Crawley for +his scholarly introduction to the _Masonic Reprints_, &c., by Henry +Sadler. "The point seems to be that Ridley (reputed to have been an +informer against priests under the barbarous penal laws) was, or ought +to have been, hanged; that his carcase, anatomized and stuffed, stood in +the library; and that _frath scoundrellus_ discovered on his remains the +Freemasons' Mark." The importance of the references to the craft in +Ireland is simply owing to the year in which they were made, as +illustrative of the influence of the Society at that time, of which +records are lacking. + +It is primarily to Scotland, however, that we have to look for such +numerous particulars of the activity of the fraternity from 1599 to the +establishment of its Grand Lodge in 1736, for an excellent account of +which we are indebted to Lyon, the Scottish masonic historian. As early +as 1600 (8th of June) the attendance of John Boswell, Esq., the laird of +Auchinleck, is entered in the minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh; he +attested the record and added his mark, as did the other members; so it +was not his first appearance. Many noblemen and other gentlemen joined +this ancient _atelier_, notably Lord Alexander, Sir Anthony Alexander +and Sir Alexander Strachan in 1634, the king's Master of Work (Herrie +Alexander) in 1638, General Alexander Hamilton in 1640, Dr Hamilton in +1647, and many other prominent and distinguished men later; "James +Neilsone, Master Sklaitter to His Majestie," who was "entered and past +in the Lodge of Linlithgow, being elected a joining member," 2nd March +1654. Quarter-Master General Robert Moray (or Murray) was initiated by +members of the Lodge of Edinburgh, at Newcastle on the 20th of May 1641, +while the Scottish army was in occupation. On due report to their Alma +Mater such reception was allowed, the occurrence having been considered +the first of its kind in England until the ancient Records of the +Masons' Company were published. + +The minute-books of a number of Scottish Lodges, which are still on the +register, go back to the 17th century, and abundantly confirm the +frequent admission of speculatives as members and officers, especially +those of the venerable "Mother Lodge Kilwinning," of which the earl of +Cassillis was the deacon in 1672, who was succeeded by Sir Alexander +Cunningham, and the earl of Eglinton, who like the first of the trio was +but an apprentice. There were three Head Lodges according to the +Scottish Code of 1599, Edinburgh being "the first and principall," +Kilwinning "the secund," and Stirling "the third ludge." + +The Aberdeen Lodge (No. 1 _tris_) has records preserved from 1670, in +which year what is known as the _Mark Book_ begins, containing the +oldest existing roll of members, numbering 49, all of whom have their +marks registered, save two, though only ten were operatives. The names +of the earls of Finlater, Erroll and Dunfermline, Lord Forbes, several +ministers and professional men are on the list, which was written by a +glazier, all of whom had been enlightened as to the "benefit of the +measson word," and inserted in order as they "were made fellow craft." +The Charter (_Old Charges_) had to be read at the "entering of everie +prenteise," and the officers included a master and two wardens. + +The lodge at Melrose (No. 1 _bis_) with records back to 1674 did not +join the Grand Lodge until 1891, and was the last of those working +(possibly centuries before that body was formed) to accept the modern +system of government. Of the many noteworthy lodges mention should be +made of that of "Canongate Kilwinning No. 2," Edinburgh, the first of +the numerous pendicles of "Mother Lodge Kilwinning, No. 0," Ayrshire, +started in 1677; and of the Journeymen No 8, formed in 1707, which was a +secession from the Lodge of Edinburgh; the Fellow Crafts or Journeymen +not being satisfied with their treatment by the Freemen Masters of the +Incorporation of Masons, &c. This action led to a trial before the Lords +of Council and Session, when finally a "Decreet Arbitral" was subscribed +to by both parties, and the junior organization was permitted "to give +the mason word as it is called" in a separate lodge. The presbytery of +Kelso[7] in 1652 sustained the action of the Rev. James Ainslie in +becoming a Freemason, declaring that "there is neither sinne nor +scandale in that word" (i.e. the "Mason Word"), which is often alluded +to but never revealed in the old records already referred to.[8] One +Scottish family may be cited in illustration of the continuous working +of Freemasonry, whose membership is enshrined in the records of the +ancient Lodge of "Scoon and Perth No. 3" and others. A venerable +document, lovingly cared for by No. 3, bears date 1658, and recites how +John Mylne came to Perth from the "North Countrie," and was the king's +Master Mason and W.M. of the Lodge, his successor being his son, who +entered "King James the sixt as ffreman measone and fellow craft"; his +third son John was a member of Lodge No. 1 and Master Mason to Charles +I., 1631-1636, and his eldest son was a deacon of No. 1 eleven times +during thirty years. To him was apprenticed his nephew, who was warden +in 1663-1664 and deacon several times. William Mylne was a warden in +1695, Thomas (eldest son) was Master in 1735, and took part in the +formation of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. Others of the family continued +to join the Lodge No. 1, until Robert, the last of the Mylnes as +Freemasons, was initiated in 1754, died in 1811, and "was buried in St +Paul's cathedral, having been Surveyor to that Edifice for fifty years," +and the last of the masonic Mylnes for five generations. The "St John's +Lodge," Glasgow (No. 3 _bis_), has some valuable old records and a +"Charter Chest" with the words carved thereon "God save the King and +Masons Craft, 1684." _Loyalty and Charity_ are the watchwords of the +Society. + +The Craft Gilds (_Corps d'État_) of France, and their progeny the +_Companionage_, have been fully described by Mr Gould, and the +_Steinmetzen_ of Germany would require too detailed notice if we were to +particularize its rules, customs and general character, from about the +12th century onward. Much as there was in common between the Stonemasons +of Germany and the Freemasons of Great Britain and Ireland, it must be +conceded that the two societies never united and were all through this +long period wholly separate and independent; a knowledge of Freemasonry +and authority to hold lodges in Germany being derived from the Grand +Lodge of England during the first half of the 18th century. The theory +of the derivation of the Freemasons from the _Steinmetzen_ was first +propounded in 1779 by the abbé Grandidier, and has been maintained by +more modern writers, such as Fallou, Heideloff and Schneider, but a +thorough examination of their statements has resulted in such an origin +being generally discredited. Whether the _Steinmetzen_ had secret signs +of recognition or not, is not quite clear, but that the Freemasons had, +for centuries, cannot be doubted, though precisely what they were may be +open to question, and also what portions of the existing ceremonies are +reminiscent of the craft anterior to the Revival of 1717. Messrs Speth +and Gould favour the notion that there were two distinct and separate +degrees prior to the third decade of the 18th century (_Ars_ Q.C., 1898 +and 1903), while other authorities have either supported the _One +degree_ theory, or consider there is not sufficient evidence to warrant +a decision. Recent discoveries, however, tend in favour of the first +view noted, such as the _Trinity College MS._, Dublin ("Free Masonry, +Feb. 1711"), and the invaluable[9] _Chetwode Crawley MS._ (Grand Lodge +Library, Dublin); the second being read in connexion with the Haughfoot +Lodge Records, beginning 1702 (_Hist, of Freemasonry_, by W. F. Vernon, +1893). + +Two of the most remarkable lodges at work during the period of +transition (1717-1723), out of the many then existing in England, +assembled at Alnwick and at York. The origin of the first noted is not +known, but there are minutes of the meetings from 1703, the Rules are of +1701, signed by quite a number of members, and a transcript of the _Old +Charges_ begins the volume. In 1708-1709 a minute provided for a masonic +procession, at which the brethren were to walk "with their aprons on and +Comon Square." The Lodge consisted mainly of operative "free Brothers," +and continued for many years, a code of by-laws being published in 1763, +but it never united with the Grand Lodge, giving up the struggle for +existence a few years further on. + +The other lodge, the most noteworthy of all the English predecessors of +the Grand Lodge of England, was long held at York, the Mecca of English +Freemasons.[10] Its origin is unknown, but there are traces of its +existence at an early date, and possibly it was a survival of the +Minster Lodge of the 14th century. Assuming that the _York MS. No. 4_ of +1693 was the property of the lodge in that year (which Roll was +presented by George Walker of Wetherby in 1777), the entry which +concludes that Scroll is most suggestive, as it gives "The names of the +Lodge" (members) and the "Lodge Ward(en)." Its influence most probably +may be also noted at Scarborough, where "A private Lodge" was held on +the 10th of July 1705, at which the president "William Thompson, Esq., +and severall others brethren ffree Masons" were present, and six +gentlemen (named) "were then admitted into the said ffraternity." These +particulars are endorsed on the _Scarborough MS._ of the Old Charges, +now owned by the Grand Lodge of Canada at Toronto. "A narrow folio +manuscript Book beginning 7th March 1705-1706," which was quoted from in +1778, has long been missing, which is much to be regretted, as possibly +it gave particulars of the lodge which assembled at Bradford, Yorkshire, +"when 18 Gentlemen of the first families in that neighbourhood were made +Masons." There is, however, another roll of records from 1712 to 1730 +happily preserved of this "Ancient Honble. Society and Fraternity of +Free Masons," sometimes styled "Company" or "Society of Free and +Accepted Masons." + +Not to be behind the London fratres, the York brethren formed a Grand +Lodge on the 27th of December 1725 (the "Grand Lodge of _all_ England" +was its modest title), and was flourishing for years, receiving into +their company many county men of great influence. Some twenty years +later there was a brief period of somnolence, but in 1761 a revival took +place, with Francis Drake, the historian, as Grand Master, ten lodges +being chartered in Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire, 1762-1790, and a +Grand Lodge of England, south of the Trent, in 1779, at London, which +warranted two lodges. Before the century ended all these collapsed or +joined the Grand Lodge of England, so there was not a single +representative of "York Masonry" left on the advent of the next century. + +The premier Grand Lodge of England soon began to constitute new Lodges +in the metropolis, and to reconstitute old ones that applied for +recognition, one of the earliest of 1720-1721 being still on the Roll as +No. 6, thus having kept company ever since with the three "time +immemorial Lodges," Nos. 2, 4 and 12. Applications for constitution kept +coming in, the provinces being represented from 1723 to 1724, before +which time it is likely the Grand Lodge of Ireland[11] had been started, +about which the most valuable _Caementaria Hibernica_ by Dr Chetwode +Crawley may be consulted with absolute confidence. Provincial Grand +Lodges were formed to ease the authorities at headquarters, and, as the +society spread, also for the Continent, and gradually throughout the +civilized globe. Owing to the custom prevailing before the 18th century, +a few brethren were competent to form lodges on their own initiative +anywhere, and hence the registers of the British Grand Lodges are not +always indicative of the first appearance of the craft abroad. In North +America[12] lodges were held before what is known as the first "regular" +lodge was formed at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and probably in Canada[13] +likewise. The same remark applies to Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, +Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden and other countries. Of the many +scores of military lodges, the first warrant was granted by Ireland in +1732. To no other body of Freemasons has the craft been so indebted for +its prosperity in early days as to their military brethren. There were +rivals to the Grand Lodge of England during the 18th century, one of +considerable magnitude being known as the Ancients or Atholl Masons, +formed in 1751, but in December 1813 a junction was effected, and from +that time the prosperity of the United Grand Lodge of England, with few +exceptions, has been extraordinary. + +Nothing but a volume to itself could possibly describe the main features +of the English Craft from 1717, when Anthony Sayer was elected the first +Grand Master of a brilliant galaxy of rulers. The first nobleman to +undertake that office was the duke of Montagu in 1721, the natural +philosopher J. T. Desaguliers being his immediate predecessor, who has +been credited (and also the Rev. James Anderson) with the honour of +starting the premier Grand Lodge; but like the fable of Sir Christopher +Wren having been Grand Master, evidence is entirely lacking. Irish and +Scottish peers share with those of England the distinction of presiding +over the Grand Lodge, and from 1782 to 1813 their Royal Highnesses the +duke of Cumberland, the prince of Wales, or the duke of Sussex occupied +the masonic throne. From 1753 to 1813 the rival Grand Lodge had been +busy, but ultimately a desire for a _united_ body prevailed, and under +the "ancient" Grand Master, H.R.H. the duke of Kent, it was decided to +amalgamate with the original ruling organization, H.R.H. the duke of +Sussex becoming the Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge. On the +decease of the prince in 1843 the earl of Zetland succeeded, followed by +the marquess of Ripon in 1874, on whose resignation H.R.H. the prince of +Wales became the Grand Master. Soon after succeeding to the throne, +King Edward VII. ceased to govern the English craft, and was succeeded +by H.R.H. the duke of Connaught. From 1737 to 1907 some sixteen English +princes of the royal blood joined the brotherhood. + +From 1723 to 1813 the number of lodges enrolled in England amounted to +1626, and from 1814 to the end of December 1909 as many as 3352 were +warranted, making a grand total of 4978, of which the last then granted +was numbered 3185. There were in 1909 still 2876 on the register, +notwithstanding the many vacancies created by the foundation of new +Grand Lodges in the colonies and elsewhere.[14] + +_Distribution and Organization._--The advantage of the cosmopolitan +basis of the fraternity generally (though some Grand Lodges still +preserve the original Christian foundation) has been conspicuously +manifested and appreciated in India and other countries where the +votaries of numerous religious systems congregate; but the unalterable +basis of a belief in the Great Architect of the Universe remains, for +without such a recognition there can be no Freemasonry, and it is now, +as it always has been, entirely free from party politics. The charities +of the Society in England, Ireland and Scotland are extensive and well +organized, their united cost per day not being less than £500, and with +those of other Grand Lodges throughout the world must amount to a very +large sum, there being over two millions of Freemasons. The vast +increase of late years, both of lodges and members, however, calls for +renewed vigilance and extra care in selecting candidates, that numbers +may not be a source of weakness instead of strength. + +In its internal organization, the working of Freemasonry involves an +elaborate system of symbolic ritual,[15] as carried out at meetings of +the various lodges, uniformity as to essentials being the rule. The +members are classified in numerous degrees, of which the first three are +"Entered Apprentice," "Fellow Craft" and "Master Mason," each class of +which, after initiation, can only be attained after passing a prescribed +ordeal or examination, as a test of proficiency, corresponding to the +"essays" of the operative period. + +The lodges have their own by-laws for guidance, subject to the _Book of +Constitutions_ of their Grand Lodge, and the regulations of the +provincial or district Grand Lodge if located in counties or held +abroad. + +It is to be regretted that on the continent of Europe Freemasonry has +sometimes developed on different lines from that of the "Mother Grand +Lodge" and Anglo-Saxon Grand Lodges generally, and through its political +and anti-religious tendencies has come into contact or conflict with the +state authorities[16] or the Roman Catholic church. The "Grand Orient of +France" (but not the Supreme Council 33^o, and its Grand Lodge) is an +example of this retrograde movement, by its elimination of the paragraph +referring to a belief in the "Great Architect of the Universe" from its +_Statuts et règlements généraux_. This deplorable action has led to the +withdrawal of all regular Grand Lodges from association with that body, +and such separation must continue until a return is made to the ancient +and inviolable landmark of the society, which makes it impossible for an +atheist either to join or continue a member of the fraternity. + +The Grand Lodge of England constituted its first lodge in Paris in the +year 1732, but one was formed still earlier on the continent at +Gibraltar 1728-1729. Others were also opened in Germany 1733, Portugal +1735, Holland 1735, Switzerland 1740, Denmark 1745, Italy 1763, Belgium +1765, Russia 1771, and Sweden 1773. In most of these countries Grand +Lodges were subsequently created and continue to this date, save that in +Austria (not Hungary) and Russia no masonic lodges have for some time +been permitted to assemble. There is a union of Grand Lodges of Germany, +and an annual Diet is held for the transaction of business affecting the +several masonic organizations in that country, which works well. H.R.H. +Prince Frederick Leopold was in 1909 Protector, or the "Wisest Master" +(Vicarius Salomonis). King Gustav V. was the Grand Master [cross] of the +freemasons in Sweden, and the sovereign of the "Order of Charles XIII.," +the only one of the kind confined to members of the fraternity. + +Lodges were constituted in India from 1730 (Calcutta), 1752 (Madras), +and 1758 (Bombay); in Jamaica 1742, Antigua 1738, and St Christopher +1739; soon after which period the Grand Lodges of England, Ireland and +Scotland had representatives at work throughout the civilized world. + +In no part, however, outside Great Britain has the craft flourished so +much as in the United States of America, where the first "regular" lodge +(i.e. according to the _new_ regime) was opened in 1733 at Boston, Mass. +Undoubtedly lodges had been meeting still earlier, one of which was held +at Philadelphia, Penna., with records from 1731, which blossomed into a +Grand Lodge, but no authority has yet been traced for its proceedings, +save that which may be termed "time immemorial right," which was enjoyed +by all lodges and brethren who were at work prior to the Grand Lodge era +(1716-1717) or who declined to recognize the autocratic proceedings of +the premier Grand Lodge of England, just as the brethren did in the city +of York. A "deputation" was granted to Daniel Coxe, Esq. of New Jersey, +by the duke of Norfolk, Grand Master, 5th of June 1730, as Prov. Grand +Master of the "Provinces of New York, New Jersey and Pensilvania," but +there is no evidence that he ever constituted any lodges or exercised +any masonic authority in virtue thereof. Henry Price as Prov. Grand +Master of New England, and his lodge, which was opened on the 31st of +August 1733, in the city of Boston, so far as is known, began "regular" +Freemasonry in the United States, and the older and independent +organization was soon afterwards "regularized." Benjamin Franklin (an +Initiate of the lodge of Philadelphia) printed and published the _Book +of Constitutions_, 1723 (of London, England), in the "City of Brotherly +Love" in 1734, being the oldest masonic work in America. English and +Scottish Grand Lodges were soon after petitioned to grant warrants to +hold lodges, and by the end of the 18th century several Grand Lodges +were formed, the Craft becoming very popular, partly no doubt by reason +of so many prominent men joining the fraternity, of whom the chief was +George Washington, initiated in a Scottish lodge at Fredericksburg, +Virginia, in 1752-1753. In 1907 there were fifty Grand Lodges assembling +in the United States, with considerably over a million members. + +In Canada in 1909 there were eight Grand Lodges, having about 64,000 +members. Freemasonry in the Dominion is believed to date from 1740. The +Grand Lodges are all of comparatively recent organization, the oldest +and largest, with 40,000 members, being for Ontario; those of Manitoba, +Nova Scotia and Quebec numbering about 5000 each. There are some seven +Grand Lodges in Australia; South Australia coming first as a "sovereign +body," followed closely by New South Wales and Victoria (of 1884-1889 +constitution), the whole of the lodges in the Commonwealth probably +having fully 50,000 members on the registers. + +There are many additional degrees which may be taken or not (being quite +optional), and dependent on a favourable ballot; the difficulty, +however, of obtaining admission increases as progress is made, the +numbers accepted decreasing rapidly with each advancement. The chief of +these are arranged in separate classes and are governed either by the +"Grand Chapter of the Royal Arch," the "Mark Grand Lodge," the "Great +Priory of Knights Templars" or the "Ancient and Accepted Rite," these +being mutually complementary and intimately connected as respects +England, and more or less so in Ireland, Scotland, North America and +wherever worked on a similar basis; the countries of the continent of +Europe have also their own _Hautes Grades_. (W. J. H.*). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] + + If history be no ancient Fable + Free Masons came from Tower of Babel. + + ("The Freemasons; an Hudibrastic poem," London, 1723.) + + [2] _The Early History and Antiquities of Freemasonry and Medieval + Builders_, by Mr G. F. Fort (U.S.A.), and the _Cathedral Builders: + The Magestri Comacini_, by "Leader Scott" (the late Mrs Baxter), take + rather a different view on this point and ably present their + arguments. The Rev. C. Kingsley in _Roman and Teuton_ writes of the + _Comacini_, "Perhaps the original germ of the great society of + Freemasons." + + [3] The service rendered by Dr W. Begemann (Germany) in his "Attempt + to Classify the Old Charges of the British Masons" (vol. 1 Trans. of + the _Quatuor Coronati_ Lodge, London) has been very great, and the + researches of the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford and G. W. Speth have also + been of the utmost consequence. + + [4] Findel claims that his _Treatise_ on the society was the cause + which "first impelled England to the study of masonic history and + ushered in the intellectual movement which resulted in the writings + of Bros. Hughan, Lyon, Gould and others." Great credit was due to the + late German author for his important work, but before its advent the + Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, D. Murray Lyon and others in Great Britain + were diligent masonic students on similar lines. + + [5] It is not considered necessary to refer at length to the _Fratres + Pontis_, or other imaginary bodies of freemasons, as such questions + may well be left to the curious and interested student. + + [6] "No distinct trace of the general employment of large migratory + bands of masons, going from place to place as a guild, or company, or + brotherhood" (Prof. T. Hayter-Lewis, Brit. Arch. Assoc., 1889). + + [7] The Associate Synod which met at Edinburgh, March 1755, just a + century later, took quite an opposite view, deciding to depose from + office any of their brethren who would not give up their masonic + membership (_Scots Mag._, 1755, p. 158). Papal Bulls have also been + issued against the craft, the first being in 1738; but neither + interdicts nor anathemata have any influence with the fraternity, and + fall quite harmless. + + [8] + + "We have the _Mason Word_ and second sight, + Things for to come we can fortell aright." + + (_The Muses Threnodie_, by H. Adamson, Edin., 1638.) + + [9] The _Chetwode Crawley MS._, by W. J. Hughan (_Ars._ Q.C., 1904). + + [10] The _York Grand Lodge_, by Messrs. Hughan and Whytehead (Ars + Q.C., 1900), and _Masonic Sketches and Reprints_ (1871), by the + former. + + [11] The celebrated "Lady Freemason," the Hon. Mrs Aldworth (_née_ + Miss St Leger, daughter of Lord Doneraile), was initiated in Ireland, + but at a much earlier date than popularly supposed; certainly not + later than 1713, when the venturesome lady was twenty. All early + accounts of the occurrence must be received with caution, as there + are no contemporary records of the event. + + [12] _History of Freemasonry_, by Dr A. G. Mackey (New York, 1898), + and the _History_ of the Fraternity Publishing Company, Boston, + Mass., give very full particulars as to the United States. + + [13] See _History of Freemasonry in Canada_ (Toronto, 1899), by J. + Ross Robertson. + + [14] _The Masonic Records 1717-1894_, by John Lane, and the excellent + _Masonic Yearbook_, published annually by the Grand Lodge of England, + are the two standard works on Lodge enumeration, localization and + nomenclature. For particulars of the Grand Lodges, and especially + that of England, Gould's History is most useful and trustworthy; and + for an original contribution to the history of the rival Grand Lodge + or Atholl Masons, Sadler's _Masonic Facts and Fictions_. + + [15] "A peculiar system of Morality, veiled in Allegory and + illustrated by Symbols" (old definition of Freemasonry). + + [16] The British House of Commons in 1799 and 1817, in acts of + parliament, specifically recognized the laudable character of the + society and provided for its continuance on definite lines. + + + + +FREEPORT, a city and the county-seat of Stephenson county, Illinois, in +the N.W. part of the state, on the Pecatonica river, 30 m. from its +mouth and about 100 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,189; (1900) +13,258, of whom 2264 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,567. The city +is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St +Paul, and the Illinois Central railways, and by the Rockford & +Interurban electric railway. The Illinois Central connects at South +Freeport, about 3 m. S. of Freeport, with the Chicago Great Western +railway. Among Freeport's manufactures are foundry and machine shop +products, carriages, hardware specialties, patent medicines, windmills, +engines, incubators, organs, beer and shoes. The Illinois Central has +large railway repair shops here. The total value of the city's factory +product in 1905 was $3,109,302, an increase of 14.8% since 1900. In the +surrounding country cereals are grown, and swine and poultry are raised. +Dairying is an important industry also. The city has a Carnegie library +(1901). In the Court House Square is a monument, 80 ft. high, in memory +of the soldiers who died in the Civil War. At the corner of Douglas +Avenue and Mechanic Street a granite boulder commemorates the famous +debate between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, held in Freeport +on the 27th of August 1858. In that debate Lincoln emphasized the +differences between himself and the radical anti-slavery men, and in +answer to one of Lincoln's questions Douglas declared that the people of +a territory, through "unfriendly" laws or denial of legislative +protection, could exclude slavery, and that "it matters not what way the +Supreme Court may hereafter decide on the abstract question whether +slavery may or may not go into a territory under the Constitution." +This, the so-called "Freeport doctrine," greatly weakened Douglas in the +presidential election of 1860. Freeport was settled in 1835, was laid +out and named Winneshiek in 1836, and in 1837 under its present name was +made the county-seat of Stephenson county. It was incorporated as a town +in 1850 and chartered as a city in 1855. + + + + +FREE PORTS, a term, strictly speaking, given to localities where no +customs duties are levied, and where no customs supervision exists. In +these ports (subject to payment for specific services rendered, +wharfage, storage, &c., and to the observance of local police and +sanitary regulations) ships load and unload, cargoes are deposited and +handled, industries are exercised, manufactures are carried on, goods +are bought and sold, without any action on the part of fiscal +authorities. Ports are likewise designated "free" where a space or zone +exists within which commercial operations are conducted without payment +of import or export duty, and without active interference on the part of +customs authorities. The French and German designations for these two +descriptions of ports are--for the former _La Ville franche, Freihafen_; +for the latter _Le Port franc, Freibezirk_ or _Freilager_. The English +phrase free port applies to both.[1] The leading conditions under which +free ports in Europe derived their origin were as follows:--(1) When +public order became re-established during the middle ages, trading +centres were gradually formed. Marts for the exchange and purchase of +goods arose in different localities. Many Italian settlements, +constituting free zones, were established in the Levant. The Hanseatic +towns arose in the 12th century. Great fairs became recognized--the +Leipzig charter was granted in 1268. These localities were free as +regards customs duties, although dues of the nature of octroi charges +were often levied. (2) Until the 19th century European states were +numerous, and often of small size. Accordingly uniform customs tariffs +of wide application did not exist. Uniform rates of duty were fixed In +England by the Subsidy Act of 1660. In France, before the Revolution +(besides the free ports), Alsace and the Lorraine Bishoprics were in +trade matters treated as foreign countries. The unification of the +German customs tariff began in 1834 with the Steuerverein and the +Zollverein. The Spanish fiscal system did not include the Basque +provinces until about 1850. The uniform Italian tariff dates from 1861. +Thus until very recent times on the Continent free ports were compatible +with the fiscal policy and practice of different countries. (3) Along +the Mediterranean coast, up to the 19th century, convenient shelter was +needed from corsairs. In other continental countries the prevalent +colonial and mercantile policy sought to create trans-oceanic trade. +Free ports were advantageous from all these points of view. + + In following the history of these harbours in Europe, it is to be + observed that in Great Britain free ports have never existed. In 1552 + it was contemplated to place Hull and Southampton on this footing, but + the design was abandoned. Subsequently the bonding and not the free + port system was adopted in the United Kingdom. + + _Austria-Hungary._--Fiume and Trieste were respectively free ports + during the periods 1722-1893 and 1719-1893. + + _Belgium._--The emperor Joseph II. during his visit to the Austrian + Netherlands in June 1781 endeavoured to create a direct trade between + that country and India. Ostend was made a free port, and large bonding + facilities were afforded at Bruges, Brussels, Ghent and Louvain. In + 1796, however, the revolutionary government abolished the Ostend + privileges. + + _Denmark._--In November 1894 an area of about 150 acres at Copenhagen + was opened as a free port, and great facilities are afforded for + shipping and commercial operations in order that the Baltic trade may + centre there. + + _France._--Marseilles was a free port in the middle ages, and so was + Dunkirk when it formed part of Flanders. In 1669 these privileges were + confirmed, and extended to Bayonne. In 1784 there was a fresh + confirmation, and Lorient and St Jean de Luz were included in the + _ordonnance_. The National Assembly in 1790 maintained this policy, + and created free ports in the French West Indies. In 1795, however, + all such privileges were abolished, but large bonding facilities were + allowed at Marseilles to favour the Levant trade. The government of + Louis XVIII. in 1814 restored, and in 1871 again revoked, the free + port privileges of Marseilles. There are now no free ports in France + or in French possessions; the bonding system is in force. + + _Germany._--Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck were reconstituted free towns + and ports under the treaties of 1814-1815. Certain minor ports, and + several landing-stages on the Rhine and the Neckar, were also + designated free. As the Zollverein policy became accepted throughout + Germany, previous privileges were gradually lessened, and since 1888 + only Hamburg remains a free port. There an area of about 2500 acres is + exempt from customs duties and control, and is largely used for + shipping and commercial purposes. Bremerhaven has a similar area of + nearly 700 acres. Brake, Bremen, Cuxhaven, Emden, Geestemünde, + Neufahrwasser and Stettin possess Freibezirke areas, portions of the + larger port. Heligoland is outside the Zollverein--practically a + foreign country. + + In _Italy_ free ports were numerous and important, and possessed + privileges which varied at different dates. They were--Ancona, during + the period 1696-1868; Brindisi, 1845-1862; Leghorn (in the 17th and + 18th centuries a very important Mediterranean harbour), 1675-1867; + Messina, 1695-1879; Senigallia, 1821-1868, during the month of the + local fair. Venice possessed warehouses, equivalent to bonded stores, + for German and Turkish trade during the Republic, and was a free port + 1851-1873. Genoa was a free port in the time of the Republic and under + the French Empire, and was continued as such by the treaties of + 1814-1815. The free port was, however, changed into a "deposito + franco" by a law passed in 1865, and only storing privileges now + remain. + + _Rumania._--Braila, Galatz and Kustenji were free ports (for a period + of about forty years) up to 1883, when bonded warehouses were + established by the Rumanian government. Sulina remains free. + + _Russia._--Archangel was a free port, at least for English goods, from + 1553 to 1648. During this period English products were admitted into + Russia via Archangel without any customs payment for internal + consumption, and also in transit to Persia. The tsar Alexis revoked + this grant on the execution of Charles I. Free ports were opened in + 1895 at Kola, in Russian Lapland. Dalny, adjoining Port Arthur, was a + free port during the Russian occupation; and Japan after the war + decided to renew this privilege as soon as practicable. + + The number of free ports outside Europe has also lessened. The + administrative policy of European countries has been gradually adopted + in other parts of the world, and customs duties have become almost + universal, conjoined with bonding and transhipment facilities. In + British colonies and possessions, under an act of parliament passed in + 1766, and repealed in 1867, two ports in Dominica and four in Jamaica + were free, Malacca, Penang and Singapore have been free ports since + 1824, Hong-Kong since 1842, and Weihaiwei since it was leased to Great + Britain in 1898. Zanzibar was a free port during 1892-1899. Aden, + Gibraltar, St Helena and St Thomas (West Indies) are sometimes + designated free ports. A few duties are, however, levied, which are + really octroi rather than customs charges. These places are mainly + stations for coaling and awaiting orders. + + Some harbours in the Netherlands East Indies were free ports between + 1829 and 1899; but these privileges were withdrawn by laws passed in + 1898-1899, in order to establish uniformity of customs administration. + Harbours where custom houses are not maintained will be practically + closed to foreign trade, though the governor-general may in special + circumstances vary the application of the new regulations. + + Macao has been a free port since 1845. Portugal has no other harbour + of this character. + + The American Republics have adopted the bonding system. In 1896 a free + wharf was opened at New Orleans in imitation of the recent European + plan. Livingstone (Guatemala) was a free port during the period + 1882-1888. + +The privileges enjoyed under the old free port system benefited the +towns and districts where they existed; and their abolition has been, +locally, injurious. These places were, however, "foreign" to their own +country, and their inland intercourse was restricted by the duties +levied on their products, and by the precautions adopted to prevent +evasion of these charges. With fiscal usages involving preferential and +deferential treatment of goods and places, the drawbacks thus arising +did not attract serious attention. Under the limited means of +communication within and beyond the country, in former times, these +conveniences were not much felt. But when finance departments became +more completely organized, the free port system fell out of favour with +fiscal authorities: it afforded opportunities for smuggling, and impeded +uniformity of action and practice. It became, in fact, out of harmony +with the administrative and financial policy of later times. Bonding and +entrepot facilities, on a scale commensurate with local needs, now +satisfy trade requirements. In countries where high customs duties are +levied, and where fiscal regulations are minute and rigid, if an +extension of foreign trade is desired, and the competition which it +involves is a national aim, special facilities must be granted for this +purpose. In these circumstances a free zone sufficiently large to admit +of commercial operations and transhipments on a scale which will fulfil +these conditions (watched but not interfered with by the customs) +becomes indispensable. The German government have, as we have seen, +maintained a free zone of this nature at Hamburg. And when the free port +at Copenhagen was opened, counter measures were adopted at Danzig and +Stettin. An agitation has arisen in France to provide at certain ports +free zones similar to those at Copenhagen and Hamburg, and to open free +ports in French possessions. A bill to this effect was submitted to the +chamber of deputies on the 12th of April 1905. Colonial free ports, such +as Hong-Kong and Singapore, do not interfere with the uniformity of the +home customs and excise policy. These two harbours in particular have +become great shipping resorts and distributing centres. The policy which +led to their establishment as free ports has certainly promoted British +commercial interests. + + See the Parliamentary Paper on "Continental Free Ports," 1904. + (C. M. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In China at the present time (1902) certain ports are designated + "free and open." This phrase means that the ports in question are (1) + open to foreign trade, and (2) that vessels engaged in oversea + voyages may freely resort there. Exemption from payment of customs + duties is not implied, which is a matter distinct from the permission + granted under treaty engagements to foreign vessels to carry cargoes + to and from the "treaty ports." + + + + +FREE REED VIBRATOR (Fr. _anche libre_, Ger. _durchschlagende Zunge_, +Ital. _ancia_ or _lingua libera_), in musical instruments, a thin metal +tongue fixed at one end and vibrating freely either in surrounding +space, as in the accordion and concertina, or enclosed in a pipe or +channel, as in certain reed stops of the organ or in the harmonium. The +enclosed reed, in its typical and theoretical form, is fixed over an +aperture of the same shape but just large enough to allow it to swing +freely backwards and forwards, alternately opening and closing the +aperture, when driven by a current of compressed air. We have to deal +with air under three different conditions in considering the phenomenon +of the sound produced by free reeds. (1) The stationary column or +stratum in pipe or channel containing the reed, which is normally at +rest. (2) The wind or current of air fed from the bellows with a +variable velocity and pressure, which is broken up into periodic air +puffs as its entrance into pipe or channel is alternately checked or +allowed by the vibrator. (3) The disturbed condition of No. 1 when acted +upon by the metal vibrator and by No 2, whereby the air within the pipe +is forced into alternate pulses of condensation and rarefaction. The +free reed is therefore not the tone-producer but only the exciting +agent, that is to say, the sound is not produced by the communication of +the free reed's vibrations to the surrounding air,[1] as in the case of +a vibrating string, but by the series of air puffs punctuated by +infinitesimal pauses, which it produces by alternately opening and +almost closing the aperture.[2] A musical sound is thus produced the +pitch of which depends on the length and thickness of the metal tongue; +the greater the length, the slower the vibrations and the lower the +pitch, while on the contrary, the thicker the reed near the shoulder at +the fixed end, the higher the pitch. It must be borne in mind that the +periodic vibrations of the reed determine the pitch of the sound solely +by the frequency per second they impose upon the pulses of rarefaction +and condensation within the pipe. + +[Illustration: From J. B. Biot, _Traité de physique expérimentale_. + +FIG. 1.--Grenie's organ pipe fitted with free-reed vibrator. + + A, Tuning wire. + D, Free reed. + R, Reed-box. + B, C, Feed pipe with conical foot. + T, Part of resonating pipe, the upper end with cap and vent hole being shown + separately at the side.] + +The most valuable characteristic of the free reed is its power of +producing all the delicate gradations of tone between forte and piano by +virtue of a law of acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds, +whereby increased pressure of wind produces a proportional increase in +the volume of tone. The pitch of any sound depends upon the frequency of +the sound-waves, that is, the number per second which reach the ear; the +fullness of sound depends upon the amplitude of the waves, or, more +strictly speaking, of the swing of the transmitting particles of the +medium--greater pressure in the air current (No. 2 above) which sets the +vibrator in motion producing amplitude of vibration in the air within +the receptacle (No. 3 above) serving as resonating medium. The sound +produced by the free reed itself is weak and requires to be reinforced +by means of an additional stationary column or stratum of air. Free reed +instruments are therefore classified according to the nature of the +resonant medium provided:--(1) Free reeds vibrating in pipes, such as +the reed stops of church organs on the continent of Europe (in England +the reed pipes are generally provided with beating reeds, see REED +INSTRUMENTS and CLARINET). (2) Free reeds vibrating in reed compartments +and reinforced by air chambers of various shapes and sizes as in the +harmonium (q.v.). (3) Instruments like the accordion and concertina +having the free reed set in vibration through a valve, but having no +reinforcing medium. + +The arrangement of the free reed in an organ pipe is simple, and does +not differ greatly from that of the beating reed shown in fig. 2 for the +purpose of comparison. The reed-box, a rectangular wooden pipe, is +closed at the bottom and covered on one face with a thin plate of copper +having a rectangular slit over which is fixed the thin metal vibrating +tongue or reed as described above. The reed-box, itself open at the top, +is enclosed in a feed pipe having a conical foot pierced with a small +hole through which the air current is forced by the action of the +bellows. The impact of the incoming compressed air against the reed +tongue sets it swinging through the slit, thus causing a disturbance or +series of pulsations within the reed-box. The air then finds an escape +through the resonating medium of a pipe fitting over the reed-box and +terminating in an inverted cone covered with a cap in the top of which +is pierced a small hole or vent. The quality of tone of free reeds is +due to the tendency of air set in periodic pulsations to divide into +aliquot vibrations or loops, producing the phenomenon known as harmonic +overtones or upper partials, which may, in the highly composite clang of +free reeds, be discerned as far as the 16th or 20th of the series. The +more intermittent and interrupted the air current becomes, the greater +the number of the upper partials produced.[3] The power of the overtones +and their relation to the fundamental note depend greatly upon the form +of the tongue, its position and the amount of the clearance left as it +swings through the aperture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Organ pipe fitted with beating reed. + + AL, Beating reed. + R, Reed box. + Ff, Tuning wire. + TV, Feed pipe. + VV, Conical foot. + S, Hole through which compressed air is fed.] + +Free reeds not associated with resonating media as in the concertina are +peculiarly rich in harmonics, but as the higher harmonics lie very close +together, disagreeable dissonances and a harsh tone result. The +resonating pipe or chamber when suitably accommodated to the reed +greatly modifies the tone by reinforcing the harmonics proper to itself, +the others sinking into comparative insignificance. In order to produce +a full rich tone, a resonator should be chosen whose deepest note +coincides with the fundamental tone of the reed. The other upper +partials will also be reinforced thereby, but to a less degree the +higher the harmonics.[4] + + For the history of the application of the free reed to keyboard + instruments see HARMONIUM. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See H. Helmholtz, _Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen_ (Brunswick, + 1877), p. 166. + + [2] See also Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, _Wellenlehre_ + (Leipzig, 1825), where a particularly lucid explanation of the + phenomenon is given, pp. 526-530. + + [3] See Helmholtz, _op. cit._ p. 167. + + [4] These phenomena are clearly explained at greater length by Sedley + Taylor in _Sound and Music_ (London, 1896), pp. 134-153 and pp. + 74-86. See also Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und die musikalischen + Instrumente_, &c. (Giessen, 1855), p. 261. + + + + +FREESIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Iris family +(Iridaceae), and containing a single species, _F. refracta_, native at +the Cape of Good Hope. The plants grow from a corm (a solid bulb, as in +_Gladiolus_) which sends up a tuft of long narrow leaves and a slightly +branched stem bearing a few leaves and loose one-sided spikes of +fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped flowers. Several varieties are known in +cultivation, differing in the colour of the flower, which is white, +cream or yellow. They form pretty greenhouse plants which are readily +increased from seed. They are extensively grown for the market in +Guernsey, England and America. By potting successively throughout the +autumn a supply of flowers is obtained through winter and spring. Some +very fine large-flowered varieties, including rose-coloured ones, are +now being raised by various growers in England, and are a great +improvement on the older forms. + + + + +FREE SOIL PARTY, a political party in the United States, which was +organized in 1847-1848 to oppose the extension of slavery into the +Territories. It was a combination of the political abolitionists--many +of whom had formerly been identified with the more radical Liberty +party--the anti-slavery Whigs, and the faction of the Democratic party +in the state of New York, called "Barnburners," who favoured the +prohibition of slavery, in accordance with the "Wilmot Proviso" (see +WILMOT, DAVID), in the territory acquired from Mexico. The party was +prominent in the presidential campaigns of 1848 and 1852. At the +national convention held in Buffalo, N.Y., on the 9th and 10th of August +1848, they secured the nomination to the presidency of ex-President +Martin Van Buren, who had failed to secure nomination by the Democrats +in 1844 because of his opposition to the annexation of Texas, and of +Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts, for the vice-presidency, taking +as their "platform" a Declaration that Congress, having "no more power +to make a slave than to make a king," was bound to restrict slavery to +the slave states, and concluding, "we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, +Free Speech, Free Labor and Free Man,' and under it we will fight on and +fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions." The +Liberty party had previously, in November 1847, nominated John P. Hale +and Leicester King as president and vice-president respectively, but in +the spring of 1848 it withdrew its candidates and joined the "free soil" +movement. Representatives of eighteen states, including Delaware, +Maryland and Virginia, attended the Buffalo convention. In the ensuing +presidential election Van Buren and Adams received a popular vote of +291,263, of which 120,510 were cast in New York. They received no +electoral votes, all these being divided between the Whig candidate, +Zachary Taylor, who was elected, and the Democratic candidate, Lewis +Cass. The "free soilers," however, succeeded in sending to the +thirty-first Congress two senators and fourteen representatives, who by +their ability exercised an influence out of proportion to their number. + +Between 1848 and 1852 the "Barnburners" and the "Hunkers," their +opponents, became partially reunited, the former returning to the +Democratic ranks, and thus greatly weakening the Free Soilers. The party +held its national convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 11th of +August 1852, delegates being present from all the free states, and from +Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and Kentucky; and John P. Hale, of New +Hampshire, and George W. Julian of Indiana, were nominated for the +presidency and the vice-presidency respectively, on a platform which +declared slavery "a sin against God and a crime against man," denounced +the Compromise Measures of 1850, the fugitive slave law in particular, +and again opposed the extension of slavery in the Territories. These +candidates, however, received no electoral votes and a popular vote of +only 156,149, of which but 25,329 were polled in New York. By 1856 they +abandoned their separate organization and joined the movement which +resulted in the formation of the powerful Republican party (q.v.), of +which the Free Soil party was the legitimate precursor. + + + + +FREE-STONE (a translation of the O. Fr. _franche pere_ or _pierre_, i.e. +stone of good quality; the modern French equivalent is _pierre de +taille_, and Ital. _pietra molle_), stone used in architecture for +mouldings, tracery and other work required to be worked with the chisel. +The oolitic stones are generally so called, although in some countries +soft sandstones are used; in some churches an indurated chalk called +"clunch" is employed for internal lining and for carving. + + + + +FREETOWN, capital of the British colony of Sierra Leone, West Africa, on +the south side of the Sierra Leone estuary, about 5 m. from the cape of +that name, in 8° 29' N., 13° 10' W. Pop. (1901) 34,463. About 500 of the +inhabitants are Europeans. Freetown is picturesquely situated on a +plain, closed in behind by a succession of wooded hills, the Sierra +Leone, rising to a height of 1700 ft. As nearly every house is +surrounded by a courtyard or garden, the town covers an unusually large +area for the number of its inhabitants. It possesses few buildings of +architectural merit. The principal are the governor's residence and +government offices, the barracks, the cathedral, the missionary +institutions, the fruit market, Wilberforce Hall, courts of justice, the +railway station and the grammar school. Several of these institutions +are built on the slopes of the hills, and on the highest point, Sugar +Loaf Mountain, is a sanatorium. The botanic gardens form a pleasant and +favourite place of resort. The roads are wide but badly kept. Horses do +not live, and all wheeled traffic is done by manual labour--hammocks and +sedan-chairs are the customary means of locomotion. Notwithstanding that +Freetown possesses an abundant and pure water-supply, drawn from the +adjacent hills, it is enervating and unhealthy, and it was particularly +to the capital, often spoken of as Sierra Leone, that the designation +"White Man's Grave" applied. Since the beginning of the 20th century +strenuous efforts have been made to improve the sanitary condition by a +new system of drainage, a better water service, the filling up of +marshes wherein the malarial mosquito breeds, and in other directions. A +light railway 6 m. long, opened in 1904, has been built to Hill Station +(900 ft. high), where, on a healthy site, are the residences of the +government officials and of other Europeans. As a consequence the public +health has improved, the highest death-rate in the years 1901-1907 being +29.6 per 1000. The town is governed by a municipality (created in 1893) +with a mayor and councillors, the large majority being elective. +Freetown was the first place in British West Africa granted local +self-government. + +Both commercially and strategically Freetown is a place of importance. +Its harbour affords ample accommodation for the largest fleets, it is a +coaling station for the British navy, the headquarters of the British +military forces in West Africa, the sea terminus of the railway to the +rich oil-palm regions of Mendiland, and a port of call for all steamers +serving West Africa. Its inhabitants are noted for their skill as +traders; the town itself produces nothing in the way of exports. + +In consequence of the character of the original settlement (see SIERRA +LEONE), 75% of the inhabitants are descended from non-indigenous Negro +races. As many as 150 different tribes are represented in the Sierra +Leonis of to-day. Their semi-Europeanization is largely the result of +missionary endeavour. The only language of the lower class is +pidgin-English--quite incomprehensible to the newcomer from Great +Britain,--but a large proportion of the inhabitants are highly educated +men who excel as lawyers, clergymen, clerks and traders. Many members of +the upper, that is, the best-educated, class have filled official +positions of great responsibility. The most noted citizens are Bishop +Crowther and Sir Samuel Lewis, chief justice of Sierra Leone 1882-1894. +Both were full-blooded Africans. The Kru-men form a distinct section of +the community, living in a separate quarter and preserving their tribal +customs. + +Since 1861-1862 there has been an independent Episcopal Native Church; +but the Church Missionary Society, which in 1804 sent out the first +missionaries to Sierra Leone, still maintains various agencies. Furah +Bay College, built by the society on the site of General Charles +Turner's estate (1½ m. E. of Freetown), and opened in 1828 with six +pupils, one of whom was Bishop Crowther, was affiliated in 1876 to +Durham University and has a high-class curriculum. The Wesleyans have a +high school, a theological college, and other educative agencies. The +Moslems, who are among the most law-abiding and intelligent citizens of +Freetown, have several state-aided primary schools. + + + + +FREE TRADE, an expression which has now come to be appropriated to the +economic policy of encouraging the greatest possible commercial +intercourse, unrestricted by "protective" duties (see PROTECTION), +between any one country and its neighbours. This policy was originally +advocated in France, and it has had its adherents in many countries, but +Great Britain stands alone among the great commercial nations of the +world in having adopted it systematically from 1846 onwards as the +fundamental principle of her economic policy. + +In the economic literature of earlier periods, it may be noted that the +term "free trade" is employed in senses which have no relation to modern +usage. The term conveyed no suggestion of unrestricted trade or national +liberty when it first appeared in controversial pamphlets;[1] it stood +for a freedom conferred and maintained by authority--like that of a free +town. The merchants desired to have good regulations for trade so that +they might be free from the disabilities imposed upon them by foreign +princes or unscrupulous fellow-subjects. After 1640 the term seems to +have been commonly current in a different sense. When the practice which +had been handed down from the middle ages--of organizing the trade with +particular countries by means of privileged companies, which professed +to regulate the trade according to the state of the market so as to +secure its steady development in the interest of producers and +traders--was seriously called in question under the Stuarts and at the +Revolution, the interlopers and opponents of the companies insisted on +the advantages of a "Free Trade"; they meant by this that the various +branches of commerce should not be confined to particular persons or +limited in amount, but should be thrown open to be pursued by any +Englishman in the way he thought most profitable himself.[2] Again, in +the latter half of the 18th century, till Pitt's financial reforms[3] +were brought into operation, the English customs duties on wine and +brandy were excessive; and those who carried on a remunerative business +by evading these duties were known as Fair Traders or Free Traders.[4] +Since 1846 the term free trade has been popularly used, in England, to +designate the policy of Cobden (q.v.) and others who advocated the +abolition of the tax on imported corn (see CORN LAWS); this is the only +one of the specialized senses of the term which is at all likely to be +confused with the economic doctrine. The Anti-Corn Law movement was, as +a matter of fact, a special application of the economic principle; but +serious mistakes have arisen from the blunder of confusing the part with +the whole, and treating the remission of one particular duty as if it +were the essential element of a policy in which it was only an incident. +W. E. Gladstone, in discussing the effect of improvements in locomotion +on British trade, showed what a large proportion of the stimulus to +commerce during the 19th century was to be credited to what he called +the "liberalizing legislation" of the free-trade movement in the wide +sense in which he used the term. "I rank the introduction of cheap +postage for letters, documents, patterns and printed matter, and the +abolition of all taxes on printed matter, in the category of Free Trade +Legislation. Not only thought in general, but every communication, and +every publication, relating to matters of business, was thus set free. +These great measures, then, may well take their place beside the +abolition of prohibitions and protective duties, the simplifying of +revenue laws, and the repeal of the Navigation Act, as forming together +the great code of industrial emancipation. Under this code, our race, +restored to freedom in mind and hand, and braced by the powerful +stimulus of open competition with the world, has upon the whole +surpassed itself and every other, and has won for itself a commercial +primacy more evident, more comprehensive, and more solid than it had at +any previous time possessed."[5] In this large sense free trade may be +almost interpreted as the combination of the doctrines of the division +of labour and of _laissez-faire_ in regard to the world as a whole. The +division of labour between different countries of the world--so that +each concentrates its energies in supplying that for the production of +which it is best fitted--appears to offer the greatest possibility of +production; but this result cannot be secured unless trade and industry +are treated as the primary elements in the welfare of each community, +and political considerations are not allowed to hamper them. + +Stated in its simplest form, the principle which underlies the doctrine +of free trade is almost a truism; it is directly deducible from the very +notion of exchange (q.v.). Adam Smith and his successors have +demonstrated that in every case of voluntary exchange each party gains +something that is of greater value-in-use to him than that with which he +parts, and that consequently in every exchange, either between +individuals or between nations, both parties are the gainers. Hence it +necessarily follows that, since both parties gain through exchanging, +the more facilities there are for exchange the greater will be the +advantage to every individual all round.[6] There is no difficulty in +translating this principle into the terms of actual life, and stating +the conditions in which it holds good absolutely. If, at any given +moment, the mass of goods in the world were distributed among the +consumers with the minimum of restriction on interchange, each +competitor would obtain the largest possible share of the things he +procures in the world's market. But the argument is less conclusive when +the element of time is taken into account; what is true of each moment +separately is not necessarily true of any period in which the conditions +of production, or the requirements of communities, may possibly change. +Each individual is likely to act with reference to his own future, but +it may often be wise for the statesman to look far ahead, beyond the +existing generation.[7] Owing to the neglect of this element of time, +and the allowance which must be made for it, the reasoning as to the +advantages of free trade, which is perfectly sound in regard to the +distribution of goods already in existence, may become sophistical,[8] +if it is put forward as affording a complete demonstration of the +benefits of free trade as a regular policy. After all, human society is +very complex, and any attempt to deal with its problems off-hand by +appealing to a simple principle raises the suspicion that some important +factor may have been left out of account. When there is such mistaken +simplification, the reasoning may seem to have complete certainty, and +yet it fails to produce conviction, because it does not profess to deal +with the problem in all its aspects. When we concentrate attention on +the phenomena of exchange, we are viewing society as a mechanism in +which each acts under known laws and is impelled by one particular +force--that of self-interest; now, society is, no doubt, in this sense a +mechanism, but it is also an organism,[9] and it is only for very short +periods, and in a very limited way, that we can venture to neglect its +organic character without running the risk of falling into serious +mistakes. + +The doctrine of free trade maintains that in order to secure the +greatest possible mass of goods in the world as a whole, and the +greatest possibility of immediate comfort for the consumer, it is +expedient that there should be no restriction on the exchange of goods +and services either between individuals or communities. The +controversies in regard to this doctrine have not turned on its +certainty as a hypothetical principle, but on the legitimacy of the +arguments based upon it. It certainly supplies a principle in the light +of which all proposed trade regulations should be criticized. It gives +us a basis for examining and estimating the expense at which any +particular piece of trade restriction is carried out; but thus used, the +principle does not necessarily condemn the expenditure; the game may be +worth the candle or it may not, but at least it is well that we should +know how fast the candle is being burnt. It was in this critical spirit +that Adam Smith examined the various restrictions and encouragements to +trade which were in vogue in his day; he proved of each in turn that it +was expensive, but he showed that he was conscious that the final +decision could not be taken from this standpoint, since he recognized in +regard to the Navigation Acts that "defence is more than opulence."[10] +In more recent times, the same sort of attitude was taken by Henry +Sidgwick,[11] who criticizes various protective expedients in turn, in +the light of free trade, but does not treat it as conveying an +authoritative decision on their merits. + +But other exponents of the doctrine have not been content to employ it +in this fashion. They urge it in a more positive manner, and insist that +free trade pure and simple is _the_ foundation on which the economic +life of the community ought to be based. By men who advocate it in this +way, free trade is set forward as an ideal which it is a duty to +realize, and those who hold aloof from it or oppose it have been held up +to scorn as if they were almost guilty of a crime.[12] The development +of the material resources of the world is undoubtedly an important +element in the welfare of mankind; it is an aim which is common to the +whole race, and may be looked upon as contributing to the greatest +happiness of the greatest number. Competition in the open market seems +to secure that each consumer shall obtain the best possible terms; and +again, since all men are consumers whether they produce or not, or +whatever they produce, the greatest measure of comforts for each seems +likely to be attainable on these lines. For those who are frankly +cosmopolitan, and who regard material prosperity as at all events the +prime object at which public policy should aim, the free-trade doctrine +is readily transformed, from a mere principle of criticism, till it +comes to be regarded as the harbinger of a possible Utopia. It was in +this fashion that it was put forward by French economists and proved +attractive to some leading American statesmen in the 18th century. +Turgot regarded the colonial systems of the European countries as at +once unfair to their dependencies and dangerous to the peace of the +world. "It will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which shall be +the first to modify its policy according to the new conditions, and be +content to regard its colonies as if they were allied provinces and not +subjects of the mother country." It will be a wise and happy thing for +the nation which is the first to be convinced that the secret of +"success, so far as commercial policy is concerned, consists in +employing all its land in the manner most profitable for the +proprietary, all the hands in the manner most advantageous to the +workman personally, that is to say, in the manner in which each would +employ them, if we could let him be simply directed by his own interest, +and that all the rest of the mercantile policy is vanity and vexation of +spirit. When the entire separation of America shall have forced the +whole world to recognize this truth and purged the European nations of +commercial jealousy there will be one great cause of war less in the +world."[13] Pitt, under the influence of Adam Smith, was prepared to +admit the United States to the benefit of trade with the West Indian +Colonies; and Jefferson, accepting the principles of his French +teachers, would (in contradistinction to Alexander Hamilton) have been +willing to see his country renounce the attempt to develop manufactures +of her own.[14] It seemed as if a long step might be taken towards +realizing the free-trade ideal for the Anglo-Saxon race; but British +shipowners insisted on the retention of their privileges, and the +propitious moment passed away with the failure of the negotiations of +1783.[15] Free trade ceased to be regarded as a gospel, even in France, +till the ideal was revived in the writings of Bastiat, and helped to +mould the enthusiasm of Richard Cobden.[16] Through his zealous +advocacy, the doctrine secured converts in almost every part of the +world; though it was only in Great Britain that a great majority of the +citizens became so far satisfied with it that they adopted it as the +foundation of the economic policy of the country. + +It is not difficult to account for the conversion of Great Britain to +this doctrine; in the special circumstances of the first half of the +19th century it was to the interest of the most vigorous factors in the +economic life of the country to secure the greatest possible freedom for +commercial intercourse. Great Britain had, through her shipping, access +to all the markets of the world; she had obtained such a lead in the +application of machinery to manufactures that she had a practical +monopoly in textile manufactures and in the hardware trades; by removing +every restriction, she could push her advantage to its farthest extent, +and not only undersell native manufactures in other lands, but secure +food, and the raw materials for her manufactures, on the cheapest +possible terms. Free trade thus seemed to offer the means of placing an +increasing distance between Britain and her rivals, and of rendering the +industrial monopoly which she had attained impregnable. The capitalist +employer had superseded the landowner as the mainstay of the resources +and revenue of the realm, and insisted that the prosperity of +manufactures was the primary interest of the community as a whole. The +expectation, that a thoroughgoing policy of free trade would not only +favour an increase of employment, but also the cheapening of food, could +only have been roused in a country which was obliged to import a +considerable amount of corn. The exceptional weakness, as well as the +exceptional strength, of Great Britain, among European countries, made +it seem desirable to adopt the principle of unrestricted commercial +intercourse, not merely in the tentative fashion in which it had been +put in operation by Huskisson, but in the thoroughgoing fashion in which +it at last commended itself to the minds of Peel and Gladstone. The +"Manchester men" saw clearly where their interest lay; and the +fashionable political economy was ready to demonstrate that in pursuing +their own interest they were conferring the benefit of cheap clothing on +all the most poverty-stricken races of mankind. It seemed probable, in +the 'forties and early 'fifties, that other countries would take a +similar view of their own interests and would follow the example which +Great Britain had set.[17] That they have not done so, is partly due to +the fact that none of them had such a direct, or such a widely diffused, +interest in increased commercial intercourse as existed in Great +Britain; but their reluctance has been partly the result of the +criticism to which the free-trade doctrine has been subjected. The +principles expressed in the writings of Friedrich List have taken such +firm hold, both in America and in Germany, that these countries have +preferred to follow on the lines by which Great Britain successfully +built up her industrial prosperity in the 17th and 18th century, rather +than on those by which they have seen her striving to maintain it since +1846. + +Free trade was attractive as an ideal, because it appeared to offer the +greatest production of goods to the world as a whole, and the largest +share of material goods to each consumer; it is cosmopolitan, and it +treats consumption, and the interest of the consumer, as such, as the +end to be considered. Hence it lies open to objections which are partly +political and partly economic. + +As cosmopolitan, free-trade doctrine is apt to be indifferent to +national tradition and aspiration. In so far indeed as patriotism is a +mere aesthetic sentiment, it may be tolerated, but in so far as it +implies a genuine wish and intention to preserve and defend the national +habits and character to the exclusion of alien elements, the +cosmopolitan mind will condemn it as narrow and mischievous. In the +first half of the 19th century there were many men who believed that +national ambitions and jealousies of every kind were essentially +dynastic, and that if monarchies were abolished there would be fewer +occasions of war, so that the expenses of the business of government +would be enormously curtailed. For Cobden and his contemporaries it was +natural to regard the national administrative institutions as maintained +for the benefit of the "classes" and without much advantage to the +"masses." But in point of fact, modern times have shown the existence in +democracies of a patriotic sentiment which is both exclusive and +aggressive; and the burden of armaments has steadily increased. It was +by means of a civil war that the United States attained to a +consciousness of national life; while such later symptoms as the recent +interpretations of the Monroe doctrine, or the war with Spain, have +proved that the citizens of that democratic country cannot be regarded +as destitute of self-aggrandizing national ambition. + +In Germany the growth of militarism and nationalism have gone on side by +side under constitutional government, and certainly in harmony with +predominant public opinion. Neither of these communities is willing to +sink its individual conception of progress in those of the world at +large; each is jealous of the intrusion of alien elements which cannot +be reconciled with its own political and social system. And a similar +recrudescence of patriotic feeling has been observable in other +countries, such as Norway and Hungary: the growth of national sentiment +is shown, not only in the attempts to revive and popularize the use of a +national language, but still more decidedly in the determination to have +a real control over the economic life of the country. It is here that +the new patriotism comes into direct conflict with the political +principles of free trade as advocated by Bastiat and Cobden; for them +the important point was that countries, by becoming dependent on one +another, would be prevented from engaging in hostilities. The new +nations are determined that they will not allow other countries to have +such control over their economic condition, as to be able to exercise a +powerful influence on their political life. Each is determined to be the +master in his own house, and each has rejected free trade because of the +cosmopolitanism which it involves. + +Economically, free trade lays stress on consumption as the chief +criterion of prosperity. It is, of course, true that goods are produced +with the object of being consumed, and it is plausible to insist on +taking this test; but it is also true that consumption and production +are mutually interdependent, and that in some ways production is the +more important of the two. Consumption looks to the present, and the +disposal of actual goods; production looks to the future, and the +conditions under which goods can continue to be regularly provided and +thus become available for consumption in the long run. As regards the +prosperity of the community in the future it is important that goods +should be consumed in such a fashion as to secure that they shall be +replaced or increased before they are used up; it is the amount of +production rather than the amount of consumption that demands +consideration, and gives indication of growth or of decadence. In these +circumstances there is much to be said for looking at the economic life +of a country from the point of view which free-traders have abandoned or +ignore. It is not on the possibilities of consumption in the present, +but on the prospects of production _in the future_, that the continued +wealth of the community depends; and this principle is the only one +which conforms to the modern conception of the essential requirements of +sociological science in its wider aspect (see SOCIOLOGY). This is most +obviously true in regard to countries of which the resources are very +imperfectly developed. If their policy is directed to securing the +greatest possible comfort for each consumer in the present, it is +certain that progress will be slow; the planting of industries for which +the country has an advantage may be a tedious process; and in order to +stimulate national efficiency temporary protection--involving what is +otherwise unnecessary immediate cost to the consumer--may seem to be +abundantly justified. Such a free trader as John Stuart Mill himself +admits that a case may be made out for treating "infant industries" as +exceptions;[18] and if this exception be admitted it is likely to +establish a precedent. After all, the various countries of the world are +all in different stages of development; some are old and some are new; +and even the old countries differ greatly in the progress they have made +in distinct arts. The introduction of machinery has everywhere changed +the conditions of production, so that some countries have lost and +others have gained a special advantage. Most of the countries of the +world are convinced that the wisest economy is to attend to the +husbanding of their resources of every kind, and to direct their policy +not merely with a view to consumption in the present, but rather with +regard to the possibilities of increased production in the future. + +This deliberate rejection of the doctrine of free trade between nations, +both in its political and economic aspects, has not interfered, however, +with the steady progress of free commercial intercourse within the +boundaries of a single though composite political community. "Internal +free trade," though the name was not then current in this sense, was one +of the burning questions in England in the 17th century; it was perhaps +as important a factor as puritanism in the fall of Charles I. Internal +free trade was secured in France in the 18th century; thanks to +Hamilton,[19] it was embodied in the constitution of the United States; +it was introduced into Germany by Bismarck; and was firmly established +in the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia. It became +in consequence, where practicable, a part of the modern federal idea as +usually interpreted. There are thus great areas, externally +self-protecting, where free trade, as between internal divisions, has +been introduced with little, if any, political difficulty, and with +considerable economic advantage. These cases are sometimes quoted as +justifying the expectation that the same principle is likely to be +adopted sooner or later in regard to external trading relations. There +is some reason, however, for raising the question whether free trade has +been equally successful, not only in its economic, but in its social +results, in all the large political communities where it has been +introduced. In a region like the United States of America, it is +probably seen at its best; there is an immense variety of different +products throughout that great zone of the continent, so that the mutual +co-operation of the various parts is most beneficial, while the standard +of habit and comfort is so far uniform[20] throughout the whole region, +and the facilities for the change of employment are so many, that there +is little injurious competition between different districts. In the +British empire the conditions are reversed; but though the great +self-governing colonies have withdrawn from the circle, in the hope of +building up their own economic life in their own way, free trade is +still maintained over a very large part of the British empire. +Throughout this area, there are very varied physical conditions; there +is also an extraordinary variety of races, each with its own habits, and +own standard of comfort; and in these circumstances it may be doubted +whether the free competition, involved in free trade, is really +altogether wholesome. Within this sphere the ideal of Bastiat and his +followers is being realized. England, as a great manufacturing country, +has more than held her own; India and Ireland are supplied with +manufactured goods by England, and in each case the population is forced +to look to the soil for its means of support, and for purchasing power. +In each case the preference for tillage, as an occupation, has rendered +it comparatively easy to keep the people on the land; but there is some +reason to believe that the law of diminishing returns is already making +itself felt, at all events in India, and is forcing the people into +deeper poverty.[21] It may be doubtful in the case of Ireland how far +the superiority of England in industrial pursuits has prevented the +development of manufactures; the progress in the last decades of the +18th century was too short-lived to be conclusive; but there is at least +a strong impression in many quarters that the industries of Ireland +might have flourished if they had had better opportunities allowed +them.[22] In the case of India we know that the hereditary artistic +skill, which had been built up in bygone generations, has been stamped +out. It seems possible that the modern unrest in India, and the +discontent in Ireland, may be connected with the economic conditions in +these countries, on which free trade has been imposed without their +consent. So far the population which subsists on the cheaper food, and +has the lower standard of life, has been the sufferer; but the mischief +might operate in another fashion. The self-governing colonies at all +events feel that competition in the same market between races with +different standards of comfort has infinite possibilities of mischief. +It is easy to conjure up conditions under which the standard of comfort +of wage-earners in England would be seriously threatened. + +Since the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ was published it +has become clear that the free-trade doctrines of Bastiat and Cobden +have not been gaining ground in the world at large, and at the opening +of the 20th century it could hardly be said with confidence that the +question was "finally settled" so far as England was concerned. As to +whether the interests of Great Britain still demanded that she should +continue on the line she adopted in the exceptional conditions of the +middle of the 19th century, expert opinion was conspicuously +divided;[23] but there remained no longer the old enthusiasm for free +trade as the harbinger of an Utopia. The old principles of the bourgeois +manufacturers had been taken up by the proletariat and shaped to suit +themselves. Socialism, like free trade, is cosmopolitan in its aims, and +is indifferent to patriotism and hostile to militarism. Socialism, like +free trade, insists on material welfare as the primary object to be +aimed at in any policy, and, like free trade, socialism tests welfare by +reference to possibilities of consumption. In one respect there is a +difference; throughout Cobden's attack on the governing classes there +are signs of his jealousy of the superior status of the landed gentry, +but socialism has a somewhat wider range of view and demands "equality +of opportunity" with the capitalist as well. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Reference has already been made to the principal works + which deal critically with the free-trade policy. Professor Fawcett's + _Free Trade_ is a good exposition of free-trade principles; so also is + Professor Bastable's _Commerce of Nations_. Among authors who have + restated the principles with special reference to the revived + controversy on the subject may be mentioned Professor W. Smart, _The + Return to Protection, being a Restatement of the Case for Free Trade_ + (2nd ed., 1906), and A. C. Pigou, _Protective and Preferential Import + Duties_ (1906). (W. Cu.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] E. Misselden, _Free Trade or the Meanes to make Trade Flourish_ + (1622), p. 68; G. Malynes, _The Maintenance of Free Trade_ (1622), p. + 105. + + [2] H. Parker, _Of a Free Trade_ (1648), p. 8. + + [3] (1787), 27 Geo. III. c. 13. + + [4] Sir Walter Scott, _Guy Mannering_, chapter v. + + [5] Gladstone, "Free Trade, Railways and Commerce," in _Nineteenth + Century_ (Feb. 1880), vol. vii. p. 370. + + [6] Parker states a similar argument in the form in which it suited + the special problem of his day. "If merchandise be good for the + commonweal, then the more common it is made, the more open it is + laid, the more good it will convey to us." _Op. cit._ 20. + + [7] Schmoller, _Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre_ + (1904), ii. 607. + + [8] Byles, _Sophisms of Free Trade_; L. S. Amery, _Fundamental + Fallacies of Free Trade_, 13. + + [9] W. Cunningham, _Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement_, PP. + 5-11. + + [10] _Wealth of Nations_, book iv. chap. ii. + + [11] _Principles of Political Economy_, 485. + + [12] J. Morley, _Life of Cobden_, i. 230. + + [13] "Mémoire," 6 April 1776, in _Oeuvres_, viii. 460. + + [14] Jefferson, _Notes on Virginia_, 275. See also the articles on + JEFFERSON and HAMILTON, ALEXANDER. + + [15] One incidental effect of the failure to secure free trade was + that the African slave trade, with West Indies as a depot for + supplying the American market, ceased to be remunerative, and the + opposition to the abolition of the trade was very much weaker than it + would otherwise have been; see Hochstetter, "Die wirtschaftlichen und + politischen Motive für die Abschaffung des britischen + Sklavenhandels," in Schmoller, _Staats und Sozialwissenschaftliche + Forschungen_, xxv. i. 37. + + [16] J. Welsford, "Cobden's Foreign Teacher," in _National Review_ + (December 1905). + + [17] _Compatriot Club Lectures_ (1905), p. 306. + + [18] J. S. Mill, _Principles of Political Economy_, book v. chapter + x. § 1. + + [19] F. S. Oliver, _Alexander Hamilton_, 142. + + [20] The standard is, of course, lower among the negroes and mean + whites in the South than in the North and West. + + [21] F. Beauclerk, "Free Trade in India," in _Economic Review_ (July + 1907), xvii. 284. + + [22] A. E. Murray, _History of the Commercial and Financial Relations + between England and Ireland_, 294. + + [23] For the tariff reform movement in English politics see the + article on CHAMBERLAIN, J. Among continental writers G. Schmoller + (_Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre_, ii. 641) and A. + Wagner (Preface to M. Schwab's _Chamberlains Handelspolitik_) + pronounce in favour of a change, as Fuchs did by anticipation. + Schulze-Gaevernitz (_Britischer Imperialismus und englischer + Freihandel_), Aubry (_Étude critique de la politique commerciale de + l'Angleterre à l'égard de ses colonies_), and Blondel (_La politique + Protectionniste en Angleterre un nouveau danger pour la France_) are + against it. + + + + +FREGELLAE, an ancient town of Latium adiectum, situated on the Via +Latina, 11 m. W.N.W. of Aquinum, near the left branch of the Liris. It +is said to have belonged in early times to the Opici or Oscans, and +later to the Volscians. It was apparently destroyed by the Samnites a +little before 330 B.C., in which year the people of Fabrateria Vetus +(mod. Ceccano) besought the help of Rome against them, and in 328 B.C. a +Latin colony was established there. The place was taken in 320 B.C. by +the Samnites, but re-established by the Romans in 313 B.C. It continued +henceforward to be faithful to Rome; by breaking the bridges over the +Liris it interposed an obstacle to the advance of Hannibal on Rome in +212 B.C., and it was a native of Fregellae who headed the deputation of +the non-revolting colonies in 209 B.C. It appears to have been a very +important and flourishing place owing to its command of the crossing of +the Liris, and to its position in a fertile territory, and it was here +that, after the rejection of the proposals of M. Fulvius Flaccus for the +extension of Roman burgess-rights in 125 B.C., a revolt against Rome +broke out. It was captured by treachery in the same year and destroyed; +but its place was taken in the following year by the colony of +Fabrateria Nova, 3 m. to the S.E. on the opposite bank of the Liris, +while a post station Fregellanum (mod. Ceprano) is mentioned in the +itineraries; Fregellae itself, however, continued to exist as a village +even under the empire. The site is clearly traceable about ½ m. E. of +Ceprano, but the remains of the city are scanty. + + See G. Colasanti, _Fregellae, storia e topografia_ (1906). (T. As.) + + + + +FREIBERG, or FREYBERG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on +the Münzbach, near its confluence with the Mulde, 19 m. S.W. of Dresden +on the railway to Chemnitz, with a branch to Nossen. Pop. (1905) 30,896. +Its situation, on the rugged northern slope of the Erzgebirge, is +somewhat bleak and uninviting, but the town is generally well built and +makes a prosperous impression. A part of its ancient walls still +remains; the other portions have been converted into public walks and +gardens. Freiberg is the seat of the general administration of the mines +throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated mining academy +(_Bergakademie_), founded in 1765, is frequented by students from all +parts of the world. Connected with it are extensive collections of +minerals and models, a library of 50,000 volumes, and laboratories for +chemistry, metallurgy and assaying. Among its distinguished scholars it +reckons Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817), who was also a professor +there, and Alexander von Humboldt. Freiberg has extensive manufactures +of gold and silver lace, woollen cloths, linen and cotton goods, iron, +copper and brass wares, gunpowder and white-lead. It has also several +large breweries. In the immediate vicinity are its famous silver and +lead mines, thirty in number, and of which the principal ones passed +into the property of the state in 1886. The castle of Freudenstein or +Freistein, as rebuilt by the elector Augustus in 1572, is situated in +one of the suburbs and is now used as a military magazine. In its +grounds a monument was erected to Werner in 1851. The cathedral, rebuilt +in late Gothic style after its destruction by fire in 1484 and restored +in 1893, was founded in the 12th century. Of the original church a +magnificent German Romanesque doorway, known as the Golden Gate +(_Goldene Pforte_), survives. The church contains numerous monuments, +among others one to Prince Maurice of Saxony. Adjoining the cathedral is +the mausoleum (_Begräbniskapelle_), built in 1594 in the Italian +Renaissance style, in which are buried the remains of Henry the Pious +and his successors down to John George IV., who died in 1694. Of the +other four Protestant churches the most noteworthy is the Peterskirche +which, with its three towers, is a conspicuous object on the highest +point of the town. Among the other public buildings are the old +town-hall, dating from the 15th century, the antiquarian museum, and the +natural history museum. There are a classical and modern, a commercial +and an agricultural school, and numerous charitable institutions. + +Freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines (c. 1163). +The town, with the castle of Freudenstein, was built by Otto the Rich, +margrave of Meissen, in 1175, and its name, which first appears in 1221, +is derived from the extensive mining franchises granted to it about that +time. In all the partitions of the territories of the Saxon house of +Wettin, from the latter part of the 13th century onward, Freiberg always +remained common property, and it was not till 1485 (the mines not till +1537) that it was definitively assigned to the Albertine line. The +Reformation was introduced into Freiberg in 1536 by Henry the Pious, who +resided here. The town suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War, +and again during the French occupation from 1806 to 1814, during which +time it had to support an army of 700,000 men and find forage for +200,000 horses. + + See H. Gerlach, _Kleine Chronik von Freiberg_ (2nd ed., Freiberg, + 1898); H. Ermisch, _Das Freiberger Stadtrecht_ (Leipzig, 1889); + Ermisch and O. Posse, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Freiberg_, in _Codex + diplom. Sax. reg._ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1883-1891); _Freibergs Berg- und + Hüttenwesen_, published by the Bergmännischer Verein (Freiberg, 1883); + Ledebur, _Über die Bedeutung der Freiberger Bergakademie_ (_ib._ + 1903); Steche, _Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler der Amtshauptmannschaft + Freiberg_ (Dresden, 1884). + + + + +FREIBURG, a town of Germany in Prussian Silesia, on the Polsnitz, 35 m. +S.W. of Breslau, on the railway to Halbstadt. Pop. (1905) 9917. It has +an Evangelical and Roman Catholic church, and its industries include +watch-making, linen-weaving and distilling. In the neighbourhood are the +old and modern castles of the Fürstenstein family, whence the town is +sometimes distinguished as Freiburg unter dem Fürstenstein. At Freiburg, +on the 22nd of July 1762, the Prussians defended themselves successfully +against the superior forces of the Austrians. + + + + +FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, an archiepiscopal see and city of Germany in the +grand duchy of Baden, 12 m. E. of the Rhine, beautifully situated on the +Dreisam at the foot of the Schlossberg, one of the heights of the Black +Forest range, on the railway between Basel and Mannheim, 40 m. N. of the +former city. Pop. (1905) 76,285. The town is for the most part well +built, having several wide and handsome streets and a number of spacious +squares. It is kept clean and cool by the waters of the river, which +flow through the streets in open channels; and its old fortifications +have been replaced by public walks, and, what is more unusual, by +vineyards. It possesses a famous university, the Ludovica Albertina, +founded by Albert VI., archduke of Austria, in 1457, and attended by +about 2000 students. The library contains upwards of 250,000 volumes and +600 MSS., and among the other auxiliary establishments are an anatomical +hall and museum and botanical gardens. The Freiburg minster is +considered one of the finest of all the Gothic churches of Germany, +being remarkable alike for the symmetry of its proportions, for the +taste of its decorations, and for the fact that it may more correctly be +said to be finished than almost any other building of the kind. The +period of its erection probably lies for the most part between 1122 and +1252; but the choir was not built till 1513. The tower, which rises +above the western entrance, is 386 ft. in height, and it presents a +skilful transition from a square base into an octagonal superstructure, +which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most +exquisite open work in stone. In the interior of the church are some +beautiful stained glass windows, both ancient and modern, the tombstones +of several of the dukes of Zähringen, statues of archbishops of +Freiburg, and paintings by Holbein and by Hans Baldung (c. 1470-1545), +commonly called Grün. Among the other noteworthy buildings of Freiburg +are the palaces of the grand duke and the archbishop, the old town-hall, +the theatre, the _Kaufhaus_ or merchants' hall, a 16th-century building +with a handsome façade, the church of St Martin, with a graceful spire +restored 1880-1881, the new town-hall, completed 1901, in Renaissance +style, and the Protestant church, formerly the church of the abbey of +Thennenbach, removed hither in 1839. In the centre of the fish-market +square is a fountain surmounted by a statue of Duke Berthold III. of +Zähringen; in the Franziskaner Platz there is a monument to Berthold +Schwarz, the traditional discoverer here, in 1259, of gunpowder; the +Rotteck Platz takes its name from the monument of Karl Wenzeslaus von +Rotteck (1775-1840), the historian, which formerly stood on the site of +the Schwarz statue; and in Kaiser Wilhelm Strasse a bronze statue was +erected in 1876 to the memory of Herder, who in the early part of the +19th century founded in Freiburg an institute for draughtsmen, engravers +and lithographers, and carried on a famous bookselling business. On the +Schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two castles +destroyed by the French in 1744; and about 2 m. to the N.E. stands the +castle of Zähringen, the original seat of the famous family of the +counts of that name. Situated on the ancient road which runs by the +Höllenpass between the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine, Freiburg +early acquired commercial importance, and it is still the principal +centre of the trade of the Black Forest. It manufactures buttons, +chemicals, starch, leather, tobacco, silk thread, paper, and hempen +goods, as well as beer and wine. + +Freiburg is of uncertain foundation. In 1120 it became a free town, with +privileges similar to those of Cologne; but in 1219 it fell into the +hands of a branch of the family of Urach. After it had vainly attempted +to throw off the yoke by force of arms, it purchased its freedom in +1366; but, unable to reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money, +it was, in 1368, obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of +Hapsburg. In the 17th and 18th centuries it played a considerable part +as a fortified town. It was captured by the Swedes in 1632, 1634 and +1638; and in 1644 it was seized by the Bavarians, who shortly after, +under General Mercy, defeated in the neighbourhood the French forces +under Enghien and Turenne. The French were in possession from 1677 to +1697, and again in 1713-1714 and 1744; and when they left the place in +1748, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, they dismantled the +fortifications. The Baden insurgents gained a victory at Freiburg in +1848, and the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in June +1849, but in the following July the Prussian forces took possession and +occupied it until 1851. Since 1821 Freiburg has been the seat of an +archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of Mainz, Rottenberg and +Limburg. + + See Schreiber, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Münsters zu Freiburg_ + (1820 and 1825); _Geschichte der Stadt und Universität Freiburgs_ + (1857-1859); _Der Schlossberg bei Freiburg_ (1860); and Albert, _Die + Geschichtsschreibung der Stadt Freiburg_ (1902). + +_Battles of Freiburg, 3rd, 5th and 10th of August 1644._--During the +Thirty Years' War the neighbourhood of Freiburg was the scene of a +series of engagements between the French under Louis de Bourbon, due +d'Enghien (afterwards called the great Condé), and Henri de la Tour +d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne, and the Bavarians and Austrians +commanded by Franz, Freiherr von Mercy. + +At the close of the campaign of 1643 the French "Army of Weimar," having +been defeated and driven into Alsace by the Bavarians, had there been +reorganized under the command of Turenne, then a young general of +thirty-two and newly promoted to the marshalate. In May 1644 he opened +the campaign by recrossing the Rhine and raiding the enemy's posts as +far as Überlingen on the lake of Constance and Donaueschingen on the +Danube. The French then fell back with their booty and prisoners to +Breisach, a strong garrison being left in Freiburg. The Bavarian +commander, however, revenged himself by besieging Freiburg (June 27th), +and Turenne's first attempt to relieve the place failed. During July, as +the siege progressed, the French government sent the duc d'Enghien, who +was ten years younger still than Turenne, but had just gained his great +victory of Rocroy, to take over the command. Enghien brought with him a +veteran army, called the "Army of France," Turenne remaining in command +of the Army of Weimar. The armies met at Breisach on the 2nd of August, +by which date Freiburg had surrendered. At this point most commanders of +the time would have decided not to fight, but to manoeuvre Mercy away +from Freiburg; Enghien, however, was a fighting general, and Mercy's +entrenched lines at Freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an +obstacle. A few hours after his arrival, therefore, without waiting for +the rearmost troops of his columns, he set the combining armies in +motion for Krozingen, a village on what was then the main road between +Breisach and Freiburg. The total force immediately available numbered +only 16,000 combatants. Enghien and Turenne had arranged that the Army +of France was to move direct upon Freiburg by Wolfenweiter, while the +Army of Weimar was to make its way by hillside tracks to Wittnau and +thence to attack the rear of Mercy's lines while Enghien assaulted them +in front. Turenne's march (August 3rd, 1644) was slow and painful, as +had been anticipated, and late in the afternoon, on passing Wittnau, he +encountered the enemy. The Weimarians carried the outer lines of defence +without much difficulty, but as they pressed on towards Merzhausen the +resistance became more and more serious. Turenne's force was little more +than 6000, and these were wearied with a long day of marching and +fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the Black Forest. Thus the +turning movement came to a standstill far short of Uffingen, the village +on Mercy's line of retreat that Turenne was to have seized, nor was a +flank attack possible against Mercy's main line, from which he was +separated by the crest of the Schönberg. Meanwhile, Enghien's army had +at the prearranged hour (4 P.M.) attacked Mercy's position on the +Ebringen spur. A steep slope, vineyards, low stone walls and abatis had +all to be surmounted, under a galling fire from the Bavarian musketeers, +before the Army of France found itself, breathless and in disorder, in +front of the actual entrenchments of the crest. A first attack failed, +as did an attempt to find an unguarded path round the shoulder of the +Schönberg. The situation was grave in the extreme, but Enghien resolved +on Turenne's account to renew the attack, although only a quarter of his +original force was still capable of making an effort. He himself and all +the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led the infantry forward +again, the prince threw his baton into the enemy's lines for the +soldiers to retrieve, and in the end, after a bitter struggle, the +Bavarians, whose reserves had been taken away to oppose Turenne in the +Merzhausen defile, abandoned the entrenchments and disappeared into the +woods of the adjoining spur. Enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops, +fearing at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counter-stroke; +but none came. The French bivouacked in the rain, Turenne making his way +across the mountain to confer with the prince, and meanwhile Mercy +quietly drew off his army in the dark to a new set of entrenchments on +the ridge on which stood the Loretto Chapel. On the 4th of August the +Army of France and the Army of Weimar met at Merzhausen, the rearmost +troops of the Army of France came in, and the whole was arranged by the +major-generals in the plain facing the Loretto ridge. This position was +attacked on the 5th. Enghien had designed his battle even more carefully +than before, but as the result of a series of accidents the two French +armies attacked prematurely and straight to their front, one brigade +after another, and though at one moment Enghien, sword in hand, broke +the line of defence with his last intact reserve, a brilliant +counterstroke, led by Mercy's brother Kaspar (who was killed), drove out +the assailants. It is said that Enghien lost half his men on this day +and Mercy one-third of his, so severe was the battle. But the result +could not be gainsaid; it was for the French a complete and costly +failure. + +For three days after this the armies lay in position without fighting, +the French well supplied with provisions and comforts from Breisach, the +Bavarians suffering somewhat severely from want of food, and especially +forage, as all their supplies had to be hauled from Villingen over the +rough roads of the Black Forest. Enghien then decided to make use of the +Glotter Tal to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of +supply, and thus to force the Bavarians either to attack him at a +serious disadvantage, or to retreat across the hills with the loss of +their artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by +famine and desertion. With this object, the Army of Weimar was drawn off +on the morning of the 9th of August and marched round by Betzenhausen +and Lehen to Langen Denzling. The infantry of the Army of France, then +the trains, followed, while Enghien with his own cavalry faced Freiburg +and the Loretto position. + +[Illustration: Map-Battle of Freiburg.] + +Before dawn on the 10th the advance guard of Turenne's army was +ascending the Glotter Tal. But Mercy had divined his adversary's plan, +and leaving a garrison to hold Freiburg, the Bavarian army had made a +night march on the 9/10th to the Abbey of St Peter, whence on the +morning of the 10th Mercy fell back to Graben, his nearest magazine in +the mountains. Turenne's advanced guard appeared from the Glotter Tal +only to find a stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey. A +sharp action began, but Mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the French +infantry in the Glotter Tal broke it off and continued his retreat in +good order. Enghien thus obtained little material result from his +manoeuvre. Only two guns and such of Mercy's wagons that were unable to +keep up fell into the hands of the French. Enghien and Turenne did not +continue the chase farther than Graben, and Mercy fell back unmolested +to Rothenburg on the Tauber. + +The moral results of this sanguinary fighting were, however, important +and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable soldiers. +Enghien's pertinacity had not achieved a decision with the sword, but +Mercy had been so severely punished that he was unable to interfere with +his opponent's new plan of campaign. This, which was carried out by the +united armies and by reinforcements from France, while Turenne's cavalry +screened them by bold demonstrations on the Tauber, led to nothing less +than the conquest of the Rhine Valley from Basel to Coblenz, a task +which was achieved so rapidly that the Army of France and its victorious +young leader were free to return to France in two months from the time +of their appearance in Turenne's quarters at Breisach. + + + + +FREIDANK (VRÎDANC), the name by which a Middle High German didactic poet +of the early 13th century is known. It has been disputed whether the +word, which is equivalent to "free-thought," is to be regarded as the +poet's real name or only as a pseudonym; the latter is probably the +case. Little is known of Freidank's life. He accompanied Frederick II. +on his crusade to the Holy Land, where, in the years 1228-1229, a +portion at least of his work was composed; and it is said that on his +tomb (if indeed it was not the tomb of another Freidank) at Treviso +there was inscribed, with allusion to the character of his style, "he +always spoke and never sang." Wilhelm Grimm originated the hypothesis +that Freidank was to be identified with Walther von der Vogelweide; but +this is no longer tenable. Freidank's work bears the name of +_Bescheidenheit_, i.e. "practical wisdom," "correct judgment," and +consists of a collection of proverbs, pithy sayings, and moral and +satirical reflections, arranged under general heads. Its popularity till +the end of the 16th century is shown by the great number of MSS. extant. + + Sebastian Brant published the _Bescheidenheit_ in a modified form in + 1508. Wilhelm Grimm's edition appeared in 1834 (2nd ed. 1860), H. F. + Bezzenberger's in 1872. A later edition is by F. Sandvoss (1877). The + old Latin translation, _Fridangi Discretio_, was printed by C. Lemcke + in 1868; and there are two translations into modern German, A. + Bacmeister's (1861) and K. Simrock's (1867). See also F. Pfeiffer, + _Über Freidank_ (_Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_, 1855), and H. + Paul, _Über die ursprüngliche Anordnung von Freidanks Bescheidenheit_ + (1870). + + + + +FREIENWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Oder, +28 m. N.E. of Berlin, on the Frankfort-Angermünde railway. Pop. (1905) +7995. It has a small palace, built by the Great Elector, an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, and manufactures of furniture, machinery, +&c. The neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a +favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of Berlin. A new tower +commands a fine view of the Oderbruch (see ODER). Freienwalde, which +must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same name in +Pomerania, first appears as a town in 1364. + + + + +FREIESLEBENITE, a rare mineral consisting of sulphantimonite of silver +and lead, (Pb, Ag2)5Sb4S11. The monoclinic crystals are prismatic in +habit, with deeply striated prism and dome faces. The colour is +steel-grey, and the lustre metallic; hardness 2½, specific gravity 6.2. +It occurs with argentite, chalybite and galena in the silver veins of +the Himmelsfürst mine at Freiberg, Saxony, where it has been known since +1720. The species was named after J. K. Freiesleben, who had earlier +called it _Schilf-Glaserz_. Other localities are Hiendelaencina near +Guadalajara in Spain, Kapnik-Bánya in Hungary, and Guanajuato in Mexico. +A species separated from freieslebenite by V. von Zepharovich in 1871, +because of differences in crystalline form, is known as diaphorite (from +[Greek: diaphora], "difference"); it is very similar to freieslebenite +in appearance and has perhaps the same chemical composition (or possibly +Ag2PbSb2S5), but is orthorhombic in crystallization. A third mineral +also very similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic +andorite, AgPbSb3S6, which is mined as a silver ore at Oruro in Bolivia. + + + + +FREIGHT, (pronounced like "weight"; derived from the Dutch _vracht_ or +_vrecht_, in Fr. _fret_, the Eng. "fraught" being the same word, and +formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective = +"laden"), the lading or cargo of a ship, and the hire paid for their +transport (see AFFREIGHTMENT); from the original sense of +water-transport of goods the word has also come to be used for +land-transit (particularly in America, by railroad), and by analogy for +any load or burden. + + + + +FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND (1810-1876), German poet, was born at Detmold on +the 17th of June 1810. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native +town, and in his sixteenth year was sent to Soest, with a view to +preparing him for a commercial career. Here he had also time and +opportunity to acquire a taste for French and English literature. The +years from 1831 to 1836 he spent in a bank at Amsterdam, and 1837 to +1839 in a business house at Barmen. In 1838 his _Gedichte_ appeared and +met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the idea of a +commercial life and resolved to devote himself entirely to literature. +His repudiation of the political poetry of 1841 and its revolutionary +ideals attracted the attention of the king of Prussia, Frederick William +IV., who, in 1842, granted him a pension of 300 talers a year. He +married, and, to be near his friend Emanuel Geibel, settled at St Goar. +Before long, however, Freiligrath was himself carried away by the rising +tide of liberalism. In the poem _Ein Glaubensbekenntnis_ (1844) he +openly avowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old +adversary, Georg Herwegh; the day, he declared, of his own poetic +trifling with Romantic themes was over; Romanticism itself was dead. He +laid down his pension, and, to avoid the inevitable political +persecution, took refuge in Switzerland. As a sequel to the +_Glaubensbekenntnis_ he published _Ça ira!_ (1846), which strained still +further his relations with the German authorities. He fled to London, +where he resumed the commercial life he had broken off seven years +before. When the Revolution of 1848 broke out, it seemed to Freiligrath, +as to all the liberal thinkers of the time, the dawn of an era of +political freedom; and, as may be seen from the poems in his collection +of _Politische und soziale Gedichte_ (1849-1851), he welcomed it with +unbounded enthusiasm. He returned to Germany and settled in Düsseldorf; +but it was not long before he had again called down upon himself the +ill-will of the ruling powers by a poem, _Die Toten an die Lebenden_ +(1848). He was arrested on a charge of _lèse-majesté_, but the +prosecution ended in his acquittal. New difficulties arose; his +association with the democratic movement rendered him an object of +constant suspicion, and in 1851 he judged it more prudent to go back to +London, where he remained until 1868. In that year he returned to +Germany, settling first in Stuttgart and in 1875 in the neighbouring +town of Cannstatt, where he died on the 18th of March 1876. + +As a poet, Freiligrath was the most gifted member of the German +revolutionary group. Coming at the very close of the Romantic age, his +own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most part the familiar +thoughts and imagery of his Romantic predecessors; but at an early age +he had been attracted by the work of French contemporary poets, and he +reinvigorated the German lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of +Victor Hugo. In this reconciliation of French and German romanticism lay +Freiligrath's significance for the development of the lyric in Germany. +His remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to be +seen in his translations of English and Scottish ballads, of the poetry +of Burns, Mrs Hemans, Longfellow and Tennyson (_Englische Gedichte aus +neuerer Zeit_, 1846; _The Rose, Thistle and Shamrock_, 1853, 6th ed. +1887); he also translated Shakespeare's _Cymbeline_, _Winter's Tale_ and +_Venus and Adonis_, as well as Longfellow's _Hiawatha_ (1857). +Freiligrath is most original in his revolutionary poetry. His poems of +this class suffer, it is true, under the disadvantage of all political +poetry--purely temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much +that has no claim to be called poetry at all--but the agitator +Freiligrath, when he is at his best, displays a vigour and strength, a +power of direct and cogent poetic expression, not to be found in any +other political singer of the age. + + Freiligrath's _Gedichte_ have passed through some fifty editions, and + his _Gesammelte Dichtungen_, first published in 1870, have reached a + sixth edition (1898). _Nachgelassenes_ (including a translation of + Byron's _Mazeppa_) was published in 1883. A selection of Freiligrath's + best-known poems in English translation was edited by his daughter, + Mrs Freiligrath-Kroeker, in 1869; also _Songs of a Revolutionary + Epoch_ were translated by J. L. Joynes in 1888. Cp. E. + Schmidt-Weissenfels, _F. Freiligrath, eine Biographie_ (1876); W. + Buchner, _F. Freiligrath, ein Dichterleben in Briefen_ (2 vols., + 1881); G. Freiligrath, _Erinnerungen an F. Freiligrath_ (1889); P. + Besson, _Freiligrath_ (Paris, 1899); K. Richter, _Freiligrath als + Übersetzer_ (1899). (J. G. R.) + + + + +FREIND, JOHN (1675-1728), English physician, younger brother of Robert +Freind (1667-1751), headmaster of Westminster school, was born in 1675 +at Croton in Northamptonshire. He made great progress in classical +knowledge under Richard Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church, +Oxford, under Dean Aldrich, and while still very young, produced, along +with Peter Foulkes, an excellent edition of the speeches of Aeschines +and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon. After this he began the +study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attainments by +various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry at Oxford in +1704. In the following year he accompanied the English army, under the +earl of Peterborough, into Spain, and on returning home in 1707, wrote +an account of the expedition, which attained great popularity. Two years +later he published his _Prelectiones chimicae_, which he dedicated to +Sir Isaac Newton. Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders, +whither he had accompanied the British troops, he took up his residence +in London, where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician. In +1716 he became fellow of the college of physicians, of which he was +chosen one of the censors in 1718, and Harveian orator in 1720. In 1722 +he entered parliament as member for Launceston in Cornwall, but, being +suspected of favouring the cause of the exiled Stuarts, he spent half of +that year in the Tower. During his imprisonment he conceived the plan of +his most important work, _The History of Physic_, of which the first +part appeared in 1725, and the second in the following year. In the +latter year he was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office +which he held till his death on the 26th of July 1728. + + A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of the + _History of Physic_, edited by Dr John Wigan, was published in London + in 1732. + + + + +FREINSHEIM [FREINSHEMIUS], JOHANN (1608-1660), German classical scholar +and critic, was born at Ulm on the 16th of November 1608. After studying +at the universities of Marburg, Giessen and Strassburg, he visited +France, where he remained for three years. He returned to Strassburg in +1637, and in 1642 was appointed professor of eloquence at Upsala. In +1647 he was summoned by Queen Christina to Stockholm as court librarian +and historiographer. In 1650 he resumed his professorship at Upsala, but +early in the following year he was obliged to resign on account of +ill-health. In 1656 he became honorary professor at Heidelberg, and died +on the 31st of August 1660. Freinsheim's literary activity was chiefly +devoted to the Roman historians. He first introduced the division into +chapters and paragraphs, and by means of carefully compiled indexes +illustrated the lexical peculiarities of each author. He is best known +for his famous supplements to Quintus Curtius and Livy, containing the +missing books written by himself. He also published critical editions of +Curtius and Florus. + + + + +FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSÉ (1719-1773), Portuguese historian and +philologist, was born at Lisbon on the 3rd of January 1719. He belonged +to the monastic society of St Philip Neri, and was a zealous member of +the literary association known as the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion +with which he adopted the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed +much to the improvement of the style of Portuguese prose literature, but +his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry by a +translation of Horace's _Ars poëtica_ was less successful. The work in +which he set forth his opinions regarding the vicious taste pervading +the current Portuguese prose literature is entitled _Maximas sobre a +Arte Oratoria_ (1745) and is preceded by a chronological table forming +almost a social and physical history of Portugal. His best known work, +however, is his _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (1758), which has given +him a place in the first rank of Portuguese historians, and has been +translated into French (Paris, 1781). He also wrote a poetical +dictionary (_Diccionario poetico_) and a translation of Racine's +_Athalie_ (1762), and his _Réflexions sur la langue portugaise_ was +published in 1842 by the Lisbon society for the promotion of useful +knowledge. He died at Mafra on the 5th of July 1773. + + + + +FREISCHÜTZ, in German folklore, a marksman who by a compact with the +devil has obtained a certain number of bullets destined to hit without +fail whatever object he wishes. As the legend is usually told, six of +the _Freikugeln_ or "free bullets" are thus subservient to the +marksman's will, but the seventh is at the absolute disposal of the +devil himself. Various methods were adopted in order to procure +possession of the marvellous missiles. According to one the marksman, +instead of swallowing the sacramental host, kept it and fixed it on a +tree, shot at it and caused it to bleed great drops of blood, gathered +the drops on a piece of cloth and reduced the whole to ashes, and then +with these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his +bullets were made. Various vegetable or animal substances had the +reputation of serving the same purpose. Stories about the Freischütz +were especially common in Germany during the 14th, 15th and 16th +centuries; but the first time that the legend was turned to literary +profit is said to have been by Apel in the _Gespensterbuch_ or "Book of +Ghosts." It formed the subject of Weber's opera _Der Freischütz_ (1821), +the libretto of which was written by Friedrich Kind, who had suggested +Apel's story as an excellent theme for the composer. The name by which +the Freischütz is known in French is Robin des Bois. + + See Kind, _Freyschützbuch_ (Leipzig, 1843); _Revue des deux mondes_ + (February 1855); Grässe, _Die Quelle des Freischütz_ (Dresden, 1875). + + + + +FREISING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Isar, 16 +m. by rail N.N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 13,538. Among its eight Roman +Catholic churches the most remarkable is the cathedral, which dates from +about 1160 and is famous for its curious crypt. Noteworthy also are the +old palace of the bishops, now a clerical seminary, the theological +lyceum and the town-hall. There are several schools in the town, and +there is a statue to the chronicler, Otto of Freising, who was bishop +here from 1138 to 1158. Freising has manufactures of agricultural +machinery and of porcelain, while printing and brewing are carried on. +Near the town is the site of the Benedictine abbey of Weihenstephan, +which existed from 725 to 1803. This is now a model farm and brewery. +Freising is a very ancient town and is said to have been founded by the +Romans. After being destroyed by the Hungarians in 955 it was fortified +by the emperor Otto II. in 976 and by Duke Welf of Bavaria in 1082. A +bishopric was established here in 724 by St Corbinianus, whose brother +Erimbert was consecrated second bishop by St Boniface in 739. Later on +the bishops acquired considerable territorial power and in the 17th +century became princes of the Empire. In 1802 the see was secularized, +the bulk of its territories being assigned to Bavaria and the rest to +Salzburg, of which Freising had been a suffragan bishopric. In 1817 an +archbishopric was established at Freising, but in the following year it +was transferred to Munich. The occupant of the see is now called +archbishop of Munich and Freising. + + See C. Meichelbeck, _Historiae Frisingensis_ (Augsburg, 1724-1729, new + and enlarged edition 1854). + + + + +FRÉJUS, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France. Pop. (1906) +3430. It is 28½ m. S.E. of Draguignan (the chief town of the +department), and 22½ m. S.W. of Cannes by rail. It is only important on +account of the fine Roman remains that it contains, for it is now a mile +from the sea, its harbour having been silted up by the deposits of the +Argens river. Since the 4th century it has been a bishop's see, which is +in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence. In modern times the +neighbouring fishing village at St Raphaël (2½ m. by rail S.E., and on +the seashore) has become a town of 4865 inhabitants (in 1901); in 1799 +Napoleon disembarked there, on his return from Egypt, and reembarked for +Elba in 1814, while nowadays it is much frequented as a health resort, +as is also Valescure (2 m. N.W. on the heights above). The cathedral +church in part dates from the 12th century, but only small portions of +the old medieval episcopal palace are now visible, as it was rebuilt +about 1823. The ramparts of the old town can still be traced for a long +distance, and there are fragments of two moles, of the theatre and of a +gate. The amphitheatre, which seated 12,000 spectators, is in a better +state of preservation. The ruins of the great aqueduct which brought the +waters of the Siagnole, an affluent of the Siagne, to the town, can +still be traced for a distance of nearly 19 m. The original hamlet was +the capital of the tribe of the Oxybii, while the town of Forum Julii +was founded on its site by Julius Caesar in order to secure to the +Romans a harbour independent of that of Marseilles. The buildings of +which ruins exist were mostly built by Caesar or by Augustus, and show +that it was an important naval station and arsenal. But the town +suffered much at the hands of the Arabs, of Barbary pirates, and of its +inhabitants, who constructed many of their dwellings out of the ruined +Roman buildings. The ancient harbour (really but a portion of the +lagoons, which had been deepened) is now completely silted up. Even in +early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual digging, while +about 1700 this was closed, and now a sandy and partly cultivated waste +extends between the town and the seashore. + + See J. A. Aubenas, _Histoire de Fréjus_ (Fréjus, 1881); Ch. Lenthéric, + _La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1880), chap. vii. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE (1817-1885), American lawyer and +statesman, of Dutch descent, was born at Millstone, New Jersey, on the +4th of August 1817. His grandfather, Frederick Frelinghuysen +(1753-1804), was an eminent lawyer, one of the framers of the first New +Jersey constitution, a soldier in the War of Independence, and a member +(1778-1779 and 1782-1783) of the Continental Congress from New Jersey, +and in 1793-1796 of the United States senate; and his uncle, Theodore +(1787-1862), was attorney-general of New Jersey from 1817 to 1829, was a +United States senator from New Jersey in 1829-1835, was the Whig +candidate for vice-president on the Clay ticket in 1844, and was +chancellor of the university of New York in 1839-1850 and president of +Rutgers College in 1850-1862. Frederick Theodore, left an orphan at the +age of three, was adopted by his uncle, graduated at Rutgers in 1836, +and studied law in Newark with his uncle, to whose practice he succeeded +in 1839, soon after his admission to the bar. He became attorney for the +Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Morris Canal and Banking Company, +and other corporations, and from 1861 to 1867 was attorney-general of +New Jersey. In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace congress at +Washington, and in 1866 was appointed by the governor of New Jersey, as +a Republican, to fill a vacancy in the United States senate. In the +winter of 1867 he was elected to fill the unexpired term, but a +Democratic majority in the legislature prevented his re-election in +1869. In 1870 he was nominated by President Grant, and confirmed by the +senate, as United States minister to England to succeed John Lothrop +Motley, but declined the mission. From 1871 to 1877 he was again a +member of the United States senate, in which he was prominent in debate +and in committee work, and was chairman of the committee on foreign +affairs during the Alabama Claims negotiations. He was a strong opponent +of the reconstruction measures of President Johnson, for whose +conviction he voted (on most of the specific charges) in the impeachment +trial. He was a member of the joint committee which drew up and reported +(1877) the Electoral Commission Bill, and subsequently served as a +member of the commission. On the 12th of December 1881 he was appointed +secretary of state by President Arthur to succeed James G. Blaine, and +served until the inauguration of President Cleveland in 1885. Retiring, +with his health impaired by overwork, to his home in Newark, he died +there on the 20th of May, less than three months after relinquishing the +cares of office. + + + + +FREMANTLE, a seaport of Swan county, Western Australia, at the mouth of +the Swan river, 12 m. by rail S.W. of Perth. It is the terminus of the +Eastern railway, and is a town of some industrial activity, +shipbuilding, soap-boiling, saw-milling, smelting, iron-founding, +furniture-making, flour-milling, brewing and tanning being its chief +industries. The harbour, by the construction of two long moles and the +blasting away of the rocks at the bar, has been rendered secure. The +English, French and German mail steamers call at the port. Fremantle +became a municipality in 1871; but there are now three separate +municipalities--Fremantle, with a population in 1901 of 14,704; +Fremantle East (2494); and Fremantle North (3246). At Rottnest Island, +off the harbour, there are government salt-works and a residence of the +governor, also penal and reformatory establishments. + + + + +FRÉMIET, EMMANUEL (1824- ), French sculptor, born in Paris, was a +nephew and pupil of Rude; he chiefly devoted himself to animal sculpture +and to equestrian statues in armour. His earliest work was in scientific +lithography (osteology), and for a while he served in times of adversity +in the gruesome office of "painter to the Morgue." In 1843 he sent to +the Salon a study of a "Gazelle," and after that date was very prolific +in his works. His "Wounded Bear" and "Wounded Dog" were produced in +1850, and the Luxembourg Museum at once secured this striking example of +his work. From 1855 to 1859 Frémiet was engaged on a series of military +statuettes for Napoleon III. He produced his equestrian statue of +"Napoleon I." in 1868, and of "Louis d'Orléans" in 1869 (at the Château +de Pierrefonds) and in 1874 the first equestrian statue of "Joan of +Arc," erected in the Place des Pyramides, Paris; this he afterwards +(1889) replaced with another and still finer version. In the meanwhile +he had exhibited his masterly "Gorilla and Woman" which won him a medal +of honour at the Salon of 1887. Of the same character, and even more +remarkable, is his "Ourang-Outangs and Borneo Savage" of 1895, a +commission from the Paris Museum of Natural History. Frémiet also +executed the statue of "St Michael" for the summit of the spire of the +Église St Michel, and the equestrian statue of Velasquez for the Jardin +de l'Infante at the Louvre. He became a member of the Académie des +Beaux-Arts in 1892, and succeeded Barye as professor of animal drawing +at the Natural History Museum of Paris. + + + + +FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES (1813-1890), American explorer, soldier and +political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the 21st of January +1813. His father, a native of France, died when the boy was in his sixth +year, and his mother, a member of an aristocratic Virginia family, then +removed to Charleston, South Carolina. In 1828, after a year's special +preparation, young Frémont entered the junior class of the college of +Charleston, and here displayed marked ability, especially in +mathematics; but his irregular attendance and disregard of college +discipline led to his expulsion from the institution, which, however, +conferred upon him a degree in 1836. In 1833 he was appointed teacher of +mathematics on board the sloop of war "Natchez," and was so engaged +during a cruise along the South American coast which was continued for +about two and a half years. Soon after returning to Charleston he was +appointed professor of mathematics in the United States navy, but he +chose instead to serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken +chiefly for the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a +proposed railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. In July 1838 he was +appointed second lieutenant of Topographical Engineers in the United +States army, and for the next three years he was assistant to the French +explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollet (1786-1843), employed by the war +department to survey and map a large part of the country lying between +the upper waters of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In 1841 Frémont +surveyed, for the government, the lower course of the Des Moines river. +In the same year he married Jessie, the daughter of Senator Thomas H. +Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure through Benton's +influence with the government that Frémont was enabled to accomplish +within the next few years the exploration of much of the territory +between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Ocean. + +When the claim of the United States to the Oregon territory was being +strengthened by occupation, Frémont was sent, at his urgent request, to +explore the frontier beyond the Missouri river, and especially the Rocky +Mountains in the vicinity of the South Pass, through which the American +immigrants travelled. Within four months (1842) he surveyed the Pass and +ascended to the summit of the highest of the Wind River Mountains, since +known as Frémont's Peak, and the interest aroused by his descriptions +was such that in the next year he was sent on a second expedition to +complete the survey across the continent along the line of travel from +Missouri to the mouth of the Columbia river. This time he not only +carried out his instructions but, by further explorations together with +interesting descriptions, dispelled general ignorance with respect to +the main features of the country W. of the Rocky Mountains: the Great +Salt Lake, the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the fertile +river basins of the Mexican province of California. + +His report of this expedition upon his return to Washington, D.C., in +1844, aroused much solicitude for California, which, it was feared, +might, in the event of war then threatening between the United States +and Mexico, be seized by Great Britain. In the spring of 1845 Frémont +was despatched on a third expedition for the professed purposes of +further exploring the Great Basin and the Pacific Coast, and of +discovering the easiest lines of communication between them, as well as +for the secret purpose of assisting the United States, in case of war +with Mexico, to gain possession of California. He and his party of +sixty-two arrived there in January 1846. Owing to the number of American +immigrants who had settled in California, the Mexican authorities there +became suspicious and hostile, and ordered Frémont out of the province. +Instead of obeying he pitched his camp near the summit of a mountain +overlooking Monterey, fortified his position, and raised the United +States flag. A few days later he was proceeding toward the Oregon border +when new instructions from Washington caused him to retrace his steps +and, perhaps, to consider plans for provoking war. The extent of his +responsibility for the events that ensued is not wholly clear, and has +been the subject of much controversy; his defenders have asserted that +he was not responsible for the seizure of Sonoma or for the so-called +"Bear-Flag War"; and that he played a creditable part throughout. (For +an opposite view see CALIFORNIA.) Commodore John D. Sloat, after seizing +Monterey, transferred his command to Commodore Robert Field Stockton +(1795-1866), who made Frémont major of a battalion; and by January 1847 +Stockton and Frémont completed the conquest of California. In the +meantime General Stephen Watts Kearny (1794-1848) had been sent by the +Government to conquer it and to establish a government. This created a +conflict of authority between Stockton and Kearny, both of whom were +Frémont's superior officers. Stockton, ignoring Kearny, commissioned +Frémont military commandant and governor. But Kearny's authority being +confirmed about the 1st of April, Frémont, for repeated acts of +disobedience, was sent under arrest to Washington, where he was tried by +court-martial, found guilty (January 1847) of mutiny, disobedience and +conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced to dismissal +from the service. President Polk approved of the verdict except as to +mutiny, but remitted the penalty, whereupon Frémont resigned. + +With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring acquired by the +United States, Frémont was eager for a railway from the Atlantic to the +Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out at his own and Senator Benton's +expense to find passes for such a railway along a line westward from the +headwaters of the Rio Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led +astray by a guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several +of his men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger, +he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and then +westward through the valley of the Gila into southern California. Late +in the year 1853, however, he returned to the place where the guide had +led him astray, found passes through the mountains to the westward +between latitudes 37° and 38° N., and arrived in San Francisco early in +May 1854. From the conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855, +when he removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in +December 1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators +from the new state. But as he drew the short term, he served only from +the 10th of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851. Although a +candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the pro-slavery party. His +opposition to slavery, however, together with his popularity--won by the +successes, hardships and dangers of his exploring expeditions, and by +his part in the conquest of California--led to his nomination, largely +on the ground of "availability," for the presidency in 1856 by the +Republicans (this being their first presidential campaign), and by the +National Americans or "Know-Nothings." In the ensuing election he was +defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes. + +Soon after the Civil War began, Frémont was appointed major-general and +placed in command of the western department with headquarters at St +Louis, but his lack of judgment and of administrative ability soon became +apparent, the affairs of his department fell into disorder, and Frémont +seems to have been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted. +On the 30th of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which he declared +the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated and their slaves +emancipated. For this he was applauded by the radical Republicans, but +his action was contrary to an act of congress of the 6th of August and to +the policy of the Administration. On the 11th of September President +Lincoln, who regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might +alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he was trying +to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by serious charges +against Frémont, the president sent Montgomery Blair, the +postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs, the quartermaster-general, +to investigate the department; they reported that Frémont's management +was extravagant and inefficient; and in November he was removed. Out of +consideration for the "Radicals," however, Frémont was placed in command +of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. In the +spring and summer of 1862 he co-operated with General N. P. Banks against +"Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability +as a commander, was defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his +troops were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form the +Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed in command, +Frémont declined to serve under Pope, whom he outranked, and retired from +active service. On the 31st of May 1864 he was nominated for the +presidency by a radical faction of the Republican party, opposed to +President Lincoln, but his following was so small that on the 21st of +September he withdrew from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor +of the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was +appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the retired +list. He died in New York on the 13th of July 1890. + + See J. C. Frémont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky + Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844_ + (Washington, 1845); Frémont's _Memoirs of my Life_ (New York, 1887); + and J. Bigelow, _Memoirs of the Life and Public Services of John C. + Frémont_ (New York, 1856). + + + + +FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Dodge county, Nebraska, U.S.A., +about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank of the Platte river, which +here abounds in picturesque bluffs and wooded islands. Pop. (1890) 6747; +(1900) 7241 (1303 foreign-born); (1910) 8718. It is on the main line of +the Union Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago & +North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the formerly +independent Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley and the Sioux City & +Pacific) converge here. The city has an attractive situation and is +beautifully shaded. It has a public library and is the seat of the +Fremont College, Commercial Institute and School of Pharmacy (1875), a +private institution. There is considerable local trade with the rich +farming country of the Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale +grain interests are especially important. Among the manufactures are +flour, carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators and +beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and +water-works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became the county-seat in +1860. It was chartered as a city (second-class) in 1871, and became a +city of the first class in 1901. + + + + +FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Sandusky county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7141; (1900) 8439, +of whom 1074 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9939. Fremont is served by +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake +Erie & Western, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The river is +navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of +Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public library +(1873) and parks, in large measure the gifts of his uncle, Sardis +Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural region; oil and +natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the city has various +manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons, cutlery, bricks, +agricultural implements, stoves and ranges, safety razors, carriage +irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet sugar, canned vegetables, +malt extract, garters and suspenders. The total factory product was +valued at $2,833,385 in 1905, an increase of 23.4% over that of 1900. +Fremont is on the site of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a +trading post was at times maintained here; but the place is best known +in history as the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of +1812, and on the 2nd of August 1813 gallantly and successfully defended +by Major George Croghan (1791-1849), with 160 men, against about 1000 +British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry A. Proctor. In 1906 +Croghan's remains were re-interred on the site of the old fort. Until +1849, when the present name was adopted in honour of J. C. Frémont, the +place was known as Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in +1829 and was first chartered as a city in 1867. + + + + +FRÉMY, EDMOND (1814-1894), French chemist, was born at Versailles on the +29th of February 1814. Entering Gay-Lussac's laboratory in 1831, he +became _préparateur_ at the École Polytechnique in 1834 and at the +Collège de France in 1837. His next post was that of _répétiteur_ at the +École Polytechnique, where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in +1850 he succeeded Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Muséum +d'Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession to M. E. +Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd of February +1894. His work included investigations of osmic acid, of the ferrates, +stannates, plumbates, &c., and of ozone, attempts to obtain free +fluorine by the electrolysis of fused fluorides, and the discovery of +anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and of a series of _acides sulphazotés_, the +precise nature of which long remained a matter of discussion. He also +studied the colouring matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of +bone, cerebral matter and other animal substances, and the processes of +fermentation, in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of +Pasteur's views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical +applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a teacher to +the training of industrial chemists. In this field he contributed to our +knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel, sulphuric acid, glass +and paper, and in particular worked at the saponification of fats with +sulphuric acid and the utilization of palmitic acid for candle-making. +In the later years of his life he applied himself to the problem of +obtaining alumina in the crystalline form, and succeeded in making +rubies identical with the natural gem not merely in chemical composition +but also in physical properties. + + + + +FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- ), American sculptor, was born at +Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 20th of April 1850, the son of Henry Flagg +French, a lawyer, who for a time was assistant-secretary of the United +States treasury. After a year at the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology, French spent a month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then +began to work on commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received +from the town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known +statue "The Minute Man," which was unveiled (April 19, 1875) on the +centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French had gone to +Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas Ball. French's +best-known work is "Death Staying the Hand of the Sculptor," a memorial +for the tomb of the sculptor Martin Milmore, in the Forest Hills +cemetery, Boston; this received a medal of honour at Paris, in 1900. +Among his other works are: a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly, Boston; +"Gen. Cass," National Hall of Statuary, Washington; "Dr Gallaudet and +his First Deaf-Mute Pupil," Washington; the colossal "Statue of the +Republic," for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago; statues of Rufus +Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge, Mass.), and Thomas Starr King +(San Francisco, California), a memorial to the architect Richard M. +Hunt, in Fifth Avenue, opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large +"Alma Mater," near the approach to Columbia University, New York. In +collaboration with Edward C. Potter he modelled the "Washington," +presented to France by the Daughters of the American Revolution; the +"General Grant" in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and the "General Joseph +Hooker" in Boston. French became a member of the National Academy of +Design (1901), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League, +and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome. + + + + +FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an Irish political +pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He was educated at Louvain, and +returning to Ireland became a priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was +appointed bishop of Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the +political disturbances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave +Ireland in 1651, and the remainder of his life was passed on the +continent of Europe. He acted as coadjutor to the archbishops of +Santiago de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop of Ghent, and died +at Ghent on the 23rd of August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack on +James Butler, marquess of Ormonde, entitled "The Unkinde Desertor of +Loyall Men and True Frinds," and shortly afterwards "The Bleeding +Iphigenia." The most important of his other pamphlets is the "Narrative +of the Earl of Clarendon's Settlement and Sale of Ireland" (Louvain, +1668). + + The _Historical Works_ of Bishop French, comprising the three + pamphlets already mentioned and some letters, were published by S. H. + Bindon at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, _Irish Writers of the 17th + Century_ (Dublin, 1846); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _Contemporary History of + Affairs in Ireland_, 1641-1652 (Dublin, 1879-1880); and T. Carte, + _Life of James, Duke of Ormond_ (new ed., Oxford, 1851). + + + + +FRENCH CONGO, the general name of the French possessions in equatorial +Africa. They have an area estimated at 700,000 sq. m., with a +population, also estimated, of 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. The whites +numbered (1906) 1278, of whom 502 were officials. French Congo, +officially renamed FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910, comprises--(1) the +Gabun Colony, (2) the Middle Congo Colony, (3) the Ubangi-Shari +Circumscription, (4) the Chad Circumscription. The two last-named +divisions form the Ubangi-Shari-Chad Colony. + +The present article treats of French Congo as a unit. It is of highly +irregular shape. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish) +Muni River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the Sahara, E. +by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian Congo and the Portuguese +territory of Kabinda. In the greater part of its length the southern +frontier is the middle course of the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the +chief northern affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the +frontier keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course is +partitioned between Belgium and Portugal. The coast line, some 600 m. +long, extends from 5° S. to 1° N. The northern frontier, starting inland +from the Muni estuary, after skirting the Spanish settlements follows a +line drawn a little north of 2° N. and extending east to 16° E. North of +this line the country is part of Cameroon, German territory extending so +far inland from the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the +Ubangi. From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French +Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east until +the Shari is reached in 10° 40' N. The Shari then forms the frontier up +to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan regions of French +West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating the colony from the +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting between the Nile and the +Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the +northern part of French Congo (see WADAI and BAGIRMI). + + _Physical Features._--The coast line, beginning in the north at + Corisco Bay, is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by the + estuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly + straight line until the delta of the Ogowé is reached, where Cape + Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends uniformly S.E. + without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of Mayumba, + the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be mentioned. A + large proportion of the coast region is occupied by primeval forest, + with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft., but there is a + considerable variety of scenery--open lagoons, mangrove swamps, + scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of tangled + underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches of + cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from 3000 + to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with an + elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep + river-valleys, the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in + some places 760 ft. high. + + [Illustration: Map of French Congo.] + + The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces. On the + higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand; on the + second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide grassy + tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin forest, + and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m. broad. + The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally + unnavigable. The most important, the Ogowé (q.v.), is, however, + navigable from its mouth to N'Jole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to the + south of the Ogowé are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu. The + latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi and the Luété; it has + a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south, from east + to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-west. It is + encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only over 38 m., + and for five months in the year. The mouth is 1100 ft. wide. The Muni + river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed by cataracts in + its passage through the escarpment to the coast. + + Nearly all the upper basin of the Shari (q.v.) as well as the right + bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part of + the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo river. + In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi, 330 m. of + the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French protectorate as + well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some 100 m. however, the + right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these subsidiary + streams, is in German territory (see CONGO). + + _Geology._--Three main divisions are recognized in the French + Congo:--(1) the littoral zone, covered with alluvium and superficial + deposits and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the + mountain zone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite, + metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern + portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The core of + the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists. Infolded with + them, and on the flanks, are three rock systems ascribed to the + Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossiliferous, but + fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see CONGO FREE STATE). + Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal Mountains. The + plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist of a lower red + sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group. They have not + yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age, with + _Schloenbachia inflata_, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowé + basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene facies overlie + the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented sand, + erroneously termed laterite, covers large areas in the littoral zone, + on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau. + + _Climate._--The whole of the country being in the equatorial region, + the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans. On the + coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (15th of May to + 15th of September), the rainy season (15th of September to 15th of + January), then a second dry season (15th of January to 1st of March), + and a second rainy season (1st of March to 15th of May). The rainfall + at Libreville is about 96 in. a year. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile and + several kinds of apes--including the chimpanzee and the rare + gorilla--are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are various + and beautiful--grey parrots, shrikes, fly-catchers, rhinoceros birds, + weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-birds, + from the _Cecyle Sharpii_ to the dwarfish _Alcedo cristata_, butterfly + finches, and helmet-birds (_Turacus giganteus_), as well as more + familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious + climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the _Protopterus_ or + lung-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry + season, the strange and poisonous _Tetrodon guttifer_, and the + herring-like _Pellona africana_, often caught in great shoals--are the + more remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the + lagoons, and the huge _Cardisoma armatum_ or heart-crab is fattened + for table. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most + familiar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking + bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one + above the other. + + Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs, + silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms--especially _Hyphaene + guineensis_ (a fan-palm), _Raphia_ (the wine-palm), and _Elaeis + guineensis_ (the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably _Anona + senegalensis_), and the _pallabanda_, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are + common in the prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft. + along the rivers; the banks are fringed by the cottony _Hibiscus + tiliaceus_, ipomaeas and fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bound + together in one inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the + upper Shari region, and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, are + species of the coffee tree, one species attaining a height of over 60 + ft. Its bean resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality. + Among the fruit trees are the mango and the papaw, the orange and the + lemon. Negro-pepper (a variety of capsicum) and ginger grow wild. + + _Inhabitants and Chief Towns._--A census, necessarily imperfect, taken + in 1906 showed a total population, exclusive of Wadai, of 3,652,000, + divided in districts as follows:--Gabun, 376,000; Middle Congo, + 259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 885,000. The country is + peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions bordering Lake + Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-Arab tribes. Among + the best-known tribes living in French Congo are the Fang (Fans), the + Bakalai, the Batekes and the Zandeh or Niam-Niam. Several of the + tribes are cannibals and among many of them the fetish worship + characteristic of the West African negroes prevails. Their + civilization is of a low order. In the northern regions the majority + of the inhabitants are Mahommedans, and it is only in those districts + that organized and powerful states exist. Elsewhere the authority of a + chief or "king" extends, ordinarily, little beyond the village in + which he lives. (An account of the chief tribes is given under their + names.) The European inhabitants are chiefly of French nationality, + and are for the most part traders, officials and missionaries. + + The chief towns are Libreville (capital of the Gabun colony) with 3000 + inhabitants; Brazzaville, on the Congo on the north side of Stanley + Pool (opposite the Belgian capital of Leopoldville), the seat of the + governor-general; Franceville, on the upper Ogowé; Loango, an + important seaport in 4° 39' S.; N'Jole, a busy trading centre on the + lower Ogowé; Chekna, capital of Bagirmi, which forms part of the Chad + territory; Abeshr, the capital of Wadai, Bangi on the Ubangi river, + the administrative capital of the Ubangi-Shari-Chad colony. Kunde, + Lame and Binder are native trading centres near the Cameroon frontier. + + _Communications._--The rivers are the chief means of internal + communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is obtained by + ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence round the + falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazzaville on + Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navigation N.E. + into the heart of Africa, 330 m. being on the Congo and 350 m. on the + Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo, where rapids block the + river, but beyond that port there are several navigable stretches of + the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to the Nile is possible by + means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries. The Sanga, which joins the + Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be navigated by steamers for 350 + m., i.e. up to and beyond the S.E. frontier of the German colony of + Cameroon. The Shari is also navigable for a considerable distance and + by means of its affluent, the Logone, connects with the Benue and + Niger, affording a waterway between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad. + Stores for government posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by + this route. There is, however, no connecting link between the coast + rivers--Gabun, Ogowé and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about + 500 m. long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys + for the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that + from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line, 75 m. long, from + Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November + 1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district + served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai a + caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengazi on the shores of the + Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Brazzaville and + Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe by + submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango and + Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg. + + _Trade and Agriculture._--The chief wealth of the colony consists in + the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to + manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and + tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and vanilla + are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold, iron and + copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from Mindule since + 1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next in importance + coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other woods, coffee, cocoa + and copal. The imports are mainly cotton and metal goods, spirits and + foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin of the Ogowé the French + customs tariff, with some modifications, prevails, but in the Congo + basin, that is, in the greater part of the country, by virtue of + international agreements, no discrimination can be made between French + and other merchandise, whilst customs duties must not exceed 10% _ad + valorem_.[1] In the Shari basin and in Wadai the Anglo-French + declaration of March 1899 accorded for thirty years equal treatment to + British and French goods. The value of the trade rose in the ten years + 1896-1905 from £360,000 to £850,000, imports and exports being nearly + equal. The bulk of the export trade is with Great Britain, which takes + most of the rubber, France coming second and Germany third. The + imports are in about equal proportions from France and foreign + countries. + + _Land Tenure. The Concessions Régime._--Land held by the natives is + governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native ownership + in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater part of the + country is considered a state domain. Land held by Europeans is + subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates as have been + registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of March 1899, + when, registration having been effected, the title to the land is + guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has been + divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability + companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the + land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered in + 1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over £2,000,000, whilst + the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. m. One + effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the + business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most important + were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent of + the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the European + powers were signatories, equality of treatment in commercial affairs + was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin, protests were raised + against the terms of the concessions. The reply was that the critics + confused the exercise of the right of proprietorship with the act of + commerce, and that in no country was the landowner who farmed his land + and sold the produce regarded as a merchant. Various decisions by the + judges of the colony during 1902 and 1903 and by the French _cour de + cassation_ in 1905 confirmed that contention. The action of the + companies was, however, in most cases, neither beneficial to the + country nor financially successful, whilst the native cultivators + resented the prohibition of their trading direct with their former + customers. The case of the Liverpool traders was taken up by the + British government and it was agreed that the dispute should be + settled by arbitration. In September 1908 the French government issued + a decree reorganizing and rendering more stringent the control + exercised by the local authorities over the concession companies, + especially in matters concerning the rights of natives and the liberty + of commerce. + + + De Brazza's treaties. + +_History._--The Gabun was visited in the 15th century by the Portuguese +explorers, and it became one of the chief seats of the slave trade. It +was not, however, till well on in the 19th century that Europeans made +any more permanent settlement than was absolutely necessary for the +maintenance of their commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral) +Bouët-Willaumez obtained for France the right of residence on the left +bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank. The +primary object of the French settlement was to secure a port wherein +men-of-war could revictual. The chief establishment, Libreville, was +founded in 1849, with negroes taken from a slave ship. The settlement in +time acquired importance as a trading port. In 1867 the troops numbered +about 1000, and the civil population about 5000, while the official +reports about the same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000 +sq. m. and a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to France +in 1862, and the colony's coast-line extended, nominally, to a length of +200 m. In consequence of the war with Germany the colony was practically +abandoned in 1871, the establishment at Libreville being maintained as a +coaling depot merely. In 1875, however, France again turned her +attention to the Gabun estuary, the hinterland of which had already been +partly explored. Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1855-1859 and 1863-1865) to +the south of the Ogowé; Walker, an English merchant, explored the +Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogowé, in 1866. In 1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a +French naturalist, and the marquis de Compiègne[2] explored a portion of +the Ogowé basin, but it was not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that +the country east of the Ogowé was reached. This expedition was led by +Savorgnan de Brazza (q.v.), who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugène +Ballay, and, for part of the time, by Marche. De Brazza's expedition, +which was compelled to remain for many months at several places, +ascended the Ogowé over 400 m., and beyond the basin of that stream +discovered the Alima, which was, though the explorers were ignorant of +the fact, a tributary of the Congo. From the Alima, de Brazza and Ballay +turned north and finally reached the Gabun in November 1878, the journey +being less fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate. +Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had revealed +the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey, begun December 1879, +the French traveller undertook to find a way to the Congo above the +rapids via the Ogowé. In this he was successful, and in September 1880 +reached Stanley Pool, on the north side of which Brazzaville was +subsequently founded. Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de +Brazza met Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the +International African Association (see CONGO FREE STATE), but de Brazza +in reality acted solely in the interests of France and concluded +treaties with Makoko, "king of the Batekes," and other chieftains, +placing very large areas under the protection of that country. The +conflicting claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free +State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in February +1885.[3] In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had more fully explored +the country behind the coast regions of Gabun and Loango, the last-named +seaport being occupied by France in 1883. The conclusion of agreements +with Germany (December 1885 and February-March 1894) and with Portugal +(May 1886) secured France in the possession of the western portion of +the colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo Free +State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the Ubangi +district. + + + The advance towards the Nile: Fashoda. + +The extension of French influence northward towards Lake Chad and +eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed, though not +without involving the country in serious disputes with the other +European powers possessing rights in those regions. By creating the +posts of Bangi (1890), Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her +hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same time the Congo Free +State passed the parallel of 4° N.--which, after the compromise of 1887, +France had regarded as the southern boundary of her possessions--and, +occupying the sultanate of Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed +on as far as 9° N. The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and +after the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the +Congo State of the 12th of May of that year, against which both the +German and the French governments protested, the last named because it +erected a barrier against the extension of French territory to the Nile +valley. By a compromise of the 14th of August the boundary was +definitely drawn and, in accordance with this pact, which put the +frontier back to about 4° N., France from 1895 to 1897 took possession +of the upper Ubangi, with Bangasso, Rafai and Zemio. Then began the +French encroachment on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition, +despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-governor of +the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897 and Fashoda in July 1898. +A dispute with Great Britain arose, and it was decided that the +expedition should evacuate Fashoda. The declaration of the 21st of March +1899 finally terminated the dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the +French colony as already stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty +of June 1900 settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast, +the boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were determined +in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was precisely defined by +another Franco-German agreement in April 1908, following a detailed +survey made by joint commissioners in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive +description of these international rivalries see AFRICA, § 5, and for +the conquest of the Chad regions see BAGIRMI and RABAH ZOBEIR. In the +other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the natives, +for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France with Wadai see +that article. + +Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient Gabun +colony was joined to the Congo territories. From 1886 to 1889 Gabun was, +however, separately administered. By decree of the 11th of December 1888 +the whole of the French possessions were created one "colony" under the +style of Congo français, with various subdivisions; they were placed +under a commissioner-general (de Brazza) having his residence at +Brazzaville. This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic +development of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits of +the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see AFRICA, § 5) enjoyed +a separate tariff. By decree of the 29th of December 1903 (which became +operative in July 1904) Congo français was divided into four parts as +named in the opening paragraph. The first commissioner-general under the +new scheme was Emile Gentil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In 1905 +de Brazza was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and +maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several of +which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when on his way home. +The French government, after considering the report he had drawn up, +decided to retain Gentil as commissioner-general, making however (decree +of 15th of February 1906) various changes in administration with a view +to protect the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil, who +devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the finances of the +country and the development of its commerce, resigned his post in +February 1908. He was succeeded by M. Merlin, whose title was changed +(June 1908) to that of governor-general. + + _Administration and Revenue._--The governor-general has control over + the whole of French Congo, but does not directly administer any part + of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors. The + Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the + coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowé + river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the + hinterland not within the Congo free-trade zone (the Chad district + excepted). The Middle Congo has for its western frontier the Gabun + colony and Cameroon, and extends inland to the easterly bend of the + Ubangi river; the two circumscriptions extend east and north of the + Middle Congo. There is a general budget for the whole of French Congo; + each colony has also a separate budget and administrative autonomy. As + in other French colonies the legislative power is in the French + chambers only, but in the absence of specific legislation presidential + decrees have the force of law. A judicial service independent of the + executive exists, but the district administrators also exercise + judicial functions. Education is in the hands of the missionaries, + upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909. The military force + maintained consists of natives officered by Europeans. + + Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid by concession + companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and customs receipts, + supplemented by a subvention from France. In addition to defraying the + military expenses, about £100,000 a year, a grant of £28,000 yearly + was made up to 1906 by the French chambers towards the civil expenses. + In 1907 the budget of the Congo balanced at about £250,000 without the + aid of this subvention. In 1909 the chambers sanctioned a loan for the + colony of £840,000, guaranteed by France and to be applied to the + establishment of administrative stations and public works. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fernand Rouget, _L'Expansion coloniale au Congo + français_ (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, with bibliography and + maps; A. Chevalier, _L'Afrique centrale française_ (Paris, 1907). For + special studies see Lacroix, _Résultats minéralogiques et zoologiques + des récentes explorations de l'Afrique occidentale française et de la + région du Tchad_ (Paris, 1905); M. Barrat, _Sur la géologie du Congo + français_ (Paris, 1895), and _Ann. des mines_, sér. q. t. vii. (1895); + J. Cornet, "Les Formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo," _Ann. + soc, géol. belg._ vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris _Bulletin du Muséum_ for + 1903 and 1904 contains papers on the zoology of the country. For flora + see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in _Comptes rendus de l'académie + des sciences_ (1902-1904), and the _Journal d'agriculture pratique des + pays chauds_ (1901, &c.). For history, besides Rouget's book, see J. + Ancel, "Étude historique. La formation de la colonie du Congo + français, 1843-1882," containing an annotated bibliography, in _Bull. + Com. l'Afrique française_, vol. xii. (1902); the works cited under + BRAZZA; and E. Gentil, _La Chute de l'empire de Rabah_ (Paris, 1902). + Of earlier books of travels the most valuable are:--Paul du Chaillu, + _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1861); _A + Journey to Ashonga Land_ (London, 1867); and Sir R. Burton, _Two Trips + to Gorilla Land_ (London, 1876). Of later works see Mary H. Kingsley, + _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); A. B. de Mézières, _Rapport + de mission sur le Haut Oubangui, le M'Bomou et le Bahr-el-Ghazal_ + (Paris, 1903); and C. Maistre, _A travers l'Afrique centrale du Congo + au Niger_, 1892-1893 (Paris, 1895). For the story of the concession + companies see E. D. Morel, _The British Case in French Congo_ (London, + 1903). (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Berlin Act of 1885; Brussels conference of 1890 (see AFRICA: + _History_). + + [2] Louis Eugène Henri Dupont, marquis de Compiègne (1846-1877), on + his return from the West coast replaced Georg Schweinfurth at Cairo + as president of the geographical commission. Arising out of this + circumstance de Compiègne was killed in a duel by a German named + Mayer. + + [3] A Franco-Belgian agreement of the 23rd of Dec. 1908 defined + precisely the frontier in the lower Congo. Bamu Island in Stanley + Pool was recognized as French. + + + + +FRENCH GUINEA, a French colony in West Africa, formerly known as +Rivières du Sud. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by Portuguese +Guinea and Senegal, E. by Upper Senegal and the Ivory Coast, and S. by +Liberia and Sierra Leone. With a sea-board running N.N.W. and S.S.E. +from 10° 50' N. to 9° 2' N., a distance, without reckoning the +indentations, of 170 m., the colony extends eastward 450 m. in a +straight line and attains a maximum width N. to S. of nearly 300 m., +covering fully 100,000 sq. m., and containing a population estimated at +2,000,000 to 2,500,000. + + _Physical Features._--Though in one or two places rocky headlands jut + into the sea, the coast is in general sandy, low, and much broken by + rivers and deep estuaries, dotted with swampy islands, giving it the + appearance of a vast delta. In about 9° 30' N., off the promontory of + Konakry, lie the Los Islands (q.v.), forming part of the colony. The + coast plain, formed of alluvial deposits, is succeeded about 30 m. + inland by a line of cliffs, the Susu Hills, which form the first step + in the terrace-like formation of the interior, culminating in the + massif of Futa Jallon, composed chiefly of Archean and granite rocks. + While the coast lands are either densely forested or covered with + savannas or park-like country, the Futa Jallon tableland is mainly + covered with short herbage. This tableland, the hydrographic centre of + West Africa, is most elevated in its southern parts, where heights of + 5000 ft. are found. Near the Sierra Leone frontier this high land is + continued westward to within 20 m. of the sea, where Mount Kakulima + rises over 3300 ft. East and south of Futa Jallon the country slopes + to the basin of the upper Niger, the greater part of which is included + in French Guinea. The southern frontier is formed by the escarpments + which separate the Niger basin from those of the coast rivers of + Liberia. Besides the Niger, Gambia and Senegal, all separately + noticed, a large number of streams running direct to the Atlantic rise + in Futa Jallon. Among them are the Great and Little Scarcies, whose + lower courses are in Sierra Leone, and the Rio Grande which enters the + sea in Portuguese Guinea. Those whose courses are entirely in French + Guinea include the Cogon (or Componi), the Rio Nuñez, the Fatalla + (which reaches the sea through an estuary named Rio Pongo), the + Konkure, whose estuary is named Rio Bramaya, the Forekaria and the + Melakori. The Cogon, Fatallah and Konkure are all large rivers which + descend from the plateaus through deep, narrow valleys in rapids and + cataracts, and are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth. + + _Climate._--The climate of the coast district is hot, moist and + unhealthy, with a season of heavy rain lasting from May to November, + during which time variable winds, calms and tornadoes succeed one + another. The mean temperature in the dry season, when the "harmattan" + is frequent, is 62° Fahr., in the wet season 86°. Throughout the year + the humidity of the air is very great. There is much rain in the Futa + Jallon highlands, but the Niger basin is somewhat drier. In that + region and in the highlands the climate is fairly healthy for + Europeans and the heat somewhat less than on the coast. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The seashore and the river banks are lined with + mangroves, but the most important tree of the coast belt is the + oil-palm. The dense forests also contain many varieties of lianas or + rubber vines, huge bombax and bamboos. Gum-producing and kola trees + are abundant, and there are many fruit trees, the orange and citron + growing well in the Susu and Futa Jallon districts. The cotton and + coffee plants are indigenous; banana plantations surround the + villages. The baobab and the karite (shea butter tree) are found only + in the Niger districts. The fauna is not so varied as was formerly the + case, large game having been to a great extent driven out of the coast + regions. The elephant is rare save in the Niger regions. The lion is + now only found in the northern parts of Futa Jallon; panthers, + leopards, hyenas and wild cats are more common and the civet is found. + Hippopotamus, otter and the wild boar are numerous; a species of wild + ox of small size with black horns and very agile is also found. The + forests contain many kinds of monkeys, including huge chimpanzees; + antelope are widespread but rather rare. Serpents are very common, + both venomous and non-venomous; the pythons attain a great size. + Fights between these huge serpents and the crocodiles which infest all + the rivers are said to be not uncommon. Turtles are abundant along the + coasts and in the Los Islands. Oysters are found in large numbers in + the estuaries and fixed to the submerged parts of the mangroves. + Freshwater oysters, which attain a large size, are also found in the + rivers, particularly in the Niger. Fish are abundant, one large-headed + species, in the Susu tongue called _khokon_, is so numerous as to have + given its name to a province, Kokunia. Birds are very numerous; they + include various eagles, several kinds of heron, the egret, the + marabout, the crane and the pelican; turacos or plantain-eaters, are + common, as are other brilliantly plumaged birds. Green and grey + parrots, ravens, swallows and magpies are also common. + + _Inhabitants._--On the banks of the Cogon dwell the Tendas and Iolas, + primitive Negro tribes allied to those of Portuguese Guinea (q.v.). + All other inhabitants of French Guinea are regarded as comparatively + late arrivals from the interior who have displaced the aborigines.[1] + Among the earliest of the new comers are the Baga, the Nalu, the + Landuman and the Timni, regarded as typical Negroes (q.v.). This + migration southward appears to have taken place before the 17th + century. To-day the Baga occupy the coast land between the Cogon and + the Rio Pongo, and the Landuman the country immediately behind that of + the Baga. The other tribes named are but sparsely represented in + French Guinea, the coast region south of the Nuñez and all the + interior up to Futa Jallon being occupied by the Susu, a tribe + belonging to the great Mandingan race, which forced its way seaward + about the beginning of the 18th century and pressed back the Timni + into Sierra Leone. Futa Jallon is peopled principally by Fula (q.v.), + and the rest of the country by Malinké and other tribes of Mandingo + (q.v.). The Mandingo, the Fula and the Susu are Mahommedans, though + the Susu retain many of their ancient rites and beliefs--those + associated with spirit worship and fetish, still the religion of the + Baga and other tribes. In the north-west part of Futa Jallon are found + remnants of the aborigines, such as the Tiapi, Koniagui and the + Bassari, all typical Negro tribes. The white inhabitants number a few + hundreds only and are mainly French. Many of the coast peoples show, + however, distinct traces of white blood, the result chiefly of the + former presence of European slave traders. Thus at the Rio Pongo there + are numerous mulattos. South of that river the coast tribes speak + largely pidgin English. + + _Towns._--The principal towns are Konakry the capital, Boké, on the + Rio Nuñez, Dubreka, on the coast, a little north of Konakry, Benty, on + the Melakori, Timbo and Labe, the chief towns of Futa Jallon, + Heremakono and Kindia, on the main road to the Niger, Kurussa and + Siguiri, on a navigable stretch of that river, and Bissandugu, + formerly Samory's capital, an important military station east of the + Niger. Konakry, in 9° 30' N., 13° 46' W., population about 20,000, is + the one port of entry on the coast. It is built on the little island + of Tombo which lies off the promontory of Konakry, the town being + joined to the mainland by an iron bridge. During the administration of + Noël Ballay (1848-1902), governor of the colony 1890-1900, Konakry was + transformed from a place of small importance to one of the chief ports + on the west coast of Africa and a serious rival to Freetown, Sierra + Leone. It has since grown considerably, and is provided with wharves + and docks and a jetty 1066 ft. long. There is an ample supply of good + water, and a large public garden in the centre of the town. In front + of Government House is a statue of M. Ballay. Konakry is a port of + call for French, British and German steamship companies, and is in + telegraphic communication with Europe. It is the starting-point of a + railway to the Niger (see below). The retail trade is in the hands of + Syrians. The town is governed by a municipality. + + _Products and Industry._--French Guinea possesses a fertile soil, and + is rich in tropical produce. The chief products are rubber, brought + from the interior, and palm oil and palm kernels, obtained in the + coast regions. Cotton is cultivated in the Niger basin. Gum copal, + ground-nuts and sesame are largely cultivated, partly for export. + Among minor products are coffee, wax and ivory. Large herds of cattle + and flocks of sheep are raised in Futa Jallon; these are sent in + considerable numbers to Sierra Leone, Liberia and French Congo. The + trade in hides is also of considerable value. The chief grain raised + is millet, the staple food of the people. The rubber is mainly + exported to England, the palm products to Germany, and the ground-nuts + to France. + + The principal imports are cotton goods, of which 80% come from Great + Britain, rice, kola nuts, chiefly from Liberia, spirits, tobacco, + building material, and arms and ammunition, chiefly "trade guns." The + average annual value of the trade for the period 1900-1907 was about + £1,250,000, the annual export of rubber alone being worth £400,000 or + more. The great bulk of the trade of the colony is with France and + Great Britain, the last-named country taking about 45% of the total; + Germany comes third. Since April 1905 a surtax of 7% has been imposed + on all goods of other than French origin. + + _Communications._--The railway from Konakry to the Niger at Kurussa, + by the route chosen a distance of 342 m., was begun in 1900, and from + 1902 has been built directly by the colony. The first section to + Kindia, 93 m., was opened in 1904. The second section, to near Timbo + in Futa Jallon, was completed in 1907, and the rails reached Kurussa + in 1910. From Kurussa the Niger is navigable at high water all the way + to Bamako in Upper Senegal, whence there is communication by rail and + river with St Louis and Timbuktu. Besides the railway there is an + excellent road, about 390 m. long, from Konakry to Kurussa, the road + in its lower part being close to the Sierra Leone frontier, with the + object of diverting trade from that British colony. Several other main + roads have been built by the French, and there is a very complete + telegraphic system, the lines having been connected with those of + Senegal in 1899. + +_History._--This part of the Guinea coast was made known by the +Portuguese voyagers of the 15th century. In consequence, largely, of the +dangers attending its navigation, it was not visited by the European +traders of the 16th-18th centuries so frequently as other regions north +and east, but in the Rio Pongo, at Matakong (a diminutive island near +the mouth of the Forekaria), and elsewhere, slave traders established +themselves, and ruins of the strongholds they built, and defended with +cannon, still exist. When driven from other parts of Guinea the slavers +made this difficult and little known coast one of their last resorts, +and many barracoons were built in the late years of the 18th century. It +was not until after the restoration of Goree to her at the close of the +Napoleonic wars that France evinced any marked interest in this region. +At that time the British, from their bases at the Gambia and Sierra +Leone, were devoting considerable attention to these Rivières du Sud +(i.e. south of Senegal) and also to Futa Jallon. René Caillié, who +started his journey to Timbuktu from Boké in 1827, did much to quicken +French interest in the district, and from 1838 onward French naval +officers, Bouët-Willaumez and his successors, made detailed studies of +the coast. About the time that the British government became wearied of +its efforts to open up the interior of West Africa, General Faidherbe +was appointed governor of Senegal (1854), and under his direction +vigorous efforts were made to consolidate French influence. Already in +1848 treaty relations had been entered into with the Nalu, and between +that date and 1865 treaties of protectorate were signed with several of +the coast tribes. During 1876-1880 new treaties were concluded with the +chief tribes, and in 1881 the almany (or emir) of Futa Jallon placed his +country under French protection, the French thus effectually preventing +the junction, behind the coast lands, of the British colonies of the +Gambia and Sierra Leone. The right of France to the littoral as far +south as the basin of the Melakori was recognized by Great Britain in +1882; Germany (which had made some attempt to acquire a protectorate at +Konakry) abandoned its claims in 1885, while in 1886 the northern +frontier was settled in agreement with Portugal, which had ancient +settlements in the same region (see PORTUGUESE GUINEA). In 1899 the +limits of the colony were extended, on the dismemberment of the French +Sudan, to include the upper Niger districts. In 1904 the Los Islands +were ceded by Great Britain to France, in part return for the +abandonment of French fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. (See also +SENEGAL: _History_.) + +French Guinea was made a colony independent of Senegal in 1891, but in +1895 came under the supreme authority of the newly constituted +governor-generalship of French West Africa. Guinea has a considerable +measure of autonomy and a separate budget. It is administered by a +lieutenant-governor, assisted by a nominated council. Revenue is raised +principally from customs and a capitation tax, which has replaced a hut +tax. The local budget for 1907 balanced at £205,000. Over the greater +part of the country the native princes retain their sovereignty under +the superintendence of French officials. The development of agriculture +and education are objects of special solicitude to the French +authorities. In general the natives are friendly towards their white +masters. + + See M. Famechon, _Notice sur la Guinée française_ (Paris, 1900); J. + Chautard, _Étude géophysique et géologique sur le Fouta-Djallon_ + (Paris, 1905); André Arcin, _La Guinée française_ (Paris, 1906), a + valuable monograph; J. Machat, _Les Rivières du Sud et la + Fouta-Diallon_ (Paris, 1906), another valuable work, containing + exhaustive bibliographies. Consult also F. Rouget, _La Guinée_ (Paris, + 1908), an official publication, the annual _Reports_ on French West + Africa, published by the British Foreign Office, and the Carte de la + Guinée française by A. Méunier in 4 sheets on the scale 1:500,000 + (Paris, 1902). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Numerous remains of a stone age have been discovered, both on the + coast and in the hinterland. See L. Desplagnes, "L'Archéologie + préhistorique en Guinée française," in _Bull. Soc. Géog. Comm. de + Bordeaux_, March 1907, and the authorities there cited. + + + + +FRENCH LANGUAGE. I. _Geography._--French is the general name of the +north-north-western group of Romanic dialects, the modern Latin of +northern Gaul (carried by emigration to some places--as lower +Canada--out of France). In a restricted sense it is that variety of the +Parisian dialect which is spoken by the educated, and is the general +literary language of France. The region in which the native language is +termed French consists of the northern half of France (including +Lorraine) and parts of Belgium and Switzerland; its boundaries on the +west are the Atlantic Ocean and the Celtic dialects of Brittany; on the +north-west and north, the English Channel; on the north-east and east +the Teutonic dialects of Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. In the +south-east and south the boundary is to a great extent conventional and +ill-defined, there being originally no linguistic break between the +southern French dialects and the northern Provençal dialects of southern +France, north-western Italy and south-western Switzerland. It is formed +partly by spaces of intermediate dialects (some of whose features are +French, others Provençal), partly by spaces of mixed dialects resulting +from the invasion of the space by more northern and more southern +settlers, partly by lines where the intermediate dialects have been +suppressed by more northern (French) and more southern (Provençal) +dialects without these having mixed. Starting in the west at the mouth +of the Gironde, the boundary runs nearly north soon after passing +Bordeaux; a little north of Angoulême it turns to the east, and runs in +this direction into Switzerland to the north of Geneva. + +II. _External History._--(a) _Political._--By the Roman conquests the +language of Rome was spread over the greater part of southern and +western Europe, and gradually supplanted the native tongues. The +language introduced was at first nearly uniform over the whole empire, +Latin provincialisms and many more or less general features of the older +vulgar language being suppressed by the preponderating influence of the +educated speech of the capital. As legions became stationary, as +colonies were formed, and as the natives adopted the language of their +conquerors, this language split up into local dialects, the +distinguishing features of which are due, as far as can be ascertained +(except, to some extent, as to the vocabulary), not to speakers of +different nationalities misspeaking Latin, each with the peculiarities +of his native language, but to the fact that linguistic changes, which +are ever occurring, are not perfectly uniform over a large area, however +homogeneous the speakers. As Gaul was not conquered by Caesar till the +middle of the first century before our era, its Latin cannot have begun +to differ from that of Rome till after that date; but the artificial +retention of classical Latin as the literary and official language after +the popular spoken language had diverged from it, often renders the +chronology of the earlier periods of the Romanic languages obscure. It +is, however, certain that the popular Latin of Gaul had become +differentiated from that of central Italy before the Teutonic conquest +of Gaul, which was not completed till the latter half of the 5th +century; the invaders gradually adopted the language of their more +civilized subjects, which remained unaffected, except in its vocabulary. +Probably by this time it had diverged so widely from the artificially +preserved literary language that it could no longer be regarded merely +as mispronounced Latin; the Latin documents of the next following +centuries contain many clearly popular words and forms, and the literary +and popular languages are distinguished as _latina_ and _romana_. The +term _gallica_, at first denoting the native Celtic language of Gaul, is +found applied to its supplanter before the end of the 9th century, and +survives in the Breton _gallek_, the regular term for "French." After +the Franks in Gaul had abandoned their native Teutonic language, the +term _francisca_, by which this was denoted, came to be applied to the +Romanic one they adopted, and, under the form _française_, remains its +native name to this day; but this name was confined to the Romanic of +northern Gaul, which makes it probable that this, at the time of the +adoption of the name _francisca_, had become distinct from the Romanic +of southern Gaul. _Francisca_ is the Teutonic adjective _frankisk_, +which occurs in Old English in the form _frencise_; this word, with its +umlauted _e_ from _a_ with following _i_, survives under the form +_French_, which, though purely Teutonic in origin and form, has long +been exclusively applied to the Romanic language and inhabitants of +Gaul. The German name _franzose_, with its accent on, and _o_ in, the +second syllable, comes from _françois_, a native French form older than +_français_, but later than the Early Old French _franceis_. The +Scandinavian settlers on the north-west coast of France early in the +10th century quickly lost their native speech, which left no trace +except in some contributions to the vocabulary of the language they +adopted. The main feature since is the growth of the political supremacy +of Paris, carrying with it that of its dialect; in 1539 Francis I. +ordered that all public documents should be in French (of Paris), which +then became the official language of the whole kingdom, though it is +still foreign to nearly half its population. + +The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of Normandy, introduced +into England, as the language of the rulers and (for a time) most of the +writers, the dialects spoken in Normandy (see also ANGLO-NORMAN +LITERATURE). Confined in their native country to definite areas, these +dialects, following their speakers, became mixed in England, so that +their forms were used to some extent indifferently; and the constant +communication with Normandy maintained during several reigns introduced +also later forms of continental Norman. As the conquerors learned the +language of the conquered, and as the more cultured of the latter +learned that of the former, the Norman of England (including that of the +English-speaking Lowlands of Scotland) became anglicized; instead of +following the changes of the Norman of France, it followed those of +English. The accession in 1154 of Henry II. of Anjou disturbed the +Norman character of Anglo-French, and the loss of Normandy under John in +1204 gave full play to the literary importance of the French of Paris, +many of whose forms afterwards penetrated to England. At the same time +English, with a large French addition to its vocabulary, was steadily +recovering its supremacy, and is officially employed (for the first time +since the Conquest) in the Proclamation of Henry III., 1258. The +semi-artificial result of this mixture of French of different dialects +and of different periods, more or less anglicized according to the date +or education of the speaker or writer, is generally termed "the +Anglo-Norman dialect"; but the term is misleading for a great part of +its existence, because while the French of Normandy was not a single +dialect, the later French of England came from other French provinces +besides Normandy, and being to a considerable extent in artificial +conditions, was checked in the natural development implied by the term +"dialect." The disuse of Anglo-French as a natural language is evidenced +by English being substituted for it in legal proceedings in 1362, and in +schools in 1387; but law reports were written in it up to about 1600, +and, converted into modern literary French, it remains in official use +for giving the royal assent to bills of parliament. + +(b) _Literary._--Doubtless because the popular Latin of northern Gaul +changed more rapidly than that of any other part of the empire, French +was, of all the Romanic dialects, the first to be recognized as a +distinct language, and the first to be used in literature; and though +the oldest specimen now extant is probably not the first, it is +considerably earlier than any existing documents of the allied +languages. In 813 the council of Tours ordered certain homilies to be +translated into Rustic Roman or into German; and in 842 Louis the +German, Charles the Bald, and their armies confirmed their engagements +by taking oaths in both languages at Strassburg. These have been +preserved to us by the historian Nithard (who died in 853); and though, +in consequence of the only existing manuscript (at Paris) being more +than a century later than the time of the author, certain alterations +have occurred in the text of the French oaths, they present more archaic +forms (probably of North-Eastern French) than any other document. The +next memorials are a short poem, probably North-Eastern, on St Eulalia, +preserved in a manuscript of the 10th century at Valenciennes, and some +autograph fragments (also at Valenciennes) of a homily on the prophet +Jonah, in mixed Latin and Eastern French, of the same period. To the +same century belong a poem on Christ's Passion, apparently in a mixed +(not intermediate) language of French and Provençal, and one, probably +in South-Eastern French, on St Leger; both are preserved, in different +handwritings, in a MS. at Clermont-Ferrand, whose scribes have +introduced many Provençal forms. After the middle of the 11th century +literary remains are comparatively numerous; the chief early +representative of the main dialects are the following, some of them +preserved in several MSS., the earliest of which, however (the only ones +here mentioned), are in several cases a generation or two later than the +works themselves. In Western French are a verse life of St Alexius +(Alexis), probably Norman, in an Anglo-Norman MS. at Hildesheim; the +epic poem of Roland, possibly also Norman, in an A.-N. MS. at Oxford; a +Norman verbal translation of the Psalms, in an A.-N. MS. also at Oxford; +another later one, from a different Latin version, in an A.-N. MS. at +Cambridge; a Norman translation of the Four Books of Kings, in a +probably A.-N. MS. at Paris. The earliest work in the Parisian dialect +is probably the Travels of Charlemagne, preserved in a late Anglo-Norman +MS. with much altered forms. In Eastern French, of rather later date, +there are translations of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory, in a MS. at +Paris, containing also fragments of Gregory's Moralities, and (still +later) of some Sermons of St Bernard, in a MS. also in Paris. From the +end of the 12th century literary and official documents, often including +local charters, abound in almost every dialect, until the growing +influence of Paris caused its language to supersede in writing the other +local ones. This influence, occasionally apparent about the end of the +12th century, was overpowering in the 15th, when authors, though often +displaying provincialisms, almost all wrote in the dialect of the +capital; the last dialect to lose its literary independence was the +North-Eastern, which, being the Romanic language of Flanders, had a +political life of its own, and (modified by Parisian) was used in +literature after 1400. + +III. _Internal History._--Though much has been done in recent years, in +the scientific investigation of the sounds, inflexions, and syntax of +the older stages and dialects of French, much still remains to be done, +and it must suffice here to give a sketch, mainly of the dialects which +were imported into England by the Normans--in which English readers will +probably take most interest, and especially of the features which +explain the forms of English words of French origin. Dates and places +are only approximations, and many statements are liable to be modified +by further researches. The primitive Latin forms given are often not +classical Latin words, but derivatives from these; and reference is +generally made to the Middle English (Chaucerian) pronunciation of +English words, not the modern. + +(a) _Vocabulary._--The fundamental part of the vocabulary of French is +the Latin imported into Gaul, the French words being simply the Latin +words themselves, with the natural changes undergone by all living +speech, or derivatives formed at various dates. Comparatively few words +were introduced from the Celtic language of the native inhabitants +(_bec_, _lieue_ from the Celtic words given by Latin writers as +_beccus_, _leuca_), but the number adopted from the language of the +Teutonic conquerors of Gaul is large (_guerre_ = _werra_; _laid_ = +_laidh_; _choisir_ = _kausjan_). The words were imported at different +periods of the Teutonic supremacy, and consequently show chronological +differences in their sounds (_haïr_ = _hatan_; _français_ = _frankisk_; +_écrevisse_ = _krebiz_; _échine_ = _skina_). Small separate importations +of Teutonic words resulted from the Scandinavian settlement in France, +and the commercial intercourse with the Low German nations on the North +Sea (_friper_ = Norse _hripa_; _chaloupe_ = Dutch _sloop_; _est_ = Old +English _eást_). In the meantime, as Latin (with considerable +alterations in pronunciation, vocabulary, &c.) continued in literary, +official and ecclesiastical use, the popular language borrowed from time +to time various more or less altered classical Latin words; and when the +popular language came to be used in literature, especially in that of +the church, these importations largely increased (_virginitet_ Eulalia = +_virginitatem_; _imagena_ Alexis = _imaginem_--the popular forms would +probably have been _vergedet_, _emain_). At the Renaissance they became +very abundant, and have continued since, stifling to some extent the +developmental power of the language. Imported words, whether Teutonic, +classical Latin or other, often receive some modification at their +importation, and always take part in all subsequent natural phonetic +changes in the language (Early Old French _adversarie_, Modern French +_adversaire_). Those French words which appear to contradict the +phonetic laws were mostly introduced into the language after the taking +place (in words already existing in the language) of the changes +formulated by the laws in question; compare the late imported _laïque_ +with the inherited _lai_, both from Latin _laicum_. In this and many +other cases the language possesses two forms of the same Latin word, one +descended from it, the other borrowed (_meuble_ and _mobile_ from +_mobilem_). Some Oriental and other foreign words were brought in by the +crusaders (_amiral_ from _amir_); in the 16th century, wars, royal +marriages and literature caused a large number of Italian words +(_soldat_ = _soldato_; _brave_ = _bravo_; _caresser_ = _carezzare_) to +be introduced, and many Spanish ones (_alcôve_ = _alcoba_; _hâbler_ = +_hablar_). A few words have been furnished by Provençal (_abeille_, +_cadenas_), and several have been adopted from other dialects into the +French of Paris (_esquiver_ Norman or Picard for the Paris-French +_eschiver_). German has contributed a few (_blocus_ = _blochus_; +_choucroute_ = _surkrut_); and recently a considerable number have been +imported from England (_drain_, _confortable_, _flirter_). In Old +French, new words are freely formed by derivation, and to a less extent +by composition; in Modern French, borrowing from Latin or other foreign +languages is the more usual course. Of the French words now obsolete +some have disappeared because the things they express are obsolete; +others have been replaced by words of native formation, and many have +been superseded by foreign words generally of literary origin; of those +which survive, many have undergone considerable alterations in meaning. +A large number of Old French words and meanings, now extinct in the +language of Paris, were introduced into English after the Norman +Conquest; and though some have perished, many have survived--_strife_ +from Old French _estrif_ (Teutonic _strit_); _quaint_ from _cointe_ +(_cognitum_); _remember_ from _remembrer_ (_rememorare_); _chaplet_ +(garland) from _chapelet_ (Modern French "chaplet of beads"); +_appointment_ (rendezvous) from _appointement_ (now "salary"). Many also +survive in other French dialects. + +(b) _Dialects._--The history of the French language from the period of +its earliest extant literary memorials is that of the dialects composing +it. But as the popular notion of a dialect as the speech of a definite +area, possessing certain peculiarities confined to and extending +throughout that area, is far from correct, it will be advisable to drop +the misleading divisions into "Norman dialect," "Picard dialect" and the +like, and take instead each important feature in the chronological order +(as far as can be ascertained) of its development, pointing out roughly +the area in which it exists, and its present state. The local terms used +are intentionally vague, and it does not, for instance, at all follow +that because "Eastern" and "Western" are used to denote the localities +of more than one dialectal feature, the boundary line between the two +divisions is the same in each case. It is, indeed, because dialectal +differences as they arise do not follow the same boundary lines (much +less the political divisions of provinces), but cross one another to any +extent, that to speak of the dialect of a large area as an individual +whole, unless that area is cut off by physical or alien linguistic +boundaries, creates only confusion. Thus the Central French of Paris, +the ancestor of classical Modern French, agrees with a more southern +form of Romanic (Limousin, Auvergne, Forez, Lyonnais, Dauphiné) in +having _ts_, not _tsh_, for Latin _k_ (_c_) before _i_ and _e_; _tsh_, +not _k_, for _k_ (_c_) before _a_; and with the whole South in having +_gu_, not _w_, for Teutonic _w_; while it belongs to the East in having +_oi_ for earlier _ei_; and to the West in having _é_, not _ei_, for +Latin _a_; and _i_, not _ei_, from Latin _e_ + _i_. It may be well to +denote that Southern _French_ does not correspond to southern _France_, +whose native language is Provençal. "Modern French" means ordinary +educated Parisian French. + +(e) _Phonology._--The history of the sounds of a language is, to a +considerable extent, that of its inflections, which, no less than the +body of a word, are composed of sounds. This fact, and the fact that +unconscious changes are much more reducible to law than conscious ones, +render the phonology of a language by far the surest and widest +foundation for its dialectology, the importance of the sound-changes in +this respect depending, not on their prominence, but on the earliness of +their date. For several centuries after the divergence between spoken +and written Latin, the history of these changes has to be determined +mainly by reasoning, aided by a little direct evidence in the +misspellings of inscriptions the semi-popular forms in glossaries, and +the warnings of Latin grammarians against vulgarities. With the rise of +Romanic literature the materials for tracing the changes become +abundant, though as they do not give us the sounds themselves, but only +their written representations, much difficulty, and some uncertainty, +often attach to deciphering the evidence. Fortunately, early Romanic +orthography, that of Old French included (for which see next section), +was phonetic, as Italian orthography still is; the alphabet was +imperfect, as many new sounds had to be represented which were not +provided for in the Roman alphabet from which it arose, but writers +aimed at representing the sounds they uttered, not at using a fixed +combination of letters for each word, however they pronounced it. + +The characteristics of French as distinguished from the allied languages +and from Latin, and the relations of its sounds, inflections and syntax +to those of the last-named language, belong to the general subject of +the Romanic languages. It will be well, however, to mention here some of +the features in which it agrees with the closely related Provençal, and +some in which it differs. As to the latter, it has already been pointed +out that the two languages glide insensibly into one another, there +being a belt of dialects which possess some of the features of each. +French and Provençal of the 10th century--the earliest date at which +documents exist in both--agree to a great extent in the treatment of +Latin final consonants and the vowels preceding them, a matter of great +importance for inflections (numerous French examples occur in this +section), (1) They reject all vowels, except _a_, of Latin final +(unaccented) syllables, unless preceded by certain consonant +combinations or followed by _nt_ (here, as elsewhere, certain exceptions +cannot be noticed); (2) they do not reject _a_ similarly situated; (3) +they reject final (unaccented) _m_; (4) they retain final s. French and +Northern Provençal also agree in changing Latin _ü_ from a +labio-guttural to a labio-palatal vowel; the modern sound (German _ü_) +of the accented vowel of French _lune_, Provençal _luna_, contrasting +with that in Italian and Spanish _luna_, appears to have existed before +the earliest extant documents. The final vowel laws generally apply to +the unaccented vowel preceding the accented syllable, if it is preceded +by another syllable, and followed by a single consonant--_matin_ +(_matutinum_), _dortoir_ (_dormitorium_), with vowel dropped; _canevas_ +(_cannabaceum_), _armedure_, later _armëure_, now _armure_ +(_armaturam_), with _e_ = _[schwa]_, as explained below. + +On the other hand, French differs from Provençal: (1) in uniformly +preserving (in Early Old French) Latin final _t_, which is generally +rejected in Provençal--French _aimet_ (Latin _amat_), Provençal _ama_; +_aiment_ (_amant_), Prov. _aman_; (2) in always rejecting, absorbing or +consonantizing the vowel of the last syllable but one, if unaccented; in +such words as _angele_ (often spelt _angle_), the _e_ after the _g_ only +serves to show its soft sound--French _veintre_ (now _vaincre_, Latin +_vincere_), Prov. _vencer_, with accent on first syllable; French +_esclandre_ (_scandalum_), Prov. _escandol_; French _olie_ (dissyllabic, +_i_ = _y_ consonant, now _huile_), Prov. _oli_ (_oleum_); (3) in +changing accented _a_ not in position into _ai_ before nasals and +gutturals and not after a palatal, and elsewhere into _é_ (West French) +or _ei_ (East French), which develops an _i_ before it when preceded by +a palatal--French _main_ (Latin _manum_), Prov. _man_; _aigre_ +(_acrem_), _agre_; _ele_ (_alam_), East French _eile_, Prov. _ala_; +_meitié_ (_medietatem_), East French _moitieit_, Prov. _meitat_; (4) in +changing _a_ in unaccented final syllables into the vowel _[schwa]_, +intermediate to _a_ and _e_; this vowel is written _a_ in one or two of +the older documents, elsewhere _e_--French _aime_ (Latin _ama_), Prov. +_ama_; _aimes_ (_amas_), Prov. _amas_; _aimet_ (_amat_), Prov. _ama_; +(5) in changing original _au_ into _ò_--French _or_ (_aurum_), Prov. +_aur_; _rober_ (Teutonic _raubon_), Prov. _raubar_; (6) in changing +general Romanic _é_, from accented _e_ and _i_ not in position, into +_ei_--French _veine_ (_venam_), Prov. _vena_; _peil_ (_pilum_), Prov. +_pel_. + +As some of the dialectal differences were in existence at the date of +the earliest extant documents, and as the existing materials, till the +latter half of the 11th century, are scanty and of uncertain locality, +the chronological order (here adopted) of the earlier sound-changes is +only tentative. + + (1) Northern French has _tsh_ (written _c_ or _ch_) for Latin _k_ + (_c_) and _t_ before palatal vowels, where Central and Southern French + have _ts_ (written _c_ or _z_)--North Norman and Picard _chire_ + (_ceram_), _brach_ (_brachium_), _plache_ (_plateam_); Parisian, South + Norman, &c., _cire_, _braz_, _place_. Before the close of the Early + Old French period (12th century) _ts_ loses its initial consonant, and + the same happened to _tsh_ a century or two later; with this change + the old distinction is maintained--Modern Guernsey and Picard _chire_, + Modern Picard _plache_ (in ordinary Modern French spelling); usual + French _cire_, _place_. English, having borrowed from North and South + Norman (and later Parisian), has instances of both _tsh_ and _s_, the + former in comparatively small number--_chisel_ (Modern French _ciseau_ + = (?) _caesellum_), _escutcheon_ (_écusson_, _scutionem_); _city_ + (_cité_, _civitatem_), _place_. (2) Initial Teutonic _w_ is retained + in the north-east and along the north coast; elsewhere, as in the + other Romance languages, _g_ was prefixed--Picard, &c., _warde_ + (Teutonic _warda_), _werre_ (_werra_); Parisian, &c., _guarde_, + _guerre_. In the 12th century the _u_ or _w_ of _gu_ dropped, giving + the Modern French _garde_, _guerre_ (with _gu_ = _g_); _w_ remains in + Picard and Walloon, but in North Normandy it becomes _v_--Modern + Guernsey _vâson_, Walloon _wazon_, Modern French _gazon_ (Teutonic + _wason_). English has both forms, sometimes in words originally the + same--_wage_ and _gage_ (Modern French _gage_, Teutonic _wadi_); + _warden_ and _guardian_ (_gardien_, _warding_). (3) Latin _b_ after + accented _a_ in the imperfect of the first conjugation, which becomes + _v_ in Eastern French, in Western French further changes to _w_, and + forms the diphthong _ou_ with the preceding vowel--Norman _amowe_ + (_amabam_), _portout_ (_portabat_); Burgundian _ameve_, _portevet_. + _-eve_ is still retained in some places, but generally the imperfect + of the first conjugation is assimilated to that of the others--amoit, + like _avoit_ (_habebat_). (4) The palatalization of every then + existing _k_ and _g_ (hard) when followed by _a_, _i_ or _e_, after + having caused the development of _i_ before the _e_ (East French _ei_) + derived from _a_ not in position, is abandoned in the north, the + consonants returning to ordinary _k_ or _g_, while in the centre and + south they are assibilated to _tsh_ or _dzh_--North Norman and Picard + _cachier_ (_captiare_), _kier_ (_carum_), _cose_ (_causam_), _eskiver_ + (Teutonic _skiuhan_), _wiket_ (Teutonic _wik_+_ittum_), _gal_ + (_gallum_), _gardin_ (from Teutonic _gard_); South Norman and Parisian + _chacier_, _chier_, _chose_, _eschiver_, _guichet_, _jal_, _jardin_. + Probably in the 14th century the initial consonant of _tsh_, _dzh_ + disappeared, giving the modern French _chasser_, _jardin_ with _ch_ = + _sh_ and _j_ = _zh_; but _tsh_ is retained in Walloon, and _dzh_ in + Lorraine. The Northern forms survive--Modern Guernsey _cachier_, + _gardìn_; Picard _cacher_, _gardin_. English possesses numerous + examples of both forms, sometimes in related words--_catch_ and + _chase_; _wicket_, _eschew_; _garden_, _jaundice_ (_jaunisse_, from + _galbanum_). (5) For Latin accented _a_ not in position Western French + usually has _é_, Eastern French _ei_, both of which take an _i_ before + them when a palatal precedes--Norman and Parisian _per_ (_parem_), + _oiez_ (_audiatis_); Lorraine _peir_, _oieis_. In the 17th and 18th + centuries close _é_ changed to open _è_, except when final or before a + silent consonant--_amer_ (_amarum_) now having _è_, _aimer_ (_amare_) + retaining _é_. English shows the Western close _é_--_peer_ (Modern + French _pair_, Old French _per_), _chief_ (_chef_, _caput_); Middle + High German the Eastern _ei_--_lameir_ (Modern French _l'amer_, + _l'aimer_, _la mer_ = Latin _mare_). (6) Latin accented _e_ not in + position, when it came to be followed in Old French by _i_ unites with + this to form _i_ in the Western dialects, while the Eastern have the + diphthongs _ei_--Picard, Norman and Parisian _pire_ (_pejor_), _piz_ + (_pectus_); Burgundian _peire_, _peiz_. The distinction is still + preserved--Modern French _pire_, _pis_; Modern Burgundian _peire_, + _pei_. English words show always _i_--_price_ (_prix_, _pretium_) + _spite_ (_dépit_, _despectum_). (7) The nasalization of vowels + followed by a nasal consonant did not take place simultaneously with + all the vowels. _A_ and _e_ before _n_ (guttural _n_, as in _sing_), + _ñ_ (palatal _n_), _n_ and _m_ were nasal in the 11th century, such + words as _tant_ (_tantum_) and _gent_ (_gentem_) forming in the Alexis + assonances to themselves, distinct from the assonances with _a_ and + _e_ before non-nasal consonants. In the Roland _umbre_ (_ombre_, + _umbram_) and _culchet_ (_couche_, _collocat_), _fier_ (_ferum_) and + _chiens_ (_canes_), _dit_ (_dictum_) and _vint_ (_venit_), _ceinte_ + (_cinctam_) and _veie_ (_voie_, _viam_), _brun_ (Teutonic _brun_) and + _fut_ (_fuit_) assonate freely, though _o_ (_u_) before nasals shows a + tendency to separation. The nasalization of _i_ and _u_ (= Modern + French _u_) did not take place till the 16th century; and in all cases + the loss of the following nasal consonant is quite modern, the older + pronunciation of _tant_, _ombre_ being _tãnt_, _õmbr[schwa]_, not as + now _tã_, _õbrh_. The nasalization took place whether the nasal + consonant was or was not followed by a vowel, _femme_ (_feminam_), + _honneur_ (_honorem_) being pronounced with nasal vowels m the first + syllable till after the 16th century, as indicated by the doubling of + the nasal consonant in the spelling and by the phonetic change (in + _femme_ and other words) next to be mentioned. English generally has + _au_ (now often reduced to _a_) for Old French _ã_--_vaunt_ (_vanter_, + _vanitare_), _tawny_ (_tanné_ (?) Celtic). (8) The assimilation of + _[~e]_ (nasal _e_) to _ã_ (nasal _a_) did not begin till the middle of + the 11th century, and is not yet universal, in France, though + generally a century later. In the Alexis nasal _a_ (as in _tant_) is + never confounded with nasal _e_ (as in _gent_) in the assonances, + though the copyist (a century later) often writes _a_ for nasal _e_ in + unaccented syllables, as in _amfant_ (_enfant_, _infantem_); in the + Roland there are several cases of mixture in the assonances, _gent_, + for instance, occurring in _ant_ stanzas, _tant_ in _ent_ ones. + English has several words with _a_ for _e_ before nasals--_rank_ + (_rang_, Old French _renc_, Teutonic _hringa_), _pansy_ (_pensée_, + _pensatam_); but the majority show _e_--_enter_ (_entrer_, _intrare_), + _fleam_ (_flamme_, Old French _fleme_, _phlebotomum_). The distinction + is still preserved in the Norman of Guernsey, where _an_ and _en_, + though both nasal, have different sounds--_lànchier_ (_lancer_, + _lanceare_), but _mèntrie_ (Old French _menterie_, from _mentiri_). + (9) The loss of _s_, or rather _z_, before voiced consonants began + early, _s_ being often omitted or wrongly inserted in 12th century + MSS.--Earliest Old French _masle_ (_masculum_), _sisdre_ (_siceram_); + Modern French _mâle_, _cidre_. In English it has everywhere + disappeared--_male_, _cider_; except in two words, where it appears, + as occasionally in Old French, as _d_--_meddle_ (_mêler_, + _misculare_), _medlar_ (_néflier_, Old French also _meslier_, + _mespilarium_). The loss of _s_ before voiceless consonants (except + _f_) is about two centuries later, and it is not universal even in + Parisian--Early Old French _feste_ (_festam_), _escuier_ + (_scutarium_); Modern French _fête_, _écuyer_, but _espérer_ + (_sperare_). In the north-east _s_ before _t_ is still + retained--Walloon _chestai_ (_château_, _castellum_), _fiess_ + (_fête_). English shows _s_ regularly--_feast_, _esquire_. (10) Medial + _dh_ (soft _th_, as in _then_), and final _th_ from Latin _t_ or _d_ + between vowels, do not begin to disappear till the latter half of the + 11th century. In native French MSS. _dh_ is generally written _d_, and + _th_ written _t_; but the German scribe of the Oaths writes _adjudha_ + (_adjutam_), _cadhuna_ (Greek _katá_ and _unam_); and the English one + of the Alexis _cuntretha_ (_contratam_), _lothet_ (_laudatum_), and + that of the Cambridge Psalter _heriteth_ (_hereditatem_). Medial _dh_ + often drops even in the last-named MSS., and soon disappears; the same + is true for final _th_ in Western French--Modern French _contrée_, + _loué_. But in Eastern French final _th_, to which Latin _t_ between + vowels had probably been reduced through _d_ and _dh_, appears in the + 12th century and later as _t_, rhyming on ordinary French final + _t_--Picard and Burgundian _pechiet_ (_peccatum_) _apeleit_ + (_appellatum_). In Western French some final _ths_ were saved by being + changed to _f_--Modern French _soif_ (_sitim_), _moeuf_ (obsolete, + _modum_). English has one or two instances of final _th_, none of + medial _dh_--_faith_ (_foi_, _fidem_); Middle English _cariteþ_ + (_charité_, _caritatem_), _drutð_ (Old French _dru_, Teutonic _drud_); + generally the consonant is lost--_country_, _charity_. Middle High + German shows the Eastern French final consonant--_moraliteit_ + (_moralité_, _moralitatem_). (11) _T_ from Latin final _t_, if in an + Old French unaccented syllable, begins to disappear in the Roland, + where sometimes _aimet_ (_amat_), sometimes _aime_, is required by the + metre, and soon drops in all dialects. The Modern French _t_ of + _aime-t-il_ and similar forms is an analogical insertion from such + forms as _dort-il_ (_dormit_), where the _t_ has always existed. (12) + The change of the diphthong _ai_ to _èi_ and afterwards to _èè_ (the + doubling indicates length) had not taken place in the earliest French + documents, words with _ai_ assonating only on words with _a_; in the + Roland such assonances occur, but those of _ai_ on _è_ are more + frequent--_faire_ (_facere_) assonating on _parastre_ (_patraster_) + and on _estes_ (_estis_); and the MS. (half a century later than the + poem) occasionally has _ei_ and _e_ for _ai_--_recleimet_ + (_reclamat_), _desfere_ (_disfacere_), the latter agreeing with the + Modern French sound. Before nasals (as in _laine_ = _lanam_) and _ié_ + (as in _payé_ = _pacatum_), _ai_ remained a diphthong up to the 16th + century, being apparently _ei_, whose fate in this situation it has + followed. English shows _ai_ regularly before nasals and when final, + and in a few other words--_vain_ (_vain_, _vanum_), _pay_ (_payer_, + _pacare_), _wait_ (_guetter_, Teutonic _wahten_); but before most + consonants it has usually _èè_--_peace_ (_pais_, _pacum_), _feat_ + (_fait_, _factum_). (13) The loss or transposition of _i_ + (= y-consonant) following the consonant ending an accented syllable + begins in the 12th century--Early Old French _glorie_ (_gloriam_), + _estudie_ (_studium_), _olie_ (_oleum_); Modern French _gloire_, + _étude_, _huile_. English sometimes shows the earlier form--_glory_, + _study_; sometimes the later--_dower_ (_douaire_, Early Old French + _doarie_, _dotarium_), _oil_ (_huile_). (14) The vocalization of _l_ + preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant becomes frequent at + the end of the 12th century; when preceded by open _è_, an _a_ + developed before the _l_ while this was a consonant--11th century + _salse_ (_salsa_), _beltet_ (_bellitatem_), _solder_ (_solidare_); + Modern French _sauce_, _beauté_, _souder_. In Parisian, final _èl_ + followed the fate of _èl_ before a consonant, becoming the triphthong + _èau_, but in Norman the vocalization did not take place, and the _l_ + was afterwards rejected--Modern French _ruisseau_, Modern Guernsey + _russé_ (_rivicellum_). English words of French origin sometimes show + _l_ before a consonant, but the general form is _u_--_scald_ + (_échauder_, _excalidare_), _Walter_ (_Gautier_, Teutonic _Waldhari_); + _sauce_, _beauty_, _soder_. Final _èl_ is kept--_veal_ (_veau_, + _vitellum_), _seal_ (_sceau_, _sigillum_). (15) In the east and centre + _éi_ changes to _òi_, while the older sound is retained in the + north-west and west--Norman _estreit_ (_étroit_, _strictum_), _preie_ + (_proie_, _praedam_), 12th century Picard, Parisian, &c., _estroit_, + _proie_. But the earliest (10th century) specimens of the latter group + of dialects have _éi_--_pleier_ (_ployer_, _plicare_) Eulalia, + _mettreiet_ (_mettrait_, _mittere habebat_) Jonah. Parisian _òi_, + whether from _ei_ or from Old French _òi_, _ói_, became in the 15th + century _uè_ (spellings with _oue_ or _oe_ are not uncommon--_mirouer_ + for _miroir_, _miratorium_), and in the following, in certain words, + _è_, now written _ai_--_français_, _connaître_, from _françois_ + (_franceis_, _franciscum_), _conoistre_ (_conuistre_, _cognoscere_); + where it did not undergo the latter change it is now _ua_ or + _wa_--_roi_ (_rei_, _regem_), _croix_ (_cruis_, _crucem_). Before + nasals and palatal _l_, _ei_ (now = _è_) was kept--_veine_ (_vena_), + _veille_ (_vigila_), and it everywhere survives unlabialized in Modern + Norman--Guernsey _ételle_ (_étoile_, _stella_) with _é_, _ser_ + (_soir_, _serum_) with _è_. English shows generally _ei_ (or _ai_) for + original _ei_--_strait_ (_estreit_), _prey_ (_preie_); but in several + words the later Parisian _oi_--_coy_ (_coi_, _qvietum_), _loyal_ + (_loyal_, _legalem_). (16) The splitting of the vowel-sound from + accented Latin _o_ or _u_ not in position, represented in Old French + by _o_ and _u_ indifferently, into _u_, _o_ (before nasals), and _eu_ + (the latter at first a diphthong, now = German _ö_), is unknown to + Western French till the 12th century, and is not general in the east. + The sound in 11th century Norman was much nearer to _u_ (Modern French + _ou_) than to _ó_ (Modern French _ô_), as the words borrowed by + English show _uu_ (at first written _u_, afterwards _ou_ or _ow_), + never _óó_; but was probably not quite _u_, as Modern Norman shows the + same splitting of the sound as Parisian. Examples are--Early Old + French _espose_ or _espuse_ (_sponsam_), _nom_ or _num_ (_nomen_), + _flor_ or _flur_ (_florem_); Modern French _épouse_, _nom_, _fleur_; + Modern Guernsey _goule_ (_gueule_, _gulam_), _nom_, _flleur_. Modern + Picard also shows _u_, which is the regular sound before _r_--_flour_; + but Modern Burgundian often keeps the original Old French _ó_--_vo_ + (_vous_, _vos_). English shows almost always _uu_--_spouse_, _noun_, + _flower_ (Early Middle English _spuse_, _nun_, _flur_); but _nephew_ + with _éu_ (_neveu_, _nepotem_). (17) The loss of the _u_ (or _w_) of + _qu_ dates from the end of the 12th century--Old French _quart_ + (_qvartum_), _quitier_ (_qvietare_) with _qu_ = _kw_, Modern French + _quart_, _quitter_ with _qu_ = _k_. In Walloon the _w_ is + preserved--_couâr_ (_quart_), _cuitter_; as is the case in + English--_quart_, _quit_. The _w_ of _gw_ seems to have been lost + rather earlier, English having simple _g_--_gage_ (_gage_, older + _guage_, Teutonic _wadi_), _guise_ (_guise_, Teutonic _wisa_). (18) + The change of the diphthong _òu_ to _uu_ did not take place till after + the 12th century, such words as _Anjou_ (_Andegavum_) assonating in + the Roland on _fort_ (_fortem_); and did not occur in Picardy, where + _òu_ became _au caus_ from older _còus_, _còls_ (_cous_, _collos_) + coinciding with _caus_ from _calz_ (_chauds_, _calidos_). English + keeps _òu_ distinct from _uu_--_vault_ for _vaut_ (Modern French + _voûte_, _volvitam_), _soder_ (_souder_, _solidare_). (19) The change + of the diphthong _ié_ to simple _é_ is specially Anglo-Norman, in Old + French of the Continent these sounds never rhyme, in that of England + they constantly do, and English words show, with rare exceptions, the + simple vowel--_fierce_ (Old French _fiers_, _ferus_), chief (_chief_, + _caput_), with _ie_ = _ee_; but _pannier_ (_panier_, _panarium_). At + the beginning of the modern period, Parisian dropped the _i_ of _ie_ + when preceded by _ch_ or _j_--_chef_, _abréger_ (Old French + _abregier_, _abbreviare_); elsewhere (except in verbs) _ie_ is + retained--_fier_ (_ferum_), _pitié_ (_pietatem_). Modern Guernsey + retains _ie_ after _ch_--_ap'rchier_ (_approcher_, _adpropeare_).(20) + Some of the Modern French changes have found their places under older + ones; those remaining to be noticed are so recent that English + examples of the older forms are superfluous. In the 16th century the + diphthong _au_ changed to _ao_ and then to _ó_, its present sound, + rendering, for instance, _maux_ (Old French _mals_, _malos_) identical + with _mots_ (_muttos_). The _au_ of _eau_ underwent the same change, + but its _e_ was still sounded as _[schwa]_ (the _e_ of _que_); in the + next century this was dropped, making _veaux_ (Old French _vëels_, + _vitellos_) identical with _vaux_ (_vals_, _valles_). (21) A more + general and very important change began much earlier than the last; + this is the loss of many final consonants. In Early Old French every + consonant was pronounced as written; by degrees many of them + disappeared when followed by another consonant, whether in the same + word (in which case they were generally omitted in writing) or in a + following one. This was the state of things in the 16th century; those + final consonants which are usually silent in Modern French were still + sounded, if before a vowel or at the end of a sentence or a line of + poetry, but generally not elsewhere. Thus a large number of French + words had two forms; the Old French _fort_ appeared as _fòr_ (though + still written _fort_) before a consonant, fòrt elsewhere. At a later + period final consonants were lost (with certain exceptions) when the + word stood at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry; but they + are generally kept when followed by a word beginning with a vowel. + (22) A still later change is the general loss of the vowel (written e) + of unaccented final syllables; this vowel preserved in the 16th + century the sound _[schwa]_, which it had in Early Old French. In + later Anglo-Norman final _[schwa]_ (like every other sound) was + treated exactly as the same sound in Middle English; that is, it came + to be omitted or retained at pleasure, and in the 15th century + disappeared. In Old French the loss of final _[schwa]_ is confined to + a few words and forms; the 10th century _saveiet_ (_sapebat_ for + _sapiebat_) became in the 11th _saveit_, and _ore_ (_ad horam_), _ele_ + (_illam_) develop the abbreviated _or, el_. In the 15th century + _[schwa]_ before a vowel generally disappears--_mûr_, Old French + _mëur_ (_maturum_); and in the 16th, though still written, _[schwa]_ + after an unaccented vowel, and in the syllable _ent_ after a vowel, + does the same--_vraiment_, Old French _vraiement_ (_veraca mente_); + _avoient_ two syllables, as now (_avaient_), in Old French three + syllables (as _habebant_). These phenomena occur much earlier in the + anglicized French of England--13th century _aveynt_ (Old French + _aveient_). But the universal loss of final _e_, which has clipped a + syllable from half the French vocabulary, did not take place till the + 18th century, after the general loss of final consonants; _fort_ and + _forte_, distinguished at the end of a sentence or line in the 16th + century as _fòrt_ and _fòrt[schwa]_, remain distinguished, but as + _fòr_ and _fòrt_. The metre of poetry is still constructed on the + obsolete pronunciation, which is even revived in singing; "dîtes, la + jeune belle," actually four syllables (_dit, la zhoen bèl_), is + considered as seven, fitted with music accordingly, and sung to fit + the music (_dit[schwa], la zhoena bèl[schwa]_). (23) In Old French, as + in the other Romanic languages, the stress (force, accent) is on the + syllable which was accented in Latin; compare the treatment of the + accented and unaccented vowels in _latro amas_, giving _lére, áime_, + and in _latronem, amatis_, giving _larón, améz_, the accented vowels + being those which rhyme or assonate. At present, stress in French is + much less marked than in English, German or Italian, and is to a + certain extent variable; which is partly the reason why most native + French scholars find no difficulty in maintaining that the stress in + living Modern French is on the same syllable as in Old French. The + fact that stress in the French of to-day is independent of length + (quantity) and pitch (tone) largely aids the confusion; for though the + final and originally accented syllable (not counting the silent e as a + syllable) is now generally pronounced with less force, it very often + has a long vowel with raised pitch. In actual pronunciation the chief + stress is usually on the first syllable (counting according to the + sounds, not the spelling), but in many polysyllables it is on the last + but one; thus in _caution_ the accented (strong) syllable cau, in + _occasion_ it is _ca_. Poetry is still written according to the + original place of the stress; the rhyme-syllables of _larron, aimez_ + are still _ron_ and _mez_, which when set to music receive an accented + (strong) note, and are sung accordingly, though in speech the la and + ai generally have the principal stress. In reading poetry, as + distinguished from singing, the modern pronunciation is used, both as + to the loss of the final _[schwa]_ and the displacement of the stress, + the result being that the theoretical metre in which the poetry is + written disappears. (24) In certain cases accented vowels were + lengthened in Old French, as before a lost s; this was indicated in + the 16th century by a circumflex--_bête_, Old French _beste_ + (_bestiam_), _âme_, Old French _anme_ (_anima_). The same occurred in + the plural of many nouns, where a consonant was lost before the _s_ of + the flection; thus singular _coc_ with short vowel, plural _cos_ with + long. The plural _cos_, though spelt _cogs_ instead of _cô_ (= _kóó_), + is still sometimes to be heard, but, like other similar ones, is + generally refashioned after the singular, becoming _kòk_. In present + French, except where a difference of quality has resulted, as in + _côte_ (Old French _coste, costam_) with _ò_ and _cotte_ (Old French + _cote_), with _ò_, short and long vowels generally run together, + quantity being now variable and uncertain; but at the beginning of + this century the Early Modern distinctions appear to have been + generally preserved. + +(d) _Orthography._--The history of French spelling is based on that of +French sounds; as already stated, the former (apart from a few Latinisms +in the earliest documents) for several centuries faithfully followed the +latter. When the popular Latin of Gaul was first written, its sounds +were represented by the letters of the Roman alphabet; but these were +employed, not in the values they had in the time of Caesar, but in those +they had acquired in consequence of the phonetic changes that had +meantime taken place. Thus, as the Latin sound _u_ had become _ó_ (close +_o_) and _u_ had become _y_ (French _u_, German _ü_), the letter _u_ was +used sometimes to denote the sound _ó_, sometimes the sound _y_; as +Latin _k_ (written _c_) had become _tsh_ or _ts_, according to dialect, +before _e_ and _i_, _c_ was used to represent those sounds as well as +that of _k_. The chief features of early French orthography (apart from +the specialities of individual MSS., especially the earliest) are +therefore these:--_c_ stood for _k_ and _tsh_ or _ts_; _d_ for _d_ and +_dh_ (soft _th_); _e_ for _é_, _è_, and _[schwa]_; _g_ for _g_ and _dzh_; +_h_ was often written in words of Latin origin where not sounded; _i_ +(_j_) stood for _i_, _y_ consonant, and _dzh_; _o_ for _ó_ (Anglo-Norman +_u_) and _ò_; _s_ for _s_ and _z_; _t_ for _t_ and _th_; _u_ (_v_) for +_ó_ (Anglo-Norman _u_), _y_ and _v_; _y_ (rare) for _i_; _z_ for _dz_ +and _ts_. Some new sounds had also to be provided for: where _tsh_ had +to be distinguished from non-final _ts_, _ch_--at first, as in Italian, +denoting _k_ before _i_ and _e_ (_chi_ = _ki_ from _qvi_)--was used for +it; palatal _l_ was represented by _ill_, which when final usually lost +one _l_, and after _i_ dropped its _i_; palatal _n_ by _gn_, _ng_ or +_ngn_, to which _i_ was often prefixed; and the new letter _w_, +originally _uu_ (_vv_), and sometimes representing merely _uv_ or _vu_, +was employed for the consonant-sound still denoted by it in English. All +combinations of vowel-letters represented diphthongs; thus _ai_ denoted +_a_ followed by _i_, _ou_ either _óu_ or _òu_, _ui_ either _ói_ +(Anglo-Norman _ui_) or _yi_, and similarly with the others--_ei_, _eu_, +_oi_, _iu_, _ie_, _ue_ (and _oe_), and the triphthong _ieu_. Silent +letters, except initial _h_ in Latin words, are very rare; though MSS. +copied from older ones often retain letters whose sounds, though +existing in the language of the author, had disappeared from that of the +more modern scribe. The subsequent changes in orthography are due mainly +to changes of sound, and find their explanation in the phonology. Thus, +as Old French progresses, _s_, having become silent before voiced +consonants, indicates only the length of the preceding vowel; _e_ before +nasals, from the change of _[~e]_ (nasal _e_) to _ã_ (nasal _a_), +represents _ã_; _c_, from the change of _ts_ to _s_, represents _s_; +_qu_ and _gu_, from the loss of the _w_ of _kw_ and _gw_, represent _k_ +and _g_ (hard); _ai_, from the change of _ai_ to _è_, represents _è_; +_ou_, from the change of _òu_ and _óu_ to _u_, represents _u_; _ch_ and +_g_, from the change of _tsh_ and _dzh_ to _sh_ and _zh_, represent _sh_ +and _zh_; _eu_ and ue, originally representing diphthongs, represent oe +(German _ö_); _z_, from the change of _ts_ and _dz_ to _s_ and _z_, +represents _s_ and _z_. The new values of some of these letters were +applied to words not originally spelt with them: Old French _k_ before +_i_ and _e_ was replaced by _qu_ (_evesque_, _eveske_, Latin +_episcopum_); Old French _u_ and _o_ for _ó_, after this sound had split +into _eu_ and _u_, were replaced in the latter case by _ou_ (_rous_, for +_ros_ or _rus_, Latin _russum_); _s_ was accidentally inserted to mark a +long vowel (_pasle_, _pale_, Latin _pallidum_); _eu_ replaced _ue_ and +_oe_ (_neuf_, _nuef_, Latin _novum_ and _novem_); _z_ replaced _s_ after +_é_ (_nez_, _nes_, _nasum_). The use of _x_ for final _s_ is due to an +orthographical mistake; the MS. contraction of _us_ being something like +_x_ was at last confused with it (_iex_ for _ieus_, _oculos_), and, its +meaning being forgotten, _u_ was inserted before the _x_ (_yeux_) which +thus meant no more than _s_, and was used for it after other vowels +(_voix_ for _vois_, _vocem_). As literature came to be extensively +cultivated, traditional as distinct from phonetic spelling began to be +influential; and in the 14th century, the close of the Old French +period, this influence, though not overpowering, was strong--stronger +than in England at that time. About the same period there arose +etymological as distinct from traditional spelling. This practice, the +alteration of traditional spelling by the insertion or substitution of +letters which occurred (or were supposed to occur) in the Latin (or +supposed Latin) originals of the French words, became very prevalent in +the three following centuries, when such forms as _debvoir_ (_debere_) +for _devoir_, _faulx_ (_falsum_) for _faus_, _autheur_ (_auctorem_, +supposed to be _authorem_) for _auteur_, _poids_ (supposed to be from +_pondus_, really from _pensum_) for _pois_, were the rule. But besides +the etymological, there was a phonetic school of spelling (Ramus, in +1562, for instance, writes _èime_, _èimates_--with _e_ = _é_, _è_ = _è_, +and _e_ = _[schwa]_--for _aimai_, _aimastes_), which, though +unsuccessful on the whole, had some effect in correcting the excesses of +the other, so that in the 17th century most of these inserted letters +began to drop; of those which remain, some (_flegme_ for _flemme_ or +_fleume_, Latin _phlegma_) have corrupted the pronunciation. Some +important reforms--as the dropping of silent _s_, and its replacement by +a circumflex over the vowel when this was long; the frequent distinction +of close and open _e_ by acute and grave accents; the restriction of _i_ +and _u_ to the vowel sound, of _j_ and _v_ to the consonant; and the +introduction from Spain of the cedilla to distinguish _c_ = _s_ from _c_ += _k_ before _a_, _u_ and _o_--are due to the 16th century. The +replacement of _oi_, where it had assumed the value _è_, by _ai_, did +not begin till the last century, and was not the rule till the present +one. Indeed, since the 16th century the changes in French spelling have +been small, compared with the changes of the sounds; final consonants +and final _e_ (unaccented) are still written, though the sounds they +represent have disappeared. + +Still, a marked effort towards the simplification of French orthography +was made in the third edition of the _Dictionary_ of the French Academy +(1740), practically the work of the Abbé d'Olivet. While in the first +(1694) and second (1718) editions of this dictionary words were +overburdened with silent letters, supposed to represent better the +etymology, in the third edition the spelling of about 5000 words (out of +about 18,000) was altered and made more in conformity with the +pronunciation. So, for instance, _c_ was dropped in _beinfaicteur_ and +_object_, _ç_ in _sçavoir_, _d_ in _advocat_, _s_ in _accroistre_, +_albastre_, _aspre_ and _bastard_, _e_ in the past part. _creu_, _deu_, +_veu_, and in such words as _alleure_, _souilleure_; _y_ was replaced by +_i_ in _cecy, celuy, gay, joye_, &c. But those changes were not made +systematically, and many pedantic spellings were left untouched, while +many inconsistencies still remain in the present orthography (_siffler_ +and _persifler_, _souffler_ and _boursoufler_, &c). The consequence of +those efforts in contrary directions is that French orthography is now +quite as traditional and unphonetic as English, and gives an even falser +notion than this of the actual state of the language it is supposed to +represent. Many of the features of Old French orthography, early and +late, are preserved in English orthography; to it we owe the use of _c_ +for _s_ (Old English _c_ = _k_ only), of _j_ (_i_) for _dzh_, of _v_ +(_u_) for _v_ (in Old English written _f_), and probably of _ch_ for +_tsh_. The English _w_ is purely French, the Old English letter being +the runic _Þ_. When French was introduced into England, _kw_ had not +lost its _w_, and the French _qu_, with that value, replaced the Old +English _cÞ_ (_queen_ for _cÞ_en). In Norman, Old French _ó_ had become +very like _u_, and in England went entirely into it; _o_, which was one +of its French signs, thus came to be often used for _u_ in English +(_come_ for _cume_). _U_, having often in Old French its Modern French +value, was so used in England, and replaced the Old English _y_ (_busy_ +for _bysi_, Middle English _brud_ for _bryd_), and _y_ was often used +for _i_ (_day_ for _dai_). In the 13th century, when _ou_ had come to +represent _u_ in France, it was borrowed by English, and used for the +long sound of that vowel (_sour_ for _sur_); and _gu_, which had come to +mean simply _g_ (hard), was occasionally used to represent the sound _g_ +before _i_ and _e_ (_guess_ for _gesse_). Some of the Early Modern +etymological spellings were imitated in England; _fleam_ and _autour_ +were replaced by _phlegm_ and _authour_, the latter spelling having +corrupted the pronunciation. + +(e) _Inflections._--In the earliest Old French extant, the influence +of analogy, especially in verbal forms, is very marked when these are +compared with Latin (thus the present participles of all conjugations +take _ant_, the ending of the first, Latin _antem_), and becomes +stronger as the language progresses. Such isolated inflectional changes +as _saveit_ into _savoit_, which are cases of regular phonetic changes, +are not noticed here. + + (i.) _Verbs._--(1) In the oldest French texts the Latin pluperfect + (with the sense of the perfect) occasionally occurs--_avret_ + (_habuerat_), _roveret_ (_rogaverat_); it disappears before the 12th + century. (2) The _u_ of the ending of the 1st pers. plur. _mus_ drops + in Old French, except in the perfect, where its presence (as + _[schwa]_) is not yet satisfactorily explained--_amoms_ (_amamus_, + influenced by _sumus_), but _amames_ (_amavimus_). In Picard the + atonic ending _mes_ is extended to all tenses, giving _amomes_, &c. + (3) In the present indicative, 2nd person plur., the ending _ez_ of + the first conjugation (Latin _atis_) extends, even in the earliest + documents, to all verbs--_avez, recevez, oez_ (_habetis_, _recipitis, + auditis_) like _amez_ (_amatis_); such forms as _dites_, _faites_ + (_dicitis_, _facitis_) being exceptional archaisms. This levelling of + the conjugation does not appear at such an early time in the future + (formed from the infinitive and from _habetis_ reduced to _etis_); in + the Roland both forms occur, _portereiz_ (_portare habetis_) + assonating on _rei_ (_roi, regem_), and the younger _porterez_ on + _citet_ (_cité_, _civitatem_), but about the end of the 13th century + the older form _-eiz_, _-oiz_, is dropped, and _-ez_ becomes gradually + the uniform ending for this 2nd person of the plural in the future + tense. (4) In Eastern French the 1st plur., when preceded by _i_, has + _e_, not _o_, before the nasal, while Western French has _u_ (or _o_), + as in the present; _posciomes_ (_posseamus_) in the Jonah homily makes + it probable that the latter is the older form--Picard _aviemes_, + Burgundian _aviens_, Norman _aviums_ (_habebamus_). (5) The + subjunctive of the first conjugation has at first in the singular no + final _e_, in accordance with the final vowel laws--_plur_, _plurs_, + _plurt_ (_plorem_, _plores_, _ploret_). The forms are gradually + assimilated to those of the other conjugations, which, deriving from + Latin _am_, _as_, _at_, have _e_, _es_, _e_(_t_); Modern French + _pleure_, _pleures_, _pleure_, like _perde_, _perdes_, _perde_ + (_perdam_, _perdas_, _perdat_). (6) In Old French the present + subjunctive and the 1st sing. pres. ind. generally show the influence + of the _i_ or _e_ of the Latin _iam_, _eam_, _io_, _eo_--Old French + _muire_ or _moerge_ (_moriat_ for _moriatur_), _tiegne_ or _tienge_ + (_teneat_), _muir_ or _moerc_ (_morio_ for _morior_), _tieng_ or + _tienc_ (_teneo_). By degrees these forms are levelled under the other + present forms--Modern French _meure_ and _meurs_ following _meurt_ + (_morit_ for _moritur_), _tienne_ and _tiens_ following _tient_ + (_tenet_). A few of the older forms remain--the vowel of _aie_ + (_habeam_) and _ai_ (_habeo_) contrasting with that of _a_ (_habet_). + (7) A levelling of which instances occur in the 11th century, but + which is not yet complete, is that of the accented and unaccented + stem-syllables of verbs. In Old French many verb-stems with shifting + accent vary in accordance with phonetic laws--_parler_ (_parabolare_), + _amer_ (_amare_) have in the present indicative _parol_ (_parabolo_), + _paroles_ (_parabolas_), _parolet_ (_parabolat_), _parlums_ + (_parabolamus_), _parlez_ (_parabolatis_), _parolent_ (_parabolant_); + _aim_ (_amo_), _aimes_ (_amas_), _aimet_ (_amat_), _amums_ (_amamus_), + _amez_ (_amatis_), _aiment_ (_amant_). In the first case the + unaccented, in the second the accented form has prevailed--Modern + French _parle_, _parler_; _aime_, _aimer_. In several verbs, as + _tenir_ (_tenere_), the distinction is retained--_tiens_, _tiens_, + _tient_, _tenons_, _tenez_, _tiennent_. (8) In Old French, as stated + above, _ié_ instead of _é_ from _a_ occurs after a palatal (which, if + a consonant, often split into _i_ with a dental); the diphthong thus + appears in several forms of many verbs of the 1st + conjugation--_preier_ (= _prei-ier_, _precare_), _vengier_ + (_vindicare_), _laissier_ (_laxare_), _aidier_ (_adjutare_). At the + close of the Old French period, those verbs in which the stem ends in + a dental replace _ie_ by the _e_ of other verbs--Old French + _laissier_, _aidier_, _laissiez_ (_laxatis_), _aidiez_ (adjutatis); + Modern French _laisser_, _aider_, _laissez_, _aidez_, by analogy of + _aimer_, _aimez_. The older forms generally remain in + Picard--_laissier_, _aidier_. (9) The addition of _e_ to the 1st sing. + pres. ind. of all verbs of the first conjugation is rare before the + 13th century, but is usual in the 15th; it is probably due to the + analogy of the third person--Old French _chant_ (_canto_), _aim_ + (_amo_); Modern French _chante_, _aime_. (10) In the 13th century _s_ + is occasionally added to the 1st pers. sing., except those ending in + _e_ (= _[schwa]_) and _ai_, and to the 2nd sing. of imperatives; at the + close of the 16th century this becomes the rule, and extends to + imperfects and conditionals in _oie_ after the loss of their _e_. It + appears to be due to the influence of the 2nd pers. sing.--Old French + _vend_ (_vendo_ and _vende_), _vendoie_ (_vendebam_), _parti_ + (_partivi_), _ting_ (_tenui_); Modern French _vends_, _vendais_, + _partis_, _tins_; and _donne_ (_dona_) in certain cases becomes + _donnes_. (11) The 1st and 2nd plur. of the pres. subj., which in Old + French were generally similar to those of the indicative, gradually + take an _i_ before them, which is the rule after the 16th century--Old + French _perdons_ (_perdamus_), _perdez_ (_perdatis_); Modern French + _perdions_, _perdiez_, apparently by analogy of the imp. ind. (12) The + loss in Late Old French of final _s_, _t_, &c., when preceding another + consonant, caused many words to have in reality (though often + concealed by orthography) double forms of inflection--one without + termination, the other with. Thus in the 16th century the 2nd sing. + pres. ind. _dors_ (_dormis_) and the 3rd _dort_ (_dormit_) were + distinguished as _dòrz_ and _dòrt_ when before a vowel, as _dòrs_ and + _dòrt_ at the end of a sentence or line of poetry, but ran together as + _dòr_ when followed by a consonant. Still later, the loss of the final + consonant when not followed by a vowel further reduced the cases in + which the forms were distinguished, so that the actual French + conjugation is considerably simpler than is shown by the customary + spellings, except when, in consequence of an immediately following + vowel, the old terminations occasionally appear. Even here the + antiquity is to a considerable extent artificial or delusive, some of + the insertions being due to analogy, and the popular language often + omitting the traditional consonant or inserting a different one. (13) + The subsequent general loss of _e_ = _[schwa]_ in unaccented final + syllables has still further reduced the inflections, but not the + distinctive forms--_perd_ (_perdit_) and _perde_ (_perdat_) being + generally distinguished as _pèr_ and _pèrd_, and before a vowel as + _pèrt_ and _pèrd_. + + (ii.) _Substantives._--(1) In Early Old French (as in Provençal) there + are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; with a few + exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and accusative in both + numbers, the latter in neither. The nom. and acc. sing, and acc. plur. + mas. correspond to those of the Latin 2nd or 3rd declension, the nom. + plur. to that of the 2nd declension. The sing, fem. corresponds to the + nom. and acc. of the Latin 1st declension, or to the acc. of the 3rd; + the plur. fem. to the acc. of the 1st declension, or to the nom. and + acc. of the 3rd. Thus masc. _tors_ (_taurus_), _lere_ (_latro_); _tor_ + (_taurum_), _laron_ (_latronem_); _tor_ (_tauri_), _laron_ (_latroni_ + for _-nes_); _tors_ (_tauros_), _larons_ (_latrones_); but fem. only + _ele_ (_ala_ and _alam_), _flor_ (_florem_); _eles_ (_alas_), _flors_ + (_flores_ nom. and acc.). About the end of the 11th century feminines + not ending in _e_ = _[schwa]_ take, by analogy of the masculines, _s_ + in the nom. sing., thus distinguishing nom. _flors_ from acc. _flor_. + A century later, masculines without _s_ in the nom. sing. take this + consonant by analogy of the other masculines, giving _leres_ as nom. + similar to _tors_. In Anglo-Norman the accusative forms very early + begin to replace the nominative, and soon supersede them, the language + following the tendency of contemporaneous English. In continental + French the declension-system was preserved much longer, and did not + break up till the 14th century, though acc. forms are occasionally + substituted for nom. (rarely nom. for acc.) before that date. It must + be noticed, however, that in the current language the reduction of the + declension to one case (generally the accusative) per number appears + much earlier than in the language of literature proper and poetry; + Froissart, for instance, _c._ 1400, in his poetical works is much more + careful of the declension than in his Chronicles. In the 15th century + the modern system of one case is fully established; the form kept is + almost always the accusative (sing. without _s_, plural with _s_), but + in a few words, such as _fils_ (_filius_), _soeur_ (_soror_), _pastre_ + (_pastor_), and in proper names such as _Georges_, _Gilles_, &c., + often used as vocative (therefore with the form of nom.); the nom. + survives in the sing. Occasionally both forms exist, in different + senses--_sire_ (_senior_) and _seigneur_ (_seniorem_), _on_ (_homo_) + and _homme_ (_hominem_). (2) Latin neuters are generally masculine in + Old French, and inflected according to their analogy, as _ciels_ + (_caelus_ for _caelum_ nom.), _ciel_ (_caelum_ acc.), _ciel_ (_caeli_ + for _caela_ nom.), _ciels_ (_caelos_ for _caela_ acc.); but in some + cases the form of the Latin neuter is preserved, as in _cors_, now + _corps_, Lat. _corpus_; _tens_, now _temps_, Lat. _tempus_. Many + neuters lose their singular form and treat the plural as a feminine + singular, as in the related languages--_merveille_ (_mirabilia_), + _feuille_ (_folia_). But in a few words the neuter plural termination + is used, as in Italian, in its primitive sense--_carre_ (_carra_, + which exists as well as _carri_), _paire_ (_Lat. paria_); Modern + French _chars_, _paires_. (3) In Old French the inflectional _s_ often + causes phonetic changes in the stem; thus palatal _l_ before _s_ takes + _t_ after it, and becomes dental _l_, which afterwards changes to _u_ + or drops--_fil_ (_filium_ and _filii_) with palatal _l_, _filz_ + (_filius_ and _filios_), afterwards _fiz_, with _z_ = _ts_ (preserved + in English _Fitz_), and then _fis_, as now (spelt _fils_). Many + consonants before _s_, as the _t_ of _fiz_, disappear, and _l_ is + vocalized--_vif_ (_vivum_), _mal_ (_malum_), nominative sing. and acc. + plur. _vis_, _maus_ (earlier _mals_). These forms of the plural are + retained in the 16th century, though often etymologically spelt with + the consonant of the singular, as in _vifs_, pronounced _vis_; but in + Late Modern French many of them disappear, _vifs_, with _f_ sounded as + in the singular, being the plural of _vif_, _bals_ (formerly _baux_) + that of _bal_. In many words, as _chant_ (_cantus_) and _champs_ + (_campos_) with silent _t_ and _p_ (Old French _chans_ in both cases), + _maux_ (Old French _mals_, sing. _mal_), _yeux_ (_oculos_, Old French + _oelz_, sing. _oeil_) the old change in the stem is kept. Sometimes, + as in _cieux_ (_caelos_) and _ciels_, the old traditional and the + modern analogical forms coexist, with different meanings. (4) The + modern loss of final _s_ (except when kept as _z_ before a vowel) has + seriously modified the French declension, the singulars _fort_ (_fòr_) + and _forte_ (_fòrt_) being generally undistinguishable from their + plurals _forts_ and _fortes_. The subsequent loss of _[schwa]_ in + finals has not affected the relation between sing. and plur. forms; + but with the frequent recoining of the plural forms on the singular + present Modern French has very often no distinction between sing. and + plur., except before a vowel. Such plurals as _maux_ have always been + distinct from their singular _mal_; in those whose singular ends in + _s_ there never was any distinction, Old French _laz_ (now spelt + _lacs_) corresponding to _laqveus_, _laqveum_, _laqvei_ and _laqveos_. + + (iii.) _Adjectives._--(1) The terminations of the cases and numbers of + adjectives are the same as those of substantives, and are treated in + the preceding paragraph. The feminine generally takes no _e_ if the + masc. has none, and if there is no distinction in Latin--fem. sing. + _fort_ (_fortem_), _grant_ (_grandem_), fem. plur. _forz_ (_fortes_), + _granz_ (_grandes_), like the acc. masc. Certain adjectives of this + class, and among them all the adjectives formed with the Latin suffix + _-ensis_, take regularly, even in the oldest French, the feminine + ending _e_, in _Provençal_ a (_courtois_, fem. _courtoise_; _commun_, + fem. _commune_). To these must not be added _dous_ (Mod. Fr. _dolz_, + _dous_), fem. _douce_, which probably comes from a Low Latin + _dulcius_, _dulcia_. In the 11th century some other feminines, + originally without _e_, begin in Norman to take this + termination--_grande_ (in a feminine assonance in the Alexis), plur. + _grandes_; but other dialects generally preserve the original form + till the 14th century. In the 16th century the _e_ is general in the + feminine, and is now universal, except in a few + expressions--_grand'mère_ (with erroneous apostrophe, _grandem_, + _matrem_), _lettres royaux_ (_literas regales_), and most adverbs from + adjectives in _-ant_, _-ent_--_couramment_ (_currante_ for _-ente + mente_), _sciemment_ (_sciente mente_). (2) Several adjectives have in + Modern French replaced the masc. by the feminine--Old French masc. + _roit_ (_rigidum_), fem. _roide_ (_rigidam_); Modern French _roide_ + for both genders. (3) In Old French several Latin simple comparatives + are preserved--_maiur_ (_majorem_), nom. _maire_ (_major_); _graignur_ + (_grandiorem_), nom. _graindre_ (_grandior_); only a few of these now + survive--_pire_ (_pejor_), _meilleur_ (_meliorem_), with their + adverbial neuters _pis_ (_pejus_), _mieux_ (_melius_). The few simple + superlatives found in Old French, as _merme_ (_minimum_), _pesme_ + (_pessimus_), _proisme_ (_proximum_), _haltisme_ (_altissimum_), this + last one being clearly a literary word, are now extinct, and, when + they existed, had hardly the meaning of a superlative. (4) The modern + loss of many final consonants when not before vowels, and the + subsequent loss of final _[schwa]_, have greatly affected the + distinction between the masc. and fem. of adjectives--_fort_ and + _forte_ are still distinguished as _fòr_ and _fòrt_, but _amer_ + (_amarum_) and _amère_ (_amaram_), with their plurals _amers_ and + _amères_, have run together. + +(f) _Derivation._--Most of the Old French prefixes and suffixes are +descendants of Latin ones, but a few are Teutonic (_ard = hard_), and +some are later borrowings from Latin (_arie_, afterwards _aire_, from +_arium_). In Modern French many old affixes are hardly used for forming +new words; the inherited _ier_ (_arium_) is yielding to the borrowed +_aire_, the popular _contre_ (_contra_) to the learned anti (Greek), and +the native _ée_ (_atam_) to the Italian _ade_. The suffixes of many +words have been assimilated to more common ones; thus _sengler_ +(_singularem_) is now _sanglier_. + +(g) _Syntax._--Old French syntax, gradually changing from the 10th to +the 14th century, has a character of its own, distinct from that of +Modern French; though when compared with Latin syntax it appears +decidedly modern. + + (1) The general formal distinction between nominative and accusative + is the chief feature which causes French syntax to resemble that of + Latin and differ from that of the modern language; and as the + distinction had to be replaced by a comparatively fixed word-order, a + serious loss of freedom ensued. If the forms are modernized while the + word-order is kept, the Old French _l'archevesque ne puet flechir li + reis Henris_ (Latin _archiepiscopum non potest flectere rex Henricus_) + assumes a totally different meaning--_l'archevêque ne peut fléchir le + roi Henri_. (2) The replacement of the nominative form of nouns by the + accusative is itself a syntactical feature, though treated above under + inflection. A more modern instance is exhibited by the personal + pronouns, which, when not immediately the subject of a verb, + occasionally take even in Old French, and regularly in the 16th + century, the accusative form; the Old French _je qui sui_ (_ego qvi + sum_) becomes _moi qui suis_, though the older usage survives in the + legal phrase _je soussigné_.... (3) The definite article is now + required in many cases where Old French dispenses with it--_jo cunquis + Engleterre, suffrir mort_ (as Modern French _avoir faim_); Modern + French _l'Angleterre, la mort_. (4) Old French had distinct pronouns + for "this" and "that"--_cest_ (_ecce istum_) and _cel_ (_ecce + illium_), with their cases. Both exist in the 16th century, but the + present language employs _cet_ as adjective, _cel_ as substantive, in + both meanings, marking the old distinction by affixing the adverbs + _ci_ and _là_--_cet homme-ci, cet homme-là_; _celui-ci, celui-là_. (5) + In Old French, the verbal terminations being clear, the subject + pronoun is usually not expressed--_si ferai_ (_sic facere habeo_), + _est durs_ (_durus est_), _que feras_ (_quid facere habes_)? In the + 16th century the use of the pronoun is general, and is now universal, + except in one or two impersonal phrases, as _n'importe, peu s'en + faut_. (6) The present participle in Old French in its uninflected + form coincided with the gerund (_amant = amantem_ and _amando_), and + in the modern language has been replaced by the latter, except where + it has become adjectival; the Old French _complaingnans leur dolours_ + (Latin _plangentes_) is now _plaignant leurs douleurs_ (Latin + _plangendo_). The now extinct use of _estre_ with the participle + present for the simple verb is not uncommon in Old French down to the + 16th century--_sont disanz_ (_sunt dicentes_) = Modern French _ils + disent_ (as English _they are saying_). (7) In present Modern French + the preterite participle when used with _avoir_ to form verb-tenses is + invariable, except when the object precedes (an exception now + vanishing in the conversational language)--_j'ai écrit les lettres, + les lettres que j'ai écrites_. In Old French down to the 16th century, + formal concord was more common (though by no means necessary), partly + because the object preceded the participle much oftener than now--_ad + la culur muée_ (_habet colorem mutatam_), _ad faite sa venjance, les + turs ad rendues_. (8) The sentences just quoted will serve as + specimens of the freedom of Old French word-order--the object standing + either before verb and participle, between them, or after both. The + predicative adjective can stand before or after the verb--_halt sunt + li pui_ (Latin _podia_), _e tenebrus e grant_. (9) In Old French _ne_ + (Early Old French _nen_, Latin _non_) suffices for the negation + without _pas_ (_passum_), _point_ (_punctum_) or _mie_ (_micam_, now + obsolete), though these are frequently used--_jo ne sui lis sire_ (_je + ne suis pas ton seigneur_), _autre feme nen ara_ (_il n'aura pas autre + femme_). In principal sentences Modern French uses _ne_ by itself only + in certain cases--_je ne puis marcher, je n'ai rien_. The slight + weight as a negation usually attached to ne has caused several + originally positive words to take a negative meaning--_rien_ (Latin + _rem_) now meaning "nothing" as well as "something." (10) In Old + French interrogation was expressed with substantives as with pronouns + by putting them after the verb--_est Saul entre les prophètes?_ In + Modern French the pronominal inversion (the substantive being + prefixed) or a verbal periphrasis must be used--_Saul est-il?_ or + _est-ce que Saul est?_ + + (h) _Summary._--Looking at the internal history of the French language + as a whole, there is no such strongly marked division as exists + between Old and Middle English, or even between Middle and Modern + English. Some of the most important changes are quite modern, and are + concealed by the traditional orthography; but, even making allowance + for this, the difference between French of the 11th century and that + of the 20th is less than that between English of the same dates. The + most important change in itself and for its effects is probably that + which is usually made the division between Old and Modern French, the + loss of the formal distinction between nominative and accusative; next + to this are perhaps the gradual loss of many final consonants, the + still recent loss of the vowel of unaccented final syllables, and the + extension of analogy in conjugation and declension. In its + construction Old French is distinguished by a freedom strongly + contrasting with the strictness of the modern language, and bears, as + might be expected, a much stronger resemblance than the latter to the + other Romanic dialects. In many features, indeed, both positive and + negative, Modern French forms a class by itself, distinct in character + from the other modern representatives of Latin. + + IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The few works which treat of French philology as a + whole are now in many respects antiquated, and the important + discoveries of recent years, which have revolutionized our ideas of + Old French phonology and dialectology, are scattered in various + editions, periodicals, and separate treatises. For many things Diez's + _Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen_ (4th edition--a reprint of the + 3rd--Bonn, 1876-1877; French translation, Paris, 1872-1875) is still + very valuable; Burguy's _Grammaire de la Langue d'Oïl_ (2nd edition--a + reprint of the 1st--Berlin, 1869-1870) is useful only as a collection + of examples. Schwan's _Grammatik des Altfranzösischen_, as revised by + Behrens in the 3rd edition (Leipzig, 1898; French translation, Leipzig + and Paris, 1900), is by far the best old French grammar we possess. + For the history of French language in general see F. Brunot, _Histoire + de la langue française des origines à 1900_ (Paris, 1905, 1906, &c.). + For the history of spelling, A. F. Didot, _Observations sur + l'orthographe ou ortografie française suivies d'une histoire de la + réforme orthographique depuis le XV^e siècle jusqu'à nos jours_ (2nd + ed., Paris, 1868). For the history of French sounds: Ch. Thurot, _De + la prononciation française depuis le commencement du XVI^e siècle, + d'après les témoignages des grammairiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1883). + For the history of syntax, apart from various grammatical works of a + general character, much is to be gathered from Ad. Tobler's + _Vermischte Beiträge zur französischen Grammatik_ (3 parts, 1886, + 1894, 1899, parts i. and ii. in second editions, 1902, 1906). G. + Paris's edition of _La Vie de S. Alexis_ (Paris, 1872) was the pioneer + of, and retains an important place among, the recent original works on + Old French. Darmesteter and Hatzfeld's _Le Seizième Siècle_ (Paris, + 1878) contains the first good account of Early Modern French. Littré's + _Dictionnaire de la langue française_ (4 vols., Paris, 1863-1869, and + a Supplement, 1877); and Hatzfeld, Darmesteter and Thomas, _Dict. + général de la langue française_, more condensed (2 vols., Paris, + 1888-1900), contain much useful and often original information about + the etymology and history of French words. For the etymology of many + French (and also Provençal) words, reference must be made to Ant. + Thomas's _Essais de philologie française_ (Paris, 1897) and _Nouveaux + essais de philologie française_ (Paris, 1904). But there is no French + dictionary properly historical. A _Dictionnaire historique de la + langue française_ was begun by the Académie française (4 vols., + 1859-1894), but it was, from the first, antiquated. It contains only + one letter (A) and has not been continued. The leading periodicals now + in existence are the _Romania_ (Paris), founded (in 1872) and edited + by P. Meyer and G. Paris (with Ant. Thomas since the death of G. Paris + in 1903), and the _Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie_ (Halle), + founded (in 1877) and edited by G. Gröber. To these reference should + be made for information as to the very numerous articles, treatises + and editions by the many and often distinguished scholars who, + especially in France and Germany, now prosecute the scientific study + of the language. It may be well to mention that, Old French phonology + especially being complicated, and as yet incompletely investigated, + these publications, the views in which are of various degrees of + value, require not mere acquiescent reading, but critical study. The + dialects of France in their present state (_patois_) are now being + scientifically investigated. The special works on the subject + (dictionaries, grammars, &c.) cannot be fully indicated here; we must + limit ourselves to the mention of Behren's _Bibliographie des patois + gallo-romans_ (2nd ed., revised Berlin, 1893), and of Gilliéron and + Edmont's _Atlas linguistique de la France_ (1902 et seq.), a huge + publication planned to contain about 1800 maps. (H. N.; P. M.) + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language", by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 20, 2011 [EBook #37806] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11, SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 180%">THE</p> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 250%; color: #C11B17;">ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</p> +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 150%">ELEVENTH EDITION</p> +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr f90" width="70%" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tc5">FIRST</td> + <td class="tc6">edition,</td> + <td class="tc6">published in</td> + <td class="tc5">three</td> + <td class="tc6">volumes,</td> + <td class="tc5">1768-1771.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">SECOND</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">ten</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1777-1784.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">THIRD</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">eighteen</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1788-1797.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">FOURTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">twenty</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1801-1810.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">FIFTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">twenty</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1815-1817.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">SIXTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">twenty</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1823-1824.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">SEVENTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">twenty-one</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1830-1842.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">EIGHTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">twenty-two</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1853-1860.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">NINTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">twenty-five</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc5">1875-1889.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">TENTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6" colspan="3">ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes,</td> + <td class="tc5">1902-1903.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tc5">ELEVENTH</td> + <td class="tc6">”</td> + <td class="tc6" colspan="3">published in twenty-nine volumes,</td> + <td class="tc5">1910-1911.</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="pt2"> </div> +<hr class="full" /> +<div class="pt2"> </div> + + +<p class="center">COPYRIGHT</p> +<p class="center">in all countries subscribing to the<br /> +Bern Convention</p> + +<p class="center">by</p> +<p class="center">THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS</p> +<p class="center">of the</p> +<p class="center">UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE</p> + +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<p class="center"><i>All rights reserved</i></p> + +<div class="pt2"> </div> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 180%">THE</p> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 250%; color: #C11B17;">ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center">A</p> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 180%">DICTIONARY</p> + +<p class="center">OF</p> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL</p> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">INFORMATION</p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 120%">ELEVENTH EDITION</p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 170%; font-family: 'Courier New';">VOLUME XI</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 140%; font-family: 'Courier New';">FRANCISCANS to GIBSON</p> +<div class="pt1"> </div> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">New York</p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</p> +<p class="center f80">342 Madison Avenue</p> + +<div class="pt1"> </div> +<p class="center">Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,<br /> +by<br /> +The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.</p> +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XI SLICE I<br /><br /> +Franciscans to French Language</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FRANCISCANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FREDERICK I.</a> (king of Prussia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FRANCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FREDERICK II.</a> (king of Prussia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FRANCK, CÉSAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FREDERICK III.</a> (king of Prussia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FRANCK, SEBASTIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FREDERICK III.</a> (king of Sicily)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FREDERICK I.</a> (elector of Brandenburg)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FRANCKEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FREDERICK I.</a> (elector of the Rhine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FRANCO-GERMAN WAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FREDERICK II.</a> (elector of the Rhine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FRANÇOIS DE NEUFCHÂTEAU, NICOLAS LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FREDERICK III.</a> (elector of the Rhine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FRANCONIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FREDERICK IV.</a> (elector of the Rhine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FRANCS-ARCHERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FREDERICK V.</a> (elector of the Rhine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FRANCS-TIREURS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FREDERICK I.</a> (duke of Saxony)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FRANEKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FREDERICK II.</a> (duke of Saxony)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FRANK, JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FREDERICK III.</a> (elector of Saxony)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FRANK-ALMOIGN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FREDERICK</a> (Maryland, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FRANKENBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FRANKENHAUSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FREDERICK CHARLES (FRIEDRICH KARL NIKOLAUS)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FRANKENSTEIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FREDERICK HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FRANKENTHAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FREDERICK LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FRANKENWALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FREDERICK WILLIAM I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FRANKFORT</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FREDERICK WILLIAM II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FRANKFORT</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FREDERICK WILLIAM III.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FREDERICK WILLIAM IV.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FRANKFORT-ON-ODER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FREDERICK WILLIAM (elector of Brandenburg)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FRANKINCENSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FRÉDÉRICK-LEMAÎTRE, ANTOINE LOUIS PROSPER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FRANKING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FREDERICKSBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FREDERICTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FREDONIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FREDRIKSHALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FREDRIKSTAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FREE BAPTISTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FRANKLIN</a> (district of Canada)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FREEBENCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FRANKLIN</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FREE CHURCH FEDERATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FRANKLIN</a> (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FRANKLIN</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FRANKLIN</a> (Tennessee, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FREEDMEN’S BUREAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FRANKLIN</a> (freeman)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FREEHOLD</a> (New Jersey, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FRANKLINITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FREEHOLD (law)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FRANK-MARRIAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FREELAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FRANKPLEDGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FREEMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FRANKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FREEMASONRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FRANZ, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FREEPORT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FRANZÉN, FRANS MIKAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FREE PORTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FRANZENSBAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FREE REED VIBRATOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FRANZ JOSEF LAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FREESIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FRANZOS, KARL EMIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FREE SOIL PARTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FRASCATI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FREE-STONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FREETOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FRASER, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FREE TRADE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FREGELLAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FREIBERG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FRASER</a> (river)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FREIBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FRASERBURGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FREIBURG IM BREISGAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FRASERVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FREIDANK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FRATER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FREIENWALDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FREIESLEBENITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FRATICELLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FREIGHT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FRAUD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FRAUENBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FREIND, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FRAUENFELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FREINSHEIM, JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FRAUENLOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FREISCHÜTZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FREISING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FRAUSTADT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FRÉJUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FRÉCHETTE, LOUIS HONORÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FREMANTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FREDEGOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FRÉMIET, EMMANUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FREDERIC, HAROLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FREDERICIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FREMONT</a> (Nebraska, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FREDERICK</a> (name)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FREMONT</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FREDERICK I.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FRÉMY, EDMOND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FREDERICK II.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FREDERICK III.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FRENCH, NICHOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FREDERICK III.</a> (German king)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FRENCH CONGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FREDERICK II.</a> (king of Denmark and Norway)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FRENCH GUINEA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FREDERICK III.</a> (king of Denmark and Norway)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FRENCH LANGUAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FREDERICK VIII.</a> (king of Denmark)</td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 120%">INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL<br /> +CONTRIBUTORS,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE<br /> +ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.</p> +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" width="100%" summary="Contents"> + +<tr> <td class="tc1" style="width: 10%;">A. B. R.</td> + <td class="tc2" style="width: 60%;"><span class="sc">Alfred Barton Rendle, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S.</span><br /> +Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of <i>Text Book on +Classification of Flowering Plants</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Fruit.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. B. W. K.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Alexander Blackie William Kennedy, LL.D., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University College, London. Consulting +Engineer to Board of Ordnance.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Friction.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. Ca.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Arthur Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cayley, Arthur</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gauss.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. E. H. L.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Augustus Edward Hough Love, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Hon. +Fellow of Queen’s College; formerly Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge. +Secretary to the London Mathematical Society.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Function:</b> <i>Functions of Real Variables</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. E. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. +Joint-editor of the <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gastrotricha.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. Ge.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geikie, Sir A.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Geology.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. Go.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Alexander Gordon, MA.</span><br /> +Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Franck, Sebastian;</b></p> +<p><b>Gallars.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. G. B.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hon. Archibald Graeme Bell, M.Inst.C.E.</span><br /> +Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member of Executive +and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Georgetown, British Guiana.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. G. D.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Arthur George Doughty, C.M.G., M.A., Litt.D., F.R., Hist.S.</span><br /> +Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. +Author of <i>The Cradle of New France</i>; &c. Joint-editor of <i>Documents relating +to the Constitutional History of Canada</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frontenac et Palluau.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. H. Sm.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Arthur Hamilton Smith, M.A., F.S.A.</span><br /> +Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. +Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of <i>Catalogue +of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gem: II.</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. M.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Allen Menzies, D.D.</span><br /> +Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St Andrews. Author +of <i>History of Religion</i>; &c. Editor of <i>Review of Theology and Philosophy</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Free Church of Scotland</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. M. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Agnes Mary Clerke.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clerke, Agnes M.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Galileo.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. N.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alfred Newton, F.R.S.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newton, Alfred</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frigate-Bird;</b></p> +<p><b>Gadwall;</b></p> +<p><b>Gannet;</b></p> +<p><b>Gare Fowl.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. N. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alfred Neave Brayshaw, LL.B.</span><br /> +Author of <i>Bible Notes on the Hebrew Prophets</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Friends, Society of.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. N. W.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alfred North Whitehead, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of +<i>A Treatise on Universal Algebra</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geometry: VI.</b> (<i>in part</i>) <b>and VII.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. R. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alexander Ross Clarke, C.B., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In charge of +the trigonometrical operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geodesy</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. S. M.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alexander Stuart Murray, LL.D.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Murray, Alexander Stuart</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gem: II.</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. W. H.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Arthur William Holland.</span><br /> +Formerly Scholar of St John’s College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray’s Inn, +1900.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frederick II.</b>, <i>Roman Emperor</i>;</p> +<p><b>French Revolution:</b> <i>Republican Calendar</i>;</p> +<p><b>Germany:</b> <i>History</i> (<i>in part</i>) <i>and Bibliography</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">A. W. W.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Adolphus William Ward, Litt.D., LL.D.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ward, A. W.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Garrick, David</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">B. A. W. R.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hon. Bertrand Arthur William Russell, M.A., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of <i>Foundations of +Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c.</i></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geometry: VI.</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">B. S. P.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Bertha Surtees Philpotts, M.A.</span> (Dublin).<br /> +Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Germany:</b> <i>Archaeology</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. B.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Bémont, Litt.D.</span> (Oxon.).<br /> +See the biographical article, Bémont, C.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fustel De Coulanges;</b></p> +<p><b>Gascony.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. D. W.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hon. Carroll Davidson Wright.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wright, Hon. Carroll Davidson</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Friendly Societies:</b> <i>United States</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. E.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.</span><br /> +Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geometry:</b> <i>History</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. F. A.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Francis Atkinson.</span><br /> +Formerly Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London +(Royal Fusiliers). Author of <i>The Wilderness and Cold Harbour</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Franco-German War</b> (<i>in part</i>);</p> +<p><b>French Revolutionary Wars:</b> <i>Military Operations</i>;</p> +<p><b>Germany:</b> <i>Army</i>;</p> +<p><b>Gibraltar:</b> <i>History</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. H. Ha.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Carlton Huntley Hayes, M.A., Ph.D.</span><br /> +Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member +of the American Historical Association.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gelasius II.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. K. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Clement King Shorter.</span><br /> +Editor of <i>The Sphere</i>. Author of <i>Sixty Years of Victorian Literature</i>; <i>Immortal +Memories</i>; <i>The Brontës, Life and Letters</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gaskell, Elizabeth.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. Mi.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Chedomille Mijatovich.</span><br /> +Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary +of the King of Servia to the Court of St James’s, 1895-1900 and 1902-1903.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Garashanin.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. M. K.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Charles Malcolm Kennedy, K.C.M.G., C.B.</span> (1831-1908).<br /> +Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer on International +Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in the Levant, 1870-1871, +at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor +of Kennedy’s <i>Ethnological and Linguistic Essays</i>; <i>Diplomacy and International +Law</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Free Ports.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. Pf.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Christian Pfister, D.-ès.-L.</span><br /> +Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author +of <i>Études sur le règne de Robert le Pieux</i>; <i>Le Duché mérovingien d’Alsace et la legende +de Sainte-Odile</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Franks;</b></p> +<p><b>Fredegond;</b></p> +<p><b>Germanic Laws, Early.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. R. B.</td> + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.</span><br /> +Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow +of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. +Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of +<i>Henry the Navigator</i>; <i>The Dawn of Modern Geography</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gerard of Cremona.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. R. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Claude Regnier Conder, LL.D.</span><br /> +Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of Palestine. Author +of <i>The City of Jerusalem</i>; <i>The Bible and the East</i>; <i>The Hittites and their Language</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Galilee</b> (<i>in part</i>);</p> +<p><b>Galilee, Sea of</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. T.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Charles Taylor, M.A., D.D., LL.D.</span> (1840-1908).<br /> +Formerly Master of St John’s College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge +University, 1887-1888. Author of <i>Geometrical Conies</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geometrical Continuity.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. We.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Cecil Weatherly.</span><br /> +Formerly Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gate.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">C. W. W.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.</span> (1836-1907).<br /> +Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary +Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Commission. +Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General +of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of <i>From Korti to Khartoum</i>; <i>Life of +Lord Clive</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Galilee, Sea of</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">D. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Dugald Clerk, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the Clerk Cycle Gas +Engine.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gas Engine.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">D. F. T.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Donald Francis Tovey.</span><br /> +Balliol College, Oxford. Author of <i>Essays in Musical Analysis</i>, comprising <i>The +Classical Concerto</i>, <i>The Goldberg Variations</i>, and analyses of many other classical +works.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Fugue.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">D. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">David Hannay.</span><br /> +Formerly British Vice-consul at Barcelona. Author of <i>Short History of Royal +Navy, 1217-1688</i>; <i>Life of Emilio Castelar</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>French Revolutionary Wars:</b> <i>Naval Operations</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. Br.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest Barker, M.A.</span><br /> +Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John’s College, Oxford. Formerly +Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fulk, King of Jerusalem.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. B. El.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edwin Bailey Elliott, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.</span><br /> +Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics, and Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. +Formerly Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford. President of London Mathematical +Society, 1896-1898. Author of <i>Algebra of Quantics</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Geometry, IV.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. C. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler; O.S.B., D.Litt.</span> (Dublin).<br /> +Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of “The Lausiac History of Palladius” +in <i>Cambridge Texts and Studies</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Franciscans; Friar.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. E.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Lady Eastlake.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eastlake, Sir C. L.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gibson, John.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. G.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edmund Gosse, LL.D.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gosse, Edmund</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fryxell; Garland, John.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. J. D.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edward Joseph Dent, M.A., Mus.Bac.</span><br /> +Formerly Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Galuppi.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. O.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.</span><br /> +Consulting Surgeon to St Mary’s Hospital, London, and to the Children’s Hospital, +Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, +Durham and London. Author of <i>A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gastric Ulcer.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. Pr.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edgar Prestage.</span><br /> +Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. +Commendador Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon +Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Garção; Garrett.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">E. W. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Edward William Brabrook, C.B., F.S.A.</span><br /> +Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln’s Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, 1891-1904. +Author of <i>Building Societies</i>; <i>Provident Societies and Industrial Welfare</i>; <i>Institutions +of Thrift</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Friendly Societies.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. C. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th.</span> (Geissen).<br /> +Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. +Author of <i>The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle</i>; <i>Myth, Magic and Morals</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Funeral Rites.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. C. M.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Francis Charles Montague, M.A.</span><br /> +Astor Professor of European History, University College, London. Formerly +Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Author of <i>Limits of Individual Liberty</i>; chapters +in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>French Revolution.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. F.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir James Fortescue-Flannery, Bart., M.P., M.Inst.C.E.</span><br /> +Ex-President of the Institute of Marine Engineers. M.P. for the Maldon Division +of Essex, 1910. M.P. for the Shipley Division of Yorkshire, 1895-1906.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fuel:</b> <i>Liquid</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. G. M. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.</span><br /> +Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Germany:</b> <i>Ethnography and Early History</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. H. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Francis Henry Butler, M.A.</span><br /> +Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of Royal School of Mines.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frankincense; Galls.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. J. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.</span><br /> +Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of +Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, +Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford’s Lecturer, 1906-1907. +Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gaul.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. N. M.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Colonel Frederic Natusch Maude, C.B.</span><br /> +Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of <i>War and the +World’s Policy</i>; <i>The Leipzig Campaign</i>; <i>The Jena Campaign</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Franco-German War</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. R. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frank R. Cana.</span><br /> +Author of <i>South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>French Congo;</b></p> + <p><b>German East Africa;</b></p> + <p><b>German South-West Africa.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. R. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Friedrich Robert Helmert, Ph.D., D.Ing.</span><br /> +Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geodesy</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Francis Storr.</span><br /> +Editor of the <i>Journal of Education</i>, London. Officer d’Académie (Paris).</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Games, Classical.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">F. W. R.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.</span><br /> +Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. +President of the Geologists’ Association, 1887-1889.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Garnet;</b><br /> +<b>Gem: I.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">G. E.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.</span><br /> +Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford’s Lecturer, 1909.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gelderland</b> (<i>Duchy</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">G. L.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Georg Lunge.</span><br /> +See the biographical article. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lunge, G.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fuel:</b> <i>Gaseous</i>;</p> +<p><b>Gas:</b> <i>Manufacture</i>, <b>II.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">G. Sa.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">George Saintsbury, D.C.L., LL.D.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saintsbury, G.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>French Literature;</b></p> + <p><b>Gautier.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">G. W. T.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Griffiths Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D.</span><br /> +Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and +Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Ghazālī.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hilary Bauermann, F.G.S.</span> (d. 1909).<br /> +Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of +<i>A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fuel:</b> <i>Solid</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. B. W.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S.</span><br /> +Late Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. Wollaston +Medallist, Geological Society. Author of <i>The History of the Geological Society of +London</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gaudry.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. Ch.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hugh Chisholm, M.A.</span><br /> +Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 11th edition +of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the 10th edition.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gambetta;</b></p> +<p><b>Garnett, Richard;</b></p> +<p><b>George IV.</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. C. L.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lodge, Henry Cabot</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gallatin.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. F. Ba.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Henry Frederick Baker, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Fellow and Lecturer of St John’s College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in +Mathematics in the University. Author of <i>Abel’s Theorem and the Allied Theory</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Function:</b> <i>Functions of Complex Variables</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. L. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hugh Longbourne Callendar, F.R.S., LL.D.</span><br /> +Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of +Physics in MacGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Fusion.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. M.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hugh Mitchell.</span><br /> +Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gibraltar</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. M. W.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">H. Marshall Ward, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.</span> (d. 1905).<br /> +Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British Mycological +Society. Author of <i>Timber and Some of its Diseases</i>; <i>The Oak</i>; <i>Sach’s Lectures on +the Physiology of Plants</i>; <i>Diseases in Plants</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fungi</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. N.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Henry Nicol.</span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>French Language</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. R. M.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc., LL.D.</span><br /> +Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of <i>British Rainfall</i>. Formerly +President of the Royal Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical +Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, +Berlin, Budapest, St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of <i>The Realm of Nature</i>; +<i>The International Geography</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Geography.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. W. C. D.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Henry William Carless Davis, M.A.</span><br /> +Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, +1895-1902. Author of <i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i>; <i>Charlemagne</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geoffrey,</b> <i>Archbishop of York</i>;</p> +<p><b>Geoffrey of Monmouth;</b></p> +<p><b>Gerard;</b></p> +<p><b>Gervase of Canterbury;</b></p> +<p><b>Gervase of Tilbury.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">H. W. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">H. Wickham Steed.</span><br /> +Correspondent of <i>The Times</i> at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Garibaldi.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">I. A.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Israel Abrahams, M.A.</span><br /> +Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. +Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of <i>A Short +History of Jewish Literature</i>; <i>Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</i>; <i>Judaism</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frank, Jakob;</b></p> +<p><b>Frankel, Zecharias;</b></p> +<p><b>Frankl, Ludwig A.;</b></p> +<p><b>Friedmann, Meir;</b></p> +<p><b>Gaon; Geiger</b> (<i>in part</i>);</p> +<p><b>Gersonides.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. A. F.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Ambrose Fleming, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow +of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge, +and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of <i>Magnets and +Electric Currents</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Galvanometer.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. A. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Allen Howe, B.Sc.</span><br /> +Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of +<i>The Geology of Building Stones</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fuller’s Earth.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. B. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Bagnall Bury, LL.D., D.C.L.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bury, J. B.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gibbon, Edward.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. B. McM.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Bach McMaster, LL.D.</span><br /> +Professor of American History in the University of Pennsylvania. Author of +<i>A History of the People of the United States</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Garfield, James Abram.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Ga.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Gairdner, LL.D., C.B.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gairdner, J.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gardiner, Stephen.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. G. C. A.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John George Clark Anderson, M.A.</span><br /> +Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College; +Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Galatia.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. G. R.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D.</span><br /> +Professor of German, University of London. Author of <i>History of German Literature</i>; +<i>Schiller after a Century</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Freiligrath;</b></p> +<p><b>German Literature.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Hn.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Justus Hashagen, Ph.D.</span><br /> +Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of +<i>Das Rheinland und die französische Herrschaft</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frederick Augustus I. and II.;</b></p> +<p><b>Frederick William I.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. H. Gr.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Hilton Grace, M.A., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Lecturer in Mathematics at Peterhouse and Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow +of Peterhouse.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geometry, V.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. H. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Henry Hessels, M.A.</span><br /> +Author of <i>Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Fust.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. H. R.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D.</span> (Edin.).<br /> +Author of <i>Feudal England</i>; <i>Studies in Peerage and Family History</i>; <i>Peerage and +Pedigree</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geoffrey De Montbray.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Hl. R.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D.</span><br /> +Christ’s College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge +University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>; <i>Napoleonic +Studies</i>; <i>The Development of the European Nations</i>; <i>The Life of Pitt</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gardane.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Mt.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Moffatt, M.A., D.D.</span><br /> +Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of <i>Historical New Testament</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Galatians, Epistle to the.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. P.-B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James George Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst.</span><br /> +Editor of the <i>Guardian</i> (London).</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Furniture.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Si.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Sime, M.A.</span> (1843-1895).<br /> +Author of <i>A History of Germany</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frederick the Great</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. S. Bl.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D.</span><br /> +Assistant Editor 9th edition <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. +Joint-editor of the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Free Church of Scotland</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. S. F.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S.</span><br /> +Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh +University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby +Medallist of the Geological Society of London.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fulgurite;</b></p> +<p><b>Gabbro.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. T. Be.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John T. Bealby.</span><br /> +Joint-author of Stanford’s <i>Europe</i>. Formerly Editor of the <i>Scottish Geographical +Magazine</i>. Translator of Sven Hedin’s <i>Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Georgia</b> (Russia), (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. T. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S.</span><br /> +Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly +Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in +the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gastropoda.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. V. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D.</span> (St. Andrews).<br /> +Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of <i>The Apostolic +Age</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Frommel.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Ws.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Weathers, F.R.H.S.</span><br /> +Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex County Council. Author of <i>Practical +Guide to Garden Plants</i>; <i>French Market Gardening</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fruit and Flower Farming</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">J. W. He.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A.</span><br /> +Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly +Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at +Queen’s College, London. Author of <i>Bismarck and the Foundation of the German +Empire</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frederick III. of Prussia;</b></p> +<p><b>Germany:</b> <i>History</i> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">K. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Kathleen Schlesinger.</span><br /> +Author of <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>; &c. Editor of the <i>Portfolio of Musical +Archaeology</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Free Reed Vibrator;</b></p> +<p><b>Geige.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">L. D.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Louis Duchesne.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duchesne, L. M. O.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gelasius I.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">L. H.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Louis Halphen, D.-ès.-L.</span><br /> +Principal of the course of the Faculty of Letters in the University of Bordeaux. +Author of <i>Le Comté d’Anjou au XI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle; Recueil des actes angevines</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fulk Nerra;</b></p> +<p><b>Geoffrey, Count of Anjou;</b></p> +<p><b>Geoffrey Plantaganet.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">L. J. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Leonard James Spencer, M.A.</span><br /> +Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar +of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the +<i>Mineralogical Magazine</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Galena.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">L. V.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Linda Mary Villari.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Villari, Pasquale</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frederick III. King of Sicily.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">M. G.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Moses Gaster, Ph.D.</span><br /> +Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist +Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine +Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, +Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of <i>History of Rumanian Popular +Literature</i>; <i>A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira</i>; <i>The Hebrew Version of the +Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Ghica.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">M. N. T.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A.</span><br /> +Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. +Joint-author of <i>Catalogue of the Sparta Museum</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gerousia.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">O. Ba.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Oswald Barron, F.S.A.</span><br /> +Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the +Honourable Society of the Baronetage.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Genealogy:</b> <i>Modern</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">O. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Olaus Magnus Friedrich Henrici, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.</span><br /> +Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the +City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of <i>Vectors and Rotors</i>; <i>Congruent +Figures</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geometry, I., II., and III.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">P. A.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Paul Daniel Alphandéry.</span><br /> +Professor of the History of Dogma, École pratique des hautes études, Sorbonne, +Paris. Author of <i>Les Idées morales chez les hétérodoxes latines au début du XIII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Fraticelli.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">P. A. A.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., Doc.Juris.</span><br /> +New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist’s <i>History +of the English Constitution</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Germany:</b> <i>Geography</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">P. Gi.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D.</span><br /> +Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University +Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological +Society. Author of <i>Manual of Comparative Philology</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>G.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">P. La.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S.</span><br /> +Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly +of the Geological Survey of India. <i>Author of Monograph of British Cambrian +Trilobites</i>. Translator and editor of Kayser’s <i>Comparative Geology</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Germany:</b> <i>Geology</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">P. M.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Paul Meyer.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meyer, M. P. H.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>French Language</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. Ad.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Adamson, LL.D.</span><br /> +See the biographical article. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adamson, Robert.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gassendi</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. A. S. M.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.</span><br /> +St John’s College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration +Fund.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gadara; Galilee</b> (<i>in part</i>);</p> +<p><b>Galilee, Sea of</b> (<i>in part</i>);</p> +<p><b>Gerasa; Gerizim;</b></p> +<p><b>Gezer; Gibeon.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. Ca.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Carruthers, LL.D.</span> (1799-1878).<br /> +Editor of the <i>Inverness Courier</i>, 1828-1878. Part-editor of Chambers’s <i>Cyclopaedia +of English Literature</i>; Lecturer at the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh. +Author of <i>History of Huntingdon</i>; <i>Life of Pope</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Garrick, David</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. H. Q.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Robert Hebert Quick, M.A.</span>, (1831-1891).<br /> +Formerly Lecturer on Education, University of +Cambridge. Author of <i>Essays on Educational Reformers</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Froebel.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. L.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S.</span><br /> +Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of +Catalogues of <i>Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum</i>; <i>The Deer +of all Lands</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Galago; Galeopithecus;</b></p> +<p><b>Ganodonta; Gelada;</b></p> +<p><b>Gibbon.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. N. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Nisbet Bain</span> (d. 1909).<br /> +Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of <i>Scandinavia, the Political +History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900</i>; <i>The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725</i>; +<i>Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frederick II. and III. of Denmark and Norway.</b></p> +<p><b>Gedymin.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. Pr.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Priebsch, Ph.D.</span><br /> +Professor of German Philology, University of London. Author of <i>Deutsche Handschriften +in England</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>German Language.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. P. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">R. Phené Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.</span><br /> +Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past +President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King’s College, +London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson’s +<i>History of Architecture</i>. <i>Author of Architecture: East and West</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Garnier, J.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">R. We.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Richard Webster, M.A.</span> (Princeton).<br /> +Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of <i>The Elegies of Maximianus</i>; +&c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Franklin, Benjamin.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">S. A. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.</span><br /> +Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and +formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and +Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. +Author of <i>Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions</i>; <i>The Laws of Moses and the Code +of Hammurabi</i>; <i>Critical Notes on Old Testament History</i>; <i>Religion of Ancient Palestine, +&c.</i></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Genealogy:</b> <i>Biblical</i>;</p> +<p><b>Genesis.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">St. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Viscount St Cyres.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iddesleigh, 1st Earl of</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gallicanism.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">S. R. G.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Samuel Rawson Gardiner, LL.D., D.C.L.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gardiner, S. R.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>George I., II., III.;</b></p> +<p><b>George IV.</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">T. As.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt.</span> (Oxon.).<br /> +Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar at Christ +Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897, Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of +the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frascati Fregellae;</b></p> +<p><b>Frascati; Fregellae;</b></p> +<p><b>Fucino, Lago Di; Fulginiae;</b></p> +<p><b>Fusaro, Lago; Gabii;</b></p> +<p><b>Gaeta; Gallipoli</b> (Italy);</p> +<p><b>Gela; Genoa.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">T. Ba.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P.</span><br /> +Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council +of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of <i>Problems +of International Practice and Diplomacy</i>; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Geneva Convention.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">T. C. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Callan Hodson.</span><br /> +Registrar, East London College, University of London. Late Indian Civil Service. +Author of <i>The Metheis</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Genna.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">T. E. H.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Erskine Holland, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D.</span><br /> +Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of International Law and Diplomacy +in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Fellow of the British Academy. Bencher +of Lincoln’s Inn. Author of <i>Studies in International Law</i>; <i>The Elements of Jurisprudence</i>; +<i>Alberici Gentilis de jure belli</i>; <i>The Laws of War on Land</i>; <i>Neutral Duties +in a Maritime War</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gentili.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">T. G. S.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Gaskell Shearman</span> (d. 1900).<br /> +Author of <i>The Single Tax</i>; <i>Natural Taxation</i>; <i>Distribution of Wealth</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>George, Henry.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">T. H. H.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Colonel Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.</span><br /> +Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. +(London), 1887. Author of <i>The Indian Borderland</i>; <i>The Countries of the King’s +Award</i>; <i>India</i>; <i>Tibet</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Ganges.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">T. M. L.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Thomas Martin Lindsay, D.D.</span><br /> +Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. +Author of <i>Life of Luther</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gerson</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">V. B. L.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Vivian Byam Lewes, F.I.C., F.C.S.</span><br /> +Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Chief Superintending +Gas Examiner to City of London.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gas:</b> <i>Manufacture</i>, <b>I.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">V. H. B.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Vernon Herbert Blackman, M.A., D.Sc.</span><br /> +Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of St John’s +College, Cambridge.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fungi</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. A. B. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D.</span> (Bern).<br /> +Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David’s +College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of <i>Guide du Haut Dauphiné</i>; <i>The Range +of the Tödi</i>; <i>Guide to Grindelwald</i>; <i>Guide to Switzerland</i>; <i>The Alps in Nature and in +History</i>; &c. Editor of <i>The Alpine Journal</i>, 1880-1881; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frauenfeld; Frejus;</b></p> +<p><b>Fribourg;</b></p> +<p><b>Gap; Garda, Lake of;</b></p> +<p><b>Gemmi Pass; Geneva;</b></p> +<p><b>Geneva, Lake of.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. A. P.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.</span><br /> +Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John’s College, +Oxford. Author of <i>Modern Europe</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Frederick II. of Prussia</b> (<i>in part</i>);</p> +<p><b>Gentleman;</b></p> +<p><b>Gentz, Friedrich;</b></p> +<p><b>Germany:</b> <i>History</i> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Ba.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Bacher, Ph.D.</span><br /> +Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Gamaliel.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Be.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Walter Besant.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Besant, Sir W.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Froissart.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crookes, Sir William</a></span>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gem, Artificial.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Cu.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">The Ven. William Cunningham, M.A., D.D.</span><br /> +Archdeacon of Ely. Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, +Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. +Author of <i>Growth of English Industry and Commerce</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Free Trade.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. E. D.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Ernest Dalby, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E.</span><br /> +Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London +Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University +Demonstrator in the Engineering Department of Cambridge University. Author +of <i>The Balancing of Engines</i>; <i>Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Friction</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Fr.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Fream, LL.D.</span> (d. 1906).<br /> +Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and +Agricultural Correspondent of The Times.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fruit and Flower Farming</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. F. C.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Feilden Craies, M.A.</span><br /> +Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King’s College, London. +Editor of Archbold’s <i>Criminal Pleading</i> (23rd edition).</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Game Laws;</b></p> +<p><b>Gaming and Wagering.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Hu.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. William Hunt, M.A., Litt.D.</span><br /> +President of the Royal Historical Society 1905-1909. Author of <i>History of English +Church</i>, 597-1066; <i>The Church of England in the Middle Ages</i>; <i>Political History of +England, 1760-1801</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Freeman, Edward A.;</b></p> +<p><b>Froude;</b></p> +<p><b>Gardiner, Samuel Rawson.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. J. H.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William James Hughan.</span><br /> +Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England. Author of <i>Origin of the English Rite +of Freemasonry</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Freemasonry.</b></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. L. F.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Walter Lynwood Fleming, <span class="correction" title="amended from A.M.">M.A.</span>, Ph.D.</span><br /> +Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of <i>Documentary +History of Reconstruction</i>; &c.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Freedmen’s Bureau.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. L. G.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Lawson Grant, M.A.</span><br /> +Professor of Colonial History, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly +Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of <i>Acts of the Privy +Council</i> (Canadian Series).</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Gait, Sir Alexander T.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. M. R.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Michael Rossetti.</span><br /> +See the biographical article, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rossetti, Dante G.</a></span></td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fuseli; Gaddi;</b></p> +<p><b>Gainsborough;</b></p> +<p><b>Ghirlandajo, Domenico;</b></p> +<p><b>Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. R. B.*</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Raimond Baird, LL.D.</span><br /> +Author of <i>Manual of American College Fraternities</i>; &c. Editor of <i>The Beta Theta Pi</i>.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Fraternities, College.</b></p></td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tc1">W. S. P.</td> + + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Walter Sutherland Parker.</span><br /> +Deputy Chairman, Fur Section, London Chamber of Commerce.</td> + + <td class="tc4 cl"><b>Fur.</b></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.</p> +</div> + +<div class="pt2"> </div> +<hr class="full" /> +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES</p> + +<table class="nobctr" width="90%" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tc51 bold" style="width: 33%;"> + +<p>Franz Josef Land.</p> +<p>Free Church Federation.</p> +<p>French Guinea.</p> +<p>French West Africa.</p> +<p>Friedland.</p> +<p>Frisian Islands.</p> +<p>Frisians.</p> +<p>Fronde, The.</p> +<p>Fuero.</p> +<p>Furnace.</p> +<p>Galapagos Islands.</p></td> + +<td class="tc51 bold" style="width: 33%;"> +<p>Galicia.</p> +<p>Galway.</p> +<p>Gambia.</p> +<p>Gawain.</p> +<p>Gelatin.</p> +<p>Genius.</p> +<p>Gentian.</p> +<p>Gentianaceae.</p> +<p>George, Saint.</p> +<p>George Junior Republic.</p> +<p>Georgia (U.S.A.).</p></td> + +<td class="tc51 bold"> +<p>Geraniaceae.</p> +<p>Geranium.</p> +<p>German Baptist Brethren.</p> +<p>German Catholics.</p> +<p>Gettysburg.</p> +<p>Geyser.</p> +<p>Ghazni.</p> +<p>Ghent.</p> +<p>Ghor.</p> +<p>Giant.</p></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="pt2"> </div> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>1</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCISCANS<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; +also the Seraphic Order; and in England Grey Friars, from the +colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey), +a religious order founded by St Francis of Assisi (<i>q.v.</i>). It was +in 1206 that St Francis left his father’s house and devoted himself +to a life of poverty and to the service of the poor, the sick and the +lepers; and in 1209 that he felt the call to add preaching to his +other ministrations, and to lead a life in the closest imitation of +Christ’s life. Within a few weeks disciples began to join themselves +to him; the condition was that they should dispose of +all their possessions. When their number was twelve Francis +led the little flock to Rome to obtain the pope’s sanction for their +undertaking. Innocent III. received them kindly, but with +some misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of +life; these difficulties were overcome, and the pope accorded a +provisional approval by word of mouth: they were to become +clerics and to elect a superior. Francis was elected and made +a promise of obedience to the pope, and the others promised +obedience to Francis.</p> + +<p>This formal inauguration of the institute was in 1209 or (as +seems more probable) 1210. Francis and his associates were +first known as “Penitents of Assisi,” and then Francis chose the +title of “Minors.” On their return to Assisi they obtained from +the Benedictine abbey on Mount Subasio the use of the little +chapel of St Mary of the Angels, called the Portiuncula, in the +plain below Assisi, which became the cradle and headquarters of +the order. Around the Portiuncula they built themselves huts +of branches and twigs, but they had no fixed abode; they +wandered in pairs over the country, dressed in the ordinary +clothes of the peasants, working in the fields to earn their daily +bread, sleeping in barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of +the churches, mixing with the labourers and the poor, with the +lepers and the outcasts, ever joyous—the “joculatores” or +“jongleurs” of God—ever carrying out their mission of preaching +to the lowly and to the wretched religion and repentance and +the kingdom of God. The key-note of the movement was the +imitation of the public life of Christ, especially the poverty of +Christ. Francis and his disciples were to aim at possessing +nothing, absolutely nothing, so far as was compatible with life; +they were to earn their bread from day to day by the work of their +hands, and only when they could not do so were they to beg; +they were to make no provision for the morrow, lay by no store, +accumulate no capital, possess no land; their clothes should be +the poorest and their dwellings the meanest; they were forbidden +to receive or to handle money. On the other hand they were +bound only to the fast observed in those days by pious Christians, +and were allowed to eat meat—the rule said they should eat +whatever was set before them; no austerities were imposed, +beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived.</p> + +<p>Thus the institute in its original conception was quite different +from the monastic institute, Benedictine or Canon Regular. +It was a confraternity rather than an order, and there was no +formal novitiate, no organization. But the number of brothers +increased with extraordinary rapidity, and the field of work +soon extended itself beyond the neighbourhood of Assisi and even +beyond Umbria—within three or four years there were settlements +in Perugia, Cortona, Pisa, Florence and elsewhere, and +missions to the Saracens and Moors were attempted by Francis +himself. About 1217 Franciscan missions set out for Germany, +France, Spain, Hungary and the Holy Land; and in 1219 a +number of provinces were formed, each governed by a provincial +minister. These developments, whereby the little band of +Umbrian apostles had grown into an institute spread all over +Europe and even penetrating to the East, and numbering +thousands of members, rendered impossible the continuance of +the original free organization whereby Francis’s word and example +were the sufficient practical rule of life for all: it was +necessary as a condition of efficiency and even of existence and +permanence that some kind of organization should be provided. +From an early date yearly meetings or chapters had been held +at the Portiuncula, at first attended by the whole body of friars; +but as the institute extended this became unworkable, and after +1219 the chapter consisted only of the officials, provincial +ministers and others. During Francis’s absence in the East +(1219-1220) a deliberate movement was initiated by the two +vicars whom he had left in charge of the order, towards assimilating +it to the monastic orders. Francis hurried back, bringing +with him Elias of Cortona, the provincial minister of Syria, +and immediately summoned an extraordinary general chapter +(September 1220). Before it met he had an interview on the +situation with Cardinal Hugolino of Ostia (afterwards Gregory +IX.), the great friend and supporter of both Francis and Dominic, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>2</span> +and he went to Honorius III. at Orvieto and begged that Hugolino +should be appointed the official protector of the order. The +request was granted, and a bull was issued formally approving +the order of Friars Minor, and decreeing that before admission +every one must pass a year’s novitiate, and that after profession +it was not lawful to leave the order. By this bull the Friars Minor +were constituted an order in the technical sense of the word. +When the chapter assembled, Francis, no doubt from a genuine +feeling that he was not able to govern a great world-wide order, +practically abdicated the post of minister-general by appointing +a vicar, and the policy of turning the Friars Minor into a great +religious order was consistently pursued, especially by Elias, +who a year later became Francis’s vicar.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>St Francis’s attitude towards this change is of primary importance +for the interpretation of Franciscan history. There can be little +doubt that his affections never altered from his first love, and that +he looked back regretfully on the “Umbrian idyll” that had passed +away; on the other hand, there seems to be no reason for doubting +that he saw that the methods of the early days were now no longer +possible, and that he acquiesced in the inevitable. This seems to +be Professor Goetz’s view, who holds that Sabatier’s picture of +Francis’s agonized sadness at witnessing the destruction of his great +creation going on under his eyes, has no counterpart in fact, and who +rejects the view that the changes were forced on Francis against +his better judgment by Hugolino and Elias (see “Note on Sources” +at end of article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Francis of Assisi</a></span>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Elias of Cortona</a></span>); +Goetz holds that the only conflict was the inevitable one between +an unrealizable ideal and its practical working among average men. +But there does seem to be evidence that Francis deplored tendencies +towards a departure from the severe simplicity of life and from the +strict observance of poverty which he considered the ground-idea +of his institute. In the final redaction of his Rule made in 1223 and +in his Testament, made after it, he again clearly asserts his mind +on these subjects, especially on poverty; and in the Testament he +forbids any glosses in the interpretation of the Rule, declaring that +it is to be taken simply as it stands. Sabatier’s view as to the difference +between the “First Rule” and that of 1223 is part of his +general theory, and is, to say the least, a grave exaggeration. No +doubt the First Rule, which is fully four times as long, gives a better +picture of St Francis’s mind and character; the later Rule has been +formed from the earlier by the elimination of the frequent scripture +texts and the edificatory element; but the greater portion of it stood +almost verbally in the earlier.</p> +</div> + +<p>On Francis’s death in 1226 the government of the order rested +in the hands of Elias until the chapter of 1227. At this chapter +Elias was not elected minister-general; the building of the great +basilica and monastery at Assisi was so manifest a violation of +St Francis’s ideas and precepts that it produced a reaction, and +John Parenti became St Francis’s first successor. He held fast +to St Francis’s ideas, but was not a strong man. At the chapter +of 1230 a discussion arose concerning the binding force of St +Francis’s Testament, and the interpretation of certain portions +of the Rule, especially concerning poverty, and it was determined +to submit the questions to Pope Gregory IX., who had been St +Francis’s friend and had helped in the final redaction of the Rule. +He issued a bull, <i>Quo elongati</i>, which declared that as the Testament +had not received the sanction of the general chapter it +was not binding on the order, and also allowed trustees to hold +and administer money for the order. John Parenti and those +who wished to maintain St Francis’s institute intact were greatly +disturbed by these relaxations; but a majority of the chapter of +1232, by a sort of <i>coup d’etat</i>, proclaimed Elias minister-general, +and John retired, though in those days the office was for life. +Under Elias the order entered on a period of extraordinary +extension and prosperity: the number of friars in all parts of the +world increased wonderfully, new provinces were formed, new +missions to the heathen organized, the Franciscans entered the +universities and vied with the Dominicans as teachers of theology +and canon law, and as a body they became influential in church +and state. With all this side of Elias’s policy the great bulk of +the order sympathized; but his rule was despotic and tyrannical +and his private life was lax—at least according to any Franciscan +standard, for no charge of grave irregularity was ever brought +against him. And so a widespread movement against his government +arose, the backbone of which was the university element +at Paris and Oxford, and at a dramatic scene in a chapter held +in the presence of Gregory IX. Elias was deposed (1239).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The story of these first years after St Francis’s death is best told +by Ed. Lempp, <i>Frère Élie de Cortone</i> (1901) (but see the warning +at the end of the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Elias of Cortona</a></span>).</p> +</div> + +<p>At this time the Franciscans were divided into three parties: +there were the Zealots, or Spirituals, who called for a literal +observance of St Francis’s Rule and Testament; they deplored +all the developments since 1219, and protested against turning +the institute into an order, the frequentation of the universities +and the pursuit of learning; in a word, they wished to restore +the life to what it had been during the first few years—the +hermitages and the huts of twigs, and the care of the lepers and +the nomadic preaching. The Zealots were few in number but of +great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of +the first disciples and the most intimate companions of St Francis. +They had been grievously persecuted under Elias—Br. Leo and +others had been scourged, several had been imprisoned, one +while trying to escape was accidentally killed, and Br. Bernard, +the “first disciple,” passed a year in hiding in the forests and +mountains hunted like a wild beast. At the other extreme was +a party of relaxation, that abandoned any serious effort to practise +Franciscan poverty and simplicity of life. Between these two +stood the great middle party of moderates, who desired indeed +that the Franciscans should be really poor and simple in their +manner of life, and really pious, but on the other hand approved +of the development of the Order on the lines of other orders, +of the acquisition of influence, of the cultivation of theology and +other sciences, and of the frequenting of the universities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The questions of principle at issue in these controversies is reasonably +and clearly stated, from the modern Capuchin standpoint, in +the “Introductory Essay” to <i>The Friars and how they came to +England</i>, by Fr. Cuthbert (1903).</p> +</div> + +<p>The moderate party was by far the largest, and embraced +nearly all the friars of France, England and Germany. It was +the Moderates and not the Zealots that brought about Elias’s +deposition, and the next general ministers belonged to this party. +Further relaxations of the law of poverty, however, caused a +reaction, and John of Parma, one of the Zealots, became minister-general, +1247-1257. Under him the more extreme of the Zealots +took up and exaggerated the theories of the Eternal Gospel of +the Calabrian Cistercian abbot Joachim of Fiore (Floris); some of +their writings were condemned as heretical, and John of Parma, +who was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies, had to resign. +He was succeeded by St Bonaventura (1257-1274), one of the +best type of the middle party. He was a man of high character, +a theologian, a mystic, a holy man and a strong ruler. He set +himself with determination to effect a working compromise, +and proceeded with firmness against the extremists on both +sides. But controversy and recrimination and persecution had +stiffened the more ardent among the Zealots into obstinate +fanatics—some of them threw themselves into a movement +that may best be briefly described as a recrudescence of Montanism +(see Émile Gebhart’s <i>Italie mystique</i>, 1899, cc. v. +and vi.), and developed into a number of sects, some on the +fringe of Catholic Christianity and others beyond its pale. But +the majority of the Zealot party, or Spirituals, did not go so far, +and adopted as the principle of Franciscan poverty the formula +“a poor and scanty use” (<i>usus pauper et tenuis</i>) of earthly goods, +as opposed to the “moderate use” advocated by the less strict +party. The question thus posed came before the Council of +Vienne, 1312, and was determined, on the whole, decidedly in +favour of the stricter view. Some of the French Zealots were not +satisfied and formed a semi-schismatical body in Provence; +twenty-five of them were tried before the Inquisition, and four +were burned alive at Marseilles as obstinate heretics, 1318. After +this the schism in the Order subsided. But the disintegrating +forces produced by the Great Schism and by the other disorders +of the 14th century caused among the Franciscans the same +relaxations and corruptions, and also the same reactions and +reform movements, as among the other orders.</p> + +<p>The chief of these reforms was that of the Observants, which +began at Foligno about 1370. The Observant reform was on +the basis of the “poor and scanty use” of worldly goods, +but it was organized as an order and its members freely pursued +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>3</span> +theological studies; thus it did not represent the position of the +original Zealot party, nor was it the continuation of it. The +Observant reform spread widely throughout Italy and into +France, Spain and Germany. The great promoters of the movement +were St Bernardine of Siena and St John Capistran. The +council of Constance, 1415, allowed the French Observant +friaries to be ruled by a vicar of their own, under the minister-general, +and the same privilege was soon accorded to other +countries. By the end of the middle ages the Observants had +some 1400 houses divided into 50 provinces. This movement +produced a “half-reform” among the Conventuals or friars of +the mitigated observance; it also called forth a number of lesser +imitations or congregations of strict observance.</p> + +<p>After many attempts had been made to bring about a working +union among the many observances, in 1517 Leo X. divided the +Franciscan order into two distinct and independent bodies, +each with its own minister-general, its own provinces and +provincials and its own general chapter: (1) The Conventuals, +who were authorized to use the various papal dispensations in +regard to the observance of poverty, and were allowed to possess +property and fixed income, corporately, like the monastic orders; +(2) The Observants, who were bound to as close an observance +of St Francis’s Rule in regard to poverty and all else as was +practically possible.</p> + +<p>At this time a great number of the Conventuals went over to +the Observants, who have ever since been by far the more +numerous and influential branch of the order. Among the +Observants in the course of the sixteenth century arose various +reforms, each striving to approach more and more nearly to St +Francis’s ideal; the chief of these reforms were the Alcantarines +in Spain (St Peter of Alcantara, St Teresa’s friend, d. 1562), +the Riformati in Italy and the Recollects in France: all of these +were semi-independent congregations. The Capuchins (<i>q.v.</i>), +established <i>c.</i> 1525, who claim to be the reform which approaches +nearest in its conception to the original type, became a distinct +order of Franciscans in 1619. Finally Leo XIII. grouped the +Franciscans into three bodies or orders—the Conventuals; the +Observants, embracing all branches of the strict observance, +except the Capuchins; and the Capuchins—which together +constitute the “First Order.” For the “Second Order,” or the +nuns, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clara, St</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clares, Poor</a></span>; and for the “Third +Order” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tertiaries</a></span>. Many of the Tertiaries live a fully +monastic life in community under the usual vows, and are formed +into Congregations of Regular Tertiaries, both men and women. +They have been and are still very numerous, and give themselves +up to education, to the care of the sick and of orphans and to +good works of all kinds.</p> + +<p>No order has had so stormy an internal history as the Franciscans; +yet in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings +that have marred Franciscan history, the Friars Minor of every +kind have in each age faithfully and zealously carried on St +Francis’s great work of ministering to the spiritual needs of the +poor. Always recruited in large measure from among the poor, +they have ever been the order of the poor, and in their preaching +and missions and ministrations they have ever laid themselves +out to meet the needs of the poor. Another great work of the +Franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has +been their missions to the Mahommedans, both in western Asia +and in North Africa, and to the heathens in China, Japan and +India, and North and South America; a great number of the +friars were martyred. The news of the martyrdom of five of +his friars in Morocco was one of the joys of St Francis’s closing +years. Many of these missions exist to this day. In the Universities, +too, the Franciscans made themselves felt alongside of +the Dominicans, and created a rival school of theology, wherein, +as contrasted with the Aristotelianism of the Dominican school, +the Platonism of the early Christian doctors has been perpetuated.</p> + +<p>The Franciscans came to England in 1224 and immediately +made foundations in Canterbury, London and Oxford; by the +middle of the century there were fifty friaries and over 1200 +friars in England; at the Dissolution there were some 66 Franciscan +friaries, whereof some six belonged to the Observants +(for list see <i>Catholic Dictionary</i> and F. A. Gasquet’s <i>English +Monastic Life</i>, 1904). Though nearly all the English houses +belonged to what has been called the “middle party,” as a +matter of fact they practised great poverty, and the commissioners +of Henry VIII. often remark that the Franciscan +Friary was the poorest of the religious houses of a town. The +English province was one of the most remarkable in the order, +especially in intellectual achievement; it produced Friar +Roger Bacon, and, with the single exception of St Bonaventure, +all the greatest doctors of the Franciscan theological school—Alexander +Hales, Duns Scotus and Occam.</p> + +<p>The Franciscans have always been the most numerous by +far of the religious orders; it is estimated that about the period +of the Reformation the Friars Minor must have numbered +nearly 100,000. At the present day the statistics are roughly +(including lay-brothers): Observants, 15,000, Conventuals, +1500; to these should be added 9500 Capuchins, making the +total number of Franciscan friars about 26,000. There are various +houses of Observants and Capuchins in England and Ireland; and +the old Irish Conventuals survived the penal times and still exist.</p> + +<p>There have been four Franciscan popes: Nicholas IV. (1288-1292), +Sixtus IV. (1471-1484), Sixtus V. (1585-1590), Clement +XIV. (1769-1774); the three last were Conventuals.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The great source for Franciscan history is Wadding’s <i>Annales</i>; +it has been many times continued, and now extends in 25 vols. fol. +to the year 1622. The story is also told by Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres +religieux</i> (1714), vol. vii. Abridgments, with references to recent +literature, will be found in Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> +(1896), i. §§ 37-51; in Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> +(2nd ed.), articles “Armut (III.),” “Franciscaner orden” (this +article contains the best account of the inner history and the polity +of the order up to 1886); in Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), +articles “Franz von Assisi” (fullest references to literature up to +1899), “Fraticellen.” Of modern critical studies on Franciscan +origins, K. Müller’s <i>Anfänge des Minoritenordens und der Bussbruderschaften</i> +(1885), and various articles by F. Ehrle in <i>Archiv für +Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters</i> and <i>Zeitschrift für +Katholische Theologie</i>, deserve special mention. Eccleston’s charming +chronicle of “The Coming of the Friars Minor into England” +has been translated into English by the Capuchin Fr. Cuthbert, +who has prefixed an Introductory Essay giving by far the best +account in English of “the Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan +Friars” (<i>The Friars and how they came to England</i>, 1903). Fuller information +on the English Franciscans will be found in A. G. Little’s +<i>Grey Friars in Oxford</i> (Oxford Hist. Soc., 1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCK.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> The name of Franck has been given indiscriminately +but improperly to painters of the school of Antwerp who belong +to the families of Francken (<i>q.v.</i>) and Vrancx (<i>q.v.</i>). One artist +truly entitled to be called Franck is Gabriel, who entered the +gild of Antwerp in 1605, became its president in 1636 and died +in 1639. But his works cannot now be traced.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCK, CÉSAR<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1822-1890), French musical composer, a +Belgian by birth, who came of German stock, was born at +Liége on the 10th of December 1822. Though one of the most +remarkable of modern composers, César Franck laboured for +many years in comparative obscurity. After some preliminary +studies at Liége he came to Paris in 1837 and entered the conservatoire. +He at once obtained the first prize for piano, transposing +a fugue at sight to the astonishment of the professors, +for he was only fifteen. He won the prize for the organ in 1841, +after which he settled down in the French capital as teacher +of the piano. His earliest compositions date from this period, +and include four trios for piano and strings, besides several +piano pieces. <i>Ruth</i>, a biblical cantata was produced with +success at the Conservatoire in 1846. An opera entitled <i>Le +Valet de ferme</i> was written about this time, but has never been +performed. For many years Franck led a retired life, devoting +himself to teaching and to his duties as organist, first at Saint-Jean-Saint-François, +then at Ste Clotilde, where he acquired +a great reputation as an improviser. He also wrote a mass, +heard in 1861, and a quantity of motets, organ pieces and other +works of a religious character.</p> + +<p>Franck was appointed professor of the organ at the Paris +conservatoire, in succession to Benoist, his old master, in 1872, +and the following year he was naturalized a Frenchman. Until +then he was esteemed as a clever and conscientious musician, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>4</span> +but he was now about to prove his title to something more. +A revival of his early oratorio, <i>Ruth</i>, had brought his name +again before the public, and this was followed by the production +of <i>Rédemption</i>, a work for solo, chorus and orchestra, given +under the direction of M. Colonne on the 10th of April 1873. +The unconventionality of the music rather disconcerted the +general public, but the work nevertheless made its mark, and +Franck became the central figure of an enthusiastic circle of +pupils and adherents whose devotion atoned for the comparative +indifference of the masses. His creative power now manifested +itself in a series of works of varied kinds, and the name of Franck +began gradually to emerge from its obscurity. The following +is an enumeration of his subsequent compositions: <i>Rebecca</i> +(1881), a biblical idyll for solo, chorus and orchestra; Les +Béatitudes, an oratorio composed between 1870 and 1880, +perhaps his greatest work; the symphonic poems, <i>Les Éolides</i> +(1876), <i>Le Chasseur maudit</i> (1883), <i>Les Djinns</i> (1884), for piano +and orchestra; <i>Psyche</i> (1888), for orchestra and chorus; +symphonic variations for piano and orchestra (1885); symphony +in D (1889); quintet for piano and strings (1880); sonata for +piano and violin (1886); string quartet (1889); prelude, choral +and fugue for piano (1884); prelude, aria and finale for piano +(1889); various songs, notably “La Procession” and “Les +Cloches du Soir.” Franck also composed two four-act operas, +<i>Hulda</i> and <i>Ghiselle</i>, both of which were produced at Monte +Carlo after his death, which took place in Paris on the 8th of +November 1890. The second of these was left by the master +in an unfinished state, and the instrumentation was completed +by several of his pupils.</p> + +<p>César Franck’s influence on younger French composers has +been very great. Yet his music is German in character rather +than French. A more sincere, modest, self-respecting composer +probably never existed. In the centre of the brilliant French +capital he was able to lead a laborious existence consecrated +to his threefold career of organist, teacher and composer. He +never sought to gain the suffrages of the public by unworthy +concessions, but kept straight on his path, ever mindful of an +ideal to be reached and never swerving therefrom. A statue +was erected to the memory of César Franck in Paris on the +22nd of October 1904, the occasion producing a panegyric from +Alfred Bruneau, in which he speaks of the composer’s works as +“cathedrals in sound.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCK,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Frank</span> [latinized <span class="sc">Francus</span>], <b>SEBASTIAN</b> (<i>c.</i> +1499-<i>c.</i> 1543), German freethinker, was born about 1499 at +Donauwörth, whence he constantly styled himself Franck von +Wörd. He entered the university of Ingoldstadt (March 26, +1515), and proceeded thence to the Dominican College, incorporated +with the university, at Heidelberg. Here he met his +subsequent antagonists, Bucer and Frecht, with whom he seems +to have attended the Augsburg conference (October 1518) at +which Luther declared himself a true son of the Church. He +afterwards reckoned the Leipzig disputation (June-July 1519) +and the burning of the papal bull (December 1520) as the beginning +of the Reformation. Having taken priest’s orders, he held in +1524 a cure in the neighbourhood of Augsburg, but soon (1525) +went over to the Reformed party at Nuremberg and became +preacher at Gustenfelden. His first work (finished September +1527) was a German translation with additions (1528) of the first +part of the <i>Diallage</i>, or <i>Conciliatio locorum Scripturae</i>, directed +against Sacramentarians and Anabaptists by Andrew Althamer, +then deacon of St Sebald’s at Nuremberg. On the 17th of March +1528 he married Ottilie Beham, a gifted lady, whose brothers, +pupils of Albrecht Dürer, had got into trouble through Anabaptist +leanings. In the same year he wrote a very popular treatise +against drunkenness. In 1529 he produced a free version +(<i>Klagbrief der armen Dürftigen in England</i>) of the famous <i>Supplycacyon +of the Beggers</i>, written abroad (1528?) by Simon Fish. +Franck, in his preface, says the original was in English; elsewhere +he says it was in Latin; the theory that his German was +really the original is unwarrantable. Advance in his religious +ideas led him to seek the freer atmosphere of Strassburg in the +autumn of 1529. To his translation (1530) of a Latin <i>Chronicle +and Description</i> of Turkey, by a Transylvanian captive, which +had been prefaced by Luther, he added an appendix holding up +the Turks as in many respects an example to Christians, and +presenting, in lieu of the restrictions of Lutheran, Zwinglian +and Anabaptist sects, the vision of an invisible spiritual church, +universal in its scope. To this ideal he remained faithful. At +Strassburg began his intimacy with Caspar Schwenkfeld, a congenial +spirit. Here, too, he published, in 1531, his most important +work, the <i>Chronica, Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibel</i>, largely +a compilation on the basis of the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493), +and in its treatment of social and religious questions connected +with the Reformation, exhibiting a strong sympathy with +heretics, and an unexampled fairness to all kinds of freedom in +opinion. It is too much to call him “the first of German +historians”; he is a forerunner of Gottfried Arnold, with more +vigour and directness of purpose. Driven from Strassburg by +the authorities, after a short imprisonment in December 1531, +he tried to make a living in 1532 as a soapboiler at Esslingen, +removing in 1533 for a better market to Ulm, where (October 28, +1534) he was admitted as a burgess.</p> + +<p>His <i>Weltbuch</i>, a supplement to his <i>Chronica</i>, was printed at +Tübingen in 1534; the publication, in the same year, of his +<i>Paradoxa</i> at Ulm brought him into trouble with the authorities. +An order for his banishment was withdrawn on his promise to +submit future works for censure. Not interpreting this as applying +to works printed outside Ulm, he published in 1538 at Augsburg +his <i>Guldin Arch</i> (with pagan parallels to Christian sentiments) +and at Frankfort his <i>Germaniae chronicon</i>, with the result that he +had to leave Ulm in January 1539. He seems henceforth to have +had no settled abode. At Basel he found work as a printer, and +here, probably, it was that he died in the winter of 1542-1543. +He had published in 1539 his <i>Kriegbüchlein des Friedens</i> (pseudonymous), +his <i>Schrifftliche und ganz gründliche Auslegung des +64 Psalms</i>, and his <i>Das verbütschierte mit sieben Siegeln verschlossene +Buch</i> (a biblical index, exhibiting the dissonance of +Scripture); in 1541 his <i>Spruchwörter</i> (a collection of proverbs, +several times reprinted with variations); in 1542 a new edition +of his <i>Paradoxa</i>; and some smaller works.</p> + +<p>Franck combined the humanist’s passion for freedom with the +mystic’s devotion to the religion of the spirit. His breadth of +human sympathy led him to positions which the comparative +study of religions has made familiar, but for which his age +was unprepared. Luther contemptuously dismissed him as a +“devil’s mouth.” Pastor Frecht of Nuremberg pursued him +with bitter zeal. But his courage did not fail him, and in his +last year, in a public Latin letter, he exhorted his friend John +Campanus to maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge +of heresy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hegler, in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1899); C. A. Hase, +<i>Sebastian Franck von Wörd</i> (1869); J. F. Smith, in <i>Theological +Review</i> (April 1874); E. Tausch, <i>Sebastian Franck von Donauwörth +und seine Lehrer</i> (1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1663-1727), German Protestant +divine, was born on the 22nd of March 1663 at Lübeck. +He was educated at the gymnasium in Gotha, and afterwards at +the universities of Erfurt, Kiel, where he came under the influence +of the pietist Christian Kortholt (1633-1694), and Leipzig. +During his student career he made a special study of Hebrew and +Greek; and in order to learn Hebrew more thoroughly, he for +some time put himself under the instructions of Rabbi Ezra +Edzardi at Hamburg. He graduated at Leipzig, where in 1685 +he became a <i>Privatdozent</i>. A year later, by the help of his friend +P. Anton, and with the approval and encouragement of P. J. +Spener, he founded the Collegium Philobiblicum, at which a +number of graduates were accustomed to meet for the systematic +study of the Bible, philologically and practically. He next passed +some months at Lüneburg as assistant or curate to the learned +superintendent, C. H. Sandhagen (1639-1697), and there his +religious life was remarkably quickened and deepened. On +leaving Lüneburg he spent some time in Hamburg, where he +became a teacher in a private school, and made the acquaintance +of Nikolaus Lange (1659-1720). After a long visit to Spener, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span> +who was at that time a court preacher in Dresden, he returned +to Leipzig in the spring of 1689, and began to give Bible lectures +of an exegetical and practical kind, at the same time resuming +the Collegium Philobiblicum of earlier days. He soon became +popular as a lecturer; but the peculiarities of his teaching almost +immediately aroused a violent opposition on the part of the +university authorities; and before the end of the year he was +interdicted from lecturing on the ground of his alleged pietism. +Thus it was that Francke’s name first came to be publicly +associated with that of Spener, and with pietism. Prohibited +from lecturing in Leipzig, Francke in 1690 found work at Erfurt +as “deacon” of one of the city churches. Here his evangelistic +fervour attracted multitudes to his preaching, including Roman +Catholics, but at the same time excited the anger of his opponents; +and the result of their opposition was that after a ministry of +fifteen months he was commanded by the civil authorities +(27th of September 1691) to leave Erfurt within forty-eight +hours. The same year witnessed the expulsion of Spener from +Dresden.</p> + +<p>In December, through Spener’s influence, Francke accepted +an invitation to fill the chair of Greek and oriental languages +in the new university of Halle, which was at that time being +organized by the elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg; and at +the same time, the chair having no salary attached to it, he was +appointed pastor of Glaucha in the immediate neighbourhood +of the town. He afterwards became professor of theology. Here, +for the next thirty-six years, until his death on the 8th of June +1727, he continued to discharge the twofold office of pastor and +professor with rare energy and success. At the very outset of +his labours he had been profoundly impressed with a sense of his +responsibility towards the numerous outcast children who were +growing up around him in ignorance and crime. After a number +of tentative plans, he resolved in 1695 to institute what is often +called a “ragged school,” supported by public charity. A single +room was at first sufficient, but within a year it was found +necessary to purchase a house, to which another was added in +1697. In 1698 there were 100 orphans under his charge to be +clothed and fed, besides 500 children who were taught as day +scholars. The schools grew in importance and are still known as +the <i>Francke’sche Stiftungen</i>. The education given was strictly +religious. Hebrew was included, while the Greek and Latin +classics were neglected; the <i>Homilies</i> of Macarius took the place +of Thucydides. The same principle was consistently applied in +his university teaching. Even as professor of Greek he had given +great prominence in his lectures to the study of the Scriptures; +but he found a much more congenial sphere when, in 1698, he +was appointed to the chair of theology. Yet his first courses +of lectures in that department were readings and expositions of +the Old and New Testament; and to this, as also to hermeneutics, +he always attached special importance, believing that for theology +a sound exegesis was the one indispensable requisite. “Theologus +nascitur in scripturis,” he used to say; but during his +occupancy of the theological chair he lectured at various times +upon other branches of theology also. Amongst his colleagues +were Paul Anton (1661-1730), Joachim J. Breithaupt (1658-1732) +and Joachim Lange (1670-1744),—men like-minded with himself. +Through their influence upon the students, Halle became +a centre from which pietism (<i>q.v.</i>) became very widely diffused +over Germany.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal contributions to theological literature were: <i>Manuductio +ad lectionem Scripturae Sacrae</i> (1693); <i>Praelectiones hermeneuticae</i> +(1717); <i>Commentatio de scopo librorum Veteris et Novi +Testamenti</i> (1724); and <i>Lectiones paraeneticae</i> (1726-1736). The +<i>Manuductio</i> was translated into English in 1813, under the title <i>A +Guide to the Reading and Study of the Holy Scriptures</i>. An account +of his orphanage, entitled <i>Segensvolle Fussstapfen</i>, &c. (1709), which +subsequently passed through several editions, has also been partially +translated, under the title <i>The Footsteps of Divine Providence: +or, The bountiful Hand of Heaven defraying the Expenses of Faith</i>. +See H. E. F. Guericke’s <i>A. H. Francke</i> (1827), which has been translated +into English (<i>The Life of A. H. Francke</i>, 1837); Gustave +Kramer’s <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte A. H. Francke’s</i> (1861), and <i>Neue +Beiträge</i> (1875); A. Stein, <i>A. H. Francke</i> (3rd ed., 1894); article +in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1899); Knuth, <i>Die +Francke’schen Stiftungen</i> (2nd ed., 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCKEN.<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> Eleven painters of this family cultivated their +art in Antwerp during the 16th and 17th centuries. Several +of these were related to each other, whilst many bore the same +Christian name in succession. Hence unavoidable confusion in +the subsequent classification of paintings not widely differing +in style or execution. When Franz Francken the first found a +rival in Franz Francken the second, he described himself as the +“elder,” in contradistinction to his son, who signed himself +the “younger.” But when Franz the second was threatened +with competition from Franz the third, he took the name of +“the elder,” whilst Franz the third adopted that of Franz “the +younger.”</p> + +<p>It is possible, though not by any means easy, to sift the works +of these artists. The eldest of the Franckens, Nicholas of +Herenthals, died at Antwerp in 1596, with nothing but the +reputation of having been a painter. None of his works remain. +He bequeathed his art to three children. Jerom Francken, the +eldest son, after leaving his father’s house, studied under Franz +Floris, whom he afterwards served as an assistant, and wandered, +about 1560, to Paris. In 1566 he was one of the masters employed +to decorate the palace of Fontainebleau, and in 1574 he obtained +the appointment of court painter from Henry III., who had just +returned from Poland and visited Titian at Venice. In 1603, +when Van Mander wrote his biography of Flemish artists, Jerom +Francken was still in Paris living in the then aristocratic +Faubourg St Germain. Among his earliest works we should +distinguish a “Nativity” in the Dresden museum, executed in co-operation +with Franz Floris. Another of his important pieces +is the “Abdication of Charles V.” in the Amsterdam museum. +Equally interesting is a “Portrait of a Falconer,” dated 1558, in +the Brunswick gallery. In style these pieces all recall Franz +Floris. Franz, the second son of Nicholas of Herenthals, is to +be kept in memory as Franz Francken the first. He was born +about 1544, matriculated at Antwerp in 1567, and died there in +1616. He, too, studied under Floris, and never settled abroad, +or lost the hard and gaudy style which he inherited from his +master. Several of his pictures are in the museum of Antwerp; +one dated 1597 in the Dresden museum represents “Christ on +the Road to Golgotha,” and is signed by him as D. õ (Den ouden) +F. Franck. Ambrose, the third son of Nicholas of Herenthals, +has bequeathed to us more specimens of his skill than Jerom or +Franz the first. He first started as a partner with Jerom at +Fontainebleau, then he returned to Antwerp, where he passed +for his gild in 1573, and he lived at Antwerp till 1618. His +best works are the “Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes” and the +“Martyrdom of St Crispin,” both large and ambitious compositions +in the Antwerp museum. In both these pieces a fair +amount of power is displayed, but marred by want of atmosphere +and shadow or by hardness of line and gaudiness of tone. There +is not a trace in the three painters named of the influence of the +revival which took place under the lead of Rubens. Franz +Francken the first trained three sons to his profession, the eldest +of whom, though he practised as a master of gild at Antwerp +from 1600 to 1610, left no visible trace of his labours behind. +Jerom the second took service with his uncle Ambrose. He +was born in 1578, passed for his gild in 1607, and in 1620 +produced that curious picture of “Horatius Cocles defending +the Sublician Bridge” which still hangs in the Antwerp museum. +The third son of Franz Francken the first is Franz Francken +the second, who signed himself in pictures till 1616 “the younger,” +from 1630 till his death “the elder” F. Francken. These +pictures are usually of a small size, and are found in considerable +numbers in continental collections. Franz Francken the second +was born in 1581. In 1605 he entered the gild, of which he +subsequently became the president, and in 1642 he died. His +earliest composition is the “Crucifixion” in the Belvedere at +Vienna, dated 1606. His latest compositions as “the younger” +F. Francken are the “Adoration of the Virgin” (1616) in the +gallery of Amsterdam, and the “Woman taken in Adultery” +(1628) in Dresden. From 1616 to 1630 many of his pieces are +signed F. Francken; then come the “Seven Works of Charity” +(1630) at Munich, signed “the elder F. F.,” the “Prodigal Son” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span> +(1633) at the Louvre, and other almost countless examples. +It is in F. Francken the second’s style that we first have evidence +of the struggle which necessarily arose when the old customs, +hardened by Van Orley and Floris, or Breughel and De Vos, +were swept away by Rubens. But F. Francken the second, as +before observed, always clung to small surfaces; and though +he gained some of the freedom of the moderns, he lost but little +of the dryness or gaudiness of the earlier Italo-Flemish revivalists. +F. Francken the third, the last of his name who deserves to be +recorded, passed in the Antwerp gild in 1639 and died at Antwerp +in 1667. His practice was chiefly confined to adding figures to +the architectural or landscape pieces of other artists. As Franz +Pourbus sometimes put in the portrait figures for Franz Francken +the second, so Franz Francken the third often introduced the +necessary personages into the works of Pieter Neefs the younger +(museums of St Petersburg, Dresden and the Hague). In a +“Moses striking the Rock,” dated 1654, of the Augsburg gallery, +this last of the Franckens signs D. õ (Den ouden) F. Franck. +In the pictures of this artist we most clearly discern the effects of +Rubens’s example.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCO-GERMAN WAR<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1870-1871). The victories of +Prussia in 1866 over the Austrians and their German allies (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Weeks’ War</a></span>) rendered it evident to the statesmen and +soldiers of France that a struggle between the two nations could +only be a question of time. Army reforms were at once undertaken, +and measures were initiated in France to place the +armament and equipment of the troops on a level with the +requirements of the times. The chassepot, a new breech-loading +rifle, immensely superior to the Prussian needle-gun, +was issued; the artillery trains were thoroughly overhauled, +and a new machine-gun, the <i>mitrailleuse</i>, from which much was +expected, introduced. Wide schemes of reorganization (due +mainly to Marshal Niel) were set in motion, and, since these +required time to mature, recourse was had to foreign alliances +in the hope of delaying the impending rupture. In the first +week of June 1870, General Lebrun, as a confidential agent of +the emperor Napoleon III., was sent to Vienna to concert a +plan of joint operations with Austria against Prussia. Italy +was also to be included in the alliance, and it was agreed that +in case of hostilities the French armies should concentrate in +northern Bavaria, where the Austrians and Italians were to +join them, and the whole immense army thus formed should +march via Jena on Berlin. To what extent Austria and Italy +committed themselves to this scheme remains uncertain, but +that the emperor Napoleon believed in their <i>bona fides</i> is beyond +doubt.</p> + +<p>Whether the plan was betrayed to Prussia is also uncertain, +and almost immaterial, for Moltke’s plans were based on an +accurate estimate of the time it would take Austria to mobilize +and on the effect of a series of victories on French soil. At any +rate Moltke was not taken into Bismarck’s confidence in the +affair of Ems in July 1870, and it is to be presumed that the +chancellor had already satisfied himself that the schemes of +operations prepared by the chief of the General Staff fully +provided against all eventualities. These schemes were founded +on Clausewitz’s view of the objects to be pursued in a war against +France—in the first place the defeat of the French field armies +and in the second the occupation of Paris. On these lines plans +for the strategic deployment of the Prussian army were prepared +by the General Staff and kept up to date year by year as fresh +circumstances (<i>e.g.</i> the co-operation of the minor German armies) +arose and new means of communication came into existence. +The campaign was actually opened on a revise of 1868-1869, +to which was added, on the 6th of May 1870, a secret memorandum +for the General Staff.</p> + +<p>Under the German organization then existing the preliminary +to all active operations was of necessity full and complete +mobilization. Then followed transport by road and rail to the +line selected for the “strategic deployment,” and it was essential +that no part of these operations should be disturbed by action +on the part of the enemy. But no such delay imposed itself of +necessity upon the French, and a vigorous offensive was so much +<span class="sidenote">Strategic deployment of the German armies.</span> +in harmony with their traditions that the German plan had to +be framed so as to meet such emergencies. On the whole, +Moltke concluded that the enemy could not undertake +this offensive before the eighth day after mobilization. +At that date about five French army corps (150,000 +men) could be collected near Metz, and two corps +(70,000) near Strassburg; and as it was six days’ march +from Metz to the Rhine, no serious attack could be +delivered before the fourteenth day, by which day it could be met +by superior forces near Kirchheimbolanden. Since, however, the +transport of the bulk of the Prussian forces could not begin till the +ninth day, their ultimate line of detrainment need not be fixed +until the French plans were disclosed, and, as it was important +to strike at the earliest moment possible, the deployment was +provisionally fixed to be beyond the Rhine on the line Wittlich-Neunkirchen-Landau. +Of the thirteen North German corps three +had to be left behind to guard the eastern frontier and the +coast, one other, the VIII., was practically on the ground already +and could concentrate by road, and the remaining nine were +distributed to the nine through railway lines available. These +ten corps were grouped in three armies, and as the French might +violate Belgian neutrality or endeavour to break into southern +Germany, two corps (Prussian Guard and Saxon XII. corps) +were temporarily held back at a central position around Mainz, +whence they could move rapidly up or down the Rhine valley. +If Belgian neutrality remained unmolested, the reserve would join +the III. army on the left wing, giving it a two to one superiority +over its adversary; all three armies would then wheel to the +right and combine in an effort to force the French army into a +decisive battle on the Saar on or about the twenty-third day. +As in this wheel the army on the right formed the pivot and was +required only to stand fast, two corps only were allotted to it; +two corps for the present formed the III. army, and the remaining +five were assigned to the II. army in the centre.</p> + +<p>When (16th-17th July) the South German states decided to +throw in their lot with the rest, their three corps were allotted to +the III. army, the Guards and Saxons to the II. army, whilst +the three corps originally left behind were finally distributed +one to each army, so that up to the investment of Metz the order +of battle was as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">Headquarters:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">The king of Prussia (General v. Moltke, chief of staff).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm cl" rowspan="4">I. Army:<br />General v. Steinmetz<br />(C. of S., v. Sperling)</td> + + <td class="tcr">(I.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">corps, v. Manteuffel)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">VII.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ” v. Zastrow</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">VIII.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ” v. Goeben</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">(1st) and 3rd cavalry divisions</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">Total</td> <td class="tcr">85,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm cl" rowspan="8">II. Army:<br />Prince Frederick Charles<br />(C. of S., v. Stiehle)</td> + + <td class="tcl" colspan="3">Guard Pr. August of Württemberg</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">(II.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">corps, v. Fransecky)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   v. Alvensleben II.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   v. Alvensleben I.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">IX.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   v. Manstein</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">X.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   v. Voigts-Rhetz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">XII.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   (Saxons) crown prince of Saxony</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">5th and 6th cavalry divisions</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">Total</td> <td class="tcr">210,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm cl" rowspan="8">III. Army:<br />crown prince of Prussia<br />(C. of S., v. Blumenthal)</td> + + <td class="tcr">V.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">corps, v. Kirchbach</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">(VI.)</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   v. Tümpling</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">XI.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   v. Bose</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Bavarian, v. der Tann</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">  ”   v. Hartmann</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">Württemberg div.</td> <td class="tclm cl" rowspan="2">v. Werder</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">Baden div.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">(2nd) and 4th cavalry divisions</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">Total</td> <td class="tcr">180,000</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">Grand Total</td> <td class="tcr">475,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">(The units within brackets were those at first retained in Germany.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>On the French side no such plan of operations was in existence +when on the night of the 15th of July <i>Krieg mobil</i> was telegraphed +all over Prussia. An outline scheme had indeed been +prepared as a basis for agreement with Austria and +<span class="sidenote">Positions of the French forces.</span> +Italy, but practically no details were fixed, and the +troops were without transport and supplies. Nevertheless, +since speed was the essence of the contract, the troops +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span> +were hurried up without waiting for their reserves, and delivered, +as Moltke had foreseen, just where the lie of the railways and +convenience of temporary supply dictated, and the Prussian +Intelligence Department was able to inform Moltke on the 22nd +of July (seventh day of mobilization) that the French stood +from right to left in the following order, on or near the frontier:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" style="clear: both;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1st corps</td> <td class="tcl">Marshal MacMahon, duke of Magenta, Strassburg</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">5th corps</td> <td class="tcl">General de Failly, Saargemünd and Bitche</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2nd corps</td> <td class="tcl">General Frossard, St Avold</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">4th corps</td> <td class="tcl">General de Ladmirault, Thionville</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">   With, behind them:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">3rd corps</td> <td class="tcl">Marshal Bazaine, Metz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Guard</td> <td class="tcl">General Bourbaki, Nancy</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">6th corps</td> <td class="tcl">Marshal Canrobert, Châlons</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">7th corps</td> <td class="tcl">General Félix Douay, Belfort</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If therefore they began a forward movement on the 23rd +(eighth day) the case foreseen by Moltke had arisen, and it became +necessary to detrain the II. army upon the Rhine. Without +waiting for further confirmation of this intelligence, Moltke, with +the consent of the king, altered the arrangements accordingly, +a decision which, though foreseen, exercised the gravest influence +on the course of events. As it happened this decision was premature, +for the French could not yet move. Supply trains had +to be organized by requisition from the inhabitants, and even +arms and ammunition procured for such reserves as had succeeded +in joining. Nevertheless, by almost superhuman exertions +on the part of the railways and administrative services, all +essential deficiencies were made good, and by the 28th of July +(13th day) the troops had received all that was absolutely indispensable +and might well have been led against the enemy, who, +thanks to Moltke’s premature action, were for the moment at +a very serious disadvantage. But the French generals were +unequal to their responsibilities. It is now clear that, had the +great Napoleon and his marshals been in command, they would +have made light of the want of cooking pots, cholera belts, &c., +and, by a series of rapid marches, would have concentrated +odds of at least three to one upon the heads of the Prussian +columns as they struggled through the defiles of the Hardt, and +won a victory whose political results might well have proved +decisive.</p> + +<p>To meet this pressing danger, which came to his knowledge +during the course of the 29th, Moltke sent a confidential staff +officer, Colonel v. Verdy du Vernois, to the III. army to impress +upon the crown prince the necessity of an immediate advance to +distract the enemy’s attention from the I. and II. armies; but, +like the French generals, the crown prince pleaded that he could +not move until his trains were complete. Fortunately for the +Germans, the French intelligence service not only failed to +inform the staff of this extraordinary opportunity, but it allowed +itself to be hypnotized by the most amazing rumours. In +imagination they saw armies of 100,000 men behind every forest, +and, to guard against these dangers, the French troops were +marched and counter-marched along the frontiers in the vain +hope of discovering an ideal defensive position which should +afford full scope to the power of their new weapons.</p> + +<p>As these delays were exerting a most unfavourable effect on +public opinion not only in France but throughout Europe, the +emperor decided on the 1st of August to initiate a movement +towards the Saar, chiefly as a guarantee of good faith to the +Austrians and Italians.</p> + +<p>On this day the French corps held the following positions from +right to left:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1st corps</td> <td class="tcl">Hagenau</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2nd corps</td> <td class="tcl">Forbach</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">3rd corps</td> <td class="tcl">St Avold</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">4th corps</td> <td class="tcl">Bouzonville</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">5th corps</td> <td class="tcl">Bitche</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">6th corps</td> <td class="tcl">Châlons</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">7th corps</td> <td class="tcl">Belfort and Colmar</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Guard</td> <td class="tcl">near Metz</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The French 2nd corps was directed to advance on the following +morning direct on Saarbrücken, supported on the flanks by two +divisions from the 5th and 3rd corps. The order was duly carried +out, and the Prussians (one battalion, two squadrons and a +<span class="sidenote">Action of Saarbrücken.</span> +battery), seeing the overwhelming numbers opposed to them, +fell back fighting and vanished to the northward, having +given a very excellent example of steadiness and discipline +to their enemy.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The latter contented themselves +by occupying Saarbrücken and its suburb St +Johann, and here, as far as the troops were concerned, +the incident closed. Its effect, however, proved far-reaching. +The Prussian staff could not conceive that nothing lay behind +this display of five whole divisions, and immediately took steps +to meet the expected danger. In their excitement, although they +had announced the beginning of the action to the king’s headquarters +at Mainz, they forgot to notify the close and its results, +so that Moltke was not in possession of the facts till noon on the +3rd of August. Meanwhile, Steinmetz, left without instructions +and fearing for the safety of the II. army, the heads of whose +columns were still in the defiles of the Hardt, moved the I. army +from the neighbourhood of Merzig obliquely to his left front, so +as to strike the flank of the French army if it continued its +march towards Kaiserslautern, in which direction it appeared to +be heading.</p> + +<p>Whilst this order was in process of execution, Moltke, aware +that the II. army was behind time in its march, issued instructions +to Steinmetz for the 4th of August which entailed +a withdrawal to the rear, the idea being that both +<span class="sidenote">Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles and Steinmetz.</span> +armies should, if the French advanced, fight a defensive +battle in a selected position farther back. Steinmetz +obeyed, though bitterly resenting the idea of retreat. +This movement, further, drew his left across the roads +reserved for the right column of the II. army, and on receipt +of a peremptory order from Prince Frederick Charles to evacuate +the road, Steinmetz telegraphed for instructions direct to the +king, over Moltke’s head. In reply he received a telegram from +Moltke, ordering him to clear the road at once, and couched +in terms which he considered as a severe reprimand. An explanatory +letter, meant to soften the rebuke, was delayed in +transmission and did not reach him till too late to modify the +orders he had already issued. It must be remembered that +Steinmetz at the front was in a better position to judge the +apparent situation than was Moltke at Mainz, and that all +through the day of the 5th of August he had received intelligence +indicating a change of attitude in the French army.</p> + +<p>The news of the German victory at Weissenburg on the 4th +(see below) had in fact completely paralysed the French headquarters, +and orders were issued by them during the +course of the 5th to concentrate the whole army of the +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Spicheren.</span> +Rhine on the selected position of Cadenbronn. As a +preliminary, Frossard’s corps withdrew from Saarbrücken +and began to entrench a position on the Spicheren +heights, 3000 yds. to the southward. Steinmetz, therefore, being +quite unaware of the scheme for a great battle on the Saar about +the 12th of August, felt that the situation would best be met, +and the letter of his instructions strictly obeyed, by moving his +whole command forward to the line of the Saar, and orders to +this effect were issued on the evening of the 5th. In pursuance +of these orders, the advance guard of the 14th division (Lieutenant +General von Kameke) reached Saarbrücken about 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on +the 6th, where the Germans found to their amazement that the +bridges were intact. To secure this advantage was the obvious +duty of the commander on the spot, and he at once ordered his +troops to occupy a line of low heights beyond the town to +serve as a bridge-head. As the leading troops deployed on the +heights Frossard’s guns on the Spicheren Plateau opened fire, +and the advanced guard battery replied. The sound of these +guns unchained the whole fighting instinct carefully developed +by a long course of Prussian manœuvre training. Everywhere, +generals and troops hurried towards the cannon thunder. +Kameke, even more in the dark than Steinmetz as to Moltke’s +intentions and the strength of his adversaries, attacked at once, +precisely as he would have done at manœuvres, and in half an +hour his men were committed beyond recall. As each fresh unit +reached the field it was hurried into action where its services +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>8</span> +were most needed, and each fresh general as he arrived took a +new view of the combat and issued new orders. On the other +side, Frossard, knowing the strength of his position, called on +his neighbours for support, and determined to hold his ground. +Victory seemed certain. There were sufficient troops within +easy reach to have ensured a crushing numerical superiority. +But the other generals had not been trained to mutual support, +and thought only of their own immediate security, and their +staffs were too inexperienced to act upon even good intentions; +and, finding himself in the course of the afternoon left to his own +devices, Frossard began gradually to withdraw, even before the +pressure of the 13th German division on his left flank (about +8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>) compelled his retirement. When darkness ended the +battle the Prussians were scarcely aware of their victory. Steinmetz, +who had reached the field about 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, rode back to his +headquarters without issuing any orders, while the troops +bivouacked where they stood, the units of three army corps +being mixed up in almost inextricable confusion. But whereas +out of 42,900 Prussians with 120 guns, who in the morning lay +within striking distance of the enemy, no fewer than 27,000, +with 78 guns were actually engaged; of the French, out of 64,000 +with 210 guns only 24,000 with 90 guns took part in the action.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile on the German left wing the III. army had begun +its advance. Early on the 4th of August it crossed the frontier +and fell upon a French detachment under Abel Douay, +which had been placed near Weissenburg, partly to +<span class="sidenote">Action of Weissenburg.</span> +cover the Pigeonnier pass, but principally to consume +the supplies accumulated in the little dismantled +fortress, as these could not easily be moved. Against this force +of under 4000 men of all arms, the Germans brought into action +successively portions of three corps, in all over 25,000 men with +90 guns. After six hours’ fighting, in which the Germans lost +some 1500 men, the gallant remnant of the French withdrew +deliberately and in good order, notwithstanding the death of +their leader at the critical moment. The Germans were so elated +by their victory over the enemy, whose strength they naturally +overestimated, that they forgot to send cavalry in pursuit, and +thus entirely lost touch with the enemy.</p> + +<p>Next day the advance was resumed, the two Bavarian corps +moving via Mattstall through the foothills of the Vosges, the +V. corps on their left towards Preuschdorf, and the XI. farther +to the left again, through the wooded plain of the Rhine valley. +The 4th cavalry division scouted in advance, and army headquarters +moved to Sulz. About noon the advanced patrols +discovered MacMahon’s corps in position on the left bank of the +Sauer (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wörth</a></span>: <i>Battle of</i>). As his army was dispersed over +a wide area, the crown prince determined to devote the 6th to +concentrating the troops, and, probably to avoid alarming the +enemy, ordered the cavalry to stand fast.</p> + +<p>At night the outposts of the I. Bavarians and V. corps on the +Sauer saw the fires of the French encampment and heard the +noise of railway traffic, and rightly conjectured the approach +of reinforcements. MacMahon had in fact determined to stand +in the very formidable position he had selected, and he counted +on receiving support both from the 7th corps (two divisions of +which were being railed up from Colmar) and from the 5th corps, +which lay around Bitche. It was also quite possible, and the +soundest strategy, to withdraw the bulk of the troops then +facing the German I. and II. armies to his support, and these +would reach him by the 8th. He was therefore justified in +accepting battle, though it was to his interest to delay it as long +as possible.</p> + +<p>At dawn on the 6th of August the commander of the V. corps +outposts noticed certain movements in the French lines, and to +clear up the situation brought his guns into action. +As at Spicheren, the sound of the guns set the whole +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Wörth.</span> +machinery of battle in motion. The French artillery +immediately accepted the Prussian challenge. The I. Bavarians, +having been ordered to be ready to move if they heard artillery +fire, immediately advanced against the French left, encountering +presently such a stubborn resistance that parts of their line +began to give way. The Prussians of the V. corps felt that they +could not abandon their allies, and von Kirchbach, calling on the +XI. corps for support, attacked with the troops at hand. When +the crown prince tried to break off the fight it was too late. +Both sides were feeding troops into the firing line, as and where +they could lay hands on them. Up to 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the French fairly +held their own, but shortly afterwards their right yielded to the +overwhelming pressure of the XI. corps, and by 3.30 it was +in full retreat. The centre held on for another hour, but in +its turn was compelled to yield, and by 4.30 all organized +resistance was at an end. The débris of the French army was +hotly pursued by the German divisional squadrons towards +Reichshofen, where serious panic showed itself. When at this +stage the supports sent by de Failly from Bitche came on the +ground they saw the hopelessness of intervention, and retired +whence they had come. Fortunately for the French, the German +4th cavalry division, on which the pursuit should have devolved, +had been forgotten by the German staff, and did not reach the +front before darkness fell. Out of a total of 82,000 within reach +of the battlefield, the Germans succeeded in bringing into action +77,500. The French, who might have had 50,000 on the field, +deployed only 37,000, and these suffered a collective loss of +no less than 20,100; some regiments losing up to 90% and still +retaining some semblance of discipline and order.</p> + +<p>Under cover of darkness the remnants of the French army +escaped. When at length the 4th cavalry division had succeeded +in forcing a way through the confusion of the battlefield, +all touch with the enemy had been lost, and being without +firearms the troopers were checked by the French stragglers +in the woods and the villages, and thus failed to establish the +true line of retreat of the French. Ultimately the latter, having +gained the railway near Lunéville, disappeared from the German +front altogether, and all trace of them was lost until they were +discovered, about the 26th of August, forming part of the army +of Châlons, whither they had been conveyed by rail via Paris. +This is a remarkable example of the strategical value of railways +to an army operating in its own country.</p> + +<p>In the absence of all resistance, the III. army now proceeded +to carry out the original programme of marches laid down in +Moltke’s memorandum of the 6th of May, and marching on a +broad front through a fertile district it reached the line of the +Moselle in excellent order about the 17th of August, where it +halted to await the result of the great battle of Gravelotte-St +Privat.</p> + +<p>We return now to the I. army at Saarbrücken. Its position +on the morning of the 7th of August gave cause for the gravest +anxiety. At daylight a dense fog lay over the country, +and through the mist sounds of heavy firing came +<span class="sidenote">Movements on the Saar.</span> +from the direction of Forbach, where French stragglers +had rallied during the night. The confusion on the +battlefield was appalling, and the troops in no condition to go +forward. Except the 3rd, 5th and 6th cavalry divisions no +closed troops were within a day’s march; hence Steinmetz +decided to spend the day in reorganizing his infantry, under +cover of his available cavalry. But the German cavalry and +staff were quite new to their task. The 6th cavalry division, +which had bivouacked on the battlefield, sent on only one +brigade towards Forbach, retaining the remainder in reserve. +The 5th, thinking that the 6th had already undertaken all +that was necessary, withdrew behind the Saar, and the 3rd, +also behind the Saar, reported that the country in its front was +unsuited to cavalry movements, and only sent out a few officers’ +patrols. These were well led, but were too few in number, and +their reports were consequently unconvincing.</p> + +<p>In the course of the day Steinmetz became very uneasy, and +ultimately he decided to concentrate his army by retiring the +VII. and VIII. corps behind the river on to the I. (which had +arrived near Saarlouis), thus clearing the Saarbrücken-Metz +road for the use of the II. army. But at this moment Prince +Frederick Charles suddenly modified his views. During the 6th +of August his scouts had reported considerable French forces +near Bitche (these were the 5th, de Failly’s corps), and early +in the morning of the 7th he received a telegram from Moltke +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span> +informing him that MacMahon’s beaten army was retreating +on the same place (the troops observed were in fact those which +had marched to MacMahon’s assistance). The prince forthwith +deflected the march of the Guards, IV. and X. corps, towards +Rohrbach, whilst the IX. and XII. closed up to supporting +distance behind them. Thus, as Steinmetz moved away to the +west and north, Frederick Charles was diverging to the south +and east, and a great gap was opening in the very centre of the +German front. This was closed only by the III. corps, still on +the battle-field, and by portions of the X. near Saargemünd,<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +whilst within striking distance lay 130,000 French troops, +prevented only by the incapacity of their chiefs from delivering +a decisive counter-stroke.</p> + +<p>Fortunately for the Prussians, Moltke at Mainz took a different +view. Receiving absolutely no intelligence from the front +during the 7th, he telegraphed orders to the I. and II. armies +(10.25 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>) to halt on the 8th, and impressed on Steinmetz +the necessity of employing his cavalry to clear up the situation. +The I. army had already begun the marches ordered by Steinmetz. +It was now led back practically to its old bivouacs +amongst the unburied dead. Prince Frederick Charles only +conformed to Moltke’s order with the III. and X. corps; the +remainder executed their concentration towards the south and +east.</p> + +<p>During the night of the 7th of August Moltke decided that +the French army must be in retreat towards the Moselle and +forthwith busied himself with the preparation of fresh tables of +march for the two armies, his object being to swing up the left +wing to outflank the enemy from the south. This work, and +the transfer of headquarters to Homburg, needed time, hence no +fresh orders were issued to either army, and neither commander +would incur the responsibility of moving without any. The +I. army therefore spent a fourth night in bivouac on the battlefield. +But Constantin von Alvensleben, commanding the III. +corps, a man of very different stamp from his colleagues, hearing +at first hand that the French had evacuated St Avold, set his +corps in motion early in the morning of the 10th August down +the St Avold-Metz road, reached St Avold and obtained conclusive +evidence that the French were retreating.</p> + +<p>During the 9th the orders for the advance to the Moselle were +issued. These were based, not on an exact knowledge of where +the French army actually stood, but on the opinion +<span class="sidenote">Advance to the Moselle.</span> +Moltke had formed as to where it ought to have been +on military grounds solely, overlooking the fact that +the French staff were not free to form military decisions +but were compelled to bow to political expediency.</p> + +<p>Actually on the 7th of August the emperor had decided to +attack the Germans on the 8th with the whole Rhine Army, +but this decision was upset by alarmist reports from the beaten +army of MacMahon. He then decided to retreat to the Moselle, +as Moltke had foreseen, and there to draw to himself the remnants +of MacMahon’s army (now near Lunéville). At the same time +he assigned the executive command over the whole Rhine Army +to Marshal Bazaine. This retreat was begun during the course of +the 8th and 9th of August; but on the night of the 9th urgent +telegrams from Paris induced the emperor to suspend the movement, +and during the 10th the whole army took up a strong +position on the French Nied.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the II. German army had received its orders to +march in a line of army corps on a broad front in the general +direction of Pont-à-Mousson, well to the south of Metz. The +I. army was to follow by short marches in échelon on the right; +only the III. corps was directed on Falkenberg, a day’s march +farther towards Metz along the St Avold-Metz road. The +movement was begun on the 10th, and towards evening the +French army was located on the right front of the III. corps. +This entirely upset Moltke’s hypothesis, and called for a complete +modification of his plans, as the III. corps alone could not be +expected to resist the impact of Bazaine’s five corps. The III. +corps therefore received orders to stand fast for the moment, +and the remainder of the II. army was instructed to wheel to the +right and concentrate for a great battle to the east of Metz on +the 16th or 17th.</p> + +<p>Before, however, these orders had been received the sudden +retreat of the French completely changed the situation. The +Germans therefore continued their movement towards the +Moselle. On the 13th the French took up a fresh position 5 m. +to the east of Metz, where they were located by the cavalry +and the advanced guards of the I. army.</p> + +<p>Again Moltke ordered the I. army to observe and hold the +enemy, whilst the II. was to swing round to the north. The +cavalry was to scout beyond the Moselle and intercept +all communication with the heart of France (see Metz). +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Colombey-Borny.</span> +By this time the whole German army had imbibed the +idea that the French were in full retreat and endeavouring +to evade a decisive struggle. When therefore during the +morning of the 14th their outposts observed signs of retreat +in the French position, their impatience could no longer be +restrained; as at Wörth and Spicheren, an outpost commander +brought up his guns, and at the sound of their fire, every unit +within reach spontaneously got under arms (battle of Colombey-Borny). +In a short time, with or without orders, the I., VII., +VIII. and IX. corps were in full march to the battle-field. But +the French too turned back to fight, and an obstinate engagement +ensued, at the close of which the Germans barely held +the ground and the French withdrew under cover of the Metz +forts.</p> + +<p>Still, though the fighting had been indecisive, the conviction +of victory remained with the Germans, and the idea of a French +retreat became an obsession. To this idea Moltke gave expression +in his orders issued early on the 15th, in which he laid down +that the “fruits of the victory” of the previous evening could +only be reaped by a vigorous pursuit towards the passages of the +Meuse, where it was hoped the French might yet be overtaken. +This order, however, did not allow for the hopeless inability of +the French staff to regulate the movement of congested masses +of men, horses and vehicles, such as were now accumulated in the +streets and environs of Metz. Whilst Bazaine had come to no +definite decision whether to stand and fight or continue to retreat, +and was merely drifting under the impressions of the moment, +the Prussian leaders, in particular Prince Frederick Charles, +saw in imagination the French columns in rapid orderly movement +towards the west, and calculated that at best they could +not be overtaken short of Verdun.</p> + +<p>In this order of ideas the whole of the II. army, followed on +its right rear by two-thirds of the I. army (the I. corps being +detached to observe the eastern side of the fortress), were pushed +on towards the Moselle, the cavalry far in advance towards the +Meuse, whilst only the 5th cavalry division was ordered to scout +towards the Metz-Verdun road, and even that was disseminated +over far too wide an area.</p> + +<p>Later in the day (15th) Frederick Charles sent orders to the +III. corps, which was on the right flank of his long line of columns +and approaching the Moselle at Corny and Novéant, to march +via Gorze to Mars-la-Tour on the Metz-Verdun road; to the +X. corps, strung out along the road from Thiaucourt to Pont-à-Mousson, +to move to Jarny; and for the remainder to push on +westward to seize the Meuse crossings. No definite information +as to the French army reached him in time to modify these +instructions.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the 5th (Rheinbaben’s) cavalry division, at about +3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> in the afternoon, had come into contact with the French +cavalry in the vicinity of Mars-la-Tour, and gleaned intelligence +enough to show that no French infantry had as yet reached +Rezonville. The commander of the X. corps at Thiaucourt, +informed of this, became anxious for the security of his flank +during the next day’s march and decided to push out a strong +flanking detachment under von Caprivi, to support von Rheinbaben +and maintain touch with the III. corps marching on his +right rear.</p> + +<p>Von Alvensleben, to whom the 6th cavalry division had meanwhile +been assigned, seems to have received no local intelligence +whatsoever; and at daybreak on the 16th he began his march +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span> +in two columns, the 6th division on Mars-la-Tour, the 5th +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Vionville-Mars-la-Tour.</span> +towards the Rezonville-Vionville plateau. And shortly after +9.15 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> he suddenly discovered the truth. The entire French +army lay on his right flank, and his nearest supports +were almost a day’s march distant. In this crisis he +made up his mind at once to attack with every +available man, and to continue to attack, in the conviction +that his audacity would serve to conceal his weakness. +All day long, therefore, the Brandenburgers of the III. corps, +supported ultimately by the X. corps and part of the IX., +attacked again and again. The enemy was thrice their strength, +but very differently led, and made no adequate use of his +superiority (battle of Vionville-Mars-la Tour).</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Prince Frederick Charles, at Pont-à-Mousson, +was still confident in the French retreat to the Meuse, and had +even issued orders for the 17th on that assumption. Firing had +been heard since 9.15 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and about noon Alvensleben’s first +report had reached him, but it was not till after 2 that he +realized the situation. Then, mounting his horse, he covered +the 15 m. to Flavigny over crowded and difficult roads within +the hour, and on his arrival abundantly atoned for his strategic +errors by his unconquerable determination and tactical skill. +When darkness put a stop to the fighting, he considered the +position. Cancelling all previous orders, he called all troops +within reach to the battle-field and resigned himself to wait for +them. The situation was indeed critical. The whole French +army of five corps, only half of which had been engaged, lay in +front of him. His own army lay scattered over an area of 30 m. +by 20, and only some 20,000 fresh troops—of the IX. corps—could +<span class="sidenote">The 17th of August.</span> +reach the field during the forenoon of the 17th. +He did not then know that Moltke had already intervened +and had ordered the VII., VIII. and II. corps<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +to his assistance. Daylight revealed the extreme exhaustion of +both men and horses. The men lay around in hopeless confusion +amongst the killed and wounded, each where sleep had overtaken +him, and thus the extent of the actual losses, heavy +enough, could not be estimated. Across the valley, bugle +sounds revealed the French already alert, and presently a long +line of skirmishers approached the Prussian position. But they +halted just beyond rifle range, and it was soon evident that they +were only intended to cover a further withdrawal. Presently +came the welcome intelligence that the reinforcements were well +on their way.</p> + +<p>About noon the king and Moltke drove up to the ground, +and there was an animated discussion as to what the French +would do next. Aware of their withdrawal from his immediate +front, Prince Frederick Charles reverted to his previous idea +and insisted that they were in full retreat towards the north, +and that their entrenchments near Point du Jour and St Hubert +(see map in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span>) were at most a rearguard position. +Moltke was inclined to the same view, but considered the alternative +possibility of a withdrawal towards Metz, and about 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> +orders were issued to meet these divergent opinions. The +whole army was to be drawn up at 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 18th in an +échelon facing north, so as to be ready for action in either +direction. The king and Moltke then drove to Pont-à-Mousson, +and the troops bivouacked in a state of readiness. The rest +of the 17th was spent in restoring order in the shattered III. +and X. corps, and by nightfall both corps were reported fit for +action. Strangely enough, there were no organized cavalry +reconnaissances, and no intelligence of importance was collected +during the night of the 17th-18th.</p> + +<p>Early on the 18th the troops began to move into position in +the following order from left to right: XII. (Saxons), Guards, +IX., VIII. and VII. The X. and III. were retained in reserve.</p> + +<p>The idea of the French retreat was still uppermost in the +prince’s mind, and the whole army therefore moved north. +But between 10 and 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> part of the truth—viz. that the +French had their backs to Metz and stood in battle order +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Gravelotte-Saint Privat.</span> +from St Hubert northwards—became evident, and the II. +army, pivoting on the I., wheeled to the right and moved +eastward. Suddenly the IX. corps fell right on the +centre of the French line (Amanvillers), and a most +desperate encounter began, superior control, as before, +ceasing after the guns had opened fire. Prince Frederick +Charles, however, a little farther north, again asserted his tactical +ability, and about 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> he brought into position no less than five +army corps for the final attack. The sudden collapse of French +resistance, due to the frontal attack of the Guards (St Privat) and +the turning movement of the Saxons (Roncourt), rendered the +use of this mass unnecessary, but the resolution to use it was +there. On the German right (I. army), about Gravelotte, all +superior leading ceased quite early in the afternoon, and at +night the French still showed an unbroken front. Until midnight, +when the prince’s victory was reported, the suspense at headquarters +was terrible. The I. army was exhausted, no steps +had been taken to ensure support from the III. army, and the +IV. corps (II. army) lay inactive 30 m. away.</p> + +<p>This seems a fitting place to discuss the much-disputed point +of Bazaine’s conduct in allowing himself to be driven back into +Metz when fortune had thrown into his hands the great +opportunity of the 16th and 17th of August. He +<span class="sidenote">Bazaine in Metz.</span> +had been appointed to command on the 10th, but the +presence of the emperor, who only left the front early on the +16th, and their dislike of Bazaine, exercised a disturbing influence +on the headquarters staff officers. During the retreat to Metz +the marshal had satisfied himself as to the inability of his corps +commanders to handle their troops, and also as to the ill-will +of the staff. In the circumstances he felt that a battle in the +open field could only end in disaster; and, since it was proved +that the Germans could outmarch him, his army was sure to be +overtaken and annihilated if he ventured beyond the shelter +of the fortress. But near Metz he could at least inflict very +severe punishment on his assailants, and in any case his presence +in Metz would neutralize a far superior force of the enemy for +weeks or months. What use the French government might +choose to make of the breathing space thus secured was their +business, not his; and subsequent events showed that, had they +not forced MacMahon’s hand, the existence of the latter’s +nucleus army of trained troops might have prevented the +investment of Paris. Bazaine was condemned by court-martial +after the war, but if the case were reheard to-day it is certain +that no charge of treachery could be sustained.</p> + +<p>On the German side the victory at St Privat was at once +followed up by the headquarters. Early on the 19th the investment +of Bazaine’s army in Metz was commenced. A new army, +the Army of the Meuse (often called the IV.), was as soon as +possible formed of all troops not required for the maintenance +of the investment, and marched off under the command of the +crown prince of Saxony to discover and destroy the remainder +of the French field army, which at this moment was known to +be at Châlons.</p> + +<p>The operations which led to the capture of MacMahon’s army +in Sedan call for little explanation. Given seven corps, each +capable of averaging 15 m. a day for a week in succession, +opposed to four corps only, shaken by defeat +<span class="sidenote">Campaign of Sedan.</span> +and unable as a whole to cover more than 5 m. a day, +the result could hardly be doubtful. But Moltke’s method of +conducting operations left his opponent many openings which +could only be closed by excessive demands on the marching +power of the men. Trusting only to his cavalry screen to +secure information, he was always without any definite fixed +point about which to manœuvre, for whilst the reports of the +screen and orders based thereon were being transmitted, the +enemy was free to move, and generally their movements were +dictated by political expediency, not by calculable military +motives.</p> + +<p>Thus whilst the German army, on a front of nearly 50 m., +was marching due west on Paris, MacMahon, under political +pressure, was moving parallel to them, but on a northerly route, +to attempt the relief of Metz.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span></p> + +<p>So unexpected was this move and so uncertain the information +which called attention to it, that Moltke did not venture to +change at once the direction of march of the whole army, but +he directed the Army of the Meuse northward on Damvillers +and ordered Prince Frederick Charles to detach two corps from +the forces investing Metz to reinforce it. For the moment, +therefore, MacMahon’s move had succeeded, and the opportunity +existed for Bazaine to break out. But at the critical moment +the hopeless want of real efficiency in MacMahon’s army compelled +the latter so to delay his advance that it became evident +to the Germans that there was no longer any necessity for the +III. army to maintain the direction towards Paris, and that +the probable point of contact between the Meuse army and the +French lay nearer to the right wing of the III. army than to +Prince Frederick Charles’s investing force before Metz.</p> + +<p>The detachment from the II. army was therefore countermanded, +and the whole III. army changed front to the north, +while the Meuse army headed the French off from the east. +The latter came into contact with the head of the French columns, +during the 29th, about Nouart, and on the 30th at Buzancy +(battle of Beaumont); and the French, yielding to the force +of numbers combined with superior moral, were driven north-westward +upon Sedan (<i>q.v.</i>), right across the front of the III. +army, which was now rapidly coming up from the south.</p> + +<p>During the 31st the retreat practically became a rout, and +the morning of the 1st of September found the French crowded +around the little fortress of Sedan, with only one line of retreat +to the north-west still open. By 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the XI. corps (III. +army) had already closed that line, and about noon the Saxons +(Army of the Meuse) moving round between the town and the +Belgian frontier joined hands with the XI., and the circle of +investment was complete. The battle of Sedan was closed +about 4.15 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> by the hoisting of the white flag. Terms were +agreed upon during the night, and the whole French army, +with the emperor, passed into captivity.</p> +<div class="author">(F. N. M.)</div> + +<p>Thus in five weeks one of the French field armies was imprisoned +in Metz, the other destroyed, and the Germans were free +to march upon Paris. This seemed easy. There could +be no organized opposition to their progress,<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and Paris, +<span class="sidenote">Later operations.</span> +if not so defenceless as in 1814, was more populous. +Starvation was the best method of attacking an overcrowded +fortress, and the Parisians were not thought to be proof +against the deprivation of their accustomed luxuries. Even +Moltke hoped that by the end of October he would be “shooting +hares at Creisau,” and with this confidence the German III. and +IV. armies left the vicinity of Sedan on the 4th of September. +The march called for no more than good staff arrangements, and +the two armies arrived before Paris a fortnight later and gradually +encircled the place—the III. army on the south, the IV. on +the north side—in the last days of September. Headquarters +were established at Versailles. Meanwhile the Third Empire +had fallen, giving place on the 4th of September to a republican +Government of National Defence, which made its appeal to, +and evoked, the spirit of 1792. Henceforward the French nation, +which had left the conduct of the war to the regular army and +had been little more than an excited spectator, took the burden +upon itself.</p> + +<p>The regular army, indeed, still contained more than 500,000 +men (chiefly recruits and reservists), and 50,000 sailors, marines, +douaniers, &c., were also available. But the Garde Mobile, +framed by Marshal Niel in 1868, doubled this figure, and the +addition of the Garde Nationale, called into existence on the 15th +of September, and including all able-bodied men of from 31 to +60 years of age, more than trebled it. The German staff had of +course to reckon on the Garde Mobile, and did so beforehand, +but they wholly underestimated both its effective members and +its willingness, while, possessing themselves a system in which +all the military elements of the German nation stood close behind +the troops of the active army, they ignored the potentialities +of the Garde Nationale.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, both as a contrast to the events that centred on +Paris and because in point of time they were decided for the +most part in the weeks immediately following Sedan, we must +briefly allude to the sieges conducted by the Germans—Paris +(<i>q.v.</i>), Metz (<i>q.v.</i>) and Belfort (<i>q.v.</i>) excepted. Old and ruined +as many of them were, the French fortresses possessed considerable +importance in the eyes of the Germans. Strassburg, in +particular, the key of Alsace, the standing menace to South +Germany and the most conspicuous of the spoils of Louis XIV.’s +<i>Raubkriege</i>, was an obvious target. Operations were begun +on the 9th of August, three days after Wörth, General v. Werder’s +corps (Baden troops and Prussian Landwehr) making the siege. +The French commandant, General Uhrich, surrendered after +a stubborn resistance on the 28th of September. Of the smaller +fortresses many, being practically unarmed and without garrisons, +capitulated at once. Toul, defended by Major Huck with 2000 +mobiles, resisted for forty days, and drew upon itself the efforts +of 13,000 men and 100 guns. Verdun, commanded by General +Guérin de Waldersbach, held out till after the fall of Metz. Some +of the fortresses lying to the north of the Prussian line of advance +on Paris, <i>e.g.</i> Mézières, resisted up to January 1871, though of +course this was very largely due to the diminution of pressure +caused by the appearance of new French field armies in October. +On the 9th of September a strange incident took place at the +surrender of Laon. A powder magazine was blown up by the +soldiers in charge and 300 French and a few German soldiers were +killed by the explosion. But as the Germans advanced, their +lines of communication were thoroughly organized, and the belt +of country between Paris and the Prussian frontier subdued and +garrisoned. Most of these fortresses were small town enceintes, +dating from Vauban’s time, and open, under the new conditions +of warfare, to concentric bombardment from positions formerly +out of range, upon which the besieger could place as many guns +as he chose to employ. In addition they were usually deficient +in armament and stores and garrisoned by newly-raised troops. +Belfort, where the defenders strained every nerve to keep the +besiegers out of bombarding range, and Paris formed the only +exceptions to this general rule.</p> + +<p>The policy of the new French government was defined by +Jules Favre on the 6th of September. “It is for the king of +Prussia, who has declared that he is making war on +the Empire and not on France, to stay his hand; we +<span class="sidenote">The “Défense Nationale.”</span> +shall not cede an inch of our territory or a stone of our +fortresses.” These proud words, so often ridiculed +as empty bombast, were the prelude of a national effort which +re-established France in the eyes of Europe as a great power, even +though provinces and fortresses were ceded in the peace that that +effort proved unable to avert. They were translated into action +by Léon Gambetta, who escaped from Paris in a balloon on the +7th of October, and established the headquarters of the defence +at Tours, where already the “Delegation” of the central government—which +had decided to remain in Paris—had concentrated +the machinery of government. Thenceforward Gambetta and +his principal assistant de Freycinet directed the whole war in +the open country, co-ordinating it, as best they could with the +precarious means of communication at their disposal, with +Trochu’s military operations in and round the capital. His +critics—Gambetta’s personality was such as to ensure him +numerous enemies among the higher civil and military officials, +over whom, in the interests of <i>La Patrie</i>, he rode rough-shod—have +acknowledged the fact, which is patent enough in any case, +that nothing but Gambetta’s driving energy enabled France +in a few weeks to create and to equip twelve army corps, representing +thirty-six divisions (600,000 rifles and 1400 guns), after +all her organized regular field troops had been destroyed or +neutralized. But it is claimed that by undue interference with +the generals at the front, by presuming to dictate their plans +of campaign, and by forcing them to act when the troops were +unready, Gambetta and de Freycinet nullified the efforts of +themselves and the rest of the nation and subjected France +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span> +to a humiliating treaty of peace. We cannot here discuss the +justice or injustice of such a general condemnation, or even +whether in individual instances Gambetta trespassed too far into +the special domain of the soldier. But even the brief narrative +given below must at least suggest to the reader the existence +amongst the generals and higher officials of a dead weight of +passive resistance to the Delegation’s orders, of unnecessary +distrust of the qualities of the improvised troops, and above +all of the utter fear of responsibility that twenty years of literal +obedience had bred. The closest study of the war cannot lead +to any other conclusion than this, that whether or not +Gambetta as a strategist took the right course in general or +in particular cases, no one else would have taken any course +whatever.</p> + +<p>On the approach of the enemy Paris hastened its preparations +for defence to the utmost, while in the provinces, out of reach +of the German cavalry, new army corps were rapidly organized +out of the few constituted regular units not involved in the +previous catastrophes, the depot troops and the mobile national +guard. The first-fruits of these efforts were seen in Beauce, +where early in October important masses of French troops +prepared not only to bar the further progress of the invader +but actually to relieve Paris. The so-called “fog of war”—the +armed inhabitants, francs-tireurs, sedentary national guard +and volunteers—prevented the German cavalry from venturing +far out from the infantry camps around Paris, and behind this +screen the new 15th army corps assembled on the Loire. But +an untimely demonstration of force alarmed the Germans, +all of whom, from Moltke downwards, had hitherto disbelieved +in the existence of the French new formations, and the still +unready 15th corps found itself the target of an expedition of +the I. Bavarian corps, which drove the defenders out of Orleans +after a sharp struggle, while at the same time another expedition +swept the western part of Beauce, sacked Châteaudun as a +punishment for its brave defence, and returned via Chartres, +which was occupied.</p> + +<p>After these events the French forces disappeared from German +eyes for some weeks. D’Aurelle de Paladines, the commander +of the “Army of the Loire” (15th and 16th corps), improvised +a camp of instruction at Salbris in Sologne, several marches out +of reach, and subjected his raw troops to a stern régime of drill +and discipline. At the same time an “Army of the West” began +to gather on the side of Le Mans. This army was almost +imaginary, yet rumours of its existence and numbers led the +German commanders into the gravest errors, for they soon came +to suspect that the main army lay on that side and not on the +Loire, and this mistaken impression governed the German +dispositions up to the very eve of the decisive events around +Orleans in December. Thus when at last D’Aurelle took the +offensive from Tours (whither he had transported his forces, +now 100,000 strong) against the position of the I. Bavarian corps +near Orleans, he found his task easy. The Bavarians, outnumbered +and unsupported, were defeated with heavy losses in +the battle of Coulmiers (November 9), and, had it not been for +the inexperience, want of combination, and other technical +weaknesses of the French, they would have been annihilated. +What the results of such a victory as Coulmiers might have been, +had it been won by a fully organized, smoothly working army +of the same strength, it is difficult to overestimate. As it was, +the retirement of the Bavarians rang the alarm bell all along the +line of the German positions, and that was all.</p> + +<p>Then once again, instead of following up its success, the French +army disappeared from view. The victory had emboldened +the “fog of war” to make renewed efforts, and resistance to +the pressure of the German cavalry grew day by day. The +Bavarians were reinforced by two Prussian divisions and by all +available cavalry commands, and constituted as an “army +detachment” under the grand-duke Friedrich Franz of Mecklenburg-Schwerin +to deal with the Army of the Loire, the strength +of which was far from being accurately known. Meantime the +capitulation of Metz on the 28th of October had set free the +veterans of Prince Frederick Charles, the best troops in the +German army, for field operations. The latter were at first +misdirected to the upper Seine, and yet another opportunity +arose for the French to raise the siege of Paris. But D’Aurelle +utilized the time he had gained in strengthening the army and +in imparting drill and discipline to the new units which gathered +round the original nucleus of the 15th and 16th corps. All this +was, however, unknown and even unsuspected at the German +headquarters, and the invaders, feeling the approaching crisis, +became more than uneasy as to their prospects of maintaining +the siege of Paris.</p> + +<p>At this moment, in the middle of November, the general +situation was as follows: the German III. and Meuse armies, +investing Paris, had had to throw off important +detachments to protect the enterprise, which they had +<span class="sidenote">The Orleans campaign.</span> +undertaken on the assumption that no further field +armies of the enemy were to be encountered. The +maintenance of their communications with Germany, relatively +unimportant when the struggle took place in the circumstances +of field warfare, had become supremely necessary, now that the +army had come to a standstill and undertaken a great siege, +which required heavy guns and constant replenishment of +ammunition and stores. The rapidity of the German invasion +had left no time for the proper organization and full garrisoning +of these communications, which were now threatened, not merely +by the Army of the Loire, but by other forces assembling on the +area protected by Langres and Belfort. The latter, under +General Cambriels, were held in check and no more by the Baden +troops and reserve units (XIV. German corps) under General +Werder, and eventually without arousing attention they were +able to send 40,000 men to the Army of the Loire. This army, +still around Orleans, thus came to number perhaps 150,000 +men, and opposed to it, about the 14th of November, the Germans +had only the Army Detachment of about 40,000, the II. +army being still distant. It was under these conditions that the +famous Orleans campaign took place. After many vicissitudes +of fortune, and with many misunderstandings between Prince +Frederick Charles, Moltke and the grand-duke, the Germans +were ultimately victorious, thanks principally to the brilliant +fighting of the X. corps at Beaune-la-Rolande (28th of November), +which was followed by the battle of Loigny-Poupry on the 2nd +of December and the second capture of Orleans after heavy +fighting on the 4th of December.</p> + +<p>The result of the capture of Orleans was the severance of the +two wings of the French army, henceforward commanded +respectively by Chanzy and Bourbaki. The latter fell back at +once and hastily, though not closely pursued, to Bourges. +But Chanzy, opposing the Detachment between Beaugency and +the Forest of Marchenoir, was of sterner metal, and in the five +days’ general engagement around Beaugency (December 7-11) +the Germans gained little or no real advantage. Indeed their +solitary material success, the capture of Beaugency, was due +chiefly to the fact that the French there were subjected to +conflicting orders from the military and the governmental +authorities. Chanzy then abandoned little but the field of +battle, and on the grand-duke’s representations Prince Frederick +Charles, leaving a mere screen to impose upon Bourbaki (who +allowed himself to be deceived and remained inactive), hurried +thither with the II. army. After that Chanzy was rapidly +driven north-westward, though always presenting a stubborn +front. The Delegation left Tours and betook itself to Bordeaux, +whence it directed the government for the rest of the war. But +all this continuous marching and fighting, and the growing +severity of the weather, compelled Prince Frederick Charles +to call a halt for a few days. About the 19th of December, +therefore, the Germans (II. army and Detachment) were closed +up in the region of Chartres, Orleans, Auxerre and Fontainebleau, +Chanzy along the river Sarthe about Le Mans and Bourbaki +still passive towards Bourges.</p> + +<p>During this, as during other halts, the French government +and its generals occupied themselves with fresh plans of campaign, +the former with an eager desire for results, the latter +(Chanzy excepted) with many misgivings. Ultimately, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span> +fatally, it was decided that Bourbaki, whom nothing could move +towards Orleans, should depart for the south-east, with a view +to relieving Belfort and striking perpendicularly against the long +line of the Germans’ communications. This movement, bold +to the point of extreme rashness judged by any theoretical rules +of strategy, seems to have been suggested by de Freycinet. +As the execution of it fell actually into incapable hands, it is +difficult to judge what would have been the result had a Chanzy +or a Faidherbe been in command of the French. At any rate +it was vicious in so far as immediate advantages were sacrificed +to hopes of ultimate success which Gambetta and de Freycinet +did wrong to base on Bourbaki’s powers of generalship. Late +in December, for good or evil, Bourbaki marched off into Franche-Comté +and ceased to be a factor in the Loire campaign. A +mere calculation of time and space sufficed to show the German +headquarters that the moment had arrived to demolish the +stubborn Chanzy.</p> + +<p>Prince Frederick Charles resumed the interrupted offensive, +pushing westward with four corps and four cavalry divisions +which converged on Le Mans. There on the 10th, +11th and 12th of January 1871 a stubbornly contested +<span class="sidenote">Le Mans.</span> +battle ended with the retreat of the French, who owed their +defeat solely to the misbehaviour of the Breton mobiles. These, +after deserting their post on the battlefield at a mere threat of +the enemy’s infantry, fled in disorder and infected with their +terrors the men in the reserve camps of instruction, which broke +up in turn. But Chanzy, resolute as ever, drew off his field army +intact towards Laval, where a freshly raised corps joined him. +The prince’s army was far too exhausted to deliver another +effective blow, and the main body of it gradually drew back into +better quarters, while the grand duke departed for the north +to aid in opposing Faidherbe. Some idea of the strain to which +the invaders had been subjected may be gathered from the fact +that army corps, originally 30,000 strong, were in some cases +reduced to 10,000 and even fewer bayonets. And at this moment +Bourbaki was at the head of 120,000 men! Indeed, so threatening +seemed the situation on the Loire, though the French south +of that river between Gien and Blois were mere isolated brigades, +that the prince hurried back from Le Mans to Orleans to take +personal command. A fresh French corps, bearing the number +25, and being the twenty-first actually raised during the war, +appeared in the field towards Blois. Chanzy was again at the +head of 156,000 men. He was about to take the offensive +against the 40,000 Germans left near Le Mans when to his bitter +disappointment he received the news of the armistice. “We +have still France,” he had said to his staff, undeterred by the +news of the capitulation of Paris, but now he had to submit, +for even if his improvised army was still cheerful, there were +many significant tokens that the people at large had sunk into +apathy and hoped to avoid worse terms of peace by discontinuing +the contest at once.</p> + +<p>So ended the critical period of the “Défense nationale.” It +may be taken to have lasted from the day of Coulmiers to the +last day of Le Mans, and its central point was the battle of +Beaune-la-Rolande. Its characteristics were, on the German +side, inadequacy of the system of strategy practised, which +became palpable as soon as the organs of reconnaissance met +with serious resistance, misjudgment of and indeed contempt +for the fighting powers of “new formations,” and the rise of a +spirit of ferocity in the man in the ranks, born of his resentment +at the continuance of the war and the ceaseless sniping of the +franc-tireur’s rifle and the peasant’s shot-gun. On the French +side the continual efforts of the statesmen to stimulate the +generals to decisive efforts, coupled with actual suggestions as to +the plans of the campaign to be followed (in default, be it said, of +the generals themselves producing such plans), and the professional +soldiers’ distrust of half-trained troops, acted and +reacted upon one another in such a way as to neutralize the +powerful, if disconnected and erratic, forces that the war and +the Republic had unchained. As for the soldiers themselves, +their most conspicuous qualities were their uncomplaining +endurance of fatigues and wet bivouacs, and in action their +capacity for a single great effort and no more. But they were +unreliable in the hands of the veteran regular general, because +they were heterogeneous in recruiting, and unequal in experience +and military qualities, and the French staff in those days was +wholly incapable of moving masses of troops with the rapidity +demanded by the enemy’s methods of war, so that on the whole +it is difficult to know whether to wonder more at their missing +success or at their so nearly achieving it.</p> + +<p>The decision, as we have said, was fought out on the Loire +and the Sarthe. Nevertheless the glorious story of the “Défense +nationale” includes two other important campaigns—that of +Faidherbe in the north and that of Bourbaki in the east.</p> + +<p>In the north the organization of the new formations was +begun by Dr Testelin and General Farre. Bourbaki held the +command for a short time in November before proceeding +to Tours, but the active command in field +<span class="sidenote">Faidherbe’s campaign.</span> +operations came into the hands of Faidherbe, a general +whose natural powers, so far from being cramped by +years of peace routine and court repression, had been developed +by a career of pioneer warfare and colonial administration. +General Farre was his capable chief of staff. Troops were raised +from fugitives from Metz and Sedan, as well as from depot troops +and the Garde Mobile, and several minor successes were won by +the national troops in the Seine valley, for here, as on the side +of the Loire, mere detachments of the investing army round +Paris were almost powerless. But the capitulation of Metz +came too soon for the full development of these sources of +military strength, and the German I. army under Manteuffel, +released from duty at Metz, marched north-eastward, capturing +the minor fortresses on its way. Before Faidherbe assumed +command, Farre had fought several severe actions near Amiens, +but, greatly outnumbered, had been defeated and forced to +retire behind the Somme. Another French general, Briand, +had also engaged the enemy without success near Rouen. +Faidherbe assumed the command on the 3rd of December, and +promptly moved forward. A general engagement on the little +river Hallue (December 23), east-north-east of Amiens, was +fought with no decisive results, but Faidherbe, feeling that his +troops were only capable of winning victories in the first rush, +drew them off on the 24th. His next effort, at Bapaûme +(January 2-3, 1871), was more successful, but its effects were +counterbalanced by the surrender of the fortress of Péronne +(January 9) and the consequent establishment of the Germans +on the line of the Somme. Meanwhile the Rouen troops had +been contained by a strong German detachment, and there was +no further chance of succouring Paris from the north. But +Faidherbe, like Chanzy, was far from despair, and in spite of the +deficiencies of his troops in equipment (50,000 pairs of shoes, +supplied by English contractors, proved to have paper soles), +he risked a third great battle at St Quentin (January 19). This +time he was severely defeated, though his loss in killed and +wounded was about equal to that of the Germans, who were +commanded by Goeben. Still the attempt of the Germans to +surround him failed and he drew off his forces with his artillery +and trains unharmed. The Germans, who had been greatly +impressed by the solidity of his army, did not pursue him far, +and Faidherbe was preparing for a fresh effort when he received +orders to suspend hostilities.</p> + +<p>The last episode is Bourbaki’s campaign in the east, with its +mournful close at Pontarlier. Before the crisis of the last week +of November, the French forces under General Crémer, Cambriels’ +successor, had been so far successful in minor enterprises that, +as mentioned above, the right wing of the Loire army, severed +from the left by the battle of Orleans and subsequently held +inactive at Bourges and Nevers, was ordered to Franche Comté +to take the offensive against the XIV. corps and other German +troops there, to relieve Belfort and to strike a blow across the +invaders’ line of communications. But there were many delays +in execution. The staff work, which was at no time satisfactory +in the French armies of 1870, was complicated by the snow, +the bad state of the roads, and the mountainous nature of the +country, and Bourbaki, a brave general of division in action, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span> +but irresolute and pretentious as a commander in chief, was not +the man to cope with the situation. Only the furious courage and +patient endurance of hardships of the rank and file, and the good +qualities of some of the generals, such as Clinchant, Crémer and +Billot, and junior staff officers such as Major Brugère (afterwards +generalissimo of the French army), secured what success was +attained.</p> + +<p>Werder, the German commander, warned of the imposing +concentration of the French, evacuated Dijon and Dôle just in +time to avoid the blow and rapidly drew together his +forces behind the Ognon above Vesoul. A furious +<span class="sidenote">The campaign in the East.</span> +attack on one of his divisions at Villersexel (January 9) +cost him 2000 prisoners as well as his killed and +wounded, and Bourbaki, heading for Belfort, was actually nearer +to the fortress than the Germans. But at the crisis more time +was wasted, Werder (who had almost lost hope of maintaining +himself and had received both encouragement and stringent +instructions to do so) slipped in front of the French, and took up +a long weak line of defence on the river Lisaine, almost within +cannon shot of Belfort. The cumbrous French army moved up +and attacked him there with 150,000 against 60,000 (January +15-17, 1871). It was at last repulsed, thanks chiefly to Bourbaki’s +inability to handle his forces, and, to the bitter disappointment +of officers and men alike, he ordered a retreat, leaving Belfort +to its fate.</p> + +<p>Ere this, so urgent was the necessity of assisting Werder, +Manteuffel had been placed at the head of a new Army of the +South. Bringing two corps from the I. army opposing Faidherbe +and calling up a third from the armies around Paris, and a fourth +from the II. army, Manteuffel hurried southward by Langres +to the Saône. Then, hearing of Werder’s victory on the Lisaine, +he deflected the march so as to cut off Bourbaki’s retreat, +drawing off the left flank guard of the latter (commanded with +much <i>éclat</i> and little real effect by Garibaldi) by a sharp feint +attack on Dijon. The pressure of Werder in front and Manteuffel +in flank gradually forced the now thoroughly disheartened +French forces towards the Swiss frontier, and Bourbaki, realizing +at once the ruin of his army and his own incapacity to re-establish +its efficiency, shot himself, though not fatally, on the 26th of +January. Clinchant, his successor, acted promptly enough to +remove the immediate danger, but on the 29th he was informed +of the armistice without at the same time being told that Belfort +and the eastern theatre of war had been on Jules Favre’s demand +expressly excepted from its operation.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Thus the French, the +leaders distracted by doubts and the worn-out soldiers fully +aware that the war was practically over, stood still, while +Manteuffel completed his preparations for hemming them in. +On the 1st of February General Clinchant led his troops into +Switzerland, where they were disarmed, interned and well cared +for by the authorities of the neutral state. The rearguard fought +a last action with the advancing Germans before passing the +frontier. On the 16th, by order of the French government, +Belfort capitulated, but it was not until the 11th of March that +the Germans took possession of Bitche, the little fortress on the +Vosges, where in the early days of the war de Failly had illustrated +so signally the want of concerted action and the neglect +of opportunities which had throughout proved the bane of the +French armies.</p> + +<p>The losses of the Germans during the whole war were 28,000 +dead and 101,000 wounded and disabled, those of the French, +156,000 dead (17,000 of whom died, of sickness and wounds, as +prisoners in German hands) and 143,000 wounded and disabled. +720,000 men surrendered to the Germans or to the authorities +of neutral states, and at the close of the war there were still +250,000 troops on foot, with further resources not immediately +available to the number of 280,000 more. In this connexion, +and as evidence of the respective numerical yields of the German +system working normally and of the French improvised for +the emergency, we quote from Berndt (<i>Zahl im Kriege</i>) the +following comparative figures:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">End of July</td> <td class="tcc">French</td> <td class="tcc">250,000,</td> <td class="tcc">Germans</td> <td class="tcc">384,000</td> <td class="tcc">under arms.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Middle of November</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">600,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">425,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">After the surrender of Paris and the<br /> +  disarmament of Bourbaki’s army</td> <td class="tccb">”</td> <td class="tccb">534,000</td> <td class="tccb">”</td> <td class="tccb">835,000</td> <td class="tccb">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The date of the armistice was the 28th of January, and that +of the ratification of the treaty of Frankfurt the 23rd of May +1871.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The literature of the war is ever increasing in +volume, and the following list only includes a very short selection +made amongst the most important works.</p> + +<p><i>General.</i>—German official history, <i>Der deutsch-französische Krieg</i> +(Berlin, 1872-1881; English and French translations); monographs +of the German general staff (<i>Kriegsgesch. Einzelschriften</i>); Moltke, +<i>Gesch. des deutsch-französ. Krieges</i> (Berlin, 1891; English translation) +and <i>Gesammelte Schriften des G. F. M. Grafen v. Moltke</i> (Berlin, +1900-  ); French official history, <i>La Guerre de 1870-1871</i> (Paris, +1902-  ) (the fullest and most accurate account); P. Lehautcourt +(General Palat), <i>Hist. de la guerre de 1870-1871</i> (Paris, 1901-1907); +v. Verdy du Vernois, <i>Studien über den Krieg ... auf Grundlage</i> +1870-1871 (Berlin, 1892-1896); G. Cardinal von Widdern, <i>Kritische +Tage 1870-1871</i> (French translation, <i>Journées critiques</i>). Events +preceding the war are dealt with in v. Bernhardi, <i>Zwischen zwei +Kriegen</i>; Baron Stoffel, <i>Rapports militaires</i> 1866-1870 (Paris, 1871; +English translation); G. Lehmann, <i>Die Mobilmachung</i> 1870-1871 +(Berlin, 1905).</p> + +<p>For the war in Lorraine: Prince Kraft of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, +<i>Briefe über Strategie</i> (English translation, <i>Letters on Strategy</i>); F. +Foch, <i>Conduite de la guerre</i>, pt. ii.; H. Bonnal, <i>Manœuvre de Saint +Privat</i> (Paris, 1904-1906); Maistre, <i>Spicheren</i> (Paris, 1908); v. +Schell, <i>Die Operationen der I. Armee unter Gen. von Steinmetz</i> (Berlin, +1872; English translation); F. Hoenig, <i>Taktik der Zukunft</i> (English +translation), and <i>24 Stunden Moltke’schen Strategie</i> (Berlin, 1892; +English and French translations).</p> + +<p>For the war in Alsace and Champagne: H. Kunz, <i>Schlacht von +Wörth</i> (Berlin, 1891), and later works by the same author; H. +Bonnal, <i>Fröschweiler</i> (Paris, 1899); Hahnke, <i>Die Operationen des +III. Armee bis Sedan</i> (Berlin, 1873; French translation).</p> + +<p>For the war in the Provinces: v. der Goltz, <i>Léon Gambetta und +seine Armeen</i> (Berlin, 1877); <i>Die Operationen der II. Armee an die +Loire</i> (Berlin, 1875); <i>Die sieben Tage von Le Mans</i> (Berlin, 1873); +Kunz, <i>Die Zusammensetzung der französ. Provinzialheeren</i>; de +Freycinet, <i>La Guerre en province</i> (Paris, 1871); L. A. Hale, <i>The +People’s War</i> (London, 1904); Hoenig, <i>Volkskrieg an die Loire</i> +(Berlin, 1892); Blume, <i>Operationen v. Sedan bis zum Ende d. Kriegs</i> +(Berlin, 1872; English translation); v. Schell, <i>Die Operationen der I. +Armee unter Gen. v. Goeben</i> (Berlin, 1873; English translation); +Count Wartensleben, <i>Feldzug der Nordarmee unter Gen. v. Manteuffel</i> +(Berlin, 1872), <i>Operationen der Sudarmee</i> (Berlin, 1872; English +translation); Faidherbe, <i>Campagne de l’armée du nord</i> (Paris, 1872).</p> + +<p>For the sieges: Frobenius, <i>Kriegsgesch. Beispiele d. Festungskriegs +aus d. deutsch.-franz. Kg.</i> (Berlin, 1899-1900); Goetze, <i>Tätigkeit +der deutschen Ingenieuren</i> (Berlin, 1871; English translation).</p> + +<p>The most useful bibliography is that of General Palat (“P. +Lehautcourt”).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was the celebrated “baptême de feu” of the prince imperial.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The II. corps had not yet arrived from Germany.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Of the I. army the I. corps was retained on the east side of Metz. +The II. corps belonged to the II. army, but had not yet reached the +front.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The 13th corps (Vinoy), which had followed MacMahon’s army +at some distance, was not involved in the catastrophe of Sedan, +and by good luck as well as good management evaded the German +pursuit and returned safely to Paris.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Jules Favre, it appears, neglected to inform Gambetta of the +exception.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANÇOIS DE NEUFCHÂTEAU, NICOLAS LOUIS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> +(1750-1828), French statesman and poet, was born at Saffais +near Rozières in Lorraine on the 17th of April 1750, the son of a +school-teacher. He studied at the Jesuit college of Neufchâteau +in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen published a volume +of poetry which obtained the approbation of Rousseau and of +Voltaire. Neufchâteau conferred on him its name, and he was +elected member of some of the principal academies of France. +In 1783 he was named <i>procureur-général</i> to the council of Santo +Domingo. He had previously been engaged on a translation +of Ariosto, which he finished before his return to France five +years afterwards, but it perished during the shipwreck which +occurred during his voyage home. After the Revolution he +was elected deputy <i>suppléant</i> to the National Assembly, was +charged with the organization of the Department of the Vosges, +and was elected later to the Legislative Assembly, of which he +first became secretary and then president. In 1793 he was +imprisoned on account of the political sentiments, in reality +very innocent, of his drama <i>Pamela ou la vertu récompensée</i> +(Théâtre de la Nation, 1st August 1793), but was set free a few +days afterwards at the revolution of the 9th Thermidor. In +1797 he became minister of the interior, in which office he +distinguished himself by the thoroughness of his administration +in all departments. It is to him that France owes its system +of inland navigation. He inaugurated the museum of the Louvre, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span> +and was one of the promoters of the first universal exhibition +of industrial products. From 1804 to 1806 he was president +of the Senate, and in that capacity the duty devolved upon +him of soliciting Napoleon to assume the title of emperor. In +1808 he received the dignity of count. Retiring from public +life in 1814, he occupied himself chiefly in the study of agriculture, +until his death on the 10th of January 1828.</p> + +<p>François de Neufchâteau had very multifarious accomplishments, +and interested himself in a great variety of subjects, but +his fame rests chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the +encouragement and development of the industries of France. +His maturer poetical productions did not fulfil the promise of +those of his early years, for though some of his verses have a +superficial elegance, his poetry generally lacks force and originality. +He had considerable qualifications as a grammarian and critic, +as is witnessed by his editions of the <i>Provinciales</i> and <i>Pensées</i> +of Pascal (Paris, 1822 and 1826) and <i>Gil Blas</i> (Paris, 1820). His +principal poetical works are <i>Poésies diverses</i> (1765); <i>Ode sur les +parlements</i> (1771); <i>Nouveaux Contes moraux</i> (1781); <i>Les Vosges</i> +(1796); <i>Fables et contes</i> (1814); and <i>Les Tropes, ou les figures de +mots</i> (1817). He was also the author of a large number of +works on agriculture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Recueil des lettres, circulaires, discours et autres actes publics +émanés du Çte. François pendant ses deux exercices du ministère de +l’intérieur</i> (Paris, An. vii.-viii., 2 vols.); <i>Notice biographique sur M. +le comte François de Neufchâteau</i> (1828), by A. F. de Sillery; H. +Bonnelier, <i>Mémoires sur François de Neufchâteau</i> (Paris, 1829); +J. Lamoureux, <i>Notice historique et littéraire sur la vie et les écrits de +François de Neufchâteau</i> (Paris, 1843); E. Meaume, <i>Étude historique +et biographique sur les Lorrains révolutionnaires: Palissot, Grégoire, +François de Neufchâteau</i> (Nancy, 1882); Ch. Simian, <i>François de +Neufchâteau et les expositions</i> (Paris, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCONIA<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Franken</i>), the name of one of the stem-duchies +of medieval Germany. It stretched along the valley of +the Main from the Rhine to Bohemia, and was bounded on the +north by Saxony and Thuringia, and on the south by Swabia +and Bavaria. It also included a district around Mainz, Spires +and Worms, on the left bank of the Rhine. The word <i>Franconia</i>, +first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the words +<i>France</i>, <i>Francia</i> and <i>Franken</i>, to a portion of the land occupied +by the Franks.</p> + +<p>About the close of the 5th century this territory was conquered +by Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, was afterwards incorporated +with the kingdom of Austrasia, and at a later period came under +the rule of Charlemagne. After the treaty of Verdun in 843 +it became the centre of the East Frankish or German kingdom, +and in theory remained so for a long period, and was for a time +the most important of the duchies which arose on the ruins of the +Carolingian empire. The land was divided into counties, or +<i>gauen</i>, which were ruled by counts, prominent among whom +were members of the families of Conradine and Babenberg, by +whose feuds it was frequently devastated. Conrad, a member +of the former family, who took the title of “duke in Franconia” +about the year 900, was chosen German king in 911 as the +representative of the foremost of the German races. Conrad +handed over the chief authority in Franconia to his brother +Eberhard, who remained on good terms with Conrad’s successor +Henry I. the Fowler, but rose against the succeeding king, Otto +the Great, and was killed in battle in 939, when his territories +were divided. The influence of Franconia began to decline +under the kings of the Saxon house. It lacked political unity, +had no opportunities for extension, and soon became divided +into Rhenish Franconia (<i>Francia rhenensis</i>, Ger. <i>Rheinfranken</i>) +and Eastern Franconia (<i>Francia orientalis</i>, Ger. <i>Ostfranken</i>). +The most influential family in Rhenish Franconia was that of +the Salians, the head of which early in the 10th century was +Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine, and son-in-law of Otto the +Great. This Conrad, his son Otto and his grandson Conrad +are sometimes called dukes of Franconia, and in 1024 his great-grandson +Conrad, also duke of Franconia, was elected German +king as Conrad II. and founded the line of Franconian or Salian +emperors. Rhenish Franconia gradually became a land of +free towns and lesser nobles, and under the earlier Franconian +emperors sections passed to the count palatine of the Rhine, +the archbishop of Mainz, the bishops of Worms and Spires +and other clerical and lay nobles; and the name Franconia, +or <i>Francia orientalis</i> as it was then called, was confined to the +eastern portion of the duchy. Clerical authority was becoming +predominant in this region. A series of charters dating from +822 to 1025 had granted considerable powers to the bishops of +Würzburg, who, by the time of the emperor Henry II., possessed +judicial authority over the whole of eastern Franconia. The +duchy was nominally retained by the emperors in their own +hands until 1115, when the emperor Henry V., wishing to curb +the episcopal influence in this neighbourhood, appointed his +nephew Conrad of Hohenstaufen as duke of Franconia. Conrad’s +son Frederick took the title of duke of Rothenburg instead of +duke of Franconia, but in 1196, on the death of Conrad of +Hohenstaufen, son of the emperor Frederick I., the title fell +into disuse. Meanwhile the bishop of Würzburg had regained +his former power in the duchy, and this was confirmed in 1168 +by the emperor Frederick I.</p> + +<p>The title remained in abeyance until the early years of the +15th century, when it was assumed by John II., bishop of Würzburg, +and retained by his successors until the bishopric was +secularized in 1802. The greater part of the lands were united +with Bavaria, and the name Franconia again fell into abeyance. +It was revived in 1837, when Louis I., king of Bavaria, gave to +three northern portions of his kingdom the names of Upper, +Middle and Lower Franconia. In 1633 Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar, +hoping to create a principality for himself out of the +ecclesiastical lands, had taken the title of duke of Franconia, +but his hopes were destroyed by his defeat at Nördlingen in 1634. +When Germany was divided into circles by the emperor Maximilian +I. in 1500, the name Franconia was given to that circle +which included the eastern part of the old duchy. The lands +formerly comprised in the duchy of Franconia are now divided +between the kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg, the grand-duchies +of Baden and Hesse, and the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. G. ab Eckhart, <i>Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis et +episcopatus Wirceburgensis</i> (Würzburg, 1729); F. Stein, <i>Geschichte +Frankens</i> (Schweinfurt, 1885-1886); T. Henner, <i>Die herzogliche +Gewalt der Bischöfe von Würzburg</i> (Würzburg, 1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCS-ARCHERS.<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> The institution of the <i>francs-archers</i> +was the first attempt at the formation of regular infantry in +France. They were created by the ordinance of Montils-les-Tours +on the 28th of August 1448, which prescribed that in each parish +an archer should be chosen from among the most apt in the use +of arms; this archer to be exempt from the <i>taille</i> and certain +obligations, to practise shooting with the bow on Sundays and +feast-days, and to hold himself ready to march fully equipped +at the first signal. Under Charles VII. the <i>francs-archers</i> distinguished +themselves in numerous battles with the English, +and assisted the king to drive them from France. During the +succeeding reigns the institution languished, and finally disappeared +in the middle of the 16th century. The <i>francs-archers</i> +were also called <i>francs-taupins</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Daniel, <i>Histoire de la milice française</i> (1721); and E. Boutaric, +<i>Institutions militaires de la France avant les armées permanentes</i> (1863).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANCS-TIREURS<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (“Free-Shooters”), irregular troops, +almost exclusively infantry, employed by the French in the war of +1870-1871. They were originally rifle clubs or unofficial military +societies formed in the east of France at the time of the Luxemburg +crisis of 1867. The members were chiefly concerned with +the practice of rifle-shooting, and were expected in war to act +as light troops. As under the then system of conscription the +greater part of the nation’s military energy was allowed to run +to waste, the francs-tireurs were not only popular, but efficient +workers in their sphere of action. As they wore no uniforms, +were armed with the best existing rifles and elected their own +officers, the government made repeated attempts to bring the +societies, which were at once a valuable asset to the armed +strength of France and a possible menace to internal order, +under military discipline. This was strenuously resisted by the +societies, to their sorrow as it turned out, for the Germans treated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span> +captured francs-tireurs as irresponsible non-combatants found +with arms in their hands and usually exacted the death penalty. +In July 1870, at the outbreak of the war, the societies were brought +under the control of the minister of war and organized for field +service, but it was not until the 4th of November—by which +time the <i>levée en masse</i> was in force—that they were placed under +the orders of the generals in the field. After that they were +sometimes organized in large bodies and incorporated in the mass +of the armies, but more usually they continued to work in small +bands, blowing up culverts on the invaders’ lines of communication, +cutting off small reconnoitring parties, surprising small +posts, &c. It is now acknowledged, even by the Germans, that +though the francs-tireurs did relatively little active mischief, +they paralysed large detachments of the enemy, contested every +step of his advance (as in the Loire campaign), and prevented +him from gaining information, and that their soldierly qualities +<span class="correction" title="amended from inproved">improved</span> with experience. Their most celebrated feats were the +blowing up of the Moselle railway bridge at Fontenoy on the 22nd +of January 1871 (see <i>Les Chasseurs des Vosges</i> by Lieut.-Colonel +St Étienne, Toul, 1906), and the heroic defence of Châteaudun +by Lipowski’s Paris corps and the francs-tireurs of Cannes and +Nantes (October 18, 1870). It cannot be denied that the original +members of the rifle clubs were joined by many bad characters, +but the patriotism of the majority was unquestionable, for little +mercy was shown by the Germans to those francs-tireurs who fell +into their hands. The severity of the German reprisals is itself +the best testimony to the fear and anxiety inspired by the presence +of active bands of francs-tireurs on the flanks and in rear of the +invaders.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANEKER,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, +5 m. E. of Harlingen on the railway and canal to Leeuwarden. +Pop. (1900) 7187. It was at one time a favourite residence of the +Frisian nobility, many of whom had their castles here, and it +possessed a celebrated university, founded by the Frisian estates +in 1585. This was suppressed by Napoleon I. in 1811, and the +endowments were diverted four years later to the support of an +athenaeum, and afterwards of a gymnasium, with which a +physiological cabinet and a botanical garden are connected. +Franeker also possesses a town hall (1591), which contains a +<i>planetarium</i>, made by one Eise Eisinga in 1774-1881. The +fine observatory was founded about 1780. The church of St +Martin (1420) contains several fine tombs of the 15th-17th +centuries. The industries of the town include silk-weaving, +woollen-spinning, shipbuilding and pottery-making. It is also +a considerable market for agricultural produce.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANK, JAKOB<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1726-1791), a Jewish theologian, who +founded in Poland, in the middle of the 18th century, a sect +which emanated from Judaism but ended by merging with +Christianity. The sect was the outcome of the Messianic +mysticism of Sabbetai Zebi. It was an antinomian movement +in which the authority of the Jewish law was held to be superseded +by personal freedom. The Jewish authorities, alarmed +at the moral laxity which resulted from the emotional rites of +the Frankists, did their utmost to suppress the sect. But the +latter, posing as an anti-Talmudic protest in behalf of a spiritual +religion, won a certain amount of public sympathy. There was, +however, no deep sincerity in the tenets of the Frankists, for +though in 1759 they were baptized <i>en masse</i>, amid much pomp, +the Church soon became convinced that Frank was not a genuine +convert. He was imprisoned on a charge of heresy, but on his +release in 1763 the empress Maria Theresa patronized him, +regarding him as a propagandist of Christianity among the Jews. +He thenceforth lived in state as baron of Offenbach, and on his +death (1791) his daughter Eva succeeded him as head of the sect. +The Frankists gradually merged in the general Christian body, the +movement leaving no permanent trace in the synagogue.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANK-ALMOIGN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (<i>libera eleemosyna</i>, free alms), in the English +law of real property, a species of spiritual tenure, whereby a +religious corporation, aggregate or sole, holds lands of the donor +to them and their successors for ever. It was a tenure dating +from Saxon times, held not on the ordinary feudal conditions, +but discharged of all services except the <i>trinoda necessitas</i>. +But “they which hold in frank-almoign are bound of right before +God to make orisons, prayers, masses and other divine services +for the souls of their grantor or feoffor, and for the souls of their +heirs which are dead, and for the prosperity and good life and +good health of their heirs which are alive. And therefore they +shall do no fealty to their lord, because that this divine service +is better for them before God than any doing of fealty” (Litt. +s. 135). It was the tenure by which the greater number of the +monasteries and religious houses held their lands; it was expressly +exempted from the statute 12 Car. II. c. 24 (1660), by which +the other ancient tenures were abolished, and it is the tenure by +which the parochial clergy and many ecclesiastical and eleemosynary +foundations hold their lands at the present day. As a form +of donation, however, it came to an end by the passing of the +statute <i>Quia Emptores</i>, for by that statute no new tenure of +frank-almoign could be created, except by the crown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>, where the history +of frank-almoign is given at length.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1801-1875), Jewish theologian, one +of the founders of the Breslau school of “historical Judaism.” +This school attempts to harmonize critical treatment of the documents +of religion with fidelity to traditional beliefs and observances. +For a time at least, the compromise succeeded in staying +the disintegrating effects of the liberal movement in Judaism. +Frankel was the author of several valuable works, among them +<i>Septuagint Studies</i>, an <i>Introduction to the Mishnah</i> (1859), and +a similar work on the Palestinian Talmud (1870). He also edited +the <i>Monatsschrift</i>, devoted to Jewish learning on modern lines. +But his chief claim to fame rests on his headship of the Breslau +Seminary. This was founded in 1854 for the training of rabbis +who should combine their rabbinic studies with secular courses +at the university. The whole character of the rabbinate has been +modified under the influence of this, the first seminary of the +kind.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKENBERG,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a manufacturing town of Germany, in the +kingdom of Saxony, on the Zschopau, 7 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, +on the railway Niederwiesa-Rosswein. Pop. (1905) 13,303. The +principal buildings are the large Evangelical parish church, +restored in 1874-1875, and the town-hall. Its industries include +I extensive woollen, cotton and silk weaving, dyeing, the manufacture +of brushes, furniture and cigars, iron-founding and +machine building. It is well provided with schools, including +one of weaving.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKENHAUSEN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the principality +of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on an artificial arm of the Wipper, +a tributary of the Saale, 36 m. N.N.E. of Gotha. Pop. (1905) +6534. It consists of an old and a new town, the latter mostly +rebuilt since a destructive fire in 1833, and has an old château +of the princes of Schwarzburg, three Protestant churches, a +seminary for teachers, a hospital and a modern town-hall. +Its industries include the manufacture of sugar, cigars and +buttons, and there are brine springs, with baths, in the vicinity. +At Frankenhausen a battle was fought on the 15th of May 1525, +in which the insurgent peasants under Thomas Münzer were +defeated by the allied princes of Saxony and Hesse.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKENSTEIN,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Silesia, on the Pausebach, 35 m. S. by W. of Breslau. Pop. +(1905) 7890. It is still surrounded by its medieval walls, has two +Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, among the +latter the parish church with a curious overhanging tower, and +a monastery. The industries include the manufacture of +artificial manures, bricks, beer and straw hats. There are also +mills for grinding the magnesite found in the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKENTHAL,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Bavarian +Palatinate, on the Isenach, connected with the Rhine by a +canal 3 m. in length, 6 m. N.W. from Mannheim, and on the +railways Neunkirchen-Worms and Frankenthal-Grosskarlbach. +Pop. (1905) 18,191. It has two Evangelical and a Roman +Catholic church, a fine medieval town-hall, two interesting old +gates, remains of its former environing walls, several public +monuments, including one to the veterans of the Napoleonic +wars, and a museum. Its industries include the manufacture +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span> +of machinery, casks, corks, soap, dolls and furniture, iron-founding +and bell-founding—the famous “Kaiserglocke” of +the Cologne cathedral was cast here. Frankenthal was formerly +famous for its porcelain factory, established here in 1755 by Paul +Anton Hannong of Strassburg, who sold it in 1762 to the elector +palatine Charles Theodore. Its fame is mainly due to the +modellers Konrad Link (1732-1802) and Johann Peter Melchior +(d. 1796) (who worked at Frankenthal between 1779 and 1793). +The best products of this factory are figures and groups representing +contemporary life, or allegorical subjects in the rococo +taste of the period, and they are surpassed only by those of the +more famous factory at Meissen. In 1795 the factory was sold +to Peter von Reccum, who removed it to Grünstadt.</p> + +<p>Frankenthal (Franconodal) is mentioned as a village in the +8th century. A house of Augustinian canons established here +in 1119 by Erkenbert, chamberlain of Worms, was suppressed +in 1562 by the elector palatine Frederick III., who gave its +possessions to Protestant refugees from the Netherlands. In +1577 this colony received town rights from the elector John +Casimir, whose successor fortified the place. From 1623 until +1652, save for two years, it was occupied by the Spaniards, and +in 1688-1689 it was stormed and burned by the French, the +fortifications being razed. In 1697 it was reconstituted as a town, +and under the elector Charles Theodore it became the capital +of the Palatinate. From 1798 to 1814 it was incorporated in the +French department of Mont Tonnerre.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wille, <i>Stadt u. Festung Frankenthal während des dreissigjährigen +Krieges</i> (Heidelberg, 1877); Hildenbrand, Gesch. <i>der Stadt +Frankenthal</i> (1893). For the porcelain see Heuser, <i>Frankenthaler +Gruppen und Figuren</i> (Spires, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKENWALD,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a mountainous district of Germany, +forming the geological connexion between the Fichtelgebirge +and the Thuringian Forest. It is a broad well-wooded plateau, +running for about 30 m. in a north-westerly direction, descending +gently on the north and eastern sides towards the Saale, but more +precipitously to the Bavarian plain in the west, and attaining its +highest elevation in the Kieferle near Steinheid (2900 ft.). Along +the centre lies the watershed between the basins of the Main and +the Saale, belonging to the systems of the Rhine and Elbe +respectively. The principal tributaries of the Main from the +Frankenwald are the Rodach and Hasslach, and of the Saale, +the Selbitz.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Schmid, <i>Führer durch den Frankenwald</i> (Bamberg, 1894); +Meyer, <i>Thüringen und der Frankenwald</i> (15th ed., Leipzig, 1900), +and Gümbel, <i>Geognostische Beschreibung des Fichtelgebirges mit dem +Frankenwald</i> (Gotha, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKFORT,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, +Indiana, U.S.A., 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) +5919; (1900) 7100 (144 foreign-born); (1910) 8634. Frankfort +is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Lake Erie +& Western, the Vandalia, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western +railways, and by the Indianapolis & North-Western Traction +Interurban railway (electric). The city is a division point on +the Toledo, St Louis & Western railway, which has large shops +here. Frankfort is a trade centre for an agricultural and lumbering +region; among its manufactures are handles, agricultural +implements and foundry products. The first settlement in the +neighbourhood was made in 1826; in 1830 the town was founded, +and in 1875 it was chartered as a city. The city limits were +considerably extended immediately after 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKFORT,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> the capital city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the +county-seat of Franklin county, on the Kentucky river, about +55 m. E. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 7892; (1900) 9487, of whom +3316 were negroes; (1910 census) 10,465. The city is served +by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Louisville & Nashville, and the +Frankfort & Cincinnati railways, by the Central Kentucky +Traction Co. (electric), and by steamboat lines to Cincinnati, +Louisville and other river ports. It is built among picturesque +hills on both sides of the river, and is in the midst of the famous +Kentucky “blue grass region” and of a rich lumber-producing +region. The most prominent building is the Capitol, about 400 ft. +long and 185 ft. wide, built of granite and white limestone in the +Italian Renaissance style, with 70 large Ionic columns, and a +dome 205 ft. above the terrace line, supported by 24 other +columns. The Capitol was built in 1905-1907 at a cost of more +than $2,000,000; in it are housed the state library and the +library of the Kentucky State Historical Society. At Frankfort, +also, are the state arsenal, the state penitentiary and the state +home for feeble-minded children, and just outside the city +limits is the state coloured normal school. The old capitol (first +occupied in 1829) is still standing. In Franklin cemetery rest +the remains of Daniel Boone and of Theodore O’Hara (1820-1867), +a lawyer, soldier, journalist and poet, who served in the +U.S. army in 1846-1848 during the Mexican War, took part in +filibustering expeditions to Cuba, served in the Confederate army, +and is best known as the author of “The Bivouac of the Dead,” +a poem written for the burial in Frankfort of some soldiers +who had lost their lives at Buena Vista. Here also are the +graves of Richard M. Johnson, vice-president of the United +States in 1837-1841, and the sculptor Joel T. Hart (1810-1877). +The city has a considerable trade with the surrounding country, +in which large quantities of tobacco and hemp are produced; +its manufactures include lumber, brooms, chairs, shoes, hemp +twine, canned vegetables and glass bottles. The total value of +the city’s factory product in 1905 was $1,747,338, being 31.6% +more than in 1900. Frankfort (said to have been named after +Stephen Frank, one of an early pioneer party ambushed here by +Indians) was founded in 1786 by General James Wilkinson, then +deeply interested in trade with the Spanish at New Orleans, and +in the midst of his Spanish intrigues. In 1792 the city was made +the capital of the state. In 1862, during the famous campaign in +Kentucky of General Braxton Bragg (Confederate) and General +D. C. Buell (Federal), Frankfort was occupied for a short time +by Bragg, who, just before being forced out by Buell, took part in +the inauguration of Richard J. Hawes, chosen governor by the +Confederates of the state. Hawes, however, never discharged +the duties of his office. During the bitter contest for the governorship +in 1900 between William Goebel (Democrat) and William S. +Taylor (Republican), each of whom claimed the election, Goebel +was assassinated at Frankfort. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kentucky</a></span>.) Frankfort +received a city charter in 1839.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Frankfurt am Main</i>), a city +of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, principally +on the right bank of the Main, 24 m. above its confluence +with the Rhine at Mainz, and 16 m. N. from Darmstadt. Always +a place of great trading importance, long the place of election +for the German kings, and until 1866, together with Hamburg, +Bremen and Lübeck, one of the four free cities of Germany, it +still retains its position as one of the leading commercial centres +of the German empire. Its situation in the broad and fertile +valley of the Main, the northern horizon formed by the soft +outlines of the Taunus range, is one of great natural beauty, +the surrounding country being richly clad with orchard and +forest.</p> + +<p>Frankfort is one of the most interesting, as it is also one of +the wealthiest, of German cities. Apart from its commercial +importance, its position, close to the fashionable watering-places +of Homburg, Nauheim and Wiesbaden, has rendered it “cosmopolitan” +in the best sense of the term. The various stages in +the development of the city are clearly indicated in its general +plan and the surviving names of many of its streets. The line +of the original 12th century walls and moat is marked by the +streets of which the names end in <i>-graben</i>, from the Hirschgraben +on the W. to the Wollgraben on the E. The space enclosed by +these and by the river on the S. is known as the “old town” +(<i>Altstadt</i>). The so-called “new town” (<i>Neustadt</i>), added in 1333, +extends to the <i>Anlagen</i>, the beautiful gardens and promenades +laid out (1806-1812) on the site of the 17th century fortifications, +of which they faithfully preserve the general ground plan. Of +the medieval fortifications the picturesque Eschenheimer Tor, a +round tower 155 ft. high, dating from 1400 to 1428, the Rententurm +(1456) on the Main and the Kuhhirtenturm (<i>c.</i> 1490) in +Sachsenhausen, are the sole remains. Since the demolition of +the fortifications the city has greatly expanded. Sachsenhausen +on the south bank of the river, formerly the seat of a commandery +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span> +of the Teutonic Order (by treaty with Austria in 1842 all property +and rights of the order in Frankfort territory were sold +to the city, except the church and house), is now a quarter of +the city. In other directions also the expansion has been rapid; +the village of Bornheim was incorporated in Frankfort in 1877, +the former Hessian town of Bockenheim in 1895, and the suburbs +of Niederrad, Oberrad and Seckbach in 1900.</p> + +<p>The main development of the city has been to the north of the +river, which is crossed by numerous bridges and flanked by fine +quays and promenades. The Altstadt, though several broad +streets have been opened through it, still preserves many of its +narrow alleys and other medieval features. The Judengasse +(Ghetto), down to 1806 the sole Jews’ quarter, has been pulled +down, with the exception of the ancestral house of the Rothschild +family—No. 148—which has been restored and retains its +ancient façade. As the Altstadt is mainly occupied by artisans +and petty tradesmen, so the Neustadt is the principal business +quarter of the city, containing the chief public buildings and the +principal hotels. The main arteries of the city are the Zeil, a +broad street running from the Friedberger Anlage to the Rossmarkt +and thence continued, by the Kaiserstrasse, through the +fine new quarter built after 1872, to the magnificent principal +railway station; and the Steinweg and Goethestrasse, which +lead by the Bockenheimer Tor to the Bockenheimer Landstrasse, +a broad boulevard intersecting the fashionable residential suburb +to the N.W.</p> + +<p><i>Churches.</i>—The principal ecclesiastical building in Frankfort +is the cathedral (Dom). Built of red sandstone, with a massive +tower terminating in a richly ornamented cupola and 300 ft. in +height, it is the most conspicuous object in the city. This building, +in which the Roman emperors were formerly elected and, since +1562, crowned, was founded in 852 by King Louis the German, and +was later known as the Salvator Kirche. After its reconstruction +(1235-1239), it was dedicated to St Bartholomew. From this +period date the nave and the side aisles; the choir was completed +in 1315-1338 and the long transepts in 1346-1354. The cloisters +were rebuilt in 1348-1447, and the electoral chapel, on the south +of the choir, was completed in 1355. The tower was begun in +1415, but remained unfinished. On the 15th of August 1867 +the tower and roof were destroyed by fire and considerable +damage was done to the rest of the edifice. The restoration +was immediately taken in hand, and the whole work was finished +in 1881, including the completion of the tower, according to the +plans of the 15th century architect, Hans von Ingelheim. In +the interior is the tomb of the German king Günther of Schwarzburg, +who died in Frankfort in 1349, and that of Rudolph, the +last knight of Sachsenhausen, who died in 1371. Among the +other Roman Catholic churches are the Leonhardskirche, the +Liebfrauenkirche (church of Our Lady) and the Deutschordenskirche +(14th century) in Sachsenhausen. The Leonhardskirche +(restored in 1882) was begun in 1219, it is said on the site of the +palace of Charlemagne. It was originally a three-aisled basilica, +but is now a five-aisled <i>Hallenkirche</i>; the choir was added in +1314. It has two Romanesque towers. The Liebfrauenkirche +is first mentioned in 1314 as a collegiate church; the nave was +consecrated in 1340. The choir was added in 1506-1509 and the +whole church thoroughly restored in the second half of the 18th +century, when the tower was built (1770). Of the Protestant +churches the oldest is the Nikolaikirche, which dates from the +13th century; the fine cast-iron spire erected in 1843 had to be +taken down in 1901. The Paulskirche, the principal Evangelical +(Lutheran) church, built between 1786 and 1833, is a red sandstone +edifice of no architectural pretensions, but interesting +as the seat of the national parliament of 1848-1849. The +Katharinenkirche, built 1678-1681 on the site of an older building, +is famous in Frankfort history as the place where the first +Protestant sermon was preached in 1522. Among the more +noteworthy of the newer Protestant churches are the Peterskirche +(1892-1895) in the North German Renaissance style, with a +tower 256 ft. high, standing north from the Zeil, the Christuskirche +(1883) and the Lutherkirche (1889-1893). An English +church, in Early English Gothic style, situated adjacent to the +Bockenheimer Landstrasse, was completed and consecrated +in 1906.</p> + +<p>Of the five synagogues, the chief (or Hauptsynagoge), lying +in the Börnestrasse, is an attractive building of red sandstone +in the Moorish-Byzantine style.</p> + +<p><i>Public Buildings.</i>—Of the secular buildings in Frankfort, the +Römer, for almost five hundred years the Rathaus (town hall) +of the city, is of prime historical interest. It lies on the Römerberg, +a square flanked by curious medieval houses. It is first +mentioned in 1322, was bought with the adjacent hostelry in +1405 by the city and rearranged as a town hall, and has since, +from time to time, been enlarged by the purchase of adjoining +patrician houses, forming a complex of buildings of various +styles and dates surmounted by a clock tower. The façade was +rebuilt (1896-1898) in late Gothic style. It was here, in the +Wahlzimmer (or election-chamber) that the electors or their +plenipotentiaries chose the German kings, and here in the +Kaisersaal (emperors’ hall) that the coronation festival was held, +at which the new king or emperor dined with the electors after +having shown himself from the balcony to the people. The +Kaisersaal retained its antique appearance until 1843, when, +as also again in 1904, it was restored and redecorated; it is now +furnished with a series of modern paintings representing the +German kings and Roman emperors from Charlemagne to +Francis II., in all fifty-two, and a statue of the first German +emperor, William I. New municipal buildings adjoining the +“Römer” on the north side were erected in 1900-1903 in German +Renaissance style, with a handsome tower 220 ft. high; beneath +it is a public wine-cellar, and on the first storey a grand municipal +hall. The palace of the princes of Thurn and Taxis in the +Eschenheimer Gasse was built (1732-1741) from the designs of +Robert de Cotte, chief architect to Louis XIV. of France. From +1806 to 1810 it was the residence of Karl von Dalberg, prince-primate +of the Confederation of the Rhine, with whose dominions +Frankfort had been incorporated by Napoleon. From 1816 to +1866 it was the seat of the German federal diet. It is now +annexed to the principal post office (built 1892-1894), which lies +close to it on the Zeil. The Saalhof, built on the site of the palace +erected by Louis the Pious in 822, overlooking the Main, has +a chapel of the 12th century, the substructure dating from +Carolingian times. This is the oldest building in Frankfort. +The façade of the Saalhof in the Saalgasse dates from 1604, the +southern wing with the two gables from 1715 to 1717. Of numerous +other medieval buildings may be mentioned the Leinwandhaus +(linendrapers’ hall), a 15th century building reconstructed in +1892 as a municipal museum. In the Grosser Hirschgraben is +the Goethehaus, a 16th century building which came into the +possession of the Goethe family in 1733. Here Goethe lived +from his birth in 1749 until 1775. In 1863 the house was acquired +by the <i>Freies deutsche Hochstift</i> and was opened to the public. It +has been restored, from Goethe’s account of it in <i>Dichtung und +Wahrheit</i>, as nearly as possible to its condition in the poet’s day, +and is now connected with a Goethemuseum (1897), with archives +and a library of 25,000 volumes representative of the Goethe +period of German literature.</p> + +<p><i>Literary and Scientific Institutions.</i>—Few cities of the same +size as Frankfort are so richly endowed with literary, scientific +and artistic institutions, or possess so many handsome buildings +appropriated to their service. The opera-house, erected near the +Bockenheimer Tor in 1873-1880, is a magnificent edifice in the +style of the Italian Renaissance and ranks among the finest +theatres in Europe. There are also a theatre (<i>Schauspielhaus</i>) +in modern Renaissance style (1899-1902), devoted especially +to drama, a splendid concert hall (<i>Saalbau</i>), opened in 1861, +and numerous minor places of theatrical entertainment. The +public picture gallery in the Saalhof possesses works by Hans +Holbein, Grünewald, Van Dyck, Teniers, Van der Neer, Hans +von Kulmbach, Lucas Cranach and other masters. The Städel +Art Institute (Städel’sches Kunstinstitut) in Sachsenhausen, +founded by the banker J. F. Städel in 1816, contains a picture +gallery and a cabinet of engravings extremely rich in works of +German art. The municipal library, with 300,000 volumes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span> +boasts among its rarer treasures a Gutenberg Bible printed at +Mainz between 1450 and 1455, another on parchment dated +1462, the <i>Institutiones Justiniani</i> (Mainz, 1468), the <i>Theuerdank</i>, +with woodcuts by Hans Schäufelein, and numerous valuable +autographs. It also contains a fine collection of coins. The +Bethmann Museum owes its celebrity principally to Dannecker’s +“Ariadne,” but it also possesses the original plaster model of +Thorwaldsen’s “Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon.” +There may also be mentioned the Industrial Art Exhibition of +the Polytechnic Association and two conservatories of music. +Among the scientific institutions the first place belongs to the +<i>Senckenberg’sches naturhistorische Museum</i>, containing valuable +collections of birds and shells. Next must be mentioned the +Kunstgewerbe (museum of arts and crafts) and the Musical +Museum, with valuable MSS. and portraits. Besides the +municipal library (<i>Stadtbibliothek</i>) mentioned above there are +three others of importance, the Rothschild, the Senckenberg +and the Jewish library (with a well-appointed reading-room). +There are numerous high-grade schools, musical and other learned +societies and excellent hospitals. The last include the large +municipal infirmary and the Senckenberg’sches Stift, a hospital +and almshouses founded by a doctor, Johann C. Senckenberg +(d. 1772). The Royal Institute for experimental therapeutics +(<i>Königl. Institut für experimentelle Therapie</i>), moved to Frankfort +in 1899, attracts numerous foreign students, and is especially +concerned with the study of bacteriology and serums.</p> + +<p><i>Bridges.</i>—Seven bridges (of which two are railway) cross the +Main. The most interesting of these is the Alte Mainbrücke, +a red sandstone structure of fourteen arches, 815 ft. long, dating +from the 14th century. On it are a mill, a statue of Charlemagne +and an iron crucifix surmounted by a gilded cock. The latter +commemorates, according to tradition, the fowl which was the +first living being to cross the bridge and thus fell a prey to the +devil, who in hope of a nobler victim had sold his assistance +to the architect. Antiquaries, however, assert that it probably +marks the spot where criminals were in olden times flung into +the river. Other bridges are the Obermainbrücke of five iron +arches, opened in 1878; an iron foot (suspension) bridge, the +Untermainbrücke; the Wilhelmsbrücke, a fine structure, which +from 1849 to 1890 served as a railway bridge and was then +opened as a road bridge; and two new iron bridges at Gutleuthof +and Niederrad (below the city), which carry the railway traffic +from the south to the north bank of the Main, where all lines +converge in a central station of the Prussian state railways. +This station, which was built in 1883-1888 and has replaced +the three stations belonging to private companies, which formerly +stood in juxtaposition on the Anlagen (or promenades) near the +Mainzer Tor, lies some half-mile to the west. The intervening +ground upon which the railway lines and buildings stood was +sold for building sites, the sum obtained being more than sufficient +to cover the cost of the majestic central terminus (the third +largest in the world), which, in addition to spacious and handsome +halls for passenger accommodation, has three glass-covered spans +of 180 ft. width each. Yet the exigencies of traffic demand +further extensions, and another large station was in 1909 in +process of construction at the east end of the city, devised to +receive the local traffic of lines running eastward, while a through +station for the north to south traffic was projected on a site +farther west of the central terminus.</p> + +<p>Frankfort lies at the junction of lines of railway connecting +it directly with all the important cities of south and central +Germany. Here cross and unite the lines from Berlin to Basel, +from Cologne to Würzburg and Vienna, from Hamburg and +Cassel, and from Dresden and Leipzig to France and Switzerland. +The river Main has been dredged so as to afford heavy barge +traffic with the towns of the upper Main and with the Rhine, +and cargo boats load and unload alongside its busy quays. +A well-devised system of electric tramways provides for local +communication within the city and with the outlying suburbs.</p> + +<p><i>Trade, Commerce and Industries.</i>—Frankfort has always +been more of a commercial than an industrial town, and though +of late years it has somewhat lost its pre-eminent position as +a banking centre it has counterbalanced the loss in increased +industrial development. The suburbs of Sachsenhausen and +Bockenheim have particularly developed considerable industrial +activity, especially in publishing and printing, brewing and the +manufacture of quinine. Other sources of employment are the +cutting of hair for making hats, the production of fancy goods, +type, machinery, soap and perfumery, ready-made clothing, +chemicals, electro-technical apparatus, jewelry and metal wares. +Market gardening is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood +and cider largely manufactured. There are two great fairs held +in the town,—the Ostermesse, or spring fair, and the Herbstmesse, +or autumn fair. The former, which was the original nucleus +of all the commercial prosperity of the city, begins on the second +Wednesday before Easter; and the latter on the second Wednesday +before the 8th of September. They last three weeks, and the +last day save one, called the <i>Nickelchestag</i>, is distinguished by +the influx of people from the neighbouring country. The trade in +leather is of great and growing importance. A horse fair has +been held twice a year since 1862 under the patronage of the +agricultural society; and the wool market was reinstituted +in 1872 by the German Trade Society (Deutscher Handelsverein). +Frankfort has long been famous as one of the principal banking +centres of Europe, and is now only second to Berlin, in this +respect, among German cities, and it is remarkable for the large +business that is done in government stock. In the 17th century +the town was the seat of a great book-trade; but it has long +been distanced in this department by Leipzig. The <i>Frankfurter +Journal</i> was founded in 1615, the <i>Postzeitung</i> in 1616, the <i>Neue +Frankfurter Zeitung</i> in 1859, and the <i>Frankfurter Presse</i> in 1866.</p> + +<p>Of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in +Frankfort is that erected in 1858 in honour of the early German +printers. It was modelled by Ed. von der Launitz and executed +by Herr von Kreis. The statues of Gutenberg, Fust and +Schöffer form a group on the top; an ornamented frieze presents +medallions of a number of famous printers; below these are +figures representing the towns of Mainz, Strassburg, Venice +and Frankfort; and on the corners of the pedestal are allegorical +statues of theology, poetry, science and industry. The statue +of Goethe (1844) in the Goetheplatz is by Ludwig von Schwanthaler. +The Schiller statue, erected in 1863, is the work of a +Frankfort artist, Johann Dielmann. A monument in the +Bockenheim Anlage, dated 1837, preserves the memory of +Guiollett, the burgomaster, to whom the town is mainly indebted +for the beautiful promenades which occupy the site of the old +fortifications; and similar monuments have been reared to +Senckenberg (1863), Schopenhauer, Klemens Brentano the poet +and Samuel Thomas Sömmerring (1755-1830), the anatomist and +inventor of an electric telegraph. In the Opernplatz is an +equestrian statue of the emperor Wilhelm I. by Buscher.</p> + +<p><i>Cemeteries.</i>—The new cemetery (opened in 1828) contains +the graves of Arthur Schopenhauer and Feuerbach, of Passavant +the biographer of Raphael, Ballenberger the artist, Hessemer +the architect, Sömmerring, and Johann Friedrich Böhmer +the historian. The Bethmann vault attracts attention by +three bas-reliefs from the chisel of Thorwaldsen; and the +Reichenbach mausoleum is a vast pile designed by Hessemer +at the command of William II. of Hesse, and adorned with +sculptures by Zwerger and von der Lausitz. In the Jewish +section, which is walled off from the rest of the burying-ground, +the most remarkable tombs are those of the Rothschild family.</p> + +<p><i>Parks.</i>—In addition to the park in the south-western district, +Frankfort possesses two delightful pleasure grounds, which +attract large numbers of visitors, the Palmengarten in the +west and the zoological garden in the east of the city. The +former is remarkable for the collection of palms purchased in +1868 from the deposed duke Adolph of Nassau.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—The present municipal constitution of the +city dates from 1867 and presents some points of difference +from the ordinary Prussian system. Bismarck was desirous of +giving the city, in view of its former freedom, a more liberal +constitution than is usual in ordinary cases. Formerly fifty-four +representatives were elected, but provision was made (in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span> +constitution) for increasing the number, and they at present +number sixty-four, elected for six years. Every two years +a third of the number retire, but they are eligible for re-election. +These sixty-four representatives elect twenty town-councillors, +ten of whom receive a salary and ten do not. The chief burgomaster +(Oberbürgermeister) is nominated by the emperor for +twelve years, and the second burgomaster must receive the +emperor’s approval.</p> + +<p>Since 1885 the city has been supplied with water of excellent +quality from the Stadtwald, Goldstein and Hinkelstein, and +the favourable sanitary condition of the town is seen in the low +death rate.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Frankfort has steadily +increased since the beginning of the 19th century; it amounted +in 1817 to 41,458; (1840) 55,269; (1864) 77,372; (1871) +59,265; (1875) 103,136; (1890) 179,985; and (1905), including +the incorporated suburban districts, 334,951, of whom 175,909 +were Protestants, 88,457 Roman Catholics and 21,974 Jews.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Excavations around the cathedral have incontestably +proved that Frankfort-on-Main (<i>Trajectum ad Moenum</i>) +was a settlement in Roman times and was probably founded +in the 1st century of the Christian era. It may thus be accounted +one of the earliest German—the so-called “Roman”—towns. +Numerous places in the valley of the Main are mentioned in +chronicles anterior to the time that Frankfort is first noticed. +Disregarding popular tradition, which connects the origin of the +town with a legend that Charlemagne, when retreating before +the Saxons, was safely conducted across the river by a doe, it +may be asserted that the first genuine historical notice of the +town occurs in 793, when Einhard, Charlemagne’s biographer, +tells us that he spent the winter in the villa Frankonovurd. +Next year there is mention more than once of a royal palace +here, and the early importance of the place is indicated by the +fact that in this year it was chosen as the seat of the ecclesiastical +council by which image-worship was condemned. The name +Frankfort is also found in several official documents of Charlemagne’s +reign; and from the notices that occur in the early +chronicles and charters it would appear that the place was the +most populous at least of the numerous villages of the Main +district. During the Carolingian period it was the seat of no +fewer than 16 imperial councils or colloquies. The town was +probably at first built on an island in the river. It was originally +governed by the royal officer or <i>actor dominicus</i>, and down even +to the close of the Empire it remained a purely imperial or +royal town. It gradually acquired various privileges, and by +the close of the 14th century the only mark of dependence was +the payment of a yearly tax. Louis the Pious dwelt more +frequently at Frankfort than his father Charlemagne had done, +and about 823 he built himself a new palace, the basis of the later +Saalhof. In 822 and 823 two great diets were held in the palace, +and at the former there were present deputies from the eastern +Slavs, the Avars and the Normans. The place continued to +be a favourite residence with Louis the German, who died there +in 876, and was the capital of the East Frankish kingdom. +By the rest of the Carolingian kings it was less frequently visited, +and this neglect was naturally greater during the period of the +Saxon and Salic emperors from 919 to 1137. Diets, however, +were held in the town in 951, 1015, 1069 and 1109, and councils +in 1000 and 1006. From a privilege of Henry IV., in 1074, +granting the city of Worms freedom from tax in their trade +with several royal cities, it appears that Frankfort was even +then a place of some commercial importance.</p> + +<p>Under the Hohenstaufens many brilliant diets were held +within its walls. That of 1147 saw, also, the first election of a +German king at Frankfort, in the person of Henry, son of Conrad +III. But as the father outlived the son, it was Frederick I., +Barbarossa, who was actually the first reigning king to be +elected here (in 1152). With the beginning of the 13th century +the municipal constitution appears to have taken definite shape. +The chief official was the royal bailiff (<i>Schultheiss</i>), who is first +mentioned in 1193, and whose powers were subsequently enlarged +by the abolition, in 1219, of the office of the royal <i>Vogt</i> or <i>advocatus</i>. +About this time a body of <i>Schöffen</i> (<i>scabini</i>, jurats), +fourteen in number, was formed to assist in the control of +municipal affairs, and with their appointment the first step was +taken towards civic representative government. Soon, however, +the activity of the <i>Schöffen</i> became specifically confined to the +determination of legal disputes, and in their place a new body +(<i>Collegium</i>) of counsellors—<i>Ratmannen</i>—also fourteen in number, +was appointed for the general administration of local matters. +In 1311, the two burgomasters, now chiefs of the municipality, +take the place of the royal <i>Schultheiss</i>. In the 13th century, +the Frankfort Fair, which is first mentioned in 1150, and the +origin of which must have been long anterior to that date, is +referred to as being largely frequented. No fewer than 10 new +churches were erected in the years from 1220 to 1270. It was +about the same period, probably in 1240, that the Jews first +settled in the town. In the contest which Louis the Bavarian +maintained with the papacy Frankfort sided with the emperor, +and it was consequently placed under an interdict for 20 years +from 1329 to 1349. On Louis’ death it refused to accept the papal +conditions of pardon, and only yielded to Charles IV., the papal +nominee, when Günther of Schwarzburg thought it more prudent +to abdicate in his favour. Charles granted the city a full amnesty, +and confirmed its liberties and privileges.</p> + +<p>By the famous Golden Bull of 1356 Frankfort was declared +the seat of the imperial elections, and it still preserves an official +contemporaneous copy of the original document as the most +precious of the eight imperial bulls in its possession. From the +date of the bull to the close of the Empire Frankfort retained the +position of “Wahlstadt,” and only five of the two-and-twenty +monarchs who ruled during that period were elected elsewhere. +In 1388-1389 Frankfort assisted the South German towns +in their wars with the princes and nobles (the Städtekrieg), +and in a consequent battle with the troops of the Palatinate, +the town banner was lost and carried to Kronberg, where it was +long preserved as a trophy. On peace being concluded in 1391, +the town had to pay 12,562 florins, and this brought it into +great financial difficulties. In the course of the next 50 years +debt was contracted to the amount of 126,772 florins. The diet +at Worms in 1495 chose Frankfort as the seat of the newly +instituted imperial chamber, or “<i>Reichskammergericht</i>,” and +it was not till 1527 that the chamber was removed to Spires. +At the Reformation Frankfort heartily joined the Protestant +party, and in consequence it was hardly treated both by the +emperor Charles V. and by the archbishop of Mainz. It refused +to subscribe the Augsburg Recess, but at the same time it was +not till 1536 that it was persuaded to join the League of Schmalkalden. +On the failure of this confederation it opened its gates +to the imperial general Büren on the 29th of December 1546, +although he had passed by the city, which he considered too +strong for the forces under his command. The emperor was +merciful enough to leave it in possession of its privileges, but he +inflicted a fine of 80,000 gold gulden, and until October 1547 +the citizens had to endure the presence of from 8000 to 10,000 +soldiers. This resulted in a pestilence which not only lessened +the population, but threatened to give the death-blow to the great +annual fairs; and at the close of the war it was found that it +had cost the city no less than 228,931 gulden. In 1552 Frankfort +was invested for three weeks by Maurice of Saxony, who was +still in arms against the emperor Charles V., but it continued +to hold out till peace was concluded between the principal +combatants. Between 1612 and 1616 occurred the great +Fettmilch insurrection, perhaps the most remarkable episode +in the internal history of Frankfort. The magistracy had been +acquiring more and more the character of an oligarchy; all +power was practically in the hands of a few closely-related +families; and the gravest peculation and malversation took +place without hindrance. The ordinary citizens were roused to +assert their rights, and they found a leader in Vincenz Fettmilch, +who carried the contest to dangerous excesses, but lacked +ability to bring it to a successful issue. An imperial commission +was ultimately appointed, and the three principal culprits and +several of their associates were executed in 1616. It was not till +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span> +1801 that the last mouldering head of the Fettmilch company +dropped unnoticed from the Rententurm, the old tower near +the bridge. In the words of Dr Kriegk, <i>Geschichte von Frankfurt</i>, +(1871), the insurrection completely destroyed the political +power of the gilds, gave new strength to the supremacy of +the patriciate, and brought no further advantage to the rest of +the citizens than a few improvements in the organization and +administration of the magistracy. The Jews, who had been +attacked by the popular party, were solemnly reinstated by +imperial command in all their previous privileges, and received +full compensation for their losses.</p> + +<p>During the Thirty Years’ War Frankfort did not escape. +In 1631 Gustavus Adolphus garrisoned it with 600 men, who +remained in possession till they were expelled four years later +by the imperial general Lamboy. In 1792 the citizens had to +pay 2,000,000 gulden to the French general Custine; and in +1796 Kléber exacted 8,000,000 francs. The independence of +Frankfort was brought to an end in 1806, on the formation of +the Confederation of the Rhine; and in 1810 it was made the +capital of the grand-duchy of Frankfort, which had an area of +3215 sq. m. with 302,100 inhabitants, and was divided into the +four districts of Frankfort, Aschaffenburg, Fulda and Hanau. +On the reconstitution of Germany in 1815 it again became a free +city, and in the following year it was declared the seat of the +German Confederation. In April 1833 occurred what is known +as the Frankfort Insurrection (Frankfurter Attentat), in which +a number of insurgents led by Georg Bunsen attempted to break +up the diet. The city joined the German Zollverein in 1836. +During the revolutionary period of 1848 the people of Frankfort, +where the united German parliament held its sessions, took a +chief part in political movements, and the streets of the town +were more than once the scene of conflict. In the war of 1866 +they were on the Austrian side. On the 16th of July the Prussian +troops, under General Vogel von Falkenstein, entered the town, +and on the 18th of October it was formally incorporated with +the Prussian state. A fine of 6,000,000 florins was exacted. +In 1871 the treaty which concluded the Franco-German War +was signed in the Swan Hotel by Prince Bismarck and Jules +Favre, and it is consequently known as the peace of Frankfort.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—F. Rittweger, <i>Frankfurt im Jahre 1848</i> (1898); +R. Jung, <i>Das historische Archiv der Stadt Frankfurt</i> (1897); A. Horne, +<i>Geschichte von Frankfurt</i> (4th ed., 1903); H. Grotefend, <i>Quellen zur +Frankfürter Geschichte</i> (Frankfort, 1884-1888); J. C. von Fichard, +<i>Die Entstehung der Reichsstadt Frankfurt</i> (Frankfort, 1819); G. L. +Kriegk, <i>Geschichte von Frankfurt</i> (Frankfort, 1871); J. F. Böhmer, +<i>Urkundenbuch der Reichsstadt Frankfurt</i> (new ed., 1901); B. Weber, +<i>Zur Reformationsgeschichte der freien Reichsstadt Frankfurt</i> (1895); +O. Speyer, <i>Die Frankfurter Revolution 1612-1616</i> (1883); and L. Woerl, +<i>Guide to Frankfort</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKFORT-ON-ODER<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Brandenburg, 50 m. S.E. from Berlin on the main +line of railway to Breslau and at the junction of lines to Cüstrin, +Posen and Grossenhain. Pop. (1905) 64,943. The town proper +lies on the left bank of the river Oder and is connected by a stone +bridge (replacing the old historical wooden structure) 900 ft. +long, with the suburb of Damm. The town is agreeably situated +and has broad and handsome streets, among them the “Linden,” +a spacious avenue. Above, on the western side, and partly lying +on the site of the old ramparts, is the residential quarter, consisting +mainly of villas and commanding a fine prospect of the Oder +valley. Between this suburb and the town lies the park, in +which is a monument to the poet Ewald Christian von Kleist, +who died here of wounds received in the battle of Kunersdorf. +Among the more important public buildings must be noticed +the Evangelical Marienkirche (Oberkirche), a handsome brick +edifice of the 13th century with five aisles, the Roman Catholic +church, the Rathhaus dating from 1607, and bearing on its +southern gable the device of a member of the Hanseatic League, +the government offices and the theatre. The university of +Frankfort, founded in 1506 by Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, +was removed to Breslau in 1811, and the academical +buildings are now occupied by a school. To compensate it for +the loss of its university, Frankfort-on-Oder was long the seat +of the court of appeal for the province, but of this it was deprived +in 1879. There are several handsome public monuments, +notably that to Duke Leopold of Brunswick, who was drowned +in the Oder while attempting to save life, on the 27th of April +1785. The town has a large garrison, consisting of nearly all +arms. Its industries are considerable, including the manufacture +of machinery, metal ware, chemicals, paper, leather and sugar. +Situated on the high road from Berlin to Silesia, and having an +extensive system of water communication by means of the Oder +and its canals to the Vistula and the Elbe, and being an important +railway centre, it has a lively export trade, which is further +fostered by its three annual fairs, held respectively at <i>Reminiscere</i> +(the second Sunday in Lent), St Margaret’s day and at Martinmas. +In the neighbourhood are extensive coal fields.</p> + +<p>Frankfort-on-the-Oder owes its origin and name to a settlement +of Franconian merchants here, in the 13th century, on +land conquered by the margrave of Brandenburg from the Wends. +In 1253 it was raised to the rank of a town by the margrave +John I. and borrowed from Berlin the Magdeburg civic constitution. +In 1379 it received from King Sigismund, then +margrave of Brandenburg, the right to free navigation of the +Oder; and from 1368 to about 1450 it belonged to the Hanseatic +League. The university, which is referred to above, was +opened by the elector Joachim I. in 1506, was removed in 1516 +to Kottbus and restored again to Frankfort in 1539, at which +date the Reformation was introduced. It was dispersed during +the Thirty Years’ War and again restored by the Great Elector, +but finally transferred to Breslau in 1811.</p> + +<p>Frankfort has suffered much from the vicissitudes of war. +In the 15th century it successfully withstood sieges by the +Hussites (1429 and 1432), by the Poles (1450) and by the duke +of Sagan (1477). In the Thirty Years’ War it was successively +taken by Gustavus Adolphus (1631), by Wallenstein (1633), by +the elector of Brandenburg (1634), and again by the Swedes, +who held it from 1640 to 1644. During the Seven Years’ War +it was taken by the Russians (1759). In 1812 it was occupied +by the French, who remained till March 1813, when the Russians +marched in.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. R. Hausen, <i>Geschichte der Universität und Stadt Frankfurt</i> +(1806), and Bieder und Gurnik, <i>Bilder aus der Geschichte der Stadt +Frankfurt-an-der-Oder</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKINCENSE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or <span class="sc">Olibanum</span><a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="libanôtos">λιβανωτός</span>, later <span class="grk" title="thyos">θύος</span>; +Lat., <i>tus</i> or <i>thus</i>; Heb., <i>lebonah</i>;<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Ar., <i>lubān</i>;<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Turk., <i>ghyunluk</i>; +Hind., <i>ganda-birosa</i><a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a>), a gum-resin obtained from certain species +of trees of the genus <i>Boswellia</i>, and natural order <i>Burseraceae</i>. +The members of the genus are possessed of the following +characters:—Bark often papyraceous; leaves deciduous, compound, +alternate and imparipinnate, with leaflets serrate or +entire; flowers in racemes or panicles, white, green, yellowish +or pink, having a small persistent, 5-dentate calyx, 5 petals, +10 stamens, a sessile 3 to 5-chambered ovary, a long style, and +a 3-lobed stigma; fruit trigonal or pentagonal; and seed +compressed. Sir George Birdwood (<i>Trans. Lin. Soc.</i> xxvii., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span> +1871) distinguishes five species of <i>Boswellia</i>: (A) <i>B. thurifera</i>, +Colebr. (<i>B. glabra</i> and <i>B. serrata</i>, Roxb.), indigenous to the +mountainous tracts of central India and the Coromandel coast, +and <i>B. papyrifera</i> (<i>Plösslea floribunda</i>, Endl.) of Abyssinia, +which, though both thuriferous, are not known to yield any +of the olibanum of commerce; and (B) <i>B. Frereana</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Elemi</a></span>, vol. x. p. 259), <i>B. Bhua-Dajiana</i>, and <i>B. Carterii</i>, the +“Yegaar,” “Mohr Add,” and “Mohr Madow” of the Somali +country, in East Africa, the last species including a variety, the +“Maghrayt d’Sheehaz” of Hadramaut, Arabia, all of which +are sources of true frankincense or olibanum. The trees on the +Somali coast are described by Captain G. B. Kempthorne as +growing, without soil, out of polished marble rocks, to which they +are attached by a thick oval mass of substance resembling a +mixture of lime and mortar: the purer the marble the finer +appears to be the growth of the tree. The young trees, he +states, furnish the most valuable gum, the older yielding merely +a clear glutinous fluid resembling copal varnish.<a name="fa6c" id="fa6c" href="#ft6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> To obtain +the frankincense a deep incision is made in the trunk of the tree, +and below it a narrow strip of bark 5 in. in length is peeled off. +When the milk-like juice (“spuma pinguis,” Pliny) which +exudes has hardened by exposure to the atmosphere, the incision +is deepened. In about three months the resin has attained the +required degree of consistency. The season for gathering lasts +from May until the first rains in September. The large clear +globules are scraped off into baskets, and the inferior quality +that has run down the tree is collected separately. The coast +of south Arabia is yearly visited by parties of Somalis, who pay +the Arabs for the privilege of collecting frankincense.<a name="fa7c" id="fa7c" href="#ft7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In the +interior of the country about the plain of Dhofār,<a name="fa8c" id="fa8c" href="#ft8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> during the +south-west monsoon, frankincense and other gums are gathered +by the Beni Gurrah Bedouins, and might be obtained by them +in much larger quantities; their lawlessness, however, and the +lack of a safe place of exchange or sale are obstacles to the +development of trade. (See C. Y. Ward, <i>The Gulf of Aden Pilot</i>, +p. 117, 1863.) Much as formerly in the region of Sakhalites in +Arabia (the tract between Ras Makalla and Ras Agab),<a name="fa9c" id="fa9c" href="#ft9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a> described +by Arrian, so now on the sea-coast of the Somali country, the +frankincense when collected is stored in heaps at various stations. +Thence, packed in sheep- and goat-skins, in quantities of 20 to +40 ℔, it is carried on camels to Berbera, for shipment either to +Aden, Makalla and other Arabian ports, or directly to Bombay.<a name="fa10c" id="fa10c" href="#ft10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a> +At Bombay, like gum-acacia, it is assorted, and is then packed +for re-exportation to Europe, China and elsewhere.<a name="fa11c" id="fa11c" href="#ft11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Arrian relates +that it was an import of Barbarike on the Sinthus (Indus). +The idea held by several writers, including Niebuhr, that frankincense +was a product of India, would seem to have originated +in a confusion of that drug with benzoin and other odoriferous +substances, and also in the sale of imported frankincense with +the native products of India. The gum resin of <i>Boswellia +thurifera</i> was described by Colebrooke (in <i>Asiatick Researches</i>, +ix. 381), and after him by Dr J. Fleming (Ib. xi. 158), as true +frankincense, or olibanum; from this, however, it differs in its +softness, and tendency to melt into a mass<a name="fa12c" id="fa12c" href="#ft12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a> (Birdwood, <i>loc. cit.</i>, +p. 146). It is sold in the village bazaars of Khandeish in India +under the name of <i>Dup-Salai</i>, <i>i.e.</i> incense of the “Salai tree”; +and according to Mr F. Porter Smith, M.B. (<i>Contrib. towards +the Mat. Med. and Nat. Hist, of China</i>, p. 162, Shanghai, 1871), +is used as incense in China. The last authority also mentions +olibanum as a reputed natural product of China. Bernhard +von Breydenbach,<a name="fa13c" id="fa13c" href="#ft13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Ausonius, Florus and others, arguing, it +would seem, from its Hebrew and Greek names, concluded that +olibanum came from Mount Lebanon; and Chardin (<i>Voyage +en Perse</i>, &c., 1711) makes the statement that the frankincense +tree grows in the mountains of Persia, particularly Caramania.</p> + +<p>Frankincense, or olibanum, occurs in commerce in semi-opaque, +round, ovate or oblong tears or irregular lumps, which +are covered externally with a white dust, the result of their +friction against one another. It has an amorphous internal +structure, a dull fracture; is of a yellow to yellowish-brown hue, +the purer varieties being almost colourless, or possessing a greenish +tinge, and has a somewhat bitter aromatic taste, and a balsamic +odour, which is developed by heating. Immersed in alcohol +it becomes opaque, and with water it yields an emulsion. It +contains about 72% of resin soluble in alcohol (Kurbatow); +a large proportion of gum soluble in water, and apparently +identical with gum arabic; and a small quantity of a colourless +inflammable essential oil, one of the constituents of which is +the body oliben, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>. Frankincense burns with a bright +white flame, leaving an ash consisting mainly of calcium carbonate, +the remainder being calcium phosphate, and the sulphate, +chloride and carbonate of potassium (Braconnot).<a name="fa14c" id="fa14c" href="#ft14c"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Good +frankincense, Pliny tells us, is recognized by its whiteness, size, +brittleness and ready inflammability. That which occurs in +globular drops is, he says, termed “male frankincense”; the +most esteemed, he further remarks, is in breast-shaped drops, +formed each by the union of two tears.<a name="fa15c" id="fa15c" href="#ft15c"><span class="sp">15</span></a> The best frankincense, +as we learn from Arrian,<a name="fa16c" id="fa16c" href="#ft16c"><span class="sp">16</span></a> was formerly exported from the neighbourhood +of Cape Elephant in Africa (the modern Ras Fiel); and +A. von Kremer, in his description of the commerce of the Red +Sea (<i>Aegypten</i>, &c., p. 185, ii. Theil, Leipzig, 1863), observes +that the African frankincense, called by the Arabs “asli,” is of +twice the value of the Arabian “luban.” Captain S. B. Miles +(<i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 64) states that the best kind of frankincense, known +to the Somali as “bedwi” or “sheheri,” comes from the trees +“Mohr Add” and “Mohr Madow” (<i>vide supra</i>), and from a +taller species of <i>Boswellia</i>, the “Boido,” and is sent to Bombay +for exportation to Europe; and that an inferior “mayeti,” the +produce of the “Yegaar,” is exported chiefly to Jeddah and +Yemen ports.<a name="fa17c" id="fa17c" href="#ft17c"><span class="sp">17</span></a> The latter may possibly be what Niebuhr alludes +to as “Indian frankincense.”<a name="fa18c" id="fa18c" href="#ft18c"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Garcias da Horta, in asserting +the Arabian origin of the drug, remarks that the term “Indian” +is often applied by the Arabs to a dark-coloured variety.<a name="fa19c" id="fa19c" href="#ft19c"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> + +<p>According to Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xiv. 1; cf. Ovid, <i>Fasti</i> i. 337 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span> +sq.), frankincense was not sacrificially employed in Trojan times. +It was used by the ancient Egyptians in their religious rites, but, +as Herodotus tells us (ii. 86), not in embalming. It constituted +a fourth part of the Jewish incense of the sanctuary (Ex. xxx. +34), and is frequently mentioned in the Pentateuch. With other +spices it was stored in a great chamber of the house of God at +Jerusalem (1 Chron. ix. 29, Neh. xiii. 5-9). On the sacrificial use +and import of frankincense and similar substances see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Incense</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In the Red Sea regions frankincense is valued not only for its +sweet odour when burnt, but as a masticatory; and blazing +lumps of it are not infrequently used for illumination instead of +oil lamps. Its fumes are an excellent insectifuge. As a medicine +it was in former times in high repute. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxv. 82) +mentions it as an antidote to hemlock. Avicenna (ed. Plempii, +lib. ii. p. 161, Lovanii, 1658, fol.) recommends it for tumours, +ulcers of the head and ears, affections of the breast, vomiting, +dysentery and fevers. In the East frankincense has been found +efficacious as an external application in carbuncles, blind boils +and gangrenous sores, and as an internal agent is given in +gonorrhoea. In China it was an old internal remedy for leprosy +and struma, and is accredited with stimulant, tonic, sedative, +astringent and vulnerary properties. It is not used in modern +medicine, being destitute of any special virtues. (See Waring, +<i>Pharm. of India</i>, p. 443, &c.; and F. Porter Smith, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 162.)</p> + +<p>Common frankincense or thus, <i>Abietis resina</i>, is the term +applied to a resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the +Norway spruce fir, <i>Abies excelsa</i>, D.C.; when melted in hot +water and strained it constitutes “Burgundy pitch,” <i>Pix +abietina</i>. The concreted turpentine obtained in the United States +by making incisions in the trunk of a species of pine, <i>Pinus +australis</i>, is also so designated. It is commercially known as +“scrape,” and is similar to the French “galipot” or “barras.” +Common frankincense is an ingredient in some ointments and +plasters, and on account of its pleasant odour when burned +has been used in incense as a substitute for olibanum. (See +Flückiger and Hanbury, <i>Pharmacographia</i>.) The “black frankincense +oil” of the Turks is stated by Hanbury (<i>Science Papers</i>, +p. 142, 1876) to be liquid storax.</p> +<div class="author">(F. H. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Stephen Skinner, M.D. (Etymologicon linguae Anglicanae, Lond., +1671), gives the derivation: “Frankincense, Thus, q.d. Incensum (<i>i.e.</i> +Thus Libere) seu Liberaliter, ut in sacris officiis par est, adolendum.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> “Sic <i>olibanum</i> dixere pro thure ex Graeco <span class="grk" title="o libanos">ὁ λίβανος</span>” (Salmasius, +C. S. <i>Plinianae exercitationes</i>, t. ii. p. 926, b. F., Traj. ad Rhen., +1689 fol.). So also Fuchs (Op. didact. pars. ii. p. 42, 1604 fol.), +“Officinis non sine risu eruditorum, Graeco articulo adjecto, <i>Olibanus</i> +vocatur.” The term <i>olibano</i> was used in ecclesiastical Latin as early +as the pontificate of Benedict IX., in the 11th century. (See Ferd. +Ughellus, <i>Italia sacra</i>, tom. i. 108, D., Ven., 1717 fol.)</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> So designated from its whiteness (J. G. Stuckius, <i>Sacror. et +sacrific. gent. descrip.</i>, p. 79, Lugd. Bat., 1695, fol.; Kitto, <i>Cycl. +Bibl. Lit.</i> ii. p. 806, 1870); cf. <i>Laben</i>, the Somali name for cream +(R. F. Burton, <i>First Footsteps in E. Africa</i>, p. 178, 1856).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Written <i>Louan</i> by Garcias da Horta (<i>Aromat. et simpl. medicament. +hist., C. Clusii Atrebatis Exoticorum lib. sept.</i>, p. 157, 1605, +fol.), and stated to have been derived by the Arabs from the Greek +name, the term less commonly used by them being <i>Conder</i>: cf. +Sanskrit <i>Kunda</i>. According to Colebrooke (in <i>Asiatick Res.</i> ix. +p. 379, 1807), the Hindu writers on Materia Medica use for the resin +of <i>Boswellia thurifera</i> the designation <i>Cunduru</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> A term applied also to the resinous exudation of <i>Pinus longifolia</i> +(see Dr E. J. Waring, <i>Pharmacopoeia of India</i>, p. 52, Lond., 1868).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See “Appendix,” vol. i. p. 419 of Sir W. C. Harris’s <i>Highland +of Aethiopia</i> (2nd ed., Lond., 1844); and <i>Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc.</i> +xiii. (1857), p. 136.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7c" id="ft7c" href="#fa7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Cruttenden, <i>Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc.</i> vii. (1846), p. 121; S. B. +Miles, J. Geog. Soc. (1872).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Or Dhafār. The incense of “Dofar” is alluded to by Camoens, +<i>Os Lusiadas</i>, x. 201.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> H. J. Carter, “Comparative Geog. of the South-East Coast of +Arabia,” in <i>J. Bombay Branch of R. Asiatic Soc.</i> iii. (Jan. 1851), +p. 296; and Müller, <i>Geog. Graeci Minores</i>, i. p. 278 (Paris, 1855).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> J. Vaughan, <i>Pharm. Journ.</i> xii. (1853) pp. 227-229; and Ward, +<i>op. cit.</i> p. 97.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11c" id="ft11c" href="#fa11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Pereira, <i>Elem. of Mat. Med.</i> ii. pt. 2, p. 380 (4th ed., 1847).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12c" id="ft12c" href="#fa12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> “<i>Boswellia thurifera</i>,” ... says Waring (<i>Pharm. of India</i>, +p. 52), “has been thought to yield East Indian olibanum, but there +is no reliable evidence of its so doing.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft13c" id="ft13c" href="#fa13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> “Libanus igitur est mons redolentie & summe aromaticitatis. +nam ibi herbe odorifere crescunt. ibi etiam arbores thurifere coalescunt +quarum gummi electum olibanum a medicis nuncupatur.”—<i>Perigrinatio</i>, +p. 53 (1502, fol.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14c" id="ft14c" href="#fa14c"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See, on the chemistry of frankincense, Braconnot, <i>Ann. de chimie</i>, +lxviii. (1808) pp. 60-69; Johnston, <i>Phil. Trans</i>. (1839), pp. 301-305; +J. Stenhouse, <i>Ann. der Chem. und Pharm</i>. xxxv. (1840) p. 306; +and A. Kurbatow, <i>Zeitsch. für Chem</i>. (1871), p. 201.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15c" id="ft15c" href="#fa15c"><span class="fn">15</span></a> “Praecipua autem gratia est mammoso, cum haerente lacryma +priore consecuta alia miscuit se” (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xii. 32). One of the +Chinese names for frankincense, <i>Jú-hiang</i>, “milk-perfume,” is +explained by the <i>Pen Ts’au</i> (xxxiv. 45), a Chinese work, as being +derived from the nipple-like form of its drops. (See E. Bretschneider, +<i>On the Knowledge possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs</i>, &c., +p. 19, Lond., 1871.)</p> + +<p><a name="ft16c" id="ft16c" href="#fa16c"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>The Voyage of Nearchus, loc. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft17c" id="ft17c" href="#fa17c"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Vaughan (<i>Pharm. Journ.</i> xii. 1853) speaks of the Arabian +Lubān, commonly called <i>Morbat</i> or <i>Shaharree Luban</i>, as realizing +higher prices in the market than any of the qualities exported from +Africa. The incense of “Esher,” <i>i.e.</i> Shihr or Shehr, is mentioned +by Marco Polo, as also by Barbosa. (See Yule, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. p. 377.) +J. Raymond Wellsted (<i>Travels to the City of the Caliphs</i>, p. 173, Lond., +1840) distinguishes two kinds of frankincense—“<i>Meaty</i>,” selling at +$4 per cwt., and an inferior article fetching 20% less.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18c" id="ft18c" href="#fa18c"><span class="fn">18</span></a> “Es scheint, dass selber die Araber ihr eignes Räuchwerk nicht +hoch schätzen; denn die Vornehmen in Jemen brauchen gemeiniglich +indianisches Räuchwerk, ja eine grosse Menge Mastix von der Insel +Scio” (<i>Beschreibung von Arabien</i>, p. 143, Kopenh., 1772).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19c" id="ft19c" href="#fa19c"><span class="fn">19</span></a> “De Arabibus minus mirum, qui nigricantem colorem, quo Thus +Indicum praeditum esse vult Dioscorides [lib. i. c. 70], Indum +plerumque vocent, ut ex Myrobalano nigro quem Indum appellant, +patet” (<i>op. sup. cit.</i> p. 157).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKING<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span>, a term used for the right of sending letters or +postal packages free (Fr. <i>franc</i>) of charge. The privilege was +claimed by the House of Commons in 1660 in “a Bill for erecting +and establishing a Post Office,” their demand being that all +letters addressed to or sent by members during the session should +be carried free. The clause embodying this claim was struck +out by the Lords, but with the proviso in the Act as passed +for the free carriage of all letters to and from the king and the +great officers of state, and also the single inland letters of the +members of that present parliament during that session only. +It seems, however, that the practice was tolerated until 1764, +when by an act dealing with postage it was legalized, every peer +and each member of the House of Commons being allowed to +send free ten letters a day, not exceeding an ounce in weight, +to any part of the United Kingdom, and to receive fifteen. The +act did not restrict the privilege to letters either actually written +by or to the member, and thus the right was very easily abused, +members sending and receiving letters for friends, all that was +necessary being the signature of the peer or M.P. in the corner +of the envelope. Wholesale franking grew usual, and M.P.’s +supplied their friends with envelopes already signed to be used +at any time. In 1837 the scandal had become so great that +stricter regulations came into force. The franker had to write +the full address, to which he had to add his name, the post-town +and the day of the month; the letter had to be posted on the +day written or the following day at the latest, and in a post-town +not more than 20 m. from the place where the peer or M.P. was +then living. On the 10th of January 1840 parliamentary franking +was abolished on the introduction of the uniform penny rate.</p> + +<p>In the United States the franking privilege was first granted in +January 1776 to the soldiers engaged in the American War of +Independence. The right was gradually extended till it included +nearly all officials and members of the public service. By special +acts the privilege was bestowed on presidents and their widows. +By an act of the 3rd of March 1845, franking was limited to the +president, vice-president, members and delegates in Congress and +postmasters, other officers being required to keep quarterly +accounts of postage and pay it from their contingent funds. +In 1851 free exchange of newspapers was re-established. By an +act of the 3rd of March 1863 the privilege was granted the +president and his private secretary, the vice-president, chiefs of +executive departments, such heads of bureaus and chief clerks +as might be designated by the postmaster-general for official +letters only; senators and representatives in Congress for all +correspondence, senders of petitions to either branch of the +legislature, and to publishers of newspapers for their exchanges. +There was a limit as to weight. Members of Congress could also +frank, in matters concerning the federal department of agriculture, +“seeds, roots and cuttings,” the weight to be fixed by the +postmaster-general. This act remained in force till the 31st of +January 1873, when franking was abolished. Since 1875, by +sundry acts, franking for official correspondence, government +publications, seeds, &c., has been allowed to congressmen, ex-congressmen +(for 9 months after the close of their term), congressmen-elect +and other government officials. By special acts of +1881, 1886, 1902, 1909, respectively, the franking privilege was +granted to the widows of Presidents Garfield, Grant, McKinley +and Cleveland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1810-1894), Austrian poet. +He took part in the revolution of 1848, and his poems on liberty +had considerable vogue. His lyrics are among his best work. +He was secretary of the Jewish community in Vienna, and did a +lasting service to education by his visit to the Orient in 1856. +He founded the first modern Jewish school (the Von Lämmel +Schule) in Jerusalem. His brilliant volumes <i>Nach Jerusalem</i> +describing his eastern tour have been translated into English, +as is the case with many of his poems. His collected poems +appeared in three volumes in 1880.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1825-1899), English chemist, +was born at Churchtown, near Lancaster, on the 18th of January +1825. After attending the grammar school at Lancaster he spent +six years as an apprentice to a druggist in that town. In 1845 +he went to London and entered Lyon Playfair’s laboratory, +subsequently working under R. W. Bunsen at Marburg. In +1847 he was appointed science-master at Queenwood school, +Hampshire, where he first met J. Tyndall, and in 1851 first +professor of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester. Returning +to London six years later he became lecturer in chemistry +at St Bartholomew’s hospital, and in 1863 professor of chemistry +at the Royal Institution. From an early age he engaged in +original research with great success.</p> + +<p>Analytical problems, such as the isolation of certain organic +radicals, attracted his attention to begin with, but he soon +turned to synthetical studies, and he was only about twenty-five +years of age when an investigation, doubtless suggested by the +work of his master, Bunsen, on cacodyl, yielded the interesting +discovery of the organo-metallic compounds. The theoretical +deductions which he drew from the consideration of these bodies +were even more interesting and important than the bodies +themselves. Perceiving a molecular isonomy between them and +the inorganic compounds of the metals from which they may be +formed, he saw their true molecular type in the oxygen, sulphur +or chlorine compounds of those metals, from which he held +them to be derived by the substitution of an organic group for +the oxygen, sulphur, &c. In this way they enabled him to overthrow +the theory of conjugate compounds, and they further led +him in 1852 to publish the conception that the atoms of each +elementary substance have a definite saturation capacity, so +that they can only combine with a certain limited number of +the atoms of other elements. The theory of valency thus founded +has dominated the subsequent development of chemical doctrine, +and forms the groundwork upon which the fabric of modern +structural chemistry reposes.</p> + +<p>In applied chemistry Frankland’s great work was in connexion +with water-supply. Appointed a member of the second royal +commission on the pollution of rivers in 1868, he was provided +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span> +by the government with a completely-equipped laboratory, in +which, for a period of six years, he carried on the inquiries +necessary for the purposes of that body, and was thus the means +of bringing to light an enormous amount of valuable information +respecting the contamination of rivers by sewage, trade-refuse, +&c., and the purification of water for domestic use. In 1865, +when he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann at the School of Mines, +he undertook the duty of making monthly reports to the registrar-general +on the character of the water supplied to London, and +these he continued down to the end of his life. At one time he +was an unsparing critic of its quality, but in later years he became +strongly convinced of its general excellence and wholesomeness. +His analyses were both chemical and bacteriological, and his +dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue for the former at +the time of his appointment caused him to spend two years in +devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 he passed a +night on the very top of Mont Blanc in company with John +Tyndall. One of the purposes of the expedition was to discover +whether the rate of combustion of a candle varies with the +density of the atmosphere in which it is burnt, a question which +was answered in the negative. Other observations made by +Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of a series of +experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed +that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was +thereby led to investigate the effect produced on luminous +flames by varying the pressure of the atmosphere in which they +are burning. He found that pressure increases luminosity, so +that hydrogen, for example, the flame of which in normal +circumstances gives no light, burns with a luminous flame under +a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference he +drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only +factor that determines the light-giving power of a flame. +Further, he showed that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas +resembles that of an incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a +gradual change in the spectrum of an incandescent gas under +increasing pressure, the sharp lines observable when it is extremely +attenuated broadening out to nebulous bands as the +pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous spectrum as the +gas approaches a density comparable with that of the liquid +state. An application of these results to solar physics in conjunction +with Sir Norman Lockyer led to the view that at least +the external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the +liquid or solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours. +Frankland and Lockyer were also the discoverers of helium. +In 1868 they noticed in the solar spectrum a bright yellow line +which did not correspond to any substance then known, and +which they therefore attributed to the then hypothetical element, +helium.</p> + +<p>Sir Edward Frankland, who was made a K.C.B. in 1897, died +on the 9th of August 1899 while on a holiday at Golaa, Gudbrandsdalen, +Norway.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memorial lecture delivered by Professor H. E. Armstrong before +the London Chemical Society on the 31st of October 1901 contained +many personal details of Frankland’s life, together with a full +discussion of his scientific work; and a volume of <i>Autobiographical +Sketches</i> was printed for private circulation in 1902. His original +papers, down to 1877, were collected and published in that year as +<i>Experimental Researches in Pure, Applied and Physical Chemistry</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1706-1790), American diplomat, +statesman and scientist, was born on the 17th of January 1706 +in a house in Milk Street, opposite the Old South church, Boston, +Massachusetts. He was the tenth son of Josiah Franklin, and +the eighth child and youngest son of ten children borne by +Abiah Folger, his father’s second wife. The elder Franklin was +born at Ecton in Northamptonshire, England, where the +strongly Protestant Franklin family may be traced back for +nearly four centuries. He had married young and had migrated +from Banbury to Boston, Massachusetts, in 1685. Benjamin +could not remember when he did not know how to read, and +when eight years old he was sent to the Boston grammar school, +being destined by his father for the church as a tithe of his sons. +He spent a year there and a year in a school for writing and +arithmetic, and then at the age of ten he was taken from school +to assist his father in the business of a tallow-chandler and soapboiler. +In his thirteenth year he was apprenticed to his half-brother +James, who was establishing himself in the printing +business, and who in 1721 started the <i>New England Courant</i>, +one of the earliest newspapers in America.</p> + +<p>Benjamin’s tastes had at first been for the sea rather than the +pulpit; now they inclined rather to intellectual than to other +pleasures. At an early age he had made himself familiar with +<i>The Pilgrim’s Progress</i>, with Locke, <i>On the Human Understanding</i>, +and with a volume of <i>The Spectator</i>. Thanks to his father’s +excellent advice, he gave up writing doggerel verse (much of +which had been printed by his brother and sold on the streets) +and turned to prose composition. His success in reproducing +articles he had read in <i>The Spectator</i> led him to write an article +for his brother’s paper, which he slipped under the door of the +printing shop with no name attached, and which was printed and +attracted some attention. After repeated successes of the same +sort Benjamin threw off his disguise and contributed regularly +to the <i>Courant</i>. When, after various journalistic indiscretions, +James Franklin in 1722 was forbidden to publish the <i>Courant</i>, +it appeared with Benjamin’s name as that of the publisher and +was received with much favour, chiefly because of the cleverness +of his articles signed “Dr Janus,” which, like those previously +signed “Mistress Silence Dogood,” gave promise of “Poor +Richard.” But Benjamin’s management of the paper, and +particularly his free-thinking, displeased the authorities; the +relations of the two brothers gradually grew unfriendly, possibly, +as Benjamin thought, because of his brother’s jealousy of his +superior ability; and Benjamin determined to quit his brother’s +employ and to leave New England. He made his way first to +New York City, and then (October 1723) to Philadelphia, where +he got employment with a printer named Samuel Keimer.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>A rapid composer and a workman full of resource, Franklin +was soon recognized as the master spirit of the shop. Sir William +Keith (1680-1749), governor of the province, urged him to start +in business for himself, and when Franklin had unsuccessfully +appealed to his father for the means to do so, Keith promised +to furnish him with what he needed for the equipment of a new +printing office and sent him to England to buy the materials. +Keith had repeatedly promised to send a letter of credit by the +ship on which Franklin sailed, but when the Channel was reached +and the ship’s mails were examined no such letter was found. +Franklin reached London in December 1724, and found employment +first at Palmer’s, a famous printing house in Bartholomew +Close, and afterwards at Watts’s Printing House. At Palmer’s +he had set up a second edition of Wollaston’s <i>Religion of Nature +Delineated</i>. To refute this book and to prove that there could +be no such thing as religion, he wrote and printed a small pamphlet, +<i>A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain</i>, +which brought him some curious acquaintances, and of which +he soon became thoroughly ashamed. After a year and a half +in London, Franklin was persuaded by a friend named Denham, +a Quaker merchant, to return with him to America and engage +in mercantile business; he accordingly gave up printing, but +a few days before sailing he received a tempting offer to remain +and give lessons in swimming—his feats as a swimmer having +given him considerable reputation—and he says that he might +have consented “had the overtures been sooner made.” He +reached Philadelphia in October 1726, but a few months later +Denham died, and Franklin was induced by large wages to +return to his old employer Keimer; with Keimer he quarrelled +repeatedly, thinking himself ill used and kept only to train +apprentices until they could in some degree take his place. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span> +In 1728 Franklin and Hugh Meredith, a fellow-worker at +Keimer’s, set up in business for themselves; the capital being +furnished by Meredith’s father. In 1730 the partnership was +dissolved, and Franklin, through the financial assistance of two +friends, secured the sole management of the printing house. +In September 1729 he bought at a merely nominal price <i>The +Pennsylvania Gazette</i>, a weekly newspaper which Keimer had +started nine months before to defeat a similar project of +Franklin’s, and which Franklin conducted until 1765. Franklin’s +superior management of the paper, his new type, “some spirited +remarks” on the controversy between the Massachusetts +assembly and Governor Burnet, brought his paper into immediate +notice, and his success both as a printer and as a journalist was +assured and complete. In 1731 he established in Philadelphia +one of the earliest circulating libraries in America (often said to +have been the earliest), and in 1732 he published the first of his +Almanacks, under the pseudonym of Richard Saunders. These +“Poor Richard’s Almanacks” were issued for the next twenty-five +years with remarkable success, the annual sale averaging 10,000 +copies, and far exceeding the sale of any other publication in +the colonies.</p> + +<p>Beginning in 1733 Franklin taught himself enough French, +Italian, Spanish and Latin to read these languages with some +ease. In 1736 he was chosen clerk of the General Assembly, +and served in this capacity until 1751. In 1737 he had been +appointed postmaster at Philadelphia, and about the same time +he organized the first police force and fire company in the colonies; +in 1749, after he had written <i>Proposals Relating to the Education +of Youth in Pensilvania</i>, he and twenty-three other citizens of +Philadelphia formed themselves into an association for the +purpose of establishing an academy, which was opened in 1751, +was chartered in 1753, and eventually became the University +of Pennsylvania; in 1727 he organized a debating club, the +“Junto,” in Philadelphia, and later he was one of the founders of +the American Philosophical Society (1743; incorporated 1780); +he took the lead in the organization of a militia force, and in the +paving of the city streets, improved the method of street lighting, +and assisted in the founding of a city hospital (1751); in brief, +he gave the impulse to nearly every measure or project for the +welfare and prosperity of Philadelphia undertaken in his day. +In 1751 he became a member of the General Assembly of Pennsylvania, +in which he served for thirteen years. In 1753 he and +William Hunter were put in charge of the post service of the +colonies, which he brought in the next ten years to a high +state of efficiency and made a financial success; this position +he held until 1774. He visited nearly every post office in the +colonies and increased the mail service between New York +and Philadelphia from once to three times a week in summer, +and from twice a month to once a week in winter. When +war with France appeared imminent in 1754, Franklin was +sent to the Albany Convention, where he submitted his plan for +colonial union (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albany</a></span>, N.Y.). When the home government +sent over General Edward Braddock<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> with two regiments +of British troops, Franklin undertook to secure the requisite +number of horses and waggons for the march against Ft. +Duquesne, and became personally responsible for payment to +the Pennsylvanians who furnished them. Notwithstanding the +alarm occasioned by Braddock’s defeat, the old quarrel between +the proprietors of Pennsylvania and the assembly prevented +any adequate preparations for defence; “with incredible +meanness” the proprietors had instructed their governors to +approve no act for levying the necessary taxes, unless the vast +estates of the proprietors were by the same act exempted. So +great was the confidence in Franklin in this emergency that early +in 1756 the governor of Pennsylvania placed him in charge of the +north-western frontier of the province, with power to raise troops, +issue commissions and erect blockhouses; and Franklin remained +in the wilderness for over a month, superintending the building +of forts and watching the Indians. In February 1757 the +assembly, “finding the proprietary obstinately persisted in +manacling their deputies with instructions inconsistent not only +with the privileges of the people, but with the service of the crown, +resolv’d to petition the king against them,” and appointed +Franklin as their agent to present the petition. He arrived in +London on the 27th of July 1757, and shortly afterwards, when, +at a conference with Earl Granville, president of the council, +the latter declared that “the King is the legislator of the colonies,” +Franklin in reply declared that the laws of the colonies were to be +made by their assemblies, to be passed upon by the king, and +when once approved were no longer subject to repeal or amendment +by the crown. As the assemblies, said he, could not make +permanent laws without the king’s consent, “neither could he +make a law for them without theirs.” This opposition of views +distinctly raised the issue between the home government and the +colonies. As to the proprietors Franklin succeeded in 1760 in +securing an understanding that the assembly should pass an +act exempting from taxation the <i>unsurveyed</i> waste lands of the +Penn estate, the surveyed waste lands being assessed at the usual +rate for other property of that description. Thus the proprietors +finally acknowledged the right of the assembly to tax their +estates.</p> + +<p>The success of Franklin’s first foreign mission was, therefore, +substantial and satisfactory. During this sojourn of five years in +England he had made many valuable friends outside of court +and political circles, among whom Hume, Robertson and Adam +Smith were conspicuous. In 1759, for his literary and more +particularly his scientific attainments, he received the freedom +of the city of Edinburgh and the degree of doctor of laws from +the university of St Andrews. He had been made a Master of +Arts at Harvard and at Yale in 1753, and at the college of William +and Mary in 1756; and in 1762 he received the degree of D.C.L. +at Oxford. While in England he had made active use of his +remarkable talent for pamphleteering. In the clamour for peace +following the death of George II. (25th of October 1760), he was +for a vigorous prosecution of the war with France; he had +written what purported to be a chapter from an old book written +by a Spanish Jesuit, <i>On the Meanes of Disposing the Enemie to +Peace</i>, which had a great effect; and in the spring of 1760 there +had been published a more elaborate paper written by Franklin +with the assistance of Richard Jackson, agent of Massachusetts +and Connecticut in London, entitled <i>The Interest of Great Britain +Considered with Regard to Her Colonies, and the Acquisitions of +Canada and Guadeloupe</i> (1760). This pamphlet answered the +argument that it would be unsafe to keep Canada because of the +added strength that would thus be given to any possible movement +for independence in the English colonies, by urging that +so long as Canada remained French there could be no safety +for the English colonies in North America, nor any permanent +peace in Europe. Tradition reports that this pamphlet had +considerable weight in determining the ministry to retain +Canada.</p> + +<p>Franklin sailed again for America in August 1762, hoping to be +able to settle down in quiet and devote the remainder of his life +to experiments in physics. This quiet was interrupted, however, +by the “Paxton Massacre” (Dec. 14, 1763)—the slaughter of a +score of Indians (children, women and old men) at Lancaster, +Pennsylvania, by some young rowdies from the town of Paxton, +who then marched upon Philadelphia to kill a few Christian +Indians there. Franklin, appealed to by the governor, raised +a troop sufficient to frighten away the “Paxton boys,” and for +the moment there seemed a possibility of an understanding +between Franklin and the proprietors. But the question of +taxing the estates of the proprietors came up in a new form, +and a petition from the assembly was drawn by Franklin, +requesting the king “to resume the government” of Pennsylvania. +In the autumn election of 1764 the influence of the +proprietors was exerted against Franklin, and by an adverse +majority of 25 votes in 4000 he failed to be re-elected to the +assembly. The new assembly sent Franklin again to England as +its special agent to take charge of another petition for a change +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span> +of government, which, however, came to nothing. Matters +of much greater consequence soon demanded Franklin’s +attention.</p> + +<p>Early in 1764 Lord Grenville had informed the London agents +of the American colonies that he proposed to lay a portion of the +burden left by the war with France upon the shoulders of the +colonists by means of a stamp duty, unless some other tax +equally productive and less inconvenient were proposed. The +natural objection of the colonies, as voiced, for example, by the +assembly of Pennsylvania, was that it was a cruel thing to tax +colonies already taxed beyond their strength, and surrounded +by enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defence, +and that it was an indignity that they should be taxed by a +parliament in which they were not represented; at the same time +the Pennsylvania assembly recognized it as “their duty to +grant aid to the crown, according to their abilities, whenever +required of them in the usual manner.” To prevent the introduction +of the Stamp Act, which he characterized as “the mother +of mischief,” Franklin used every effort, but the bill was easily +passed, and it was thought that the colonists would soon be +reconciled to it. Because he, too, thought so, and because he +recommended John Hughes, a merchant of Philadelphia, for the +office of distributor of stamps, Franklin himself was denounced—he +was even accused of having planned the Stamp Act—and +his family in Philadelphia was in danger of being mobbed. Of +Franklin’s examination, in February 1766, by the House in +Committee of the Whole, as to the effects of the Stamp Act, +Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined +by a parcel of schoolboys, and George Whitefield said: “Dr +Franklin has gained immortal honour by his behaviour at the +bar of the House. His answer was always found equal to the +questioner. He stood unappalled, gave pleasure to his friends +and did honour to his country.”<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Franklin compared the position +of the colonies to that of Scotland in the days before the union, and +in the same year (1766) audaciously urged a similar union with +the colonies before it was too late. The knowledge of colonial +affairs gained from Franklin’s testimony, probably more than all +other causes combined, determined the immediate repeal of the +Stamp Act. For Franklin this was a great triumph, and the news +of it filled the colonists with delight and restored him to their +confidence and affection. Another bill (the Declaratory Act), +however, was almost immediately passed by the king’s party, +asserting absolute supremacy of parliament over the colonies, +and in the succeeding parliament, by the Townshend Acts of +1767, duties were imposed on paper, paints and glass imported +by the colonists; a tax was imposed on tea also. The imposition +of these taxes was bitterly resented in the colonies, where it +quickly crystallized public opinion round the principle of “No +taxation without representation.” In spite of the opposition +in the colonies to the Declaratory Act, the Townshend Acts +and the tea tax, Franklin continued to assure the British ministry +and the British public of the loyalty of the colonists. He tried +to find some middle ground of reconciliation, and kept up his +quiet work of informing England as to the opinions and conditions +of the colonies, and of moderating the attitude of the colonies +toward the home government; so that, as he said, he was accused +in America of being too much an Englishman, and in England +of being too much an American. He was agent now, not only of +Pennsylvania, but also of New Jersey, of Georgia and of Massachusetts. +Hillsborough, who became secretary of state for the +colonies in 1768, refused to recognize Franklin as agent of +Massachusetts, because the governor of Massachusetts had not +approved the appointment, which was by resolution of the +assembly. Franklin contended that the governor, as a mere +agent of the king, could have nothing to do with the assembly’s +appointment of its agent to the king; that “the King, and not +the King, Lords, and Commons collectively, is their sovereign; +and that the King, with <i>their</i> respective Parliaments, is their only +legislator.” Franklin’s influence helped to oust Hillsborough, +and Dartmouth, whose name Franklin suggested, was made +secretary In 1772 and promptly recognized Franklin as the agent +of Massachusetts.</p> + +<p>In 1773 there appeared in the <i>Public Advertiser</i> one of Franklin’s +cleverest hoaxes, “An Edict of the King of Prussia,” proclaiming +that the island of Britain was a colony of Prussia, having been +settled by Angles and Saxons, having been protected by Prussia, +having been defended by Prussia against France in the war just +past, and never having been definitely freed from Prussia’s +rule; and that, therefore, Great Britain should now submit to +certain taxes laid by Prussia—the taxes being identical with +those laid upon the American colonies by Great Britain. In +the same year occurred the famous episode of the Hutchinson +Letters. These were written by Thomas Hutchinson, Governor +of Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver (1706-1774), his lieutenant-governor, +and others to William Whately, a member of Parliament, +and private secretary to George Grenville, suggesting an +increase of the power of the governor at the expense of the +assembly, “an abridgement of what are called English liberties,” +and other measures more extreme than those undertaken by the +government. The correspondence was shown to Franklin by +a mysterious “member of parliament” to back up the contention +that the quartering of troops in Boston was suggested, not by +the British ministry, but by Americans and Bostonians. Upon +his promise not to publish the letters Franklin received permission +to send them to Massachusetts, where they were much passed +about and were printed, and they were soon republished in English +newspapers. The Massachusetts assembly on receiving the +letters resolved to petition the crown for the removal of both +Hutchinson and Oliver. The petition was refused and was condemned +as scandalous, and Franklin, who took upon himself +the responsibility for the publication of the letters, in the hearing +before the privy council at the Cockpit on the 29th of January +1774 was insulted and was called a thief by Alexander Wedderburn +(the solicitor-general, who appeared for Hutchinson and +Oliver), and was removed from his position as head of the post +office in the American colonies.</p> + +<p>Satisfied that his usefulness in England was at an end, Franklin +entrusted his agencies to the care of Arthur Lee, and on the +21st of March 1775 again set sail for Philadelphia. During the +last years of his stay in England there had been repeated attempts +to win him (probably with an under-secretaryship) to the British +service, and in these same years he had done a great work for +the colonies by gaining friends for them among the opposition, +and by impressing France with his ability and the excellence of +his case. Upon reaching America, he heard of the fighting at +Lexington and Concord, and with the news of an actual outbreak +of hostilities his feeling toward England seems to have changed +completely. He was no longer a peacemaker, but an ardent war-maker. +On the 6th of May, the day after his arrival in Philadelphia, +he was elected by the assembly of Pennsylvania a +delegate to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. In October +he was elected a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, but, as +members of this body were still required to take an oath of +allegiance to the crown, he refused to serve. In the Congress +he served on as many as ten committees, and upon the organization +of a continental postal system, he was made postmaster-general, +a position he held for one year, when (in 1776) he was +succeeded by his son-in-law, Richard Bache, who had been his +deputy. With Benjamin Harrison, John Dickinson, Thomas +Johnson and John Jay he was appointed in November 1775 +to a committee to carry on a secret correspondence with the +friends of America “in Great Britain, Ireland and other parts of +the world.” He planned an appeal to the king of France for +aid, and wrote the instructions of Silas Deane who was to convey +it. In April 1776 he went to Montreal with Charles Carroll, +Samuel Chase and John Carroll, as a member of the commission +which conferred with General Arnold, and attempted without +success to gain the co-operation of Canada. Immediately after +his return from Montreal he was a member of the committee of +five appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence, +but he took no actual part himself in drafting that instrument, +aside from suggesting the change or insertion of a few +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span> +words in Jefferson’s draft. From July 16 to September 28 he +acted as president of the Constitutional Convention of Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p>With John Adams and Edward Rutledge he was selected +by Congress to discuss with Admiral Howe (September 1776, +at Staten Island) the terms of peace proposed by Howe, who had +arrived in New York harbour in July 1776, and who had been +an intimate friend of Franklin; but the discussion was fruitless, +as the American commissioners refused to treat “<i>back</i> of this +step of independency.” On the 26th of September in the same +year Franklin was chosen as commissioner to France to join +Arthur Lee, who was in London, and Silas Deane, who had +arrived in France in June 1776. He collected all the money he +could command, between £3000 and £4000, lent it to Congress +before he set sail, and arrived at Paris on the 22nd of December. +He found quarters at Passy,<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> then a suburb of Paris, in a house +belonging to Le Ray de Chaumont, an active friend of the +American cause, who had influential relations with the court, +and through whom he was enabled to be in the fullest communication +with the French government without compromising it in the +eyes of Great Britain.</p> + +<p>At the time of Franklin’s arrival in Paris he was already one +of the most talked about men in the world. He was a member +of every important learned society in Europe; he was a member, +and one of the managers, of the Royal Society, and was one of +eight foreign members of the Royal Academy of Sciences in +Paris. Three editions of his scientific works had already appeared +in Paris, and a new edition had recently appeared in London. +To all these advantages he added a political purpose—the +dismemberment of the British empire—which was entirely +congenial to every citizen of France. “Franklin’s reputation,” +wrote John Adams with characteristic extravagance, “was more +universal than that of Leibnitz or Newton, Frederick or +Voltaire; and his character more esteemed and beloved than +all of them.... If a collection could be made of all the gazettes +of Europe, for the latter half of the 18th century, a greater +number of panegyrical paragraphs upon <i>le grand Franklin</i> +would appear, it is believed, than upon any other man that ever +lived.” “Franklin’s appearance in the French salons, even +before he began to negotiate,” says Friedrich Christoph Schlosser, +“was an event of great importance to the whole of Europe.... +His dress, the simplicity of his external appearance, the friendly +meekness of the old man, and the apparent humility of the +Quaker, procured for Freedom a mass of votaries among the +court circles who used to be alarmed at its coarseness and unsophisticated +truths. Such was the number of portraits,<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> busts +and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris that he +would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen +in any part of the civilized world.”</p> + +<p>Franklin’s position in France was a difficult one from the +start, because of the delicacy of the task of getting French aid +at a time when France was unready openly to take sides against +Great Britain. But on the 6th of February 1778, after the +news of the defeat and surrender of Burgoyne had reached +Europe, a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity and commerce +between France and the United States were signed at Paris by +Franklin, Deane and Lee. On the 28th of October this commission +was discharged and Franklin was appointed sole plenipotentiary +to the French court. Lee, from the beginning of the +mission to Paris, seems to have been possessed of a mania of +jealousy toward Franklin, or of misunderstanding of his acts, +and he tried to undermine his influence with the Continental +Congress. John Adams, when he succeeded Deane (recalled +from Paris through Lee’s machinations) joined in the chorus of +fault-finding against Franklin, dilated upon his social habits, +his personal slothfulness and his complete lack of business-like +system; but Adams soon came to see that, although careless +of details, Franklin was doing what no other man could have +done, and he ceased his harsher criticism. Even greater than +his diplomatic difficulties were Franklin’s financial straits. +Drafts were being drawn on him by all the American agents in +Europe, and by the Continental Congress at home. Acting as +American naval agent for the many successful privateers +who harried the English Channel, and for whom he skilfully +got every bit of assistance possible, open and covert, from the +French government, he was continually called upon for funds +in these ventures. Of the vessels to be sent to Paris with +American cargoes which were to be sold for the liquidation of +French loans to the colonies made through Beaumarchais, few +arrived; those that did come did not cover Beaumarchais’s +advances, and hardly a vessel came from America without +word of fresh drafts on Franklin. After bold and repeated +overtures for an exchange of prisoners—an important matter, +both because the American frigates had no place in which to +stow away their prisoners, and because of the maltreatment +of American captives in such prisons as Dartmoor—exchanges +began at the end of March 1779, although there were annoying +delays, and immediately after November 1781 there was a long +break in the agreement; and the Americans discharged from +English prisons were constantly in need of money. Franklin, +besides, was constantly called upon to meet the indebtedness +of Lee and of Ralph Izard (1742-1804), and of John Jay, who +in Madrid was being drawn on by the American Congress. In +spite of the poor condition in Europe of the credit of the struggling +colonies, and of the fact that France was almost bankrupt +(and in the later years was at war), and although Necker strenuously +resisted the making of any loans to the colonies, France, +largely because of Franklin’s appeals, expended, by loan or gift +to the colonies, or in sustenance of the French arms in America, +a sum estimated at $60,000,000.</p> + +<p>In 1781 Franklin, with John Adams, John Jay, Jefferson, +who remained in America, and Henry Laurens, then a prisoner +in England, was appointed on a commission to make peace with +Great Britain. In the spring of 1782 Franklin had been informally +negotiating with Shelburne, secretary of state for the home +department, through the medium of Richard Oswald, a Scotch +merchant, and had suggested that England should cede Canada +to the United States in return for the recognition of loyalist +claims by the states. When the formal negotiations began +Franklin held closely to the instructions of Congress to its +commissioners, that they should maintain confidential relations +with the French ministers and that they were “to undertake +nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their +knowledge and concurrence,” and were ultimately to be governed +by “their advice and opinion.” Jay and Adams disagreed with +him on this point, believing that France intended to curtail +the territorial aspirations of the Americans for her own benefit +and for that of her ally, Spain. At last, after the British government +had authorized its agents to treat with the commissioners +as representatives of an independent power, thus recognizing +American independence before the treaty was made, Franklin +acquiesced in the policy of Jay. The preliminary treaty was +signed by the commissioners on the 30th of November 1782, +the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783. Franklin had +repeatedly petitioned Congress for his recall, but his letters +were unanswered or his appeals refused until the 7th of March +1785, when Congress resolved that he be allowed to return to +America; on the 10th of March Thomas Jefferson, who had +joined him in August of the year before, was appointed to his +place. Jefferson, when asked if he replaced Franklin, replied, +“No one can replace him, sir; I am only his successor.” Before +Franklin left Paris on the 12th of July 1785 he had made +commercial treaties with Sweden (1783) and Prussia (1785; +signed after Franklin’s departure by Jefferson and John Adams). +Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on the 13th of September, +disembarking at the same wharf as when he had first entered the +city. He was immediately elected a member of the municipal +council of Philadelphia, becoming its chairman; and was chosen +president of the Supreme Executive Council (the chief executive +officer) of Pennsylvania, and was re-elected in 1786 and 1787, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span> +serving from October 1785 to October 1788. In May 1787 he +was elected a delegate to the Convention which drew up the +Federal Constitution, this body thus having a member upon +whom all could agree as chairman, should Washington be absent. +He opposed over-centralization of government and favoured the +Connecticut Compromise, and after the work of the Convention +was done used his influence to secure the adoption of the Constitution.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +As president of the Pennsylvania Society for +Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Franklin signed a petition +to Congress (12th February 1790) for immediate abolition of +slavery, and six weeks later in his most brilliant manner parodied +the attack on the petition made by James Jackson (1757-1806) +of Georgia, taking off Jackson’s quotations of Scripture with +pretended texts from the Koran cited by a member of the Divan +of Algiers in opposition to a petition asking for the prohibition +of holding Christians in slavery. These were his last public +acts. His last days were marked by a fine serenity and calm; +he died in his own house in Philadelphia on the 17th of April +1790, the immediate cause being an abscess in the lungs. He was +buried with his wife in the graveyard (Fifth and Arch Streets) +of Christ Church, Philadelphia.</p> + +<p>Physically Franklin was large, about 5 ft. 10 in. tall, with a +well-rounded, powerful figure; he inherited an excellent constitution +from his parents—“I never knew,” says he, “either +my father or mother to have any sickness but that of which +they dy’d, he at 89, and she at 85 years of age”—but injured it +somewhat by excesses; in early life he had severe attacks of +pleurisy, from one of which, in 1727, it was not expected that he +would recover, and in his later years he was the victim of stone +and gout. When he was sixteen he became a vegetarian for a +time, rather to save money for books than for any other reason, +and he always preached moderation in eating, though he was +less consistent in his practice in this particular than as regards +moderate drinking. He was always enthusiastically fond of +swimming, and was a great believer in fresh air, taking a cold +air bath regularly in the morning, when he sat naked in his +bedroom beguiling himself with a book or with writing for a +half-hour or more. He insisted that fresh, cold air was not the +cause of colds, and preached zealously the “gospel of ventilation.” +He was a charming talker, with a gay humour and a +quiet sarcasm and a telling use of anecdote for argument. Henri +Martin, the French historian, speaks of him as “of a mind +altogether French in its grace and elasticity.” In 1730 he +married Deborah Read, in whose father’s house he had lived +when he had first come to Philadelphia, to whom he had been +engaged before his first departure from Philadelphia for London, +and who in his absence had married a ne’er-do-well, one Rogers, +who had deserted her. The marriage to Franklin is presumed +to have been a common law marriage, for there was no proof +that Miss Read’s former husband was dead, nor that, as was +suspected, a former wife, alive when Rogers married Miss Read, +was still alive, and that therefore his marriage to Deborah was +void. His “Debby,” or his “dear child,” as Franklin usually +addressed her in his letters, received into the family, soon after +her marriage, Franklin’s illegitimate son, William Franklin +(1729-1813),<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> with whom she afterwards quarrelled, and whose +mother, tradition says, was Barbara, a servant in the Franklin +household. Another illegitimate child became the wife of John +Foxcroft of Philadelphia. Deborah, who was “as much dispos’d +to industry and frugality as” her husband, was illiterate and +shared none of her husband’s tastes for literature and science; +her dread of an ocean voyage kept her in Philadelphia during +Franklin’s missions to England, and she died in 1774, while +Franklin was in London. She bore him two children, one a son, +Francis Folger, “whom I have seldom since seen equal’d in +everything, and whom to this day [thirty-six years after the +child’s death] I cannot think of without a sigh,” who died (1736) +when four years old of small-pox, not having been inoculated; +the other was Sarah (1744-1808), who married Richard Bache +(1737-1811), Franklin’s successor in 1776-1782 as postmaster-general. +Franklin’s gallant relations with women after his wife’s +death were probably innocent enough. Best known of his French +<i>amies</i> were Mme Helvétius, widow of the philosopher, and the +young Mme Brillon, who corrected her “Papa’s” French and +tried to bring him safely into the Roman Catholic Church. +With him in France were his grandsons, William Temple +Franklin, William Franklin’s natural son, who acted as private +secretary to his grandfather, and Benjamin Franklin Bache +(1769-1798), Sarah’s son, whom he sent to Geneva to be educated, +for whom he later asked public office of Washington, and who +became editor of the <i>Aurora</i>, one of the leading journals in the +Republican attacks on Washington.</p> + +<p>Franklin early rebelled against New England Puritanism and +spent his Sundays in reading and in study instead of attending +church. His free-thinking ran its extreme course at the time of +his publication in London of <i>A Dissertation on Liberty and +Necessity, Pleasure and Pain</i> (1725), which he recognized as one +of the great <i>errata</i> of his life. He later called himself a deist, +or theist, not discriminating between the terms. To his favourite +sister he wrote: “There are some things in your New England +doctrine and worship which I do not agree with; but I do not +therefore condemn them, or desire to shake your belief or +practice of them.” Such was his general attitude. He did not +believe in the divinity of Christ, but thought “his system of +morals and his religion, as he left them to us, the best the world +ever saw, or is like to see.” His intense practical-mindedness +drew him away from religion, but drove him to a morality of his +own (the “art of virtue,” he called it), based on thirteen virtues +each accompanied by a short precept; the virtues were Temperance, +Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity, +Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility, Chastity and +Humility, the precept accompanying the last-named virtue +being “Imitate Jesus and Socrates.” He made a business-like +little notebook, ruled off spaces for the thirteen virtues and the +seven days of the week, “determined to give a week’s strict +attention to each of the virtues successively ... [going] thro’ +a course compleate in thirteen weeks and four courses in a year,” +marking for each day a record of his adherence to each of the +precepts. “And conceiving God to be the fountain of wisdom,” +he “thought it right and necessary to solicit His assistance for +obtaining it,” and drew up the following prayer for daily use: +“O powerful Goodness! bountiful Father! merciful Guide! +Increase in me that wisdom which discovers my truest interest. +Strengthen my resolution to perform what that wisdom dictates. +Accept my kind offices to Thy other children, as the only return +in my power for Thy continual favours to me.” He was by no +means prone to overmuch introspection, his great interest +in the conduct of others being shown in the wise maxims of Poor +Richard, which were possibly too utilitarian but were wonderfully +successful in instructing American morals. His <i>Art of Virtue</i> +on which he worked for years was never completed or published +in any form.</p> + +<p>“Benjamin Franklin, Printer,” was Franklin’s own favourite +description of himself. He was an excellent compositor and +pressman; his workmanship, clear impressions, black ink and +comparative freedom from errata did much to get him the +public printing in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and the printing +of the paper money<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and other public matters in Delaware. +The first book with his imprint is <i>The Psalms of David Imitated in</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span> +<i>the Language of the New Testament and apply’d to the Christian +State and Worship. By I. Watts ..., Philadelphia: Printed +by B. F. and H. M. for Thomas Godfrey, and Sold at his Shop, +1729.</i> The first novel printed in America was Franklin’s reprint +in 1744 of <i>Pamela</i>; and the first American translation from +the classics which was printed in America was a version by +James Logan (1674-1751) of Cato’s <i>Moral Distichs</i> (1735). In +1744 he published another translation of Logan’s, Cicero <i>On Old +Age</i>, which Franklin thought typographically the finest book +he had ever printed. In 1733 he had established a press in +Charleston, South Carolina, and soon after did the same in +Lancaster, Pa., in New Haven, Conn., in New York, in Antigua, +in Kingston, Jamaica, and in other places. Personally he had +little connexion with the Philadelphia printing office after 1748, +when David Hall became his partner and took charge of it. +But in 1753 he was eagerly engaged in having several of his +improvements incorporated in a new press, and more than +twenty years after was actively interested in John Walter’s +scheme of “logography.” In France he had a private press in +his house in Passy, on which he printed “bagatelles.” Franklin’s +work as a publisher is for the most part closely connected with +his work in issuing the <i>Gazette</i> and <i>Poor Richard’s Almanack</i> +(a summary of the proverbs from which appeared in the number +for 1758, and has often been reprinted—under such titles as +<i>Father Abraham’s Speech</i>, and <i>The Way to Wealth</i>).<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>Of much of Franklin’s work as an author something has +already been said. Judged as literature, the first place belongs +to his <i>Autobiography</i>, which unquestionably ranks among the +few great autobiographies ever written. His style in its simplicity, +facility and clearness owed something to De Foe, +something to Cotton Mather, something to Plutarch, more to +Bunyan and to his early attempts to reproduce the manner of +the third volume of the <i>Spectator</i>; and not the least to his own +careful study of word usage. From Xenophon’s <i>Memorabilia</i> +he learned when a boy the Socratic method of argument. Swift +he resembled in the occasional broadness of his humour, in his +brilliantly successful use of sarcasm and irony,<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and in his +mastery of the hoax. Balzac said of him that he “invented +the lightning-rod, the hoax (’le canard’) and the republic.” +Among his more famous hoaxes were the “Edict of the King of +Prussia” (1773), already described; the fictitious supplement +to the Boston <i>Chronicle</i>, printed on his private press at Passy in +1782, and containing a letter with an invoice of eight packs of +954 cured, dried, hooped and painted scalps of rebels, men, +women and children, taken by Indians in the British employ; +and another fictitious <i>Letter from the Count de Schaumberg to the +Baron Hohendorf commanding the Hessian Troops in America</i> +(1777)—the count’s only anxiety is that not enough men will +be killed to bring him in moneys he needs, and he urges his +officer in command in America “to prolong the war ... for +I have made arrangements for a grand Italian opera, and I +do not wish to be obliged to give it up.”<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a></p> + +<p>Closely related to Franklin’s political pamphlets are his writings +on economics, which, though undertaken with a political +or practical purpose and not in a purely scientific spirit, rank him +as the first American economist. He wrote in 1729 <i>A Modest +Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency</i>, which +argued that a plentiful currency will make rates of interest low +and will promote immigration and home manufactures, and which +did much to secure the further issue of paper money in Pennsylvania. +After the British Act of 1750 forbidding the erection +or the operating of iron or steel mills in the colonies, Franklin +wrote <i>Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind and the +Peopling of Countries</i> (1751); its thesis was that manufactures +come to be common only with a high degree of social development +and with great density of population, and that Great Britain +need not, therefore, fear the industrial competition of the +colonies, but it is better known for the estimate (adopted by +Adam Smith) that the population of the colonies would +double every quarter-century; and for the likeness to Malthus’s<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> +“preventive check” of its statement: “The greater the common +fashionable expense of any rank of people the more cautious they +are of marriage.” His <i>Positions to be examined concerning +National Wealth</i> (1769) shows that he was greatly influenced +by the French physiocrats after his visit to France in 1767. +His <i>Wail of a Protected Manufacturer</i> voices a protest against +protection as raising the cost of living; and he held that free +trade was based on a natural right. He knew Kames, Hume +and Adam Smith, and corresponded with Mirabeau, “the friend +of Man.” Some of the more important of his economic theses, +as summarized by W. A. Wetzel, are: that money as coin may +have more than its bullion value; that natural interest is +determined by the rent of land valued at the sum of money +loaned—an anticipation of Turgot; that high wages are not +inconsistent with a large foreign trade; that the value of an +article is determined by the amount of labour necessary to +produce the food consumed in making the article; that manufactures +are advantageous but agriculture only is truly productive; +and that when practicable (as he did not think it +practicable at the end of the War of Independence) state revenue +should be raised by direct tax.</p> + +<p>Franklin as a scientist<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a> and as an inventor has been decried +by experts as an amateur and a dabbler; but it should be +remembered that it was always his hope to retire from public +life and devote himself to science. In the American Philosophical +Society (founded 1743) scientific subjects were much +discussed. Franklin wrote a paper on the causes of earthquakes +for his <i>Gazette</i> of the 15th of December 1737; and he eagerly +collected material to uphold his theory that waterspouts and +whirlwinds resulted from the same causes. In 1743, from the +circumstance that an eclipse not visible in Philadelphia because +of a storm had been observed in Boston, where the storm although +north-easterly did not occur until an hour after the eclipse, he +surmised that storms move <i>against</i> the wind along the Atlantic +coast. In the year before (1742) he had planned the “Pennsylvania +fire-place,” better known as the “Franklin stove,” +which saved fuel, heated all the room, and had the same principle +as the hot-air furnace; the stove was never patented by Franklin, +but was described in his pamphlet dated 1744. He was much +engaged at the same time in remedying smoking chimneys, and +as late as 1785 wrote to Jan Ingenhousz, physician to the emperor +of Austria, on chimneys and draughts; smoking street lamps +he remedied by a simple contrivance. The study of electricity +he took up in 1746 when he first saw a Leyden jar, in the manipulation +of which he became expert and which he improved by +the use of granulated lead in the place of water for the interior +armatures; he recognized that condensation is due to the +dielectric and not to the metal coatings. A note in his diary, +dated the 7th of November 1749, shows that he had then +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span> +conjectured that thunder and lightning were electrical manifestations; +in the same year he planned the lightning-rod (long +known as “Franklin’s rod”), which he described and recommended +to the public in 1753, when the Copley medal of the +Royal Society was awarded him for his discoveries. The famous +experiment with the kite, proving lightning an electrical phenomenon, +was performed by Franklin in June 1752. He overthrew +entirely the “friction” theory of electricity and conceived the +idea of plus and minus charges (1753); he thought the sea the +source of electricity. On light Franklin wrote to David Rittenhouse +in June 1784; the sum of his own conjectures was that +the corpuscular theory of Newton was wrong, and that light was +due to the vibration of an elastic aether. He studied with some +care the temperature of the Gulf Stream. In navigation he +suggested many new contrivances, such as water-tight compartments, +floating anchors to lay a ship to in a storm, and dishes +that would not upset during a gale; and beginning in 1757 +made repeated experiments with oil on stormy waters. As a +mathematician he devised various elaborate magic squares and +novel magic circles, of which he speaks apologetically, because +they are of no practical use. Always much interested in agriculture, +he made an especial effort (like Robert R. Livingston) +to promote the use of plaster of Paris as a fertiliser. He took +a prominent part in aeronautic experiments during his stay in +France. He made an excellent clock, which because of a slight +improvement introduced by James Ferguson in 1757 was long +known as Ferguson’s clock. In medicine Franklin was considered +important enough to be elected to the Royal Medical Society of +Paris in 1777, and an honorary member of the Medical Society +of London in 1787. In 1784 he was on the committee which +investigated Mesmer, and the report is a document of lasting +scientific value. Franklin’s advocacy of vegetarianism, of +sparing and simple diet, and of temperance in the use of liquors, +and of proper ventilation has already been referred to. His most +direct contribution to medicine was the invention for his own +use of bifocal eyeglasses.</p> + +<p>A summary of so versatile a genius is impossible. His services +to America in England and France rank him as one of the heroes +of the American War of Independence and as the greatest of +American diplomats. Almost the only American scientist of +his day, he displayed remarkably deep as well as remarkably +varied abilities in science and deserved the honours enthusiastically +given him by the <i>savants</i> of Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Franklin’s works were not collected in his own +lifetime, and he made no effort to publish his writings. <i>Experiments +and Observations on Electricity</i> (London, 1769) was translated into +French by Barbeu Dubourg (Paris, 1773); Vaughan attempted a +more complete edition, <i>Political, Miscellaneous and Philosophical +Pieces</i> (London, 1779); an edition in three volumes appeared +after Franklin’s death (London, 1806); what seemed the authentic +<i>Works</i>, as it was under the care of Temple Franklin, was published +at London (6 vols., 1817-1819; 3 vols., 1818) and with some additional +matter at Philadelphia (6 vols., 1818). Sparks’s edition +(10 vols., Boston, 1836-1842; revised, Philadelphia, 1858) also +contained fresh matter; and there are further additions in the +edition of John Bigelow (Philadelphia, 1887-1888; 5th ed., 1905) +and in that by Albert Henry Smyth (10 vols., New York, 1905-1907). +There are important Frankliniana, about 13,000 papers, in the +possession of the American Philosophical Society, to which they were +conveyed by the son of Temple Franklin’s executor, George Fox. +Other papers which had been left to Fox lay for years in barrels in a +stable garret; they were finally cleared out, their owner, Mary Fox, +intending to send them to a paper mill. One barrel went to the mill. +The others, it was found, contained papers belonging to Franklin, +and this important collection was bought and presented to the +university of Pennsylvania. The valuable Frankliniana collected +by Henry Stevens were purchased by Congress in 1885. These MS. +collections were first carefully gone over for the edition of the <i>Works</i> +by A. H. Smyth. Franklin’s <i>Autobiography</i> was begun in 1771 as a +private chronicle for his son, Governor William Franklin; the papers, +bringing the story of his father’s life down to 1730, were lost by the +governor during the War of Independence, and in 1783 came into +the possession of Abel James, who restored them to Franklin and +urged him to complete the sketch. He wrote a little in 1784, more +in 1788, when he furnished a copy to his friend le Veillard, and a little +more in 1790. The original manuscript was long in the possession of +Temple Franklin, who spent years rearranging the matter in it and +making over into politer English his grandfather’s plain-spokenness. +So long was the publication delayed that it was generally believed +that Temple Franklin had sold all the papers to the British government; +a French version, <i>Mémoires de la vie privée</i> (Paris, 1791), +was retranslated into English twice in 1793 (London), and from one +of these versions (by Robinson) still another French version was +made (Paris, 1798). Temple Franklin, deciding to print, got from +le Veillard the copy sent to him in 1788 (sending in return the original +with autograph alterations and the final addition), and from the +copy published (London, 1817) an edition supposed to be authentic +and complete. The complete autograph of the biography, acquired +by John Bigelow in 1867 from its French owners, upon collation +with Temple Franklin’s edition showed that the latter contained +1200 emasculations and that it omitted entirely what had been +written in 1790. Bigelow published the complete <i>Autobiography</i> +with additions from Franklin’s correspondence and other writings +in 1868; a second edition (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1888) was published +under the title, <i>The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Written by Himself</i>.</p> + +<p>In addition to the <i>Autobiography</i> see James Parton, <i>Life and Times +of Benjamin Franklin</i> (2 vols., New York, 1864); John T. Morse, +Jr., <i>Benjamin Franklin</i> (Boston, 1889, in the American Statesmen +series); J. B. McMaster, <i>Benjamin Franklin as a Man of Letters</i> +(Boston, 1887, in American Men of Letters series); Paul L. +Ford, <i>The Many-Sided Franklin</i> (New York, 1899) and <i>Franklin +Bibliography</i> (Brooklyn, 1889); E. E. Hale and E. E. Hale, Jr., +<i>Franklin in France</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1888); J. H. A. Doniol, <i>Histoire +de la participation de la France a l’établissement des États-Unis +d’Amérique</i> (Paris, 6 vols., 1886-1900); S. G. Fisher, <i>The True +Benjamin Franklin</i> (Philadelphia, 1899); E. Robins, <i>Benjamin +Franklin</i> (New York, 1898, in the American Men of Energy series); +W. A. Wetzel, “Benjamin Franklin as an Economist,” No. 9, +in series 13 of <i>Johns Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political +Science</i>; and the prefaces and biographical matter in A. H. Smyth’s +edition of the <i>Works</i> (New York, 10 vols., 1905-1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. We.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Keimer and his sister had come the year before from London, +where he had learned his trade; both were ardent members of the +fanatic band of “French prophets.” He proposed founding a new +sect with the help of Franklin, who after leaving his shop ridiculed +him for his long square beard and for keeping the seventh day. +Keimer settled in the Barbadoes about 1730; and in 1731 began +to publish at Bridgetown the semi-weekly <i>Barbadoes Gazette</i>. Selections +from it called <i>Caribbeana</i> (1741) and <i>A Brand Plucked from the +Burning, Exemplified in the Unparalleled Case of Samuel Keimer</i> +(1718) are from his pen. He died about 1738.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The meeting between Franklin, the type of the shrewd, cool +provincial, and Braddock, a blustering, blundering, drinking British +soldier, is dramatically portrayed by Thackeray in the 9th chapter +of <i>The Virginians</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Many questions (about 20 of the first 25) were put by his friends +to draw out what he wished to be known.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The house is familiar from the drawing of it by Victor Hugo.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Many of these portraits bore inscriptions, the most famous +of which was Turgot’s line, “Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque +tyrannis.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Notably in a pamphlet comparing the Jews and the Anti-Federalists.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> William Franklin served on the Canadian frontier with Pennsylvania +troops, becoming captain in 1750; was in the post-office in +1754-1756; went to England with his father in 1758; was admitted +to legal practice in 1758; in 1763, recommended by Lord Fairfax, +became governor of New Jersey; he left the Whig for the Tory +party; and in the War of Independence was a faithful loyalist, +much to the pain and regret of his father, who, however, was reconciled +to him in part in 1784. He was held as a prisoner from 1776 +until exchanged in 1778; and lived four years in New York, and +during the remainder of his life in England with an annual pension of +£800 from the crown.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For the prevention of counterfeiting continental paper money +Franklin long afterwards suggested the use on the different denominations +of different leaves, having noted the infinite variety of +leaf venation.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> “Seventy-five editions of it have been printed in English, fifty-six +in French, eleven in German and nine in Italian. It has been +translated into Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Welsh, Polish, Gaelic, +Russian, Bohemian, Dutch, Catalan, Chinese, modern Greek and +phonetic writing. It has been printed at least four hundred times, +and is to-day as popular as ever.”—P. L. Ford, in <i>The Many-Sided +Franklin</i> (1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Both Swift and Franklin made sport of the typical astrologer +almanack-maker.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Another hoax was Franklin’s parable against religious persecution +thrown into Scriptural form and quoted by him as the fifty-first +chapter of Genesis. In a paper on a “Proposed New Version +of the Bible” he paraphrased a few verses of the first chapter of Job, +making them a satiric attack on royal government; but the version +may well rank with these hoaxes, and even modern writers have +been taken in by it, regarding it as a serious proposal for a “modernized” +version and decrying it as poor taste. Matthew Arnold, for +example, declared this an instance in which Franklin was lacking in +his “imperturbable common sense”; and J. B. McMaster, though +devoting several pages to its discussion, very ingenuously declares it +“beneath criticism.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Malthus quoted Franklin in his first edition, but it was not until +the second that he introduced the theory of the “preventive check.” +Franklin noted the phenomenon with disapproval in his advocacy +of increased population; Malthus with approval in his search for +means to decrease population.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The title of philosopher as used in Franklin’s lifetime referred +neither in England nor in France to him as author of moral maxims, +but to him as a scientist—a “natural philosopher.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1786-1847), English rear-admiral +and explorer, was born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire, on the 16th of +April 1786. His family was descended from a line of free-holders +or “franklins” from whom some centuries earlier they had +derived their surname; but the small family estate was sold +by his father, who went into business. John, who was the fifth +and youngest son and ninth child, was destined for the church. +At the age of ten he was sent to school at St Ives, and soon +afterwards was transferred to Louth grammar school, which +he attended for two years. About this time his imagination +was deeply impressed by a holiday walk of 12 m. which he made +with a companion to look at the sea, and he determined to +be a sailor. In the hope of dispelling this fancy his father sent +him on a trial voyage to Lisbon in a merchantman; but it being +found on his return that his wishes were unchanged he was +entered as a midshipman on board the “Polyphemus,” and +shortly afterwards took part in her in the hard-fought battle +of Copenhagen (2nd of April 1801). Two months later he joined +the “Investigator,” a discovery-ship commanded by his cousin +Captain Matthew Flinders, and under the training of that able +scientific officer was employed in the exploration and mapping +of the coasts of Australia, where he acquired a correctness of +astronomical observation and a skill in surveying which proved +of eminent utility in his future career. He was on board the +“Porpoise” when that ship and the “Cato” were wrecked +(18th of August 1803) on a coral reef off the coast of Australia, +and after this misfortune proceeded to China. Thence he obtained +a passage to England in the “Earl Camden,” East Indiaman, +commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) Nathaniel Dance, and +performed the duty of signal midshipman in the famous action +of the 15th of February 1804 when Captain Dance repulsed a +strong French squadron led by the redoubtable Admiral Linois. +On reaching England he joined the “Bellerophon,” 74, and +was in charge of the signals on board that ship during the battle +of Trafalgar. Two years later he joined the “Bedford,” attaining +the rank of lieutenant the year after, and served in her on the +Brazil station (whither the “Bedford” went as part of the convoy +which escorted the royal family of Portugal to Rio de Janeiro +in 1808), in the blockade of Flushing, and finally in the disastrous +expedition against New Orleans (1814), in which campaign he +displayed such zeal and intelligence as to merit special mention +in despatches.</p> + +<p>On peace being established, Franklin turned his attention +once more to the scientific branch of his profession, and sedulously +extended his knowledge of surveying. In 1818 the discovery +of a North-West Passage to the Pacific became again, after a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span> +long interval, an object of national interest, and Lieutenant +Franklin was given the command of the “Trent” in the Arctic +expedition, under the orders of Captain Buchan in the “Dorothea”. +During a heavy storm the “Dorothea” was so much damaged +by the pack-ice that her reaching England became doubtful, +and, much to the chagrin of young Franklin, the “Trent” +was compelled to convoy her home instead of being allowed +to prosecute the voyage alone. This voyage, however, had +brought Franklin into personal intercourse with the leading +scientific men of London, and they were not slow in ascertaining +his peculiar fitness for the command of such an enterprise. +To calmness in danger, promptness and fertility of resource, +and excellent seamanship, he added an ardent desire to promote +science for its own sake, together with a love of truth that led +him to do full justice to the merits of his subordinate officers, +without wishing to claim their discoveries as a captain’s right. +Furthermore, he possessed a cheerful buoyancy of mind, sustained +by deep religious principle, which was not depressed in the most +gloomy times. It was therefore with full confidence in his +ability and exertions that, in 1819, he was placed in command +of an expedition appointed to proceed overland from the Hudson +Bay to the shores of the Arctic Sea, and to determine the trendings +of that coast eastward of the Coppermine river. At this period +the northern coast of the American continent was known at +two isolated points only,—this, the mouth of the Coppermine +river (which, as Franklin discovered, was erroneously placed +four <span class="correction" title="amended from degress">degrees</span> of latitude too much to the north), and the mouth +of the Mackenzie far to the west of it. Lieutenant Franklin +and his party, consisting of Dr Richardson, Midshipmen George +Back and Richard Hood, and a few ordinary boatmen, arrived +at the depot of the Hudson’s Bay Company at the end of August +1819, and making an autumnal journey of 700 m. spent the first +winter on the Saskatchewan. Owing to the supplies which +had been promised by the North-West and Hudson’s Bay +Companies not being forthcoming the following year, it was not +until the summer of 1821 that the Coppermine was ascended +to its mouth, and a considerable extent of sea-coast to the +eastward surveyed. The return journey led over the region +known as the Barren Ground, and was marked by the most +terrible sufferings and privations and the tragic death of +Lieutenant Hood. The survivors of the expedition reached +York Factory in the month of June 1822, having accomplished +altogether 5550 m. of travel. While engaged on this service +Franklin was promoted to the rank of commander (1st of January +1821), and upon his return to England at the end of 1822 he +obtained the post rank of captain and was elected a fellow of +the Royal Society. The narrative of this expedition was published +in the following year and became at once a classic of travel, +and soon after he married Eleanor, the youngest daughter of +William Porden, an eminent architect.</p> + +<p>Early in 1825 he was entrusted with the command of a second +overland expedition, and upon the earnest entreaty of his dying +wife, who encouraged him to place his duty to his country before +his love for her, he set sail without waiting to witness her end. +Accompanied as before by Dr (afterwards Sir) John Richardson +and Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) George Back, he descended the +Mackenzie river in the season of 1826 and traced the North +American coast as far as 149° 37′ W. long., whilst Richardson +at the head of a separate party connected the mouths of the +Coppermine and Mackenzie rivers. Thus between the years 1819 +and 1827 he had added 1200 m. of coast-line to the American +continent, or one-third of the whole distance from the Atlantic +to the Pacific. These exertions were fully appreciated at home +and abroad. He was knighted in 1829, received the honorary +degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, was awarded the +gold medal of the Geographical Society of Paris, and was elected +corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. The +results of these expeditions are described by Franklin and Dr +Richardson in two magnificent works published in 1824-1829. +In 1828 he married his second wife, Jane, second daughter of +John Griffin. His next official employment was on the Mediterranean +station, in command of the “Rainbow,” and his ship +soon became proverbial in the squadron for the happiness and +comfort of her officers and crew. As an acknowledgment of +the essential service which he rendered off Patras in the Greek +War of Independence, he received the cross of the Redeemer of +Greece from King Otto, and after his return to England he was +created knight commander of the Guelphic order of Hanover.</p> + +<p>In 1836 he accepted the lieutenant-governorship of Van +Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania), and held that post till the +end of 1843. His government was marked by several events +of much interest, one of his most popular measures being the +opening of the doors of the legislative council to the public. +He also founded a college, endowing it largely from his private +funds, and in 1838 established a scientific society at Hobart +Town (now called the Royal Society of Tasmania), the meetings +of which were held in Government House and its papers printed +at his expense. In his time also the colony of Victoria was +founded by settlers from Tasmania; and towards its close, +transportation to New South Wales having been abolished, +the convicts from every part of the British empire were sent to +Tasmania. On an increase of the lieutenant-governor’s salary +being voted by the colonial legislature, Sir John declined to +derive any advantage from it personally, while he secured the +augmentation to his successors. He welcomed eagerly the various +expeditions for exploration and surveying which visited Hobart +Town, conspicuous among these, and of especial interest to +himself, being the French and English Antarctic expeditions +of Dumont d’Urville and Sir James C. Ross—the latter commanding +the “Erebus” and “Terror,” with which Franklin’s +own name was afterwards to be so pathetically connected. A +magnetic observatory fixed at Hobart Town, as a dependency +of the central establishment under Colonel Sabine, was also +an object of deep interest up to the moment of his leaving the +colony. That his unflinching efforts for the social and political +advancement of the colony were appreciated was abundantly +proved by the affection and respect shown him by every section +of the community on his departure; and several years afterwards +the colonists showed their remembrance of his virtues +and services by sending Lady Franklin a subscription of £1700 +in aid of her efforts for the search and relief of her husband, +and later still by a unanimous vote of the legislature for the +erection of a statue in honour of him at Hobart Town.</p> + +<p>Sir John found on reaching England that there was about to +be a renewal of polar research, and that the confidence of the +admiralty in him was undiminished, as was shown by his being +offered the command of an expedition for the discovery of a +North-West Passage to the Pacific. This offer he accepted. +The prestige of Arctic service and of his former experiences +attracted a crowd of volunteers of all classes, from whom were +selected a body of officers conspicuous for talent and energy. +Captain Crozier, who was second in command, had been three +voyages with Sir Edward Parry, and had commanded the +“Terror” in Ross’s Antarctic expedition. Captain Fitzjames, +who was commander on board the “Erebus,” had been five times +gazetted for brilliant conduct in the operations of the first China +war, and in a letter which he wrote from Greenland has bequeathed +some good-natured but masterly sketches of his brother officers +and messmates on this expedition. Thus supported, with crews +carefully chosen (some of whom had been engaged in the whaling +service), victualled for three years, and furnished with every +appliance then known, Franklin’s expedition, consisting of the +“Erebus” and “Terror” (129 officers and men), with a transport +ship to convey additional stores as far as Disco in Greenland, +sailed from Greenhithe on the 19th of May 1845. The letters +which Franklin despatched from Greenland were couched in +language of cheerful anticipation of success, while those received +from his officers expressed their glowing hope, their admiration +of the seamanlike qualities of their commander, and the happiness +they had in serving under him. The ships were last seen +by a whaler near the entrance of Lancaster Sound, on the 26th +of July, and the deep gloom which settled down upon their +subsequent movements was not finally raised till fourteen years +later.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span></p> + +<p>Franklin’s instructions were framed in conjunction with Sir +John Barrow and upon his own suggestions. The experience +of Parry had established the navigability of Lancaster Sound +(leading westwards out of Baffin Bay), whilst Franklin’s own +surveys had long before satisfied him that a navigable passage +existed along the north coast of America from the Fish river +to Bering Strait. He was therefore directed to push through +Lancaster Sound and its continuation, Barrow Strait, without +loss of time, until he reached the portion of land on which +Cape Walker is situated, or about long. 98° W., and from that +point to pursue a course southward towards the American coast. +An explicit prohibition was given against a westerly course +beyond the longitude of 98° W., but he was allowed the single +alternative of previously examining Wellington Channel (which +leads out of Barrow Strait) for a northward route, if the navigation +here were open.</p> + +<p>In 1847, though there was no real public anxiety as to the fate +of the expedition, preparations began to be made for the possible +necessity of sending relief. As time passed, however, and no +tidings reached England, the search began in earnest, and from +1848 onwards expedition after expedition was despatched in +quest of the missing explorers. The work of these expeditions +forms a story of achievement which has no parallel in maritime +annals, and resulted in the discovery and exploration of thousands +of miles of new land within the grim Arctic regions, the development +of the system of sledge travelling, and the discovery of a +second North-West Passage in 1850 (see Polar Regions). +Here it is only necessary to mention the results so far as the +search for Franklin was concerned. In this great national undertaking +Lady Franklin’s exertions were unwearied, and she +exhausted her private funds in sending out auxiliary vessels to +quarters not comprised in the public search, and by her pathetic +appeals roused the sympathy of the whole civilized world.</p> + +<p>The first traces of the missing ships, consisting of a few scattered +articles, besides three graves, were discovered at Franklin’s +winter quarters (1845-1846) on Beechey Island, by Captain +(afterwards Sir) Erasmus Ommanney of the “Assistance,” in +August 1851, and were brought home by the “Prince Albert,” +which had been fitted out by Lady Franklin. No further tidings +were obtained until the spring of 1854, when Dr John Rae, then +conducting a sledging expedition of the Hudson’s Bay Company +from Repulse Bay, was told by the Eskimo that (as was inferred) +in 1850 white men, to the number of about forty, had been seen +dragging a boat southward along the west shore of King William’s +Island, and that later in the same season the bodies of the whole +party were found by the natives at a point a short distance to the +north-west of Back’s Great Fish river, where they had perished +from the united effects of cold and famine. The latter statement +was afterwards disproved by the discovery of skeletons upon the +presumed line of route; but indisputable proof was given that +the Eskimo had communicated with members of the missing +expedition, by the various articles obtained from them and +brought home by Dr Rae. In consequence of the information +obtained by Dr Rae, a party in canoes, under Messrs Anderson +and Stewart, was sent by government down the Great Fish river +in 1855, and succeeded in obtaining from the Eskimo at the mouth +of the river a considerable number of articles which had evidently +belonged to the Franklin expedition; while others were picked +up on Montreal Island a day’s march to the northward. It was +clear, therefore, that a party from the “Erebus” and “Terror” +had endeavoured to reach the settlements of the Hudson’s Bay +Company by the Fish river route, and that in making a southerly +course it had been arrested within the channel into which the +Great Fish river empties itself. The admiralty now decided to +take no further steps to determine the exact fate of the expedition, +and granted to Dr Rae the reward of £10,000 which had been +offered in 1849 to whosoever should first succeed in obtaining +authentic news of the missing men. It was therefore reserved +for the latest effort of Lady Franklin to develop, not only the +fate of her husband’s expedition but also the steps of its progress +up to the very verge of success, mingled indeed with almost +unprecedented disaster. With all her available means, and +aided, as she had been before, by the subscriptions of sympathizing +friends, she purchased and fitted out the little yacht “Fox,” +which sailed from Aberdeen in July 1857. The command was +accepted by Captain (afterwards Sir) Leopold M’Clintock, whose +high reputation had been won in three of the government expeditions +sent out in search of Franklin. Having been compelled +to pass the first winter in Baffin Bay, it was not till the +autumn of 1858 that the “Fox” passed down Prince Regent’s +Inlet, and put into winter quarters at Port Kennedy at the +eastern end of Bellot Strait, between North Somerset and +Boothia Felix. In the spring of 1859 three sledging parties went +out, Captain (afterwards Sir) Allen Young to examine Prince of +Wales Island, Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Hobson the north +and west coasts of King William’s Island, and M’Clintock the +east and south coasts of the latter, the west coast of Boothia, and +the region about the mouth of Great Fish river. This splendid +and exhaustive search added 800 m. of new coast-line to the +knowledge of the Arctic regions, and brought to light the course +and fate of the expedition. From the Eskimo in Boothia many +relics were obtained, and reports as to the fate of the ships and +men; and on the west and south coast of King William’s Island +were discovered skeletons and remains of articles that told a +terrible tale of disaster. Above all, in a cairn at Point Victory +a precious record was discovered by Lieutenant Hobson that +briefly told the history of the expedition up to April 25, +1848, three years after it set out full of hope. In 1845-1846 +the “Erebus” and “Terror” wintered at Beechey Island on +the S.W. coast of North Devon, in lat. 74° 43′ 28″ N., long. +91° 39′ 15″ W., after having ascended Wellington Channel to +lat. 77° and returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island. This +statement was signed by Graham Gore, lieutenant, and Charles +F. des Voeux, mate, and bore date May 28, 1847. These +two officers and six men, it was further told, left the ships on +May 24, 1847 (no doubt for an exploring journey), at which +time all was well.</p> + +<p>Such an amount of successful work has seldom been accomplished +by an Arctic expedition within any one season. The +alternative course permitted Franklin by his <span class="correction" title="amended from intructions">instructions</span> had +been attempted but not pursued, and in the autumn of 1846 +he had followed that route which was specially commended +to him. But after successfully navigating Peel and Franklin +Straits on his way southward, his progress had been suddenly +and finally arrested by the obstruction of heavy (“palaeocrystic”) +ice, which presses down from the north-west through M‘Clintock +Channel (not then known to exist) upon King William’s Island. +It must be remembered that in the chart which Franklin carried +King William’s Island was laid down as a part of the mainland +of Boothia, and he therefore could pursue his way <i>only</i> down its +western coast. Upon the margin of the printed admiralty form +on which this brief record was written was an addendum dated +the 25th of April 1848, which extinguished all further hopes of a +successful termination of this grand enterprise. The facts are +best conveyed in the terse and expressive words in which they +were written, and are therefore given <i>verbatim</i>: “April 25th, +1848. H.M. Ships ‘Terror’ and ‘Erebus’ were deserted on +22nd April, five leagues N.N.W. of this, having been beset +since 12th September 1846. The officers and crews, consisting +of 105 souls under the command of Captain F. R. M. Crozier, +landed in lat. 69° 37′ 42″ N., long. 98° 41′ W. This paper was +found by Lieut. Irving ... where it had been deposited by +the late Commander Gore in June 1847. Sir John Franklin died +on the 11th June 1847; and the total loss by deaths in the +expedition has been to this date 9 officers and 15 men.” The +handwriting is that of Captain Fitzjames, to whose signature is +appended that of Captain Crozier, who also adds the words of +chief importance, namely, that they would “start on to-morrow +26th April 1848 for Back’s Fish river.” A briefer record has +never been told of so tragic a story.</p> + +<p>All the party had without doubt been greatly reduced through +want of sufficient food, and the injurious effects of three winters +in these regions. They had attempted to drag with them two +boats, besides heavily laden sledges, and doubtless had soon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span> +been compelled to abandon much of their burden, and leave one +boat on the shore of King William’s Island, where it was found +by M’Clintock, near the middle of the west coast, containing +two skeletons. The route adopted was the shortest possible, +but their strength and supplies had failed, and at that season +of the year the snow-covered land afforded no subsistence. +An old Eskimo woman stated that these heroic men “fell down +and died as they walked,” and, as Sir John Richardson has well +said, they “forged the last link of the North-West Passage with +their lives.” From all that can be gathered, one of the ships +must have been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water, and +the other, stranded on the shore of King William’s Island, lay +there for years, forming a mine of wealth for the neighbouring +Eskimo.</p> + +<p>This is all we know of the fate of Franklin and his brave men. +His memory is cherished as one of the most conspicuous of the +naval heroes of Britain, and as one of the most successful and +daring of her explorers. He is certainly entitled to the honour +of being the first discoverer of the North-West Passage; the +point reached by the ships having brought him to within a few +miles of the known waters of America, and on the monument +erected to him by his country, in Waterloo Place, London, +this honour is justly awarded to him and his companions,—a +fact which was also affirmed by the president of the Royal Geographical +Society, when presenting their gold medal to Lady +Franklin in 1860. On the 26th of October 1852 Franklin had +been promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. He left an only +daughter by his first marriage. Lady Franklin died in 1875 +at the age of eighty-three, and a fortnight after her death a fine +monument was unveiled in Westminster Abbey, commemorating +the heroic deeds and fate of Sir John Franklin, and the inseparable +connexion of Lady Franklin’s name with the fame of her +husband. Most of the relics brought home by M‘Clintock were +presented by Lady Franklin to the United Service Museum, +while those given by Dr Rae to the admiralty are deposited in +Greenwich hospital. In 1864-1869 the American explorer +Captain Hall made two journeys in endeavouring to trace the +remnant of Franklin’s party, bringing back a number of additional +relics and some information confirmatory of that given +by M’Clintock, and in 1878 Lieutenant F. Schwatka of the +United States army and a companion made a final land search, +but although accomplishing a remarkable record of travel +discovered nothing which threw any fresh light on the history +of the expedition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. D. Traill, <i>Life of Sir John Franklin</i> (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1823-1903), Federal general +in the American Civil War, was born at York, Pennsylvania, +on the 27th of February 1823. He graduated at West Point, +at the head of his class, in 1843, was commissioned in the Engineer +Corps, U.S.A., and served with distinction in the Mexican War, +receiving the brevet of first lieutenant for his good conduct at +Buena Vista, in which action he was on the staff of General +Taylor. After the war he was engaged in miscellaneous engineering +work, becoming a first lieutenant in 1853 and a captain in +1857. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he was +made colonel of a regular infantry regiment, and a few days +later brigadier-general of volunteers. He led a brigade in the +first battle of Bull Run, and on the organization by McClellan +of the Army of the Potomac he received a divisional command. +He commanded first a division and then the VI. Corps in the +operations before Richmond in 1862, earning the brevet of +brigadier-general in the U.S. Army; was promoted major-general, +U.S.V., in July 1862; commanded the VI. corps at +South Mountain and Antietam; and at Fredericksburg commanded +the “Left Grand Division” of two corps (I. and VI.). +His part in the last battle led to charges of disobedience and +negligence being preferred against him by the commanding +general, General A. E. Burnside, on which the congressional +committee on the conduct of the war reported unfavourably +to Franklin, largely, it seems, because Burnside’s orders to +Franklin were not put in evidence. Burnside had issued on the +23rd of January 1863 an order relieving Franklin from duty, +and Franklin’s only other service in the war was as commander +of the XIX. corps in the abortive Red River Expedition of 1864. +In this expedition he received a severe wound at the action of +Sabine Cross Roads (April 8, 1864), in consequence of which he +took no further active part in the war. He served for a time on +the retiring board, and was captured by the Confederates on +the 11th of July 1864, but escaped the same night. In 1865 he +was brevetted major-general in the regular army, and in 1866 +he was retired. After the war General Franklin was vice-president +of the Colt’s Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, +was president of the commission to lay out Long Island City, +N.Y. (1871-1872), of the commission on the building of the +Connecticut state house (1872-1873), and, from 1880 to 1899, of +the board of managers of the national home for disabled volunteer +soldiers; as a commissioner of the United States to the Paris +Exposition of 1889 he was made a grand officer of the Legion +of Honour; and he was for a time a director of the Panama +railway. He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 8th of March +1903. He wrote a pamphlet, <i>The Gatling Gun for Service Ashore +and Afloat</i> (1874).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A Reply of Major-General William B. Franklin to the Report +of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Conduct of the War</i> (New +York, 1863; 2nd ed., 1867), and Jacob L. Greene, <i>Gen. W. B. +Franklin and the Operations of the Left Wing at the Battle of Fredericksburg</i> +(Hartford, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span>, an organized district of Canada, extending from +the Arctic Circle to the North Pole. It was formed by order-in-council +on the 2nd of October 1895, and includes numerous +islands and peninsulas, such as Banks, Prince Albert, Victoria, +Wollaston, King Edward and Baffin Land, Melville, Bathurst, +Prince of Wales and Cockburn Islands. Of these, Baffin Land +alone extends south of the Arctic Circle. The area is estimated +at 500,000 sq. m., but the inhabitants consist of a few Indians, +Eskimo and fur-traders. Musk-oxen, polar bears, foxes and +other valuable fur-bearing animals are found in large numbers. +The district is named after Sir John Franklin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span>, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., with an area of 29 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1900) +5017, of whom 1250 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 5244; +(1910 census) 5641. The principal village, also named Franklin, +is about 27 m. S.W. of Boston, and is served by the New York, +New Haven & Hartford railway. Franklin has a public library +(housed in the Ray memorial building and containing 7700 +volumes in 1910) and is the seat of Dean Academy (Universalist; +founded in 1865), a secondary school for boys and girls. Straw +goods, felt, cotton and woollen goods, pianos and printing presses +are manufactured here. The township was incorporated in +1778, previous to which it was a part of Wrentham (1673). +It was the first of the many places in the United States named +in honour of Benjamin Franklin (who later contributed books +for the public library). Horace Mann was born here.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, a city of Merrimack county, New Hampshire, +U.S.A., at the confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnepesaukee +rivers to form the Merrimac; about 95 m. N.N.W. of +Boston. Pop. (1890) 4085; (1900) 5846 (1323 foreign-born); +(1910) 6132; area, about 14.4 sq. m. Franklin is served by +the Concord Division of the Boston & Maine railway, with a +branch to Bristol (13 m. N.W.) and another connecting at +Tilton (about 5 m. E.) with the White Mountains Division. It +contains the villages of Franklin, Franklin Falls, Webster Place +and Lake City, the last a summer resort. The rivers furnish +good water power, which is used in the manufacture of a variety +of commodities, including foundry products, paper and pulp, +woollen goods, hosiery, saws, needles and knitting machines. +The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality. +Here, in what was then a part of the town of Salisbury, Daniel +Webster was born, and on the Webster farm is the New Hampshire +orphans’ home, established in 1871. The town of Franklin +was formed in 1828 by the union of portions of Salisbury, +Sanbornton, Andover and Northfield. The earliest settlement +within its limits was made in 1748 in the portion taken from +Salisbury. Franklin was incorporated as a city in 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Venango county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of French Creek and +Allegheny river, about 55 m. S. by E. of Erie, in the N.W. part +of the state. Pop. (1890) 6221; (1900) 7317 (489 being foreign-born); +(1910) 9767. Franklin is served by the Erie, the Pennsylvania, +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the Franklin +& Clearfield railways. Its streets are broad and well paved and +shaded, and there are two public parks, a public library and +many handsome residences. Franklin is the centre of the chief +oil region of the state, and from it great quantities of refined oil +are shipped. Natural gas also abounds. The city’s manufacture +include oil-well supplies, boilers, engines, steel castings, iron +goods, lumber, bricks, asbestos goods, manifolding paper and +flour. On the site of the present city the French built in 1754 +a fortification, Fort Machault, which after the capture of Fort +Duquesne by the English was a rallying place for Indians allied +with the French. In 1759 the French abandoned and completely +destroyed the fort; and in the following year the English built +in the vicinity Fort Venango, which was captured by the Indians +in 1763 during the Conspiracy of Pontiac, the whole garrison +being massacred. In 1787 the United States built Fort Franklin +(about 1 m. above the mouth of French Creek) as a protection +against the Indians; in 1796 the troops were removed to a +strongly built and well-fortified wooden building, known as +“Old Garrison,” at the mouth of French Creek, and in 1803 +they were permanently withdrawn from the neighbourhood. +Franklin was laid out as a town in 1795, was incorporated as a +borough in 1828, and was chartered as a city in 1868. Most of +its growth dates from the discovery of oil in 1860.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span>, a town and the county-seat of Williamson +county, Tennessee, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, +on the Harpeth river, and about 20 m. S.W. of Nashville. Pop. +(1900) 2180; (1910) 2924. Franklin is served by the Louisville +& Nashville railway. It is the seat of the Tennessee Female +College and the Battle Ground Academy, and its chief objects +of interest are the battle-ground, the Confederate cemetery and +the Confederate monument. During the Civil War Franklin +was the scene of a minor engagement on the 10th of April 1863, +and of a battle, celebrated as one of the most desperately fought +of the war, which took place on the 30th of November 1864. +The Union general Schofield, who was slowly withdrawing to +Nashville before the advance of General J. B. Hood’s army, +which he was ordered to hold in check in order to give Thomas +time to prepare for battle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>, § 32), +was unable immediately to cross the Harpeth river and was +compelled to entrench his forces south of the town until his +wagon trains and artillery could be sent over the stream by +means of two small bridges. In the afternoon Schofield’s outposts +and advanced lines were attacked by the Confederates +in full strength, and instead of withdrawing as ordered they +made a determined stand. Thus the assailants, carrying the +advanced works by storm, rushed upon the main defences on +the heels of the broken advanced guard, and a general engagement +was brought on which lasted from 3.30 until nine +o’clock in the evening. Against, it is said, thirteen separate +assaults, all delivered with exceptional fury, Schofield managed +to hold his position, and shortly before midnight he withdrew +across the river in good order. The engagement was indecisive +in its results, but the Union commander’s purpose, to hold Hood +momentarily in check, was gained, and Hood’s effort to crush +Schofield was unavailing. The losses were very heavy; Hood’s +effective forces in the engagement numbered about 27,000, +Schofield’s about 28,000; the Confederate losses (excluding +cavalry) were about 6500, excluding the slightly wounded; +six general officers were killed (including Major-General P. R. +Cleburne, a brave Irishman who had been a corporal in the +British army), six wounded, and one captured; the Union losses +(excluding cavalry) were 2326. In two of the Confederate +brigades all the general and field officers were killed or wounded.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. D. Cox, <i>The Battle of Franklin</i> (New York, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLIN<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span>, a word derived from the Late Lat. <i>francus</i>, free, +and meaning primarily a freeman. Subsequently it was used +in England to denote a land-holder who was of free but not +of noble birth. Some of the older English writers occasionally +use it to mean a liberal host. The Latin form of the word is +<i>franchilanus</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKLINITE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>, a member of the spinel group of minerals, +consisting of oxides of iron, manganese and zinc in varying +proportions, (Fe, Zn, Mn)′(Fe, Mn)<span class="su">2</span>″′O<span class="su">4</span>. It occurs as large +octahedral crystals often with rounded edges, and as granular +masses. The colour is iron-black and the lustre metallic; +hardness 6, specific gravity 5.2. It thus resembles magnetite +in external characters, but is readily distinguished from this by +the fact that it is only slightly magnetic. It is found in considerable +amount, associated with zinc minerals (zincite and willemite) +in crystalline limestone, at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, +where it is mined as an ore of zinc (containing 5 to 20% of the +metal); after the extraction of the zinc, the residue is used in +the manufacture of spiegeleisen (the mineral containing 15 to +20% of manganese oxides). Associated with franklinite at +Franklin Furnace, and found also at some other localities, +is another member of the spinel group, namely, gahnite or +zinc-spinel, which is a zinc aluminate, ZnAl<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, with a little of +the zinc replaced by iron and manganese.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANK-MARRIAGE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (<i>liberum maritagium</i>), in real property +law, a species of estate tail, now obsolete. When a man was +seized of land in fee simple, and gave it to a daughter on marriage, +the daughter and her husband were termed the donees in frank-marriage, +because they held the land granted to them and the +heirs of their two bodies free from all manner of service, except +fealty, to the donor or his heirs until the fourth degree of consanguinity +from the donor was passed. This right of a freeholder +so to give away his land at will was first recognized in the reign +of Henry II., and became up to the reign of Elizabeth the most +usual kind of settlement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKPLEDGE<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Lat. <i>francum plegium</i>), an early English +institution, consisting (as defined by Stubbs) of an association +for mutual security whose members, according to Hallam, +“were perpetual bail for each other.” The custom whereby the +Inhabitants of a district were responsible for any crime or injury +committed by one of their number is old and widespread; it +prevailed in England before the Norman Conquest, and is an +outcome of the earlier principle whereby this responsibility +rested on kinship. Thus a law of Edgar (d. 975) says “and let +every man so order that he have a <i>borh</i> (or surety), and let the +borh then bring and hold him to every justice; and if any one +then do wrong and run away, let the borh bear that which he +ought to bear”; and a law of Canute about 1030 says “and +that every one be brought into a hundred and in borh, and let +the borh hold and lead him to every plea.” About this time +these societies, each having its headman, were called <i>frithborhs</i>, +or peace-borhs, and the Normans translated the Anglo-Saxon +word by frankpledge. But the history of the frankpledge +proper begins not earlier than the time of the Norman Conquest. +The laws, which although called the laws of Edward the Confessor +were not drawn up until about 1130, contain a clause about +frithborhs which decrees that in every place societies of ten men +shall be formed for mutual security and reparation. And +before this date William the Conqueror had ordered that “every +one who wishes to be regarded as free must be in a pledge, and +that the pledge must hold and bring him to justice if he commits +any offence”; and the laws of Henry I. ordered every person +of substance over twelve years of age to be enrolled in a frankpledge. +This association of ten, or as it often was at a later date +of twelve men, was also called a <i>tithing</i>, or <i>decima</i>, and in the +north of England was known as <i>tenmanne</i> tale.</p> + +<p>The view of frankpledge (<i>visus franciplegii</i>), or the duty of +ascertaining that the law with regard to frankpledges was complied +with, was in the hands of the sheriffs, who held an itinerant +court called the “sheriff’s tourn” for this and other purposes. +This court was held twice a year, but in 1217 it was ordered +that the view of frankpledge should only be taken once—at +Michaelmas. Introduced at or before the time of Henry I., +the view was regulated by the Assize of Clarendon of 1166 and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span> +by Magna Carta as reissued in 1217. Although the former of +these lays stress upon the fact that the sheriff’s supervisory +powers are universal many men did not attend his tourn. Some +lords of manors and of hundreds held a court of their own for +view of frankpledge, and in the 13th century it may be fairly +said “of all the franchises, the royal rights in private hands, +view of frankpledge is perhaps the commonest.” At the end of +the same century the court for the view of frankpledge was +generally known as the court leet, and was usually a manorial +court in private hands. However, the principle of the frankpledge +was still enforced. Thus Bracton says “every male of +the age of twelve years, be he free be he serf, ought to be in +frankpledge,” but he allows for certain exceptions.</p> + +<p>As the word frankpledge denotes, these societies were originally +concerned only with freemen; but the unfree were afterwards +admitted, and during the 13th century the frankpledges were +composed chiefly of villains. From petitions presented to parliament +in 1376 it seems that the view of frankpledge was in active +operation at this time, but it soon began to fall into disuse, and +its complete decay coincides with the new ideas of government +introduced by the Tudors. In a formal fashion courts leet for the +view of frankpledge were held in the time of the jurist Selden, +and a few of these have survived until the present day. Sir F. +Palgrave has asserted that the view of frankpledge was unknown +in that part of the country which had been included in the +kingdom of Northumbria. This statement is open to question, +but it is highly probable that the system was not so deeply +rooted in this part of England as elsewhere. The machinery +of the frankpledge was probably used by Henry II. when he +introduced the jury of presentment; and commenting on this +connexion F. W. Maitland says “the duty of producing one’s +neighbour to answer accusations (the duty of the frankpledges) +could well be converted into the duty of telling tales against him.” +The system of frankpledge prevailed in some English boroughs. +Sometimes a court for view of frankpledge, called in some places +a <i>mickleton</i>, whereat the mayor or the bailiffs presided, was +held for the whole borough; in other cases the borough was +divided into wards, or into <i>leets</i>, each of which had its separate +court.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i> (1895); G. Waitz, +<i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, Band i. (1880); and W. Stubbs, +<i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i. (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1826-1897), English +antiquary, was born on the 20th of March 1826, and was educated +at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He early showed +inclination for antiquarian pursuits, and in 1851 was appointed +assistant in the Antiquities Department of the British Museum. +Here, and as director of the Society of Antiquaries, an +appointment he received in 1858, he made himself the first +authority in England upon medieval antiquities of all descriptions, +upon porcelain, glass, the manufactures of savage nations, +and in general upon all Oriental curiosities and works of art later +than the Classical period. In 1866 the British and medieval +antiquities, with the ethnographical collections, were formed into +a distinct department under his superintendence; and the Christy +collection of ethnography in Victoria Street, London, prior to its +amalgamation with the British Museum collections, was also +under his care. He became vice-president and ultimately +president of the Society of Antiquaries, and in 1878 declined the +principal librarianship of the museum. He retired on his +seventieth birthday, 1896, and died on the 21st of May 1897. +His ample fortune was largely devoted to the collection of +ceramics and precious objects of medieval art, most of which +became the property of the nation, either by donation in his +lifetime or by bequest at his death. Although chiefly a medieval +antiquary, Franks was also an authority on classical art, especially +Roman remains in Britain: he was also greatly interested in +book-marks and playing-cards, of both of which he formed +important collections. He edited Kemble’s <i>Horae Ferales</i>, +and wrote numerous memoirs on archaeological subjects. +Perhaps his most important work of this class is the catalogue +of his own collection of porcelain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANKS.<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> The name Franks seems to have been given in the +4th century to a group of Germanic peoples dwelling north of +the Main and reaching as far as the shores of the North Sea; +south of the Main was the home of the Alamanni. The names of +some of these tribes have come down to us. On the <i>Tabula +Peutingeriana</i> appear the “Chamavi qui et <i>Pranci</i>,” which +should doubtless read “qui et <i>Franci</i>”; these Chamavi +apparently dwelt between the Yssel and the Ems. Later, we +find them a little farther south, on the banks of the Rhine, in +the district called Hamalant, and it is their customs which were +brought together in the 9th century in the document known as +the <i>Lex Francorum Chamavorum</i>. After the Chamavi we may +mention the Attuarii or Chattuarii, who are referred to by +Ammianus Marcellinus (xx. 10, 2): “Rheno exinde transmisso, +regionem pervasit (Julianus) Francorum quos Atthuarios +vocant.” Later, the <i>pagus Attuariorum</i> corresponds to the +district of Emmerich and Xanten. It should be noted that this +name occurs again in the middle ages in Burgundy, not far +from Dijon; in all probability a detachment of this people had +settled in that spot in the 5th or 6th century. The Bructeri, +Ampsivarii and Chatti may also be classed among the Frankish +tribes. They are mentioned in a celebrated passage of Sulpicius +Alexander, which is cited by Gregory of Tours (<i>Historia Francorum</i>, +ii. 9). Sulpicius shows the general Arbogast, a barbarian +in the service of Rome, seeking to take vengeance on the Franks +(392): “Collecto exercitu, transgressus Rhenum, Bricteros ripae +proximos, pagum etiam quem Chamavi incolunt depopulatus +est, nullo unquam occursante, nisi quod pauci ex Ampsivariis +et Catthis Marcomere duce in ulterioribus collium jugis +apparuere.” It is evidently this Marcomeres, the chief of these +tribes, who is regarded by later historians as the father of the +legendary Faramund (Pharamund) although in fact Marcomeres +has nothing to do with the Salian Franks.</p> + +<p>The earliest mention in history of the name Franks is the +entry on the <i>Tabula Peutingeriana</i>, at least if we assume that +the term “et Franci” is not a later emendation. The earliest +occurrence of the name in any author is in the <i>Vita Aureliani</i> +of Vopiscus (ch. vii.). When, in 241, Aurelian, who was then +only a tribune, had just defeated some Franks in the neighbourhood +of Mainz and was marching against the Persians, his troops +sang the following refrain:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Mille Sarmatas, mille <i>Francos</i>, semel et semel occidimus;</p> +<p>Mille Persas, quaerimus.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">All these Germanic tribes, which were known from the 3rd +century onwards by the generic name of Franks, doubtless spoke +a similar dialect and were governed by customs which must +scarcely have differed from one another; but this was all they +had in common. Each tribe was politically independent; they +formed no confederations. Sometimes two or three tribes joined +forces to wage a war; but, the struggle over, the bond was broken, +and each tribe resumed its isolated life. Waitz holds with some +show of probability that the Franks represent the ancient +Istaevones of Tacitus, the Alamanni and the Saxons representing +the Herminones and the Ingaevones.</p> + +<p>Of all these Frankish tribes one especially was to become +prominent, the tribe of the Salians. They are mentioned for the +first time in 358, by Ammianus Marcellinus (xvii. 8, 3), who says +that the Caesar Julian “petit primos omnium Francos, videlicet +eos quos consuetudo Salios appellavit.” As to the origin of the +name, it was long held to be derived from the river Yssel or Saal. +It is more probable, however, that it arose from the fact that +the Salians for a long period occupied the shores of the salt sea.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +The Salians inhabited the sea-coast, whereas the Ripuarians +dwelt on the banks of the river Rhine.</p> + +<p>The Salians, at the time when they are mentioned by +Ammianus, occupied Toxandria, <i>i.e.</i> the region south of the +Meuse, between that river and the Scheldt. Julian defeated them +completely, but allowed them to remain in Toxandria, not, as +of old, as conquerors, but as <i>foederati</i> of the Romans. They +perhaps paid tribute, and they certainly furnished Rome with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span> +soldiers; <i>Salii seniores</i> and <i>Salii juniores</i> are mentioned in the +<i>Notitia dignitatum</i>, and Salii appear among the <i>auxilia palatina</i>.</p> + +<p>At the end of the 4th century and at the beginning of the 5th, +when the Roman legions withdrew from the banks of the Rhine, +the Salians installed themselves in the district as an independent +people. The place-names became entirely Germanic; the +Latin language disappeared; and the Christian religion suffered +a check, for the Franks were to a man pagans. The Salians +were subdivided into a certain number of tribes, each tribe +placing at its head a king, distinguished by his long hair and +chosen from the most noble family (<i>Historia Francorum</i>, ii. 9).</p> + +<p>The most ancient of these kings, reigning over the principal +tribe, who is known to us is Chlodio.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> According to Gregory +of Tours Chlodio dwelt at a place called Dispargum, which it is +impossible to identify. Towards 431 he crossed the great Roman +road from Bavay to Cologne, which was protected by numerous +forts and had long arrested the invasions of the barbarians. He +then invaded the territory of Arras, but was severely defeated at +Hesdin-le-Vieux by Aetius, the commander of the Roman army +in Gaul. Chlodio, however, soon took his revenge. He explored +the region of Cambrai, seized that town, and occupied all the +country as far as the Somme. At this time Tournai became the +capital of the Salian Franks.</p> + +<p>After Chlodio a certain Meroveus (Merowech) was king of the +Salian Franks. We do not know if he was the son of Chlodio; +Gregory of Tours simply says that he belonged to Chlodio’s stock—“de +hujus stirpe quidam Merovechum regem fuisse adserunt,”—and +then only gives the fact at second hand. Perhaps the +remarks of the Byzantine historian Priscus may refer to Meroveus. +A king of the Franks having died, his two sons disputed the +power. The elder journeyed into Pannonia to obtain support +from Attila; the younger betook himself to the imperial court +at Rome. “I have seen him,” writes Priscus; “he was still +very young, and we all remarked his fair hair which fell upon +his shoulders.” Aetius welcomed him warmly and sent him +back a friend and <i>foederatus</i>. In any case, eventually, Franks +fought (451) in the Roman ranks at the great battle of Mauriac +(the Catalaunian Fields), which arrested the progress of Attila +into Gaul; and in the <i>Vita Lupi</i>, which, though undoubtedly +of later date, is a recension of an earlier document, the name +of Meroveus appears among the combatants. Towards 457 +Meroveus was succeeded by his son Childeric. At first Childeric +was a faithful <i>foederatus</i> of the Romans, fighting for them +against the Visigoths and the Saxons south of the Loire; but +he soon sought to make himself independent and to extend his +conquests. He died in 481 and was succeeded by his son Clovis, +who conquered the whole of Gaul with the exception of the +kingdom of Burgundy and Provence. Clovis made his authority +recognized over the other Salian tribes (whose kings dwelt at +Cambrai and other cities), and put an end to the domination of +the Ripuarian Franks.</p> + +<p>These Ripuarians must have comprised a certain number of +Frankish tribes, such as the Ampsivarii and the Bructeri. They +settled in the 5th century in compact masses on the left bank of +the Rhine, but their progress was slow. It was not until the +Christian writer Salvian (who was born about 400) had already +reached a fairly advanced age that they were able to seize +Cologne. The town, however, was recaptured and was not +definitely in their possession until 463. The Ripuarians subsequently +occupied all the country from Cologne to Trier. +Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn and Zülpich were their principal centres, +and they even advanced southward as far as Metz, which appears +to have resisted their attacks. The Roman civilization and the +Latin language disappeared from the countries which they +occupied; indeed it seems that the actual boundaries of the +German and French languages nearly coincide with those of +their dominion. In their southward progress the Ripuarians +encountered the Alamanni, who, already masters of Alsace, +were endeavouring to extend their conquests in all directions. +There were numerous battles between the Ripuarians and the +Alamanni; and the memory of one fought at Zülpich has come +down to us. In this battle Sigebert, the king of the Ripuarians, +was wounded in the knee and limped during the remainder of +his life—hence his surname Claudus (the Lame). The Ripuarians +long remained allies of Clovis, Sigebert’s son Chloderic fighting +under the king of the Salian Franks at Vouillé in 507. Clovis, +however, persuaded Chloderic to assassinate his father, and +then posed as Sigebert’s avenger, with the result that Chloderic +was himself assassinated and the Ripuarians raised Clovis on +the shield and chose him as king. Thus the Salian Franks united +under their rule all the Franks on the left bank of the Rhine. +During the reigns of Clovis’s sons they again turned their eyes +on Germany, and imposed their suzerainty upon the Franks on +the right bank. This country, north of the Main and the first +residence of the Franks, then received the name of <i>Francia +Orientalis</i>, and became the origin of one of the duchies into +which Germany was divided in the 10th century—the duchy of +Franconia (Franken).</p> + +<p>The Franks were redoubtable warriors, and were generally +of great stature. Their fair or red hair was brought forward +from the crown of the head towards the forehead, leaving the nape +of the neck uncovered; they shaved the face except the upper +lip. They wore fairly close breeches reaching to the knee and a +tunic fastened by brooches. Round the waist over the tunic +was worn a leathern girdle having a broad iron buckle damascened +with silver. From the girdle hung the single-edged missile axe +or <i>francisca</i>, the <i>scramasax</i> or short knife, a poniard and such +articles of toilet as scissors, a comb (of wood or bone), &c. The +Franks also used a weapon called the <i>framea</i> (an iron lance set +firmly in a wooden shaft), and bows and arrows. They protected +themselves in battle with a large wooden or wicker shield, the +centre of which was ornamented with an iron boss (<i>umbo</i>). +Frankish arms and armour have been found in the cemeteries +which abound throughout northern France, the warriors being +buried fully armed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer</i> (Göttingen, 1828); +K. Müllenhoff, <i>Deutsche Altertumskunde</i> (Berlin, 1883-1900); E. von +Wietersheim, <i>Geschichte der Völkerwanderung</i>, 2nd ed., ed. by F. +Dahn (Leipzig, 1880-1881); G. Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, +vol. i. (4th ed. revised by Zeumer); R. Schröder, “Die +Ausbreitung der salischen Franken,” in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen +Geschichte</i>, vol. xix.; K. Lamprecht, <i>Fränkische Wanderungen und +Ansiedelungen</i> (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1882); W. Schultz, <i>Deutsche +Geschichte von der Urzeit bis zu den Karolingern</i>, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, +1896); Fustel de Coulanges, <i>Histoire des institutions politiques de +l’ancienne France—l’invasion germanique</i> (Paris, 1891). Also the +articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Salic Law</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germanic Laws, Early</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Their legends are connected with the sea, the name Meroveus +signifying “sea-born.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The chronicler Fredegarius and the author of the <i>Liber historiae +Francorum</i> make Sunno and Marcomeres his predecessors, but in +reality they were chiefs of other Frankish tribes. The author of the +<i>Liber</i> also claims that Chlodio was the son of Pharamund, but this +personage is quite legendary. In the <i>Chronicon</i> of Fredegarius it is +already affirmed that the Franks are descended from the Trojans.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANZ, ROBERT<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1815-1892), German composer, was born +at Halle on the 28th of June 1815. One of the most gifted of +German song writers, he suffered in early life, as many musicians +have suffered, from the hostility of his parents to a musical +career. He was twenty years old when, his father’s animosity +conquered, he was allowed to live in Dessau to study organ-playing +under Schneider. The two years of dry study under +that famous teacher were advantageous chiefly in making him +uncommonly intimate with the works of Bach and Handel, his +knowledge of which he showed in his editions of the <i>Matthäus +Passion</i>, <i>Magnificat</i>, ten cantatas, and of the <i>Messiah</i> and +<i>L’Allegro</i>, though some of these editions have long been a subject +of controversy among musicians. In 1843 he published his first +book of songs, which ultimately was followed by some fifty more +books, containing in all about 250 songs. At Halle, Franz filled +various public offices, including those of organist to the city, +conductor of the Sing-akademie and of the Symphony concerts, +and he was also a royal music-director and master of the music +at the university. The first book of songs was warmly praised +by Schumann and Liszt, the latter of whom wrote a lengthy +review of it in Schumann’s paper, <i>Die neue Zeitschrift</i>, which +later was published separately. Deafness had begun to make +itself apparent as early as 1841, and Franz suffered also from a +nervous disorder, which in 1868 compelled him to resign his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span> +offices. His future was then provided for by Liszt, Dr Joachim, +Frau Magnus and others, who gave him the receipts of a concert +tour, amounting to some 100,000 marks. Franz died on the 24th +of October 1892. On his seventieth birthday he published his +first and only pianoforte piece. It is easy to find here and there +among his songs gems that are hardly less brilliant than the best +of Schumann’s. Certainly no musician was ever more thoughtful +and more painstaking. In addition to songs he wrote a setting +for double choir of the 117th Psalm, and a four-part Kyrie; +he also edited Astorga’s <i>Stabat Mater</i> and Durante’s <i>Magnificat</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANZÉN, FRANS MIKAEL<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was +born at Uleåborg in Finland on the 9th of February 1772. +At thirteen he entered the university of Åbo, where he attended +the lectures of H. G. Porthan (1739-1804), a pioneer in the study +of Finnish history and legend. He graduated in 1789, and +became “<i>eloquentiae docens</i>” in 1792. Three years later he +started on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France and +England, returning in 1796 to accept the office of university +librarian at Åbo. In 1801 he became professor of history and +ethics, and in 1808 was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. +On the cession of Finland to Russia, Franzén removed to Sweden, +where he was successively appointed parish priest of Kumla +in the diocese of Strengnäs (1810), minister of the Clara Church +in Stockholm (1824) and bishop of Hernösand (1831). He died +at Säbrå parsonage on the 14th of August 1847. From the +autumn of 1793, when his <i>Till en ung Flicka</i> and <i>Menniskans +anlete</i> were inserted by Kellgren in the <i>Stockholmspost</i>, Franzén +grew in popular favour by means of many minor poems of +singular simplicity and truth, as <i>Till Selma</i>, <i>Den gamle knekten</i>, +<i>Riddar St Göran</i>, <i>De Små blommorna</i>, <i>Modren vid vaggan</i>, +<i>Nyårsmorgonen</i> and <i>Stjernhimmelen</i>. His songs <i>Goda gosse +glaset töm</i>, <i>Sörj ej den gryende dagen förut</i>, <i>Champagnevinet</i> +and <i>Beväringssång</i> were widely sung, and in 1797 he won the prize +of the Swedish Academy by his <i>Sång öfver grefve Filip Creutz</i>. +Henceforth his muse, touched with the academic spirit, grew +more reflective and didactic. His longer works, as <i>Emili eller +en afton i Lappland</i>, and the epics <i>Svante Sture eller mötet vid +Alvastra</i>, <i>Kolumbus eller Amerikas upptäckt</i> and <i>Gustaf Adolf i +Tyskland</i> (the last two incomplete), though rich in beauties of +detail, are far inferior to his shorter pieces.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The poetical works of Franzén are collected under the title <i>Skaldestycken</i> +(7 vols., 1824-1861); new ed., <i>Samlade dikter</i>, with a biography +by A. A. Grafström (1867-1869); also a selection (<i>Valda dikter</i>) +in 2 vols. (1871). His prose writings, <i>Om svenska drottningar</i> (Åbo, +1798; Örebro, 1823), <i>Skrifter i obunden stil</i>, vol. i. (1835), <i>Predikningar</i> +(5 vols., 1841-1845) and <i>Minnesteckningar</i>, prepared for the +Academy (3 vols., 1848-1860), are marked by faithful portraiture and +purity of style. See B. E. Malmström, in the <i>Handlingar</i> of the +Swedish Academy (1852, new series 1887), vol. ii.; S. A. Hollander, +<i>Minne af F. M. Franzén</i> (Örebro, 1868); F. Cygnaeus, <i>Teckningar +ur F. M. Franzéns lefnad</i> (Helsingfors, 1872); and Gustaf Ljunggren, +<i>Svenska vitterhetens häfder efter Gustaf III.’s död</i>, vol. ii. (1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANZENSBAD<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Kaiser-Franzensbad</span>, a town and +watering-place of Bohemia, Austria, 152 m. W.N.W. of Prague by +rail. Pop. (1900) 2330. It is situated at an altitude of about +1500 ft. between the spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, the Böhmerwald +and the Erzgebirge, and lies 4 m. N.W. of Eger. It possesses +a large kursaal, several bathing establishments, a hospital for +poor patients and several parks. There are altogether 12 +mineral springs with saline, alkaline and ferruginous waters, +of which the oldest and most important is the Franzensquelle. +One of the springs gives off carbonic acid gas and another contains +a considerable proportion of lithia salts. The waters, which +have an average temperature between 50.2° F. and 54.5° F., +are used both internally and externally, and are efficacious in +cases of anaemia, nervous disorders, sexual diseases, specially +for women, and heart diseases. Franzensbad is frequently +resorted to as an after-cure by patients from Carlsbad and +Marienbad. Another important part of the cure is the so-called +<i>moor</i> or mud-baths, prepared from the peat of the Franzensbad +marsh, which is very rich in mineral substances, like sulphates +of iron, of soda and of potash, organic acids, salt, &c.</p> + +<p>The first information about the springs dates from the 16th +century, and an analysis of the waters was made in 1565. They +were first used for bathing purposes in 1707. But the foundation +of Franzensbad as a watering-place really dates from 1793, +when Dr Adler built here the first <i>Kurhaus</i>, and the place +received its name after the emperor Francis I.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dr Loimann, <i>Franzensbad</i> (3rd ed., Vienna, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANZ JOSEF LAND<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span>, an arctic archipelago lying E. of +Spitsbergen and N. of Novaya Zemlya, extending northward +from about 80° to 82° N., and between 42° and 64° E. It is +described as a lofty glacier-covered land, reaching an extreme +elevation of about 2400 ft. The glaciers front, with a perpendicular +ice-wall, a shore of debris on which a few low plants +are found to grow—poppies, mosses and the like. The islands +are volcanic, the main geological formation being Tertiary or +Jurassic basalt, which occasionally protrudes through the +ice-cap in high isolated blocks near the shore. A connecting +island-chain between Franz Josef Land and Spitzbergen is +probable. The bear and fox are the only land mammals; insects +are rare; but the avifauna is of interest, and the Jackson +expedition distinguished several new species.</p> + +<p>August Petermann expressed the opinion that Baffin may +have sighted the west of Franz Josef Land in 1614, but the +first actual discovery is due to Julius Payer, a lieutenant in the +Austrian army, who was associated with Weyprecht in the +second polar expedition fitted out by Count Wilczek on the +ship “Tegetthof” in 1872. On the 13th of August 1873, the +“Tegetthof” being then beset, high land was seen to the north-west. +Later in the season Payer led expeditions to Hochstetter +and Wilczek islands, and after a second winter in the ice-bound +ship, a difficult journey was made northward through Austria +Sound, which was reported to separate two large masses of land, +Wilczek Land on the east from Zichy Land on the west, to Cape +Fligely, in 82° 5′ N., where Rawlinson Sound branched away to +the north-east. Cape Fligely was the highest latitude attained +by Payer, and remained the highest attained in the Old World +till 1895. Payer reported that from Cape Fligely land (Rudolf +Land) stretched north-east to a cape (Cape Sherard Osborn), +and mountain ranges were visible to the north, indicating lands +beyond the 83rd parallel, to which the names King Oscar Land +and Petermann Land were given. In 1879 De Bruyne sighted +high land in the Franz Josef Land region, but otherwise it +remained untouched until Leigh Smith, in the yacht “Eira,” +explored the whole southern coast from 42° to 54° E. in 1881 +and 1882, discovering many islands and sounds, and ascertaining +that the coast of Alexandra Land, in the extreme west, trended +to north-west and north.</p> + +<p>After Leigh Smith came another pause, and no further mention +is made of Franz Josef Land till 1894. In that year Mr Alfred +Harmsworth (afterwards Lord Northcliffe) fitted out an expedition +in the ship “Windward” under the leadership of Mr F. +G. Jackson, with the object of establishing a permanent base +from which systematic exploration should be carried on for +successive years and, if practicable, a journey should be made +to the Pole. Mr Jackson and his party landed at “Elmwood” +(which was named from Lord Northcliffe’s seat in the Isle of +Thanet), near Cape Flora, at the western extremity of Northbrook +Island, on the 7th of September. After a preliminary reconnaissance +to the north, which afterwards turned out to be vitally +important, the summer of 1895 was spent in exploring the coast +to the north-west by a boating expedition. This expedition +visited many of the points seen by Leigh Smith, and discovered +land, which it has been suggested may be the Gillies Land +reported by the Dutch captain Gillies in 1707. In 1896 the +Jackson-Harmsworth expedition worked northwards through +an archipelago for about 70 m. and reached Cape Richthofen, +a promontory 700 ft. high, whence an expanse of open water +was seen to the northward, which received the name of Queen +Victoria Sea. To the west, on the opposite side of a wide opening +which was called the British Channel, appeared glacier-covered +land, and an island lay to the northward. The island was +probably the King Oscar Land of Payer. To north and north-east +was the land which had been visited in the reconnaissance +of the previous year, but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span> +supposed position of Petermann Land. Thus Zichy Land +itself was resolved into a group of islands, and the outlying +land sighted by Payer was found to be islands also. Meanwhile +Nansen, on his southward journey, had approached Franz +Josef Land from the north-east, finding only sea at the north +end of Wilczek Land, and seeing nothing of Payer’s Rawlinson +Sound, or of the north end of Austria Sound. Nansen wintered +near Cape Norway, only a few miles from the spot reached by +Jackson in 1895. He had finally proved that a deep oceanic +basin lies to the north. On the 17th of June 1896 the dramatic +meeting of Jackson and Nansen took place, and in the same +year the “Windward” revisited “Elmwood” and brought +Nansen home, the work of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition +being continued for another year. As the non-existence of land +to the north had been proved, the attempt to penetrate northwards +was abandoned, and the last season was devoted to a +survey and scientific examination of the archipelago, especially +to the west; this was carried out by Messrs Jackson, Armitage, +R. Koettlitz, H. Fisher and W. S. Bruce.</p> + +<p>Further light was thrown on the relations of Franz Josef Land +and Spitsbergen during 1897 by the discoveries of Captain +Robertson of Dundee, and Wyche’s Land was circumnavigated +by Mr Arnold Pike and Sir Savile Crossley. The latter voyage +was repeated in the following year by a German expedition +under Dr Th. Lerner and Captain Rüdiger. In August 1898 an +expedition under Mr Walter Wellman, an American, landed at +Cape Tegetthof. Beginning a northward journey with sledges +at the end of the winter, Wellman met with an accident +which compelled him to return, but not before some exploration +had been accomplished, and the eastern extension of the archipelago +fairly well defined. In June 1899 H.R.H. the duke of +Abruzzi started from Christiania in his yacht, the “Stella +Polare,” to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly +discovered ocean north of Franz Josef Land. The “Stella +Polare” succeeded in making her way through the British +Channel to Crown Prince Rudolf Land, and wintered in Teplitz +Bay, in 81° 33′ N. lat. The ship was nearly wrecked in the +autumn, and the party had to spend most of the winter on shore, +the duke of Abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite. In March +1900 a sledge party of thirteen, under Captain Cagni, started +northwards. They found no trace of Petermann Land, but with +great difficulty crossed the ice to 86° 33′ N. lat., 20 m. beyond +Nansen’s farthest, and 240 m. from the Pole. The party, with +the exception of three, returned to the ship after an absence +of 104 days, and the “Stella Polare” returned to Tromsö +in September 1900. In 1901-1902 the Baldwin-Ziegler expedition +also attempted a northward journey from Franz Josef +Land.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Geographical Journal</i>, vol. xi., February 1898; F. G. Jackson, +<i>A Thousand Days in the Arctic</i> (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRANZOS, KARL EMIL<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1848-1904), German novelist, was +born of Jewish parentage on the 25th of October 1848 in Russian +Podolia, and spent his early years at Czortków in Galicia. His +father, a district physician, died early, and the boy, after attending +the gymnasium of Czernowitz, was obliged to teach in order +to support himself and prepare for academic study. He studied +law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, but after passing the +examination for employment in the state judicial service +abandoned this career and, becoming a journalist, travelled +extensively in south-east Europe, and visited Asia Minor and +Egypt. In 1877 he returned to Vienna, where from 1884 to +1886 he edited the <i>Neue illustrierte Zeitung</i>. In 1887 he removed +to Berlin and founded the fortnightly review <i>Deutsche Dichtung</i>. +Franzos died on the 28th of January 1904. His earliest collections +of stories and sketches, <i>Aus Halb-Asien</i>, <i>Land und Leute +des östlichen Europas</i> (1876) and <i>Die Juden von Barnow</i> (1877) +depict graphically the life and manners of the races of south-eastern +Europe. Among other of his works may be mentioned +the short stories, <i>Junge Liebe</i> (1878), <i>Stille Geschichten</i> (1880), +and the novels <i>Moschko von Parma</i> (1880), <i>Ein Kampf ums +Recht</i> (1882), <i>Der Präsident</i> (1884), <i>Judith Trachtenberg</i> (1890), +<i>Der Wahrheitsucher</i> (1894).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASCATI<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province +of Rome, 15 m. S.E. of Rome by rail, and also reached by electric +tramway via Grottaferrata. Pop. (1901) 8453. The town is +situated 1056 ft. above the sea-level, on the N. slopes of the outer +crater ring of the Alban Hills, and commands a very fine view +of the Campagna of Rome. The cathedral contains a memorial +tablet to Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, whose body +for some while rested here; his brother, Henry, Cardinal York, +owned a villa at Frascati. The villas of the Roman nobility, +with their beautiful gardens and fountains, are the chief attraction +of Frascati. The earliest in date is the Villa Falconieri, +planned by Cardinal Ruffini before 1550; the most important +of the rest are the Villa Torlonia (formerly Conti), Lancelotti +(formerly Piccolomini), Ruffinella (now belonging to Prince +Lancellotti), Aldobrandini, Borghese and Mondragone (now a +Jesuit school). The surrounding country, covered with remains +of ancient villas, is fertile and noted for its wine. Frascati +seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancient villa, +which, under Domitian at any rate, belonged to the imperial +house about the 9th century in which period we find in the +<i>Liber Pontificalis</i> the names of four churches <i>in Frascata</i>. +The medieval stronghold of the counts of Tusculum (<i>q.v.</i>), +which occupied the site of the ancient city, was dismantled by +the Romans in 1191, and the inhabitants put to the sword or +mutilated. Many of the fugitives naturally took refuge in +Frascati. The see of Tusculum had, however, always had its +cathedral church in Frascati. For the greater part of the middle +ages Frascati belonged to the papacy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Tomassetti, <i>La Via Latina nel medio evo</i> (Rome, 1886), +170 seq.; T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iv. +(London, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1819-  ), Scottish +philosopher, was born at Ardchattan, Argyllshire, on the 3rd +of September 1819. He was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh, +where, from 1846 to 1856, he was professor of Logic at New +College. He edited the <i>North British Review</i> from 1850 to 1857, +and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church minister, +he succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logic and +Metaphysics at Edinburgh University. In 1859 he became +dean of the faculty of arts. He devoted himself to the study +of English philosophers, especially Berkeley, and published a +<i>Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop Berkeley with Annotations, +&c.</i> (1871; enlarged 1901), a <i>Biography of Berkeley</i> (1881), +an <i>Annotated Edition of Locke’s Essay</i> (1894), the <i>Philosophy of +Theism</i> (1896) and the <i>Biography of Thomas Reid</i> (1898). He +contributed the article on John Locke to the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i>. In 1904 he published an autobiography entitled +<i>Biographia philosophica</i>, in which he sketched the progress of his +intellectual development. From this work and from his Gifford +lectures we learn objectively what had previously been inferred +from his critical works. After a childhood spent in an austerity +which stigmatized as unholy even the novels of Sir Walter Scott, +he began his college career at the age of fourteen at a time when +Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were lecturing on Moral +Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical advance was +stimulated by Thomas Brown’s <i>Cause and Effect</i>, which introduced +him to the problems which were to occupy his thought. +From this point he fell into the scepticism of Hume. In 1836 +Sir William Hamilton was appointed to the chair of Logic and +Metaphysics, and Fraser became his pupil. He himself says, +“I owe more to Hamilton than to any other influence.” It +was about this time also that he began his study of Berkeley and +Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for the conception +of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In the <i>Biographia</i> +this “Theistic faith” appears in its full development +(see the concluding chapter), and is especially important as +perhaps the nearest approach to Kantian ethics made by original +English philosophy. Apart from the philosophical interest of +the Biographia, the work contains valuable pictures of the Land +of Lorne and Argyllshire society in the early 19th century, of +university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and a history of the +<i>North British Review</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASER, JAMES<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1818-1885), English bishop, was born at +Prestbury, in Gloucestershire, on the 18th of August 1818, and +was educated at Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, and Lincoln College, +Oxford. In 1839 he was Ireland scholar, and took a first class. +In 1840 he gained an Oriel fellowship, and was for some time +tutor of the college, but did not take orders until 1846. He was +successively vicar of Cholderton, in Wiltshire, and rector of +Ufton Nervet, in Berkshire; but his subsequent importance was +largely due to W. K. Hamilton, bishop of Salisbury, who recommended +him as an assistant commissioner of education. His +report on the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions, +made in May 1859, was described by Thomas Hughes as “a +superb, almost a unique piece of work.” In 1865 he was commissioned +to report on the state of education in the United States +and Canada, and his able performance of this task brought him +an offer of the bishopric of Calcutta, which he declined, but in +January 1870 he accepted the see of Manchester. The task +before him was an arduous one, for although his predecessor, +James Prince Lee, had consecrated no fewer than 130 churches, +the enormous population was still greatly in advance of the +ecclesiastical machinery. Fraser worked with the utmost +energy, and did even more for the church by the liberality and +geniality which earned him the title of “the bishop of all denominations.” +He was prominent in secular as well as religious +works, interesting himself in every movement that promoted +health, morality, or education; and especially serviceable as +the friendly, unofficious counsellor of all classes. His theology +was that of a liberal high-churchman, and his sympathies were +broad. In convocation he seconded a motion for the disuse of +the Athanasian Creed, and in the House of Lords he voted for +the abolition of university tests. He died suddenly on the 22nd +of October 1885.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A biography by Thomas Hughes was published in 1887, and an +account of his Lancashire life by J. W. Diggle (1889), who also edited +2 vols. of <i>University and Parochial Sermons</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1783-1856), Scottish traveller +and author, was born at Reelick in the county of Inverness on +the 11th of June 1783. He was the eldest of the four sons of +Edward Satchell Fraser of Reelick, all of whom found their way +to the East, and gave proof of their ability. In early life he +went to the West Indies and thence to India. In 1815 he made +a tour of exploration in the Himalayas, accompanied by his +brother William (d. 1835). When Reza Kuli Mirza and Nejeff +Kuli Mirza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was +appointed to look after them during their stay, and on their +return he accompanied them as far as Constantinople. He was +afterwards sent to Persia on a diplomatic mission by Lord +Glenelg, and effected a most remarkable journey on horseback +through Asia Minor to Teheran. His health, however, was +impaired by the exposure. In 1823 he married a daughter +of Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee, a sister of the +historian Patrick Fraser Tytler. He died at Reelick in January +1856. Fraser is said to have displayed great skill in water-colours, +and several of his drawings have been engraved; and +the astronomical observations which he took during some of +his journeys did considerable service to the cartography of Asia. +The works by which he attained his literary reputation were +accounts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of Eastern +life. In both he employed a vigorous and impassioned style, +which was on the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor +faults in taste and flaws in structure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fraser’s earliest writings are: <i>Journal of a Tour through Part of +the Himālā Mountains and to the Sources of the Jumna and the Ganges</i> +(1820); <i>A Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 +and 1822, including some Account of the Countries to the North-East +of Persia</i> (1825); and <i>Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces +on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea</i> (1826). His romances +include <i>The Kuzzilbash, a Tale of Khorasan</i> (1828), and its sequel, +<i>The Persian Adventurer</i> (1830); <i>Allee Neemroo</i> (1842); and <i>The Dark +Falcon</i> (1844). He also wrote <i>An Historical and Descriptive Account +of Persia</i> (1834); <i>A Winter’s Journey (Tâtar) from Constantinople +to Teheran</i> (1838); <i>Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, &c.</i> (1840); +<i>Mesopotamia and Assyria</i> (1842); and <i>Military Memoirs of Col. +James Skinner</i> (1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span>, Bart. (1826-1898), English +politician, author and collector, was born on the 10th of +February 1826, the son of Sir James John Fraser, 3rd baronet, a +colonel of the 7th Hussars, who had served on Wellington’s staff +at Waterloo. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, +Oxford, entered the 1st Life Guards in 1847, but retired with a +captain’s rank in 1852. He then set about entering parliament, +and the ups and downs of his political career were rather remarkable. +He was returned for Barnstaple in 1852, but the election +was declared void on account of bribery, and the constituency +was disfranchised for two years. At the election of 1857 Sir +William, who had meantime been defeated at Harwich, was +again returned at Barnstaple. He was, however, defeated in +1859, but was elected in 1863 at Ludlow. This seat he held for +only two years, when he was again defeated and did not re-enter +parliament until 1874, when be was returned for Kidderminster, +a constituency he represented for six years, when he retired. He +was a familiar figure at the Carlton Club, always ready with a +copious collection of anecdotes of Wellington, Disraeli and +Napoleon III. He died on the 17th of August 1898. He was +an assiduous collector of relics; and his library was sold for +some £20,000. His own books comprise <i>Words on Wellington</i> +(1889), <i>Disraeli and his Day</i> (1891), <i>Hic et Ubique</i> (1893), +<i>Napoleon III.</i> (1896) and the <i>Waterloo Ball</i> (1897).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASER<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>, the chief river of British Columbia, Canada, rising +in two branches among the Rocky Mountains near 52° 45′ N., +118° 30′ W. Length 740 m. It first flows N.W. for about 160 m., +then rounds the head of the Cariboo Mountains, and flows +directly S. for over 400 m. to Hope, where it again turns abruptly +and flows W. for 80 m., falling into the Gulf of Georgia at New +Westminster. After the junction of the two forks near its +northern extremity, the first important tributary on its southern +course is the Stuart, draining Lakes Stuart, Fraser and François. +One hundred miles lower down the Quesnel, draining a large +lake of the same name, flows in from the east at a town also so +named. Farther on the Fraser receives from the west the +Chilcotin, and at Lytton, about 180 m. from the sea, the Thompson, +its largest tributary, flows in from the east, draining a series +of mountain lakes, and receiving at Kamloops the North +Thompson, which flows through deep and impassable canyons. +Below Hope the Lillooet flows in from the north. The Fraser +is a typical mountain stream, rapid and impetuous through all +its length, and like most of its tributaries is in many parts not +navigable even by canoes. On its southern course between +Lytton and Yale, while bursting its way through the Coast +Range, it flows through majestic canyons, which, like those +of the Thompson, were the scene of many tragedies during the +days of the gold-rush to the Cariboo district. At Yale, about +80 m. from its mouth, it becomes navigable, though its course +is still very rapid. In the Cariboo district, comprised within the +great bend of the river, near Tête Jaune Cache, are many valuable +gold deposits. With its tributaries the Fraser drains the whole +province from 54° to 49° N., except the extreme south-eastern +corner, which is within the basin of the Columbia and its tributary +the Kootenay.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASERBURGH<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>, a police burgh and seaport, on the N. coast +of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 7466; (1901), 9105. +It is situated 47¼ m. by rail N. of Aberdeen, from which there +is a branch line, of which it is the terminus, of the Great North +of Scotland railway. It takes its name from Sir Alexander +Fraser, the ancestor of Lord Saltoun, whose seat, Philorth +House, lies 2 m. to the south. Sir Alexander obtained for it +in 1613 a charter as a burgh of royalty, and also in 1592 a charter +for the founding of a university. This latter project, however, +was not carried out, and all that remains of the building intended +for the college is a three-storeyed tower. The old castle +of the Frasers on Kinnaird Head now contains a lighthouse, +and close by is the Wine Tower, with a cave below. The +town cross is a fine structure standing upon a huge hexagon, +surmounted by a stone pillar 12 ft. high, ornamented by the +royal and Fraser arms. The port is one of the leading stations +of the herring fishery in the north of Scotland and the head +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span> +of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to September) +the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 persons. +The fleet numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual +value of the catch exceeds £200,000. The harbour, originally +constructed as a refuge for British ships of war, is one +of the best on the east coast, and has been improved by the +widening of the piers and the extension of the breakwaters. +It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of access, and +affords anchorage for vessels of every size.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRASERVILLE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (formerly Rivière du Loup en Bas), a town +and watering-place in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada, +107 m. (by water) north-east of Quebec, on the south shore of +the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of the Rivière du Loup, +at the junction of the Intercolonial and Temiscouata railways. +It contains a convent, boys’ college, hospital, several mills, +and is a favourite summer resort on account of the angling and +shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1901) 4569.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRATER<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Frater House</span> or <span class="sc">Fratery</span>, a term in architecture +for the hall where the members of a monastery or friary +met for meals or refreshment. The word is by origin the same as +“refectory.” The older forms, such as <i>freitur</i>, <i>fraytor</i> and the +like, show the word to be an adaptation of the O. Fr. <i>fraitour</i>, +a shortened form of <i>refraitour</i>, from the Med. Lat. <i>rejectorium</i>. +The word has been confused with <i>frater</i>, a brother or friar, +and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall +of a friary, while “refectory” is used of a monastery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span>, a class of student societies +peculiar to the colleges and universities of the United States and +Canada, with certain common characteristics, and mostly +named from two or three letters of the Greek alphabet; hence +they are frequently called “Greek Letter Societies.” They are +organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity comprises +a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one +fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges, +called “chapters,” in memory of the convocations of monks of +medieval times, are usually designated by Greek letters also. +They are nominally secret, with one exception (<i>Delta Upsilon</i>). +Each chapter admits members from the lowest or freshman +class, and of course loses its members as the students depart +from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the same +time members of all the four college classes and frequently those +pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a +college is large the material from which fraternity members +may be drawn is correspondingly abundant, and in some of the +large colleges (<i>e.g.</i> at Cornell University and the University of +Michigan) there are chapters of over twenty fraternities. All +the fraternities aim to be select and to pick their members from +the mass of incoming students. Where, however, the material +to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities are +numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any +one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men. +Many of the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent +selection of men of about the same tastes at different colleges, +acquired a distinct character and individuality; for instance, +<i>Alpha Delta Phi</i> is literary.</p> + +<p>The first of these fraternities was the <i>Phi Beta Kappa</i>, founded +at the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, +in 1776. It was a little social club of five students: John +Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas Smith, Armistead Smith and +John Jones. Its badge was a square silver medal displaying +the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In 1779 it +authorized Elisha Parmelee, one of its members, to establish +“meetings” or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being +authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective +states. In 1781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its +buildings being occupied in turn by the British, French and +American troops, and the society ceased to exist. The two +branches, however, were established—that at Yale in 1780 and +that at Harvard in 1781. Chapters were established at Dartmouth +in 1787, at Union in 1817, at Bowdoin in 1824 and at Brown in 1830. +This society changed its character in 1826 and became non-secret +and purely honorary in character, admitting to membership a +certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in each +class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions +only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies +of similar character among schools of science and engineering +are <i>Sigma Xi</i> and <i>Tau Beta Pi</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1825, at Union College, <i>Kappa Alpha</i> was organized, +copying in style of badge, membership restrictions and the like, +its predecessor. In 1827 two other similar societies, <i>Sigma Phi</i> +and <i>Delta Phi</i>, were founded at the same place. In 1831 <i>Sigma +Phi</i> placed a branch at Hamilton College and in 1832 <i>Alpha +Delta Phi</i> originated there. In 1833 <i>Psi Upsilon</i>, a fourth +society, was organized at Union. In 1835 <i>Alpha Delta Phi</i> +placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 <i>Beta Theta Pi</i> +originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities, +it will be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the +male students. In 1910 the total number of men’s general +fraternities was 32, with 1068 living chapters, and owning +property worth many millions of dollars. In 1864 <i>Theta Xi</i>, +the first professional fraternity restricting its membership to +students intending to engage in the same profession, was organized. +There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations +with some 400 chapters. In addition there are about 100 +local societies or chapters acting as independent units. Some +of the older of these, such as <i>Kappa Kappa Kappa</i> at Dartmouth, +<i>IKA</i> at Trinity, <i>Phi Nu Theta</i> at Wesleyan and <i>Delta Psi</i> at +Vermont, are permanent in character, but the majority of them +are purely temporary, designed to maintain an organization +until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general fraternities. +In 1870 the first women’s society or “sorority,” +the <i>Kappa Alpha Theta</i>, was organized at De Pauw University. +There were in 1910, 17 general sororities with some 300 active +chapters.</p> + +<p>It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant +organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college +life of America and have had a wide influence. Members join +in the impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their +organizations a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contribute +with money and influence to their advancement.</p> + +<p>Almost universally the members of any particular chapter +(or part of them) live together in a lodge or chapter house. +The men’s fraternities own hundreds of houses and rent as many +more. The fraternities form a little aristocracy within the +college community. Sometimes the line of separation is invisible, +sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this condition militates +against the college discipline and sometimes it assists it. Conflicts +not infrequently occur between the fraternity and non-fraternity +element in a college.</p> + +<p>It can readily be understood how young men living together in +the intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house, +having much the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form +among themselves enduring friendships. In addition each +fraternity has a reputation to maintain, and this engenders an +esprit du corps which at times places loyalty to fraternity +interests above loyalty to college interest or the real advantage +of the individual. At commencements and upon other occasions +the former members of the chapters return to their chapter +houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the undergraduates. +The chapter houses are commonly owned by corporations +made up of the alumni. This brings the undergraduates +into contact with men of mature age and often of national fame, +who treat their membership as a serious privilege.</p> + +<p>The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to +jealousy and bitter animosity among those not selected for +membership. Some of the states, notably South Carolina and +Arkansas, have by legislation, either abolished the fraternities at +state-controlled institutions or seriously limited the privileges +of their members. The constitutionality of such legislation has +never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen out of +attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the +fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held, +may lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endowment +but not at an institution supported by public funds. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span> +the latter case all classes of the public are equally entitled to +the same educational privileges and members of the fraternities +may not be discriminated against.</p> + +<p>The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system +comprises a legislative body made up of delegates from the +different chapters and an executive or administrative body +elected by the delegates. Few of the fraternities have any +judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems are sound, +and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the +United States, several hundred in number, spend thousands of +dollars in travel and entertainment, and attract much public +attention. Most of the fraternities have an inspection system +by which chapters are periodically visited and kept up to a certain +level of excellence.</p> + +<p>The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to +eight times during the college year. The earliest of these was +the <i>Beta Theta Pi</i>, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues +of their members and the most prosperous have issued histories. +They also publish song books, music and many ephemeral and +local publications.</p> + +<p>The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associations +having headquarters at centres of population. These +organizations are somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable +of much exertion and influence should occasion arise.</p> + +<p>The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students +of colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about +it, however, is that while it is practically uniform throughout +the United States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard, +Yale and Princeton it differs in many respects from its character +elsewhere. At Harvard, although there are chapters of a few +of the fraternities, their influence is insignificant, their place +being taken by a group of local societies, some of them class +organizations. At Yale, the regular system of fraternities +obtains in the engineering or technical department (the Sheffield +Scientific School), but in the classical department the fraternity +chapters are called “junior” societies, because they limit their +membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors +each year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain +senior societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones, +which are inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of +the fraternities, are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities +themselves. Princeton has two (secret) literary and fraternal +societies, the American Whig and the Cliosophic, and various +local social clubs, with no relationship to organizations in other +colleges and not having Greek letter names.</p> + +<p>At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Virginia), +senior societies or other inter-fraternity societies exert great +influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system.</p> + +<p>Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and +imitating the externals of the college fraternities have sprung +up in the high schools and academies of the country, but have +excited the earnest and apparently united opposition of the +authorities of such schools.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William Raimond Baird, <i>American College Fraternities</i> (6th +ed., New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, <i>Cyclopedia of Fraternities</i> +(Paterson, N. J., 1899); Henry D. Sheldon, <i>Student Life and Customs</i> +(New York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, <i>Patterson’s College and +School Directory</i> (Chicago, 1904); H. K. Kellogg, <i>College Secret +Societies</i> (Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, <i>Greek Letter Societies</i> +(Detroit, 1879).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRATICELLI<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (plural diminutive of Ital. <i>frate</i>, brother), the +name given during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries to a number +of religious groups in Italy, differing widely from each other, but +all derived more or less directly from the Franciscan movement. +Fra Salimbene says in his <i>Chronicle</i> (Parma ed., p. 108): “All +who wished to found a new rule borrowed something from the +Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit.” As early as 1238 +Gregory IX., in his bull <i>Quoniam abundavit iniquitas</i>, condemned +and denounced as forgers (<i>tanquam falsarios</i>) all who begged or +preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders, +and this condemnation was repeated by him or his successors. +The term Fraticelli was used contemptuously to denote, not any +particular sect, but the members of orders formed on the fringe +of the church. Thus Giovanni Villani, speaking of the heretic +Dolcino, says in his <i>Chronicle</i> (bk. viii. ch. 84): “He is not a +brother of an ordered rule, but a <i>fraticello</i> without an order.” +Similarly, John XXII., in his bull <i>Sancta Romana et Universalis +Ecclesia</i> (28th of December 1317), condemns vaguely those +“<i>profanae multitudinis viri</i> commonly called Fraticelli, or +Brethren of the Poor Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguines, or by all +manner of other names.”</p> + +<p>Some historians, in their zeal for rigid classification, have +regarded the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted +to discover its dogmas and its founder. Some of the contemporaries +of these religious groups fell into the same error, +and in this way the vague term Fraticelli has sometimes been +applied to the disciples of Armanno Pongilupo of Ferrara (d. 1269), +who was undoubtedly a Cathar, and to the followers of Gerard +Segarelli and Dolcino, who were always known among themselves +as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems +absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans +as Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrle (<i>Arch. f. +Lit. u. Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters</i>, ii. 107, &c.), Angelo of +Clarino, in his <i>De septem tribulationibus</i>, written to the glory of +the Spirituals, does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as +“disciples of the devil.” It is equally absurd to include in the +same category the ignorant Bizocchi and Segarellists and such +learned disciples of Michael of Cesena and Louis of Bavaria as +William of Occam and Bonagratia of Bergamo, who have often +been placed under this comprehensive rubric.</p> + +<p>The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most +exalted fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners +declared to the inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the +Franciscan order was divided into three sections—the Conventuals, +who were allowed to retain their real and personal +property; the Spirituals or Beguines, who were at that time +the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose +leader was Henry of Ceva (see Gui’s <i>Practica Inquisitionis</i>, v.). +It is this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned +in his bull <i>Gloriosam Ecclesiam</i> (23rd of January 1318), but +without calling them Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge +in Sicily at the time of Pope Boniface VIII.’s persecution of the +Spirituals, and thanks to the good offices of Frederick of Sicily, +a little colony of Franciscans who rejected all property had soon +established itself in the island. Under Pope Clement V., and +more especially under Pope John XXII., fresh Spirituals joined +them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics soon +began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the Minorites +and then as the sole Catholic Church. After being excommunicated +as “schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious +sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines,” they +proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cesena had disavowed +them) and then a pope called Celestine (L. Wadding, <i>Annales</i>, +at date 1313). The rebels continued to carry on an active +propaganda. In Tuscany particularly the Inquisition made +persistent efforts to suppress them; Florence afflicted them +with severe laws, but failed to rouse the populace against them. +The papacy dreaded their social even more than their dogmatic +influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout Italy +the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and +the malcontents who had either left the church or were on the +point of leaving it, were attracted by these communities of +needy rebels; and the tribune Rienzi was at one time disposed +to join them. To overcome these ascetics it was necessary to +have recourse to other ascetics, and from the outset the reformed +Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict Observance, under the +direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da Trinci (d. 1390), +Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bernardine of Siena, had +been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy. These +early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the +number of the sectaries and the extent of their influence, Pope +Martin V., who had encouraged the Observants, and particularly +Bernardine of Siena, fulminated two bulls (1418 and 1421) +against the heretics, and entrusted different legates with the task +of hunting them down. These measures failing, he decided, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span> +1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors without territorial +limitation to make a special crusade against the heresy of the +Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their duties +under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.) +were Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The +latter’s valuable <i>Dialogus contra Fraticellos</i> (Baluze and Mansi, +<i>Miscellanea</i>, iv. 595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of +these heretics and of the activity of the two inquisitors, and shows +that the Fraticelli not only constituted a distinct church but +a distinct society. They had a pope called Rinaldo, who was +elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother named Gabriel. +This supreme head of their church they styled “bishop of +Philadelphia,” Philadelphia being the mystic name of their +community; under him were bishops, <i>e.g.</i> the bishops of +Florence, Venice, &c.; and, furthermore, a member of the +community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore the title of +“Emperor of the Christians.” This organization, at least in +so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed +among the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council +of Siena affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an +heretical pope surrounded with a college of cardinals who made +no attempt at concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli +were unremittingly pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect +gradually died out after losing the protection of the common +people, whose sympathy was now transferred to the austere +Observants and their miracle-worker Capistrano. From 1466 +to 1471 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471 +Tommaso di Scarlino was sent to Piombino and the littoral of +Tuscany to track out some Fraticelli who had been discovered +in those parts. After that date the name disappears from history.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Ehrle, “Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhältnis zum Franziskanerorden +und zu den Fraticellen” and “Zur Vorgeschichte des +Concils von Vienne,” in <i>Archiv für Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte +des Mittelalters</i>, vols. i., ii., iii.; Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, +s.v. “Fraticellen”; H. C. Lea, <i>History of the Inquisition of the Middle +Ages</i>, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAUD<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fraus</i>, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which +has never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law, +and for legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But +as denoting a cause of action for which damages can be recovered +in civil proceedings it now has a clear and settled meaning. In +actions in which damages are claimed for fraud, the difficulties +and obscurities which commonly arise are due rather to the +complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of modern +swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern +law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must +first prove a representation of fact, made either by words, by +writing or by conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere concealment +is not actionable unless it amounts not only to <i>suppressio +veri</i>, but to <i>suggestio falsi</i>. An expression of opinion or of +intention is not enough, unless it can be shown that the opinion +was not really held, or that the intention was not really entertained, +in which case it must be borne in mind, to use the phrase +of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man’s mind is as much a matter +of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, it must be proved that +the representation was made without any honest belief in its +truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with +a reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally +established, after much controversy, in the case of <i>Derry</i> v. +<i>Peek</i> in 1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable. +Further, the person aggrieved must prove that the +offender made the representation with the intention that he +should act on it, though not necessarily directly to him, and that +he did in fact act in reliance on it. Lastly, the complainant +must prove that, as the direct consequence, he has suffered +actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement.</p> + +<p>As soon as the case of <i>Derry</i> v. <i>Peek</i> had established, as the +general rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not +actionable, a statutory exception was made to the rule in the +case of directors and promoters of companies who publish +prospectuses and similar documents. By the Directors’ Liability +Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage caused by untrue +statements in such documents, unless they can prove that they +had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be true. +It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be recovered +in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest +belief in its truth, still any person induced to enter into a contract +by a misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is +entitled to avoid the contract and to obtain a declaration that +it is not binding upon him. This is in accordance with the rule +of equity, which since the Judicature Act prevails in all the +courts. Whether the representation is fraudulent or innocent, +the contract is not void, but voidable. The party misled must +exercise his option to avoid the contract without delay, and +before it has become impossible to restore the other party to the +position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he +is too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in +order to assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the misrepresentation +was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of +dishonest dealing, though not a distinct cause of action, is often +material as preventing the acquisition of a right, for which good +faith is a necessary condition. Also a combination or conspiracy +by two or more persons to defraud gives rise to liabilities not +very clearly or completely defined.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAUENBURG,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Prussia, on the Frische Haff, at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m. +S.W. from Königsberg on the railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500. +The cathedral (founded 1329), with six towers, stands on a +commanding eminence adjoining the town and surrounded by +castellated walls and bastions. This is known as Dom-Frauenburg, +and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ermeland. +Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer Copernicus +bearing the inscription <i>Astronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen et +gloria utrumque implevit orbem</i>. There is a small port with +inconsiderable trade. <span class="correction" title="amended from Frauenberg">Frauenburg</span> was founded in 1287 and +received the rights of a town in 1310.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAUENFELD,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau, +27 m. by rail N.E. of Zürich or 14½ m. W. of Romanshorn. +It is built on the Murg stream a little above its junction with the +Thur. It is a prosperous commercial town, being situated at +the meeting point of several routes, while it possesses several +industrial establishments, chiefly concerned with different +branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population (including the +neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking, +while there were 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauenfeld +is the artillery depôt for North-East Switzerland. The upper +town is the older part, and centres round the castle, of which the +tower dates from the 10th century, though the rest is of a later +period. Both stood on land belonging to the abbot of Reichenau, +who, with the count of Kyburg, founded the town, which is first +mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained all manorial rights till +1803, while the political powers of the Kyburgers (who were the +“protectors” of Reichenau) passed to the Habsburgs in 1273, +and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of the +Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the +meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital +of the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1799 it +was successively occupied by the Austrians and the French. +The old Capuchin convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a +vicarage by the Romanist priest.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAUENLOB,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> the name by which <span class="sc">Heinrich von Meissen</span>, +a German poet of the 13th century, is generally known. He +seems to have acquired the sobriquet because in a famous +<i>Liederstreit</i> with his rival Regenbogen he defended the use of the +word <i>Frau</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>frouwe</i>, = lady) instead of <i>Weib</i> (<i>wîp</i> = woman). +Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble burgher family. +His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he gradually +acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of +the German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph I. +in the Marchfeld, in 1286 he was at Prague at the knighting of +Wenceslaus (Wenzel) II., and in 1311 he was present at a knightly +festival celebrated by Waldemar of Brandenburg before Rostock. +After this he settled in Mainz, and there according to the popular +account, founded the first school of Meistersingers (<i>q.v.</i>). He +died in 1318, and was buried in the cloisters of the cathedral at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span> +Mainz. His grave is still marked by a copy made in 1783 of the +original tombstone of 1318; and in 1842 a monument by Schwanthaler +was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob’s poems make a +great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors, +and his versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Frauenlob’s poetry was edited by L. Ettmüller in 1843; a selection +will be found in K. Bartsch, <i>Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. +Jahrhunderts</i> (3rd ed., 1893). An English translation of Frauenlob’s +<i>Cantica canticorum</i>, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877 +at St Louis, U.S.A. See A. Boerkel, <i>Frauenlob</i> (2nd ed., 1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1558-1633), English poet, a native +of Shropshire, was born between 1558 and 1560. His name was +registered as a pupil of Shrewsbury School in January 1571/2, +and he joined St John’s College, Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a +fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of <i>Victoria</i>, dedicated to +Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge, where he remained +until he had taken his M.A. degree in 1583. He was called to the +bar at Gray’s Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised as a +barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of +his patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney’s +sister Mary, countess of Pembroke. His last work was published +in 1592, and we have no further knowledge of him until 1633, +when he is said to have written an <i>Epithalamium</i> in honour +of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egerton, 7th daughter of the +earl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly have entered.</p> + +<p>His works are: <i>The Lamentations of Amintas for the death +of Phyllis</i> (1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend’s, +Thomas Watson’s, Latin <i>Amyntas</i>; <i>The Lawiers Logike, exemplifying +the praecepts of Logike by the practise of the common +Lawe</i> (1588); <i>Arcadian Rhetorike</i> (1588); <i>Abrahami Fransi +Insignium, Armorum ... explicatio</i> (1588); <i>The Countess of +Pembroke’s Yvychurch</i> (1591/2), containing a translation of +Tasso’s <i>Aminta</i>, a reprint of his earlier version of Watson, +“The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis” (Virgil, +eclogue ii.), a short translation from Heliodorus, and, in the third +part (1592) “Aminta’s Dale,” a collection of “conceited” +tales supposed to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch; +<i>The Countess of Pembroke’s Emanuell</i> (1591); <i>The Third Part +of the Countess of Pembroke’s Ivychurch, entituled Aminta’s Dale</i> +(1592). His <i>Arcadian Rhetorike</i> owes much to earlier critical +treatises, but has a special interest from its references to Spenser, +and Fraunce quotes from the <i>Faerie Queene</i> a year before the +publication of the first books. In “Colin Clout’s come home +again,” Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his +translations of Virgil’s second eclogue. His poems are written in +classical metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries +as the best exponent of Gabriel Harvey’s theory. Even Thomas +Nashe had a good word for “sweete Master France.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Countess of Pembroke’s Emanuell</i>, hexameters on the nativity +and passion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted +by Dr A. B. Grosart in the third volume of his <i>Miscellanies of the +Fuller Worthies Library</i> (1872). Joseph Hunter in his <i>Chorus Vatum</i> +stated that five of Fraunce’s songs were included in Sidney’s <i>Astrophel +and Stella</i>, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to +Fraunce, but to Thomas Campion. See a life prefixed to the transcription +of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, <i>Victoria</i>, by Professor +G. C. Moore Smith, published in Bang’s <i>Materialien zur Kunde des +alteren englischen Dramas</i>, vol. xiv., 1906.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1787-1826), German optician +and physicist, was born at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th of +March 1787, the son of a glazier who died in 1798. He was +apprenticed in 1799 to Weichselberger, a glass-polisher and looking-glass +maker. On the 21st of July 1801 he nearly lost his life +by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and the elector of +Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his extrication +from the ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this sum +he obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship, +and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He +now employed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving +on metal, devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on +mathematics and optics. In 1806 he obtained the place of +optician in the mathematical institute which in 1804 had been +founded at Munich by Joseph von Utzschneider, G. Reichenbach +and J. Liebherr; and in 1807 arrangements were made by +Utzschneider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand, a +skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, in +which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, <i>Gesch. der Wissensch. +in Deutschl.</i> bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utzschneider, +Fraunhofer established in 1809 an optical institute +at Benedictbeuern, near Munich, of which he in 1818 became +sole manager. The institute was in 1819 removed to Munich, +and on Fraunhofer’s death came under the direction of G. Merz.</p> + +<p>Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer +was a machine for polishing mathematically uniform spherical +surfaces. He was the inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of +a form of heliometer; and in 1816 he succeeded in constructing +for the microscope achromatic glasses of long focus, consisting of +a single lens, the constituent glasses of which were in juxtaposition, +but not cemented together. The great reflecting +telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was +the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic +telescopes that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed +his willingness to furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter. +Fraunhofer is especially known for the researches, published in +the <i>Denkschriften der Münchener Akademie</i> for 1814-1815, by +which he laid the foundation of solar and stellar chemistry. +The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest noted by +Dr W. H. Wollaston (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1802, p. 378), were independently +discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a +theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the +light a prism was interposed, were for the first time carefully +observed by Fraunhofer, and have on that account been designated +“Fraunhofer’s lines.” He constructed a map of as many +as 576 of these lines, the principal of which he denoted by the +letters of the alphabet from A to G; and by ascertaining their +refractive indices he determined that their relative positions are +constant, whether in spectra produced by the direct rays of the +sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and planets. The +spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the object-glass +of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light passed +to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed that +in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were +different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other well-known +solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was +not by any action of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light +passing through it that the lines were produced. He further +expressed the belief that the dark lines D of the solar spectrum +coincide with the bright lines of the sodium flame. He was also +the inventor of the diffraction grating.</p> + +<p>In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet +at Munich, and in the following year he received from the king +of Bavaria the civil order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th +of June 1826, and was buried near Reichenbach, whose decease +had taken place eight years previously. On his tomb is the +inscription “Approximavit sidera.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. von Utzschneider, <i>Kurzer Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des +Herrn Dr J. von Fraunhofer</i> (Munich, 1826); and G. Merz, <i>Das Leben +und Wirken Fraunhofers</i> (Landshut, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAUSTADT<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (Polish, <i>Wszowa</i>), a town of Germany, in the +Prussian province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with +windmills, 50 m. S.S.W. of Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan. +Pop. (including a garrison) 7500. It has three Evangelical +and two Roman Catholic churches, a classical school and a +teachers’ seminary; the manufactures include woollen and +cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is a +considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was +founded by Silesians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the +principality of Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles +XII. defeated the Saxons on the 13th of February 1706.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1765-1841), +French prelate and statesman, distinguished as an orator +and as a controversial writer, was born of humble parentage +at Curières, in the department of Aveyron, on the 9th of May +1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on dogmatic +theology, known as the “conferences” of Saint Sulpice, +delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, from 1803 to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span> +1809, to which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid +exposition and by his graceful oratory. The freedom of his language +in 1809, when Napoleon had arrested the pope and declared +the annexation of Rome to France, led to a prohibition +of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of Saint +Sulpice in 1811 was followed by his temporary retirement from +the capital. He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his +lectures in 1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again +compelled him to withdraw into private life, from which he did +not emerge until February 1816. As court preacher and almoner +to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the period of his greatest +public activity and influence. In connexion with the controversy +raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of +1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled <i>Vrais Principes +de l’église Gallicane sur la puissance ecclésiastique</i>, which though +unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received with favour +by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of +Frayssinous as bishop of Hermopolis “in partibus,” his election +to the French Academy, and his appointment to the grand-mastership +of the university, followed in rapid succession. In 1824, +on the accession of Charles X., he became minister of public instruction +and of ecclesiastical affairs under the administration +of Villèle; and about the same time he was created a peer of +France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly +marked by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his +lectures under the title <i>Défense du christianisme</i>. The work +passed through 15 editions within 18 years, and was translated +into several European languages. In 1828 he, along with his +colleagues in the Villèle ministry, was compelled to resign office, +and the subsequent revolution of July 1830 led to his retirement +to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became tutor to the duke +of Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord) at Prague, where he continued +to live until 1838. He died at St Géniez on the 12th of +December 1841.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bertrand, <i>Bibl. Sulpicienne</i> (t. ii. 135 sq.; iii. 253) for bibliography, +and G. A. Henrion (Paris, 2 vols., 1844) for biography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRÉCHETTE, LOUIS HONORÉ<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1839-1908), French-Canadian +poet, was born at Levis, Quebec, on the 16th of November +1839, the son of a contractor. He was educated in his native +province, and called to the Canadian bar in 1864. He started +the <i>Journal de Lévis</i>, and his revolutionary doctrines compelled +him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years +spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the +Liberal candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament. +At the elections of 1878 and 1882 he was defeated, and thereafter +confined himself to literature. He edited <i>La Patrie</i> and other +French papers in the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed +clerk of the Quebec legislative council. He was long a warm +advocate of the political union of Canada and the United States, +but in later life became less ardent, and in 1897 accepted the +honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of the +Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts, +and received numerous honorary degrees. His works include: +<i>Mes Loisirs</i> (1863); <i>La Voix d’un exilé</i> (1867), a satire against +the Canadian government; <i>Pêle-mêle</i> (1877); <i>Les Fleurs +boréales</i>, and <i>Les Oiseaux de neige</i> (1880), crowned by the French +academy; <i>La Légende d’un peuple</i> (1887); two historical +dramas, <i>Papineau</i> (1880) and <i>Felix Poutré</i> (1880); <i>La Noël au +Canada</i> (1900), and several prose works and translations. An +exponent of local French sentiment, he won the title of the +“Canadian Laureate.” He died on the 1st of June 1908.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDEGOND<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (<i>Fredigundis</i>) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Originally +a serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic +I., with a violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his +first wife Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha, +Queen Brunhilda’s sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic +married Fredegond (567). This woman exercised a most pernicious +influence over him. She forced him into war against +Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the assassination +of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a malignant +struggle against Chilperic’s sons by his first wife, Theodebert, +Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she persistently +endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children. +Her first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of +Paris stood godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond +tortured a number of women whom she accused of having +bewitched the child. Her second son also died in infancy. Finally, +she gave birth to a child who afterwards became king as Clotaire +II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, Chilperic himself +perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond has been +accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of +probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter.</p> + +<p>Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the kingdom +for her child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame +at Paris, she appealed to King Guntram of Burgundy, who +took Clotaire under his protection and defended him against his +other nephew, Childebert II., king of Austrasia. From that +time until her death Fredegond governed the western kingdom. +She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram +and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot; +and made several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending +against him hired bravoes armed with poisoned <i>scramasaxes</i> +(heavy single-edged knives). After the death of Childebert +in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom of Neustria at the +expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some cities near +Paris and defeated Theudebert at the battle of Laffaux, near +Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died +quietly in her bed in 597 soon after her victory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See V. N. Augustin Thierry, <i>Récits des temps mérovingiens</i> (Brussels, +1840); Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Bio-bibliographie</i> (2nd ed.), <i>s.v.</i> “Frédégonde.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERIC, HAROLD<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist, +was born on the 19th of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was educated +there, and took to journalism. He went to live in England +as London correspondent of the <i>New York Times</i> in 1884, and +was soon recognized for his ability both as a writer and as a +talker. He wrote several clever early stories, but it was not +till he published <i>Illumination</i> (1896), followed by <i>Gloria Mundi</i> +(1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully realized. +He died in England on the 19th of October 1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICIA<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Friedericia</span>), a seaport of Denmark, near the +S.E. corner of Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt +opposite the island of Fünen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has +railway communication with both south and north, and a steam +ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort and railway +station on Fünen. There is a considerable shipping trade, and +the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and +chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected +on the site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his +successor, Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a +powerful fortress. Free exercise of religion was offered to all +who should settle in the new town, which at first bore the name +of Frederiksodde, and only received its present designation in +1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm by the Swedish general +Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been dismantled, +it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was +not till 1709-1710 that the works were again put in a state of +defence. In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to +oppose the Prussians, who entered on the 2nd of May, and maintained +their position against the Danish gunboats. During the +armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was strengthened, and soon +afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which was brought +to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of July 1849. +In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected in +the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the +bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of +Thorvaldsen’s pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in +the cemetery of the Holy Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by +the same sculptor. On the outbreak of the war of 1864, the +fortress was again strengthened by new works and an entrenched +camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of April +after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly +destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town +till the conclusion of peace.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Mod. Ger. <i>Friedrich</i>; Ital. <i>Federigo</i>; Fr. +<i>Frédéric</i> and <i>Fédéric</i>; M.H.G. <i>Friderîch</i>; O.H.G. <i>Fridurîh</i>, +“king or lord of peace,” from O.H.G. <i>fridu</i>, A.S. <i>frith</i>, “peace,” +and <i>rîh</i> “rich,” “a ruler,” for derivation of which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry</a></span>), +a Christian name borne by many European sovereigns and +princes, the more important of whom are given below in the +following order:—(1) Roman emperors and German kings; +(2) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (3) +other reigning princes in the same order.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK I.<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1123-1190), Roman emperor, surnamed +“Barbarossa” by the Italians, was the son of Frederick II. of +Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and Judith, daughter of Henry +IX. the Black, duke of Bavaria. The precise date and place of +his birth, together with details of his early life, are wanting; but +in 1143 he assisted his maternal uncle, Count Welf VI., in his +attempts to conquer Bavaria, and by his conduct in several local +feuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful warrior. When +his father died in 1147 Frederick became duke of Swabia, and immediately +afterwards accompanied his uncle, the German king +Conrad III., on his disastrous crusade, during which he greatly +distinguished himself and won the complete confidence of the +king. Abandoning the cause of the Welfs, he fought for Conrad +against them, and in 1152 the dying king advised the princes to +choose Frederick as his successor to the exclusion of his own +young son. Energetically pressing his candidature, he was +chosen German king at Frankfort on the 4th or 5th of March +1152, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 9th of the same +month, owing his election partly to his personal qualities, and +partly to the fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival +families of Welf and Waiblingen.</p> + +<p>The new king was anxious to restore the Empire to the position +it had occupied under Charlemagne and Otto the Great, and saw +clearly that the restoration of order in Germany was a necessary +preliminary to the enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy. +Issuing a general order for peace, he was prodigal in his concessions +to the nobles. Count Welf was made duke of Spoleto and margrave +of Tuscany; Berthold VI., duke of Zähringen, was entrusted +with extensive rights in Burgundy; and the king’s +nephew, Frederick, received the duchy of Swabia. Abroad +Frederick decided a quarrel for the Danish throne in favour of +Svend, or Peter as he is sometimes called, who did homage for +his kingdom, and negotiations were begun with the East Roman +emperor, Manuel Comnenus. It was probably about this time +that the king obtained a divorce from his wife Adela, daughter +of Dietpold, margrave of Vohburg and Cham, on the ground +of consanguinity, and made a vain effort to obtain a bride +from the court of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick +had communicated the news of his election to Pope Eugenius +III., but neglected to ask for the papal confirmation. In spite +of this omission, however, and of some trouble arising from a +double election to the archbishopric of Magdeburg, a treaty was +concluded between king and pope at Constance in March 1153, +by which Frederick promised in return for his coronation to make +no peace with Roger I. king of Sicily, or with the rebellious +Romans, without the consent of Eugenius, and generally to help +and defend the papacy.</p> + +<p>The journey to Italy made by the king in 1154 was the precursor +of five other expeditions which engaged his main energies +for thirty years, during which the subjugation of the peninsula +was the central and abiding aim of his policy. Meeting the new +pope, Adrian IV., near Nepi, Frederick at first refused to hold +his stirrup; but after some negotiations he consented and +received the kiss of peace, which was followed by his coronation +as emperor at Rome on the 18th of June 1155. As his slender +forces were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility which +he aroused, he left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a +new and more formidable campaign. Disorder was again rampant +in Germany, especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored +by Frederick’s vigorous measures. Bavaria was transferred +from Henry II. Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, to Henry the +Lion, duke of Saxony; and the former was pacified by the +erection of his margraviate into a duchy, while Frederick’s +step-brother Conrad was invested with the Palatinate of the Rhine. +On the 9th of June 1156 the king was married at Würzburg +to Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the dead count of Upper +Burgundy, Renaud III., when Upper Burgundy or Franche +Comté, as it is sometimes called, was added to his possessions. +An expedition into Poland reduced Duke Boleslaus IV. to an +abject submission, after which Frederick received the homage of +the Burgundian nobles at a diet held at Besançon in October +1157, which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor. +A Swedish archbishop, returning from Rome, had been seized by +robbers, and as Frederick had not punished the offenders Adrian +sent two legates to remonstrate. The papal letter when translated +referred to the imperial crown as a benefice conferred by +the pope, and its reading aroused great indignation. The +emperor had to protect the legates from the fury of the nobles; +and afterwards issued a manifesto to his subjects declaring that +he held the Empire from God alone, to which Adrian replied that +he had used the ambiguous word <i>beneficia</i> as meaning benefits, +and not in its feudal sense.</p> + +<p>In June 1158 Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, +which was signalized by the establishment of imperial +officers called <i>podestas</i> in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt +and capture of Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with +pope Alexander III., who excommunicated the emperor on the +2nd of March 1160. During this visit Frederick summoned the +doctors of Bologna to the diet held near Roncaglia in November +1158, and as a result of their inquiries into the rights belonging +to the kingdom of Italy he obtained a large amount of wealth. +Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick +prevented a conflict between Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, +and a number of neighbouring princes, and severely punished the +citizens of Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold. +A further visit to Italy in 1163 saw his plans for the conquest +of Sicily checked by the formation of a powerful league against +him, brought together mainly by the exactions of the <i>podestas</i> +and the enforcement of the rights declared by the doctors of +Bologna. Frederick had supported an anti-pope Victor IV. +against Alexander, and on Victor’s death in 1163 a new anti-pope +called Paschal III. was chosen to succeed him. Having +tried in vain to secure the general recognition of Victor and +Paschal in Europe, the emperor held a diet at Würzburg in May +1165; and by taking an oath, followed by many of the clergy +and nobles, to remain true to Paschal and his successors, brought +about a schism in the German church. A temporary alliance +with Henry II., king of England, the magnificent celebration +of the canonization of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the +restoration of peace in the Rhineland, occupied Frederick’s +attention until October 1166, when he made his fourth journey +to Italy. Having captured Ancona, he marched to Rome, stormed +the Leonine city, and procured the enthronement of Paschal, and +the coronation of his wife Beatrix; but his victorious career +was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence which +destroyed the German army and drove the emperor as a fugitive +to Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years. +Henry the Lion was again saved from a threatening combination; +conflicting claims to various bishoprics were decided; and the +imperial authority was asserted over Bohemia, Poland and +Hungary. Friendly relations were entered into with the emperor +Manuel, and attempts made to come to a better understanding +with Henry II., king of England, and Louis VII., king of France.</p> + +<p>In 1174, when Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy, +the Lombard league had been formed, and the fortress of Alessandria +raised to check his progress. The campaign was a complete +failure. The refusal of Henry the Lion to bring help into +Italy was followed by the defeat of the emperor at Legnano on +the 29th of May 1176, when he was wounded and believed to be +dead. Reaching Pavia, he began negotiations for peace with +Alexander, which ripened into the treaty of Venice in August +1177, and at the same time a truce with the Lombard league +was arranged for six years. Frederick, loosed from the papal +ban, recognized Alexander as the rightful pope, and in July 1177 +knelt before him and kissed his feet. The possession of the vast +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span> +estates left by Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, and claimed +by both pope and emperor, was to be decided by arbitration, and +in October 1178 the emperor was again in Germany. Various +small feuds were suppressed; Henry the Lion was deprived of his +duchy, which was dismembered, and sent into exile; a treaty was +made with the Lombard league at Constance in June 1183; +and most important of all, Frederick’s son Henry was betrothed +in 1184 to Constance, daughter of Roger I., king of Sicily, and aunt +and heiress of the reigning king, William II. This betrothal, +which threatened to unite Sicily with the Empire, made it difficult +for Frederick, when during his last Italian expedition in 1184 +he met Pope Lucius III. at Verona, to establish friendly relations +with the papacy. Further causes of trouble arose, moreover, +and when the potentates separated the question of Matilda’s +estates was undecided; and Lucius had refused to crown +Henry or to recognize the German clergy who had been ordained +during the schism. Frederick then formed an alliance with +Milan, where the citizens witnessed a great festival on the 27th +of January 1186. The emperor, who had been crowned king of +Burgundy, or Arles, at Arles on the 30th of July 1178, had this +ceremony repeated; while his son Henry was crowned king of +Italy and married to Constance, who was crowned queen of +Germany.</p> + +<p>The quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new +pope Urban III., and open warfare was begun. But Frederick +was soon recalled to Germany by the news of a revolt raised by +Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of Cologne, in alliance with the +pope. The German clergy remained loyal to the emperor, and +hostilities were checked by the death of Urban and the election of +a new pope as Gregory VIII., who adopted a more friendly policy +towards the emperor. In 1188 Philip submitted, and immediately +afterwards Frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious +career of Saladin, who had just taken Jerusalem. After extensive +preparations he left Regensburg in May 1189 at the head of a +splendid army, and having overcome the hostility of the East +Roman emperor Isaac Angelus, marched into Asia Minor. On +the 10th of June 1190 Frederick was either bathing or crossing +the river Calycadnus (Geuksu), near Seleucia (Selefke) in Cilicia, +when he was carried away by the stream and drowned. The +place of his burial is unknown, and the legend which says he still +sits in a cavern in the Kyffhäuser mountain in Thuringia waiting +until the need of his country shall call him, is now thought to +refer, at least in its earlier form, to his grandson, the emperor +Frederick II. He left by his wife, Beatrix, five sons, of whom +the eldest afterwards became emperor as Henry VI.</p> + +<p>Frederick’s reign, on the whole, was a happy and prosperous +time for Germany. He encouraged the growth of towns, easily +suppressed the few risings against his authority, and took +strong and successful measures to establish order. Even after +the severe reverses which he experienced in Italy, his position in +Germany was never seriously weakened; and in 1181, when, +almost without striking a blow, he deprived Henry the Lion of +his duchy, he seemed stronger than ever. This power rested upon +his earnest and commanding personality, and also upon the support +which he received from the German church, the possession of +a valuable private domain, and the care with which he exacted +feudal dues from his dependents.</p> + +<p>Frederick I. is said to have taken Charlemagne as his model; +but the contest in which he engaged was entirely different both +in character and results from that in which his great predecessor +achieved such a wonderful temporary success. Though Frederick +failed to subdue the republics, the failure can scarcely be said to +reflect either on his prudence as a statesman or his skill as a +general, for his ascendancy was finally overthrown rather by the +ravages of pestilence than by the might of human arms. In +Germany his resolute will and sagacious administration subdued +or disarmed all discontent, and he not only succeeded in welding +the various rival interests into a unity of devotion to himself +against which papal intrigues were comparatively powerless, +but won for the empire a prestige such as it had not possessed +since the time of Otto the Great. The wide contrast between his +German and Italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that, +while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in Italy, he +held in check the power of the nobles in Germany, by conferring +municipal franchises and independent rights on the principal +cities. Even in Italy, though his general course of action was +warped by wrong prepossessions, he in many instances manifested +exceptional practical sagacity in dealing with immediate difficulties +and emergencies. Possessing frank and open manners, +untiring and unresting energy, and a prowess which found its +native element in difficulty and danger, he seemed the embodiment +of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age, and was +the model of all the qualities which then won highest admiration. +Stern and ambitious he certainly was, but his aims can scarcely +be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor; and though +he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients almost +diabolically ingenious in their cruelty, yet his general conduct +was marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional. +His quarrel with the papacy was an inherited conflict, not reflecting +at all on his religious faith, but the inevitable consequence +of inconsistent theories of government, which had been +created and could be dissipated only by a long series of events. +His interference in the quarrels of the republics was not only quite +justifiable from the relation in which he stood to them, but seemed +absolutely necessary. From the beginning, however, he treated +the Italians, as indeed was only natural, less as rebellious subjects +than as conquered aliens; and it must be admitted that in regard +to them the only effective portion of his procedure was, not his +energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories, but, +after the battle of Legnano, his quiet and cheerful acceptance of +the inevitable, and the consequent complete change in his policy, +by which if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition, +he at least did much to render innoxious for the Empire his +previous mistakes.</p> + +<p>In appearance Frederick was a man of well-proportioned, +medium stature, with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard. +He delighted in hunting and the reading of history, was zealous +in his attention to public business, and his private life was unimpeachable. +Carlyle’s tribute to him is interesting: “No king +so furnished out with apparatus and arena, with personal faculty +to rule and scene to do it in, has appeared elsewhere. A magnificent, +magnanimous man; holding the reins of the world, not +quite in the imaginary sense; scourging anarchy down, and +urging noble effort up, really on a grand scale. A terror to evil-doers +and a praise to well-doers in this world, probably beyond +what was ever seen since.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal contemporary authority for the earlier part of the +reign of Frederick is the <i>Gesta Friderici imperatoris</i>, mainly the work +of Otto, bishop of Freising. This is continued from 1156 to 1160 by +Rahewin, a canon of Freising, and from 1160 to 1170 by an anonymous +author. The various annals and chronicles of the period, +among which may be mentioned the <i>Chronica regia Coloniensis</i> +and the <i>Annales Magdeburgenses</i>, are also important. Other +authorities for the different periods in Frederick’s reign are Tageno +of Passau, <i>Descriptio expeditionis asiaticae Friderici I.</i>; Burchard, +<i>Historia Friderici imperatoris magni</i>; Godfrey of Viterbo, <i>Carmen +de gestis Friderici I.</i>, which are all found in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae +historica. Scriptores</i> (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); Otto +Morena of Lodi, <i>Historia rerum Laudensium</i>, continued by his son, +Acerbus, also in the <i>Monumenta</i>; Ansbert, <i>Historia de expeditione +Friderici, 1187-1196</i>, published in the <i>Fontes rerum Austriacarum. +Scriptores</i> (Vienna, 1855 fol.). Many valuable documents are found +in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae selecta</i>, Band iv., edited by M. Doeberl +(Munich, 1889-1890).</p> + +<p>The best modern authorities are J. Jastrow, <i>Deutsche Geschichte +im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen</i> (Berlin, 1893); W. von Giesebrecht, +<i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); +H. von Bünau, <i>Leben und Thaten Friedrichs I.</i> (Leipzig, 1872); H. +Prutz, <i>Kaiser Friedrich I.</i> (Dantzig, 1871-1874); C. Peters, <i>Die +Wahl Kaiser Friedrichs I.</i> in the <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, +Band xx. (Göttingen, 1862-1886); W. Gundlach, <i>Barbarossalieder</i> +(Innsbruck, 1899). For a complete bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz, +<i>Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte</i> (Göttingen, 1894), and +U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen âge</i>, +tome iii. (Paris, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK II.<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1194-1250), Roman emperor, king of Sicily +and Jerusalem, was the son of the emperor Henry VI. and Constance, +daughter of Roger I., king of Sicily, and therefore grandson +of the emperor Frederick I. and a member of the Hohenstaufen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span> +family. Born at Jesi near Ancona on the 26th of December +1194, he was baptized by the name of Frederick Roger, chosen +German king at Frankfort in 1196, and after his father’s death +crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 17th of May 1198. +His mother, who assumed the government, died in November +1198, leaving Pope Innocent III. as regent of Sicily and guardian +of her son. The young king passed his early years amid the +terrible anarchy in his island kingdom, which Innocent was +powerless to check; but his education was not neglected, and +his character and habits were formed by contact with men of +varied nationalities and interests, while the darker traits of his +nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which +he lived. In 1208 he was declared of age, and soon afterwards +Innocent arranged a marriage, which was celebrated the following +year, between him and Constance, daughter of Alphonso II. +king of Aragon, and widow of Emerich or Imre, king of Hungary.</p> + +<p>The dissatisfaction felt in Germany with the emperor Otto IV. +came to a climax in September 1211, when a number of influential +princes met at Nuremberg, declared Otto deposed, and invited +Frederick to come and occupy the vacant throne. In spite of +the reluctance of his wife, and the opposition of the Sicilian nobles, +he accepted the invitation; and having recognized the papal +supremacy over Sicily, and procured the coronation of his son +Henry as its king, reached Germany after an adventurous journey +in the autumn of 1212. This step was taken with the approval +of the pope, who was anxious to strike a blow at Otto IV.</p> + +<p>Frederick was welcomed in Swabia, and the renown of the +Hohenstaufen name and a liberal distribution of promises made +his progress easy. Having arranged a treaty against Otto with +Louis, son of Philip Augustus, king of France, whom he met at +Vaucouleurs, he was chosen German king a second time at Frankfort +on the 5th of December 1212, and crowned four days later +at Mainz. Anxious to retain the support of the pope, Frederick +promulgated a bull at Eger on the 12th of July 1213, by which +he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the +emperor Henry VI. in 1197, gave up the right of spoils and all +interference in episcopal elections, and acknowledged the right +of appeal to Rome. He again affirmed the papal supremacy +over Sicily, and promised to root out heresy in Germany. The +victory of his French allies at Bouvines on the 27th of July 1214 +greatly strengthened his position, and a large part of the Rhineland +having fallen into his power, he was crowned German king +at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1215. His cause continued +to prosper, fresh supporters gathered round his standard, and in +May 1218 the death of Otto freed him from his rival and left him +undisputed ruler of Germany. A further attempt to allay the +pope’s apprehension lest Sicily should be united with the Empire +had been made early in 1216, when Frederick, in a letter to Innocent, +promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize +his son Henry as king of Sicily, and to place him under the +suzerainty of Rome. Henry nevertheless was brought to Germany +and chosen German king at Frankfort in April 1220, though +Frederick assured the new pope, Honorius III., that this step +had been taken without his consent. The truth, however, seems +to be that he had taken great trouble to secure this election, and +for the purpose had won the support of the spiritual princes by +extensive concessions. In August 1220 Frederick set out for +Italy, and was crowned emperor at Rome on the 22nd of November +1220; after which he repeated the undertaking he had entered +into at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215 to go on crusade, and made lavish +promises to the Church. The clergy were freed from taxation +and from lay jurisdiction, the ban of the Empire was to follow +the ban of the Church, and heretics were to be severely punished.</p> + +<p>Neglecting his promise to lead a crusade, Frederick was +occupied until 1225 in restoring order in Sicily. The island was +seething with disorder, but by stern and sometimes cruel +measures the emperor suppressed the anarchy of the barons, +curbed the power of the cities, and subdued the rebellious +Saracens, many of whom, transferred to the mainland and +settled at Nocera, afterwards rendered him valuable military +service. Meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and +again; until under a threat of excommunication, after the fall of +Damietta in 1221, Frederick definitely undertook by a treaty +made at San Germano in 1225 to set out in August 1227 or to +submit to this penalty. His own interests turned more strongly +to the East, when on the 9th of November 1225, after having been +a widower since 1222, he married Iolande (Yolande or Isabella), +daughter of John, count of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem. +John appears to have expected that this alliance would restore +him to his kingdom, but his hopes were dashed to the ground +when Frederick himself assumed the title of king of Jerusalem. +The emperor’s next step was an attempt to restore the imperial +authority in northern Italy, and for the purpose a diet was called +at Cremona. But the cities, watchful and suspicious, renewed the +Lombard league and took up a hostile attitude. Frederick’s +reply was to annul the treaty of Constance and place the cities +under the imperial ban; but he was forced by lack of military +strength to accept the mediation of Pope Honorius and the +maintenance of the <i>status quo</i>.</p> + +<p>After these events, which occurred early in 1227, preparations +for the crusade were pressed on, and the emperor sailed from +Brindisi on the 8th of September. A pestilence, however, which +attacked his forces compelled him to land in Italy three days +later, and on the 29th of the same month he was excommunicated +by the new pope, Gregory IX. The greater part of the succeeding +year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarrel. +Alarmed at the increase in his opponent’s power, Gregory denounced +him in a public letter, to which Frederick replied in a +clever document addressed to the princes of Europe. The reading +of this manifesto, drawing attention to the absolute power +claimed by the popes, was received in Rome with such evidences +of approval that Gregory was compelled to fly to Viterbo. Having +lost his wife Isabella on the 8th of May 1228, Frederick again set +sail for Palestine, where he met with considerable success, the +result of diplomatic rather than of military skill. By a treaty +made in February 1229 he secured possession of Jerusalem, +Bethlehem, Nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood. +Entering Jerusalem, he crowned himself king of that city on the +18th of March 1229. These successes had been won in spite of +the hostility of Gregory, which deprived Frederick of the assistance +of many members of the military orders and of the clergy +of Palestine. But although the emperor’s possessions on the +Italian mainland had been attacked in his absence by the papal +troops and their allies, Gregory’s efforts had failed to arouse +serious opposition in Germany and Sicily; so that when Frederick +returned unexpectedly to Italy in June 1229 he had no difficulty +in driving back his enemies, and compelling the pope to sue for +peace. The result was the treaty of San Germano, arranged in +July 1230, by which the emperor, loosed from the ban, promised +to respect the papal territory, and to allow freedom of election +and other privileges to the Sicilian clergy. Frederick was next +engaged in completing the pacification of Sicily. In 1231 a +series of laws were published at Melfi which destroyed the +ascendancy of the feudal nobles. Royal officials were appointed +for administrative purposes, large estates were recovered for the +crown, and fortresses were destroyed, while the church was +placed under the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were prohibited. +At the same time certain privileges of self-government +were granted to the towns, representatives from which were +summoned to sit in the diet. In short, by means of a centralized +system of government, the king established an almost absolute +monarchical power.</p> + +<p>In Germany, on the other hand, an entirely different policy was +pursued. The concessions granted by Frederick in 1220, together +with the Privilege of Worms, dated the 1st of May 1231, made +the German princes virtually independent. All jurisdiction over +their lands was vested in them, no new mints or toll-centres were +to be erected on their domains, and the imperial authority was +restricted to a small and dwindling area. A fierce attack was also +made on the rights of the cities. Compelled to restore all their +lands, their jurisdiction was bounded by their city-walls; they +were forbidden to receive the dependents of the princes; all +trade gilds were declared abolished; and all official appointments +made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span> +annulled. A further attack on the Lombard cities at the diet of +Ravenna in 1231 was answered by a renewal of their league, and +was soon connected with unrest in Germany. About 1231 a +breach took place between Frederick and his elder son Henry, +who appears to have opposed the Privilege of Worms and to have +favoured the towns against the princes. After refusing to travel +to Italy, Henry changed his mind and submitted to his father at +Aquileia in 1232; and a temporary peace was made with the +Lombard cities in June 1233. But on his return to Germany +Henry again raised the standard of revolt, and made a league +with the Lombards in December 1234. Frederick, meanwhile, +having helped Pope Gregory against the rebellious Romans and +having secured the friendship of France and England, appeared +in Germany early in 1235 and put down this rising without +difficulty. Henry was imprisoned, but his associates were treated +leniently. In August 1235 a splendid diet was held at Mainz, +during which the marriage of the emperor with Isabella (1214-1241), +daughter of John, king of England, was celebrated. A +general peace (<i>Landfrieden</i>), which became the basis of all such +peaces in the future, was sworn to; a new office, that of imperial +justiciar, was created, and a permanent judicial record was first +instituted. Otto of Brunswick, grandson of Henry the Lion, +duke of Saxony, was made duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg; and +war was declared against the Lombards.</p> + +<p>Frederick was now at the height of his power. His second son, +Conrad, was invested with the duchy of Swabia, and the claim +of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, to some lands which had +belonged to the German king Philip was bought off. The attitude +of Frederick II. (the Quarrelsome), duke of Austria, had been +considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a visit paid +by Frederick to Italy a war against him was begun. Compelled +to return by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign, the +emperor took command of his troops, seized Austria, Styria +and Carinthia, and declared these territories to be immediately +dependent on the Empire. In January 1237 he secured the +election of his son Conrad as German king at Vienna; and in +September went to Italy to prosecute the war which had broken +out with the Lombards in the preceding year. Pope Gregory +attempted to mediate, but the cities refused to accept the insulting +terms offered by Frederick. The emperor gained a great +victory over their forces at Cortenuova in November 1237; but +though he met with some further successes, his failure to take +Brescia in October 1238, together with the changed attitude of +Gregory, turned the fortune of war. The pope had become +alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage between the +heiress of Sardinia, Adelasia, and his natural son Enzio, who +afterwards assumed the title of king of Sardinia. But as his +warnings had been disregarded, he issued a document after the +emperor’s retreat from Brescia, teeming with complaints against +Frederick, and followed it up by an open alliance with the +Lombards, and by the excommunication of the emperor on the +20th of March 1239. A violent war of words ensued. Frederick, +accused of heresy, blasphemy and other crimes, called upon all +kings and princes to unite against the pope, who on his side made +vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where his +emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching +rebellion. It was, however, impossible to find an anti-king. +In Italy, Spoleto and Ancona were declared part of the imperial +dominions, and Rome itself, faithful on this occasion to the +pope, was threatened. A number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a +council called by Gregory were captured by Enzio at the sea-fight +of Meloria, and the emperor was about to undertake the +siege of Rome, when the pope died (August 1241). Germany was +at this time menaced by the Mongols; but Frederick contented +himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them, +until in 1242 he was able to pay a short visit to Germany, where +he gained some support from the towns by grants of extensive +privileges.</p> + +<p>The successor of Gregory was Pope Celestine IX. But this +pontiff died soon after his election; and after a delay of eighteen +months, during which Frederick marched against Rome on two +occasions and devastated the lands of his opponents, one of his +partisans, Sinibaldo Fiesco, was chosen pope, and took the name +of Innocent IV. Negotiations for peace were begun, but the +relations of the Lombard cities to the Empire could not be +adjusted, and when the emperor began again to ravage the +papal territories Innocent fled to Lyons. Hither he summoned a +general council, which met in June 1245; but although Frederick +sent his justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, to represent him, and +expressed his willingness to treat, sentence of excommunication +and deposition was pronounced against him. Once more an +interchange of recriminations began, charged with all the violent +hyperbole characteristic of the controversial style of the age. +Accused of violating treaties, breaking oaths, persecuting the +church and abetting heresy, Frederick replied by an open letter +rebutting these charges, and in equally unmeasured terms +denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from +the pope downwards. The source of all the evil was, he declared, +the excessive wealth of the church, which, in retaliation for the +sentence of excommunication, he threatened to confiscate. In +vain the mediation of the saintly king of France, Louis IX., was +invoked. Innocent surpassed his predecessors in the ferocity and +unscrupulousness of his attacks on the emperor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Innocent +IV.</a></span>). War soon became general in Germany and Italy. +Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was chosen German +king in opposition to Frederick in May 1246, but neither he nor +his successor, William II., count of Holland, was successful in +driving the Hohenstaufen from Germany. In Italy, during the +emperor’s absence, his cause had been upheld by Enzio and +by the ferocious Eccelino da Romano. In 1246 a formidable +conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons against the +emperor’s power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was +discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty. The emperor’s +power seemed more firmly established than ever, when suddenly +the news reached him that Parma, a stronghold of the imperial +authority in the north, had been surprised, while the garrison was +off its guard, by the Guelphs. To recover the city was a matter +of prime importance, and in 1247 Frederick concentrated his +forces round it, building over against it a wooden town which, +in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted, +he named Vittoria. The siege, however, was protracted, and +finally, in February 1248, during the absence of the emperor on a +hunting expedition, was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of +the men of Parma, who stormed the imperial camp. The disaster +was complete. The emperor’s forces were destroyed or scattered; +the treasury, with the imperial insignia, together with Frederick’s +harem and some of the most trusted of his ministers, fell into the +hands of the victors. Thaddeus of Suessa was hacked to pieces by +the mob; the imperial crown was placed in mockery on the head +of a hunch-backed beggar, who was carried back in triumph into +the city.</p> + +<p>Frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes, and for a +while with success. But his old confidence had left him; he had +grown moody and suspicious, and his temper gave a ready handle +to his enemies. Pier della Vigna, accused of treasonable designs, +was disgraced; and the once all-powerful favourite and minister, +blinded now and in rags, was dragged in the emperor’s train, as a +warning to traitors, till in despair he dashed out his brains. +Then, in May 1248, came the tidings of Enzio’s capture by the +Bolognese, and of his hopeless imprisonment, the captors refusing +all offers of ransom. This disaster to his favourite son broke the +emperor’s spirit. He retired to southern Italy, and after a short +illness died at Fiorentino on the 13th of December 1250, after +having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of Palermo. +He was buried in the cathedral of that city, where his splendid +tomb may still be seen. By his will he appointed his son Conrad +to succeed him in Germany and Sicily, and Henry, his son by +Isabella of England, to be king of Jerusalem or Arles, neither of +which kingdoms, however, he obtained. Frederick left several +illegitimate children: Enzio has already been referred to; +Frederick, who was made the imperial vicar in Tuscany; and +Manfred, his son by the beloved Bianca Lancia or Lanzia, who +was legitimatized just before his father’s death, and was appointed +by his will prince of Tarento and regent of Sicily.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span></p> + +<p>The character of Frederick is one of extraordinary interest and +versatility, and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words +<i>stupor mundi et immutator mirabilis</i>. Licentious and luxurious in +his manners, cultured and catholic in his tastes, he united in his +person the most diverse qualities. His Sicilian court was a centre +of intellectual activity. Michael Scott, the translator of some +treatises of Aristotle and of the commentaries of Averroes, +Leonard of Pisa, who introduced Arabic numerals and algebra to +the West, and other scholars, Jewish and Mahommedan as well as +Christian, were welcome at his court. Frederick himself had a +knowledge of six languages, was acquainted with mathematics, +philosophy and natural history, and took an interest in medicine +and architecture. In 1224 he founded the university of Naples, +and he was a liberal patron of the medical school at Salerno. +He formed a menagerie of strange animals, and wrote a treatise +on falconry (<i>De arte venandi cum avibus</i>) which is remarkable for +its accurate observation of the habits of birds.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It was at his +court, too, that—as Dante points out—Italian poetry had its +birth. Pier della Vigna there wrote the first sonnet, and Italian +lyrics by Frederick himself are preserved to us. His wives were +kept secluded in oriental fashion; a harem was maintained at +Lucera, and eunuchs were a prominent feature of his household. +His religious ideas have been the subject of much controversy. +The theory of M. Huillard-Bréholles that he wished to unite to the +functions of emperor those of a spiritual pontiff, and aspired to be +the founder of a new religion, is insufficiently supported by +evidence to be credible. Although at times he persecuted +heretics with great cruelty, he tolerated Mahommedans and Jews, +and both acts appear rather to have been the outcome of political +considerations than of religious belief. His jests, which were used +by his enemies as a charge against him, seem to have originated +in religious indifference, or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which +anticipated the ideas of a later age. Frederick’s rule in Germany +and Italy was a failure, but this fact may be accounted for by the +conditions of the time and the inevitable conflict with the papacy. +In Germany the enactments of 1220 and 1231 contributed to the +disintegration of the Empire and the fall of the Hohenstaufen, +while conflicting interests made the government of Italy a problem +of exceptional difficulty. In Sicily Frederick was more successful. +He quelled disorder, and under his rule the island was prosperous +and contented. His ideas of government were those of an +absolute monarch, and he probably wished to surround himself +with some of the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of +Rome. His chief claim to fame, perhaps, is as a lawgiver. The +code of laws which he gave to Sicily in 1231 bears the impress of +his personality, and has been described as “the fullest and most +adequate body of legislation promulgated by any western ruler +since Charlemagne.” Without being a great soldier, Frederick +was not unskilful in warfare, but was better acquainted with the +arts of diplomacy. In person he is said to have been “red, bald +and short-sighted,” but with good features and a pleasing +countenance. It was seriously believed in Germany for about a +century after his death that Frederick was still alive, and many +impostors attempted to personate him. A legend, afterwards +transferred to Frederick Barbarossa, told how he sat in a cavern +in the Kyffhäusser before a stone table through which his beard +had grown, waiting for the time for him to awake and restore to +the Empire the golden age of peace.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The contemporary documents relating to the reign of Frederick II. +are very numerous. Among the most important are: Richard of +San Germano, <i>Chronica regni Siciliae</i>; <i>Annales Placentini, Gibellini</i>; +Albert of Stade, <i>Annales</i>; Matthew Paris, <i>Historia major Angliae</i>; +Burchard, <i>Chronicon Urspergense</i>. All these are in the <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica</i>. <i>Scriptores</i> (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). +The <i>Rerum Italicarum scriptores</i>, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, +1723-1751), contains <i>Annales Mediolanenses</i>; Nicholas of Jamsilla, +<i>Historia de rebus gestis Friderici II.</i>, and <i>Vita Gregorii IX. pontificis</i>. +There are also the <i>Epistolarum libri</i> of Peter della Vigna, edited +by J. R. Iselin (Basel, 1740); and Salimbene of Parma’s <i>Chronik</i>, +published at Parma (1857). Many of the documents concerning +the history of the time are found in the <i>Historia diplomatica Friderici +II.</i>, edited by M. Huillard-Bréholles (Paris, 1852-1861); <i>Acta +imperii selecta. Urkunden deutscher Könige und Kaiser</i>, edited by +J. F. Böhmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); <i>Acta imperii inedita +seculi XIII. Urkunden und Briefe zur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs +und des Königreichs Sicilien</i>, edited by E. Winkelmann (Innsbruck, +1880); <i>Epistolae saeculi XIII. selecta e regestis pontificum Romanorum</i>, +edited by C. Rodenberg, tome i. (Berlin, 1883); P. Pressutti, +<i>Regesta Honorii papae III</i>. (Rome, 1888); L. Auvray, <i>Les Registres de +Grégoire IX</i>. (Paris, 1890).</p> + +<p>The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte +der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); J. Jastrow, +<i>Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen</i> (Berlin, 1893); +F. W. Schirrmacher, <i>Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite</i> (Göttingen, 1859-1865); +“Beiträge zur Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II.” in the <i>Forschungen +zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band xi. (Göttingen, 1862-1886), +and <i>Die letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen, 1871); E. Winkelmann, +<i>Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II und seiner Reiche</i> (Berlin, 1865) and +<i>Kaiser Friedrich II.</i> (Leipzig, 1889); G. Blondel, <i>Étude sur la +politique de l’empereur Frédéric II. en Allemagne</i> (Paris, 1892); +M. Halbe, <i>Friedrich II. und der päpstliche Stuhl</i> (Berlin, 1888); +R. Röhricht, <i>Die Kreuzfahrt des Kaisers Friedrich II.</i> (Berlin, 1874); +C. Köhler, <i>Das Verhältnis Kaiser Friedrichs II. zu den Päpsten +seiner Zeit</i> (Breslau, 1888); J. Feiten, <i>Papst Gregor IX</i>. (Freiburg, +1886); C. Rodenberg, <i>Innocenz IV. und das Königreich Sicilien</i> +(Halle, 1892); K. Lamprecht, <i>Deutsche Geschichte</i>, Band iii. (Berlin, +1891); M. Huillard-Bréholles, <i>Vie et correspondance de Pierre de la +Vigne</i> (Paris, 1865); A. del Vecchio, <i>La legislazione de Federico II</i> +(Turin, 1874); and K. Hampe, <i>Kaiser Friedrich II</i>. (Munich, +1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> First printed at Augsburg in 1596; a German edition was published +at Berlin in 1896.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK III<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span>. (1415-1493), Roman emperor,—as Frederick +IV., German king, and as Frederick V., archduke of Austria,—son +of Ernest of Habsburg, duke of Styria and Carinthia, was born +at Innsbruck on the 21st of September 1415. After his father’s +death in 1424 he passed his time at the court of his uncle and +guardian, Frederick IV., count of Tirol. In 1435, together with +his brother, Albert the Prodigal, he undertook the government +of Styria and Carinthia, but the peace of these lands was disturbed +by constant feuds between the brothers, which lasted until +Albert’s death in 1463. In 1439 the deaths of the German +king Albert II. and of Frederick of Tirol left Frederick the +senior member of the Habsburg family, and guardian of Sigismund, +count of Tirol. In the following year he also became +guardian of Ladislaus, the posthumous son of Albert II., and heir +to Bohemia, Hungary and Austria, but these responsibilities +brought only trouble and humiliation in their train. On the 2nd +of February 1440 Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort, +but, owing to his absence from Germany, the coronation was +delayed until the 17th of June 1442, when it took place at Aix-la-Chapelle.</p> + +<p>Disregarding the neutral attitude of the German electors +towards the papal schism, and acting under the influence of +Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., Frederick +in 1445 made a secret treaty with Pope Eugenius IV. This +developed into the Concordat of Vienna, signed in 1448 with the +succeeding pope, Nicholas V., by which the king, in return for a +sum of money and a promise of the imperial crown, pledged the +obedience of the German people to Rome, and so checked for a +time the rising tide of liberty in the German church. Taking up +the quarrel between the Habsburgs and the Swiss cantons, +Frederick invited the Armagnacs to attack his enemies, but +after meeting with a stubborn resistance at St Jacob on the 26th +of August 1444, these allies proved faithless, and the king soon +lost every vestige of authority in Switzerland. In 1451 Frederick, +disregarding the revolts in Austria and Hungary, travelled to +Rome, where, on the 16th of March 1452, his marriage with +Leonora, daughter of Edward, king of Portugal, was celebrated, +and three days later he was crowned emperor by pope Nicholas. +On his return he found Germany seething with indignation. +His capitulation to the pope was not forgotten; his refusal to +attend the diets, and his apathy in the face of Turkish aggressions, +constituted a serious danger; and plans for his deposition failed +only because the electors could not unite upon a rival king. In +1457 Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and archduke of +Austria, died; Frederick failed to secure either kingdom, but +obtained lower Austria, from which, however, he was soon driven +by his brother Albert, who occupied Vienna. On Albert’s death +in 1463 the emperor united upper and lower Austria under his +rule, but these possessions were constantly ravaged by George +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span> +Podĕbrad, king of Bohemia, and by Matthias Corvinus, king of +Hungary. A visit to Rome in 1468 to discuss measures against +the Turks with Pope Paul II. had no result, and in 1470 Frederick +began negotiations for a marriage between his son Maximilian +and Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of +Burgundy. The emperor met the duke at Treves in 1473, when +Frederick, disliking to bestow the title of king upon Charles, left +the city secretly, but brought about the marriage after the duke’s +death in 1477. Again attacked by Matthias, the emperor was +driven from Vienna, and soon handed over the government of his +lands to Maximilian, whose election as king of the Romans he +vainly opposed in 1486. Frederick then retired to Linz, where he +passed his time in the study of botany, alchemy and astronomy, +until his death on the 19th of August 1493.</p> + +<p>Frederick was a listless and incapable ruler, lacking alike the +qualities of the soldier and of the diplomatist, but possessing a +certain cleverness in evading difficulties. With a fine presence, +he had many excellent personal qualities, is spoken of as mild and +just, and had a real love of learning. He had a great belief in the +future greatness of his family, to which he contributed largely by +arranging the marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy, +and delighted to inscribe his books and other articles of value +with the letters A.E.I.O.U. (<i>Austriae est imperare orbi universo</i>; +or in German, <i>Alles Erdreich ist Oesterreich unterthan</i>). His +personality counts for very little in German history. One +chronicler says: “He was a useless emperor, and the nation +during his long reign forgot that she had a king.” His tomb, a +magnificent work in red and white marble, is in the cathedral of +St Stephen at Vienna.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, <i>De rebus et gestis Friderici III</i>. +(trans. Th. Ilgen, Leipzig, 1889); J. Chmel, <i>Geschichte Kaiser +Friedrichs IV. und seines Sohnes Maximilians I</i>. (Hamburg, 1840); +A. Bachmann, <i>Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III. +und Maximilians I</i>. (Leipzig, 1884); A. Huber, <i>Geschichte Österreichs</i> +(Gotha, 1885-1892); and E. M. Fürst von Lichnowsky, +<i>Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1836-1844).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK III<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>. (<i>c.</i> 1286-1330), surnamed “the Fair,” +German king and duke of Austria, was the second son of the +German king, Albert I., and consequently a member of the +Habsburg family. In 1298, when his father was chosen German +king, Frederick was invested with some of the family lands, and +in 1306, when his elder brother Rudolph became king of Bohemia, +he succeeded to the duchy of Austria. In 1307 Rudolph died, +and Frederick sought to obtain the Bohemian throne; but an +expedition into that country was a failure, and his father’s +murder in May 1308 deprived him of considerable support. He +was equally unsuccessful in his efforts to procure the German +crown at this time, and the relations between the new king, +Henry VII., and the Habsburgs were far from friendly. Frederick +asked not only to be confirmed in the possession of Austria, but to +be invested with Moravia, a demand to which Henry refused to +accede; but an arrangement was subsequently made by which the +duke agreed to renounce Moravia in return for a payment of +50,000 marks. Frederick then became involved in a quarrel with +his cousin Louis IV., duke of Upper Bavaria (afterwards the +emperor Louis IV.), over the guardianship of Henry II., duke +of Lower Bavaria. Hostilities broke out, and on the 9th of +November 1313 he was defeated by Louis at the battle of Gammelsdorf +and compelled to renounce his claim.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the emperor Henry VII. had died in Italy, and a +stubborn contest ensued for the vacant throne. After a long +delay Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort by a +minority of the electors on the 19th of October 1314, while a +majority elected Louis of Bavaria. Six days later Frederick +was crowned at Bonn by the archbishop of Cologne, and war +broke out at once between the rivals. During this contest, +which was carried on in a desultory fashion, Frederick drew his +chief strength from southern and eastern Germany, and was +supported by the full power of the Habsburgs. The defeat of +his brother Leopold by the Swiss at Morgarten in November +1315 was a heavy blow to him, but he prolonged the struggle for +seven years. On the 28th of September 1322 a decisive battle +was fought at Mühldorf; Frederick was defeated and sent as a +prisoner to Trausnitz. Here he was retained until three years +later a series of events induced Louis to come to terms. By the +treaty of Trausnitz, signed on the 13th of March 1325, Frederick +acknowledged the kingship of Louis in return for freedom, and +promised to return to captivity unless he could induce his brother +Leopold to make a similar acknowledgment. As Leopold refused +to take this step, Frederick, although released from his oath +by Pope John XXII., travelled back to Bavaria, where he was +treated by Louis rather as a friend than as a prisoner. A +suggestion was then made that the kings should rule jointly, but +as this plan aroused some opposition it was agreed that Frederick +should govern Germany while Louis went to Italy for the imperial +crown. But this arrangement did not prove generally acceptable, +and the death of Leopold in 1326 deprived Frederick of a powerful +supporter. In these circumstances he returned to Austria broken +down in mind and body, and on the 13th of January 1330 he +died at Gutenstein, and was buried at Mauerbach, whence his +remains were removed in 1783 to the cathedral of St Stephen at +Vienna. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James I., king of +Aragon, and left two daughters. His voluntary return into +captivity is used by Schiller in his poem <i>Deutsche Treue</i>, and by +J. L. Uhland in the drama <i>Ludwig der Bayer</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The authorities for the life of Frederick are found in the <i>Fontes +rerum Germanicarum</i>, Band i., edited by J. F. Böhmer (Stuttgart, +1843-1868), and in the <i>Fontes rerum Austriacarum</i>, part i. (Vienna, +1855). Modern works which may be consulted are: E. M. Fürst +von Lichnowsky, G<i>eschichte des Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1836-1844); +Th. Lindner, <i>Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern +und Luxemburgern</i> (Stuttgart, 1888-1893). R. Döbner, <i>Die Auseinandersetzung +zwischen Ludwig IV. dem Bayer und Friedrich dem +Schönen von Österreich</i> (Göttingen, 1875); F. Kurz, <i>Österreich +unter König Friedrich dem Schönen</i> (Linz, 1818); F. Krones, <i>Handbuch +der Geschichte Österreichs</i> (Berlin, 1876-1879); H. Schrohe, +<i>Der Kampf der Gegenkönige Ludwig und Friedrich</i> (Berlin, 1902); +W. Friedensburg, <i>Ludwig IV. der Bayer und Friedrich von Österreich</i> +(Göttingen, 1877); B. Gebhardt, <i>Handbuch der deutschen +Geschichte</i> (Berlin, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK II.<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1534-1588), king of Denmark and Norway, +son of Christian III., was born at Hadersleben on the 1st of July +1534. His mother, Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg, was the elder +sister of Catherine, the first wife of Gustavus Vasa and the mother +of Eric XIV. The two little cousins, born the same year, were +destined to be lifelong rivals. At the age of two Frederick was +proclaimed successor to the throne at the <i>Rigsdag</i> of Copenhagen +(October 30th, 1536), and homage was done to him at Oslo for +Norway in 1548. The choice of his governor, the patriotic +historiographer Hans Svaning, was so far fortunate that it ensured +the devotion of the future king of Denmark to everything +Danish; but Svaning was a poor pedagogue, and the wild and +wayward lad suffered all his life from the defects of his early +training. Frederick’s youthful, innocent attachment to the +daughter of his former tutor, Anna Hardenberg, indisposed him +towards matrimony at the beginning of his reign (1558). After +the hands of Elizabeth of England, Mary of Scotland and Renata +of Lorraine had successively been sought for him, the council of +state grew anxious about the succession, but he finally married +his cousin, Sophia of Mecklenburg, on the 20th of July 1572.</p> + +<p>The reign of Frederick II. falls into two well-defined divisions: +(1) a period of war, 1559-1570; and (2) a period of peace, 1570-1588. +The period of war began with the Ditmarsh expedition, +when the independent peasant-republic of the Ditmarshers of +West Holstein, which had stoutly maintained its independence +for centuries against the counts of Holstein and the Danish kings, +was subdued by a Dano-Holstein army of 20,000 men in 1559, +Frederick and his uncles John and Adolphus, dukes of Holstein, +dividing the land between them. Equally triumphant was +Frederick in his war with Sweden, though here the contest was +much more severe, lasting as it did for seven years; whence it is +generally described in northern history as the Scandinavian +Seven Years’ War. The tension which had prevailed between +the two kingdoms during the last years of Gustavus Vasa reached +breaking point on the accession of Gustavus’s eldest son Eric +XIV. There were many causes of quarrel between the two +ambitious young monarchs, but the detention at Copenhagen in +1563 of a splendid matrimonial embassy on its way to Germany, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span> +to negotiate a match between Eric and Christina of Hesse, which +King Frederick for political reasons was determined to prevent, +precipitated hostilities. During the war, which was marked by +extraordinary ferocity throughout, the Danes were generally +victorious on land owing to the genius of Daniel Rantzau, but +at sea the Swedes were almost uniformly triumphant. By 1570 +the strife had degenerated into a barbarous devastation of border +provinces; and in July of the same year both countries accepted +the mediation of the Emperor, and peace was finally concluded +at Stettin on Dec. 13, 1570. During the course of this +Seven Years’ War Frederick II. had narrowly escaped the fate +of his deposed cousin Eric XIV. The war was very unpopular +in Denmark, and the closing of the Sound against foreign shipping, +in order to starve out Sweden, had exasperated the maritime +powers and all the Baltic states. On New Year’s Day 1570 +Frederick’s difficulties seemed so overwhelming that he +threatened to abdicate; but the peace of Stettin came in time +to reconcile all parties, and though Frederick had now to relinquish +his ambitious dream of re-establishing the Union of +Kalmar, he had at least succeeded in maintaining the supremacy +of Denmark in the north. After the peace Frederick’s policy +became still more imperial. He aspired to the dominion of all +the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he +died he succeeded in suppressing the pirates who so long had +haunted the Baltic and the German Ocean. He also erected the +stately fortress of Kronborg, to guard the narrow channel of the +Sound. Frederick possessed the truly royal gift of discovering +and employing great men, irrespective of personal preferences +and even of personal injuries. With infinite tact and admirable +self-denial he gave free scope to ministers whose superiority +in their various departments he frankly recognized, rarely interfering +personally unless absolutely called upon to do so. His +influence, always great, was increased by his genial and unaffected +manners as a host. He is also remarkable as one of the few +kings of the house of Oldenburg who had no illicit <i>liaison</i>. +He died at Antvorskov on the 4th of April 1588. No other +Danish king was ever so beloved by his people.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Lund</i> (<i>Troels</i>), <i>Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af +det XVI. Aarh.</i> (Copenhagen, 1879); <i>Danmarks Riges Historie</i> +(Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. 3; Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>, +cap. 4 (Cambridge, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK III.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1609-1670), king of Denmark and Norway, +son of Christian IV. and Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, was +born on the 18th of March 1609 at Hadersleben. His position +as a younger son profoundly influenced his future career. In his +youth and early manhood there was no prospect of his ascending +the Danish throne, and he consequently became the instrument of +his father’s schemes of aggrandizement in Germany. While still +a lad he became successively bishop of Bremen, bishop of Verden +and coadjutor of Halberstadt, while at the age of eighteen he +was the chief commandant of the fortress of Stade. Thus +from an early age he had considerable experience as an administrator, +while his general education was very careful and thorough. +He had always a pronounced liking for literary and scientific +studies. On the 1st of October 1643 Frederick wedded Sophia +Amelia of Brunswick Lüneburg, whose energetic, passionate +and ambitious character was profoundly to affect not only +Frederick’s destiny but the destiny of Denmark. During the +disastrous Swedish War of 1643-1645 Frederick was appointed +generalissimo of the duchies by his father, but the laurels he won +were scanty, chiefly owing to his quarrels with the Earl-Marshal +Anders Bille, who commanded the Danish forces. This was +Frederick’s first collision with the Danish nobility, who ever +afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust. The death of his +elder brother Christian in June 1647 first opened to him the prospect +of succeeding to the Danish throne, but the question was +still unsettled when Christian IV. died on the 28th of February +1648. Not till the 6th of July in the same year did Frederick III. +receive the homage of his subjects, and only after he had signed +a <i>Haandfaestning</i> or charter, by which the already diminished +royal prerogative was still further curtailed. It had been doubtful +at first whether he would be allowed to inherit his ancestral +throne at all; but Frederick removed the last scruples of the +<i>Rigsraad</i> by unhesitatingly accepting the conditions imposed +upon him.</p> + +<p>The new monarch was a reserved, enigmatical prince, who +seldom laughed, spoke little and wrote less—a striking contrast +to Christian IV. But if he lacked the brilliant qualities of his +impulsive, jovial father, he possessed in a high degree the compensating +virtues of moderation, sobriety and self-control. +But with all his good qualities Frederick was not the man to take +a clear view of the political horizon, or even to recognize his own +and his country’s limitations. He rightly regarded the accession +of Charles X. of Sweden (June 6th, 1654) as a source of danger to +Denmark. He felt that temperament and policy would combine +to make Charles an aggressive warrior-king: the only uncertainty +was in which direction he would turn his arms first. Charles’s +invasion of Poland (July 1654) came as a distinct relief to the +Danes, though even the Polish War was full of latent peril to +Denmark. Frederick was resolved upon a rupture with Sweden +at the first convenient opportunity. The <i>Rigsdag</i> which +assembled on the 23rd of February 1657 willingly granted +considerable subsidies for mobilization and other military +expenses; on the 15th of April Frederick III. desired, and on +the 23rd of April he received, the assent of the majority of the +<i>Rigsraad</i> to attack Sweden’s German provinces; in the beginning +of May the still pending negotiations with that power were broken +off, and on the 1st of June Frederick signed the manifesto justifying +a war which was never formally declared. The Swedish +king traversed all the plans of his enemies by his passage of the +frozen Belts, in January and February 1658 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles X.</a></span> +of Sweden). The effect of this unheard-of achievement on the +Danish government was crushing. Frederick III. at once sued +for peace; and, yielding to the persuasions of the English and +French ministers, Charles finally agreed to be content with +mutilating instead of annihilating the Danish monarchy (treaties +of Taastrup, February 18th, and of Roskilde, February 26th, +1658). The conclusion of peace was followed by a remarkable +episode. Frederick expressed the desire to make the personal +acquaintance of his conqueror; and Charles X. consented to be +his guest for three days (March 3-5) at the castle of Fredriksborg. +Splendid banquets lasting far into the night, private and intimate +conversations between the princes who had only just emerged +from a mortal struggle, seemed to point to nothing but peace and +friendship in the future. But Charles’s insatiable lust for conquest, +and his ineradicable suspicion of Denmark, induced him, +on the 17th of July, without any reasonable cause, without a +declaration of war, in defiance of all international equity, to +endeavour to despatch an inconvenient neighbour.</p> + +<p>Terror was the first feeling produced at Copenhagen by the +landing of the main Swedish army at Korsör in Zealand. None +had anticipated the possibility of such a sudden and brutal attack, +and every one knew that the Danish capital was very inadequately +fortified and garrisoned. Fortunately Frederick had never been +deficient in courage. “I will die in my nest” were the memorable +words with which he rebuked those counsellors who advised +him to seek safety in flight. On the 8th of August representatives +from every class in the capital urged the necessity of a vigorous +resistance; and the citizens of Copenhagen, headed by the great +burgomaster Hans Nansen (<i>q.v.</i>), protested their unshakable +loyalty to the king, and their determination to defend Copenhagen +to the uttermost. The Danes had only three days’ warning +of the approaching danger; and the vast and dilapidated line +of defence had at first but 2000 regular defenders. But the +government and the people displayed a memorable and exemplary +energy, under the constant supervision of the king, +the queen, and burgomaster Nansen. By the beginning of +September all the breaches were repaired, the walls bristled with +cannon, and 7000 men were under arms. So strong was the city +by this time that Charles X., abandoning his original intention +of carrying the place by assault, began a regular siege; but this +also he was forced to abandon when, on the 29th of October, an +auxiliary Dutch fleet, after reinforcing and reprovisioning the +garrison, defeated, in conjunction with the Danish fleet, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span> +Swedish navy of 44 liners in the Sound. Thus the Danish capital +had saved the Danish monarchy. But it was Frederick III. +who profited most by his spirited defence of the common interests +of the country and the dynasty. The traditional loyalty of the +Danish middle classes was transformed into a boundless enthusiasm +for the king personally, and for a brief period Frederick found +himself the most popular man in his kingdom. He made use of +his popularity by realizing the dream of a lifetime and converting +an elective into an absolute monarchy by the Revolution of 1660 +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Frederick III. died on the 6th of +February 1670 at the castle of Copenhagen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>, caps. ix. and x. (Cambridge, +1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK VIII.<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1843-  ), king of Denmark, eldest son +of King Christian IX., was born at Copenhagen on the 3rd of +June 1843. As crown prince of Denmark he took part in the war +of 1864 against Austria and Prussia, and subsequently assisted +his father in the duties of government, becoming king on +Christian’s death in January 1906. In 1869 Frederick married +Louise (b. 1851), daughter of Charles XV., king of Sweden, +by whom he had a family of four sons and four daughters. His +eldest son Christian, crown prince of Denmark (b. 1870), was +married in 1898 to Alexandrina (b. 1879), daughter of Frederick +Francis III., grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; and his +second son, Charles (b. 1872), who married his cousin Maud, +daughter of Edward VII. of Great Britain, became king of +Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK I.<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1657-1713), king of Prussia, and (as Frederick +III.) elector of Brandenburg, was the second son of the great +elector, Frederick William, by his first marriage with Louise +Henriette, daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange. Born at +Königsberg on the 11th of July 1657, he was educated and greatly +influenced by Eberhard Danckelmann, and became heir to the +throne of Brandenburg through the death of his elder brother, +Charles Emil, in 1674. He appears to have taken some part in +public business before the death of his father; and the court +at Berlin was soon disturbed by quarrels between the young +prince and his stepmother, Dorothea of Holstein-Glücksburg. +In 1686 Dorothea persuaded her husband to bequeath outlying +portions of his lands to her four sons; and Frederick, fearing +he would be poisoned, left Brandenburg determined to prevent +any diminution of his inheritance. By promising to restore +Schwiebus to Silesia after his accession he won the support of the +emperor Leopold I.; but eventually he gained his end in a peaceable +fashion. Having become elector of Brandenburg in May +1688, he came to terms with his half-brothers and their mother. +In return for a sum of money these princes renounced their rights +under their father’s will, and the new elector thus secured the +whole of Frederick William’s territories. After much delay and +grumbling he fulfilled his bargain with Leopold and gave up +Schwiebus in 1695. At home and abroad Frederick continued +the policy of the great elector. He helped William of Orange +to make his descent on England; added various places, including +the principality of Neuchâtel, to his lands; and exercised some +influence on the course of European politics by placing his large +and efficient army at the disposal of the emperor and his allies +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brandenburg</a></span>). He was present in person at the siege of +Bonn in 1689, but was not often in command of his troops. The +elector was very fond of pomp, and, striving to model his court +upon that of Louis XIV., he directed his main energies towards +obtaining for himself the title of king. In spite of the assistance +he had given to the emperor his efforts met with no success for +some years; but towards 1700 Leopold, faced with the prospect +of a new struggle with France, was inclined to view the idea more +favourably. Having insisted upon various conditions, prominent +among them being military aid for the approaching war, he gave +the imperial sanction to Frederick’s request in November 1700; +whereupon the elector, hurrying at once to Königsberg, crowned +himself with great ceremony king of Prussia on the 18th of +January 1701. According to his promise the king sent help to +the emperor; and during the War of the Spanish Succession the +troops of Brandenburg-Prussia rendered great assistance to the +allies, fighting with distinction at Blenheim and elsewhere. +Frederick, who was deformed through an injury to his spine, +died on the 25th of February 1713. By his extravagance the king +exhausted the treasure amassed by his father, burdened his +country with heavy taxes, and reduced its finances to chaos. His +constant obligations to the emperor drained Brandenburg of +money which might have been employed more profitably at +home, and prevented her sovereign from interfering in the politics +of northern Europe. Frederick, however, was not an unpopular +ruler, and by making Prussia into a kingdom he undoubtedly +advanced it several stages towards its future greatness. He +founded the university of Halle, and the Academy of Sciences at +Berlin; welcomed and protected Protestant refugees from France +and elsewhere; and lavished money on the erection of public +buildings.</p> + +<p>The king was married three times. His second wife, Sophie +Charlotte (1668-1705), sister of the English king George I., was +the friend of Leibnitz and one of the most cultured princesses of +the age; she bore him his only son, his successor, King Frederick +William I.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Hahn, <i>Friedrich I., König in Preussen</i> (Berlin, 1876); +J. G. Droysen, <i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i>, Band iv. (Leipzig, +1872); E. Heyck, <i>Friedrich I. und die Begründung des preussischen +Königtums</i> (Bielefeld, 1901): C. Graf von Dohna, <i>Mémoires originaux +sur le règne et la cour de Frédéric I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (Berlin, 1883); <i>Aus dem +Briefwechsel König Friedrichs I. von Preussen und seiner Familie</i> +(Berlin, 1901); and T. Carlyle, <i>History of Frederick the Great</i>, vol. i. +(London, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK II.<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span>, known as “the Great” (1712-1786), king +of Prussia, born on the 24th of January 1712, was the eldest son +of Frederick William I. He was brought up with extreme rigour, +his father devising a scheme of education which was intended +to make him a hardy soldier, and prescribing for him every +detail of his conduct. So great was Frederick William’s horror +of everything which did not seem to him practical, that he +strictly excluded Latin from the list of his son’s studies. +Frederick, however, had free and generous impulses which could +not be restrained by the sternest system. Encouraged by his +mother, and under the influence of his governess Madame de +Roucoulle, and of his first tutor Duhan, a French refugee, he +acquired an excellent knowledge of French and a taste for literature +and music. He even received secret lessons in Latin, +which his father invested with all the charms of forbidden +fruit. As he grew up he became extremely dissatisfied with the +dull and monotonous life he was compelled to lead; and his +discontent was heartily shared by his sister, Wilhelmina, a bright +and intelligent young princess for whom Frederick had a warm +affection.</p> + +<p>Frederick William, seeing his son apparently absorbed in +frivolous and effeminate amusements, gradually conceived for +him an intense dislike, which had its share in causing him to +break off the negotiations for a double marriage between the +prince of Wales and Wilhelmina, and the princess Amelia, +daughter of George II., and Frederick; for Frederick had been +so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the +English court and to vow that he would marry Amelia or no one. +Frederick William’s hatred of his son, openly avowed, displayed +itself in violent outbursts and public insults, and so harsh was +his treatment that Frederick frequently thought of running +away and taking refuge at the English court. He at last resolved +to do so during a journey which he made with the king to south +Germany in 1730, when he was eighteen years of age. He was +helped by his two friends, Lieutenant Katte and Lieutenant +Keith; but by the imprudence of the former the secret was found +out. Frederick was placed under arrest, deprived of his rank +as crown prince, tried by court-martial, and imprisoned in the +fortress of Cüstrin. Warned by Frederick, Keith escaped; +but Katte delayed his flight too long, and a court-martial decided +that he should be punished with two years’ fortress arrest. But +the king was determined by a terrible example to wake Frederick +once for all to a consciousness of the heavy responsibility of his +position. He changed the sentence on Katte to one of death and +ordered the execution to take place in Frederick’s presence, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span> +himself arranging its every detail; Frederick’s own fate +would depend upon the effect of this terrible object-lesson and +the response he should make to the exhortations of the chaplain +sent to reason with him. On the morning of the 7th of November +Katte was beheaded before Frederick’s window, after the +crown prince had asked his pardon and received the answer that +there was nothing to forgive. On Frederick himself lay the terror +of death, and the chaplain was able to send to the king a +favourable report of his orthodoxy and his changed disposition. +Frederick William, whose temper was by no means so ruthlessly +Spartan as tradition has painted it,was overjoyed, and +commissioned the clergyman to receive from the prince an oath of +filial obedience, and in exchange for this proof of “his +intention to improve in real earnest” his arrest was to be +lightened, pending the earning of a full pardon. “The whole +town shall be his prison,” wrote the king; “I will +give him employment, from morning to night, in the departments of +war, and agriculture, and of the government. He shall work at +financial matters, receive accounts, read minutes and make +extracts.... But if he kicks or rears again, he shall forfeit the +succession to the crown, and even, according to circumstances, +life itself.”</p> + +<p>For about fifteen months Frederick lived in Custrin, busy +according to the royal programme with the details of the Prussian +administrative system. He was very careful not to “kick or +rear,” and his good conduct earned him a further stage in +the restoration to favour. During this period of probation he had +been deprived of his status as a soldier and refused the right to +wear uniform, while officers and soldiers were forbidden to give +him the military salute; in 1732 he was made colonel in command +of the regiment at Neuruppin. In the following year he married, +in obedience to the king’s orders, the princess Elizabeth +Christina, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Bevern. He was given +the estate of Rheinsberg in the neighbourhood of Neuruppin, and +there he lived until he succeeded to the throne. These years were +perhaps the happiest of his life. He discharged his duties with +so much spirit and so conscientiously that he ultimately gained +the esteem of Frederick William, who no longer feared that he +would leave the crown to one unworthy of wearing it. At the same +time the crown prince was able to indulge to the full his +personal tastes. He carried on a lively correspondence with +Voltaire and other French men of letters, and was a diligent +student of philosophy, history and poetry. Two of his best-known +works were written at this time—<i>Considérations sur l’état +present du corps politique de l’Europe</i> and his +<i>Anti-Macchiavel</i>. In the former he calls attention to the +growing strength of Austria and France, and insists on the +necessity of some third power, by which he clearly means Prussia, +counterbalancing their excessive influence. The second treatise, +which was issued by Voltaire in Hague in 1740, contains a +generous exposition of some of the favourite ideas of the +18th-century philosophers respecting the duties of sovereigns, +which may be summed up in the famous sentence: “the prince +is not the absolute master, but only the first servant of his +people.”</p> + +<p>On the 31st of May 1740 he became king. He maintained all the +forms of government established by his father, but ruled in a far +more enlightened spirit; he tolerated every form of religious +opinion, abolished the use of torture, was most careful to secure +an exact and impartial administration of justice, and, while +keeping the reins of government strictly in his own hands, +allowed every one with a genuine grievance free access to his +presence. The Potsdam regiment of giants was disbanded, but the +real interests of the army were carefully studied, for Frederick +realized that the two pillars of the Prussian state were sound +finances and a strong army. On the 20th of October 1740 the +emperor Charles VI. died. Frederick at once began to make +extensive military preparations, and it was soon clear to all the +world that he intended to enter upon some serious enterprise. He +had made up his mind to assert the ancient claim of the house of +Brandenburg to the three Silesian duchies, which the Austrian +rulers of Bohemia had ever denied, but the Hohenzollerns had +never abandoned. Projects for the assertion of this claim by +force of arms had been formed by more than one of +Frederick’s predecessors, and the extinction of the male +line of the house of Habsburg may well have seemed to him a +unique opportunity for realizing an ambition traditional in his +family. For this resolution he is often abused still by +historians, and at the time he had the approval of hardly any one +out of Prussia. He himself, writing of the scheme in his +<i>Mémoires</i>, laid no claim to lofty motives, but candidly +confessed that “it was a means of acquiring reputation and +of increasing the power of the state.” He firmly believed, +however, in the lawfulness of his claims; and although his father +had recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby the hereditary +dominions of Charles VI. were to descend to his daughter, Maria +Theresa, Frederick insisted that this sanction could refer only +to lands which rightfully belonged to the house of Austria. He +could also urge that, as Charles VI. had not fulfilled the +engagements by which Frederick William’s recognition of the +Pragmatic Sanction had been secured, Prussia was freed from her +obligation.</p> + +<p>Frederick sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering, in the event of +his rights in Silesia being conceded, to aid Maria Theresa +against her enemies. The queen of Hungary, who regarded the +proposal as that of a mere robber, haughtily declined; whereupon +Frederick immediately invaded Silesia with an army of 30,000 men. +His first victory was gained at Mollwitz on the 10th of April +1741. Under the impression, in consequence of a furious charge of +Austrian cavalry, that the battle was lost, he rode rapidly away +at an early stage of the struggle—a mistake which gave rise for +a time to the groundless idea that he lacked personal courage. A +second Prussian victory was gained at Chotusitz, near Caslau, on +the 17th May 1742; by this time Frederick was master of all the +fortified places of Silesia. Maria Theresa, in the heat of her +struggle with France and the elector of Bavaria, now Charles +VII., and pressed by England to rid herself of Frederick, +concluded with him, on the 11th of June 1742, the peace of +Breslau, conceding to Prussia, Upper and Lower Silesia as far as +the Oppa, together with the county of Glatz. Frederick made good +use of the next two years, fortifying his new territory, and +repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war. By the death of +the prince of East Friesland without heirs, he also gained +possession of that country (1744). He knew well that Maria +Theresa would not, if she could help it, allow him to remain in +Silesia; accordingly, in 1744, alarmed by her victories, he +arrived at a secret understanding with France, and pledged +himself, with Hesse-Cassel and the palatinate, to maintain the +imperial rights of Charles VII., and to defend his hereditary +Bavarian lands. Frederick began the second Silesian War by +entering Bohemia in August 1744 and taking Prague. By this +brilliant but rash venture he put himself in great danger, and +soon had to retreat; but in 1745 he gained the battles of +Hohenfriedberg, Soor and Hennersdorf; and Leopold of Dessau +(“Der alte Dessauer”) won for him the victory of +Kesselsdorf in Saxony. The latter victory was decisive, and the +peace of Dresden (December 25, 1745) assured to Frederick a +second time the possession of Silesia. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austrian Succession, +War of the</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Frederick had thus, at the age of thirty-three, raised himself to +a great position in Europe, and henceforth he was the most +conspicuous sovereign of his time. He was a thoroughly absolute +ruler, his so-called ministers being mere clerks whose business +was to give effect to his will. To use his own famous phrase, +however, he regarded himself as but “the first servant of +the state”; and during the next eleven years he proved that +the words expressed his inmost conviction and feeling. All kinds +of questions were submitted to him, important and unimportant; +and he is frequently censured for having troubled himself so much +with mere details. But in so far as these details related to +expenditure he was fully justified, for it was absolutely +essential for him to have a large army, and with a small state +this was impossible unless he carefully prevented unnecessary +outlay. Being a keen judge of character, he filled the public +offices with faithful, capable, energetic men, who were kept up +to a high standard of duty by the consciousness that their work +might at any time come under his strict supervision. The Academy +of Sciences, which had fallen into contempt during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span> +his father’s reign, he restored, infusing into it vigorous life; and +he did more to promote elementary education than any of his +predecessors. He did much too for the economic development +of Prussia, especially for agriculture; he established colonies, +peopling them with immigrants, extended the canal system, +drained and diked the great marshes of the Oderbruch, turning +them into rich pasturage, encouraged the planting of fruit +trees and of root crops; and, though in accordance with his +ideas of discipline he maintained serfdom, he did much to lighten +the burdens of the peasants. All kinds of manufacture, too, +particularly that of silk, owed much to his encouragement. +To the army he gave unremitting attention, reviewing it at +regular intervals, and sternly punishing negligence on the part +of the officers. Its numbers were raised to 160,000 men, while +fortresses and magazines were always kept in a state of readiness +for war. The influence of the king’s example was felt far beyond +the limits of his immediate circle. The nation was proud of his +genius, and displayed something of his energy in all departments +of life. Lessing, who as a youth of twenty came to Berlin in +1749, composed enthusiastic odes in his honour, and Gleim, +the Halberstadt poet, wrote of him as of a kind of demi-god. +These may be taken as fair illustrations of the popular feeling +long before the Seven Years’ War.</p> + +<p>He despised German as the language of boors, although it is +remarkable that at a later period, in a French essay on German +literature, he predicted for it a great future. He habitually +wrote and spoke French, and had a strong ambition to rank +as a distinguished French author. Nobody can now read his +verses, but his prose writings have a certain calm simplicity +and dignity, without, however, giving evidence of the splendid +mental qualities which he revealed in practical life. To this +period belong his <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de Brandebourg</i> +and his poem <i>L’Art de la guerre</i>. The latter, judged as literature, +is intolerably dull; but the former is valuable, throwing as it +does considerable light on his personal sympathies as well as on +the motives of important epochs in his career. He continued to +correspond with French writers, and induced a number of them +to settle in Berlin, Maupertuis being president of the Academy. +In 1752 Voltaire, who had repeatedly visited him, came at +Frederick’s urgent entreaty, and received a truly royal welcome. +The famous Hirsch trial, and Voltaire’s vanity and caprice, +greatly lowered him in the esteem of the king, who, on his side, +irritated his guest by often requiring him to correct bad verses, +and by making him the object of rude banter. The publication +of <i>Doctor Akakia</i>, which brought down upon the president of the +Academy a storm of ridicule, finally alienated Frederick; while +Voltaire’s wrongs culminated in the famous arrest at Frankfort, +the most disagreeable elements of which were due to the misunderstanding +of an order by a subordinate official.</p> + +<p>The king lived as much as possible in a retired mansion, to +which he gave the name of Sanssouci—not the palace so called, +which was built after the Seven Years’ War, and was never a +favourite residence. He rose regularly in summer at five, in +winter at six, devoting himself to public business till about eleven. +During part of this time, after coffee, he would aid his reflections +by playing on the flute, of which he was passionately fond, +being a really skilful performer. At eleven came parade, and an +hour afterwards, punctually, dinner, which continued till two, +or later, if conversation happened to be particularly attractive. +After dinner he glanced through and signed cabinet orders written +in accordance with his morning instructions, often adding +marginal notes and postscripts, many of which were in a caustic +tone. These disposed of, he amused himself for a couple of hours +with literary work; between six and seven he would converse +with his friends or listen to his reader (a post held for some time +by La Mettrie); at seven there was a concert; and at half-past +eight he sat down to supper, which might go on till midnight. +He liked good eating and drinking, although even here the cost +was sharply looked after, the expenses of his kitchen mounting +to no higher figure than £1800 a year. At supper he was always +surrounded by a number of his most intimate friends, mainly +Frenchmen; and he insisted on the conversation being perfectly +free. His wit, however, was often cruel, and any one who responded +with too much spirit was soon made to feel that the +licence of talk was to be complete only on one side.</p> + +<p>At Frederick’s court ladies were seldom seen, a circumstance +that gave occasion to much scandal for which there seems to have +been no foundation. The queen he visited only on rare occasions. +She had been forced upon him by his father, and he had never +loved her; but he always treated her with marked respect, and +provided her with a generous income, half of which she gave away +in charity. Although without charm, she was a woman of many +noble qualities; and, like her husband, she wrote French books, +some of which attracted a certain attention in their day. She +survived him by eleven years, dying in 1797.</p> + +<p>Maria Theresa had never given up hope that she would recover +Silesia; and as all the neighbouring sovereigns were bitterly +jealous of Frederick, and somewhat afraid of him, she had no +difficulty in inducing several of them to form a scheme for his +ruin. Russia and Saxony entered into it heartily, and France, +laying aside her ancient enmity towards Austria, joined the +empress against the common object of dislike. Frederick, +meanwhile, had turned towards England, which saw in him a +possible ally of great importance against the French. A convention +between Prussia and Great Britain was signed in January +1756, and it proved of incalculable value to both countries, +leading as it did to a close alliance during the administration of +Pitt. Through the treachery of a clerk in the Saxon foreign office +Frederick was made aware of the future which was being prepared +for him. Seeing the importance of taking the initiative, and +if possible, of securing Saxony, he suddenly, on the 24th of +August 1756, crossed the frontier of that country, and shut in +the Saxon army between Pirna and Königstein, ultimately +compelling it, after a victory gained over the Austrians at +Lobositz, to surrender. Thus began the Seven Years’ War, +in which, supported by England, Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel, +he had for a long time to oppose Austria, France, Russia, Saxony +and Sweden. Virtually the whole Continent was in arms against +a small state which, a few years before, had been regarded by most +men as beneath serious notice. But it happened that this small +state was led by a man of high military genius, capable of infusing +into others his own undaunted spirit, while his subjects had +learned both from him and his predecessors habits of patience, +perseverance and discipline. In 1757, after defeating the +Austrians at Prague, he was himself defeated by them at Kolin; +and by the shameful convention of Closter-Seven, he was freely +exposed to the attack of the French. In November 1757, however, +when Europe looked upon him as ruined, he rid himself of +the French by his splendid victory over them at Rossbach, and +in about a month afterwards, by the still more splendid victory +at Leuthen, he drove the Austrians from Silesia. From this time +the French were kept well employed in the west by Prince +Ferdinand of Brunswick, who defeated them at Crefeld in 1758, +and at Minden in 1759. In the former year Frederick triumphed, +at a heavy cost, over the Russians at Zorndorf; and although, +through lack of his usual foresight, he lost the battle of Hochkirch, +he prevented the Austrians from deriving any real +advantage from their triumph, Silesia still remaining in his +hands at the end of the year. The battle of Kunersdorf, fought +on the 12th of August 1759, was the most disastrous to him in +the course of the war. He had here to contend both with the +Russians and the Austrians; and although at first he had some +success, his army was in the end completely broken. “All is lost +save the royal family,” he wrote to his minister Friesenstein; +“the consequences of this battle will be worse than the battle +itself. I shall not survive the ruin of the Fatherland. Adieu for +ever!” But he soon recovered from his despair, and in 1760 +gained the important victories of Liegnitz and Torgau. He had +now, however, to act on the defensive, and fortunately for him, +the Russians, on the death of the empress Elizabeth, not only +withdrew in 1762 from the compact against him, but for a time +became his allies. On the 29th of October of that year he gained +his last victory over the Austrians at Freiberg. Europe was by +that time sick of war, every power being more or less exhausted. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span> +The result was that, on the 15th of February 1763, a few days +after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, the treaty of Hubertusburg +was signed, Austria confirming Prussia in the possession of +Silesia. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years’ War</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>It would be difficult to overrate the importance of the contribution +thus made by Frederick to the politics of Europe. +Prussia was now universally recognized as one of the great +powers of the Continent, and she definitely took her place in +Germany as the rival of Austria. From this time it was inevitable +that there should be a final struggle between the two nations +for predominance, and that the smaller German states should +group themselves around one or the other. Frederick himself +acquired both in Germany and Europe the indefinable influence +which springs from the recognition of great gifts that have been +proved by great deeds.</p> + +<p>His first care after the war was, as far as possible, to enable +the country to recover from the terrific blows by which it had +been almost destroyed; and he was never, either before or after, +seen to better advantage than in the measures he adopted for +this end. Although his resources had been so completely +drained that he had been forced to melt the silver in his palaces +and to debase the coinage, his energy soon brought back the +national prosperity. Pomerania and Neumark were freed from +taxation for two years, Silesia for six months. Many nobles +whose lands had been wasted received corn for seed; his war +horses were within a few months to be found on farms all over +Prussia; and money was freely spent in the re-erection of houses +which had been destroyed. The coinage was gradually restored +to its proper value, and trade received a favourable impulse by +the foundation of the Bank of Berlin. All these matters were +carefully looked into by Frederick himself, who, while acting +as generously as his circumstances would allow, insisted on everything +being done in the most efficient manner at the least possible +cost. Unfortunately, he adopted the French ideas of excise, +and the French methods of imposing and collecting taxes—a +system known as the Regie. This system secured for him a +large revenue, but it led to a vast amount of petty tyranny, +which was all the more intolerable because it was carried out by +French officials. It was continued to the end of Frederick’s +reign, and nothing did so much to injure his otherwise immense +popularity. He was quite aware of the discontent the system excited, +and the good-nature with which he tolerated the criticisms +directed against it and him is illustrated by a well-known incident. +Riding along the Jäger Strasse one day, he saw a crowd of people. +“See what it is,” he said to the groom who was attending him. +“They have something posted up about your Majesty,” said the +groom, returning. Frederick, riding forward, saw a caricature of +himself: “King in very melancholy guise,” says Preuss (as +translated by Carlyle), “seated on a stool, a coffee-mill between +his knees, diligently grinding with the one hand, and with the +other picking up any bean that might have fallen. ‘Hang it +lower,’ said the king, beckoning his groom with a wave of the +finger; ‘lower, that they may not have to hurt their necks +about it.’ No sooner were the words spoken, which spread +instantly, than there rose from the whole crowd one universal +huzzah of joy. They tore the caricature into a thousand pieces, +and rolled after the king with loud ‘<i>Lebe Hoch</i>, our Frederick +for ever,’ as he rode slowly away.” There are scores of anecdotes +about Frederick, but not many so well authenticated as this.</p> + +<p>There was nothing about which Frederick took so much +trouble as the proper administration of justice. He disliked the +formalities of the law, and in one instance, “the miller Arnold +case,” in connexion with which he thought injustice had been +done to a poor man, he dismissed the judges, condemned them +to a year’s fortress arrest, and compelled them to make good out +of their own pockets the loss sustained by their supposed victim—not +a wise proceeding, but one springing from a generous motive. +He once defined himself as “l’avocat du pauvre,” and few things +gave him more pleasure than the famous answer of the miller +whose windmill stood on ground which was wanted for the king’s +garden. The miller sturdily refused to sell it. “Not at any +price?” said the king’s agent; “could not the king take it +from you for nothing, if he chose?” “Have we not the +Kammergericht at Berlin?” was the answer, which became a +popular saying in Germany. Soon after he came to the throne +Frederick began to make preparations for a new code. In 1747 +appeared the <i>Codex Fridericianus</i>, by which the Prussian judicial +body was established. But a greater monument of Frederick’s +interest in legal reform was the <i>Allgemeines preussisches Landrecht</i>, +completed by the grand chancellor Count Johann H. C. +von Carmer (1721-1801) on the basis of the <i>Project des Corporis +Juris Fridericiani</i>, completed in the year 1749-1751 by the +eminent jurist Samuel von Cocceji (1679-1755). The <i>Landrecht</i>, +a work of vast labour and erudition, combines the two systems +of German and Roman law supplemented by the law of nature; +it was the first German code, but only came into force in 1794, +after Frederick’s death.</p> + +<p>Looking ahead after the Seven Years’ War, Frederick saw no +means of securing himself so effectually as by cultivating the goodwill +of Russia. In 1764 he accordingly concluded a treaty of +alliance with the empress Catherine for eight years. Six years +afterwards, unfortunately for his fame, he joined in the first +partition of Poland, by which he received Polish Prussia, without +Danzig and Thorn, and Great Poland as far as the river Netze. +Prussia was then for the first time made continuous with Brandenburg +and Pomerania.</p> + +<p>The emperor Joseph II. greatly admired Frederick, and visited +him at Neisse, in Silesia, in 1769, a visit which Frederick returned, +in Moravia, in the following year. The young emperor was frank +and cordial; Frederick was more cautious, for he detected +under the respectful manner of Joseph a keen ambition that might +one day become dangerous to Prussia. Ever after these interviews +a portrait of the emperor hung conspicuously in the rooms +in which Frederick lived, a circumstance on which some one +remarked. “Ah yes,” said Frederick, “I am obliged to keep +that young gentleman in my eye.” Nothing came of these +suspicions till 1777, when, after the death of Maximilian Joseph, +elector of Bavaria, without children, the emperor took possession +of the greater part of his lands. The elector palatine, who +lawfully inherited Bavaria, came to an arrangement, which was +not admitted by his heir, Charles, duke of Zweibrücken. Under +these circumstances the latter appealed to Frederick, who, +resolved that Austria should gain no unnecessary advantage, +took his part, and brought pressure to bear upon the emperor. +Ultimately, greatly against his will, Frederick felt compelled +to draw the sword, and in July 1778 crossed the Bohemian +frontier at the head of a powerful army. No general engagement +was fought, and after a great many delays the treaty of Teschen +was signed on the 13th of May 1779. Austria received the +circle of Burgau, and consented that the king of Prussia should +take the Franconian principalities. Frederick never abandoned +his jealousy of Austria, whose ambition he regarded as the chief +danger against which Europe had to guard. He seems to have +had no suspicion that evil days were coming in France. It was +Austria which had given trouble in his time; and if her pride +were curbed, he fancied that Prussia at least would be safe. +Hence one of the last important acts of his life was to form, in +1785, a league of princes (the “Fürstenbund”) for the defence +of the imperial constitution, believed to be imperilled by Joseph’s +restless activity. The league came to an end after Frederick’s +death; but it is of considerable historical interest, as the first +open attempt of Prussia to take the lead in Germany.</p> + +<p>Frederick’s chief trust was always in his treasury and his +army. By continual economy he left in the former the immense +sum of 70 million thalers; the latter, at the time of his death, +numbered 200,000 men, disciplined with all the strictness to +which he had throughout life accustomed his troops. He died +at Sanssouci on the 17th of August 1786; his death being +hastened by exposure to a storm of rain, stoically borne, during +a military review. He passed away on the eve of tremendous +events, which for a time obscured his fame; but now that he +can be impartially estimated, he is seen to have been in many +respects one of the greatest figures in modern history.</p> + +<p>He was rather below the middle size, in youth inclined to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span> +stoutness, lean in old age, but of vigorous and active habits. An +expression of keen intelligence lighted up his features, and his +large, sparkling grey eyes darted penetrating glances at every +one who approached him. In his later years an old blue uniform +with red facings was his usual dress, and on his breast was generally +some Spanish snuff, of which he consumed large quantities. +He shared many of the chief intellectual tendencies of his age, +having no feeling for the highest aspirations of human nature, +but submitting all things to a searching critical analysis. Of +Christianity he always spoke in the mocking tone of the “enlightened” +philosophers, regarding it as the invention of priests; +but it is noteworthy that after the Seven Years’ War, the trials +of which steadied his character, he sought to strengthen the +church for the sake of its elevating moral influence. In his +judgments of mankind he often talked as a misanthrope. He +was once conversing with Sulzer, who was a school inspector, +about education. Sulzer expressed the opinion that education +had of late years greatly improved. “In former times, your +Majesty,” he said, “the notion being that mankind were naturally +inclined to evil, a system of severity prevailed in schools; +but now, when we recognize that the inborn inclination of men +is rather to good than to evil, schoolmasters have adopted a +more generous procedure.” “Ah, my dear Sulzer,” replied the +king, “you don’t know this damned race” (“Ach, mein lieber +Sulzer, er kennt nicht diese verdammte Race”). This fearful +saying unquestionably expressed a frequent mood of Frederick’s; +and he sometimes acted with great harshness, and seemed to +take a malicious pleasure in tormenting his acquaintances. +Yet he was capable of genuine attachments. He was beautifully +loyal to his mother and his sister Wilhelmina; his letters to +the duchess of Gotha are full of a certain tender reverence; +the two Keiths found him a devoted friend. But the true +evidence that beneath his misanthropical moods there was an +enduring sentiment of humanity is afforded by the spirit in +which he exercised his kingly functions. Taking his reign as +a whole, it must be said that he looked upon his power rather +as a trust than as a source of personal advantage; and the trust +was faithfully discharged according to the best lights of his day. +He has often been condemned for doing nothing to encourage +German literature; and it is true that he was supremely indifferent +to it. Before he died a tide of intellectual life was rising +all about him; yet he failed to recognize it, declined to give +Lessing even the small post of royal librarian, and thought <i>Götz +von Berlichingen</i> a vulgar imitation of vulgar English models. +But when his taste was formed, German literature did not exist; +the choice was between Racine and Voltaire on the one hand and +Gottsched and Gellert on the other. He survived into the era +of Kant, Goethe and Schiller, but he was not of it, and it would +have been unreasonable to expect that he should in old age +pass beyond the limits of his own epoch. As Germans now +generally admit, it was better that he let their literature alone, +since, left to itself, it became a thoroughly independent product. +Indirectly he powerfully promoted it by deepening the national +life from which it sprang. At a time when there was no real bond +of cohesion between the different states, he stirred among them +a common enthusiasm; and in making Prussia great he laid the +foundation of a genuinely united empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliographical Note</span>.—The main sources for the biography of +Frederick the Great are his own works, which, in the words of +Leopold von Ranke, “deal with the politics and wars of the period +with the greatest possible objectivity, <i>i.e.</i> truthfulness, and form +an imperishable monument of his life and opinions.” A magnificent +edition of Frederick’s complete works was issued (1846-1857), at +the instance of Frederick William IV., under the supervision of the +historian Johann D. E. Preuss (1785-1868). It is in thirty volumes, +of which six contain verse, seven are historical, two philosophical, +and three military, twelve being made up of correspondence. So +long as the various state archives remained largely inaccessible +historians relied upon this as their chief authority. Among works +belonging to this period may be mentioned Thomas Carlyle, <i>History +of Frederick II. of Prussia</i> (6 vols., London, 1858-1865); J. G. +Droysen, <i>Friedrich der Grosse</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1876, forming +part V. of his <i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i>); Ranke, <i>Friedrich +II., König von Preussen</i> (<i>Werke</i>, vols. li. and lii.). A great stimulus +to the study of Frederick’s history has since been given by the publication +of collections of documents preserved in various archives. +Of these the most important is the great official edition of Frederick’s +political correspondence (Berlin, 1879), of which the thirty-first +vol. appeared in 1906. Of later works, based on modern research, +may be mentioned R. Koser, <i>König Friedrich der Grosse</i>, Bd. 2 (Stuttgart, +1893 and 1903; 3rd ed., 1905); Bourdeau, <i>Le Grand Frédéric</i> +(2 vols., Paris, 1900-1902); L. Paul-Dubois, <i>Frédéric le Grand, d’après +sa correspondance politique</i> (Paris, 1903); W. F. Reddaway, <i>Frederick +the Great and the Rise of Prussia</i> (London, 1904). Of the numerous +special studies may be noticed E. Zeller, <i>Friedrich der Grosse als +Philosoph</i> (Berlin, 1886); H. Pigge, <i>Die Staatstheorie Friedrichs des +Grossen</i> (Münster, 1904); T. von Bernhardi, <i>Friedrich der Grosse als +Feldherr</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1881); Ernest Lavisse, <i>La Jeunesse du +Grand Frédéric</i> (Paris, 1891, 3rd ed., 1899; Eng. transl., London, +1891); R. Brode, <i>Friedrich der Grosse und der Konflikt mit seinem +Vater</i> (Leipzig, 1904); W. von Bremen, <i>Friedrich der Grosse</i> (Bd. ii. +of <i>Erzieher des preussischen Heeres</i>, Berlin, 1905); G. Winter, +<i>Friedrich der Grosse</i> (3 vols. in <i>Geisteshelden</i> series, Berlin, 1906); +<i>Dreissig Jahre am Hofe Friedrichs des Grossen</i>. <i>Aus den Tagebüchern +des Reichsgrafen Ahasuerus Heinrich von Lehndorff, Kammerherrn der +Königin Elisabett Christine von Preussen</i> (Gotha, 1907). The great +work on the wars of Frederick is that issued by the Prussian General +Staff: <i>Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen</i> (12 vols. in three parts, +Berlin, 1890-1904). For a full list of other works see Dahlmann-Waitz, +<i>Quellenkunde</i> (Leipzig, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Si.; W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK III.<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1831-1888), king of Prussia and German +emperor, was born at Potsdam on the 18th of October 1831, +being the eldest son of Prince William of Prussia, afterwards +first German emperor, and the princess Augusta. He was carefully +educated, and in 1849-1850 studied at the university of +Bonn. The next years were spent in military duties and in +travels, in which he was accompanied by Moltke. In 1851 he +visited England on the occasion of the Great Exhibition, and in +1855 became engaged to Victoria, princess royal of Great Britain, +to whom he was married in London on the 25th of January 1858. +On the death of his uncle in 1861 and the accession of his father, +Prince Frederick William, as he was then always called, became +crown prince of Prussia. His education, the influence of his +mother, and perhaps still more that of his wife’s father, the Prince +Consort, had made him a strong Liberal, and he was much distressed +at the course of events in Prussia after the appointment +of Bismarck as minister. He was urged by the Liberals to put +himself into open opposition to the government; this he refused +to do, but he remonstrated privately with the king. In June 1863, +however, he publicly dissociated himself from the press ordinances +which had just been published. He ceased to attend meetings +of the council of state, and was much away from Berlin. The +opposition of the crown prince to the ministers was increased +during the following year, for he was a warm friend of the prince +of Augustenburg, whose claims to Schleswig-Holstein Bismarck +refused to support. During the war with Denmark he had his +first military experience, being attached to the staff of Marshal +von Wrangel; he performed valuable service in arranging the +difficulties caused by the disputes between the field marshal and +the other officers, and was eventually given a control over him. +After the war he continued to support the prince of Augustenburg +and was strongly opposed to the war with Austria. During the +campaign of 1866 he received the command of an army consisting +of four army corps; he was assisted by General von +Blumenthal, as chief of the staff, but took a very active part +in directing the difficult operations by which his army fought its +way through the mountains from Silesia to Bohemia, fighting +four engagements in three days, and showed that he possessed +genuine military capacity. In the decisive battle of Königgrätz +the arrival of his army on the field of battle, after a march of +nearly 20 m., secured the victory. During the negotiations +which ended the war he gave valuable assistance by persuading +the king to accept Bismarck’s policy as regards peace with Austria. +From this time he was very anxious to see the king of Prussia +unite the whole of Germany, with the title of emperor, and was +impatient of the caution with which Bismarck proceeded. In 1869 +he paid a visit to Italy, and in the same year was present at the +opening of the Suez Canal; on his way he visited the Holy Land.</p> + +<p>He played a conspicuous part in the year 1870-1871, being +appointed to command the armies of the Southern States, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span> +General Blumenthal again being his chief of the staff; his troops +won the victory of Wörth, took an important part in the battle +of Sedan, and later in the siege of Paris. The popularity he won +was of political service in preparing the way for the union of +North and South Germany, and he was the foremost advocate +of the imperial idea at the Prussian court. During the years that +followed, little opportunity for political activity was open to him. +He and the crown princess took a great interest in art and +industry, especially in the royal museums; and the excavations +conducted at Olympia and Pergamon with such great results +were chiefly due to him. The crown princess was a keen advocate +of the higher education of women, and it was owing to her +exertions that the Victoria Lyceum at Berlin (which was named +after her) was founded. In 1878, when the emperor was incapacitated +by the shot of an assassin, the prince acted for some +months as regent. His palace was the centre of all that was best +in the literary and learned society of the capital. He publicly +expressed his disapproval of the attacks on the Jews in 1878; +and the coalition of Liberal parties founded in 1884 was popularly +known as the “crown prince’s party,” but he scrupulously +refrained from any act that might embarrass his father’s government. +For many reasons the accession of the prince was looked +forward to with great hope by a large part of the nation. Unfortunately +he was attacked by cancer in the throat; he spent the +winter of 1887-1888 at San Remo; in January 1888 the operation +of tracheotomy had to be performed. On the death of his father, +which took place on the 9th of March, he at once journeyed to +Berlin; but his days were numbered, and he came to the throne +only to die. In these circumstances his accession could not have +the political importance which would otherwise have attached +to it, though it was disfigured by a vicious outburst of party +passion in which the names of the emperor and the empress were +constantly misused. While the Liberals hoped the emperor +would use his power for some signal declaration of policy, the +adherents of Bismarck did not scruple to make bitter attacks +on the empress. The emperor’s most important act was a severe +reprimand addressed to Herr von Puttkamer, the reactionary +minister of the interior, which caused his resignation; in the +distribution of honours he chose many who belonged to classes +and parties hitherto excluded from court favour. A serious +difference of opinion with the chancellor regarding the proposal +for a marriage between Prince Alexander of Battenberg and the +princess Victoria of Prussia was arranged by the intervention +of Queen Victoria, who visited Berlin to see her dying son-in-law. +He expired at Potsdam on the 15th of June 1888, after a reign of +ninety-nine days.</p> + +<p>After the emperor’s death Professor Geffcken, a personal friend, +published in the <i>Deutsche Rundschau</i> extracts from the diary +of the crown prince containing passages which illustrated his +differences with Bismarck during the war of 1870. The object +was to injure Bismarck’s reputation, and a very unseemly dispute +ensued. Bismarck at first, in a letter addressed to the new +emperor, denied the authenticity of the extracts on the ground +that they were unworthy of the crown prince. Geffcken was then +arrested and imprisoned. He had undoubtedly shown that he +was an injudicious friend, for the diary proved that the prince, +in his enthusiasm for German unity, had allowed himself to consider +projects which would have seriously compromised the +relations of Prussia and Bavaria. The treatment of the crown +prince’s illness also gave rise to an acrimonious controversy. +It arose from the fact that as early as May 1887 the German +physicians recognized the presence of cancer in the throat, but +Sir Morell Mackenzie, the English specialist who was also consulted, +disputed the correctness of this diagnosis, and advised +that the operation for removal of the larynx, which they had +recommended, should not be undertaken. His advice was +followed, and the differences between the medical men were made +the occasion for a considerable display of national and political +animosity.</p> + +<p>The empress <span class="sc">Victoria</span>, who, after the death of her husband, +was known as the empress Frederick, died on the 5th of August +1901 at the castle of Friedrichskron, Cronberg, near Homburg +v. d. H., where she spent her last years. Of the emperor’s +children two, Prince Sigismund (1864-1866) and Prince Waldemar +(1869-1879), died in childhood. He left two sons, William, his +successor as emperor, and Henry, who adopted a naval career. +Of his daughters, the princess Charlotte was married to Bernard, +hereditary prince of Meiningen; the princess Victoria to Prince +Adolf of Schaumburg-Lippe; the princess Sophie to the duke +of Sparta, crown prince of Greece; and the princess Margaretha +to Prince Friedrich Karl of Hesse.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—M. von Poschinger, <i>Kaiser Friedrich</i> (3 vols., +Berlin, 1898-1900). Adapted into English by Sidney Whitman, +<i>Life of the Emperor Frederick</i> (1901). See also Bismarck, <i>Reflections +and Reminiscences</i>; Rennell Rodd, <i>Frederick, Crown Prince and +Emperor</i> (1888); Gustav Freytag, <i>Der Kronprinz und die deutsche +Kaiserkrone</i> (1889; English translation, 1890); Otto Richter, +<i>Kaiser Friedrich III.</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1903). For his illness, the +official publications, published both in English and German: <i>Die +Krankheit Kaiser Friedrichs III.</i> (Berlin, 1888), and Morell Mackenzie, +<i>The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble</i> (1888). Most of the +copies of the <i>Deutsche Rundschau</i> containing the extracts from the +crown prince’s diary were confiscated, but there is an English edition, +published in 1889.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK III.<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1272-1337), king of Sicily, third son of +King Peter of Aragon and Sicily, and of Constance, daughter of +Manfred. Peter died in 1285, leaving Aragon to his eldest son +Alphonso, and Sicily to his second son James. When Alphonso +died in 1291 James became king of Aragon, and left his brother +Frederick as regent of Sicily. The war between the Angevins and +the Aragonese for the possession of Sicily was still in progress, +and although the Aragonese were successful in Italy, James’s +position in Spain became very insecure to internal troubles +and French attacks. Peace negotiations were begun with Charles +II. of Anjou, but were interrupted by the successive deaths of +two popes; at last under the auspices of Boniface VIII. James +concluded a shameful treaty, by which, in exchange for being left +undisturbed in Aragon and promised possession of Sardinia +and Corsica, he gave up Sicily to the Church, for whom it was to +be held by the Angevins (1295). The Sicilians refused to be made +over once more to the hated French whom they had expelled in +1282, and found a national leader in the regent Frederick. In +vain the pope tried to bribe him with promises and dignities; +he was determined to stand by his subjects, and was crowned +king by the nobles at Palermo in 1296. Young, brave and handsome, +he won the love and devotion of his people, and guided +them through the long years of storm and stress with wisdom +and ability. Although the second Frederick of Sicily, he called +himself third, being the third son of King Peter. He reformed +the administration and extended the powers of the Sicilian +parliament, which was composed of the barons, the prelates +and the representatives of the towns.</p> + +<p>His refusal to comply with the pope’s injunctions led to a +renewal of the war. Frederick landed in Calabria, where he +seized several towns, encouraged revolt in Naples, negotiated +with the Ghibellines of Tuscany and Lombardy, and assisted +the house of Colonna against Pope Boniface. In the meanwhile +James, who received many favours from the Church, married his +sister Yolanda to Robert, the third son of Charles II. Unfortunately +for Frederick, a part of the Aragonese nobles of +Sicily favoured King James, and both John of Procida and +Ruggiero di Lauria, the heroes of the war of the Vespers, went +over to the Angevins, and the latter completely defeated the +Sicilian fleet off Cape Orlando. Charles’s sons Robert and Philip +landed in Sicily, but after capturing Catania were defeated by +Frederick, Philip being taken prisoner (1299), while several +Calabrian towns were captured by the Sicilians. For two years +more the fighting continued with varying success, until Charles +of Valois, who had been sent by Boniface to invade Sicily, was +forced to sue for peace, his army being decimated by the plague, +and in August 1302 the treaty of Caltabellotta was signed, by +which Frederick was recognized king of Trinacria (the name +Sicily was not to be used) for his lifetime, and was to marry +Eleonora, the daughter of Charles II.; at his death the kingdom +was to revert to the Angevins (this clause was inserted +chiefly to save Charles’s face), and his children would receive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span> +compensation elsewhere. Boniface tried to induce King Charles +to break the treaty, but the latter was only too anxious for +peace, and finally in May 1303 the pope ratified it, Frederick +agreeing to pay him a tribute.</p> + +<p>For a few years Sicily enjoyed peace, and the kingdom was +reorganized. But on the descent of the emperor Henry VII., +Frederick entered into an alliance with him, and in violation +of the pact of Caltabellotta made war on the Angevins again +(1313) and captured Reggio. He set sail for Tuscany to cooperate +with the emperor, but on the latter’s death (1314) he +returned to Sicily. Robert, who had succeeded Charles II. in +1309, made several raids into the island, which suffered much +material injury. A truce was concluded in 1317, but as the +Sicilians helped the north Italian Ghibellines in the attack on +Genoa, and Frederick seized some Church revenues for military +purposes, the pope (John XXII.) excommunicated him and +placed the island under an interdict (1321) which lasted until +1335. An Angevin fleet and army, under Robert’s son Charles, +was defeated at Palermo by Giovanni da Chiaramonte in 1325, +and in 1326 and 1327 there were further Angevin raids on the +island, until the descent into Italy of the emperor Louis the +Bavarian distracted their attention. The election of Pope +Benedict XII. (1334), who was friendly to Frederick, promised +a respite; but after fruitless negotiations the war broke out once +more, and Chiaramonte went over to Robert, owing to a private +feud. In 1337 Frederick died at Paternione, and in spite of the +peace of Caltabellotta his son Peter succeeded. Frederick’s +great merit was that during his reign the Aragonese dynasty +became thoroughly national and helped to weld the Sicilians +into a united people.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—G. M. Mira, <i>Bibliografia Siciliana</i> (Palermo, +1875); of the contemporary authorities N. Speciale’s “Historia +Sicula” (in Muratori’s <i>Script. rer. ital.</i> x.) is the most important; +for the first years of Frederick’s reign see M. Amari, <i>La Guerra del +Vespro Siciliano</i> (Florence, 1876), and F. Lanzani, <i>Storia dei Comuni +italiani</i> (Milan, 1882); for the latter years C. Cipolla, <i>Storia delle +signorie italiane</i> (Milan, 1881); also Testa, <i>Vita di Federigo di +Sicilia</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK I.<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1371-1440), elector of Brandenburg, +founder of the greatness of the House of Hohenzollern, was a son +of Frederick V., burgrave of Nuremberg, and first came into +prominence by saving the life of Sigismund, king of Hungary, +at the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. In 1397 he became burgrave +of Nuremberg, and after his father’s death in 1398 he shared +Ansbach, Bayreuth, and the smaller possessions of the family, +with his only brother John, but became sole ruler after his +brother’s death in 1420. Loyal at first to King Wenceslaus, +the king’s neglect of Germany drove Frederick to take part in +his deposition in 1400, and in the election of Rupert III., count +palatine of the Rhine, whom he accompanied to Italy in the +following year. In 1401 he married Elizabeth, or Elsa, daughter +of Frederick, duke of Bavaria-Landshut (d. 1393), and after +spending some time in family and other feuds, took service again +with King Sigismund in 1409, whom he assisted in his struggle +with the Hungarian rebels. The double election to the German +throne in 1410 first brought Frederick into relation with Brandenburg. +Sigismund, anxious to obtain another vote in the electoral +college, appointed Frederick to exercise the Brandenburg vote +on his behalf, and it was largely through his efforts that Sigismund +was chosen German king. Frederick then passed some +time as administrator of Brandenburg, where he restored a +certain degree of order, and was formally invested with the +electorate and margraviate by Sigismund at Constance on the +18th of April 1417 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brandenburg</a></span>). He took part in the war +against the Hussites, but became estranged from Sigismund +when in 1423 the king invested Frederick of Wettin, margrave +of Meissen, with the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg. +In 1427 he sold his rights as burgrave to the town of Nuremberg, +and he was a prominent member of the band of electors who +sought to impose reforms upon Sigismund. After having been +an unsuccessful candidate for the German throne in 1438, +Frederick was chosen king of Bohemia in 1440, but declined the +proffered honour. He took part in the election of Frederick III. +as German king in 1440, and died at Radolzburg on the 21st of +September in the same year. In 1902 a bronze statue was erected +to his memory at Friesack, and there is also a marble one of the +elector in the “Siegesallee” at Berlin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. F. Riedel, <i>Zehn Jahre aus der Geschichte der Ahnherren des +preussischen Königshauses</i> (Berlin, 1851); E. Brandenburg, <i>König +Sigmund und Kurfürst Friedrich I. von Brandenburg</i> (Berlin, 1891); +and O. Franklin, <i>Die deutsche Politik Friedrichs I. Kurfürsten von +Brandenburg</i> (Berlin, 1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK I.<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1425-1476), elector palatine of the Rhine, +surnamed “the Victorious,” and called by his enemies “wicked +Fritz,” second son of the elector palatine Louis III., was born +on the 1st of August 1425. He inherited a part of the Palatinate +on his father’s death in 1439, but soon surrendered this inheritance +to his elder brother, the elector Louis IV. On his brother’s +death in 1449, however, he became guardian of the young elector +Philip, and ruler of the land. In 1451 he persuaded the nobles to +recognize him as elector, on condition that Philip should be his +successor, a scheme which was disliked by the emperor Frederick +III. The elector was successful in various wars with neighbouring +rulers, and was a leading member of the band of princes who +formed plans to secure a more efficient government for Germany, +and even discussed the deposition of Frederick III. Frederick +himself was mentioned as a candidate for the German throne, +but the jealousies of the princes prevented any decisive action, +and soon became so acute that in 1459 they began to fight among +themselves. In alliance with Louis IX., duke of Bavaria-Landshut, +Frederick gained several victories during the struggle, +and in 1462 won a decisive battle at Seckenheim over Ulrich V., +count of Württemberg. In 1472 the elector married Clara Tott, +or Dett, the daughter of an Augsburg citizen, and by her he had +two sons, Frederick, who died during his father’s lifetime, and +Louis (d. 1524), who founded the line of the counts of Löwenstein. +He died at Heidelberg on the 12th of December 1476, and was +succeeded, according to the compact, by his nephew Philip. +Frederick was a cultured prince, and, in spite of his warlike +career, a wise and intelligent ruler. He added largely to the +area of the Palatinate, and did not neglect to further its internal +prosperity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N. Feeser, <i>Friedrich der Siegreiche, Kurfürst von der Pfalz</i> +(Neuburg, 1880); C. J. Kremer, <i>Geschichte des Kurfürsten Friedrichs +I. von der Pfalz</i> (Leipzig, 1765); and K. Menzel, <i>Kurfürst Friedrich +der Siegreiche von der Pfalz</i> (Munich, 1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK II.<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1482-1556), surnamed “the Wise,” elector +palatine of the Rhine, fourth son of the elector Philip, was bom +on the 9th of December 1482. Of an active and adventurous +temperament, he fought under the emperor Maximilian I. in 1508, +and afterwards served the Habsburgs loyally in other ways. He +worked to secure the election of Charles, afterwards the emperor +Charles V., as the successor of Maximilian in 1519; fought in +two campaigns against the Turks; and being disappointed +in his hope of obtaining the hand of one of the emperor’s sisters, +married in 1535 Dorothea (d. 1580), daughter of Christian II., +who had been driven from the Danish throne. The Habsburgs +promised their aid in securing this crown for Frederick, but, like +many previous promises made to him, this came to nothing. +Having spent his time in various parts of Europe, and incurred +heavy debts on account of his expensive tastes, Frederick became +elector palatine by the death of his brother, Louis V., in March +1544. With regard to the religious troubles of Germany, he took +up at first the rôle of a mediator, but in 1545 he joined the league +of Schmalkalden, and in 1546 broke definitely with the older +faith. He gave a little assistance to the league in its war with +Charles, but soon submitted to the emperor, accepted the +<i>Interim</i> issued from Augsburg in May 1548, and afterwards +acted in harmony with Charles. The elector died on the 26th of +February 1556, and as he left no children was succeeded by his +nephew, Otto Henry (1502-1559). He was a great benefactor +to the university of Heidelberg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Frederick’s life, <i>Annales de vita et rebus gestis Friderici II. electoris +palatini</i> (Frankfort, 1624), was written by his secretary Hubert +Thomas Leodius; this has been translated into German by E. von +Bülow (Breslau, 1849). See also Rott, <i>Friedrich II. von der Pfalz +und die Reformation</i> (Heidelberg, 1904).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK III.<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1515-1576), called “the Pious,” elector +palatine of the Rhine, eldest son of John II., count palatine of +Simmern, was born at Simmern on the 14th of February 1515. +In 1537 he married Maria (d. 1567), daughter of Casimir, prince +of Bayreuth, and in 1546, mainly as a result of this union, adopted +the reformed doctrines, which had already made considerable +progress in the Palatinate. He lived in comparative obscurity +and poverty until 1557, when he became count palatine of +Simmern by his father’s death, succeeding his kinsman, Otto +Henry (1502-1559), as elector palatine two years later. Although +inclined to the views of Calvin rather than to those of Luther, +the new elector showed great anxiety to unite the Protestants; +but when these efforts failed, and the breach between the +followers of the two reformers became wider, he definitely +adopted Calvinism. This form of faith was quickly established +in the Palatinate; in its interests the “Heidelberg Catechism” +was drawn up in 1563; and Catholics and Lutherans were +persecuted alike, while the churches were denuded of all their +ornaments. The Lutheran princes wished to root out Calvinism +in the Palatinate, but were not willing to exclude the elector from +the benefits of the religious peace of Augsburg, which were +confined to the adherents of the confession of Augsburg, and the +matter came before the diet in 1566. Boldly defending his position, +Frederick refused to give way an inch, and as the Lutherans +were unwilling to proceed to extremities the emperor Maximilian +II. could only warn him to mend his ways. The elector was an +ardent supporter of the Protestants abroad, whom, rather than +the German Lutherans, he regarded as his co-religionists. He +aided the Huguenots in France and the insurgents in the Netherlands +with men and money; one of his sons, John Casimir +(1543-1592), took a prominent part in the French wars of religion, +while another, Christopher, was killed in 1574 fighting for the +Dutch at Mooker Heath. In his later years Frederick failed +in his efforts to prevent the election of a member of the Habsburg +family as Roman king, to secure the abrogation of the “ecclesiastical +reservation” clause in the peace of Augsburg, or to +obtain security for Protestants in the territories of the spiritual +princes. He was assiduous in caring for the material, moral and +educational welfare of his electorate, and was a benefactor to +the university of Heidelberg. The elector died at Heidelberg on +the 26th of October 1576, and was succeeded by his elder surviving +son, Louis (1539-1583), who had offended his father by +adopting Lutheranism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Kluckhohn, <i>Friedrich der Fromme</i> (Nördlingen, 1877-1879); +and <i>Briefe Friedrichs des Frommen</i>, edited by Kluckhohn (Brunswick, +1868-1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK IV.<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1574-1610), elector palatine of the Rhine, +only surviving son of the elector Louis VI., was born at Amberg +on the 5th of March 1574. His father died in October 1583, +when the young elector came under the guardianship of his +uncle John Casimir, an ardent Calvinist, who, in spite of the +wishes of the late elector, a Lutheran, had his nephew educated +in his own form of faith. In January 1592, on the death of John +Casimir, Frederick undertook the government of the Palatinate, +and continued the policy of his uncle, hostility to the Catholic +Church and the Habsburgs, and co-operation with foreign +Protestants. He was often in communication with Henry of +Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, and like him was +unremitting in his efforts to conclude a league among the German +Protestants, while he sought to weaken the Habsburgs by refusing +aid for the Turkish War. After many delays and disappointments +the Union of Evangelical Estates was actually formed in +May 1608, under the leadership of the elector, and he took a +prominent part in directing the operations of the union until his +death, which occurred on the 19th of September 1610. Frederick +was very extravagant, and liked to surround himself with pomp +and luxury. He married in 1593 Louise, daughter of William +the Silent, prince of Orange, and was succeeded by Frederick, +the elder of his two sons.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Ritter, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Union</i> (Schaffhausen, 1867-1873); +and L. Häusser, <i>Geschichte der rheinischen Pfalz</i> (Heidelberg, +1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK V.<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1596-1632), elector palatine of the Rhine +and king of Bohemia, son of the elector Frederick IV. by his wife, +Louisa Juliana, daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, +was born at Amberg on the 26th of August 1596. He became +elector on his father’s death in September 1610, and was under +the guardianship of his kinsman, John II., count palatine of +Zweibrücken (d. 1635), until he was declared of age in July 1614. +Having received a good education, Frederick had married +Elizabeth, daughter of the English king James I., in February +1613, and was the recognized head of the Evangelical Union +founded by his father to protect the interests of the Protestants. +In 1619 he stepped into a larger arena. Before this date the +estates of Bohemia, Protestant in sympathy and dissatisfied with +the rule of the Habsburgs, had been in frequent communication +with the elector palatine, and in August 1619, a few months after +the death of the emperor Matthias, they declared his successor, +Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II., deposed, +and chose Frederick as their king. After some hesitation the +elector yielded to the entreaties of Christian I., prince of Anhalt +(1568-1630), and other sanguine supporters, and was crowned +king of Bohemia at Prague on the 4th of November 1619. By +this time the emperor Ferdinand was able to take the aggressive, +while Frederick, disappointed at receiving no assistance either +from England or from the Union, had few soldiers and little +money. Consequently on the 8th of November, four days after +his coronation, his forces were easily routed by the imperial army +under Tilly at the White Hill, near Prague, and his short reign in +Bohemia ended abruptly. Soon afterwards the Palatinate was +overrun by the Spaniards and Bavarians, and after a futile +attempt to dislodge them, Frederick, called in derision the +“Winter King,” sought refuge in the Netherlands. Having +been placed under the imperial ban his electorate was given in +1623 to Maximilian I. of Bavaria, who also received the electoral +dignity.</p> + +<p>The remainder of Frederick’s life was spent in comparative +obscurity, although his restoration was a constant subject of +discussion among European diplomatists. He died at Mainz on +the 29th of November 1632, having had a large family, among +his children being Charles Louis (1617-1680), who regained the +Palatinate at the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and Sophia, +who married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of Hanover, +and was the mother of George I., king of Great Britain. His +third son was Prince Rupert, the hero of the English civil war, +and another son was Prince Maurice (1620-1652), who also +assisted his uncle Charles I. during the civil war. Having sailed +with Rupert to the West Indies, Maurice was lost at sea in +September 1652.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to the numerous works which treat of the outbreak +of the Thirty Years’ War see A. Gindely, <i>Friedrich V. von der Pfalz</i> +(Prague, 1884); J. Krebs, <i>Die Politik der evangelischen Union im +Jahre 1618</i> (Breslau, 1890-1901); M. Ritter, “Friedrich V.,” in the +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, Band vii. (Leipzig, 1878); and +<i>Deutsche Lieder auf den Winterkönig</i>, edited by R. Wolkan (Prague, +1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK I.<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1369-1428), surnamed “the Warlike,” +elector and duke of Saxony, was the eldest son of Frederick +“the Stern,” count of Osterland, and Catherine, daughter and +heiress of Henry VIII., count of Coburg. He was born at Altenburg +on the 29th of March 1369, and was a member of the family +of Wettin. When his father died in 1381 some trouble arose +over the family possessions, and in the following year an arrangement +was made by which Frederick and his brothers shared +Meissen and Thuringia with their uncles Balthasar and William. +Frederick’s brother George died in 1402, and his uncle William +in 1407. A further dispute then arose, but in 1410 a treaty was +made at Naumburg, when Frederick and his brother William +added the northern part of Meissen to their lands; and in +1425 the death of William left Frederick sole ruler. In the +German town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V. of Hohenzollern, +burgrave of Nuremberg, and in 1391 did the same for the +Teutonic Order against Ladislaus V., king of Poland and prince +of Lithuania. He supported Rupert III., elector palatine of the +Rhine, in his struggle with King Wenceslaus for the German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span> +throne, probably because Wenceslaus refused to fulfil a promise +to give him his sister Anna in marriage. The danger to Germany +from the Hussites induced Frederick to ally himself with the +German and Bohemian king Sigismund; and he took a leading +part in the war against them, during the earlier years of which +he met with considerable success. In the prosecution of this +enterprise Frederick spent large sums of money, for which he +received various places in Bohemia and elsewhere in pledge +from Sigismund, who further rewarded him in January 1423 with +the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg; and Frederick’s +formal investiture followed at Ofen on the 1st of August 1425. +Thus spurred to renewed efforts against the Hussites, the elector +was endeavouring to rouse the German princes to aid him in +prosecuting this war when the Saxon army was almost annihilated +at Aussig on the 16th of August 1426. Returning to Saxony, +Frederick died at Altenburg on the 4th of January 1428, and was +buried in the cathedral at Meissen. In 1402 he married Catherine +of Brunswick, by whom he left four sons and two daughters. +In 1409, in conjunction with his brother William, he founded +the university of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students who +had just left the university of Prague. Frederick’s importance as +an historical figure arises from his having obtained the electorate +of Saxe-Wittenberg for the house of Wettin, and transformed +the margraviate of Meissen into the territory which afterwards +became the kingdom of Saxony. In addition to the king of +Saxony, the sovereigns of England and of the Belgians are his +direct descendants.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is a life of Frederick by G. Spalatin in the <i>Scriptores rerum +Germanicarum praecipue Saxonicarum</i>, Band ii., edited by J. B. +Mencke (Leipzig, 1728-1730). See also C. W. Böttiger and Th. +Flathe, <i>Geschichte des Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen</i> (Gotha, +1867-1873); and J. G. Horn, <i>Lebens- und Heldengeschichte Friedrichs +des Streitbaren</i> (Leipzig, 1733).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK II.<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1411-1464), called “the Mild,” elector and +duke of Saxony, eldest son of the elector Frederick I., was born +on the 22nd of August 1411. He succeeded his father as elector +in 1428, but shared the family lands with his three brothers, +and was at once engaged in defending Saxony against the attacks +of the Hussites. Freed from these enemies about 1432, and +turning his attention to increasing his possessions, he obtained +the burgraviate of Meissen in 1439, and some part of Lower +Lusatia after a struggle with Brandenburg about the same time. +In 1438 it was decided that Frederick, and not his rival, Bernard +IV., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was entitled to exercise the Saxon +electoral vote at the elections for the German throne; and the +elector then aided Albert II. to secure this dignity, performing +a similar service for his own brother-in-law, Frederick, afterwards +the emperor Frederick III., two years later. Family affairs, +meanwhile, occupied Frederick’s attention. One brother, +Henry, having died in 1435, and another, Sigismund (d. 1463), +having entered the church and become bishop of Würzburg, +Frederick and his brother William (d. 1482) were the heirs of their +childless cousin, Frederick “the Peaceful,” who ruled Thuringia +and other parts of the lands of the Wettins. On his death in +1440 the brothers divided Frederick’s territory, but this arrangement +was not satisfactory, and war broke out between them in +1446. Both combatants obtained extraneous aid, but after a +desolating struggle peace was made in January 1451, when +William received Thuringia, and Frederick Altenburg and other +districts. The remainder of the elector’s reign was uneventful, +and he died at Leipzig on the 7th of September 1464. By his +wife, Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Ernest, duke of Styria, +he left two sons and four daughters. In July 1455 occurred the +celebrated <i>Prinzenraub</i>, the attempt of a knight named Kunz von +Kaufungen (d. 1455) to abduct Frederick’s two sons, Ernest +and Albert. Having carried them off from Altenburg, Kunz was +making his way to Bohemia when the plot was accidentally +discovered and the princes restored.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Schäfer, <i>Der Montag vor Kiliani</i> (1855); J. Gersdorf, +<i>Einige Aktenstücke zur Geschichte des sächsischen Prinzenraubes</i> +(1855); and T. Carlyle, <i>Critical and Miscellaneous Essays</i>, vol. iv. +(London, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK III.<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1463-1525), called “the Wise,” elector of +Saxony, eldest son of Ernest, elector of Saxony, and Elizabeth, +daughter of Albert, duke of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1508), was born +at Torgau, and succeeded his father as elector in 1486. Retaining +the government of Saxony in his own hands, he shared the other +possessions of his family with his brother John, called “the +Stedfast” (1468-1532). Frederick was among the princes who +pressed the need of reform upon the German king Maximilian I. +in 1495, and in 1500 he became president of the newly-formed +council of regency (<i>Reichsregiment</i>). He took a genuine interest +in learning; was a friend of Georg Spalatin; and in 1502 +founded the university of Wittenberg, where he appointed Luther +and Melanchthon to professorships. In 1493 he had gone as a +pilgrim to Jerusalem, and had been made a knight of the Holy +Sepulchre; but, although he remained throughout life an +adherent of the older faith, he seems to have been drawn into +sympathy with the reformers, probably through his connexion +with the university of Wittenberg. In 1520 he refused to put +into execution the papal bull which ordered Luther’s writings +to be burned and the reformer to be put under restraint or sent +to Rome; and in 1521, after Luther had been placed under the +imperial ban by the diet at Worms, the elector caused him to be +conveyed to his castle at the Wartburg, and afterwards protected +him while he attacked the enemies of the Reformation. In 1519, +Frederick, who alone among the electors refused to be bribed +by the rival candidates for the imperial throne, declined to be a +candidate for this high dignity himself, and assisted to secure +the election of Charles V. He died unmarried at Langau, near +Annaberg, on the 5th of May 1525.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Spalatin, <i>Das Leben und die Zeitgeschichte Friedrichs des +Weisen</i>, edited by C. G. Neudecker and L. Preller (Jena, 1851); +M. M. Tutzschmann, <i>Friedrich der Weise, Kurfürst von Sachsen</i> +(Grimma, 1848); and T. Kolde, <i>Friedrich der Weise und die Anfänge +der Reformation</i> (Erlangen, 1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Frederick county, +Maryland, U.S.A., on Carroll’s Creek, a tributary of the Monocacy, +61 m. by rail W. by N. from Baltimore and 45 m. N.W. from +Washington. Pop. (1890) 8193; (1900) 9296, of whom 1535 +were negroes; (1910 census) 10,411. It is served by the Baltimore +& Ohio and the Northern Central railways, and by two +interurban electric lines. Immediately surrounding it is the +rich farming land of the Monocacy valley, but from a distance +it appears to be completely shut in by picturesque hills and +mountains; to the E., the Linga ore Hills; to the W., Catoctin +Mountain; and to the S., Sugar Loaf Mountain. It is built +for the most part of brick and stone. Frederick is the seat of the +Maryland school for the deaf and dumb and of the Woman’s +College of Frederick (1893; formerly the Frederick Female +Seminary, opened in 1843), which in 1907-1908 had 212 students, +121 of whom were in the Conservatory of Music. Francis Scott +Key and Roger Brooke Taney were buried here, and a beautiful +monument erected to the memory of Key stands at the entrance +to Mount Olivet cemetery. Frederick has a considerable +agricultural trade and is an important manufacturing centre, +its industries including the canning of fruits and vegetables, and +the manufacture of flour, bricks, brushes, leather goods and +hosiery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$1,937,921, being 34.7% more than in 1900. The municipality +owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. +Frederick, so named in honour of Frederick Calvert, son and +afterward successor of Charles, Lord Baltimore, was settled +by Germans in 1733, and was laid out as a town in 1745, but was +not incorporated until 1817. Here in 1755 General Braddock +prepared for his disastrous expedition against the French at +Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg). During the Civil War the city was +occupied on different occasions by Unionists and Confederates, +and was made famous by Whittier’s poem “Barbara Frietchie.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I.<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1750-1827), king of Saxony, +son of the elector Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden on +the 23rd of December 1750. He succeeded his father under the +guardianship of Prince Xavier in 1763, and was declared of age +in 1768. In the following year (January 17, 1769) he married +Princess Maria Amelia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Zweibrücken, +by whom he had only one child, Princess Augusta +(born June 21, 1782). One of his chief aims was the reduction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span> +of taxes and imposts and of the army. He was always extremely +methodical and conscientious, and a good example to all his +officials, whence his surname “the Just.” On account of the +claims of his mother on the inheritance of her brother, the elector +of Bavaria, he sided with Frederick the Great in the short +Bavarian succession war of 1778 against Austria. At the peace +of Teschen, which concluded the war, he received 6 million florins, +which he employed partly in regaining those parts of his kingdom +which had been lost, and partly in favour of his relatives. In +1785 he joined the league of German princes (<i>Deutscher Fürstenbund</i>) +formed by Prussia, but without prejudice to his neutrality. +Thus he remained neutral during the quarrel between Austria +and Prussia in 1790. In the following year he declined the +crown of Poland. He refused to join the league against France +(February 7, 1792), but when war was declared his duty to the +Empire necessitated his taking part in it. Even after the peace +of Basel (April 5, 1795) he continued the war. But when the +French army, during the following year, advanced into the heart +of Germany, he was compelled by General Jourdan to retreat +(August 13, 1796). He maintained his neutrality during the +war between France and Austria in 1805, but in the following +year he joined Prussia against France. After the disastrous +battle of Jena he concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon at +Posen (December 11, 1806), and, assuming the title of king, +he joined the Confederation of the Rhine. But he did not alter +the constitution and administration of his new kingdom. After +the peace of Tilsit (July 9, 1807) he was created by Napoleon +grand-duke of Warsaw, but his sovereignty of Poland was little +more than nominal. There was a kind of friendship between +Frederick Augustus and Napoleon. In 1809 Frederick Augustus +fought with him against Austria. On several occasions (1807, +1812, 1813) Napoleon was entertained at Dresden, and when, +on his return from his disastrous Russian campaign, he passed +through Saxony by Dresden (December 16, 1812), Frederick +Augustus remained true to his friend and ally. It was only during +April 1813 that he made overtures to Austria, but he soon +afterwards returned to the side of the French. He returned +to Dresden on the 10th of May and was present at the terrible +battle of August 26 and 27, in which Napoleon’s army and his +own were defeated. He fell into the hands of the Allies after their +entry into Leipzig on the 19th of October 1813; and, although +he regained his freedom after the congress of Vienna, he was +compelled to give up the northern part—three-fifths—of his +kingdom to Prussia (May 21, 1814). He entered Dresden on +the 7th of July, and was enthusiastically welcomed by his +people. The remainder of his life was spent in repairing the +damages caused by the Napoleonic wars, in developing the +agricultural, commercial and industrial resources of his kingdom, +reforming the administration of justice, establishing hospitals +and other charitable institutions, encouraging art and science +and promoting education. He had a special interest in botany, +and originated the beautiful park at Pillnitz. His reign throughout +was characterized by justice, probity, moderation and +prudence. He died on the 5th of May 1827.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The earlier lives, by C. E. Weisse (1811), A. L. +Herrmann (1827), Pölitz (1830), are mere panegyrics. On the other +side see Flathe in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, and Böttiger-Flathe, +<i>History of Saxony</i> (2nd ed., 1867 ff.), vols. ii. and iii.; A. +Bonnefons, <i>Un Allié de Napoléon, Frédéric Auguste, premier roi de +Saxe</i> ... (Paris, 1902); Fritz Friedrich, <i>Politik Sachsens 1801-1803</i> +(1898); P. Rühlmann, <i>Öffentliche Meinung ... 1806-1813</i> +(1902). There are many pamphlets bearing on the Saxon question +and on Frederick Augustus during the years 1814 and 1815.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II.<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1797-1854), king of Saxony, +eldest son of Prince Maximilian and of Caroline Maria Theresa +of Parma, was born on the 18th of May 1797. The unsettled +times in which his youth was passed necessitated his frequent +change of residence, but care was nevertheless taken that his +education should not be interrupted, and he also acquired, +through his journeys in foreign states (Switzerland 1818, Montenegro +1838, England and Scotland 1844) and his intercourse +with men of eminence, a special taste for art and for natural +science. He was himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine +collection of engravings on copper. He was twice married—in +1819 (October 7) to the duchess Caroline, fourth daughter +of the emperor Francis I. of Austria (d. May 22, 1832), and in +1833 (April 4) to Maria, daughter of Maximilian I. of Bavaria. +There were no children of either marriage. During the government +of his uncles (Frederick Augustus I. and Anthony) he +took no part in the administration of the country, though he +was the sole heir to the crown. In 1830 a rising in Dresden led +to his being named joint regent of the kingdom along with King +Anthony on the 13th of September; and in this position his +popularity and his wise and liberal reforms (for instance, in +arranging public audiences) speedily quelled all discontent. +On the 6th of June 1836 he succeeded his uncle. Though he +administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality +Saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon +Germany in 1848. He elected Liberal ministers, and he was at +first in favour of the programme of German unity put forward +at Frankfort, but he refused to acknowledge the democratic +constitution of the German parliament. This attitude led to +the insurrection at Dresden in May 1849, which was suppressed +by the help of Prussian troops. From that time onward his +reign was tranquil and prosperous. Later Count Beust, leader +of the Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal +minister and guided his policy on most occasions. His death +occurred accidentally through the upsetting of his carriage +near Brennbühel, between Imst and Wenns in Tirol (August 9, +1854). Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure hours chiefly to +the study of botany. He made botanical excursions into different +countries, and <i>Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pflanzen und Gebirgsarten, +gesammelt und beschrieben</i>, written by him, was published +at Prague by Kedler, 1837.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Böttiger-Flathe, <i>History of Saxony</i>, vol. iii.; R. Freiherr von +Friesen, <i>Erinnerungen</i> (2 vols., Dresden, 1881); F. F. Graf von +Beust, Aus <i>drei-viertel Jahrhunderten</i> (2 vols., 1887); Flathe, in +<i>Allg. deutsche Biogr.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK CHARLES (FRIEDRICH KARL NIKOLAUS)<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span>, +<span class="sc">Prince</span> (1828-1885), Prussian general field marshal, son of Prince +Charles of Prussia and grandson of King Frederick William III., +was born in Berlin on the 20th of March 1828. He was educated +for the army, which he entered on his tenth birthday as second +lieutenant in the 14th Foot Guards. He became first lieutenant +in 1844, and in 1846 entered the university of Bonn, where he +stayed for two years, being accompanied throughout by Major +von Roon, afterwards the famous war minister. In 1848 he +became a company commander in his regiment, and soon afterwards +served in the Schleswig-Holstein War on the staff of Marshal +von Wrangel, being present at the battle of Schleswig (April 23, +1848). Later in 1848 he became <i>Rittmeister</i> in the <i>Garde du Corps</i> +cavalry regiment, and in 1849 major in the Guard Hussars. +In this year the prince took part in the campaign against the +Baden insurgents, and was wounded at the action of Wiesenthal +while leading a desperate charge against entrenched infantry. +After this experience the wild courage of his youth gave place +to the unshakable resolution which afterwards characterized +the prince’s generalship. In 1852 he became colonel, and in +1854 major-general and commander of a cavalry brigade. In +this capacity he was brought closely in touch with General von +Reyher, the chief of the general staff, and with Moltke. He +married, in the same year, Princess Marie Anne of Anhalt. In +1857 he became commander of the 1st Guard Infantry division, +but very shortly afterwards, on account of disputes concerned +with the training methods then in force, he resigned the appointment.</p> + +<p>In 1858 he visited France, where he minutely investigated +the state of the French army, but it was not long before he +was recalled, for in 1859, in consequence of the Franco-Austrian +War, Prussia mobilized her forces, and Frederick Charles was +made a divisional commander in the II. army corps. In this +post he was given the liberty of action which had previously been +denied to him. About this time (1860) the prince gave a lecture +to the officers of his command on the French army and its +methods, the substance of which (<i>Eine militärische Denkschrift</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span> +<i>von P.F.K.</i>, Frankfort on Main, 1860) was circulated more widely +than the author intended, and in the French translation gave +rise to much indignation in France. In 1861 Frederick Charles +became general of cavalry. He was then commander of the III. +(Brandenburg) army corps. This post he held from 1860 to 1870, +except during the campaigns of 1864 and 1866, and in it he displayed +his real qualities as a troop leader. His self-imposed +task was to raise the military spirit of his troops to the highest +possible level, and ten years of his continuous and thorough +training brought the III. corps to a pitch of real efficiency which +the Guard corps alone, in virtue of its special recruiting powers, +slightly surpassed. Prince Frederick Charles’ work was tested +to the full when von Alvensleben and the III. corps engaged the +whole French army on the 16th of August 1870. In 1864 the +prince once more fought against the Danes under his old leader +“Papa” Wrangel. The Prussian contingent under Frederick +Charles formed a corps of the allied army, and half of it was +drawn from the III. corps. After the storming of the Düppel lines +the prince succeeded Wrangel in the supreme command, with +Lieutenant-General Freiherr von Moltke as his chief of staff. +These two great soldiers then planned and brilliantly carried out +the capture of the island of Alsen, after which the war came to an +end.</p> + +<p>In 1860 came the Seven Weeks’ War with Austria. Prince +Frederick Charles was appointed to command the I. Army, +which he led through the mountains into Bohemia, driving +before him the Austrians and Saxons to the upper Elbe, where +on the 3rd of July took place the decisive battle of Königgrätz or +Sadowa. This was brought on by the initiative of the leader +of the I. Army, which had to bear the brunt of the fighting until +the advance of the II. Army turned the Austrian flank. After +the peace he returned to the III. army corps, which he finally +left, in July 1870, when appointed to command the II. German +Army in the war with France. In the early days of the advance +the prince’s ruthless energy led to much friction between the +I. and II. Armies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>), while his strategical +mistakes seriously embarrassed the great headquarters staff. +The advance of the II. Army beyond the Saar to the Moselle +and from that river to the Meuse displayed more energy than +careful strategy, but herein at least the “Red Prince” (as he +was called from the colour of his favourite hussar uniform) +was in thorough sympathy with the king’s headquarters on the +one hand and the feelings of the troops on the other. Then came +the discovery that the French were not in front, but to the right +rear of the II. Army (August 16). Alvensleben with the III. +corps held the French to their ground at Vionville while the prince +hurried together his scattered forces. He himself directed with +superb tactical skill the last efforts of the Germans at Vionville, +and the victory of St Privat on the 18th was due to his leadership +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span>), which shone all the more by contrast with the failures +of the I. Army at Gravelotte. The prince was left in command of +the forces which blockaded Bazaine in Metz, and received the +surrender of that place and of the last remaining field army of the +enemy. He was promoted at once to the rank of general field +marshal, and shortly afterwards the II. Army was despatched +to aid in crushing the newly organized army of the French +republic on the Loire. Here again he retrieved strategical errors +by energy and tactical skill, and his work was in the end crowned +by the victory of Le Mans on the 12th of January 1871. Of +all the subordinate leaders on the German side none enjoyed a +greater and a better deserved reputation than the Red Prince.</p> + +<p>He now became inspector-general of the 3rd “army inspection,” +and a little later inspector of cavalry, and in the latter post he was +largely instrumental in bringing the German cavalry to the degree +of perfection in manœuvre and general training which it gradually +attained in the years after the war. He never ceased to improve +his own soldierly qualities by further study and by the conduct of +manœvres on a large scale. His sternness of character kept +him aloof from the court and from his own family, and he spent +his leisure months chiefly on his various country estates. In +1872 and in 1882 he travelled in the Mediterranean and the Near +East. He died on the 15th of June 1885 at Klein-Glienicke +near Berlin, and was buried at the adjacent church of Nikolskoe. +His third daughter, Princess Louise Margareta, was married, +in March 1879, to the duke of Connaught.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK HENRY<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1584-1647), prince of Orange, the +youngest child of William the Silent, was born at Delft about +six months before his father’s assassination on the 29th of January +1584. His mother, Louise de Coligny, was daughter of the famous +Huguenot leader, Admiral de Coligny, and was the fourth wife +of William the Silent. The boy was trained to arms by his elder +brother, Maurice of Nassau, one of the first generals of his age. +On the death of Maurice in 1625, Frederick Henry succeeded +him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in the stadtholderates +of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, +Overysel and Gelderland, and in the important posts of captain +and admiral-general of the Union. Frederick Henry proved +himself scarcely inferior to his brother as a general, and a far +more capable statesman and politician. During twenty-two +years he remained at the head of affairs in the United Provinces, +and in his time the power of the stadtholderate reached its highest +point. The “Period of Frederick Henry,” as it is usually styled +by Dutch writers, is generally accounted the golden age of the +republic. It was marked by great military and naval triumphs, +by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion, and by a +wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature. +The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges +and captures of Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632, +of Breda in 1637, of Sas van Ghent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645. +During the greater part of his administration the alliance with +France against Spain had been the pivot of Frederick Henry’s +foreign policy, but in his last years he sacrificed the French +alliance for the sake of concluding a separate peace with Spain, +by which the United Provinces obtained from that power all the +advantages for which they had for eighty years been contending. +Frederick Henry died on the 14th of March 1647, and was buried +with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The +treaty of Münster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch +and the Spaniards, was not actually signed until the 30th of +January 1648, the illness and death of the stadtholder having +caused a delay in the negotiations. Frederick Henry was married +in 1625 to Amalia von Solms, and left one son, William II. of +Orange, and four daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his <i>Mémoires +de Frédéric Henri</i> (Amsterdam, 1743). See <i>Cambridge Mod. Hist.</i> +vol. iv. chap. 24, and the bibliography on p. 931.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK LOUIS<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1707-1751), prince of Wales, eldest son +of George II., was born at Hanover on the 20th of January 1707. +After his grandfather, George I., became king of Great Britain +and Ireland in 1714, Frederick was known as duke of Gloucester<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +and made a knight of the Garter, having previously been betrothed +to Wilhelmina Sophia Dorothea (1709-1758), daughter +of Frederick William I., king of Prussia, and sister of Frederick +the Great. Although he was anxious to marry this lady, the +match was rendered impossible by the dislike of George II. and +Frederick William for each other. Soon after his father became +king in 1727 Frederick took up his residence in England and in +1729 was created prince of Wales; but the relations between +George II. and his son were very unfriendly, and there existed +between them the jealousy which Stubbs calls the “incurable +bane of royalty.” The faults were not all on one side. The +prince’s character was not attractive, and the king refused to +make him an adequate allowance. In 1735 Frederick wrote, +or inspired the writing of, the <i>Histoire du prince Titi</i>, a book +containing offensive caricatures of both king and queen; and +losing no opportunity of irritating his father, “he made,” says +Lecky, “his court the special centre of opposition to the government, +and he exerted all his influence for the ruin of Walpole.” +After a marriage between the prince and Lady Diana Spencer, +afterwards the wife of John, 4th duke of Bedford, had been +frustrated by Walpole, Frederick was married in April 1736 to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span> +Augusta (1719-1772), daughter of Frederick II., duke of Saxe-Gotha, +a union which was welcomed by his parents, but which +led to further trouble between father and son. George proposed +to allow the prince £50,000 a year; but this sum was regarded +as insufficient by the latter, whose appeal to parliament was +unsuccessful. After the birth of his first child, Augusta, in 1737, +Frederick was ordered by the king to quit St James’ Palace, and +the foreign ambassadors were requested to refrain from visiting +him. The relations between the two were now worse than before. +In 1745 George II. refused to allow his son to command the British +army against the Jacobites. On the 20th of March 1751 the +prince died in London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. +He left five sons and two daughters. The sons were George +(afterwards King George III.), Edward Augustus, duke of York +and Albany (1739-1767), William Henry, duke of Gloucester +and Edinburgh (1743-1805), Henry Frederick, duke of Cumberland +(1745-1790), and Frederick William (1750-1765); the +daughters were Augusta (1737-1813), wife of Charles William +Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, and Caroline Matilda (1751-1775), +wife of Christian VII., king of Denmark.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lord Hervey of Ickworth, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George II.</i>, +edited by J. W. Croker (London, 1884); Horace Walpole, <i>Memoirs +of the Reign of George II.</i> (London, 1847); and Sir N. W. Wraxall, +<i>Memoirs</i>, edited by H. B. Wheatley, vol. i. (London, 1884).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Frederick was never actually created duke of Gloucester, and +when he was raised to the peerage in 1736 it was as duke of Edinburgh +only. See G. E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i>, sub “Gloucester.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK WILLIAM I.<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1688-1740), king of Prussia, son +of Frederick I. by his second marriage was born on the 15th +of August 1688. He spent a considerable time in early youth at +the court of his grandfather, the elector Ernest Augustus of +Hanover. On his return to Berlin he was placed under General +von Dohna and Count Finkenstein, who trained him to the +energetic and regular habits which ever afterwards characterized +him. He was soon imbued with a passion for military life, and +this was deepened by acquaintance with the duke of Marlborough +(1709), Prince Eugene, whom he visited during the siege of +Tournai, and Prince Leopold of Anhalt (the “Old Dessauer”). +In nearly every respect he was the opposite of his father, having +frugal, simple tastes, a passionate temper and a determined will. +Throughout his life he was always the protector of the church and +of religion. But he detested religious quarrels and was very +tolerant towards his Catholic subjects, except the Jesuits. +His life was simple and puritanical, being founded on the teaching +of the Bible. He was, however, fond of hunting and somewhat +given to drinking. He intensely disliked the French, and highly +disapproved of the imitation of their manners by his father and +his court. When he came to the throne (February 25, 1713) his +first act was to dismiss from the palace every unnecessary official +and to regulate the royal household on principles of the strictest +parsimony. The greater part of the beautiful furniture was +sold. His importance for Prussia is twofold: in internal politics +he laid down principles which continued to be followed long after +his death. This was a province peculiarly suited to his genius; +he was one of the greatest administrators who have ever worn the +Prussian crown. His foreign policy was less successful, though +under his rule the kingdom acquired some extension of territory.</p> + +<p>Thus at the peace of Utrecht (April 11, 1713), after the War +of the Spanish Succession, he acquired the greater part of the +duchy of Gelderland. By the treaty of Schwedt, concluded with +Russia on the 6th of October, he was assured of an important +influence in the solution of the Baltic question, which during +the long absence of Charles XII. had become burning; and +Swedish Pomerania, as far as the Peene, was occupied by Prussia. +But Charles XII. on his return turned against the king, though +without success, for the Pomeranian campaign of 1715 ended in +favour of Prussia (fall of Stralsund, December 22). This enabled +Frederick William I. to maintain a more independent attitude +towards the tsar; he refused, for example, to provide him with +troops for a campaign (in Schonen) against the Swedes. When +on the 28th of May 1718, in view of the disturbances in Mecklenburg, +he signed at Havelberg the alliance with Russia, he confined +himself to taking up a defensive attitude, and, on the other hand, +on the 14th of August 1719 he also entered into relations with +his former enemies, England and Hanover. And so, by the +treaty of Stockholm (February 1, 1720), Frederick William +succeeded in obtaining the consent of Sweden to the cession of +that part of Pomerania which he had occupied (Usedom, Wollin, +Stettin, Hither Pomerania, east of the Peene) in return for a +payment of 2,000,000 thalers.</p> + +<p>While Frederick William I. succeeded in carrying his wishes +into effect in this direction, he was unable to realize another +project which he had much at heart, namely, the Prussian succession +to the Lower Rhine duchies of Jülich and Berg. The treaty +concluded in 1725 at Vienna between the emperor and Spain +brought the whole of this question up again, for both sides had +pledged themselves to support the Palatinate-Sulzbach succession +(in the event of the Palatinate-Neuberg line becoming extinct). +Frederick William turned for help to the western powers, England +and France, and secured it by the treaty of alliance signed at +Herrenhausen on the 3rd of September 1725 (League of Hanover). +But since the western powers soon sought to use the military +strength of Prussia for their own ends, Frederick again turned +towards the east, strengthened above all his relations with Russia, +which had continued to be good, and finally, by the treaty of +Wüsterhausen (October 12, 1726; ratified at Berlin, December 23, +1728), even allied himself with his former adversary, the court of +Vienna; though this treaty only imperfectly safeguarded Prussian +interests, inasmuch as Frederick William consented to renounce +his claims to Jülich. But as in the following years the European +situation became more and more favourable to the house of +Habsburg, the latter began to try to withdraw part of the concessions +which it had made to Frederick William. As early as +1728 Düsseldorf, the capital, was excluded from the guarantee of +Berg. Nevertheless, in the War of the Polish Succession against +France (1734-1735), Frederick William remained faithful to the +emperor’s cause, and sent an auxiliary force of 10,000 men. The +peace of Vienna, which terminated the war, led to a reconciliation +between France and Austria, and so to a further estrangement +between Frederick William and the emperor. Moreover, in 1738 +the western powers, together with the emperor, insisted in identical +notes on the recognition of the emperor’s right to decide the +question of the succession in the Lower Rhine duchies. A breach +with the emperor was now inevitable, and this explains why +in a last treaty (April 5, 1739) Frederick William obtained from +France a guarantee of a part, at least, of Berg (excluding +Düsseldorf).</p> + +<p>But Frederick William’s failures in foreign policy were more +than compensated for by his splendid services in the internal +administration of Prussia. He saw the necessity of rigid economy +not only in his private life but in the whole administration of the +state. During his reign Prussia obtained for the first time a +centralized and uniform financial administration. It was the king +himself who composed and wrote in the year 1722 the famous +instruction for the general directory (<i>Generaldirektorium</i>) of +war, finance and domains. When he died the income of the state +was about seven million thalers (£1,050,000). The consequence +was that he paid off the debts incurred by his father, and left to +his successor a well filled treasury. In the administration of +the domains he made three innovations: (1) the private estates +of the king were turned into domains of the crown (August 13, +1713); (2) the freeing of the serfs on the royal domains (March +22, 1719); (3) the conversion of the hereditary lease into a +short-term lease on the basis of productiveness. His industrial +policy was inspired by the mercantile spirit. On this account he +forbade the importation of foreign manufactures and the export +of raw materials from home, a policy which had a very good +effect on the growth of Prussian industries.</p> + +<p>The work of internal colonization he carried on with especial +zeal. Most notable of all was his <i>rétablissement</i> of East Prussia, to +which he devoted six million thalers (<i>c.</i> £900,000). His policy in +respect of the towns was motived largely by fiscal considerations, +but at the same time he tried also to improve their municipal +administration; for example, in the matter of buildings, of the +letting of domain lands and of the collection of the excise in towns. +Frederick William had many opponents among the nobles because +he pressed on the abolition of the old feudal rights, introduced +in East Prussia and Lithuania a general land tax (the <i>Generalhufenschoss</i>), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span> +and finally in 1739 attacked in a special edict the +<i>Legen</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the expropriation of the peasant proprietors. He +did nothing for the higher learning, and even banished the philosopher +Christian Wolff at forty-eight hours’ notice “on pain of +the halter,” for teaching, as he believed, fatalist doctrines. +Afterwards he modified his judgment in favour of Wolff, and even, +in 1739, recommended the study of his works. He established +many village schools, which he often visited in person; and after +the year 1717 (October 23) all Prussian parents were obliged to +send their children to school (<i>Schulzwang</i>). He was the especial +friend of the <i>Franckische Stiftungen</i> at Halle on the Saale. +Under him the people flourished; and although it stood in awe +of his vehement spirit it respected him for his firmness, his +honesty of purpose and his love of justice. He was devoted +also to his army, the number of which he raised from 38,000 +to 83,500, so that under him Prussia became the third military +power in the world, coming next after Russia and France. There +was not a more thoroughly drilled or better appointed force. +The Potsdam guard, made up of giants collected from all parts +of Europe, sometimes kidnapped, was a sort of toy with which +he amused himself. The reviewing of his troops was his chief +pleasure. But he was also fond of meeting his friends in the +evening in what he called his Tobacco-College, where amid clouds +of tobacco smoke he not only discussed affairs of state but heard +the newest “guard-room jokes.” He died on the 31st of May +1740, leaving behind him his widow, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, +whom he had married on the 26th of November 1706. His son +was Frederick the Great, who was the opposite of Frederick +William. This opposition became so strong in 1730 that the +crown prince fled from the court, and was later arrested and +brought before a court-martial. A reconciliation was brought +about, at first gradually. In later years the relations between +father and son came to be of the best (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick II.</a></span>, king +of Prussia).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—D. Fassmann, <i>Leben und Thaten Friedrich +Wilhelms</i> (2 vols., Hamburg and Breslau, 1735, 1741); F. Förster, +<i>Friedrich Wilhelm I.</i> (3 vols., Potsdam, 1834 and 1835); C. v. +Noorden, <i>Historische Vorträge</i> (Leipzig, 1884); O. Krauske, “Vom +Hofe Friedrich Wilhelms I.,” <i>Hohenzollernjahrbuch</i>, v. (1902); +R. Koser, <i>Friedrich der Grosse als Kronprinz</i> (2nd ed., Stuttgart, +1901); W. Oncken, “Sir Charles Hotham und Friedrich Wilhelm I. +im Jahre 1730,” <i>Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte</i>, +vol. vii. et seq.; J. G. Droysen in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, +vii. (1878), and in <i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i>, section iv., +vols. ii.-iv. (2nd ed., 1868 et seq.); L. v. Ranke, <i>Zwölf Bücher +preussischer Geschichte</i> (1874 et seq.); Stenzel, <i>Geschichte des preussischen +Staates</i>, iii. (1841); F. Holke, “Strafrechtspflege unter +Friedrich Wilhelm I.,” <i>Beiträge zur brandenburgischen Rechtsgeschichte</i>, +iii. (1894); V. Loewe, “Allodifikation der Leben unter +Friedrich Wilhelm I.,” <i>Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte</i>, +xi.; G. Schmoller, “Epochen der preuss. Finanzpolitik,” <i>Umrisse +und Untersuchungen</i> (Leipzig, 1898), “Innere Verwaltung unter +Friedrich Wilhelm I.,” <i>Preuss. Jahrbücher</i>, xxvi., “Städtewesen +unter Friedrich Wilhelm I.,” <i>Zeitschrift für preussische Geschichte</i>, x. +et seq.; B. Reuter, “König Friedrich Wilhelm I. und das General-Direktorium,” +<i>ibid.</i> xii.; V. Loewe, “Zur Grundungsgeschichte des +General-Direktoriums,” <i>Forschungen</i>, &c., xiii.; R. Stadelmann, +<i>Preussens Könige in ihrer Tätigkeit für die Landeskultur</i>, vol. i. +“Friedrich Wilhelm I.” (1878); M. Beheim-Schwarzbach, <i>Hohenzollern’sche +Kolonizationen</i> (Leipzig, 1874); W. Naude, “Die +merkantilistische Wirtschaftspolitik Friedrich Wilhelms I.,” <i>Historische +Zeitschrift</i>, xc.; M. Lehmann, “Werbung, &c., im Heere +Friedrich Wilhelms I.,” <i>ibid.</i> lxvii.; Isaacson, “Erbpachtsystem in +der preussischen Domänenverwaltung,” <i>Zeitschrift für preuss. Gesch.</i> +xi. Cf. also <i>Hohenzollernjahrbuch</i>, viii. (1905), for particulars of his +education and death; letters to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau +in the <i>Acta Borussica</i> (1905). English readers will find a picturesque +account of him in Thomas Carlyle’s <i>Frederick the Great</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK WILLIAM II.<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1744-1797), king of Prussia, +son of Augustus William, second son of King Frederick William +I. and of Louise Amalie of Brunswick, sister of the wife of +Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin on the 25th of September +1744, and became heir to the throne on his father’s death in 1757. +The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition, +averse from sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature. +His marriage with Elisabeth Christine, daughter of Duke Charles +of Brunswick, contracted in 1765, was dissolved in 1769, and he +soon afterwards married Frederika Louisa, daughter of the landgrave +Louis IX. of Hesse-Darmstadt. Although he had a +numerous family by his wife, he was completely under the influence +of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, afterwards created +Countess Lichtenau, a woman of strong intellect and much +ambition. He was a man of singularly handsome presence, not +without mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the +arts—Beethoven and Mozart enjoyed his patronage and his +private orchestra had a European reputation. But an artistic +temperament was hardly that required of a king of Prussia on +the eve of the Revolution; and Frederick the Great, who had +employed him in various services—notably in an abortive confidential +mission to the court of Russia in 1780—openly expressed +his misgivings as to the character of the prince and his surroundings.</p> + +<p>The misgivings were justified by the event. Frederick +William’s accession to the throne (August 17, 1786) was, indeed, +followed by a series of measures for lightening the burdens of the +people, reforming the oppressive French system of tax-collecting +introduced by Frederick, and encouraging trade by the diminution +of customs dues and the making of roads and canals. This +gave the new king much popularity with the mass of the people; +while the educated classes were pleased by his removal of +Frederick’s ban on the German language by the admission of +German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active +encouragement given to schools and universities. But these +reforms were vitiated in their source. In 1781 Frederick William, +then prince of Prussia, inclined, like many sensual natures, to +mysticism, had joined the Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the +influence of Johann Christof Wöllner (1732-1800), and by him +the royal policy was inspired. Wöllner, whom Frederick the +Great had described as a “treacherous and intriguing priest,” +had started life as a poor tutor in the family of General von +Itzenplitz, a noble of the mark of Brandenburg, had, after the +general’s death and to the scandal of king and nobility, married +the general’s daughter, and with his mother-in-law’s assistance +settled down on a small estate. By his practical experiments and +by his writings he gained a considerable reputation as an economist; +but his ambition was not content with this, and he sought +to extend his influence by joining first the Freemasons and afterwards +(1779) the Rosicrucians. Wöllner, with his impressive +personality and easy if superficial eloquence, was just the man +to lead a movement of this kind. Under his influence the order +spread rapidly, and he soon found himself the supreme director +(<i>Oberhauptdirektor</i>) of some 26 “circles,” which included in their +membership princes, officers and high officials. As a Rosicrucian +Wöllner dabbled in alchemy and other mystic arts, but he also +affected to be zealous for Christian orthodoxy, imperilled by +Frederick II.’s patronage of “enlightenment,” and a few months +before Frederick’s death wrote to his friend the Rosicrucian +Johann Rudolph von Bischoffswerder (1741-1803) that his +highest ambition was to be placed at the head of the religious +department of the state “as an unworthy instrument in the hand +of Ormesus” (the prince of Prussia’s Rosicrucian name) “for +the purpose of saving millions of souls from perdition and bringing +back the whole country to the faith of Jesus Christ.”</p> + +<p>Such was the man whom Frederick William II., immediately +after his accession, called to his counsels. On the 26th of August +1786 he was appointed privy councillor for finance (<i>Geheimer +Oberfinanzrath</i>), and on the 2nd of October was ennobled. +Though not in name, in fact he was prime minister; in all internal +affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal and economic +reforms of the new reign were the application of his theories. +Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the +king’s counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general. +These were the two men who enmeshed the king in a web of +Rosicrucian mystery and intrigue, which hampered whatever +healthy development of his policy might have been possible, +and led ultimately to disaster. The opposition to Wöllner was, +indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being entrusted +with the department of religion; but this too in time was overcome, +and on the 3rd of July 1788 he was appointed active +privy councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span> +department for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. War was at +once declared on what—to use a later term—we may call +the “modernists.” The king, so long as Wöllner was content +to condone his immorality (which Bischoffswerder, to do him +justice, condemned), was eager to help the orthodox crusade. +On the 9th of July was issued the famous religious edict, which +forbade Evangelical ministers to teach anything not contained +in the letter of their official books, proclaimed the necessity of +protecting the Christian religion against the “enlighteners” +(<i>Aufklärer</i>), and placed educational establishments under the +supervision of the orthodox clergy. On the 18th of December +a new censorship law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of all +published books; and finally, in 1791, a sort of Protestant +Inquisition was established at Berlin (<i>Immediat-Examinations-commission</i>) +to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic +appointments. In his zeal for orthodoxy, indeed, Frederick +William outstripped his minister; he even blamed Wöllner’s +“idleness and vanity” for the inevitable failure of the attempt +to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one +of his secular offices in order that he might have more time +“to devote himself to the things of God”; in edict after edict +the king continued to the end of his reign to make regulations +“in order to maintain in his states a true and active Christianity, +as the path to genuine fear of God.”</p> + +<p>The effects of this policy of blind obscurantism far outweighed +any good that resulted from the king’s well-meant efforts at +economic and financial reform; and even this reform was but +spasmodic and partial, and awoke ultimately more discontent +than it allayed. But far more fateful for Prussia was the king’s +attitude towards the army and foreign policy. The army was +the very foundation of the Prussian state, a truth which both +Frederick William I. and the great Frederick had fully realized; +the army had been their first care, and its efficiency had been +maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick +William, who had no taste for military matters, put his authority +as “War-Lord” into commission under a supreme college of +war (<i>Oberkriegs-Collegium</i>) under the duke of Brunswick and +General von Möllendorf. It was the beginning of the process +that ended in 1806 at Jena.</p> + +<p>In the circumstances Frederick William’s intervention in +European affairs was not likely to prove of benefit to Prussia. +The Dutch campaign of 1787, entered on for purely family +reasons, was indeed successful; but Prussia received not even +the cost of her intervention. An attempt to intervene in the war +of Russia and Austria against Turkey failed of its object; Prussia +did not succeed in obtaining any concessions of territory from +the alarms of the Allies, and the dismissal of Hertzberg in +1791 marked the final abandonment of the anti-Austrian tradition +of Frederick the Great. For, meanwhile, the French Revolution +had entered upon alarming phases, and in August 1791 +Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz, arranged with the +emperor Leopold to join in supporting the cause of Louis XVI. +But neither the king’s character, nor the confusion of the Prussian +finances due to his extravagance, gave promise of any effective +action. A formal alliance was indeed signed on the 7th of +February 1792, and Frederick William took part personally in +the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. He was hampered, however, +by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the affairs +of Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be +gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy +treaty with the sea powers (April 19, 1794) filled his coffers; but +the insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793, +and the threat of the isolated intervention of Russia, hurried +him into the separate treaty of Basel with the French Republic +(April 5, 1795), which was regarded by the great monarchies as +a betrayal, and left Prussia morally isolated in Europe on the +eve of the titanic struggle between the monarchical principle +and the new political creed of the Revolution. Prussia had paid +a heavy price for the territories acquired at the expense of Poland +in 1793 and 1795, and when, on the 16th of November 1797, +Frederick William died, he left the state in bankruptcy and +confusion, the army decayed and the monarchy discredited.</p> + +<p>Frederick William II. was twice married: (1) in 1765 to +Elizabeth of Brunswick (d. 1841), by whom he had a daughter, +Frederika, afterwards duchess of York, and from whom he was +divorced in 1769; (2) in 1769 to Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, +by whom he had four sons, Frederick William III., +Louis (d. 1796), Henry and William, and two daughters, Wilhelmina, +wife of William of Orange, afterwards William I., king of +the Netherlands, and Augusta, wife of William II., elector of +Hesse. Besides his relations with his <i>maîtresse en titre</i>, the +countess Lichtenau, the king—who was a frank polygamist—contracted +two “marriages of the left hand” with Fräulein von +Voss and the countess Dönhoff.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See article by von Hartmann in <i>Allgem. deutsche Biog.</i> (Leipzig, +1878); Stadelmann, <i>Preussens Könige in ihrer Tätigkeit für die +Landeskultur</i>, vol. iii. “Friedrich Wilhelm II.” (Leipzig, 1885); Paulig, +<i>Friedrich Wilhelm II., sein Privatleben u. seine Regierung</i> (Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, +1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK WILLIAM III.<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1770-1840), king of Prussia, +eldest son of King Frederick William II., was born at Potsdam +on the 3rd of August 1770. His father, then prince of Prussia, +was out of favour with Frederick the Great and entirely under the +influence of his mistress; and the boy, handed over to tutors +appointed by the king, lived a solitary and repressed life which +tended to increase the innate weakness of his character. But +though his natural defects of intellect and will-power were not +improved by the pedantic tutoring to which he was submitted, +he grew up pious, honest and well-meaning; and had fate cast +him in any but the most stormy times of his country’s history +he might well have left the reputation of a model king. As a +soldier he received the usual training of a Prussian prince, +obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became a colonel commanding +in 1790, and took part in the campaigns of 1792-94. In 1793 +he married Louise, daughter of Prince Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, +whom he had met and fallen in love with at Frankfort +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Louise</a></span>, queen of Prussia). He succeeded to the throne on +the 16th of November 1797 and at once gave earnest of his good +intentions by cutting down the expenses of the royal establishment, +dismissing his father’s ministers, and reforming the most +oppressive abuses of the late reign. Unfortunately, however, +he had all the Hohenzollern tenacity of personal power without +the Hohenzollern genius for using it. Too distrustful to delegate +his responsibility to his ministers, he was too infirm of will to +strike out and follow a consistent course for himself.</p> + +<p>The results of this infirmity of purpose are written large on the +history of Prussia from the treaty of Lunéville in 1801 to the +downfall that followed the campaign of Jena in 1806. By the +treaty of Tilsit (July 9th, 1807) Frederick William had to +surrender half his dominions, and what remained to him was +exhausted by French exactions and liable at any moment to +be crushed out of existence by some new whim of Napoleon. +In the dark years that followed it was the indomitable courage +of Queen Louise that helped the weak king not to despair of the +state. She seconded the reforming efforts of Stein and the work +of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in reorganizing the army, by which +the resurrection of Prussia became a possibility. When Stein +was dismissed at the instance of Napoleon, Hardenberg succeeded +him as chancellor (June 1810). In the following month Queen +Louise died, and the king was left alone to deal with circumstances +of ever-increasing difficulty. He was forced to join +Napoleon in the war against Russia; and even when the +disastrous campaign of 1812 had for the time broken the French +power, it was not his own resolution, but the loyal disloyalty +of General York in concluding with Russia the convention of +Tauroggen that forced him into line with the patriotic fervour +of his people.</p> + +<p>Once committed to the Russian alliance, however, he became +the faithful henchman of the emperor Alexander, whose fascinating +personality exercised over him to the last a singular power, +and began that influence of Russia at the court of Berlin which +was to last till Frederick William IV.’s supposed Liberalism was +to shatter the cordiality of the <i>entente</i>. That during and after the +settlement of 1815 Frederick William played a very secondary +part in European affairs is explicable as well by his character as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span> +by the absorbing character of the internal problems of Prussia. +He was one of the original co-signatories of the Holy Alliance, +though, in common with most, he signed it with reluctance; +and in the counsels of the Grand Alliance he allowed himself to +be practically subordinated to Alexander and later to Metternich. +In a ruler of his character it is not surprising that the Revolution +and its developments had produced an unconquerable suspicion +of constitutional principles and methods, which the Liberal +agitations in Germany tended to increase. At the various +congresses, from Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) to Verona (1822), therefore, +he showed himself heartily in sympathy with the repressive +policy formulated in the Troppau Protocol. The promise of a +constitution, which in the excitement of the War of Liberation +he had made to his people, remained unfulfilled partly owing to +this mental attitude, partly, however, to the all but insuperable +difficulties in the way of its execution. But though reluctant +to play the part of a constitutional king, Frederick William +maintained to the full the traditional character of “first servant +of the state.” Though he chastised Liberal professors and +turbulent students, it was in the spirit of a benevolent <i>Landesvater</i>; +and he laboured assiduously at the enormous task of +administrative reconstruction necessitated by the problem of +welding the heterogeneous elements of the new Prussian kingdom +into a united whole. He was sincerely religious; but his well-meant +efforts to unite the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, +in celebration of the tercentenary of the Reformation (1817), +revealed the limits of his paternal power; eleven years passed +in vain attempts to devise common formulae; a stubborn +Lutheran minority had to be coerced by military force, the confiscation +of their churches and the imprisonment or exile of their +pastors; not till 1834 was outward union secured on the basis of +common worship but separate symbols, the opponents of the +measure being forbidden to form communities of their own. +With the Roman Church, too, the king came into conflict on +the vexed question of “mixed marriages,” a conflict in which +the Vatican gained an easy victory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bunsen, C. C. J., Baron +von</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The revolutions of 1830 strengthened Frederick William in his +reactionary tendencies; the question of the constitution was +indefinitely shelved; and in 1831 Prussian troops concentrated +on the frontier helped the task of the Russians in reducing the +military rising in Poland. Yet, in spite of all, Frederick William +was beloved by his subjects, who valued him for the simplicity +of his manners, the goodness of his heart and the memories of +the dark days after 1806. He died on the 7th of June 1840. +In 1824 he had contracted a morganatic marriage with the +countess Auguste von Harrach, whom he created Princess von +Liegnitz. He wrote <i>Luther in Bezug auf die Kirchenagenda +von 1822 und 1823</i> (Berlin, 1827), <i>Reminiszenzen aus der +Kampagne 1792 in Frankreich</i>, and <i>Journal meiner Brigade in +der Kampagne am Rhein 1793</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The correspondence (<i>Briefwechsel</i>) of King Frederick William III. +and Queen Louise with the emperor Alexander I. has been published +(Leipzig, 1900) and also that between the king and queen (ib. 1903), +both edited by P. Bailleu. See W. Hahn, <i>Friedrich Wilhelm III. und +Luise</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1877); M. W. Duncker, <i>Aus der Zeit Friedrichs +des Grossen und Friedrich Wilhelms III.</i> (Leipzig, 1876); +Bishop R. F. Eylert, <i>Charakterzüge aus dem Leben des Königs von +Preussen Friedrich Wilhelm III.</i> (3 vols., Magdeburg, 1843-1846).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK WILLIAM IV.<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1795-1861), king of Prussia, +eldest son of Frederick William III., was born on the 15th of +October 1795. From his first tutor, Johann Delbrück, he imbibed +a love of culture and art, and possibly also the dash of Liberalism +which formed an element of his complex habit of mind. But after +a time Delbrück, suspected of inspiring his charge with a dislike +of the Prussian military caste and even of belonging to a political +secret society, was dismissed, his place being taken by the pastor +and historian Friedrich Ancillon, while a military governor was +also appointed. By Ancillon he was grounded in religion, in +history and political science, his natural taste for the antique +and the picturesque making it easy for his tutor to impress upon +him his own hatred of the Revolution and its principles. This +hatred was confirmed by the sufferings of his country and family +in the terrible years after 1806, and his first experience of active +soldiering was in the campaigns that ended in the occupation of +Paris by the Allies in 1814. In action his reckless bravery had +earned him rebuke, and in Paris he was remarked for the exact +performance of his military duties, though he found time to whet +his appetite for art in the matchless collections gathered by +Napoleon as the spoil of all Europe. On his return to Berlin +he studied art under the sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and +the painter and architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), +proving himself in the end a good draughtsman, a born architect +and an excellent landscape gardener. At the same time he was +being tutored in law by Savigny and in finance by a series of +distinguished masters. In 1823 he married the princess Elizabeth +of Bavaria, who adopted the Lutheran creed. The union, +though childless, was very happy. A long tour in Italy in 1828 +was the beginning of his intimacy with Bunsen and did much to +develop his knowledge of art and love of antiquity.</p> + +<p>On his accession to the throne in 1840 much was expected +of a prince so variously gifted and of so amiable a temper, and +his first acts did not belie popular hopes. He reversed the +unfortunate ecclesiastical policy of his father, allowing a wide +liberty of dissent, and releasing the imprisoned archbishop of +Cologne; he modified the strictness of the press censorship; +above all he undertook, in the presence of the deputations of the +provincial diets assembled to greet him on his accession, to carry +out the long-deferred project of creating a central constitution, +which he admitted to be required alike by the royal promises, +the needs of the country and the temper of the times. The +story of the evolution of the Prussian parliament belongs to the +history of Prussia. Here it must suffice to notice Frederick +William’s personal share in the question, which was determined +by his general attitude of mind. He was an idealist; but his +idealism was of a type the exact reverse of that which the +Revolution in arms had sought to impose upon Europe. The +idea of the sovereignty of the people was to him utterly abhorrent, +and even any delegation of sovereign power on his own part would +have seemed a betrayal of a God-given trust. “I will never,” +he declared, “allow to come between Almighty God and this +country a blotted parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to +replace the ancient, sacred bond of loyalty.” His vision of the +ideal state was that of a patriarchial monarchy, surrounded and +advised by the traditional estates of the realm—nobles, peasants, +burghers—and cemented by the bonds of evangelical religion; +but in which there should be no question of the sovereign power +being vested in any other hands than those of the king by divine +right. In Prussia, with its traditional loyalty and its old-world +caste divisions, he believed that such a conception could be +realized, and he took up an attitude half-way between those who +would have rejected the proposal for a central diet altogether as a +dangerous “thin end of the wedge,” and those who would have +approximated it more to the modern conception of a parliament. +With a charter, or a representative system based on population, +he would have nothing to do. The united diet which was opened +on the 3rd of February 1847 was no more than a congregation +of the diets instituted by Frederick William III. in the eight +provinces of Prussia. Unrepresentative though it was—for the +industrial working-classes had no share in it—it at once gave +voice to the demand for a constitutional system.</p> + +<p>This demand gained overwhelmingly in force with the revolutionary +outbreaks of 1848. To Frederick William these came +as a complete surprise, and, rudely awakened from his medieval +dreamings, he even allowed himself to be carried away for a while +by the popular tide. The loyalty of the Prussian army remained +inviolate; but the king was too tender-hearted to use military +force against his “beloved Berliners,” and when the victory of +the populace was thus assured his impressionable temper yielded +to the general enthusiasm. He paraded the streets of Berlin +wrapped in a scarf of the German black and gold, symbol of his +intention to be the leader of the united Germany; and he even +wrote to the indignant tsar in praise of “the glorious German +revolution.” The change of sentiment was, however, apparent +rather than real. The shadow of venerable institutions, past or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span> +passing, still darkened his counsels. The united Germany which +he was prepared to champion was not the democratic state which +the theorists of the Frankfort national parliament were evolving +on paper with interminable debate, but the old Holy Roman +Empire, the heritage of the house of Habsburg, of which he was +prepared to constitute himself the guardian so long as its lawful +possessors should not have mastered the forces of disorder by +which they were held captive. Finally, when Austria had been +excluded from the new empire, he replied to the parliamentary +deputation that came to offer him the imperial crown that he +might have accepted it had it been freely offered to him by the +German princes, but that he would never stoop “to pick up a +crown out of the gutter.”</p> + +<p>Whatever may be thought of the manner of this refusal, or +of its immediate motives, it was in itself wise, for the German +empire would have lost immeasurably had it been the cause +rather than the result of the inevitable struggle with Austria, +and Bismarck was probably right when he said that, to weld +the heterogeneous elements of Germany into a united whole, what +was needed was, not speeches and resolutions, but a policy of +“blood and iron.” In any case Frederick William, uneasy +enough as a constitutional king, would have been impossible as +a constitutional emperor. As it was, his refusal to play this +part gave the deathblow to the parliament and to all hope of +the immediate creation of a united Germany. For Frederick +William the position of leader of Germany now meant the employment +of the military force of Prussia to crush the scattered +elements of revolution that survived the collapse of the national +movement. His establishment of the northern confederacy was +a reversion to the traditional policy of Prussia in opposition +to Austria, which, after the emperor Nicholas had crushed the +insurrection in Hungary, was once more free to assert her claims +to dominance in Germany. But Prussia was not ripe for a +struggle with Austria, even had Frederick William found it in his +conscience to turn his arms against his ancient ally, and the result +was the humiliating convention of Olmütz (November 29th, +1850), by which Prussia agreed to surrender her separatist +plans and to restore the old constitution of the confederation. +Yet Frederick William had so far profited by the lessons of 1848 +that he consented to establish (1850) a national parliament, +though with a restricted franchise and limited powers. The +House of Lords (<i>Herrenhaus</i>) justified the king’s insistence in +calling it into being by its support of Bismarck against the more +popular House during the next reign.</p> + +<p>In religious matters Frederick William was also largely swayed +by his love for the ancient and picturesque. In concert with his +friend Bunsen he laboured to bring about a rapprochement +between the Lutheran and Anglican churches, the first-fruits of +which was the establishment of the Jerusalem bishopric under +the joint patronage of Great Britain and Prussia; but the only +result of his efforts was to precipitate the secession of J. H. +Newman and his followers to the Church of Rome. In general +it may be said that Frederick William, in spite of his talents and +his wide knowledge, lived in a dream-land of his own, out of touch +with actuality. The style of his letters reveals a mind enthusiastic +and ill-balanced. In the summer of 1857 he had a stroke of +paralysis, and a second in October. From this time, with the +exception of brief intervals, his mind was completely clouded, +and the duties of government were undertaken by his brother +William (afterwards emperor), who on the 7th of October 1858 +was formally recognized as regent. Frederick William died on +the 2nd of January 1861.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Selections from the correspondence (<i>Briefwechsel</i>) of Frederick +William IV. and Bunsen were edited by Ranke (Leipzig, 1873); +his proclamations, speeches, &c., from the 6th of March 1848 to the +31st of May 1851 have been published (Berlin, 1851); also his +correspondence with Bettina von Arnim, <i>Bettina von Arnim und +Friedrich Wilhelm IV., ungedruckte Briefe und Aktenstücke</i>, ed. L. +Geiger (Frankfort-on-Main, 1902). See L. von Ranke, <i>Friedrich +Wilhelm IV., König von Preussen</i> (works 51, 52 also in <i>Allgem. +deutsche Biog.</i> vol. vii.), especially for the king’s education and the +inner history of the debates leading up to the united diet of 1847; +H. von Petersdorff, <i>König Friedrich Wilhelm IV.</i> (Stuttgart, 1900); +F. Rachfahl, <i>Deutschland, König Friedrich Wilhelm IV. und die +Berliner Märzrevolution</i> (Halle, 1901); H. von Poschinger (ed.), +<i>Unter Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Denkwürdigkeiten des Ministers Otto +Frhr. von Manteuffel</i>, 1848-1858 (3 vols., Berlin, 1900-1901); and +<i>Preussens auswärtige Politik</i>, 1850-1858 (3 vols., ib., 1902), documents +selected from those left by Manteuffel; E. Friedberg, <i>Die +Grundlagen der preussischen Kirchenpolitik unter Friedrich Wilhelm +IV.</i> (Leipzig, 1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICK WILLIAM<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1620-1688), elector of Brandenburg, +usually called the “Great Elector,” was born in Berlin on the +16th of February 1620. His father was the elector George +William, and his mother was Elizabeth Charlotte, daughter of +Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine. Owing to the disorders +which were prevalent in Brandenburg he passed part of +his youth in the Netherlands, studying at the university of +Leiden and learning something of war and statecraft under +Frederick Henry, prince of Orange. During his boyhood a +marriage had been suggested between him and Christina, afterwards +queen of Sweden; but although the idea was revived +during the peace negotiations between Sweden and Brandenburg, +it came to nothing, and in 1646 he married Louise Henriette +(d. 1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange, a lady whose +counsel was very helpful to him and who seconded his efforts for +the welfare of his country.</p> + +<p>Having become ruler of Brandenburg and Prussia by his father’s +death in December 1640, Frederick William set to work at once +to repair the extensive damage wrought during the Thirty Years’ +War, still in progress. After some difficulty he secured his +investiture as duke of Prussia from Wladislaus, king of Poland, +in October 1641, but was not equally successful in crushing the +independent tendencies of the estates of Cleves. It was in +Brandenburg, however, that he showed his supreme skill as a +diplomatist and administrator. His disorderly troops were +replaced by an efficient and disciplined force; his patience and +perseverance freed his dominions from the Swedish soldiers; +and the restoration of law and order was followed by a revival +of trade and an increase of material prosperity. After a tedious +struggle he succeeded in centralizing the administration, and +controlling and increasing the revenue, while no department of +public life escaped his sedulous care (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brandenburg</a></span>). The +area of his dominions was largely increased at the peace of +Westphalia in 1648, and this treaty and the treaty of Oliva in +1660 alike added to his power and prestige. By a clever but +unscrupulous use of his intermediate position between Sweden +and Poland he procured his recognition as independent duke of +Prussia from both powers, and eventually succeeded in crushing +the stubborn and lengthened opposition which was offered to his +authority by the estates of the duchy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prussia</a></span>). After two +checks he made his position respected in Cleves, and in 1666 his +title to Cleves, Jülich and Ravensberg was definitely recognized. +His efforts, however, to annex the western part of the duchy +of Pomerania, which he had conquered from the Swedes, failed +owing to the insistence of Louis XIV. at the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye +in 1679, and he was unable to obtain the Silesian duchies +of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau from the emperor Leopold I. +after they had been left without a ruler in 1675.</p> + +<p>Frederick William played an important part in European +politics. Although found once or twice on the side of France, +he was generally loyal to the interests of the empire and the +Habsburgs, probably because his political acumen scented danger +to Brandenburg from the aggressive policy of Louis XIV. +He was a Protestant in religion, but he supported Protestant +interests abroad on political rather than on religious grounds, +and sought, but without much success, to strengthen Brandenburg +by allaying the fierce hostility between Lutherans and +Calvinists. His success in founding and organizing the army +of Brandenburg-Prussia was amply demonstrated by the great +victory which he gained over the Swedes at Fehrbellin in June +1675, and by the eagerness with which foreign powers sought his +support. He was also the founder of the Prussian navy. The +elector assisted trade in every possible way. He made the canal +which still bears his name between the Oder and the Spree; +established a trading company; and founded colonies on the west +coast of Africa. He encouraged Flemings to settle in Brandenburg, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span> +and both before and after the revocation of the edict of +Nantes in 1685 welcomed large numbers of Huguenots, who +added greatly to the welfare of the country. Education was not +neglected; and if in this direction some of his plans were abortive, +it was from lack of means and opportunity rather than effort +and inclination. It is difficult to overestimate the services of the +great elector to Brandenburg and Prussia. They can only be +properly appreciated by those who compare the condition of his +country in 1640 with its condition in 1688. Both actually and +relatively its importance had increased enormously; poverty +had given place to comparative wealth, and anarchy to a +system of government which afterwards made Prussia the most +centralized state in Europe. He had scant sympathy with local +privileges, and in fighting them his conduct was doubtless +despotic. His aim was to make himself an absolute ruler, as he +regarded this as the best guarantee for the internal and external +welfare of the state.</p> + +<p>The great elector died at Potsdam from dropsy on the 9th of +May 1688, and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, +Frederick. His personal appearance was imposing, and although +he was absolutely without scruples when working for the interests +of Brandenburg, he did not lack a sense of justice and generosity. +At all events he deserves the eulogy passed upon him by Frederick +the Great, “<i>Messieurs; celui-ci a fait de grandes choses</i>.” His +second wife, whom he married in 1668, was Dorothea (d. 1689), +daughter of Philip, duke of Holstein-Glücksburg, and widow +of Christian Louis, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg; she bore +him four sons and three daughters. His concluding years were +troubled by differences between his wife and her step-son, +Frederick; and influenced by Dorothea he bequeathed portions +of Brandenburg to her four sons, a bequest which was annulled +under his successor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. de Pufendorf, <i>De rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni</i> +(Leipzig and Berlin, 1733); L. von Orlich, <i>Friedrich Wilhelm der +grosse Kurfürst</i> (Berlin, 1836); K. H. S. Rödenbeck, <i>Zur Geschichte +Friedrich Wilhelms des grossen Kurfürsten</i> (Berlin, 1851); B. +Erdmannsdörffer, <i>Der grosse Kurfürst</i> (Leipzig, 1879); J. G. +Droysen, <i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i> (Berlin, 1855-1886); +M. Philippson, <i>Der grosse Kurfürst</i> (Berlin, 1897-1903); E. Heyck, +<i>Der grosse Kurfürst</i> (Bielefeld, 1902); Spahn, <i>Der grosse Kurfürst</i> +(Mainz, 1902); H. Landwehr, <i>Die Kirchenpolitik des grossen Kurfürsten</i> +(Berlin, 1894); H. Prutz, <i>Aus des grossen Kurfürsten letzten +Jahren</i> (Berlin, 1897). Also <i>Urkunden und Aktenstücke zur Geschichte +des Kurfürsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg</i> (Berlin, 1864-1902); +T. Carlyle, <i>History of Frederick the Great</i>, vol. i. (London, +1858); and A. Waddington, <i>Le Grand Électeur et Louis XIV</i> (Paris, +1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRÉDÉRICK-LEMAÎTRE, ANTOINE LOUIS PROSPER<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1800-1876) +French actor, the son of an architect, was born at Havre +on the 28th of July 1800. He spent two years at the Conservatoire, +and made his first appearance at a variety performance +in one of the basement restaurants at the Palais Royal. At +the Ambigu on the 12th of July 1823 he played the part of Robert +Macaire in <i>L’Auberge des Adréts</i>. The melodrama was played +seriously on the first night and was received with little favour, +but it was changed on the second night to burlesque, and thanks +to him had a great success. All Paris came to see it, and from +that day he was famous. He created a number of parts that +added to his popularity, especially Cardillac, Cagliostro and +Cartouche. His success in the last led to an engagement at the +Porte St Martin, where in 1827 he produced <i>Trente ans, ou la +vie d’un joueur</i>, in which his vivid acting made a profound +impression. Afterwards at the Odéon and other theatres he +passed from one success to another, until he put the final touch +to his reputation as an artist by creating the part of Ruy Blas +in Victor Hugo’s play. On his return to the Porte St Martin he +created the title-rôle in Balzac’s <i>Vautrin</i>, which was forbidden +a second presentation, on account, it is said, of the resemblance +of the actor’s wig to the well-known <i>toupet</i> worn by Louis +Philippe. His last appearance was at this theatre in 1873 as the +old Jew in <i>Marie Tudor</i>, and he died at Paris on the 26th of +January 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICKSBURG,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a city of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, +U.S.A., on the Rappahannock river, at the head of tide-water +navigation, about 60 m. N. of Richmond and about 55 m. S.S.W. +of Washington. Pop. (1890) 4528; (1900) 5068 (1621 negroes); +(1910) 5874. It is served by the Potomac, Fredericksburg & +Piedmont, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac +railways, and by several coasting steamship lines. The city is +built on a series of terraces between the river and hills of considerable +height. The river is here spanned by iron bridges, +and just above the city is a dam 900 ft. long and 18 ft. high. +By means of this dam and a canal good water-power is furnished, +and the city’s manufactures include flour, leather, shoes, woollens, +silks, wagons, agricultural implements and excelsior (fine wood-shavings +for packing or stuffing). The water-works, gas and +electric-lighting plants are owned and operated by the municipality. +At Fredericksburg are Fredericksburg College (founded +in 1893; co-educational), which includes the Kenmore school +for girls and the Saunders memorial school for boys (both +preparatory); a Confederate and a National cemetery (the +latter on Marye’s Heights), a monument (erected in 1906) to +General Hugh Mercer (<i>c.</i> 1720-1777), whose home for several +years was here and who fell in the battle of Princeton; and a +monument to the memory of Washington’s mother, who died here +in 1789 and whose home is still standing. Other buildings of +interest are the old Rising Sun Hotel, a popular resort during +Washington’s time, and “Kenmore,” the home of Colonel +Fielding Lewis, who married a sister of Washington. The city +was named in honour of Frederick, father of George III., and +was incorporated in 1727, long after its first settlement; in 1871 +it was re-chartered by act of the General Assembly of Virginia.</p> + +<p>The battle of Fredericksburg in the American Civil War was +fought on the 13th of December 1862 between the Union forces +(Army of the Potomac) under Major-General A. E. Burnside +and the Confederates (Army of Northern Virginia) under General +R. E. Lee. In the middle of November, Burnside, newly appointed +to command the Army of the Potomac, had manœuvred +from the neighbourhood of Warrenton with a view to beginning +an offensive move from Fredericksburg and, as a preliminary, +to seizing a foothold beyond the Rappahannock at or near that +place. On arriving near Falmouth, however, he found that the +means of crossing that he had asked for had not been forwarded +from Washington, and he sat down to wait for them, while, +on the other side, the Confederate army gradually assembled +south of the Rappahannock in a strong position with the left +on the river above Fredericksburg and the right near Hamilton’s +Crossing on the Richmond railway. On the 10th of December +Burnside, having by now received his pontoons, prepared to +cross the river and to attack the Confederate entrenched position +on the heights beyond the town. The respective forces were +Union 122,000, Confederate 79,000. Major-General E. V. +Sumner, commanding the Federal right wing (II. and IX. +corps), was to cross at Fredericksburg, Major-General W. B. +Franklin with the left (I. and VI. corps) some miles below, while +the centre (III. and V. corps) under Major-General Joseph +Hooker was to connect the two attacks and to reinforce either +at need. The Union artillery took position along the heights of +the north bank to cover the crossing, and no opposition was +encountered opposite Franklin’s command, which formed up on +the other side during the 11th and 12th. Opposite Sumner, +however, the Confederate riflemen, hidden in the gardens and +houses of Fredericksburg, caused much trouble and considerable +losses to the Union pioneers, and a forlorn hope of volunteers +from the infantry had to be rowed across under fire before the +enemy’s skirmishers could be dislodged. Sumner’s two corps +crossed on the 12th. The battle took place next morning.</p> + +<p>Controversy has raged round Burnside’s plan of action and +in particular round his orders to Franklin, as to which it can only +be said that whatever chance of success there was in so formidable +an undertaking as attacking the well-posted enemy was thrown +away through misunderstandings, and that nothing but misunderstandings +could be expected from the vague and bewildering +orders issued by the general in command. The actual battle can +be described in a few words. Jackson held the right of Lee’s +line, Longstreet the left, both entrenched. Franklin, tied by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span> +his instructions, attacked with one division only, which a little +later he supported by two more (I. corps, Major-General J. F. +Reynolds) out of eight or nine available. His left flank was +harassed by the Confederate horse artillery under the young and +brilliant Captain John Pelham, and after breaking the first line +of Stonewall Jackson’s corps the assailants were in the end +driven back with heavy losses. On the other flank, where part +of Longstreet’s corps held the low ridge opposite Fredericksburg +called Marye’s Heights, Burnside ordered in the II. corps under +Major-General D. N. Couch about 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and thenceforward +division after division, on a front of little more than 800 yds., +was sent forward to assault with the bayonet. The “Stone Wall” +along the foot of Marye’s was lined with every rifle of Longstreet’s +corps that could find room to fire, and above them the Confederate +guns fired heavily on the assailants, whose artillery, on the height +beyond the river, was too far off to assist them. Not a man of +the Federals reached the wall, though the bravest were killed +a few paces from it, and Sumner’s and most of Hooker’s brigades +were broken one after the other as often as they tried to assault. +At night the wrecks of the right wing were withdrawn. Burnside +proposed next day to lead the IX. corps, which he had formerly +commanded, in one mass to the assault of the Stone Wall, but his +subordinates dissuaded him, and on the night of the 15th the +Army of the Potomac withdrew to its camps about Falmouth. +The losses of the Federals were 12,650 men, those of the Confederates +4200, little more than a third of which fell on Longstreet’s +corps.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. W. Palfrey, <i>Antietam and Fredericksburg</i> (New York, 1881); +G. W. Redway, <i>Fredericksburg</i> (London, 1906); and G. F. R. +Henderson, <i>Fredericksburg</i> (London, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDERICTON,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a city and port of entry of New Brunswick, +Canada, capital of the province, situated on the St John river, +84 m. from its mouth, and on the Canadian Pacific railway. +It stands on a plain bounded on one side by the river, which is +here ¾ m. broad, and on the other by a range of hills which almost +encircle the town. It is regularly built with long and straight +streets, and contains the parliament buildings, government +house, the Anglican cathedral, the provincial university and +several other educational establishments. Fredericton is the +chief commercial centre in the interior of the province, and has +also a large trade in lumber. Its industries include canneries, +tanneries and wooden ware factories. The river is navigable +for large steamers up to the city, and above it by vessels of lighter +draught. Two bridges, passenger and railway, unite the city +with the towns of St Marye’s and Gibson on the east side of the +river, at its junction with the Nashwaak. The city was founded +in 1785 by Sir Guy Carleton, and made the capital of the province, +in spite of the jealousy of St John, on account of its superior +strategical position. Pop. (1901) 7117.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDONIA,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> a village of Chautauqua county, New York, +U.S.A., about 45 m. S.W. of Buffalo, and 3 m. from Lake Erie. +Pop. (1900) 4127; (1905, state census) 5148; (1910 census) 5285. +Fredonia is served by the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg +railway, which connects at Dunkirk, 3 m. to the N., with the Erie, +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & +St Louis, and the Pennsylvania railways; and by electric +railway to Erie, Buffalo and Dunkirk. It is the seat of a State +Normal School. The Darwin R. Barker public library contained +9700 volumes in 1908. Fredonia is situated in the grape-growing +region of western New York, is an important shipping point for +grapes, and has large grape-vine and general nurseries. The +making of wine and of unfermented grape-juice are important +industries of the village. Among other manufactures are canned +goods, coal dealers’ supplies, and patent medicines. The first +settlement here was made in 1804, and the place was called +Canandaway until 1817, when the present name was adopted. +The village was incorporated in 1829. Fredonia was one of the +first places in the United States, if not the first, to make use of +natural gas for public purposes. Within the village limits, near +a creek, whose waters showed the presence of gas, a well was sunk +in 1821, and the supply of gas thus tapped was sufficient to light +the streets of the village. Another well was sunk within the +village limits in 1858. About 1905 natural gas was again obtained +by deep drilling near Fredonia and came into general use for +heat, light and power. In the Fredonia Baptist church on the +14th of December 1873 a Woman’s Temperance Union was +organized, and from this is sometimes dated the beginning of the +Woman’s Christian Temperance Union movement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDRIKSHALD<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Frederickshald</span>, <span class="sc">Friederichshall</span>), a +seaport and garrison town of Norway, in Smaalenene <i>amt</i> +(county), 85 m. by rail S. by E. of Christiania. Pop. (1900) +11,948. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of the Tistedal +river at its outflow to the Ide fjord, surrounded by several +rocky eminences. The chief of these is occupied by the famous +fortress Fredriksten, protected on three sides by precipices, +founded by Frederick III. (1661), and mainly showing, in its +present form, the works of Frederick V. (1766) and Christian +VII. (1808). Between it and the smaller Gyldenlöve fort a +monument marks the spot where Charles XII. was shot in the +trenches while besieging the town (1718). The siege, which was +then raised, is further commemorated by a monument to the +brave defence of the brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjörnsen. +Fredrikshald is close to the Swedish frontier, and had previously +(1660) withstood invasion, after which its name was changed +from Halden to the present form in 1665 in honour of Frederick +III. The town was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1759 +and 1826. The castle surrendered to the Swedish crown prince +Bernadotte in 1814, and its capture was speedily followed by the +conquest of the kingdom and its union with Sweden. Fredrikshald +is one of the principal ports of the kingdom for the export +of timber. Marble of very fine quality and grain is extensively +quarried and exported for architectural ornamentation and for +furniture-making. Wood-pulp is also exported. The industries +embrace granite quarries, wood-pulp factories, and factories for +sugar, tobacco, curtains, travelling-bags, boots, &c. There +are railway communications with Gothenburg and all parts of +Sweden and regular coastal and steamer services.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREDRIKSTAD<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Frederikstad</span>), a seaport and manufacturing +town of Norway in Smaalenene <i>amt</i> (county), 58 m. S. by E. +of Christiania by the Christiania-Gothenburg railway. Pop. +(1900) 14,553. It lies at the mouth and on the eastern shore of +Christiania fjord, occupying both banks of the great river +Glommen, which, descending from the richly-wooded district of +Österdal, floats down vast quantities of timber. The new town +on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade, +this place being the principal port in Norway for the export of +pit-props, planed boards, and other varieties of timber. There +is also a great industry in the making of red bricks, owing to the +expansion of Christiania, Gothenburg and other towns. Granite +is quarried and exported. Besides the large number of saw and +planing mills, there are shipbuilding yards, engine and boiler +works, cotton and woollen mills, and factories for acetic acid and +naphtha. The harbour, which can be entered by vessels drawing +14 ft., is kept open in winter by an ice-breaker. In the vicinity +is the island Hankö, the most fashionable Norwegian seaside +resort. The old town on the left bank was founded by Frederick +II. in 1567. It was for a long time strongly fortified, and in +1716 Charles XII. of Sweden made a vain attempt to capture it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE BAPTISTS,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> formerly called (but no longer officially) +<span class="sc">Freewill Baptists</span>, an American denomination holding anti-paedobaptist +and anti-Calvinistic doctrines, and practically +identical in creed with the General Baptists of Great Britain. +Many of the early Baptist churches in Rhode Island and throughout +the South were believers in “general redemption” (hence +called “general” Baptists); and there was a largely attended +conference of this Arminian branch of the church at Newport in +1729. But the denomination known as “Free-willers” had its +rise in 1779-1780, when anti-Calvinists in Loudon, Barrington +and Canterbury, New Hampshire, seceded and were organized +by Benjamin Randall (1749-1808), a native of New Hampshire. +Randall was an itinerant missionary, who had been preaching +for two years before his ordination in 1780; in the same year +he was censured for “heterodox” teaching. The work of the +church suffered a relapse after his death, and a movement to join +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span> +the Freewill Baptists with the “Christians,” who were led by +Elias Smith (1769-1846) and had been bitterly opposed by +Randall, was nearly successful. Between 1820 and 1830 the +denomination made considerable progress, especially in New +England and the Middle West. The Freewill Baptists were +joined in 1841 by many “open-communion Baptists”—those +in the Carolinas who did not join the larger body distinguishing +themselves by the name of Original Freewill Baptists—and soon +afterwards by some of the General Baptists of North Carolina and +some of the Six Principle Baptists of Rhode Island (who had +added the “laying on of hands” to the Five Principles hitherto +held); and the abbreviation of the denominational name to +“Free Baptists” suggests their liberal policy—indeed open +communion is the main if not the only hindrance to union with +the “regular” Baptist Church.</p> + +<p>Colleges founded by the denomination, all co-educational, are: +Hillsdale College, opened at Spring Harbor as Michigan Central +College in 1844, and established at Hillsdale, Michigan, in 1855; +Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, 1863, now non-sectarian; Rio +Grande College, Rio Grande, Ohio, 1876; and Parker College, +Winnebago City, Minnesota, opened in 1888. At the close of +1909 there were 1294 ministers, 1303 churches, and 73,536 +members of the denomination in the United States. <i>The Morning +Star</i> of Boston, established in 1826, is the most prominent +journal published by the church. In British North America, +according to a Canadian census bulletin of 1902, there were, in +1901, 24,229 Free Baptists, of whom 15,502 were inhabitants of +New Brunswick, 8355 of Nova Scotia, 246 of Ontario, and 87 +of Quebec. The United Societies of Free Baptist Young People, +an international organization founded in 1888, had in 1907 about +15,000 members. At the close of 1907 the “Original Freewill +Baptists” had 120 ministers, 167 churches, and 12,000 members, +practically all in the Carolinas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See I. D. Stewart, <i>History of the Free Will Baptists</i> (Dover, N. H., +1862) for 1780-1830, and his edition of the <i>Minutes of the General +Conference of the Free Will Baptist Connection</i> (Boston, 1887); James +B. Taylor, <i>The Centennial Record of the Free Will Baptists</i> (Dover, +1881); John Buzzell, <i>Memoir of Elder Benjamin Randall</i> (Parsonfield, +Maine, 1827); and P. Richardson, “Randall and the Free +Will Baptists,” in <i>The Christian Review</i>, vol. xxiii. (Baltimore, 1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEBENCH,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> in English law, the interest which a widow has +in the copyhold lands of her husband, corresponding to dower +in the case of freeholds. It depends upon the custom of the +manor, but as a general rule the widow takes a third for her life +of the lands of which her husband dies seised, but it may be an +estate greater or less than a third. If the husband surrenders +his copyhold and the surrenderee is admitted, or if he contracts +for a sale, it will defeat the widow’s freebench. As freebench is +regarded as a continuation of the husband’s estate, the widow +does not (except by special custom) require to be admitted.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE CHURCH FEDERATION,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a voluntary association of +British Nonconformist churches for co-operation in religious, +social and civil work. It was the outcome of a unifying tendency +displayed during the latter part of the 19th century. About +1890 the proposal that there should be a Nonconformist Church +Congress analogous to the Anglican Church Congress was seriously +considered, and the first was held in Manchester on the 7th of +November 1892. In the following year it was resolved that the +basis of representation should be neither personal (as in the +Anglican Church Congress) nor denominational, but territorial. +England and Wales have since been completely covered with a +network of local councils, each of which elects its due proportion +of representatives to the national gathering. This territorial +arrangement eliminated all sectarian distinctions, and also the +possibility of committing the different churches as such to any +particular policy. The representatives of the local councils +attend not as denominationalists but as Evangelical Free +Churchmen. The name of the organization was changed from +Congress to National Council as soon as the assembly ceased to +be a fortuitous concourse of atoms, and consisted of duly +appointed representatives from the local councils of every part +of England. The local councils consist of representatives of the +Congregational and Baptist Churches, the Methodist Churches, +the Presbyterian Church of England, the Free Episcopal Churches, +the Society of Friends, and such other Evangelical Churches as +the National Council may at any time admit. The constitution +states the following as the objects of the National Council: (<i>a</i>) +To facilitate fraternal intercourse and co-operation among the +Evangelical Free Churches; (<i>b</i>) to assist in the organization of +local councils; (<i>c</i>) to encourage devotional fellowship and mutual +counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious activities of the +Churches; (<i>d</i>) to advocate the New Testament doctrine of the +Church, and to defend the rights of the associated Churches; +(<i>e</i>) to promote the application of the law of Christ in every +relation of human life. Although the objects of the Free Church +councils are thus in their nature and spirit religious rather than +political, there are occasions on which action is taken on great +national affairs. Thus a thorough-going opposition was offered +to the Education Act of 1902, and whole-hearted support accorded +to candidates at the general election of 1906 who pledged themselves +to altering that measure.</p> + +<p>A striking feature of the movement is the adoption of the +parochial system for the purpose of local work. Each of the +associated churches is requested to look after a parish, not of +course with any attempt to exclude other churches, but as having +a special responsibility for those in that area who are not already +connected with some existing church. Throughout the United +Kingdom local councils are formed into federations, some fifty +in number, which are intermediate between them and the +national council. The local councils do what is possible to prevent +overlapping and excessive competition between the churches. +They also combine the forces of the local churches for evangelistic +and general devotional work, open-air services, efforts on behalf +of Sunday observance, and the prevention of gambling. Services +are arranged in connexion with workhouses, hospitals and other +public institutions. Social work of a varied character forms a +large part of the operations of the local councils, and the Free +Church Girls’ Guild has a function similar to that of the Anglican +Girls’ Friendly Society. The national council engages in mission +work on a large scale, and a considerable number of periodicals, +hymn-books for special occasions, and works of different kinds +explaining the history and ideals of the Evangelical Free +Churches have been published. The churches represented +in the National Council have 9966 ministers, 55,828 local +preachers, 407,991 Sunday-school teachers, 3,416,377 Sunday +scholars, 2,178,221 communicants, and sitting accommodation +for 8,555,460.</p> + +<p>A remarkable manifestation of this unprecedented reunion +was the fact that a committee of the associated churches prepared +and published a catechism expressing the positive and fundamental +agreement of all the Evangelical Free Churches on the +essential doctrines of Christianity (see <i>The Contemporary Review</i>, +January 1899). The catechism represents substantially the creed +of not less than 80,000,000 Protestants. It has been widely +circulated throughout Great Britain, the British Colonies and +the United States of America, and has also been translated into +Welsh, French and Italian.</p> + +<p>The movement has spread to all parts of Australia, New +Zealand, South Africa, Jamaica, the United States of America and +India. It is perhaps necessary to add that it differs essentially +from the Evangelical Alliance, inasmuch as its unit is not an +individual, private Christian, but a definitely organized and +visible Church. The essential doctrine of the movement is a +particular doctrine of churchmanship which, as explained in +the catechism, regards the Lord Jesus Christ as the sole and +Divine Head of every branch of the Holy Catholic Church +throughout the world. For this reason those who do not accept +the deity of Christ are necessarily excluded from the national +council and its local constituent councils.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a Protestant episcopal church +“essentially one with the established church of England, but +free to go into any parish, to use a revised edition of the Book +of Common Prayer, to associate the laity with the clergy in the +government and work of the church, and to hold communion with +Christians of other denominations.” It was founded in 1844 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span> +in opposition to the Tractarian movement, and embodies the +distinctively evangelical elements of the Reformation. It preserves +and maintains to the letter all that is Protestant and +evangelical in the liturgy and services of the Anglican church, +while its free constitution and revised formularies meet the needs +of members of that communion who resent sacerdotal and +ritualistic tendencies. There are two dioceses (northern and +southern) each with a bishop, about 30 churches and ministers, +and about 1300 members.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> In one sense the Free +Church of Scotland dated its existence from the Disruption of +1843, in another it claimed to be the rightful representative of +the National Church of Scotland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland, Church of</a></span>) +as it was reformed in 1560.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the ecclesiastical history of +Scotland the Free Churchman sees three great reforming periods. +In his view these deserve to be called reforming on many +accounts, but most especially because in them the independence +of the church, her inherent scriptural right to exercise a spiritual +jurisdiction in which she is responsible to her Divine Head alone, +was both earnestly asserted and practically maintained. The +first reformation extended from 1560, when the church freely +held her first General Assembly, and of her own authority acted +on the First Book of Discipline, to 1592, when her Presbyterian +order was finally and fully ratified by the parliament. The second +period began in 1638, when, after 20 years of suspended animation, +the Assembly once more shook off Episcopacy, and terminated +in 1649, when the parliament of Scotland confirmed the +church in her liberties in a larger and ampler sense than before. +The third period began in 1834, when the Assembly made use +of what the church believed to be her rights in passing the Veto +and Chapel Acts. It culminated in the Disruption of 1843.</p> + +<p>The fact that the Church, as led first by John Knox and afterwards +by Andrew Melville, claimed an inherent right to exercise +a spiritual jurisdiction is notorious. More apt to be overlooked +is the comparative freedom with which that right was actually +used by the church irrespective of state recognition. That recognition +was not given until after the queen’s resignation in 1567;<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +but, for several years before it came, the church had been holding +her Assemblies and settling all questions of discipline, worship, +and administration as they arose, in accordance with the first +book of polity or discipline which had been drawn up in 1560. +Further, in 1581 she, of her own motion, adopted a second book +of a similar character, in which she expressly claimed an independent +and exclusive jurisdiction or power in all matters +ecclesiastical, “which flows directly from God and the Mediator +Jesus Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth, +but only Christ, the only king and governor of his church”; +and this claim, though directly negatived in 1584 by the “Black +Acts,” which included an Act of Supremacy over estates spiritual +and temporal, continued to be asserted by the Assemblies, +until at last it also was practically allowed in the act of 1592.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +This legislation of 1592, however, did not long remain in force. +An act of parliament in 1606, which “reponed, restored and +reintegrated” the estate of bishops to their ancient dignities, +prerogatives and privileges, was followed by several acts of +various subservient assemblies, which, culminating in that of +1618, practically amounted to a complete surrender of jurisdiction +by the church itself. For twenty years no Assemblies whatever +were held. This interval must necessarily be regarded from the +Presbyterian point of view as having been one of very deep +depression. But a second reformation, characterized by great +energy and vigour, began in 1638. The proceedings of the +Assembly of that year, afterwards tardily and reluctantly +acquiesced in by the state, finally issued in the acts of parliament +of 1649, by which the Westminster standards were ratified, +lay-patronage was abolished, and the coronation oath itself +framed in accordance with the principles of Presbyterian church +government. Another period of intense reaction soon set in. +No Assemblies were permitted by Cromwell after 1653; and, +soon after the Restoration, Presbytery was temporarily overthrown +by a series of rescissory acts. Nor was the Revolution +Settlement of 1690 so entirely favourable to the freedom of the +church as the legislation of 1649 had been. Prelacy was abolished, +and various obnoxious statutes were repealed, but the acts +rescissory were not cancelled; presbyterianism was re-established, +but the statutory recognition of the Confession of Faith +took no notice of certain qualifications under which that document +had originally been approved by the Assembly of 1647;<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +the old rights of patrons were again discontinued, but the large +powers which had been conferred on congregations by the act of +1649 were not wholly restored. Nevertheless the great principle +of a distinct ecclesiastical jurisdiction, embodied in the Confession +of Faith, was accepted without reservation, and a Presbyterian +polity effectively confirmed both then and at the ratification +of the treaty of Union. This settlement, however, did not +long subsist unimpaired. In 1712 the act of Queen Anne, restoring +patronage to its ancient footing, was passed in spite of the +earnest remonstrances of the Scottish people. For many years +afterwards (until 1784) the Assembly continued to instruct each +succeeding commission to make application to the king and the +parliament for redress of the grievance. But meanwhile a new +phase of Scottish ecclesiastical politics commonly known as +Moderatism had been inaugurated, during the prevalence of +which the church became even more indifferent than the lay +patrons themselves to the rights of her congregations with regard +to the “calling” of ministers. From the Free Church point of +view, the period from which the secessions under Ebenezer +Erskine and Thomas Gillespie are dated was also characterized +by numerous other abuses on the Church’s part which amounted +to a practical surrender of the most important and distinctive +principles of her ancient Presbyterian polity.<a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Towards the +beginning of the present century there were many circumstances, +both within and without the church, which conspired to bring +about an evangelical and popular reaction against this reign of +“Moderatism.” The result was a protracted struggle, which is +commonly referred to as the Ten Years’ Conflict, and which has +been aptly described as the last battle in the long war which for +nearly 300 years had been waged within the church itself, between +the friends and the foes of the doctrine of an exclusive ecclesiastical +jurisdiction. That final struggle may be said to have +begun with the passing in 1834 of the “Veto” Act, by which it +was declared to be a fundamental law of the church that no pastor +should be intruded on a congregation contrary to the will of the +people,<a name="fa6h" id="fa6h" href="#ft6h"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and by which it was provided that the simple dissent +of a majority of heads of families in a parish should be enough to +warrant a presbytery in rejecting a presentee. The question of +the legality of this measure soon came to be tried in the civil +courts; and it was ultimately answered in a sense unfavourable +to the church by the decision (1838) of the court of session in +the Auchterarder case, to the effect that a presbytery had no right +to reject a presentee simply because the parishioners protested +against his settlement, but was bound to disregard the veto (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chalmers, Thomas</a></span>). This decision elicited from the Assembly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span> +of that year a new declaration of the doctrine of the spiritual +independence of the church. The “exclusive jurisdiction of +the civil courts in regard to the civil rights and emoluments +secured by law to the church and the ministers thereof” was +acknowledged without qualification; and continued implicit +obedience to their decisions with reference to these rights and +emoluments was pledged. At the same time it was insisted on +“that, as is declared in the Confession of Faith of this National +Established Church, ‘the Lord Jesus Christ, as King and Head +of the church, hath therein appointed a government in the hand +of church officers distinct from the civil magistrate’; and that +in all matters touching the doctrine, discipline and government +of the church her judicatories possess an exclusive jurisdiction, +founded on the Word of God, which power ecclesiastical” (in +the words of the Second Book of Discipline) “flows immediately +from God and the Mediator the Lord Jesus Christ, and is spiritual, +not having a temporal head on earth, but only Christ, the only +spiritual King and Governor of His Kirk.” And it was resolved +to assert, and at all hazards defend, this spiritual jurisdiction, +and firmly to enforce obedience to the same upon the office-bearers +and members of the church. The decision of the court +of session having been confirmed by the House of Lords early in +1839, it was decided in the Assembly of that year that the +church, while acquiescing in the loss of the temporalities at +Auchterarder, should reaffirm the principle of non-intrusion as +an integral part of the constitution of the Reformed Church +of Scotland, and that a committee should be appointed to confer +with the government with a view to the prevention, if possible, +of any further collision between the civil and ecclesiastical +authorities. While the conference with the government had no +better result than an unsuccessful attempt at compromise by +means of Lord Aberdeen’s Bill, which embodied the principle +of a dissent with reasons, still graver complications were arising +out of the Marnoch and other cases.<a name="fa7h" id="fa7h" href="#ft7h"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In the circumstances it +was resolved by the Assembly of 1842 to transmit to the queen, +by the hands of the lord high commissioner, a “claim, declaration, +and protest,” complaining of the encroachments of the court +of session,<a name="fa8h" id="fa8h" href="#ft8h"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and also an address praying for the abolition of +patronage. The home secretary’s answer (received in January +1843) gave no hope of redress. Meanwhile the position of the +evangelical party had been further hampered by the decision of +the court of session declaring the ministers of chapels of ease to +be unqualified to sit in any church court. A final appeal to +parliament by petition was made in March 1843, when, by a +majority of 135 (211 against 76), the House of Commons declined +to attempt any redress of the grievances of the Scottish Church.<a name="fa9h" id="fa9h" href="#ft9h"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +At the first session of the following General Assembly (18th May +1843) the reply of the non-intrusion party was made in a protest, +signed by upwards of 200 commissioners, to the effect that since, +in their opinion, the recent decisions of the civil courts, and the +still more recent sanction of these decisions by the legislature, +had made it impossible at that time to hold a free Assembly of +the church as by law established, they therefore “protest that it +shall be lawful for us, and such other commissioners as may +concur with us, to withdraw to a separate place of meeting, for the +purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who adhere to us—maintaining +with us the Confession of Faith and standards of +the Church of Scotland as heretofore understood—for separating +in an orderly way from the Establishment, and thereupon +adopting such measures as may be competent to us, in humble +dependence on God’s grace and the aid of His Holy Spirit, for +the advancement of His glory, the extension of the gospel of our +Lord and Saviour, and the administration of the affairs of Christ’s +house according to His holy word.” The reading of this document +was followed by the withdrawal of the entire non-intrusion party +to another place of meeting, where the first Assembly of the Free +Church was constituted, with Dr Thomas Chalmers as moderator. +This Assembly sat from the 18th to the 30th of May, and transacted +a large amount of important business. On Tuesday the +23rd, 396<a name="fa10h" id="fa10h" href="#ft10h"><span class="sp">10</span></a> ministers and professors publicly adhibited their +names to the Act of Separation and deed of demission by which +they renounced all claim to the benefices they had held in connexion +with the Establishment, declaring them to be vacant, and +consenting to their being dealt with as such. By this impressive +proceeding the signatories voluntarily surrendered an annual +income amounting to fully £100,000.</p> + +<p>The first care of the voluntarily disestablished church was to +provide incomes for her clergy and places of worship for her +people. As early as 1841 indeed the leading principle of a +“sustentation fund” for the support of the ministry had been +announced by Dr Robert Smith Candlish; and at “Convocation,” +a private unofficial meeting of the members of the evangelical +or non-intrusion party held in November 1842, Dr Chalmers +was prepared with a carefully matured scheme according to which +“each congregation should do its part in sustaining the whole, +and the whole should sustain each congregation.” Between +November 1842 and May 1843, 647 associations had been +formed; and at the first Assembly it was announced that upwards +of £17,000 had already been contributed. At the close of +the first financial year (1843-1844) it was reported that the fund +had exceeded £61,000. It was participated in by 583 ministers; +and 470 drew the full equal dividend of £105. Each successive +year showed a steady increase in the gross amount of the fund; +but owing to an almost equally rapid increase of the number of +new ministerial charges participating in its benefits, the stipend +payable to each minister did not for many years reach the sum +of £150 which had been aimed at as a minimum. Thus in 1844-1845 +the fund had risen to £76,180, but the ministers had also +increased to 627, and the equal dividend therefore was only £122. +During the first ten years the annual income averaged £84,057; +during the next decade £108,643; and during the third £130,246. +The minimum of £150 was reached at last in 1868; and subsequently +the balance remaining after that minimum had been +provided was treated as a surplus fund, and distributed among +those ministers whose congregations have contributed at +certain specified rates per member. In 1878 the total amount +received for this fund was upwards of £177,000; in this 1075 +ministers participated. The full equal dividend of £157 was +paid to 766 ministers; and additional grants of £36 and £18 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span> +were paid out of the surplus fund to 632 and 129 ministers +respectively.</p> + +<p>To provide for the erection of the buildings which, it was +foreseen, would be necessary, a general building fund, in which +all should share alike, was also organized, and local building +funds were as far as possible established in each parish, with the +result that at the first Assembly a sum of £104,776 was reported +as already available. By May 1844 a further sum of £123,060 +had been collected, and 470 churches were reported as completed +or nearly so. In the following year £131,737 was raised and +60 additional churches were built. At the end of four years +considerably more than 700 churches had been provided.</p> + +<p>During the winter session 1843-1844 the divinity students +who had joined the Free Church continued their studies under +Dr Chalmers and Dr David Welsh (1793-1845); and at the +Assembly of 1844 arrangements were made for the erection of +suitable collegiate buildings. The New College, Edinburgh, +was built in 1847 at a cost of £46,506; and divinity halls were +subsequently set up also in Glasgow and Aberdeen. In 1878 +there were 13 professors of theology, with an aggregate of 230 +students,—the numbers at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen +respectively being 129, 69 and 32.</p> + +<p>A somewhat unforeseen result of the Disruption was the +necessity for a duplicate system of elementary schools. At +the 1843 Assembly it was for the first time announced by Dr +Welsh that “schools to a certain extent must be opened to afford +a suitable sphere of occupation for parochial and still more for +private teachers of schools, who are threatened with deprivation +of their present office on account of their opinions upon the church +question.” The suggestion was taken up with very great energy, +with the result that in May 1845, 280 schools had been set up, +while in May 1847 this number had risen to 513, with an attendance +of upwards of 44,000 scholars. In 1869 it was stated in an +authoritative document laid before members of parliament +that at that time there were connected with and supported by +the Free Church 598 schools (including two normal schools), +with 633 teachers and 64,115 scholars. The school buildings +had been erected at a cost of £220,000, of which the committee +of privy council had contributed £35,000, while the remainder +had been raised by voluntary effort. Annual payments made +to teachers, &c., as at 1869, amounted to £16,000. In accordance +with certain provisions of the Education Act of 1872 most of the +schools of the Free Church were voluntarily transferred, without +compensation, to the local school boards. The normal schools +are now transferred to the state.</p> + +<p>It has been seen already that during the period of the Ten +Years’ Conflict the non-intrusion party strenuously denied +that in any one respect it was departing from acknowledged +principles of the National Church. It continued to do so after the +Disruption. In 1846, however, it was found to have become +necessary, “in consequence of the late change in the outward +condition of the church,” to amend the “questions and formula” +to be used at the licensing of probationers and the ordination +of office-bearers. These were amended accordingly; and at the +same time it was declared that, “while the church firmly maintains +the same scriptural principles as to the duties of nations +and their rulers in reference to true religion and the Church of +Christ for which she has hitherto contended, she disclaims intolerant +or persecuting principles, and does not regard her +Confession of Faith, or any portion thereof when fairly interpreted, +as favouring intolerance or persecution, or consider that her +office-bearers by subscribing it profess any principles inconsistent +with liberty of conscience and the right of private judgment.” +The main difference between the “formula” of the Free Church +and that of the Established Church (as at the year 1900) was +that the former referred to the Confession of Faith simply as +“approven by General Assemblies of this Church,” while the +latter described it as “approven by the General Assemblies of this +National Church, and ratified by law in the year 1690, and frequently +confirmed by divers Acts of Parliament since that time.” +The former inserted an additional clause,—“I also approve of +the general principles respecting the jurisdiction of the church, +and her subjection to Christ as her only Head, which are contained +in the Claim of Right and in the Protest referred to in the +questions already put to me”; and also added the words which +are here distinguished by italics,—“And I promise that through +the grace of God I shall firmly and constantly adhere to the same, +and to the utmost of my power shall in my station assert, +maintain, and defend the said doctrine, worship, discipline +and government of this church by kirk-sessions, presbyteries, +provincial synods, and general assemblies, <i>together with the +liberty and exclusive jurisdiction thereof</i>; and that I shall, in my +practice, conform myself to the said worship and submit to the +said discipline [and] government, <i>and exclusive jurisdiction</i>, and +not endeavour directly or indirectly the prejudice or subversion +of the same.” In the year 1851 an act and declaration anent the +publication of the subordinate standards and other authoritative +documents of the Free Church of Scotland was passed, in which +the historical fact is recalled that the Church of Scotland had +formally consented to adopt the Confession of Faith, catechisms, +directory of public worship, and form of church government agreed +upon by the Westminster Assembly; and it is declared that +“these several formularies, as ratified, with certain explanations, +by divers Acts of Assembly in the years 1645, 1646, and particularly +in 1647, this church continues till this day to acknowledge +as her subordinate standards of doctrine, worship and government.”<a name="fa11h" id="fa11h" href="#ft11h"><span class="sp">11</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1858 circumstances arose which, in the opinion of many, +seemed fitted to demonstrate to the Free Church that her freedom +was an illusion, and that all her sacrifices had been made in vain. +John Macmillan, minister of Cardross, accused of immorality, +had been tried and found guilty by the Free Presbytery of +Dumbarton. Appeal having been taken to the synod, an attempt +was there made to revive one particular charge, of which he had +been finally acquitted by the presbytery; and this attempt was +successful in the General Assembly. That ultimate court of +review did not confine itself to the points appealed, but went +into the merits of the whole case as it had originally come before +the presbytery. The result was a sentence of suspension. +Macmillan, believing that the Assembly had acted with some +irregularity, applied to the court of session for an interdict +against the execution of that sentence; and for this act he was +summoned to the bar of the Assembly to say whether or not +it was the case that he had thus appealed. Having answered +in the affirmative, he was deposed on the spot. Forthwith +he raised a new action (his previous application for an interdict +had been refused) concluding for reduction of the spiritual +sentence of deposition and for substantial damages. The +defences lodged by the Free Church were to the effect that the +civil courts had no right to review and reduce spiritual sentences, +or to decide whether the General Assembly of the Free Church +had acted irregularly or not. Judgments adverse to the defenders +were delivered on these points; and appeals were taken to the +House of Lords. But before the case could be heard there, +the lord president took an opportunity in the court of session +to point out to the pursuer that, inasmuch as the particular +General Assembly against which the action was brought had +ceased to exist, it could not therefore be made in any circumstances +to pay damages, and that the action of reduction of the +spiritual sentence, being only auxiliary to the claim of damages, +ought therefore to be dismissed. He further pointed out that +Macmillan might obtain redress in another way, should he be +able to prove malice against individuals. Very soon after this +deliverance of the lord president, the case as it had stood against +the Free Church was withdrawn, and Macmillan gave notice of +an action of a wholly different kind. But this last was not persevered +in. The appeals which had been taken to the House of +Lords were, in these circumstances, also departed from by +the Free Church. The case did not advance sufficiently to show +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span> +how far the courts of law would be prepared to go in the direction +of recognizing voluntary tribunals and a kind of secondary +exclusive jurisdiction founded on contract.<a name="fa12h" id="fa12h" href="#ft12h"><span class="sp">12</span></a> But, whether +recognized or not, the church for her part continued to believe +that she had an inherent spiritual jurisdiction, and remained +unmoved in her determination to act in accordance with that +resolution “notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble or persecution +may arise.”<a name="fa13h" id="fa13h" href="#ft13h"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1863 a motion was made and unanimously carried in the +Free Church Assembly for the appointment of a committee to +confer with a corresponding committee of the United Presbyterian +Synod, and with the representatives of such other disestablished +churches as might be willing to meet and deliberate +with a view to an incorporating union. Formal negotiations +between the representatives of these two churches were begun +shortly afterwards, which resulted in a report laid before the +following Assembly. From this document it appeared that the +committees of the two churches were not at one on the question +as to the relation of the civil magistrate to the church. While on +the part of the Free Church it was maintained that he “may +lawfully acknowledge, as being in accordance with the Word of +God, the creed and jurisdiction of the church,” and that “it is +his duty, when necessary and expedient, to employ the national +resources in aid of the church, provided always that in doing so, +while reserving to himself full control over the temporalities +which are his own gift, he abstain from all authoritative interference +in the internal government of the church,” it was declared +by the committee of the United Presbyterian Church that, +“inasmuch as the civil magistrate has no authority in spiritual +things, and as the employment of force in such matters is opposed +to the spirit and precepts of Christianity, it is not within his +province to legislate as to what is true in religion, to prescribe +a creed or form of worship to his subjects, or to endow the church +from national resources.” In other words, while the Free Church +maintained that in certain circumstances it was lawful and even +incumbent on the magistrate to endow the church and on the +church to accept his endowment, the United Presbyterians maintained +that in no case was this lawful either for the one party or for +the other. Thus in a very short time it had been made perfectly +evident that a union between the two bodies, if accomplished +at all, could only be brought about on the understanding that +the question as to the lawfulness of state endowments should +be an open one. The Free Church Assembly, by increasing +majorities, manifested a readiness for union, even although +unanimity had not been attained on that theoretical point. +But there was a minority which did not sympathize in this +readiness, and after ten years of fruitless effort it was in 1873 +found to be expedient that the idea of union with the United +Presbyterians should for the time be abandoned. Other negotiations, +however, which had been entered upon with the Reformed +Presbyterian Church at a somewhat later date proved more +successful; and a majority of the ministers of that church with +their congregations were united with the Free Church in 1876.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. Bl.)</div> + +<p>In the last quarter of the 19th century the Free Church continued +to be the most active, theologically, of the Scottish +Churches. The College chairs were almost uniformly filled by +advanced critics or theologians, inspired more or less by Professor +A. B. Davidson. Dr A. B. Bruce, author of <i>The Training of the +Twelve</i>, &c., was appointed to the chair of apologetics and New +Testament exegesis in the Glasgow College in 1875; Henry +Drummond (author of <i>Natural Law in the Spiritual World</i>, &c.) +was made lecturer in natural science in the same college in 1877 +and became professor in 1884; and Dr George Adam Smith +(author of <i>The Twelve Prophets</i>, &c.) was called to the Hebrew +chair in 1892. Attempts were made between 1890 and 1895 to +bring all these professors except Davidson (similar attacks +were also made on Dr Marcus Dods, afterwards principal of the +New College, Edinburgh) to the bar of the Assembly for unsound +teaching or writing; but in every case these were abortive, +the Assembly never taking any step beyond warning the accused +that their primary duty was to teach and defend the church’s +faith as embodied in the confession. In 1892 the Free Church, +following the example of the United Presbyterian Church and +the Church of Scotland (1889), passed a Declaratory Act relaxing +the stringency of subscription to the confession, with the result +that a small number of ministers and congregations, mostly in the +Highlands, severed their connexion with the church and formed +the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, on strictly and +straitly orthodox lines. In 1907 this body had twenty congregations +and twelve ministers.</p> + +<p>The Free Church always regarded herself as a National Church, +and during this period she sought actively to be true to that +character by providing church ordinances for the increasing +population of Scotland and applying herself to the new problems +of non-church-going, and of the changing habits of the people. +Her Assembly’s committee on religion and morals worked +toward the same ends as the similar organization of the Established +Church, and in her, as in the other churches, the standard +of parochial and congregational activity was raised and new +methods of operation devised. She passed legislation on the +difficult problem of ridding the church of inefficient ministers. +The use of instrumental music was sanctioned in Free Churches +during this period. An association was formed in 1891 to promote +the ends of edification, order and reverence in the public +services of the church, and published in 1898 <i>A New Directory +for Public Worship</i> which does not provide set forms of prayer, +but directions as to the matter of prayer in the various services. +The Free Church took a large share in the study of hymnology +and church music, which led to the production of <i>The Church +Hymnary</i>. From 1885 to 1895 much of the energy of all the Presbyterian +churches was absorbed by the disestablishment agitation. +In the former year the Free Church, having almost entirely +shed the establishment principle on which it was founded, began +to rival the United Presbyterian Church in its resolutions calling +for the disestablishment of the Church of Scotland. In spite of +the offers of the Establishment Assembly to confer with the +dissenting churches about union, the assaults upon its status +waxed in vigour, till in 1893 the Free Church hailed the result of +the general election as a verdict of the constituencies in favour +of disestablishment, and insisted upon the government of the day +taking up Sir Charles Cameron’s bill.</p> + +<p>During the last four or five years of the century the Free and +United Presbyterian churches, which after the failure of their +union negotiations in 1873 had been connected together by a +Mutual Eligibility Act enabling a congregation of one church +to call a minister from the other, devoted their energy to the +arrangement of an incorporating union. The Synod of the +United Presbyterian Church resolved in 1896 to “take steps +towards union,” and in the following year the Free Assembly +responded by appointing a committee to confer with a committee +of the other church. The joint committee discovered a “remarkable +and happy agreement” between the doctrinal standards, +rules and methods of the two bodies, and with very little concessions +on either side a common constitution and common +“questions and formula” for the admission of ministers and +office-bearers were arranged. A minority, always growing +smaller, of the Free Church Assembly, protested against the proposed +union, and threatened if it were carried through to test +its legality in the courts. To meet this opposition, the suggestion +is understood to have been made that an act of parliament +should be applied for to legalize the union; but this was not done, +and the union was carried through on the understanding that +the question of the lawfulness of church establishments should +be an open one.</p> + +<p>The supreme courts of the churches met for the last time in +their respective places of meeting on the 30th of October 1900, +and on the following day the joint meeting took place at +which the union was completed, and the United Free Church +of Scotland (<i>q.v.</i>) entered on its career. The protesting and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span> +dissenting minority at once claimed to be the Free Church. They +met outside the Free Assembly Hall on the 31st of October, and, +failing to gain admission to it, withdrew to another hall, where +they elected Mr Colin Bannatyne their moderator and held the +remaining sittings of the Assembly. It was reported that between +16,000 and 17,000 names had been received of persons adhering to +the anti-unionist principle. At the Assembly of 1901 it was +stated that the Free Church had twenty-five ministers and at +least sixty-three congregations. The character of the church is +indicated by the fact that its office-bearers were the faithful +survivors of the decreasing minority of the Old Free Church, +which had protested against the disestablishment resolutions, +against the relaxation of subscription, against toleration of the +teaching of the Glasgow professors, and against the use in worship +of organs or of human hymns. Her congregations were mostly +in the Gaelic-speaking districts of Scotland. She was confronted +with a very arduous undertaking; her congregations grew in +number, but were far from each other and there were not nearly +enough ministers. The Highlands were filled, by the Union, +with exasperation and dispeace which could not soon subside. +The church met with no sympathy or assistance at the hands +of the United Free Church, and her work was conducted at first +under considerable hardships, nor was her position one to appeal +to the general popular sentiment of Scotland. But the little +church continued her course with indomitable courage and +without any compromise of principle. The Declaratory Act of +1892 was repealed after a consultation of presbyteries, and the old +principles as to worship were declared. A professor was obliged +to withdraw a book he had written, in which the results of +criticism, with regard to the Synoptic Gospels, had been accepted +and applied. The desire of the Church of Scotland to obtain +relaxation of her formula was declared to make union with her +impossible. Along with this unbending attitude, signs of material +growth were not wanting. The revenue of the church increased; +the grant from the sustentation fund was in 1901 only £75, but +from 1903 onwards it was £167.</p> + +<p>The decision of the House of Lords in 1904 did not bring the +trials of the Free Church to an end. In the absence of any +arrangement with the United Free Church, she could only gain +possession of the property declared to belong to her by an +application in each particular case to the Court of Session, and a +series of law-suits began which were trying to all parties. In +the year 1905 the Free Church Assembly met in the historic +Free Church Assembly Hall, but it did not meet there again. +Having been left by the awards of the commission without any +station in the foreign mission field, the Free Church resolved to +start a foreign mission of her own. The urgent task confronting +the church was that of supplying ordinances to her congregations. +The latter numbered 200 in 1907, and the church had as yet only +74 ordained ministers, so that many of the manses allocated to +her by the commissioners were not yet occupied, and catechists +and elders were called to conduct services where possible. The +gallant stand this little church had made for principles which +were no longer represented by any Presbyterian church outside +the establishment attracted to her much interest and many +hopes that she might be successful in her endeavours to do something +for the religious life of Scotland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland, Church of</a></span>, for bibliography and statistics.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “It is her being free, not her being established, that constitutes +the real historical and hereditary identity of the Reformed National +Church of Scotland.” See <i>Act and Declaration, &c.</i>, of Free Assembly, +1851.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In the act <i>Anent the true and holy Kirk, and of those that are +declared not to be of the same</i>. This act was supplemented by that of +1579, <i>Anent the Jurisdiction of the Kirk</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Second Book of Discipline was not formally recognized in +that act; but all former acts against “the jurisdiction and discipline +of the true Kirk as the same is used and exercised within the +realm” were abolished; and all “liberties, privileges, immunities +and freedoms whatsoever” previously granted were ratified and +approved.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The most important of these had reference to the full right of a +constituted church to the enjoyment of an absolutely unrestricted +freedom in convening Assemblies. This very point on one occasion +at least threatened to be the cause of serious misunderstandings +between William and the people of Scotland. The difficulties were +happily smoothed, however, by the wisdom and tact of William +Carstares.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See <i>Act and Declaration</i> of Free Assembly, 1851.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6h" id="ft6h" href="#fa6h"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This principle had been asserted even by an Assembly so late as +that of 1736, and had been invariably presupposed in the “call,” +which had never ceased to be regarded as an indispensable prerequisite +for the settlement of a minister.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7h" id="ft7h" href="#fa7h"><span class="fn">7</span></a> According to the Free Church “Protest” of 1843 it was in these +cases decided (1) that the courts of the church were liable to be compelled +to intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations; (2) that the +civil courts had power to interfere with and interdict the preaching of +the gospel and administration of ordinances as authorized and enjoined +by the church; (3) that the civil courts had power to suspend +spiritual censures pronounced by the courts of the church, and to +interdict their execution as to spiritual effects, functions and privileges; +(4) that deposed ministers, and probationers deprived of their +licence, could be restored by the mandate of the civil courts to the +spiritual office and status of which the church courts had deprived +them; (5) that the right of membership in ecclesiastical courts +could be determined by the civil courts; (6) that the civil courts +had power to supersede the majority of a church court of the Establishment +in regard to the exercise of its spiritual functions as a church +court, and to authorize the minority to exercise the said functions +in opposition to the court itself and to the superior judicatories of +the church; (7) that processes of ecclesiastical discipline could be +arrested by the civil courts; and (8) that without the sanction of the +civil courts no increased provision could be made for the spiritual care +of a parish, although such provision left all civil rights and patrimonial +interests untouched.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8h" id="ft8h" href="#fa8h"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The narrative and argument of this elaborate and able document +cannot be reproduced here. In substance it is a claim “as of right” +on behalf of the church and of the nation and people of Scotland that +the church shall freely possess and enjoy her liberties, government, +discipline, rights and privileges according to law, and that she shall +be protected therein from the foresaid unconstitutional and illegal +encroachments of the said court of session, and her people secured in +their Christian and constitutional rights and liberties. This claim is +followed by the “declaration” that the Assembly cannot intrude +ministers on reclaiming congregations, or carry on the government +of Christ’s church subject to the coercion of the court of session; and +by the “protest” that all acts of the parliament of Great Britain +passed without the consent of the Scottish church and nation, in +alteration or derogation of the government, discipline, rights and +privileges of the church, as also all sentences of courts in contravention +of said government, discipline, rights and privileges, “are and +shall be in themselves void and null, and of no legal force or effect.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft9h" id="ft9h" href="#fa9h"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The Scottish members voted with the minority in the proportion +of 25 to 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10h" id="ft10h" href="#fa10h"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The number ultimately rose to 474.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11h" id="ft11h" href="#fa11h"><span class="fn">11</span></a> By this formal recognition of the qualifications to the Confession +of Faith made in 1647 the scruples of the majority of the Associate +Synod of Original Seceders were removed, and 27 ministers, along +with a considerable number of their people, joined the Free Church +in the following year.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12h" id="ft12h" href="#fa12h"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Taylor Innes, <i>Law of Creeds in Scotland</i>, p. 258 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13h" id="ft13h" href="#fa13h"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The language of Dr Buchanan, for example, in 1860 was (<i>mutatis +mutandis</i>) the same as that which he had employed in 1838 in moving +the Independence resolution already referred to.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEDMEN’S BUREAU<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (officially the <span class="sc">Bureau of Freedmen, +Refugees and Abandoned Lands</span>), a bureau created in the +United States war department by an act of Congress, 3rd of March +1865, to last one year, but continued until 1872 by later acts +passed over the president’s veto. Its establishment was due +partly to the fear entertained by the North that the Southerners +if left to deal with the blacks would attempt to re-establish +some form of slavery, partly to the necessity for extending relief +to needy negroes and whites in the lately conquered South, +and partly to the need of creating some commission or bureau +to take charge of lands confiscated in the South. During the +Civil War a million negroes fell into the hands of the Federals +and had to be cared for. Able-bodied blacks were enlisted in the +army, and the women, children and old men were settled in large +camps on confiscated Southern property, where they were cared +for alternately by the war department and by the treasury +department until the organization of the Freedmen’s Bureau. +At the head of the bureau was a commissioner, General O. O. +Howard, and under him in each Southern state was an assistant +commissioner with a corps of local superintendents, agents +and inspectors. The officials had the broadest possible authority +in all matters that concerned the blacks. The work of the bureau +may be classified as follows: (1) distributing rations and medical +supplies among the blacks; (2) establishing schools for them and +aiding benevolent societies to establish schools and churches; +(3) regulating labour and contracts; (4) taking charge of confiscated +lands; and (5) administering justice in cases in which +blacks were concerned. For several years the ex-slaves were +under the almost absolute control of the bureau. Whether this +control had a good or bad effect is still disputed, the Southern +whites and many Northerners holding that the results of the +bureau’s work were distinctly bad, while others hold that much +good resulted from its work. There is now no doubt, however, +that while most of the higher officials of the bureau were good +men, the subordinate agents were generally without character +or judgment and that their interference between the races caused +permanent discord. Much necessary relief work was done, +but demoralization was also caused by it, and later the institution +was used by its officials as a means of securing negro votes. +In educating the blacks the bureau made some progress, but the +instruction imparted by the missionary teachers resulted in +giving the ex-slaves notions of liberty and racial equality that led +to much trouble, finally resulting in the hostility of the whites to +negro education. The secession of the blacks from the white +churches was aided and encouraged by the bureau. The whole +field of labour and contracts was covered by minute regulations, +which, good in theory, were absurd in practice, and which failed +altogether, but not until labour had been disorganized for several +years. The administration of justice by the bureau agents +amounted simply to a ceaseless persecution of the whites who had +dealings with the blacks, and bloody conflicts sometimes resulted. +The law creating the bureau provided for the division of the +confiscated property among the negroes, and though carried +out only in parts of South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, it caused +the negroes to believe that they were to be cared for at the +expense of their former masters. This belief made them subject +to swindling schemes perpetrated by certain bureau agents and +others who promised to secure lands for them. When negro +suffrage was imposed by Congress upon the Southern States, the +bureau aided the Union League (<i>q.v.</i>) in organizing the blacks into +a political party opposed to the whites. A large majority of the +bureau officials secured office through their control of the blacks. +The failure of the bureau system and its discontinuance in the +midst of reconstruction without harm to the blacks, and the +intense hostility of the Southern whites to the institution caused +by the irritating conduct of bureau officials, are indications that +the institution was not well conceived nor wisely administered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. S. Pierce, <i>The Freedmen’s Bureau</i> (Iowa City, 1904); +<i>Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction</i> (Washington, 1866); +W. L. Fleming (ed.), <i>Documents relating to Reconstruction</i> (Cleveland, +O., 1906); W. L. Fleming, <i>Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama</i> +(New York, 1905); and James W. Garner, <i>Reconstruction in Mississippi</i> +(New York, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. L. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEHOLD,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Monmouth county, +New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township of Freehold, about 25 m. +E. by N. of Trenton. Pop. (1890) 2932; (1900) 2934, of whom +215 were foreign-born and 126 were negroes; (1905) 3064; (1910) +3233. Freehold is served by the Pennsylvania and the Central +of New Jersey railways. It is the trade centre of one of the most +productive agricultural districts of the state and has various +manufactures, including carriages, carpets and rugs, files, shirts, +underwear, and canned beans and peas. The town is the seat +of two boarding schools for boys: the Freehold Military School +and the New Jersey Military Academy (chartered, 1900; +founded in 1844 as the Freehold Institute). One of the residences +in the town dates from 1755. A settlement was made +in the township about 1650, and the township was incorporated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span> +in 1693. In 1715 the town was founded and was made the county-seat; +it was long commonly known (from the county) as Monmouth +Court-House, but afterwards took (from the township) +the name Freehold, and in 1869 it was incorporated as the Town +of Freehold. An important battle of the War of Independence, +known as the battle of Monmouth, was fought near the court-house +on the 28th of June 1778. A short distance N.W. of the +court-house is a park in which there is a monument, unveiled +on the 13th of November 1884 in commemoration of the battle; +the base is of Quincy granite and the shaft is of Concord granite. +Surmounting the shaft is a statue representing “Liberty +Triumphant” (the height to the top of which is about 100 ft.). +The monument is adorned with five bronze reliefs, designed and +modelled by James E. Kelly (b. 1855); one of these reliefs +represents “Molly Pitcher” (d. 1832), a national heroine, who, +when her husband (John C. Hays), an artillerist, was rendered +insensible during the battle, served the gun in his place and +prevented its capture by the British.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Joel Parker (1816-1888), +governor of New Jersey in 1863-1866 and 1872-1875, was +long a resident of Freehold, and the erection of the monument +was largely due to his efforts. A bronze tablet on a boulder +in front of the present court-house, commemorating the old court-house, +used as a hospital in the battle of Monmouth, was unveiled +in 1907. Freehold was the birthplace and home of Dr Thomas +Henderson (1743-1824), a Whig or Patriot leader in New Jersey, +an officer in the War of Independence, and a member of the +Continental Congress in 1779-1780 and of the national House of +Representatives in 1795-1797.</p> + +<p>The name Freehold was first used of a Presbyterian church +established about 1692 by Scottish exiles who came to East +Jersey in 1682-1685 and built what was called the “Old +Scots’ Church” near the present railway station of Wickatunk +in Marlboro’ township, Monmouth county. In this church, in +December 1706, John Boyd (d. 1709) was ordained—the first +recorded Presbyterian ordination in America. The church was +the first regularly constituted Presbyterian church. No trace +of the building now remains in the burying-ground where +Boyd was interred, and where the Presbyterian Synod of New +Jersey in 1900 raised a granite monument to his memory; his +tombstone is preserved by the Presbyterian Historical Society in +Philadelphia. John Tennent (1706-1732) became pastor of the +Freehold church in 1730, when a new church was built by the +Old Scots congregation on White Hill in the present township of +Manalapan (then a part of Freehold township), near the railway +station and village called Tennent; his brother William (1705-1777), +whose trance, in which he thought he saw the glories of +heaven, was a matter of much discussion in his time, was pastor +in 1733-1777. In 1751-1753 the present “Old Tennent Church,” +then called the Freehold Church, was erected on (or near) the +same site as the building of 1730; in it Whitefield preached and +in the older building David Brainerd and his Indian converts met. +In 1859 this church (whose corporate name is “The First Presbyterian +Church of the County of Monmouth”) adopted the name +of Tennent, partly to distinguish it from the Presbyterian church +organized at Monmouth Court-House (now Freehold) in 1838.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Frank R. Symmes, <i>History of the Old Tennent Church</i> (2nd +ed., Cranbury, New Jersey, 1904).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Her maiden name was Mary Ludwig. “Molly Pitcher” was +a nickname given to her by the soldiers in reference to her carrying +water to soldiers overcome by heat in the battle of Monmouth. She +married Hays in 1769; Hays died soon after the war, and later she +married one George McCauley. She lived for more than forty +years at Carlisle, Penn., where a monument was erected to her +memory in 1876.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEHOLD,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> in the English law of real property, an estate in +land, not being less than an estate for life. An estate for a term +of years, no matter how long, was considered inferior in dignity +to an estate for life, and unworthy of a freeman (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Estate</a></span>). +“Some time before the reign of Henry II., but apparently not +so early as Domesday, the expression <i>liberum tenementum</i> was +introduced to designate land held by a freeman by a free tenure. +Thus freehold tenure is the sum of the rights and duties which +constitute the relation of a free tenant to his lord.”<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In this +sense freehold is distinguished from copyhold, which is a tenure +having its origin in the relation of lord and villein (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copyhold</a></span>). +Freehold is also distinguished from leasehold, which is an estate +for a fixed number of years only. By analogy the interest of a +person who holds an office for life is sometimes said to be a freehold +interest. The term <i>customary freeholds</i> is applied to a kind of +copyhold tenure in the north of England, viz. tenure by copy +of court-roll, but not, as in other cases, expressed to be at the +will of the lord.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Digby’s <i>History of the Law of Real Property</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREELAND,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., about 20 m. S. of Wilkes-Barre, in the E. part of the state. +Pop. (1890) 1730; (1900) 5254 (1339 foreign-born, many being +Slavs); (1910) 6197. Freeland is served by the Lehigh +Valley railway and by electric railway to Upper Lehigh (1 m. +distant, served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey) and +to other neighbouring places. The borough is built on Broad +Mountain, nearly 2000 ft. above sea-level, and the chief industry +is the mining of coal at the numerous surrounding collieries. +Freeland is the seat of the Mining and Mechanical Institute +of the Anthracite Region, chartered in 1894, modelled after the +German <i>Steigerschulen</i>, with elementary and secondary departments +and a night school for workmen. The borough has +foundries and machine shops of considerable importance, +and manufactures silk, overalls, beer and hames. Freeland +was first settled about 1842, was laid out in 1870, and was +incorporated in 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1823-1892), English +historian, was born at Harborne, Staffordshire, on the 2nd of +August 1823. He lost both his parents in infancy, was brought +up by a grandmother, and was educated at private schools and +by a private tutor. He was a studious and precocious boy, more +interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics than +in boyish things. He obtained a scholarship at Trinity College, +Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was +elected fellow of his college (1845). While at Oxford he was much +influenced by the High Church movement, and thought seriously +of taking orders, but abandoned the idea. He married a daughter +of his former tutor, the Rev. R. Gutch, in 1847, and entered +on a life of study. Ecclesiastical architecture attracted him +strongly. He visited many churches and began a practice, +which he pursued throughout his life, of making drawings of +buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink. +His first book, save for his share in a volume of English verse, +was a <i>History of Architecture</i> (1849). Though he had not then +seen any buildings outside England, it contains a good sketch +of the development of the art. It is full of youthful enthusiasm +and is written in florid language. After some changes of residence +he bought a house called Somerleaze, near Wells, Somerset, and +settled there in 1860.</p> + +<p>Freeman’s life was one of strenuous literary work. He wrote +many books, and countless articles for reviews, newspapers and +other publications, and was a constant contributor to the +<i>Saturday Review</i> until 1878, when he ceased to write for it for +political reasons. His <i>Saturday Review</i> articles corrected many +errors and raised the level of historical knowledge among the +educated classes, but as a reviewer he was apt to forget that a +book may have blemishes and yet be praiseworthy. For some +years he was an active county magistrate. He was deeply +interested in politics, was a follower of Mr Gladstone, and +approved the Home Rule Bill of 1886, but objected to the later +proposal to retain the Irish members at Westminster. To be +returned to Parliament was one of his few ambitions, and in 1868 +he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign rather than +domestic politics had the first place with him. Historical and +religious sentiment combined with his <span class="correction" title="amended from destestation">detestation</span> of all that was +tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy +with the smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe. +He took a prominent part in the agitation which followed +“the Bulgarian atrocities”; his speeches were intemperate, +and he was accused of uttering the words “Perish India!” +at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, was a misrepresentation +of his words. He was made a knight commander +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span> +of the order of the Saviour by the king of Greece, and also +received an order from the prince of Montenegro.</p> + +<p>Freeman advanced the study of history in England in two +special directions, by insistence on the unity of history, and by +teaching the importance and right use of original authorities. +History is not, he urges, to be divided “by a middle wall of +partition” into ancient and modern, nor broken into fragments +as though the history of each nation stood apart. It is more +than a collection of narratives; it is a science, “the science of +man in his political character.” The historical student, then, +cannot afford to be indifferent to any part of the record of man’s +political being; but as his abilities for study are limited, he will, +while reckoning all history to be within his range, have his own +special range within which he will master every detail (<i>Rede +Lecture</i>). Freeman’s range included Greek, Roman and the +earlier part of English history, together with some portions of +foreign medieval history, and he had a scholarly though general +knowledge of the rest of the history of the European world. +He regarded the abiding life of Rome as “the central truth of +European history,” the bond of its unity, and he undertook his +<i>History of Sicily</i> (1891-1894) partly because it illustrated this +unity. Further, he urges that all historical study is valueless +which does not take in a knowledge of original authorities, and +he teaches both by example and precept what authorities should +be thus described, and how they are to be weighed and used. +He did not use manuscript authorities, and for most of his work +he had no need to do so. The authorities which he needed were +already in print, and his books would not have been better if +he had disinterred a few more facts from unprinted sources.</p> + +<p>His reputation as a historian will chiefly rest on his <i>History of +the Norman Conquest</i> (1867-1876), his longest completed book. +In common with his works generally, it is distinguished by +exhaustiveness of treatment and research, critical ability, +a remarkable degree of accuracy, and a certain insight into the +past which he gained from his practical experience of men and +institutions. He is almost exclusively a political historian. +His saying that “history is past politics and politics are present +history” is significant of this limitation of his work, which left +on one side subjects of the deepest interest in a nation’s life. +In dealing with constitutional matters he sometimes attaches +too much weight to words and formal aspects. This gives certain +of his arguments an air of pedantry, and seems to lead him to +find evidences of continuity in institutions which in reality and +spirit were different from what they once had been. As a rule +his estimates of character are remarkably able. It is true that +he is sometimes swayed by prejudice, but this is the common lot +of great historians; they cannot altogether avoid sharing in +the feelings of the past, for they live in it, and Freeman did so to +an extraordinary degree. Yet if he judges too favourably the +leaders of the national party in England on the eve of the +Norman Conquest, that is a small matter to set against the insight +which he exhibits in writing of Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William +the Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick the Second +and many more. In width of view, thoroughness of investigation +and honesty of purpose he is unsurpassed by any historian. +He never conceals nor wilfully misrepresents anything, and he +reckoned no labour too great which might help him to draw a +truthful picture of the past. When a place had any important +connexion with his work he invariably visited it. He travelled +much, always to gain knowledge, and generally to complete his +historical equipment. His collected articles and essays on places +of historical interest are perhaps the most pleasing of his writings, +but they deal exclusively with historical associations and +architectural features. The quantity of work which he turned +out is enormous, for the fifteen large volumes which contain his +<i>Norman Conquest</i>, his unfinished <i>History of Sicily</i>, his <i>William +Rufus</i> (1882), and his <i>Essays</i> (1872-1879), and the crowd of his +smaller books, are matched in amount by his uncollected contributions +to periodicals. In respect of matter his historical +work is uniformly excellent. In respect of form and style the +case is different. Though his sentences themselves are not wordy, +he is extremely diffuse in treatment, habitually repeating an idea +in successive sentences of much the same import. While this +habit was doubtless aggravated by the amount of his journalistic +work, it seems originally to have sprung from what may be called +a professorial spirit, which occasionally appears in the tone of +his remarks. He was anxious to make sure that his readers would +understand his exact meaning, and to guard them against all +possible misconceptions. His lengthy explanations are the more +grievous because he insists on the same points in several of his +books. His prolixity was increased by his unwillingness, when +writing without prescribed limits, to leave out any detail, +however unimportant. His passion for details not only swelled +his volumes to a portentous size, but was fatal to artistic construction. +The length of his books has hindered their usefulness. +They were written for the public at large, but few save professed +students, who can admire and value his exhaustiveness, will read +the many hundreds of pages which he devotes to a short period +of history. In some of his smaller books, however, he shows +great powers of condensation and arrangement, and writes +tersely enough. His style is correct, lucid and virile, but generally +nothing more, and his endeavour to use as far as possible +only words of Teutonic origin limited his vocabulary and makes +his sentences somewhat monotonous. While Froude often +strayed away from his authorities, Freeman kept his authorities +always before his eyes, and his narrative is here and there little +more than a translation of their words. Accordingly, while it has +nothing of Froude’s carelessness and inaccuracy, it has nothing +of his charm of style. Yet now and again he rises to the level +of some heroic event, and parts of his chapter on the “Campaign +of Hastings” and of his record of the wars of Syracuse and +Athens, his reflections on the visit of Basil the Second to the +church of the Virgin on the Acropolis, and some other passages +in his books, are fine pieces of eloquent writing.</p> + +<p>The high quality of Freeman’s work was acknowledged by +all competent judges. He was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. +of Cambridge <i>honoris causa</i>, and when he visited the United +States on a lecturing tour was warmly received at various places +of learning. He served on the royal commission on ecclesiastical +courts appointed in 1881. In 1884 he was appointed regius +professor of modern history at Oxford. His lectures were thinly +attended, for he did not care to adapt them to the requirements +of the university examinations, and he was not perhaps well +fitted to teach young men. But he exercised a wholesome influence +over the more earnest students of history among the +resident graduates. From 1886 he was forced by ill-health to +spend much of his time abroad, and he died of smallpox at +Alicante on the 16th of March 1892, while on a tour in Spain. +Freeman had a strongly marked personality. Though impatient +in temper and occasionally rude, he was tender-hearted and +generous. His rudeness to strangers was partly caused by shyness +and partly by a childlike inability to conceal his feelings. +Eminently truthful, he could not understand that some verbal +insincerities are necessary to social life. He had a peculiar +faculty for friendship, and his friends always found him sympathetic +and affectionate. In their society he would talk well +and showed a keen sense of humour. He considered it his duty +to expose careless and ignorant writers, and certainly enjoyed +doing so. He worked hard and methodically, often had several +pieces of work in hand, and kept a daily record of the time which +he devoted to each of them. His tastes were curiously limited. +No art interested him except architecture, which he studied +throughout his life; and he cared little for literature which was +not either historical or political. In later life he ceased to hold +the theological opinions of his youth, but remained a devout +churchman.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. R. W. Stephens, <i>Life and Letters of E. A. Freeman</i> (London, +1895); Frederic Harrison, <i>Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill and other Literary +Estimates</i> (London, 1899); James Bryce, “E. A. Freeman,” <i>Eng. +Hist. Rev.</i>, July 1892.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Hu.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEMAN,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> primarily one who is free, as opposed to a slave or +serf (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Slavery</a></span>). The term is more specifically +applied to one who possesses the freedom of a city, borough or +company. Before the passing of the Municipal Corporations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span> +Act 1835, each English borough admitted freemen according to +its own peculiar custom and by-laws. The rights and privileges +of a freeman, though varying in different boroughs, generally +included the right to vote at a parliamentary election of the +borough, and exemption from all tolls and dues. The act of +1835 respected existing usages, and every person who was then +an admitted freeman remained one, retaining at the same time +all his former rights and privileges. The admission of freemen +is now regulated by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882. By +section 201 of that act the term “freeman” includes any person +of the class whose rights and interests were reserved by the +act of 1835 under the name either of freemen or of burgesses. +By section 202 no person can be admitted a freeman by gift or +by purchase; that is, only birth, servitude or marriage are +qualifications. The Honorary Freedom of Boroughs Act 1885, +however, makes an exception, as by that act the council of every +borough may from time to time admit persons of distinction +to be honorary freemen of the borough. The town clerk of +every borough keeps a list, which is called “the freeman’s roll,” +and when any person claims to be admitted a freeman in respect +of birth, servitude or marriage, the mayor examines the claim, +and if it is established the claimant’s name is enrolled by the +town clerk.</p> + +<p>A person may become a freeman or freewoman of one of the +London livery companies by (1) apprenticeship or servitude; +(2) patrimony; (3) redemption; (4) gift. This last is purely +honorary. The most usual form of acquiring freedom was by +serving apprenticeship to a freeman, free both of a company and +of the city of London. By an act of common council of 1836 +apprenticeship was permitted to freemen of the city who had not +taken up the freedom of a company. By an act of common +council of 1889 the term of service was reduced from seven years +to four years. Freedom by patrimony is always granted to +children of a person who has been duly admitted to the freedom. +Freedom by redemption or purchase requires the payment of +certain entrance fees, which vary with the standing of the company. +In the Grocers’ Company freedom by redemption does +not exist, and in such companies as still have a trade, <i>e.g.</i> the +Apothecaries and Stationers, it is limited to members of the trade.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. C. Hazlitt, <i>The Livery Companies of the City of London</i> +(1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEMASONRY.<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> According to an old “Charge” delivered +to initiates, Freemasonry is declared to be an “ancient and +honourable institution: ancient no doubt it is, as having subsisted +from time immemorial; and honourable it must be acknowledged +to be, as by a natural tendency it conduces to make those +so who are obedient to its precepts ... to so high an eminence +has its credit been advanced that in every age Monarchs themselves +have been promoters of the art, have not thought it +derogatory from their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the +trowel, have patronised our mysteries and joined in our +Assemblies.” For many years the craft has been conducted +without respect to clime, colour, caste or creed.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The precise origin of the society has yet to be ascertained, +but is not likely to be, as the early records are lost; +there is, however, ample evidence remaining to justify the claim +for its antiquity and its honourable character. Much has been +written as to its eventful past, based upon actual records, but +still more which has served only to amuse or repel inquirers, and +led not a few to believe that the fraternity has no trustworthy +history. An unfavourable opinion of the historians of the craft +generally may fairly have been held during the 18th and early +in the 19th centuries, but happily since the middle of the latter +century quite a different principle has animated those brethren +who have sought to make the facts of masonic history known +to the brotherhood, as well as worth the study of students in +general. The idea that it would require an investigator to be +a member of the “mystic tie” in order to qualify as a reader of +masonic history has been exploded. The evidences collected +concerning the institution during the last five hundred years, +or more, may now be examined and tested in the most severe +manner by literary and critical experts (whether opposed or +favourable to the body), who cannot fail to accept the claims +made as to its great antiquity and continuity, as the lineal +descendant of those craftsmen who raised the cathedrals and other +great English buildings during the middle ages.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is only needful to refer to the old works on freemasonry, and +to compare them with the accepted histories of the present time, +to be assured that such strictures as above are more than justified. +The premier work on the subject was published in London in 1723, +the Rev. James Anderson being the author of the historical portion, +introductory to the first “Book of Constitutions” of the original +Grand Lodge of England. Dr Anderson gravely states that “Grand +Master Moses often marshalled the Israelites into a regular and +general lodge, whilst in the wilderness.... King Solomon was +Grand Master of the lodge at Jerusalem.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>... Nebuchadnezzar became +the Grand Master Mason,” &c., devoting many more pages to similar +absurdities, but dismisses the important modern innovation (1716-1717) +of a Grand Lodge with a few lines noteworthy for their brief +and indefinite character.</p> + +<p>In 1738 a second edition was issued, dedicated to the prince of +Wales (“a Master Mason and master of a lodge”), and was the work +of the same brother (as respects the historical part), the additions +being mainly on the same lines as the former volume, only, if possible, +still more ridiculous and extravagant; <i>e.g.</i> Cyrus constituted +Jerubbabel “provincial grand master in Judah”; Charles Martel +was “the Right Worshipful Grand Master of France, and Edward I. +being deeply engaged in wars left the craft to the care of several +successive grand masters” (duly enumerated). Such loose statements +may now pass unheeded, but unfortunately they do not +exhaust the objections to Dr Anderson’s method of writing history. +The excerpt concerning St Alban (apparently made from Coles’s +<i>Ancient Constitutions</i>, 1728-1729) has the unwarranted additional +title of Grand Master conferred on that saint, and the extract concerning +King Æthelstan and Prince Edwin from the “Old MS. +Charges” (given in the first edition) contains still more unauthorized +modern terms, with the year added of 926; thus misleading most +seriously those who accept the volume as trustworthy, because written +by the accredited historian of the Grand Lodge, Junior Grand +Warden in 1723. These examples hardly increase our confidence +in the author’s accuracy when Dr Anderson comes to treat of the +origin of the premier Grand Lodge; but he is our only informant +as to that important event, and if his version of the occurrence is +declined, we are absolutely without any information.</p> +</div> + +<p>In considering the early history of Freemasonry, from a +purely matter-of-fact standpoint, it will be well to settle as a +necessary preliminary what the term did and does now include +or mean, and how far back the inquiry should be conducted, +as well as on what lines. If the view of the subject herein taken +be correct, it will be useless to load the investigation by devoting +considerable space to a consideration of the laws and customs +of still older societies which may have been utilized and imitated +by the fraternity, but which in no sense can be accepted as the +actual forbears of the present society of Free and Accepted +Masons. They were predecessors, or possibly prototypes, but +not near relatives or progenitors of the Freemasons.<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>The Mother Grand Lodge of the world is that of England, +which was inaugurated in the metropolis on St John Baptist’s +day 1717 by four or more old lodges, three of which still flourish. +There were other lodges also in London and the country at the +time, but whether they were invited to the meeting is not now +known. Probably not, as existing records of the period preserve +a sphinx-like silence thereon. Likewise there were many scores +of lodges at work in Scotland, and undoubtedly in Ireland the +craft was widely patronized. Whatever the ceremonies may have +been which were then known as Freemasonry in Great Britain and +Ireland, they were practically alike, and the venerable <i>Old Charges</i> +or MS. constitutions, dating back several centuries, were rightly +held by them as the title-deeds of their masonic inheritance.</p> + +<p>It was a bold thing to do, thus to start a governing body for +the fraternity quite different in many respects to all preceding +organizations, and to brand as irregular all lodges which declined +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span> +to accept such authority; but the very originality and audacity +of its promoters appears to have led to its success, and it was not +long before most of the lodges of the pre-Grand-Lodge era joined +and accepted “constitution” by warrant of the Grand Master. +Not only so, but Ireland quickly followed the lead, so early as +1725 there being a Grand Lodge for that country which must have +been formed even still earlier, and probably by lodges started +before any were authorized in the English counties. In Scotland +the change was not made until 1736, many lodges even then +holding aloof from such an organization. Indeed, out of some +hundred lodges known to have been active then, only thirty-three +responded and agreed to fall into line, though several joined later; +some, however, kept separate down to the end of the 19th century, +while others never united. Many of these lodges have records +of the 17th century though not then newly formed; one in +particular, the oldest (the Lodge of Edinburgh, No. 1), possesses +minutes so far back as the year 1599.</p> + +<p>It is important to bear in mind that all the regular lodges +throughout the world, and likewise all the Grand Lodges, directly +or indirectly, have sprung from one or other of the three governing +bodies named; Ireland and Scotland following the example +set by their masonic mother of England in having Grand Lodges +of their own. It is not proved how the latter two became acquainted +with Freemasonry as a secret society, guided more or +less by the operative MS. <i>Constitutions</i> or <i>Charges</i> common to +the three bodies, not met with elsewhere; but the credit of a +Grand Lodge being established to control the lodges belongs to +England.</p> + +<p>It may be a startling declaration, but it is well authenticated, +that there is no other Freemasonry, as the term is now understood, +than what which has been so derived. In other words, the lodges +and Grand Lodges in both hemispheres trace their origin and +authority back to England for working what are known as the +Three Degrees, controlled by regular Grand Lodges. That being +so, a history of modern Freemasonry, the direct offspring of the +British parents aforesaid, should first of all establish the descent +of the three Grand Lodges from the Freemasonry of earlier days; +such continuity, of five centuries or more, being a <i>sine qua non</i> +of antiquity and regularity.</p> + +<p>It will be found that from the early part of the 18th century +back to the 16th century existing records testify to the assemblies +of lodges, mainly operative, but partly speculative, in Great +Britain, whose guiding stars and common heritage were the <i>Old +Charges</i>, and that when their actual minutes and transactions +cease to be traced by reason of their loss, these same MS. <i>Constitutions</i> +furnish testimony of the still older working of such +combinations of freemasons or masons, without the assistance, +countenance or authority of any other masonic body; consequently +such documents still preserved, of the 14th and later +centuries (numbering about seventy, mostly in form of rolls), +with the existing lodge minutes referred to of the 16th century, +down to the establishment of the premier Grand Lodge in 1717, +prove the continuity of the society. Indeed so universally has +this claim been admitted, that in popular usage the term Freemason +is only now applied to those who belong to this particular +fraternity, that of <i>mason</i> being applicable to one who follows +that trade, or honourable calling, as a builder.</p> + +<p>There is no evidence that during this long period any other +organization of any kind, religious, philosophical, mystical or +otherwise, materially or even slightly influenced the customs +of the fraternity, though they may have done so; but so far +as is known the lodges were of much the same character throughout, +and consisted really of operatives (who enjoyed practically +a monopoly for some time of the trade as masons or freemasons), +and, in part, of “speculatives,” <i>i.e.</i> noblemen, gentlemen and +men of other trades, who were admitted as honorary members.</p> + +<p>Assuming then that the freemasons of the present day are the +sole inheritors of the system arranged at the so-called “Revival +of 1717,” which was a development from an operative body to +one partly speculative, and that, so far back as the MS. Records +extend and furnish any light, they must have worked in Lodges +in secret throughout the period noted, a history of Freemasonry +should be mainly devoted to giving particulars, as far as possible, +of the lodges, their traditions, customs and laws, based upon +actual documents which can be tested and verified by members +and non-members alike.</p> + +<p>It has been the rule to treat, more or less fully, of the influence +exerted on the fraternity by the Ancient Mysteries, the Essenes, +Roman Colleges, Culdees, Hermeticism, Fehm-Gerichte <i>et hoc +genus omne</i>, especially the <i>Steinmetzen</i>, the Craft Gilds and the +Companionage of France, &c.; but in view of the separate and +independent character of the freemasons, it appears to be quite +unnecessary, and the time so employed would be better devoted +to a more thorough search after additional evidences of the +activity of the craft, especially during the crucial period overlapping +the second decade of the 18th century, so as to discover information +as to the transmitted secrets of the medieval masons, +which, after all, may simply have been what Gaspard Monge +felicitously entitles “Descriptive Geometry, or the Art and +Science of Masonic Symbolism.”</p> + +<p>The rules and regulations of the masons were embodied in +what are known as the <i>Old Charges</i>; the senior known copy +being the <i>Regius MS.</i> (British Museum Bibl. Reg. 17 A, i.), +which, however, is not so exclusively devoted to masonry as the +later copies. David Casley, in his catalogue of the MSS. in the +King’s Library (1734), unfortunately styled the little gem +<i>A Poem of Moral Duties</i>; and owing to this misdescription its +true character was not recognized until the year 1839, and then +by a non-mason (Mr Halliwell-Phillipps), who had it reproduced +in 1840 and brought out an improved edition in 1844. Its date +has been approximately fixed at 1390 by Casley and other +authorities.</p> + +<p>The curious legend of the craft, therein made known, deals +first of all with the number of unemployed in early days and +the necessity of finding work, “that they myght gete here lyvynge +therby.” Euclid was consulted, and recommended the “onest +craft of good masonry,” and the genesis of the society is found +“yn Egypte lande.” By a rapid transition, but “mony erys +afterwarde,” we are told that the “Craft com ynto England yn +tyme of good kynge Adelstonus (Æthelstan) day,” who called +an assembly of the masons, when fifteen articles and as many more +points were agreed to for the government of the craft, each being +duly described. Each brother was instructed that—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“He must love wel God, and holy Churche algate</p> +<p class="i05">And hys mayster also, that he ys wythe.”</p> + +<p class="s">“The thrydde poynt must be severle.</p> +<p class="i05">With the prentes knowe hyt wele,</p> +<p class="i05">Hys mayster cownsel he kepe and close,</p> +<p class="i05">And hys felows by hys goode purpose;</p> +<p class="i05">The prevetyse of the chamber telle he no mon,</p> +<p class="i05">Ny yn the logge whatsever they done,</p> +<p class="i05">Whatsever thou heryst, or syste hem do,</p> +<p class="i05">Telle hyt no mon, whersever thou go.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The rules generally, besides referring to trade regulations, are +as a whole suggestive of the Ten Commandments in an extended +form, winding up with the legend of the <i>Ars quatuor coronatorum</i>, +as an incentive to a faithful discharge of the numerous obligations. +A second part introduces a more lengthy account of the origin +of masonry, in which Noah’s flood and the Tower of Babylon +are mentioned as well as the great skill of Euclid, who—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Through hye grace of Crist yn heven,</p> +<p class="i05">He commensed yn the syens seven”;</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The “seven sciences” are duly named and explained. The +compiler apparently was a priest, line 629 reading “And, when +ye gospel <i>me rede schal</i>,” thus also accounting for the many +religious injunctions in the MS.; the last hundred lines are +evidently based upon <i>Urbanitatis</i> (Cott. MS. Caligula A 11, fol. 88) +and <i>Instructions for a Parish Priest</i> (Cott. MS. Claudius A 11, +fol. 27), instructions such as lads and even men would need who +were ignorant of the customs of polite society, correct deportment +at church and in the presence of their social superiors.</p> + +<p>The recital of the legend of the <i>Quatuor Coronati</i> has been held +by Herr Findel in his <i>History of Freemasonry</i> (<i>Allgemeine Geschichte +der Freimaurerei</i>, 1862; English editions, 1866-1869) +to prove that British Freemasonry was derived from Germany, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span> +but without any justification, the legend being met with in +England centuries prior to the date of the <i>Regius MS.</i>, and long +prior to its incorporation in masonic legends on the Continent.</p> + +<p>The next MS., in order, is known as the “Cooke” (Ad. MS. +23,198, British Museum), because Matthew Cooke published a +fair reproduction of the document in 1861; and it is deemed by +competent paleographers to date from the first part of the 15th +century. There are two versions of the <i>Old Charges</i> in this little +book, purchased for the British Museum in 1859. The compiler +was probably a mason and familiar with several copies of these +MS. <i>Constitutions</i>, two of which he utilizes and comments upon; +he quotes from a MS. copy of the <i>Policronicon</i> the manner in +which a written account of the sciences was preserved in the two +historic stones at the time of the Flood, and generally makes +known the traditions of the society as well as the laws which +were to govern the members.</p> + +<p>Its introduction into England through Egypt is noted (where +the Children of Israel “lernyd ye craft of Masonry”), also the +“lande of behest” (Jerusalem) and the Temple of Solomon (who +“confirmed ye chargys yt David his Fadir” had made). Then +masonry in France is interestingly described; and St Alban and +“Æthelstane with his yongest sone” (the Edwin of the later +MSS.) became the chosen mediums subsequently, as with the +other <i>Charges</i>, portions of the Old Testament are often cited in +order to convey a correct idea to the neophyte, who is to hear the +document read, as to these sciences which are declared to be free +in themselves (<i>fre in hem selfe</i>). Of all crafts followed by man +in this world “Masonry hathe the moste notabilite,” as confirmed +by “Elders that were bi for us of masons [who] had these +chargys wryten,” and “as is write and taught in ye boke of our +charges.”</p> + +<p>Until quite recently no representative or survival of this +particular version had been traced, but in 1890 one was discovered +of 1687 (since known as the <i>William Watson MS.</i>). +Of some seventy copies of these old scrolls which have been +unearthed, by far the greater proportion have been made public +since 1860. They have all much in common, though often +curious differences are to be detected; are of English origin, +no matter where used; and when complete, as they mostly are, +whether of the 16th or subsequent centuries, are noteworthy +for an invocation or prayer which begins the recital:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“The mighte of the ffather of heaven</p> +<p class="i05">And the wysedome of the glorious Sonne</p> +<p class="i05">through the grace and the goodnes of the holly</p> +<p class="i05">ghoste yt been three p’sons and one God</p> +<p class="i05">be with us at or beginning and give us grace</p> +<p class="i05">so to gou’ne us here in or lyving that wee maye</p> +<p class="i05">come to his blisse that nevr shall have ending.—Amen.”</p> +<p class="i8">(<i>Grand Lodge MS. No. 1</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1583.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>They are chiefly of the 17th century and nearly all located +in England; particulars may be found in Hughan’s <i>Old Charges +of the British Freemasons</i> (1872, 1895 and supplement 1906).<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +The chief scrolls, with some others, have been reproduced in +facsimile in six volumes of the <i>Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha</i>; +and the collection in Yorkshire has been published separately, +either in the <i>West Yorkshire Reprints</i> or the <i>Ancient York +Masonic Rolls</i>. Several have been transcribed and issued in +other works.</p> + +<p>These scrolls give considerable information as to the traditions +and customs of the craft, together with the regulations +for its government, and were required to be read to apprentices +long after the peculiar rules ceased to be acted upon, +each lodge apparently having one or more copies kept for +the purpose. The old Lodge of Aberdeen ordered in 1670 that +the Charge was to be “read at ye entering of everie entered +prenteise”; another at Alnwick in 1701 provided—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Noe Mason shall take any apprentice [but he must]</p> +<p class="i05">Enter him and give him his Charge, within one whole year after”;</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>and still another at Swallwell (now No. 48 Gateshead) demanded +that “the Apprentices shall have their Charge given at the time +of Registering, or within thirty days after”; the minutes inserting +such entries accordingly even so late as 1754, nearly +twenty years after the lodge had cast in its lot with the Grand +Lodge of England.</p> + +<p>Their Christian character is further emphasized by the “First +Charge that you shall be true men to God and the holy Church”; +the <i>York MS. No. 6</i> beseeches the brethren “at every meeting +and assembly they pray heartily for all Christians”; the <i>Melrose +MS. No. 2</i> (1674) mentions “Merchants and all other Christian +men,” and the <i>Aberdeen MS.</i> (1670) terms the invocation +“A Prayer before the Meeting.” Until the Grand Lodge era, +Freemasonry was thus wholly Christian. The <i>York MS. No. 4</i> +of 1693 contains a singular error in the admonitory lines:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“The [n] one of the elders takeing the Booke and that</p> +<p class="i05">hee or shee that is to be made mason, shall lay their</p> +<p class="i05">hands thereon and the charge shall be given.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">This particular reading was cited by Hughan in 1871, but was +considered doubtful; Findel,<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> however, confirmed it, on his +visit to York under the guidance of the celebrated masonic +student the late Rev. A. F. A. Woodford. The mistake was due +possibly to the transcriber, who had an older roll before him, +confusing “they,” sometimes written “the,” with “she,” +or reading that portion, which is often in Latin, as <i>ille vel illa</i>, +instead of <i>ille vel illi</i>.</p> + +<p>In some of the <i>Codices</i>, about the middle of the 17th century +and later, New Articles are inserted, such as would be suitable +for an organization similar to the Masons’ Company of London, +which had one, at least, of the <i>Old Charges</i> in its possession according +to inventories of 1665 and 1676; and likewise in 1722, +termed <i>The Book of the Constitutions of the Accepted Masons</i>. +Save its mention (“Book wrote on parchment”) by Sir Francis +Palgrave in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> (April 1839) as being in +existence “not long since,” this valuable document has been +lost sight of for many years.</p> + +<p>That there were signs and other secrets preserved and used +by the brethren throughout this mainly operative period may +be gathered from discreet references in these old MSS. The +<i>Institutions in parchment</i> (22nd of November 1696) of the +Dumfries Kilwinning Lodge (No. 53, Scotland) contain a copy +of the oath taken “when any man should be made”:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p>“These Charges which we now reherse to you and all others ye +secrets and misterys belonging to free masons you shall +faithfully and truly keep, together with ye Counsell of ye +assembly or lodge, or any other lodge, or brother, or fellow.”</p> +</div> + +<p>“Then after ye oath taken and the book kissed” (<i>i.e.</i> the Bible) +the “precepts” are read, the first being:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p>“You shall be true men to God and his holy Church, and that +you do not countenance or maintaine any eror, faction, +schism or herisey, in ye church to ye best of your understanding.” +(<i>History of No. 53</i>, by James Smith.)</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">The <i>Grand Lodge MS. No. 2</i> provides that “You shall keepe +secret ye obscure and intricate pts. of ye science, not disclosinge +them to any but such as study and use ye same.”</p> + +<p>The <i>Harleian MS. No. 2054</i> (Brit. Mus.) is still more explicit, +termed <i>The ffree Masons Orders and Constitutions</i>, and is in the +handwriting of Randle Holme (author of the <i>Academie of +Armory</i>, 1688), who was a member of a lodge in Cheshire. Following +the MS. <i>Constitutions</i>, in the same handwriting, about 1650, +is a scrap of paper with the obligation:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p>“There is sevrall words and signes of a free Mason to be revailed +to yu wch as yu will answr. before God at the Great and +terrible day of judgmt. yu keep secret and not to revaile the +same to any in the heares of any p’son, but to the Mrs and +fellows of the Society of Free Masons, so helpe me God, &c.” +(W. H. Rylands, <i>Mas. Mag.</i>, 1882.)</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span></p> + +<p>It is not yet settled who were the actual designers or architects +of the grand old English cathedrals. Credit has been claimed +for church dignitaries, to the exclusion more or less of the master +masons, to whom presumably of right the distinction belonged. +In early days the title “architect” is not met with, unless the +term “Ingenator” had that meaning, which is doubtful. As to +this interesting question, and as to the subject of building +generally, an historical account of Master and Free Masons +(<i>Discourses upon Architecture in England</i>, by the Rev. James +Dallaway, 1833), and <i>Notes on the Superintendents of English +Buildings in the Middle Ages</i> (by Wyatt Papworth, 1887), should +be consulted. Both writers were non-masons. The former +observes: “The honour due to the original founders of these +edifices is almost invariably transferred to the ecclesiastics +under whose patronage they rose, rather than to the skill and +design of the master mason, or professional architect, because the +only historians were monks.... They were probably not so +well versed in geometrical science as the master masons, for +mathematics formed a part of monastic learning in a very limited +degree.” In the <i>Journal of Proceedings R.I.B.A.</i> vol. iv. (1887), +a skilful critic (W. H. White) declares that Papworth, in that valuable +collection of facts, has contrived to annihilate all the professional +idols of the century, setting up in their place nothing +except the master mason. The brotherhood of Bridge-builders,<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +that travelled far and wide to build bridges, and the travelling +bodies of Freemasons,<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> he believes never existed; nor was +William of Wykeham the designer of the colleges attributed to +him. It seems well-nigh impossible to disprove the statements +made by Papworth, because they are all so well grounded on +attested facts; and the attempt to connect the Abbey of Cluny, +or men trained at Cluny, with the original or preliminary designs +of the great buildings erected during the middle ages, at least +during the 12th and 13th centuries, is also a failure. The whole +question is ably and fully treated in the <i>History of Freemasonry</i> +by Robert Freke Gould (1886-1887), particularly in chapter vi. +on “Medieval Operative Masonry,” and in his <i>Concise History</i> +(1903).</p> + +<p>The lodge is often met with, either as the <i>tabulatum domicialem</i> +(1200, at St Alban’s Abbey) or actually so named in the <i>Fabric +Rolls</i> of York Minster (1370), <i>ye loge</i> being situated close to the +fane in course of erection; it was used as a place in which the +stones were prepared in private for the structure, as well as +occupied at meal-time, &c. Each mason was required to “swere +upon ye boke yt he sall trewly ande bysyli at his power hold and +kepe holy all ye poyntes of yis forsayde ordinance” (<i>Ordinacio +Cementanorum</i>).</p> + +<p>As to the term <i>free</i>-mason, from the 14th century, it is held +by some authorities that it described simply those men who +worked “freestone,” but there is abundant evidence to prove +that, whatever may have been intended at first, <i>free</i>-mason soon +had a much wider signification, the prefix <i>free</i> being also employed +by carpenters (1666), sewers (15th century, tailors at Exeter) and +others, presumably to indicate they were free to follow their +trades in certain localities. On this point Mr Gould well observes: +“The class of persons from whom the Freemasons of Warrington +(1646), Staffordshire (1686), Chester, York, London and their +congeners in the 17th century derived the descriptive title, +which became the inheritance of the Grand Lodge of England, +were <i>free men</i>, and masons of Gilds or Companies” (<i>History</i>, +vol. ii. p. 160). Dr Brentano may also be cited: “Wherever +the Craft Guilds were legally acknowledged, we find foremost, +that the right to exercise their craft, and sell their manufactures, +depended upon the freedom of their city” (<i>Development of +Guilds</i>, &c., p. 65). In like manner, the privilege of working +as a mason was not conferred before candidates had been “made +free.” The regular free-masons would not work with men, even +if they had a knowledge of their trade, “if <i>un</i>free,” but styled +them “Cowans,” a course justified by the king’s “Maister of +Work,” William Schaw, whose <i>Statutis and Ordinanceis</i> (28th +December 1598) required that “Na maister or fellow of craft +ressaue any <i>cowanis</i> to wirk in his societie or companye, nor send +nane of his servants to wirk wt. cowanis, under the pane of +twentie pounds.” Gradually, however, the rule was relaxed, in +time such monopoly practically ceased, and the word “cowan” +is only known in connexion with speculative Freemasonry. +Sir Walter Scott, as a member of Lodge St David (No. 36), was +familiar with the word and used it in <i>Rob Roy</i>. In 1707 a cowan +was described in the minutes of Mother Lodge Kilwinning, +as a mason “without the word,” thus one who was not a <i>free</i> +mason (<i>History of the Lodge of Edinburgh No. 1</i>, by D. Murray +Lyon, 1900).</p> + +<p>In the <i>New English Dictionary</i> (Oxford, vol. iv., 1897) under +“Freemason” it is noted that three views have been propounded:—(1) +“The suggestion that <i>free-mason</i> stands for +free-stone-mason would appear unworthy of attention, but +for the curious fact that the earliest known instances of any +similar appellation are <i>mestre mason de franche peer</i> (Act 25 Edw. +III., 1350), and <i>sculptores lapidum liberorum</i>, alleged to occur +in a document of 1217; the coincidence, however, seems to be +merely accidental. (2) The view most generally held is that +freemasons were those who were free of the masons’ guild. +Against this explanation many forcible objections have been +brought by Mr G. W. Speth, who suggests (3) that the itinerant +masons were called free because they claimed exemption from +the control of the local guilds of the towns in which they +temporarily settled. (4) Perhaps the best hypothesis is that the +term refers to the medieval practice of emancipating skilled +artisans, in order that they might be able to travel and render +their services wherever any great building was in process of +construction.” The late secretary of the Quatuor Coronati +Lodge (No. 2076, London) has thus had his view sanctioned by +“the highest tribunal in the Republic of Letters so far as +Philology is concerned” (Dr W. J. Chetwode Crawley in <i>Ars +Quatuor Coronatorum</i>, 1898). Still it cannot be denied that +members of lodges in the 16th and following centuries exercised +the privilege of making <i>free</i> masons and denied the freedom +of working to cowans (also called <i>un</i>-freemen) who had not been +so made free; “the Masownys of the luge” being the only ones +recognized as <i>free</i>masons. As to the prefix being derived from +the word <i>frere</i>, a sufficient answer is the fact that frequent +reference is made to “Brother <i>free</i>masons,” so that no ground for +that supposition exists (cf. articles by Mr Gould in the <i>Freemason</i> +for September 1898 on “Free and Freemasonry”).</p> + +<p>There are numerous indications of masonic activity in the +British lodges of the 17th century, especially in Scotland; +the existing records, however, of the southern part of the United +Kingdom, though few, are of importance, some only having been +made known in recent years. These concern the Masons’ +Company of London, whose valuable minutes and other documents +are ably described and commented upon by Edward +Conder, jr., in his <i>Hole Crafte and Fellowship of Masons</i> (1894), +the author then being the Master of that ancient company. It +was incorporated in 1677 by Charles II., who graciously met the +wishes of the members, but as a company the information “that +is to be found in the Corporation Records at Guildhall proves very +clearly that in 1376 the Masons’ Company existed and was +represented in the court of common council.” The title then +favoured was “Masons,” the entry of the term “Freemasons” +being crossed out. Herbert erroneously overlooked the correction, +and stated in his <i>History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies</i> +(vol. i.) that the Freemasons returned two, and the Masons +four members, but subsequently amalgamated; whereas the +revised entry was for the “Masons” only. The Company +obtained a grant of arms in 1472 (12th year Hen. VIII.), one of the +first of the kind, being thus described:—“A feld of Sablys A +Cheveron silver grailed thre Castellis of the same garnysshed wt. +dores and wyndows of the feld in the Cheveron or Cumpas of +Black of Blak”; it is the authority (if any) for all later armorial +bearings having a chevron and castles, assumed by other masonic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span> +organizations. This precious document was only discovered in +1871, having been missing for a long time, thus doubtless accounting +for the erroneous representations met with, not having the +correct blazon to follow. The oldest masonic motto known +is “God is our Guide” on Kerwin’s tomb in St Helen’s church, +Bishopgate, of 1594; that of “In the Lord is all our trust” +not being traced until the next century. Supporters consisting +of two doric columns are mentioned in 1688 by Randle Holme, +but the Grand Lodge of England in the following century used +Beavers as operative builders. Its first motto was “In the +beginning was the Word” (in Greek), exchanged a few years onward +for “Relief and Truth,” the rival Grand Lodge (Atholl +Masons) selecting “Holiness to the Lord” (in Hebrew), and the +final selection at the “Union of December 1813” being <i>Audi +Vide Tace</i>.</p> + +<p>Mr Conder’s discovery of a lodge of “Accepted Masons” being +held under the wing of the Company was a great surprise, dating +as the records do from 1620 to 1621 (the earliest of the kind yet +traced in England), when seven were made masons, all of whom +were free of the Company <i>before</i>, three being of the Livery; +the entry commencing “Att the making masons.” The meetings +were entitled the “Acception,” and the members of the lodge +were called <i>Accepted</i> Masons, being those so <i>accepted</i> and initiated, +the term never otherwise being met with in the Records. An +additional fee had to be paid by a member of the Company to +join the “Acception,” and any not belonging thereto were +mulct in twice the sum; though even then such “acceptance” +did not qualify for membership of the superior body; the fees +for the “Acception” being £1 and £2 respectively. In 1638-1639, +when Nicholas Stone entered the lodge (he was Master +of the Company 1632-1633) the banquet cost a considerable +sum, showing that the number of brethren present must have +been large.</p> + +<p>Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was “made a Free +Mason of Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring,” seven +<span class="correction" title="amended from brethen">brethern</span> being named as in attendance at the lodge, 16th of +October 1646) states that he “received a summons to appear at +a Lodge to be held next day at Masons’ Hall, London.” Accordingly +on the 11th of March 1682 he attended and saw six gentlemen +“admitted into the Fellowship of Free Masons,” of whom +three only belonged to the Company; the Master, however, +Mr Thomas Wise, the two wardens and six others being present +on the occasion as members in their <i>dual</i> capacity. Ashmole +adds: “We all dyned at the Halfe Moone Tavern in Cheapside +at a noble dinner prepaired at the charge of the new-accepted +Masons.”</p> + +<p>It is almost certain that there was not an operative mason +present at the Lodge held in 1646, and at the one which met +in 1682 there was a strong representation of the speculative +branch. Before the year 1654 the Company was known as that +of the Freemasons for some time, but after then the old title +of Masons was reverted to, the terms “Acception” and +“Accepted” belonging to the speculative Lodge, which, however, +in all probability either became independent or ceased to work +soon after 1682. It is very interesting to note that subsequently +(but never before) the longer designation is met with of “Free +and Accepted Masons,” and is thus a combination of operative +and speculative usage.</p> + +<p>Mr Conder is of opinion that in the Records “there is no +evidence of any particular ceremony attending the position of +Master Mason, possibly it consisted of administering a different +oath from the one taken by the apprentices on being entered.” +There is much to favour this supposition, and it may provide +the key to the <i>vexata quaestio</i> as to the plurality of degrees prior +to the Grand Lodge era. The fellow-crafts were recruited from +those apprentices who had served their time and had their essay +(or sufficient trial of their skill) duly passed; they and the +Masters, by the <i>Schaw Statutes</i> of 1598, being only admitted in +the presence of “sex Maisteris and <i>twa enterit prenteissis</i>.” As +a rule a master mason meant one who was master of his trade, <i>i.e.</i> +duly qualified; but it sometimes described employers as distinct +from journeymen Freemasons; being also a compliment conferred +on honorary members during the 17th century in +particular.</p> + +<p>In Dr Plot’s <i>History of Staffordshire</i> (1686) is a remarkable +account of the “Society of Freemasons,” which, being by an +unfriendly critic, is all the more valuable. He states that the +custom had spread “more or less all over the nation”; persons +of the most eminent quality did not disdain to enter the Fellowship; +they had “a large <i>parchment volum</i> containing the History +and Rules of the Craft of Masonry”; St Amphibal, St Alban, +King Athelstan and Edwin are mentioned, and these “charges +and manners” were “after perusal approved by King Hen. 6 +and his council, both as to Masters and Fellows of this right +Worshipfull craft.” It is but fair to add that notwithstanding +the service he rendered the Society by his lengthy description, +that credulous historian remarks of its history that there is +nothing he ever “met with more false or incoherent.”</p> + +<p>The author of the <i>Academie of Armory</i>, previously noted, +knew better what he was writing about in that work of 1688 in +which he declares: “I cannot but Honor the Fellowship of +the Masons because of its Antiquity; and the more, <i>as being a +member of that Society, called Free Masons</i>” Mr Rylands states +that in <i>Harl. MS. 5955</i> is a collection of the engraved plates for a +second volume of this important work, one being devoted to the +Arms of the Society, the columns, as supporters, having globes +thereon, from which possibly are derived the two pillars, with +such ornaments or additions seen in lodge rooms at a later period.</p> + +<p>In the same year “A Tripos or Speech delivered at a commencement +in the University of Dublin held there July 11, 1688, by +John Jones, then A.B., afterwards D.D.,” contained “notable +evidence concerning Freemasonry in Dublin.” The Tripos was +included in Sir Walter Scott’s edition of Dean Swift’s works +(1814), but as Dr Chetwode Crawley points out, though noticed +by the Rev. Dr George Oliver (the voluminous Masonic author), +he failed to realize its historical importance. The satirical and +withal amusing speech was partly translated from the Latin by +Dr Crawley for his scholarly introduction to the <i>Masonic Reprints</i>, +&c., by Henry Sadler. “The point seems to be that +Ridley (reputed to have been an informer against priests under +the barbarous penal laws) was, or ought to have been, hanged; +that his carcase, anatomized and stuffed, stood in the library; +and that <i>frath scoundrellus</i> discovered on his remains the Freemasons’ +Mark.” The importance of the references to the craft in +Ireland is simply owing to the year in which they were made, +as illustrative of the influence of the Society at that time, of which +records are lacking.</p> + +<p>It is primarily to Scotland, however, that we have to look +for such numerous particulars of the activity of the fraternity +from 1599 to the establishment of its Grand Lodge in 1736, +for an excellent account of which we are indebted to Lyon, the +Scottish masonic historian. As early as 1600 (8th of June) the +attendance of John Boswell, Esq., the laird of Auchinleck, is +entered in the minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh; he attested +the record and added his mark, as did the other members; so +it was not his first appearance. Many noblemen and other +gentlemen joined this ancient <i>atelier</i>, notably Lord Alexander, +Sir Anthony Alexander and Sir Alexander Strachan in 1634, +the king’s Master of Work (Herrie Alexander) in 1638, General +Alexander Hamilton in 1640, Dr Hamilton in 1647, and many +other prominent and distinguished men later; “James Neilsone, +Master Sklaitter to His Majestie,” who was “entered and past +in the Lodge of Linlithgow, being elected a joining member,” +2nd March 1654. Quarter-Master General Robert Moray (or +Murray) was initiated by members of the Lodge of Edinburgh, +at Newcastle on the 20th of May 1641, while the Scottish army +was in occupation. On due report to their Alma Mater such +reception was allowed, the occurrence having been considered +the first of its kind in England until the ancient Records of the +Masons’ Company were published.</p> + +<p>The minute-books of a number of Scottish Lodges, which are +still on the register, go back to the 17th century, and abundantly +confirm the frequent admission of speculatives as members and +officers, especially those of the venerable “Mother Lodge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span> +Kilwinning,” of which the earl of Cassillis was the deacon in 1672, +who was succeeded by Sir Alexander Cunningham, and the earl +of Eglinton, who like the first of the trio was but an apprentice. +There were three Head Lodges according to the Scottish Code of +1599, Edinburgh being “the first and principall,” Kilwinning +“the secund,” and Stirling “the third ludge.”</p> + +<p>The Aberdeen Lodge (No. 1 <i>tris</i>) has records preserved from +1670, in which year what is known as the <i>Mark Book</i> begins, +containing the oldest existing roll of members, numbering 49, +all of whom have their marks registered, save two, though only +ten were operatives. The names of the earls of Finlater, Erroll +and Dunfermline, Lord Forbes, several ministers and professional +men are on the list, which was written by a glazier, all of whom +had been enlightened as to the “benefit of the measson word,” +and inserted in order as they “were made fellow craft.” The +Charter (<i>Old Charges</i>) had to be read at the “entering of everie +prenteise,” and the officers included a master and two wardens.</p> + +<p>The lodge at Melrose (No. 1 <i>bis</i>) with records back to 1674 did +not join the Grand Lodge until 1891, and was the last of those +working (possibly centuries before that body was formed) to +accept the modern system of government. Of the many noteworthy +lodges mention should be made of that of “Canongate +Kilwinning No. 2,” Edinburgh, the first of the numerous pendicles +of “Mother Lodge Kilwinning, No. 0,” Ayrshire, started in 1677; +and of the Journeymen No 8, formed in 1707, which was a secession +from the Lodge of Edinburgh; the Fellow Crafts or Journeymen +not being satisfied with their treatment by the Freemen Masters +of the Incorporation of Masons, &c. This action led to a trial +before the Lords of Council and Session, when finally a “Decreet +Arbitral” was subscribed to by both parties, and the junior +organization was permitted “to give the mason word as it is +called” in a separate lodge. The presbytery of Kelso<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> in 1652 +sustained the action of the Rev. James Ainslie in becoming a +Freemason, declaring that “there is neither sinne nor scandale +in that word” (<i>i.e.</i> the “Mason Word”), which is often alluded +to but never revealed in the old records already referred to.<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +One Scottish family may be cited in illustration of the continuous +working of Freemasonry, whose membership is enshrined in +the records of the ancient Lodge of “Scoon and Perth No. 3” +and others. A venerable document, lovingly cared for by No. 3, +bears date 1658, and recites how John Mylne came to Perth from +the “North Countrie,” and was the king’s Master Mason and +W.M. of the Lodge, his successor being his son, who entered +“King James the sixt as ffreman measone and fellow craft”; +his third son John was a member of Lodge No. 1 and Master +Mason to Charles I., 1631-1636, and his eldest son was a deacon +of No. 1 eleven times during thirty years. To him was +apprenticed his nephew, who was warden in 1663-1664 and +deacon several times. William Mylne was a warden in 1695, +Thomas (eldest son) was Master in 1735, and took part in the +formation of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. Others of the family +continued to join the Lodge No. 1, until Robert, the last of the +Mylnes as Freemasons, was initiated in 1754, died in 1811, and +“was buried in St Paul’s cathedral, having been Surveyor to +that Edifice for fifty years,” and the last of the masonic Mylnes +for five generations. The “St John’s Lodge,” Glasgow (No. 3 +<i>bis</i>), has some valuable old records and a “Charter Chest” +with the words carved thereon “God save the King and Masons +Craft, 1684.” <i>Loyalty and Charity</i> are the watchwords of the +Society.</p> + +<p>The Craft Gilds (<i>Corps d’État</i>) of France, and their progeny +the <i>Companionage</i>, have been fully described by Mr Gould, +and the <i>Steinmetzen</i> of Germany would require too detailed +notice if we were to particularize its rules, customs and general +character, from about the 12th century onward. Much as there +was in common between the Stonemasons of Germany and the +Freemasons of Great Britain and Ireland, it must be conceded +that the two societies never united and were all through this +long period wholly separate and independent; a knowledge of +Freemasonry and authority to hold lodges in Germany being +derived from the Grand Lodge of England during the first half +of the 18th century. The theory of the derivation of the Freemasons +from the <i>Steinmetzen</i> was first propounded in 1779 by +the abbé Grandidier, and has been maintained by more modern +writers, such as Fallou, Heideloff and Schneider, but a thorough +examination of their statements has resulted in such an origin +being generally discredited. Whether the <i>Steinmetzen</i> had secret +signs of recognition or not, is not quite clear, but that the Freemasons +had, for centuries, cannot be doubted, though precisely +what they were may be open to question, and also what portions +of the existing ceremonies are reminiscent of the craft anterior +to the Revival of 1717. Messrs Speth and Gould favour the +notion that there were two distinct and separate degrees prior to +the third decade of the 18th century (<i>Ars</i> Q.C., 1898 and 1903), +while other authorities have either supported the <i>One degree</i> +theory, or consider there is not sufficient evidence to warrant +a decision. Recent discoveries, however, tend in favour of the +first view noted, such as the <i>Trinity College MS.</i>, Dublin (“Free +Masonry, Feb. 1711”), and the invaluable<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a> <i>Chetwode Crawley +MS.</i> (Grand Lodge Library, Dublin); the second being read in +connexion with the Haughfoot Lodge Records, beginning 1702 +(<i>Hist, of Freemasonry</i>, by W. F. Vernon, 1893).</p> + +<p>Two of the most remarkable lodges at work during the period +of transition (1717-1723), out of the many then existing in +England, assembled at Alnwick and at York. The origin of the +first noted is not known, but there are minutes of the meetings +from 1703, the Rules are of 1701, signed by quite a number of +members, and a transcript of the <i>Old Charges</i> begins the volume. +In 1708-1709 a minute provided for a masonic procession, at +which the brethren were to walk “with their aprons on and +Comon Square.” The Lodge consisted mainly of operative +“free Brothers,” and continued for many years, a code of by-laws +being published in 1763, but it never united with the Grand +Lodge, giving up the struggle for existence a few years further on.</p> + +<p>The other lodge, the most noteworthy of all the English +predecessors of the Grand Lodge of England, was long held at +York, the Mecca of English Freemasons.<a name="fa10k" id="fa10k" href="#ft10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Its origin is unknown, +but there are traces of its existence at an early date, and possibly +it was a survival of the Minster Lodge of the 14th century. +Assuming that the <i>York MS. No. 4</i> of 1693 was the property +of the lodge in that year (which Roll was presented by George +Walker of Wetherby in 1777), the entry which concludes that +Scroll is most suggestive, as it gives “The names of the Lodge” +(members) and the “Lodge Ward(en).” Its influence most +probably may be also noted at Scarborough, where “A private +Lodge” was held on the 10th of July 1705, at which the president +“William Thompson, Esq., and severall others brethren ffree +Masons” were present, and six gentlemen (named) “were then +admitted into the said ffraternity.” These particulars are endorsed +on the <i>Scarborough MS.</i> of the Old Charges, now owned +by the Grand Lodge of Canada at Toronto. “A narrow folio +manuscript Book beginning 7th March 1705-1706,” which was +quoted from in 1778, has long been missing, which is much to be +regretted, as possibly it gave particulars of the lodge which +assembled at Bradford, Yorkshire, “when 18 Gentlemen of the +first families in that neighbourhood were made Masons.” There +is, however, another roll of records from 1712 to 1730 happily +preserved of this “Ancient Honble. Society and Fraternity +of Free Masons,” sometimes styled “Company” or “Society of +Free and Accepted Masons.”</p> + +<p>Not to be behind the London fratres, the York brethren formed +a Grand Lodge on the 27th of December 1725 (the “Grand +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span> +Lodge of <i>all</i> England” was its modest title), and was flourishing +for years, receiving into their company many county men of great +influence. Some twenty years later there was a brief period +of somnolence, but in 1761 a revival took place, with Francis +Drake, the historian, as Grand Master, ten lodges being chartered +in Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire, 1762-1790, and a Grand +Lodge of England, south of the Trent, in 1779, at London, +which warranted two lodges. Before the century ended all these +collapsed or joined the Grand Lodge of England, so there was +not a single representative of “York Masonry” left on the advent +of the next century.</p> + +<p>The premier Grand Lodge of England soon began to constitute +new Lodges in the metropolis, and to reconstitute old ones that +applied for recognition, one of the earliest of 1720-1721 being +still on the Roll as No. 6, thus having kept company ever since +with the three “time immemorial Lodges,” Nos. 2, 4 and 12. +Applications for constitution kept coming in, the provinces +being represented from 1723 to 1724, before which time it is likely +the Grand Lodge of Ireland<a name="fa11k" id="fa11k" href="#ft11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> had been started, about which the +most valuable <i>Caementaria Hibernica</i> by Dr Chetwode Crawley +may be consulted with absolute confidence. Provincial Grand +Lodges were formed to ease the authorities at headquarters, +and, as the society spread, also for the Continent, and gradually +throughout the civilized globe. Owing to the custom prevailing +before the 18th century, a few brethren were competent to form +lodges on their own initiative anywhere, and hence the registers +of the British Grand Lodges are not always indicative of the first +appearance of the craft abroad. In North America<a name="fa12k" id="fa12k" href="#ft12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a> lodges were +held before what is known as the first “regular” lodge was +formed at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and probably in Canada<a name="fa13k" id="fa13k" href="#ft13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +likewise. The same remark applies to Denmark, France, Germany, +Holland, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden and other +countries. Of the many scores of military lodges, the first warrant +was granted by Ireland in 1732. To no other body of +Freemasons has the craft been so indebted for its prosperity in +early days as to their military brethren. There were rivals to +the Grand Lodge of England during the 18th century, one of +considerable magnitude being known as the Ancients or Atholl +Masons, formed in 1751, but in December 1813 a junction was +effected, and from that time the prosperity of the United Grand +Lodge of England, with few exceptions, has been extraordinary.</p> + +<p>Nothing but a volume to itself could possibly describe the +main features of the English Craft from 1717, when Anthony +Sayer was elected the first Grand Master of a brilliant galaxy +of rulers. The first nobleman to undertake that office was the +duke of Montagu in 1721, the natural philosopher J. T. +Desaguliers being his immediate predecessor, who has been +credited (and also the Rev. James Anderson) with the honour of +starting the premier Grand Lodge; but like the fable of Sir +Christopher Wren having been Grand Master, evidence is entirely +lacking. Irish and Scottish peers share with those of England +the distinction of presiding over the Grand Lodge, and from +1782 to 1813 their Royal Highnesses the duke of Cumberland, +the prince of Wales, or the duke of Sussex occupied the masonic +throne. From 1753 to 1813 the rival Grand Lodge had been +busy, but ultimately a desire for a <i>united</i> body prevailed, and +under the “ancient” Grand Master, H.R.H. the duke of Kent, +it was decided to amalgamate with the original ruling organization, +H.R.H. the duke of Sussex becoming the Grand Master of +the United Grand Lodge. On the decease of the prince in 1843 +the earl of Zetland succeeded, followed by the marquess of Ripon +in 1874, on whose resignation H.R.H. the prince of Wales +became the Grand Master. Soon after succeeding to the throne, +King Edward VII. ceased to govern the English craft, and was +succeeded by H.R.H. the duke of Connaught. From 1737 to +1907 some sixteen English princes of the royal blood joined the +brotherhood.</p> + +<p>From 1723 to 1813 the number of lodges enrolled in England +amounted to 1626, and from 1814 to the end of December 1909 +as many as 3352 were warranted, making a grand total of 4978, +of which the last then granted was numbered 3185. There were +in 1909 still 2876 on the register, notwithstanding the many +vacancies created by the foundation of new Grand Lodges in the +colonies and elsewhere.<a name="fa14k" id="fa14k" href="#ft14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Distribution and Organization.</i>—The advantage of the cosmopolitan +basis of the fraternity generally (though some Grand +Lodges still preserve the original Christian foundation) has been +conspicuously manifested and appreciated in India and other +countries where the votaries of numerous religious systems +congregate; but the unalterable basis of a belief in the Great +Architect of the Universe remains, for without such a recognition +there can be no Freemasonry, and it is now, as it always has been, +entirely free from party politics. The charities of the Society in +England, Ireland and Scotland are extensive and well organized, +their united cost per day not being less than £500, and with those +of other Grand Lodges throughout the world must amount to +a very large sum, there being over two millions of Freemasons. +The vast increase of late years, both of lodges and members, +however, calls for renewed vigilance and extra care in selecting +candidates, that numbers may not be a source of weakness +instead of strength.</p> + +<p>In its internal organization, the working of Freemasonry +involves an elaborate system of symbolic ritual,<a name="fa15k" id="fa15k" href="#ft15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> as carried out +at meetings of the various lodges, uniformity as to essentials +being the rule. The members are classified in numerous degrees, +of which the first three are “Entered Apprentice,” “Fellow +Craft” and “Master Mason,” each class of which, after initiation, +can only be attained after passing a prescribed ordeal or +examination, as a test of proficiency, corresponding to the +“essays” of the operative period.</p> + +<p>The lodges have their own by-laws for guidance, subject to +the <i>Book of Constitutions</i> of their Grand Lodge, and the regulations +of the provincial or district Grand Lodge if located in +counties or held abroad.</p> + +<p>It is to be regretted that on the continent of Europe Freemasonry +has sometimes developed on different lines from that +of the “Mother Grand Lodge” and Anglo-Saxon Grand Lodges +generally, and through its political and anti-religious tendencies +has come into contact or conflict with the state authorities<a name="fa16k" id="fa16k" href="#ft16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> +or the Roman Catholic church. The “Grand Orient of France” +(but not the Supreme Council 33<span class="sp">o</span>, and its Grand Lodge) is an +example of this retrograde movement, by its elimination of +the paragraph referring to a belief in the “Great Architect of +the Universe” from its <i>Statuts et règlements généraux</i>. This +deplorable action has led to the withdrawal of all regular Grand +Lodges from association with that body, and such separation +must continue until a return is made to the ancient and inviolable +landmark of the society, which makes it impossible for an atheist +either to join or continue a member of the fraternity.</p> + +<p>The Grand Lodge of England constituted its first lodge in +Paris in the year 1732, but one was formed still earlier on the +continent at Gibraltar 1728-1729. Others were also opened in +Germany 1733, Portugal 1735, Holland 1735, Switzerland 1740, +Denmark 1745, Italy 1763, Belgium 1765, Russia 1771, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span> +Sweden 1773. In most of these countries Grand Lodges were +subsequently created and continue to this date, save that in +Austria (not Hungary) and Russia no masonic lodges have for +some time been permitted to assemble. There is a union of Grand +Lodges of Germany, and an annual Diet is held for the transaction +of business affecting the several masonic organizations in that +country, which works well. H.R.H. Prince Frederick Leopold +was in 1909 Protector, or the “Wisest Master” (Vicarius +Salomonis). King Gustav V. was the Grand Master ☩ of the +freemasons in Sweden, and the sovereign of the “Order of Charles +XIII.,” the only one of the kind confined to members of the +fraternity.</p> + +<p>Lodges were constituted in India from 1730 (Calcutta), 1752 +(Madras), and 1758 (Bombay); in Jamaica 1742, Antigua 1738, +and St Christopher 1739; soon after which period the Grand +Lodges of England, Ireland and Scotland had representatives +at work throughout the civilized world.</p> + +<p>In no part, however, outside Great Britain has the craft +flourished so much as in the United States of America, where the +first “regular” lodge (<i>i.e.</i> according to the <i>new</i> regime) was +opened in 1733 at Boston, Mass. Undoubtedly lodges had +been meeting still earlier, one of which was held at Philadelphia, +Penna., with records from 1731, which blossomed into a Grand +Lodge, but no authority has yet been traced for its proceedings, +save that which may be termed “time immemorial right,” +which was enjoyed by all lodges and brethren who were at work +prior to the Grand Lodge era (1716-1717) or who declined to +recognize the autocratic proceedings of the premier Grand Lodge +of England, just as the brethren did in the city of York. A +“deputation” was granted to Daniel Coxe, Esq. of New Jersey, +by the duke of Norfolk, Grand Master, 5th of June 1730, as +Prov. Grand Master of the “Provinces of New York, New Jersey +and Pensilvania,” but there is no evidence that he ever constituted +any lodges or exercised any masonic authority in virtue thereof. +Henry Price as Prov. Grand Master of New England, and his +lodge, which was opened on the 31st of August 1733, in the city +of Boston, so far as is known, began “regular” Freemasonry in +the United States, and the older and independent organization +was soon afterwards “regularized.” Benjamin Franklin (an +Initiate of the lodge of Philadelphia) printed and published the +<i>Book of Constitutions</i>, 1723 (of London, England), in the “City +of Brotherly Love” in 1734, being the oldest masonic work in +America. English and Scottish Grand Lodges were soon after +petitioned to grant warrants to hold lodges, and by the end of +the 18th century several Grand Lodges were formed, the Craft +becoming very popular, partly no doubt by reason of so many +prominent men joining the fraternity, of whom the chief was +George Washington, initiated in a Scottish lodge at Fredericksburg, +Virginia, in 1752-1753. In 1907 there were fifty Grand +Lodges assembling in the United States, with considerably over +a million members.</p> + +<p>In Canada in 1909 there were eight Grand Lodges, having +about 64,000 members. Freemasonry in the Dominion is believed +to date from 1740. The Grand Lodges are all of comparatively +recent organization, the oldest and largest, with +40,000 members, being for Ontario; those of Manitoba, Nova +Scotia and Quebec numbering about 5000 each. There are +some seven Grand Lodges in Australia; South Australia coming +first as a “sovereign body,” followed closely by New South +Wales and Victoria (of 1884-1889 constitution), the whole of +the lodges in the Commonwealth probably having fully 50,000 +members on the registers.</p> + +<p>There are many additional degrees which may be taken or not +(being quite optional), and dependent on a favourable ballot; +the difficulty, however, of obtaining admission increases as progress +is made, the numbers accepted decreasing rapidly with each +advancement. The chief of these are arranged in separate +classes and are governed either by the “Grand Chapter of the +Royal Arch,” the “Mark Grand Lodge,” the “Great Priory of +Knights Templars” or the “Ancient and Accepted Rite,” these +being mutually complementary and intimately connected as +respects England, and more or less so in Ireland, Scotland, +North America and wherever worked on a similar basis; the +countries of the continent of Europe have also their own <i>Hautes +Grades</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(W. J. H.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a></p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p class="i2">If history be no ancient Fable</p> +<p class="i2">Free Masons came from Tower of Babel.</p> +<p>(“The Freemasons; an Hudibrastic poem,” London, 1723.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>The Early History and Antiquities of Freemasonry and Medieval +Builders</i>, by Mr G. F. Fort (U.S.A.), and the <i>Cathedral Builders: The +Magestri Comacini</i>, by “Leader Scott” (the late Mrs Baxter), take +rather a different view on this point and ably present their arguments. +The Rev. C. Kingsley in <i>Roman and Teuton</i> writes of +the <i>Comacini</i>, “Perhaps the original germ of the great society of +Freemasons.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The service rendered by Dr W. Begemann (Germany) in his +“Attempt to Classify the Old Charges of the British Masons” +(vol. 1 Trans. of the <i>Quatuor Coronati</i> Lodge, London) has been very +great, and the researches of the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford and G. W. +Speth have also been of the utmost consequence.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Findel claims that his <i>Treatise</i> on the society was the cause +which “first impelled England to the study of masonic history +and ushered in the intellectual movement which resulted in the +writings of Bros. Hughan, Lyon, Gould and others.” Great credit +was due to the late German author for his important work, but +before its advent the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, D. Murray Lyon +and others in Great Britain were diligent masonic students on similar +lines.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> It is not considered necessary to refer at length to the <i>Fratres +Pontis</i>, or other imaginary bodies of freemasons, as such questions +may well be left to the curious and interested student.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> “No distinct trace of the general employment of large migratory +bands of masons, going from place to place as a guild, or company, +or brotherhood” (Prof. T. Hayter-Lewis, Brit. Arch. Assoc., 1889).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The Associate Synod which met at Edinburgh, March 1755, +just a century later, took quite an opposite view, deciding to depose +from office any of their brethren who would not give up their masonic +membership (<i>Scots Mag.</i>, 1755, p. 158). Papal Bulls have also +been issued against the craft, the first being in 1738; but neither +interdicts nor anathemata have any influence with the fraternity, +and fall quite harmless.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a></p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“We have the <i>Mason Word</i> and second sight,</p> +<p class="i05">Things for to come we can fortell aright.”</p> +<p class="i2">(<i>The Muses Threnodie</i>, by H. Adamson, Edin., 1638.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The <i>Chetwode Crawley MS.</i>, by W. J. Hughan (<i>Ars.</i> Q.C., 1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10k" id="ft10k" href="#fa10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The <i>York Grand Lodge</i>, by Messrs. Hughan and Whytehead +(Ars Q.C., 1900), and <i>Masonic Sketches and Reprints</i> (1871), by the +former.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The celebrated “Lady Freemason,” the Hon. Mrs Aldworth +(<i>née</i> Miss St Leger, daughter of Lord Doneraile), was initiated in +Ireland, but at a much earlier date than popularly supposed; +certainly not later than 1713, when the venturesome lady was +twenty. All early accounts of the occurrence must be received with +caution, as there are no contemporary records of the event.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12k" id="ft12k" href="#fa12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>History of Freemasonry</i>, by Dr A. G. Mackey (New York, 1898), +and the <i>History</i> of the Fraternity Publishing Company, Boston, +Mass., give very full particulars as to the United States.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13k" id="ft13k" href="#fa13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See <i>History of Freemasonry in Canada</i> (Toronto, 1899), by J. +Ross Robertson.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14k" id="ft14k" href="#fa14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>The Masonic Records 1717-1894</i>, by John Lane, and the excellent +<i>Masonic Yearbook</i>, published annually by the Grand Lodge +of England, are the two standard works on Lodge enumeration, +localization and nomenclature. For particulars of the Grand Lodges, +and especially that of England, Gould’s History is most useful and +trustworthy; and for an original contribution to the history of the +rival Grand Lodge or Atholl Masons, Sadler’s <i>Masonic Facts and +Fictions</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15k" id="ft15k" href="#fa15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> “A peculiar system of Morality, veiled in Allegory and illustrated +by Symbols” (old definition of Freemasonry).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16k" id="ft16k" href="#fa16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> The British House of Commons in 1799 and 1817, in acts of +parliament, specifically recognized the laudable character of the +society and provided for its continuance on definite lines.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREEPORT,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Stephenson county, +Illinois, in the N.W. part of the state, on the Pecatonica river, +30 m. from its mouth and about 100 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. +(1890) 10,189; (1900) 13,258, of whom 2264 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 17,567. The city is served by the Chicago & +North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the +Illinois Central railways, and by the Rockford & Interurban +electric railway. The Illinois Central connects at South Freeport, +about 3 m. S. of Freeport, with the Chicago Great Western +railway. Among Freeport’s manufactures are foundry and +machine shop products, carriages, hardware specialties, patent +medicines, windmills, engines, incubators, organs, beer and +shoes. The Illinois Central has large railway repair shops here. +The total value of the city’s factory product in 1905 was +$3,109,302, an increase of 14.8% since 1900. In the surrounding +country cereals are grown, and swine and poultry are +raised. Dairying is an important industry also. The city +has a Carnegie library (1901). In the Court House Square is +a monument, 80 ft. high, in memory of the soldiers who died +in the Civil War. At the corner of Douglas Avenue and +Mechanic Street a granite boulder commemorates the famous +debate between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, +held in Freeport on the 27th of August 1858. In that debate +Lincoln emphasized the differences between himself and the +radical anti-slavery men, and in answer to one of Lincoln’s +questions Douglas declared that the people of a territory, through +“unfriendly” laws or denial of legislative protection, could +exclude slavery, and that “it matters not what way the Supreme +Court may hereafter decide on the abstract question whether +slavery may or may not go into a territory under the Constitution.” +This, the so-called “Freeport doctrine,” greatly weakened +Douglas in the presidential election of 1860. Freeport was +settled in 1835, was laid out and named Winneshiek in 1836, +and in 1837 under its present name was made the county-seat +of Stephenson county. It was incorporated as a town in 1850 +and chartered as a city in 1855.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE PORTS,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a term, strictly speaking, given to localities +where no customs duties are levied, and where no customs supervision +exists. In these ports (subject to payment for specific +services rendered, wharfage, storage, &c., and to the observance +of local police and sanitary regulations) ships load and unload, +cargoes are deposited and handled, industries are exercised, +manufactures are carried on, goods are bought and sold, without +any action on the part of fiscal authorities. Ports are likewise +designated “free” where a space or zone exists within which +commercial operations are conducted without payment of import +or export duty, and without active interference on the part of +customs authorities. The French and German designations +for these two descriptions of ports are—for the former <i>La Ville +franche, Freihafen</i>; for the latter <i>Le Port franc, Freibezirk</i> or +<i>Freilager</i>. The English phrase free port applies to both.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The +leading conditions under which free ports in Europe derived their +origin were as follows:—(1) When public order became re-established +during the middle ages, trading centres were gradually +formed. Marts for the exchange and purchase of goods arose in +different localities. Many Italian settlements, constituting free +zones, were established in the Levant. The Hanseatic towns +arose in the 12th century. Great fairs became recognized—the +Leipzig charter was granted in 1268. These localities were +free as regards customs duties, although dues of the nature of +octroi charges were often levied. (2) Until the 19th century +European states were numerous, and often of small size. Accordingly +uniform customs tariffs of wide application did not exist. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span> +Uniform rates of duty were fixed In England by the Subsidy Act +of 1660. In France, before the Revolution (besides the free +ports), Alsace and the Lorraine Bishoprics were in trade matters +treated as foreign countries. The unification of the German +customs tariff began in 1834 with the Steuerverein and the +Zollverein. The Spanish fiscal system did not include the Basque +provinces until about 1850. The uniform Italian tariff dates from +1861. Thus until very recent times on the Continent free ports +were compatible with the fiscal policy and practice of different +countries. (3) Along the Mediterranean coast, up to the 19th +century, convenient shelter was needed from corsairs. In other +continental countries the prevalent colonial and mercantile +policy sought to create trans-oceanic trade. Free ports were +advantageous from all these points of view.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In following the history of these harbours in Europe, it is to be +observed that in Great Britain free ports have never existed. In +1552 it was contemplated to place Hull and Southampton on this +footing, but the design was abandoned. Subsequently the bonding +and not the free port system was adopted in the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p><i>Austria-Hungary</i>.—Fiume and Trieste were respectively free ports +during the periods 1722-1893 and 1719-1893.</p> + +<p><i>Belgium</i>.—The emperor Joseph II. during his visit to the Austrian +Netherlands in June 1781 endeavoured to create a direct trade +between that country and India. Ostend was made a free port, +and large bonding facilities were afforded at Bruges, Brussels, Ghent +and Louvain. In 1796, however, the revolutionary government +abolished the Ostend privileges.</p> + +<p><i>Denmark</i>.—In November 1894 an area of about 150 acres at +Copenhagen was opened as a free port, and great facilities are +afforded for shipping and commercial operations in order that the +Baltic trade may centre there.</p> + +<p><i>France</i>.—Marseilles was a free port in the middle ages, and so +was Dunkirk when it formed part of Flanders. In 1669 these privileges +were confirmed, and extended to Bayonne. In 1784 there was +a fresh confirmation, and Lorient and St Jean de Luz were included +in the <i>ordonnance</i>. The National Assembly in 1790 maintained +this policy, and created free ports in the French West Indies. In +1795, however, all such privileges were abolished, but large bonding +facilities were allowed at Marseilles to favour the Levant trade. The +government of Louis XVIII. in 1814 restored, and in 1871 again +revoked, the free port privileges of Marseilles. There are now no +free ports in France or in French possessions; the bonding system +is in force.</p> + +<p><i>Germany</i>.—Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck were reconstituted +free towns and ports under the treaties of 1814-1815. Certain minor +ports, and several landing-stages on the Rhine and the Neckar, +were also designated free. As the Zollverein policy became accepted +throughout Germany, previous privileges were gradually lessened, +and since 1888 only Hamburg remains a free port. There an area +of about 2500 acres is exempt from customs duties and control, +and is largely used for shipping and commercial purposes. Bremerhaven +has a similar area of nearly 700 acres. Brake, Bremen, Cuxhaven, +Emden, Geestemünde, Neufahrwasser and Stettin possess +Freibezirke areas, portions of the larger port. Heligoland is outside +the Zollverein—practically a foreign country.</p> + +<p>In <i>Italy</i> free ports were numerous and important, and possessed +privileges which varied at different dates. They were—Ancona, +during the period 1696-1868; Brindisi, 1845-1862; Leghorn (in +the 17th and 18th centuries a very important Mediterranean harbour), +1675-1867; Messina, 1695-1879; Senigallia, 1821-1868, +during the month of the local fair. Venice possessed warehouses, +equivalent to bonded stores, for German and Turkish trade during +the Republic, and was a free port 1851-1873. Genoa was a free port +in the time of the Republic and under the French Empire, and was +continued as such by the treaties of 1814-1815. The free port was, +however, changed into a “deposito franco” by a law passed in 1865, +and only storing privileges now remain.</p> + +<p><i>Rumania</i>.—Braila, Galatz and Kustenji were free ports (for a +period of about forty years) up to 1883, when bonded warehouses +were established by the Rumanian government. Sulina remains free.</p> + +<p><i>Russia</i>.—Archangel was a free port, at least for English goods, +from 1553 to 1648. During this period English products were +admitted into Russia via Archangel without any customs payment +for internal consumption, and also in transit to Persia. The tsar +Alexis revoked this grant on the execution of Charles I. Free +ports were opened in 1895 at Kola, in Russian Lapland. Dalny, +adjoining Port Arthur, was a free port during the Russian occupation; +and Japan after the war decided to renew this privilege as soon as +practicable.</p> + +<p>The number of free ports outside Europe has also lessened. The +administrative policy of European countries has been gradually +adopted in other parts of the world, and customs duties have become +almost universal, conjoined with bonding and transhipment facilities. +In British colonies and possessions, under an act of parliament +passed in 1766, and repealed in 1867, two ports in Dominica and four +in Jamaica were free, Malacca, Penang and Singapore have been +free ports since 1824, Hong-Kong since 1842, and Weihaiwei since +it was leased to Great Britain in 1898. Zanzibar was a free port +during 1892-1899. Aden, Gibraltar, St Helena and St Thomas +(West Indies) are sometimes designated free ports. A few duties +are, however, levied, which are really octroi rather than customs +charges. These places are mainly stations for coaling and awaiting +orders.</p> + +<p>Some harbours in the Netherlands East Indies were free ports +between 1829 and 1899; but these privileges were withdrawn by laws +passed in 1898-1899, in order to establish uniformity of customs +administration. Harbours where custom houses are not maintained +will be practically closed to foreign trade, though the governor-general +may in special circumstances vary the application of the +new regulations.</p> + +<p>Macao has been a free port since 1845. Portugal has no other +harbour of this character.</p> + +<p>The American Republics have adopted the bonding system. In +1896 a free wharf was opened at New Orleans in imitation of the +recent European plan. Livingstone (Guatemala) was a free port +during the period 1882-1888.</p> +</div> + +<p>The privileges enjoyed under the old free port system benefited +the towns and districts where they existed; and their abolition +has been, locally, injurious. These places were, however, +“foreign” to their own country, and their inland intercourse +was restricted by the duties levied on their products, and by the +precautions adopted to prevent evasion of these charges. With +fiscal usages involving preferential and deferential treatment +of goods and places, the drawbacks thus arising did not attract +serious attention. Under the limited means of communication +within and beyond the country, in former times, these conveniences +were not much felt. But when finance departments +became more completely organized, the free port system fell out +of favour with fiscal authorities: it afforded opportunities for +smuggling, and impeded uniformity of action and practice. +It became, in fact, out of harmony with the administrative and +financial policy of later times. Bonding and entrepot facilities, +on a scale commensurate with local needs, now satisfy trade +requirements. In countries where high customs duties are levied, +and where fiscal regulations are minute and rigid, if an extension +of foreign trade is desired, and the competition which it involves +is a national aim, special facilities must be granted for this purpose. +In these circumstances a free zone sufficiently large to +admit of commercial operations and transhipments on a scale +which will fulfil these conditions (watched but not interfered with +by the customs) becomes indispensable. The German government +have, as we have seen, maintained a free zone of this nature +at Hamburg. And when the free port at Copenhagen was opened, +counter measures were adopted at Danzig and Stettin. An +agitation has arisen in France to provide at certain ports free +zones similar to those at Copenhagen and Hamburg, and to open +free ports in French possessions. A bill to this effect was submitted +to the chamber of deputies on the 12th of April 1905. +Colonial free ports, such as Hong-Kong and Singapore, do not +interfere with the uniformity of the home customs and excise +policy. These two harbours in particular have become great +shipping resorts and distributing centres. The policy which led +to their establishment as free ports has certainly promoted +British commercial interests.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the Parliamentary Paper on “Continental Free Ports,” 1904.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. M. K.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In China at the present time (1902) certain ports are designated +“free and open.” This phrase means that the ports in question are +(1) open to foreign trade, and (2) that vessels engaged in oversea +voyages may freely resort there. Exemption from payment of +customs duties is not implied, which is a matter distinct from the +permission granted under treaty engagements to foreign vessels to +carry cargoes to and from the “treaty ports.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE REED VIBRATOR<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Fr. <i>anche libre</i>, Ger. <i>durchschlagende +Zunge</i>, Ital. <i>ancia</i> or <i>lingua libera</i>), in musical instruments, a +thin metal tongue fixed at one end and vibrating freely either +in surrounding space, as in the accordion and concertina, or +enclosed in a pipe or channel, as in certain reed stops of the +organ or in the harmonium. The enclosed reed, in its typical +and theoretical form, is fixed over an aperture of the same shape +but just large enough to allow it to swing freely backwards and +forwards, alternately opening and closing the aperture, when +driven by a current of compressed air. We have to deal with +air under three different conditions in considering the phenomenon +of the sound produced by free reeds. (1) The stationary +column or stratum in pipe or channel containing the reed, which +is normally at rest. (2) The wind or current of air fed from the +bellows with a variable velocity and pressure, which is broken +up into periodic air puffs as its entrance into pipe or channel is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span> +alternately checked or allowed by the vibrator. (3) The disturbed +condition of No. 1 when acted upon by the metal vibrator and +by No 2, whereby the air within the pipe is forced into alternate +pulses of condensation and rarefaction. The free reed is therefore +not the tone-producer but only the exciting agent, that is +to say, the sound is not produced by the communication of +the free reed’s vibrations to the surrounding air,<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> as in the case +of a vibrating string, but by the series of air puffs punctuated by +infinitesimal pauses, which it produces by alternately opening +and almost closing the aperture.<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A musical sound is thus +produced the pitch of which depends on the length and thickness +of the metal tongue; the greater the length, the slower +the vibrations and the lower the pitch, while on the contrary, +the thicker the reed near the shoulder at the fixed end, the +higher the pitch. It must be borne in mind that the periodic +vibrations of the reed determine the pitch of the sound solely +by the frequency per second they impose upon the pulses of +rarefaction and condensation within the pipe.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:131px; height:218px" src="images/img87a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1 f80">From J. B. Biot, <i>Traité de +physique expérimentale</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1</span>.—Grenie’s organ pipe fitted with free-reed vibrator.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, Tuning wire.</p> +<p>D, Free reed.</p> +<p>R, Reed-box.</p> +<p>B, C, Feed pipe with conical foot.</p> +<p>T, Part of resonating pipe, the upper end with cap and vent hole being shown +separately at the side.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The most valuable characteristic of the free reed is its power +of producing all the delicate gradations of tone between forte and +piano by virtue of a law of acoustics +governing the vibration of free reeds, +whereby increased pressure of wind produces +a proportional increase in the +volume of tone. The pitch of any sound +depends upon the frequency of the +sound-waves, that is, the number per +second which reach the ear; the fullness +of sound depends upon the amplitude +of the waves, or, more strictly speaking, +of the swing of the transmitting particles +of the medium—greater pressure in the +air current (No. 2 above) which sets the +vibrator in motion producing amplitude +of vibration in the air within the receptacle +(No. 3 above) serving as resonating +medium. The sound produced by +the free reed itself is weak and requires +to be reinforced by means of an additional +stationary column or stratum of +air. Free reed instruments are therefore +classified according to the nature of the +resonant medium provided:—(1) Free +reeds vibrating in pipes, such as the reed +stops of church organs on the continent +of Europe (in England the reed pipes are generally provided +with beating reeds, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reed Instruments</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clarinet</a></span>). +(2) Free reeds vibrating in reed compartments and reinforced +by air chambers of various shapes and sizes as in the harmonium +(<i>q.v.</i>). (3) Instruments like the accordion and concertina +having the free reed set in vibration through a valve, +but having no reinforcing medium.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:66px; height:252px" src="images/img87b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Organ pipe +fitted with beating reed.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>AL, Beating reed.</p> +<p>R, Reed box.</p> +<p>Ff, Tuning wire.</p> +<p>TV, Feed pipe.</p> +<p>VV, Conical foot.</p> +<p>S, Hole through which compressed air is fed.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The arrangement of the free reed in an organ pipe is simple, +and does not differ greatly from that of the beating reed shown +in fig. 2 for the purpose of comparison. The reed-box, a rectangular +wooden pipe, is closed at the bottom and covered on one +face with a thin plate of copper having a rectangular slit over +which is fixed the thin metal vibrating tongue or reed as described +above. The reed-box, itself open at the top, is enclosed in a feed +pipe having a conical foot pierced with a small hole through +which the air current is forced by the action of the bellows. +The impact of the incoming compressed air against the reed +tongue sets it swinging through the slit, thus causing a disturbance +or series of pulsations within the reed-box. The air then +finds an escape through the resonating medium of a pipe fitting +over the reed-box and terminating in an inverted cone covered +with a cap in the top of which is pierced a small hole or vent. +The quality of tone of free reeds is due to the tendency of air set +in periodic pulsations to divide into aliquot vibrations or loops, +producing the phenomenon known as +harmonic overtones or upper partials, +which may, in the highly composite +clang of free reeds, be discerned as far +as the 16th or 20th of the series. The +more intermittent and interrupted the +air current becomes, the greater the +number of the upper partials produced.<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +The power of the overtones and their +relation to the fundamental note depend +greatly upon the form of the tongue, its +position and the amount of the clearance +left as it swings through the aperture.</p> + +<p>Free reeds not associated with resonating +media as in the concertina are +peculiarly rich in harmonics, but as the +higher harmonics lie very close together, +disagreeable dissonances and a harsh +tone result. The resonating pipe or +chamber when suitably accommodated +to the reed greatly modifies the tone by +reinforcing the harmonics proper to itself, +the others sinking into comparative insignificance. In order to +produce a full rich tone, a resonator should be chosen whose +deepest note coincides with the fundamental tone of the reed. +The other upper partials will also be reinforced thereby, but to +a less degree the higher the harmonics.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the history of the application of the free reed to keyboard +instruments see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmonium</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See H. Helmholtz, <i>Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen</i> (Brunswick, +1877), p. 166.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See also Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, <i>Wellenlehre</i> +(Leipzig, 1825), where a particularly lucid explanation of the phenomenon +is given, pp. 526-530.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Helmholtz, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 167.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> These phenomena are clearly explained at greater length by +Sedley Taylor in <i>Sound and Music</i> (London, 1896), pp. 134-153 and +pp. 74-86. See also Friedrich Zamminer, <i>Die Musik und die musikalischen +Instrumente</i>, &c. (Giessen, 1855), p. 261.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREESIA,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Iris +family (Iridaceae), and containing a single species, <i>F. refracta</i>, +native at the Cape of Good Hope. The plants grow from a corm +(a solid bulb, as in <i>Gladiolus</i>) which sends up a tuft of long +narrow leaves and a slightly branched stem bearing a few leaves +and loose one-sided spikes of fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped +flowers. Several varieties are known in cultivation, differing +in the colour of the flower, which is white, cream or yellow. +They form pretty greenhouse plants which are readily increased +from seed. They are extensively grown for the market in +Guernsey, England and America. By potting successively +throughout the autumn a supply of flowers is obtained through +winter and spring. Some very fine large-flowered varieties, +including rose-coloured ones, are now being raised by various +growers in England, and are a great improvement on the older +forms.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE SOIL PARTY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a political party in the United States, +which was organized in 1847-1848 to oppose the extension of +slavery into the Territories. It was a combination of the political +abolitionists—many of whom had formerly been identified with +the more radical Liberty party—the anti-slavery Whigs, and the +faction of the Democratic party in the state of New York, called +“Barnburners,” who favoured the prohibition of slavery, in +accordance with the “Wilmot Proviso” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilmot, David</a></span>), +in the territory acquired from Mexico. The party was prominent +in the presidential campaigns of 1848 and 1852. At the national +convention held in Buffalo, N.Y., on the 9th and 10th of August +1848, they secured the nomination to the presidency of ex-President +Martin Van Buren, who had failed to secure nomination +by the Democrats in 1844 because of his opposition to the annexation +of Texas, and of Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts, +for the vice-presidency, taking as their “platform” a Declaration +that Congress, having “no more power to make a slave than to +make a king,” was bound to restrict slavery to the slave states, +and concluding, “we inscribe on our banner ‘Free Soil, Free +Speech, Free Labor and Free Man,’ and under it we will fight on and +fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions.” +The Liberty party had previously, in November 1847, nominated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span> +John P. Hale and Leicester King as president and vice-president +respectively, but in the spring of 1848 it withdrew its candidates +and joined the “free soil” movement. Representatives of +eighteen states, including Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, +attended the Buffalo convention. In the ensuing presidential +election Van Buren and Adams received a popular vote of +291,263, of which 120,510 were cast in New York. They received +no electoral votes, all these being divided between the +Whig candidate, Zachary Taylor, who was elected, and the +Democratic candidate, Lewis Cass. The “free soilers,” however, +succeeded in sending to the thirty-first Congress two senators +and fourteen representatives, who by their ability exercised an +influence out of proportion to their number.</p> + +<p>Between 1848 and 1852 the “Barnburners” and the “Hunkers,” +their opponents, became partially reunited, the former returning +to the Democratic ranks, and thus greatly weakening the Free +Soilers. The party held its national convention at Pittsburg, +Pennsylvania, on the 11th of August 1852, delegates being +present from all the free states, and from Delaware, Maryland, +Virginia and Kentucky; and John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, +and George W. Julian of Indiana, were nominated for the +presidency and the vice-presidency respectively, on a platform +which declared slavery “a sin against God and a crime against +man,” denounced the Compromise Measures of 1850, the fugitive +slave law in particular, and again opposed the extension of +slavery in the Territories. These candidates, however, received +no electoral votes and a popular vote of only 156,149, of +which but 25,329 were polled in New York. By 1856 they abandoned +their separate organization and joined the movement +which resulted in the formation of the powerful Republican +party (<i>q.v.</i>), of which the Free Soil party was the legitimate +precursor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE-STONE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (a translation of the O. Fr. <i>franche pere</i> or <i>pierre</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> stone of good quality; the modern French equivalent is +<i>pierre de taille</i>, and Ital. <i>pietra molle</i>), stone used in architecture +for mouldings, tracery and other work required to be worked +with the chisel. The oolitic stones are generally so called, +although in some countries soft sandstones are used; in some +churches an indurated chalk called “clunch” is employed for +internal lining and for carving.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREETOWN,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> capital of the British colony of Sierra Leone, +West Africa, on the south side of the Sierra Leone estuary, about +5 m. from the cape of that name, in 8° 29′ N., 13° 10′ W. Pop. +(1901) 34,463. About 500 of the inhabitants are Europeans. +Freetown is picturesquely situated on a plain, closed in behind +by a succession of wooded hills, the Sierra Leone, rising to a height +of 1700 ft. As nearly every house is surrounded by a courtyard +or garden, the town covers an unusually large area for the number +of its inhabitants. It possesses few buildings of architectural +merit. The principal are the governor’s residence and government +offices, the barracks, the cathedral, the missionary institutions, +the fruit market, Wilberforce Hall, courts of justice, +the railway station and the grammar school. Several of these +institutions are built on the slopes of the hills, and on the highest +point, Sugar Loaf Mountain, is a sanatorium. The botanic +gardens form a pleasant and favourite place of resort. The roads +are wide but badly kept. Horses do not live, and all wheeled +traffic is done by manual labour—hammocks and sedan-chairs +are the customary means of locomotion. Notwithstanding that +Freetown possesses an abundant and pure water-supply, drawn +from the adjacent hills, it is enervating and unhealthy, and it +was particularly to the capital, often spoken of as Sierra Leone, +that the designation “White Man’s Grave” applied. Since the +beginning of the 20th century strenuous efforts have been made +to improve the sanitary condition by a new system of drainage, +a better water service, the filling up of marshes wherein the +malarial mosquito breeds, and in other directions. A light +railway 6 m. long, opened in 1904, has been built to Hill Station +(900 ft. high), where, on a healthy site, are the residences of the +government officials and of other Europeans. As a consequence +the public health has improved, the highest death-rate in the +years 1901-1907 being 29.6 per 1000. The town is governed +by a municipality (created in 1893) with a mayor and councillors, +the large majority being elective. Freetown was the first place +in British West Africa granted local self-government.</p> + +<p>Both commercially and strategically Freetown is a place of +importance. Its harbour affords ample accommodation for the +largest fleets, it is a coaling station for the British navy, the headquarters +of the British military forces in West Africa, the sea +terminus of the railway to the rich oil-palm regions of Mendiland, +and a port of call for all steamers serving West Africa. Its +inhabitants are noted for their skill as traders; the town itself +produces nothing in the way of exports.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the character of the original settlement +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sierra Leone</a></span>), 75% of the inhabitants are descended from +non-indigenous Negro races. As many as 150 different tribes +are represented in the Sierra Leonis of to-day. Their semi-Europeanization +is largely the result of missionary endeavour. +The only language of the lower class is pidgin-English—quite +incomprehensible to the newcomer from Great Britain,—but +a large proportion of the inhabitants are highly educated men +who excel as lawyers, clergymen, clerks and traders. Many +members of the upper, that is, the best-educated, class have +filled official positions of great responsibility. The most noted +citizens are Bishop Crowther and Sir Samuel Lewis, chief justice +of Sierra Leone 1882-1894. Both were full-blooded Africans. +The Kru-men form a distinct section of the community, living +in a separate quarter and preserving their tribal customs.</p> + +<p>Since 1861-1862 there has been an independent Episcopal +Native Church; but the Church Missionary Society, which in +1804 sent out the first missionaries to Sierra Leone, still maintains +various agencies. Furah Bay College, built by the society on +the site of General Charles Turner’s estate (1½ m. E. of Freetown), +and opened in 1828 with six pupils, one of whom was Bishop +Crowther, was affiliated in 1876 to Durham University and has +a high-class curriculum. The Wesleyans have a high school, a +theological college, and other educative agencies. The Moslems, +who are among the most law-abiding and intelligent citizens of +Freetown, have several state-aided primary schools.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREE TRADE<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>, an expression which has now come to be +appropriated to the economic policy of encouraging the greatest +possible commercial intercourse, unrestricted by “protective” +duties (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Protection</a></span>), between any one country and its neighbours. +This policy was originally advocated in France, and it +has had its adherents in many countries, but Great Britain +stands alone among the great commercial nations of the world +in having adopted it systematically from 1846 onwards as the +fundamental principle of her economic policy.</p> + +<p>In the economic literature of earlier periods, it may be noted +that the term “free trade” is employed in senses which have no +relation to modern usage. The term conveyed no suggestion +of unrestricted trade or national liberty when it first appeared +in controversial pamphlets;<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> it stood for a freedom conferred +and maintained by authority—like that of a free town. The +merchants desired to have good regulations for trade so that they +might be free from the disabilities imposed upon them by +foreign princes or unscrupulous fellow-subjects. After 1640 the +term seems to have been commonly current in a different sense. +When the practice which had been handed down from the middle +ages—of organizing the trade with particular countries by means +of privileged companies, which professed to regulate the trade +according to the state of the market so as to secure its steady +development in the interest of producers and traders—was +seriously called in question under the Stuarts and at the Revolution, +the interlopers and opponents of the companies insisted +on the advantages of a “Free Trade”; they meant by this +that the various branches of commerce should not be confined +to particular persons or limited in amount, but should be thrown +open to be pursued by any Englishman in the way he thought +most profitable himself.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Again, in the latter half of the 18th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span> +century, till Pitt’s financial reforms<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a> were brought into operation, +the English customs duties on wine and brandy were excessive; +and those who carried on a remunerative business by evading +these duties were known as Fair Traders or Free Traders.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +Since 1846 the term free trade has been popularly used, in +England, to designate the policy of Cobden (<i>q.v.</i>) and others who +advocated the abolition of the tax on imported corn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corn +Laws</a></span>); this is the only one of the specialized senses of the term +which is at all likely to be confused with the economic doctrine. +The Anti-Corn Law movement was, as a matter of fact, a special +application of the economic principle; but serious mistakes have +arisen from the blunder of confusing the part with the whole, +and treating the remission of one particular duty as if it were the +essential element of a policy in which it was only an incident. +W. E. Gladstone, in discussing the effect of improvements in +locomotion on British trade, showed what a large proportion of +the stimulus to commerce during the 19th century was to be +credited to what he called the “liberalizing legislation” of the +free-trade movement in the wide sense in which he used the term. +“I rank the introduction of cheap postage for letters, documents, +patterns and printed matter, and the abolition of all taxes +on printed matter, in the category of Free Trade Legislation. +Not only thought in general, but every communication, and every +publication, relating to matters of business, was thus set free. +These great measures, then, may well take their place beside the +abolition of prohibitions and protective duties, the simplifying +of revenue laws, and the repeal of the Navigation Act, as forming +together the great code of industrial emancipation. Under this +code, our race, restored to freedom in mind and hand, and braced +by the powerful stimulus of open competition with the world, has +upon the whole surpassed itself and every other, and has won for +itself a commercial primacy more evident, more comprehensive, +and more solid than it had at any previous time possessed.”<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +In this large sense free trade may be almost interpreted as the +combination of the doctrines of the division of labour and of +<i>laissez-faire</i> in regard to the world as a whole. The division of +labour between different countries of the world—so that each +concentrates its energies in supplying that for the production +of which it is best fitted—appears to offer the greatest possibility +of production; but this result cannot be secured unless +trade and industry are treated as the primary elements in the +welfare of each community, and political considerations are not +allowed to hamper them.</p> + +<p>Stated in its simplest form, the principle which underlies the +doctrine of free trade is almost a truism; it is directly deducible +from the very notion of exchange (<i>q.v.</i>). Adam Smith and his +successors have demonstrated that in every case of voluntary +exchange each party gains something that is of greater value-in-use +to him than that with which he parts, and that consequently +in every exchange, either between individuals or between +nations, both parties are the gainers. Hence it necessarily +follows that, since both parties gain through exchanging, the more +facilities there are for exchange the greater will be the advantage +to every individual all round.<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> There is no difficulty in translating +this principle into the terms of actual life, and stating the +conditions in which it holds good absolutely. If, at any given +moment, the mass of goods in the world were distributed among +the consumers with the minimum of restriction on interchange, +each competitor would obtain the largest possible share of the +things he procures in the world’s market. But the argument +is less conclusive when the element of time is taken into account; +what is true of each moment separately is not necessarily true +of any period in which the conditions of production, or the +requirements of communities, may possibly change. Each +individual is likely to act with reference to his own future, but +it may often be wise for the statesman to look far ahead, beyond +the existing generation.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Owing to the neglect of this element of +time, and the allowance which must be made for it, the reasoning +as to the advantages of free trade, which is perfectly sound in +regard to the distribution of goods already in existence, may +become sophistical,<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> if it is put forward as affording a complete +demonstration of the benefits of free trade as a regular policy. +After all, human society is very complex, and any attempt to +deal with its problems off-hand by appealing to a simple principle +raises the suspicion that some important factor may have been +left out of account. When there is such mistaken simplification, +the reasoning may seem to have complete certainty, and yet it +fails to produce conviction, because it does not profess to deal +with the problem in all its aspects. When we concentrate attention +on the phenomena of exchange, we are viewing society as a +mechanism in which each acts under known laws and is impelled +by one particular force—that of self-interest; now, society is, +no doubt, in this sense a mechanism, but it is also an organism,<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +and it is only for very short periods, and in a very limited way, +that we can venture to neglect its organic character without +running the risk of falling into serious mistakes.</p> + +<p>The doctrine of free trade maintains that in order to secure +the greatest possible mass of goods in the world as a whole, and +the greatest possibility of immediate comfort for the consumer, +it is expedient that there should be no restriction on the exchange +of goods and services either between individuals or communities. +The controversies in regard to this doctrine have not turned on +its certainty as a hypothetical principle, but on the legitimacy +of the arguments based upon it. It certainly supplies a principle +in the light of which all proposed trade regulations should be +criticized. It gives us a basis for examining and estimating the +expense at which any particular piece of trade restriction is +carried out; but thus used, the principle does not necessarily +condemn the expenditure; the game may be worth the candle +or it may not, but at least it is well that we should know how +fast the candle is being burnt. It was in this critical spirit that +Adam Smith examined the various restrictions and encouragements +to trade which were in vogue in his day; he proved of each +in turn that it was expensive, but he showed that he was conscious +that the final decision could not be taken from this standpoint, +since he recognized in regard to the Navigation Acts that “defence +is more than opulence.”<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> In more recent times, the same sort +of attitude was taken by Henry Sidgwick,<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> who criticizes various +protective expedients in turn, in the light of free trade, but does +not treat it as conveying an authoritative decision on their merits.</p> + +<p>But other exponents of the doctrine have not been content +to employ it in this fashion. They urge it in a more positive +manner, and insist that free trade pure and simple is <i>the</i> foundation +on which the economic life of the community ought to be +based. By men who advocate it in this way, free trade is set +forward as an ideal which it is a duty to realize, and those who +hold aloof from it or oppose it have been held up to scorn as if +they were almost guilty of a crime.<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The development of the +material resources of the world is undoubtedly an important +element in the welfare of mankind; it is an aim which is common +to the whole race, and may be looked upon as contributing to the +greatest happiness of the greatest number. Competition in the +open market seems to secure that each consumer shall obtain the +best possible terms; and again, since all men are consumers +whether they produce or not, or whatever they produce, the +greatest measure of comforts for each seems likely to be attainable +on these lines. For those who are frankly cosmopolitan, and who +regard material prosperity as at all events the prime object at +which public policy should aim, the free-trade doctrine is readily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span> +transformed, from a mere principle of criticism, till it comes to +be regarded as the harbinger of a possible Utopia. It was in this +fashion that it was put forward by French economists and proved +attractive to some leading American statesmen in the 18th century. +Turgot regarded the colonial systems of the European countries +as at once unfair to their dependencies and dangerous to the peace +of the world. “It will be a wise and happy thing for the nation +which shall be the first to modify its policy according to the new +conditions, and be content to regard its colonies as if they were +allied provinces and not subjects of the mother country.” It +will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which is the first +to be convinced that the secret of “success, so far as commercial +policy is concerned, consists in employing all its land in the +manner most profitable for the proprietary, all the hands in the +manner most advantageous to the workman personally, that is +to say, in the manner in which each would employ them, if we +could let him be simply directed by his own interest, and that +all the rest of the mercantile policy is vanity and vexation of +spirit. When the entire separation of America shall have forced +the whole world to recognize this truth and purged the European +nations of commercial jealousy there will be one great cause of +war less in the world.”<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Pitt, under the influence of Adam +Smith, was prepared to admit the United States to the benefit +of trade with the West Indian Colonies; and Jefferson, accepting +the principles of his French teachers, would (in contradistinction +to Alexander Hamilton) have been willing to see his country renounce +the attempt to develop manufactures of her own.<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> It +seemed as if a long step might be taken towards realizing the free-trade +ideal for the Anglo-Saxon race; but British shipowners +insisted on the retention of their privileges, and the propitious +moment passed away with the failure of the negotiations of +1783.<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Free trade ceased to be regarded as a gospel, even in +France, till the ideal was revived in the writings of Bastiat, +and helped to mould the enthusiasm of Richard Cobden.<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> +Through his zealous advocacy, the doctrine secured converts in +almost every part of the world; though it was only in Great +Britain that a great majority of the citizens became so far +satisfied with it that they adopted it as the foundation of the +economic policy of the country.</p> + +<p>It is not difficult to account for the conversion of Great Britain +to this doctrine; in the special circumstances of the first half of +the 19th century it was to the interest of the most vigorous +factors in the economic life of the country to secure the greatest +possible freedom for commercial intercourse. Great Britain had, +through her shipping, access to all the markets of the world; +she had obtained such a lead in the application of machinery to +manufactures that she had a practical monopoly in textile +manufactures and in the hardware trades; by removing every +restriction, she could push her advantage to its farthest extent, +and not only undersell native manufactures in other lands, +but secure food, and the raw materials for her manufactures, on +the cheapest possible terms. Free trade thus seemed to offer the +means of placing an increasing distance between Britain and her +rivals, and of rendering the industrial monopoly which she had +attained impregnable. The capitalist employer had superseded +the landowner as the mainstay of the resources and revenue +of the realm, and insisted that the prosperity of manufactures +was the primary interest of the community as a whole. The +expectation, that a thoroughgoing policy of free trade would not +only favour an increase of employment, but also the cheapening +of food, could only have been roused in a country which was +obliged to import a considerable amount of corn. The exceptional +weakness, as well as the exceptional strength, of Great Britain, +among European countries, made it seem desirable to adopt the +principle of unrestricted commercial intercourse, not merely +in the tentative fashion in which it had been put in operation +by Huskisson, but in the thoroughgoing fashion in which +it at last commended itself to the minds of Peel and Gladstone. +The “Manchester men” saw clearly where their interest lay; +and the fashionable political economy was ready to demonstrate +that in pursuing their own interest they were conferring the +benefit of cheap clothing on all the most poverty-stricken races +of mankind. It seemed probable, in the ’forties and early ’fifties, +that other countries would take a similar view of their own +interests and would follow the example which Great Britain had +set.<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a> That they have not done so, is partly due to the fact that +none of them had such a direct, or such a widely diffused, interest +in increased commercial intercourse as existed in Great Britain; +but their reluctance has been partly the result of the criticism +to which the free-trade doctrine has been subjected. The +principles expressed in the writings of Friedrich List have taken +such firm hold, both in America and in Germany, that these +countries have preferred to follow on the lines by which Great +Britain successfully built up her industrial prosperity in the 17th +and 18th century, rather than on those by which they have seen +her striving to maintain it since 1846.</p> + +<p>Free trade was attractive as an ideal, because it appeared +to offer the greatest production of goods to the world as a whole, +and the largest share of material goods to each consumer; it is +cosmopolitan, and it treats consumption, and the interest of the +consumer, as such, as the end to be considered. Hence it lies +open to objections which are partly political and partly economic.</p> + +<p>As cosmopolitan, free-trade doctrine is apt to be indifferent +to national tradition and aspiration. In so far indeed as +patriotism is a mere aesthetic sentiment, it may be tolerated, +but in so far as it implies a genuine wish and intention to preserve +and defend the national habits and character to the exclusion +of alien elements, the cosmopolitan mind will condemn it as +narrow and mischievous. In the first half of the 19th century +there were many men who believed that national ambitions +and jealousies of every kind were essentially dynastic, and that if +monarchies were abolished there would be fewer occasions of +war, so that the expenses of the business of government would +be enormously curtailed. For Cobden and his contemporaries +it was natural to regard the national administrative institutions +as maintained for the benefit of the “classes” and without much +advantage to the “masses.” But in point of fact, modern times +have shown the existence in democracies of a patriotic sentiment +which is both exclusive and aggressive; and the burden of +armaments has steadily increased. It was by means of a civil +war that the United States attained to a consciousness of national +life; while such later symptoms as the recent interpretations +of the Monroe doctrine, or the war with Spain, have proved that +the citizens of that democratic country cannot be regarded as +destitute of self-aggrandizing national ambition.</p> + +<p>In Germany the growth of militarism and nationalism have +gone on side by side under constitutional government, and +certainly in harmony with predominant public opinion. Neither +of these communities is willing to sink its individual conception +of progress in those of the world at large; each is jealous of the +intrusion of alien elements which cannot be reconciled with its +own political and social system. And a similar recrudescence +of patriotic feeling has been observable in other countries, such +as Norway and Hungary: the growth of national sentiment +is shown, not only in the attempts to revive and popularize the +use of a national language, but still more decidedly in the determination +to have a real control over the economic life of the +country. It is here that the new patriotism comes into direct +conflict with the political principles of free trade as advocated +by Bastiat and Cobden; for them the important point was that +countries, by becoming dependent on one another, would be +prevented from engaging in hostilities. The new nations are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span> +determined that they will not allow other countries to have such +control over their economic condition, as to be able to exercise +a powerful influence on their political life. Each is determined +to be the master in his own house, and each has rejected free +trade because of the cosmopolitanism which it involves.</p> + +<p>Economically, free trade lays stress on consumption as the +chief criterion of prosperity. It is, of course, true that goods are +produced with the object of being consumed, and it is plausible +to insist on taking this test; but it is also true that consumption +and production are mutually interdependent, and that in some +ways production is the more important of the two. Consumption +looks to the present, and the disposal of actual goods; production +looks to the future, and the conditions under which goods can +continue to be regularly provided and thus become available for +consumption in the long run. As regards the prosperity of the +community in the future it is important that goods should be +consumed in such a fashion as to secure that they shall be replaced +or increased before they are used up; it is the amount of production +rather than the amount of consumption that demands +consideration, and gives indication of growth or of decadence. +In these circumstances there is much to be said for looking at +the economic life of a country from the point of view which free-traders +have abandoned or ignore. It is not on the possibilities +of consumption in the present, but on the prospects of production +<i>in the future</i>, that the continued wealth of the community depends; +and this principle is the only one which conforms to the modern +conception of the essential requirements of sociological science +in its wider aspect (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sociology</a></span>). This is most obviously true +in regard to countries of which the resources are very imperfectly +developed. If their policy is directed to securing the greatest +possible comfort for each consumer in the present, it is certain +that progress will be slow; the planting of industries for which +the country has an advantage may be a tedious process; and +in order to stimulate national efficiency temporary protection—involving +what is otherwise unnecessary immediate cost to the +consumer—may seem to be abundantly justified. Such a free +trader as John Stuart Mill himself admits that a case may be +made out for treating “infant industries” as exceptions;<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a> +and if this exception be admitted it is likely to establish a precedent. +After all, the various countries of the world are all in +different stages of development; some are old and some are +new; and even the old countries differ greatly in the progress they +have made in distinct arts. The introduction of machinery +has everywhere changed the conditions of production, so that +some countries have lost and others have gained a special advantage. +Most of the countries of the world are convinced that the +wisest economy is to attend to the husbanding of their resources +of every kind, and to direct their policy not merely with a view +to consumption in the present, but rather with regard to the +possibilities of increased production in the future.</p> + +<p>This deliberate rejection of the doctrine of free trade between +nations, both in its political and economic aspects, has not +interfered, however, with the steady progress of free commercial +intercourse within the boundaries of a single though composite +political community. “Internal free trade,” though the name +was not then current in this sense, was one of the burning questions +in England in the 17th century; it was perhaps as important a +factor as puritanism in the fall of Charles I. Internal free trade +was secured in France in the 18th century; thanks to Hamilton,<a name="fa19n" id="fa19n" href="#ft19n"><span class="sp">19</span></a> +it was embodied in the constitution of the United States; it +was introduced into Germany by Bismarck; and was firmly +established in the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth +of Australia. It became in consequence, where practicable, a +part of the modern federal idea as usually interpreted. There +are thus great areas, externally self-protecting, where free trade, +as between internal divisions, has been introduced with little, +if any, political difficulty, and with considerable economic +advantage. These cases are sometimes quoted as justifying +the expectation that the same principle is likely to be adopted +sooner or later in regard to external trading relations. There +is some reason, however, for raising the question whether free +trade has been equally successful, not only in its economic, but +in its social results, in all the large political communities where +it has been introduced. In a region like the United States of +America, it is probably seen at its best; there is an immense +variety of different products throughout that great zone of the +continent, so that the mutual co-operation of the various parts +is most beneficial, while the standard of habit and comfort is so +far uniform<a name="fa20n" id="fa20n" href="#ft20n"><span class="sp">20</span></a> throughout the whole region, and the facilities for +the change of employment are so many, that there is little injurious +competition between different districts. In the British +empire the conditions are reversed; but though the great self-governing +colonies have withdrawn from the circle, in the hope +of building up their own economic life in their own way, free +trade is still maintained over a very large part of the British +empire. Throughout this area, there are very varied physical +conditions; there is also an extraordinary variety of races, each +with its own habits, and own standard of comfort; and in these +circumstances it may be doubted whether the free competition, +involved in free trade, is really altogether wholesome. Within +this sphere the ideal of Bastiat and his followers is being realized. +England, as a great manufacturing country, has more than held +her own; India and Ireland are supplied with manufactured +goods by England, and in each case the population is forced to +look to the soil for its means of support, and for purchasing +power. In each case the preference for tillage, as an occupation, +has rendered it comparatively easy to keep the people on the +land; but there is some reason to believe that the law of diminishing +returns is already making itself felt, at all events in India, +and is forcing the people into deeper poverty.<a name="fa21n" id="fa21n" href="#ft21n"><span class="sp">21</span></a> It may be doubtful +in the case of Ireland how far the superiority of England in industrial +pursuits has prevented the development of manufactures; +the progress in the last decades of the 18th century was too short-lived +to be conclusive; but there is at least a strong impression +in many quarters that the industries of Ireland might have +flourished if they had had better opportunities allowed them.<a name="fa22n" id="fa22n" href="#ft22n"><span class="sp">22</span></a> +In the case of India we know that the hereditary artistic skill, +which had been built up in bygone generations, has been stamped +out. It seems possible that the modern unrest in India, and the +discontent in Ireland, may be connected with the economic +conditions in these countries, on which free trade has been imposed +without their consent. So far the population which subsists on +the cheaper food, and has the lower standard of life, has been +the sufferer; but the mischief might operate in another fashion. +The self-governing colonies at all events feel that competition in +the same market between races with different standards of comfort +has infinite possibilities of mischief. It is easy to conjure up +conditions under which the standard of comfort of wage-earners +in England would be seriously threatened.</p> + +<p>Since the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> was +published it has become clear that the free-trade doctrines of +Bastiat and Cobden have not been gaining ground in the world +at large, and at the opening of the 20th century it could hardly +be said with confidence that the question was “finally settled” +so far as England was concerned. As to whether the interests of +Great Britain still demanded that she should continue on the +line she adopted in the exceptional conditions of the middle of the +19th century, expert opinion was conspicuously divided;<a name="fa23n" id="fa23n" href="#ft23n"><span class="sp">23</span></a> but +there remained no longer the old enthusiasm for free trade as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span> +the harbinger of an Utopia. The old principles of the bourgeois +manufacturers had been taken up by the proletariat and shaped +to suit themselves. Socialism, like free trade, is cosmopolitan in +its aims, and is indifferent to patriotism and hostile to militarism. +Socialism, like free trade, insists on material welfare as the +primary object to be aimed at in any policy, and, like free +trade, socialism tests welfare by reference to possibilities of consumption. +In one respect there is a difference; throughout +Cobden’s attack on the governing classes there are signs of his +jealousy of the superior status of the landed gentry, but socialism +has a somewhat wider range of view and demands “equality of +opportunity” with the capitalist as well.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Reference has already been made to the principal +works which deal critically with the free-trade policy. Professor +Fawcett’s <i>Free Trade</i> is a good exposition of free-trade +principles; so also is Professor Bastable’s <i>Commerce of Nations</i>. +Among authors who have restated the principles with special +reference to the revived controversy on the subject may be mentioned +Professor W. Smart, <i>The Return to Protection, being a Restatement +of the Case for Free Trade</i> (2nd ed., 1906), and A. C. Pigou, +<i>Protective and Preferential Import Duties</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Cu.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> E. Misselden, <i>Free Trade or the Meanes to make Trade Flourish</i> +(1622), p. 68; G. Malynes, <i>The Maintenance of Free Trade</i> (1622), +p. 105.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> H. Parker, <i>Of a Free Trade</i> (1648), p. 8.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> (1787), 27 Geo. III. c. 13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Sir Walter Scott, <i>Guy Mannering</i>, chapter v.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Gladstone, “Free Trade, Railways and Commerce,” in <i>Nineteenth +Century</i> (Feb. 1880), vol. vii. p. 370.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Parker states a similar argument in the form in which it suited +the special problem of his day. “If merchandise be good for the +commonweal, then the more common it is made, the more open it is +laid, the more good it will convey to us.” <i>Op. cit.</i> 20.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Schmoller, <i>Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre</i> +(1904), ii. 607.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Byles, <i>Sophisms of Free Trade</i>; L. S. Amery, <i>Fundamental +Fallacies of Free Trade</i>, 13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> W. Cunningham, <i>Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement</i>, +PP. 5-11.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, book iv. chap. ii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Principles of Political Economy</i>, 485.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> J. Morley, <i>Life of Cobden</i>, i. 230.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> “Mémoire,” 6 April 1776, in <i>Œuvres</i>, viii. 460.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Jefferson, <i>Notes on Virginia</i>, 275. See also the articles on +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jefferson</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hamilton, Alexander</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> One incidental effect of the failure to secure free trade was that +the African slave trade, with West Indies as a depot for supplying +the American market, ceased to be remunerative, and the opposition +to the abolition of the trade was very much weaker than it would +otherwise have been; see Hochstetter, “Die wirtschaftlichen und +politischen Motive für die Abschaffung des britischen Sklavenhandels,” +in Schmoller, <i>Staats und Sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen</i>, +xxv. i. 37.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> J. Welsford, “Cobden’s Foreign Teacher,” in <i>National Review</i> +(December 1905).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>Compatriot Club Lectures</i> (1905), p. 306.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18n" id="ft18n" href="#fa18n"><span class="fn">18</span></a> J. S. Mill, <i>Principles of Political Economy</i>, book v. chapter x. § 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19n" id="ft19n" href="#fa19n"><span class="fn">19</span></a> F. S. Oliver, <i>Alexander Hamilton</i>, 142.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20n" id="ft20n" href="#fa20n"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The standard is, of course, lower among the negroes and mean +whites in the South than in the North and West.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21n" id="ft21n" href="#fa21n"><span class="fn">21</span></a> F. Beauclerk, “Free Trade in India,” in <i>Economic Review</i> +(July 1907), xvii. 284.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22n" id="ft22n" href="#fa22n"><span class="fn">22</span></a> A. E. Murray, <i>History of the Commercial and Financial Relations +between England and Ireland</i>, 294.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23n" id="ft23n" href="#fa23n"><span class="fn">23</span></a> For the tariff reform movement in English politics see the article +on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamberlain, J.</a></span> Among continental writers G. Schmoller +(<i>Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre</i>, ii. 641) and A. +Wagner (Preface to M. Schwab’s <i>Chamberlains Handelspolitik</i>) +pronounce in favour of a change, as Fuchs did by anticipation. +Schulze-Gaevernitz (<i>Britischer Imperialismus und englischer Freihandel</i>), +Aubry (<i>Étude critique de la politique commerciale de l’Angleterre +à l’égard de ses colonies</i>), and Blondel (<i>La politique Protectionniste +en Angleterre un nouveau danger pour la France</i>) are against it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREGELLAE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium adiectum, situated +on the Via Latina, 11 m. W.N.W. of Aquinum, near the left branch +of the Liris. It is said to have belonged in early times to the +Opici or Oscans, and later to the Volscians. It was apparently +destroyed by the Samnites a little before 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in which year +the people of Fabrateria Vetus (mod. Ceccano) besought the help +of Rome against them, and in 328 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a Latin colony was established +there. The place was taken in 320 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Samnites, +but re-established by the Romans in 313 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It continued henceforward +to be faithful to Rome; by breaking the bridges over the +Liris it interposed an obstacle to the advance of Hannibal on +Rome in 212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it was a native of Fregellae who headed the +deputation of the non-revolting colonies in 209 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It appears to +have been a very important and flourishing place owing to its +command of the crossing of the Liris, and to its position in a +fertile territory, and it was here that, after the rejection of the +proposals of M. Fulvius Flaccus for the extension of Roman +burgess-rights in 125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a revolt against Rome broke out. +It was captured by treachery in the same year and destroyed; +but its place was taken in the following year by the colony of +Fabrateria Nova, 3 m. to the S.E. on the opposite bank of the +Liris, while a post station Fregellanum (mod. Ceprano) is +mentioned in the itineraries; Fregellae itself, however, continued +to exist as a village even under the empire. The site is clearly +traceable about ½ m. E. of Ceprano, but the remains of the city +are scanty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Colasanti, <i>Fregellae, storia e topografia</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIBERG,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Freyberg</span>, a town of Germany in the kingdom +of Saxony, on the Münzbach, near its confluence with the Mulde, +19 m. S.W. of Dresden on the railway to Chemnitz, with a branch +to Nossen. Pop. (1905) 30,896. Its situation, on the rugged +northern slope of the Erzgebirge, is somewhat bleak and uninviting, +but the town is generally well built and makes a prosperous +impression. A part of its ancient walls still remains; the other +portions have been converted into public walks and gardens. +Freiberg is the seat of the general administration of the mines +throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated mining academy +(<i>Bergakademie</i>), founded in 1765, is frequented by students +from all parts of the world. Connected with it are extensive +collections of minerals and models, a library of 50,000 volumes, +and laboratories for chemistry, metallurgy and assaying. Among +its distinguished scholars it reckons Abraham Gottlob Werner +(1750-1817), who was also a professor there, and Alexander von +Humboldt. Freiberg has extensive manufactures of gold and +silver lace, woollen cloths, linen and cotton goods, iron, copper +and brass wares, gunpowder and white-lead. It has also several +large breweries. In the immediate vicinity are its famous silver +and lead mines, thirty in number, and of which the principal ones +passed into the property of the state in 1886. The castle of +Freudenstein or Freistein, as rebuilt by the elector Augustus +in 1572, is situated in one of the suburbs and is now used as a +military magazine. In its grounds a monument was erected +to Werner in 1851. The cathedral, rebuilt in late Gothic style +after its destruction by fire in 1484 and restored in 1893, was +founded in the 12th century. Of the original church a magnificent +German Romanesque doorway, known as the Golden Gate +(<i>Goldene Pforte</i>), survives. The church contains numerous +monuments, among others one to Prince Maurice of Saxony. +Adjoining the cathedral is the mausoleum (<i>Begräbniskapelle</i>), +built in 1594 in the Italian Renaissance style, in which are buried +the remains of Henry the Pious and his successors down to John +George IV., who died in 1694. Of the other four Protestant +churches the most noteworthy is the Peterskirche which, +with its three towers, is a conspicuous object on the highest +point of the town. Among the other public buildings are the old +town-hall, dating from the 15th century, the antiquarian museum, +and the natural history museum. There are a classical and +modern, a commercial and an agricultural school, and numerous +charitable institutions.</p> + +<p>Freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines +(<i>c.</i> 1163). The town, with the castle of Freudenstein, was built +by Otto the Rich, margrave of Meissen, in 1175, and its name, +which first appears in 1221, is derived from the extensive mining +franchises granted to it about that time. In all the partitions of +the territories of the Saxon house of Wettin, from the latter part +of the 13th century onward, Freiberg always remained common +property, and it was not till 1485 (the mines not till 1537) that +it was definitively assigned to the Albertine line. The Reformation +was introduced into Freiberg in 1536 by Henry the Pious, +who resided here. The town suffered severely during the Thirty +Years’ War, and again during the French occupation from 1806 +to 1814, during which time it had to support an army of 700,000 +men and find forage for 200,000 horses.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Gerlach, <i>Kleine Chronik von Freiberg</i> (2nd ed., Freiberg, +1898); H. Ermisch, <i>Das Freiberger Stadtrecht</i> (Leipzig, 1889); +Ermisch and O. Posse, <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Freiberg</i>, in <i>Codex +diplom. Sax. reg.</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1883-1891); <i>Freibergs Berg- und +Hüttenwesen</i>, published by the Bergmännischer Verein (Freiberg, +1883); Ledebur, <i>Über die Bedeutung der Freiberger Bergakademie</i> +(<i>ib.</i> 1903); Steche, <i>Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler der Amtshauptmannschaft +Freiberg</i> (Dresden, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIBURG,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of Germany in Prussian Silesia, on the +Polsnitz, 35 m. S.W. of Breslau, on the railway to Halbstadt. +Pop. (1905) 9917. It has an Evangelical and Roman Catholic +church, and its industries include watch-making, linen-weaving +and distilling. In the neighbourhood are the old and modern +castles of the Fürstenstein family, whence the town is sometimes +distinguished as Freiburg unter dem Fürstenstein. At Freiburg, +on the 22nd of July 1762, the Prussians defended themselves +successfully against the superior forces of the Austrians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIBURG IM BREISGAU,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> an archiepiscopal see and city of +Germany in the grand duchy of Baden, 12 m. E. of the Rhine, +beautifully situated on the Dreisam at the foot of the Schlossberg, +one of the heights of the Black Forest range, on the railway +between Basel and Mannheim, 40 m. N. of the former city. +Pop. (1905) 76,285. The town is for the most part well built, +having several wide and handsome streets and a number of +spacious squares. It is kept clean and cool by the waters of +the river, which flow through the streets in open channels; and +its old fortifications have been replaced by public walks, and, +what is more unusual, by vineyards. It possesses a famous +university, the Ludovica Albertina, founded by Albert VI., +archduke of Austria, in 1457, and attended by about 2000 +students. The library contains upwards of 250,000 volumes and +600 MSS., and among the other auxiliary establishments are +an anatomical hall and museum and botanical gardens. The +Freiburg minster is considered one of the finest of all the Gothic +churches of Germany, being remarkable alike for the symmetry +of its proportions, for the taste of its decorations, and for the +fact that it may more correctly be said to be finished than almost +any other building of the kind. The period of its erection probably +lies for the most part between 1122 and 1252; but the +choir was not built till 1513. The tower, which rises above the +western entrance, is 386 ft. in height, and it presents a skilful +transition from a square base into an octagonal superstructure, +which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span> +exquisite open work in stone. In the interior of the church are +some beautiful stained glass windows, both ancient and modern, +the tombstones of several of the dukes of Zähringen, statues of +archbishops of Freiburg, and paintings by Holbein and by +Hans Baldung (<i>c.</i> 1470-1545), commonly called Grün. Among the +other noteworthy buildings of Freiburg are the palaces of the +grand duke and the archbishop, the old town-hall, the theatre, +the <i>Kaufhaus</i> or merchants’ hall, a 16th-century building with +a handsome façade, the church of St Martin, with a graceful +spire restored 1880-1881, the new town-hall, completed 1901, +in Renaissance style, and the Protestant church, formerly the +church of the abbey of Thennenbach, removed hither in 1839. +In the centre of the fish-market square is a fountain surmounted +by a statue of Duke Berthold III. of Zähringen; in the Franziskaner +Platz there is a monument to Berthold Schwarz, the +traditional discoverer here, in 1259, of gunpowder; the Rotteck +Platz takes its name from the monument of Karl Wenzeslaus +von Rotteck (1775-1840), the historian, which formerly stood +on the site of the Schwarz statue; and in Kaiser Wilhelm +Strasse a bronze statue was erected in 1876 to the memory of +Herder, who in the early part of the 19th century founded in +Freiburg an institute for draughtsmen, engravers and lithographers, +and carried on a famous bookselling business. On the +Schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two +castles destroyed by the French in 1744; and about 2 m. +to the N.E. stands the castle of Zähringen, the original seat of +the famous family of the counts of that name. Situated on the +ancient road which runs by the Höllenpass between the valleys +of the Danube and the Rhine, Freiburg early acquired commercial +importance, and it is still the principal centre of the +trade of the Black Forest. It manufactures buttons, chemicals, +starch, leather, tobacco, silk thread, paper, and hempen goods, +as well as beer and wine.</p> + +<p>Freiburg is of uncertain foundation. In 1120 it became a +free town, with privileges similar to those of Cologne; but in +1219 it fell into the hands of a branch of the family of Urach. +After it had vainly attempted to throw off the yoke by force +of arms, it purchased its freedom in 1366; but, unable to +reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money, it was, +in 1368, obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of +Hapsburg. In the 17th and 18th centuries it played a considerable +part as a fortified town. It was captured by the Swedes +in 1632, 1634 and 1638; and in 1644 it was seized by the +Bavarians, who shortly after, under General Mercy, defeated in +the neighbourhood the French forces under Enghien and Turenne. +The French were in possession from 1677 to 1697, and again in +1713-1714 and 1744; and when they left the place in 1748, at +the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, they dismantled the fortifications. +The Baden insurgents gained a victory at Freiburg in 1848, and +the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in June +1849, but in the following July the Prussian forces took possession +and occupied it until 1851. Since 1821 Freiburg has been the +seat of an archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of Mainz, +Rottenberg and Limburg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Schreiber, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung des Münsters zu Freiburg</i> +(1820 and 1825); <i>Geschichte der Stadt und Universität Freiburgs</i> +(1857-1859); <i>Der Schlossberg bei Freiburg</i> (1860); and Albert, +<i>Die Geschichtsschreibung der Stadt Freiburg</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Battles of Freiburg, 3rd, 5th and 10th of August 1644.</i>—During +the Thirty Years’ War the neighbourhood of Freiburg was the +scene of a series of engagements between the French under +Louis de Bourbon, due d’Enghien (afterwards called the great +Condé), and Henri de la Tour d’Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne, +and the Bavarians and Austrians commanded by Franz, Freiherr +von Mercy.</p> + +<p>At the close of the campaign of 1643 the French “Army of +Weimar,” having been defeated and driven into Alsace by the +Bavarians, had there been reorganized under the command of +Turenne, then a young general of thirty-two and newly promoted +to the marshalate. In May 1644 he opened the campaign by +recrossing the Rhine and raiding the enemy’s posts as far as +Überlingen on the lake of Constance and Donaueschingen on +the Danube. The French then fell back with their booty and +prisoners to Breisach, a strong garrison being left in Freiburg. +The Bavarian commander, however, revenged himself by besieging +Freiburg (June 27th), and Turenne’s first attempt to relieve the +place failed. During July, as the siege progressed, the French +government sent the duc d’Enghien, who was ten years younger +still than Turenne, but had just gained his great victory of +Rocroy, to take over the command. Enghien brought with him +a veteran army, called the “Army of France,” Turenne remaining +in command of the Army of Weimar. The armies met at Breisach +on the 2nd of August, by which date Freiburg had surrendered. +At this point most commanders of the time would have decided +not to fight, but to manœuvre Mercy away from Freiburg; +Enghien, however, was a fighting general, and Mercy’s entrenched +lines at Freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an obstacle. +A few hours after his arrival, therefore, without waiting for the +rearmost troops of his columns, he set the combining armies in +motion for Krozingen, a village on what was then the main road +between Breisach and Freiburg. The total force immediately +available numbered only 16,000 combatants. Enghien and +Turenne had arranged that the Army of France was to move +direct upon Freiburg by Wolfenweiter, while the Army of Weimar +was to make its way by hillside tracks to Wittnau and thence +to attack the rear of Mercy’s lines while Enghien assaulted +them in front. Turenne’s march (August 3rd, 1644) was slow +and painful, as had been anticipated, and late in the afternoon, +on passing Wittnau, he encountered the enemy. The Weimarians +carried the outer lines of defence without much difficulty, but +as they pressed on towards Merzhausen the resistance became +more and more serious. Turenne’s force was little more than +6000, and these were wearied with a long day of marching and +fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the Black Forest. +Thus the turning movement came to a standstill far short of +Uffingen, the village on Mercy’s line of retreat that Turenne +was to have seized, nor was a flank attack possible against +Mercy’s main line, from which he was separated by the crest +of the Schönberg. Meanwhile, Enghien’s army had at the +prearranged hour (4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>) attacked Mercy’s position on the +Ebringen spur. A steep slope, vineyards, low stone walls and +abatis had all to be surmounted, under a galling fire from the +Bavarian musketeers, before the Army of France found itself, +breathless and in disorder, in front of the actual entrenchments +of the crest. A first attack failed, as did an attempt to find an +unguarded path round the shoulder of the Schönberg. The +situation was grave in the extreme, but Enghien resolved on +Turenne’s account to renew the attack, although only a quarter +of his original force was still capable of making an effort. He +himself and all the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led +the infantry forward again, the prince threw his baton into the +enemy’s lines for the soldiers to retrieve, and in the end, after +a bitter struggle, the Bavarians, whose reserves had been taken +away to oppose Turenne in the Merzhausen defile, abandoned +the entrenchments and disappeared into the woods of the +adjoining spur. Enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops, fearing +at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counter-stroke; +but none came. The French bivouacked in the rain, Turenne +making his way across the mountain to confer with the prince, +and meanwhile Mercy quietly drew off his army in the dark to +a new set of entrenchments on the ridge on which stood the +Loretto Chapel. On the 4th of August the Army of France and +the Army of Weimar met at Merzhausen, the rearmost troops of +the Army of France came in, and the whole was arranged by +the major-generals in the plain facing the Loretto ridge. This +position was attacked on the 5th. Enghien had designed his +battle even more carefully than before, but as the result of a +series of accidents the two French armies attacked prematurely +and straight to their front, one brigade after another, and though +at one moment Enghien, sword in hand, broke the line of defence +with his last intact reserve, a brilliant counterstroke, led by +Mercy’s brother Kaspar (who was killed), drove out the assailants. +It is said that Enghien lost half his men on this day and Mercy +one-third of his, so severe was the battle. But the result could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span> +not be gainsaid; it was for the French a complete and costly +failure.</p> + +<p>For three days after this the armies lay in position without +fighting, the French well supplied with provisions and comforts +from Breisach, the Bavarians suffering somewhat severely from +want of food, and especially forage, as all their supplies had to +be hauled from Villingen over the rough roads of the Black +Forest. Enghien then decided to make use of the Glotter Tal +to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of supply, +and thus to force the Bavarians either to attack him at a serious +disadvantage, or to retreat across the hills with the loss of their +artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by +famine and desertion. With this object, the Army of Weimar +was drawn off on the morning of the 9th of August and marched +round by Betzenhausen and Lehen to Langen Denzling. The +infantry of the Army of France, then the trains, followed, while +Enghien with his own cavalry faced Freiburg and the Loretto +position.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:511px; height:478px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img94.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">Before dawn on the 10th the advance guard of Turenne’s +army was ascending the Glotter Tal. But Mercy had divined his +adversary’s plan, and leaving a garrison to hold Freiburg, the +Bavarian army had made a night march on the 9/10th to the Abbey +of St Peter, whence on the morning of the 10th Mercy fell back +to Graben, his nearest magazine in the mountains. Turenne’s +advanced guard appeared from the Glotter Tal only to find a +stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey. A sharp +action began, but Mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the +French infantry in the Glotter Tal broke it off and continued his +retreat in good order. Enghien thus obtained little material +result from his manœuvre. Only two guns and such of Mercy’s +wagons that were unable to keep up fell into the hands of the +French. Enghien and Turenne did not continue the chase farther +than Graben, and Mercy fell back unmolested to Rothenburg on +the Tauber.</p> + +<p>The moral results of this sanguinary fighting were, however, +important and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable +soldiers. Enghien’s pertinacity had not achieved a decision +with the sword, but Mercy had been so severely punished that +he was unable to interfere with his opponent’s new plan of campaign. +This, which was carried out by the united armies and by +reinforcements from France, while Turenne’s cavalry screened +them by bold demonstrations on the Tauber, led to nothing less +than the conquest of the Rhine Valley from Basel to Coblenz, +a task which was achieved so rapidly that the Army of France +and its victorious young leader were free to return to France in +two months from the time of their appearance in Turenne’s +quarters at Breisach.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIDANK<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Vrîdanc</span>), the name by which a Middle High +German didactic poet of the early 13th century is known. It has +been disputed whether the word, which is equivalent to “free-thought,” +is to be regarded as the poet’s real name or only as a +pseudonym; the latter is probably the case. Little is known of +Freidank’s life. He accompanied Frederick II. on his crusade +to the Holy Land, where, in the years 1228-1229, a portion at +least of his work was composed; and it is said that on his tomb +(if indeed it was not the tomb of another Freidank) at Treviso +there was inscribed, with allusion to the character of his style, +“he always spoke and never sang.” Wilhelm Grimm originated +the hypothesis that Freidank was to be identified with Walther +von der Vogelweide; but this is no longer tenable. Freidank’s +work bears the name of <i>Bescheidenheit</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “practical wisdom,” +“correct judgment,” and consists of a collection of proverbs, +pithy sayings, and moral and satirical reflections, arranged under +general heads. Its popularity till the end of the 16th century is +shown by the great number of MSS. extant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sebastian Brant published the <i>Bescheidenheit</i> in a modified form +in 1508. Wilhelm Grimm’s edition appeared in 1834 (2nd ed. 1860), +H. F. Bezzenberger’s in 1872. A later edition is by F. Sandvoss +(1877). The old Latin translation, <i>Fridangi Discretio</i>, was printed +by C. Lemcke in 1868; and there are two translations into modern +German, A. Bacmeister’s (1861) and K. Simrock’s (1867). See also +F. Pfeiffer, <i>Über Freidank</i> (<i>Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte</i>, 1855), +and H. Paul, <i>Über die ursprüngliche Anordnung von Freidanks Bescheidenheit</i> +(1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIENWALDE,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Prussia, on the Oder, 28 m. N.E. of Berlin, on the Frankfort-Angermünde +railway. Pop. (1905) 7995. It has a small palace, +built by the Great Elector, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic +church, and manufactures of furniture, machinery, &c. The +neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a favourite +summer resort of the inhabitants of Berlin. A new tower commands +a fine view of the Oderbruch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oder</a></span>). Freienwalde, +which must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same +name in Pomerania, first appears as a town in 1364.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIESLEBENITE,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a rare mineral consisting of sulphantimonite +of silver and lead, (Pb, Ag<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">5</span>Sb<span class="su">4</span>S<span class="su">11</span>. The monoclinic +crystals are prismatic in habit, with deeply striated prism and +dome faces. The colour is steel-grey, and the lustre metallic; +hardness 2½, specific gravity 6.2. It occurs with argentite, +chalybite and galena in the silver veins of the Himmelsfürst +mine at Freiberg, Saxony, where it has been known since 1720. +The species was named after J. K. Freiesleben, who had earlier +called it <i>Schilf-Glaserz</i>. Other localities are Hiendelaencina +near Guadalajara in Spain, Kapnik-Bánya in Hungary, and +Guanajuato in Mexico. A species separated from freieslebenite +by V. von Zepharovich in 1871, because of differences in crystalline +form, is known as diaphorite (from <span class="grk" title="diaphora">διαφορά</span>, “difference”); +it is very similar to freieslebenite in appearance and has perhaps +the same chemical composition (or possibly Ag<span class="su">2</span>PbSb<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">5</span>), but +is orthorhombic in crystallization. A third mineral also very +similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic +andorite, AgPbSb<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">6</span>, which is mined as a silver ore at Oruro in +Bolivia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIGHT,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (pronounced like “weight”; derived from the +Dutch <i>vracht</i> or <i>vrecht</i>, in Fr. <i>fret</i>, the Eng. “fraught” being the +same word, and formerly used for the same thing, but now +only as an adjective = “laden”), the lading or cargo of a ship, +and the hire paid for their transport (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affreightment</a></span>); +from the original sense of water-transport of goods the word has +also come to be used for land-transit (particularly in America, +by railroad), and by analogy for any load or burden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1810-1876), German poet, +was born at Detmold on the 17th of June 1810. He was educated +at the gymnasium of his native town, and in his sixteenth year +was sent to Soest, with a view to preparing him for a commercial +career. Here he had also time and opportunity to acquire a +taste for French and English literature. The years from 1831 +to 1836 he spent in a bank at Amsterdam, and 1837 to 1839 in +a business house at Barmen. In 1838 his <i>Gedichte</i> appeared +and met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span> +idea of a commercial life and resolved to devote himself entirely +to literature. His repudiation of the political poetry of 1841 +and its revolutionary ideals attracted the attention of the king +of Prussia, Frederick William IV., who, in 1842, granted him +a pension of 300 talers a year. He married, and, to be near his +friend Emanuel Geibel, settled at St Goar. Before long, however, +Freiligrath was himself carried away by the rising tide of liberalism. +In the poem <i>Ein Glaubensbekenntnis</i> (1844) he openly +avowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old +adversary, Georg Herwegh; the day, he declared, of his own +poetic trifling with Romantic themes was over; Romanticism +itself was dead. He laid down his pension, and, to avoid the +inevitable political persecution, took refuge in Switzerland. +As a sequel to the <i>Glaubensbekenntnis</i> he published <i>Ça ira!</i> (1846), +which strained still further his relations with the German +authorities. He fled to London, where he resumed the commercial +life he had broken off seven years before. When the +Revolution of 1848 broke out, it seemed to Freiligrath, as to all +the liberal thinkers of the time, the dawn of an era of political +freedom; and, as may be seen from the poems in his collection of +<i>Politische und soziale Gedichte</i> (1849-1851), he welcomed it with +unbounded enthusiasm. He returned to Germany and settled +in Düsseldorf; but it was not long before he had again called +down upon himself the ill-will of the ruling powers by a poem, +<i>Die Toten an die Lebenden</i> (1848). He was arrested on a charge +of <i>lèse-majesté</i>, but the prosecution ended in his acquittal. New +difficulties arose; his association with the democratic movement +rendered him an object of constant suspicion, and in 1851 he +judged it more prudent to go back to London, where he remained +until 1868. In that year he returned to Germany, settling first in +Stuttgart and in 1875 in the neighbouring town of Cannstatt, +where he died on the 18th of March 1876.</p> + +<p>As a poet, Freiligrath was the most gifted member of the +German revolutionary group. Coming at the very close of the +Romantic age, his own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most +part the familiar thoughts and imagery of his Romantic predecessors; +but at an early age he had been attracted by the work +of French contemporary poets, and he reinvigorated the German +lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of Victor Hugo. In this +reconciliation of French and German romanticism lay Freiligrath’s +significance for the development of the lyric in Germany. His +remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to +be seen in his translations of English and Scottish ballads, of +the poetry of Burns, Mrs Hemans, Longfellow and Tennyson +(<i>Englische Gedichte aus neuerer Zeit</i>, 1846; <i>The Rose, Thistle +and Shamrock</i>, 1853, 6th ed. 1887); he also translated Shakespeare’s +<i>Cymbeline</i>, <i>Winter’s Tale</i> and <i>Venus and Adonis</i>, as well +as Longfellow’s <i>Hiawatha</i> (1857). Freiligrath is most original +in his revolutionary poetry. His poems of this class suffer, +it is true, under the disadvantage of all political poetry—purely +temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much that +has no claim to be called poetry at all—but the agitator Freiligrath, +when he is at his best, displays a vigour and strength, a +power of direct and cogent poetic expression, not to be found in +any other political singer of the age.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Freiligrath’s <i>Gedichte</i> have passed through some fifty editions, and +his <i>Gesammelte Dichtungen</i>, first published in 1870, have reached a +sixth edition (1898). <i>Nachgelassenes</i> (including a translation of +Byron’s <i>Mazeppa</i>) was published in 1883. A selection of Freiligrath’s +best-known poems in English translation was edited by his +daughter, Mrs Freiligrath-Kroeker, in 1869; also <i>Songs of a Revolutionary +Epoch</i> were translated by J. L. Joynes in 1888. Cp. E. +Schmidt-Weissenfels, <i>F. Freiligrath, eine Biographie</i> (1876); W. +Buchner, <i>F. Freiligrath, ein Dichterleben in Briefen</i> (2 vols., 1881); +G. Freiligrath, <i>Erinnerungen an F. Freiligrath</i> (1889); P. Besson, +<i>Freiligrath</i> (Paris, 1899); K. Richter, <i>Freiligrath als Übersetzer</i> +(1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIND, JOHN<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1675-1728), English physician, younger +brother of Robert Freind (1667-1751), headmaster of Westminster +school, was born in 1675 at Croton in Northamptonshire. +He made great progress in classical knowledge under Richard +Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford, under +Dean Aldrich, and while still very young, produced, along with +Peter Foulkes, an excellent edition of the speeches of Aeschines +and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon. After this he began +the study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attainments +by various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry +at Oxford in 1704. In the following year he accompanied the +English army, under the earl of Peterborough, into Spain, and +on returning home in 1707, wrote an account of the expedition, +which attained great popularity. Two years later he published +his <i>Prelectiones chimicae</i>, which he dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. +Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders, whither he had +accompanied the British troops, he took up his residence in +London, where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician. +In 1716 he became fellow of the college of physicians, of which +he was chosen one of the censors in 1718, and Harveian orator +in 1720. In 1722 he entered parliament as member for Launceston +in Cornwall, but, being suspected of favouring the cause of the +exiled Stuarts, he spent half of that year in the Tower. During +his imprisonment he conceived the plan of his most important +work, <i>The History of Physic</i>, of which the first part appeared +in 1725, and the second in the following year. In the latter year +he was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office which he +held till his death on the 26th of July 1728.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of +the <i>History of Physic</i>, edited by Dr John Wigan, was published in +London in 1732.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREINSHEIM<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Freinshemius</span>], <b>JOHANN</b> (1608-1660), German +classical scholar and critic, was born at Ulm on the 16th of +November 1608. After studying at the universities of Marburg, +Giessen and Strassburg, he visited France, where he remained +for three years. He returned to Strassburg in 1637, and in +1642 was appointed professor of eloquence at Upsala. In 1647 +he was summoned by Queen Christina to Stockholm as court +librarian and historiographer. In 1650 he resumed his professorship +at Upsala, but early in the following year he was obliged +to resign on account of ill-health. In 1656 he became honorary +professor at Heidelberg, and died on the 31st of August 1660. +Freinsheim’s literary activity was chiefly devoted to the Roman +historians. He first introduced the division into chapters and +paragraphs, and by means of carefully compiled indexes illustrated +the lexical peculiarities of each author. He is best known +for his famous supplements to Quintus Curtius and Livy, containing +the missing books written by himself. He also published +critical editions of Curtius and Florus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSÉ<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1719-1773), Portuguese historian +and philologist, was born at Lisbon on the 3rd of January +1719. He belonged to the monastic society of St Philip Neri, +and was a zealous member of the literary association known as +the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion with which he adopted +the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed much +to the improvement of the style of Portuguese prose literature, +but his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry +by a translation of Horace’s <i>Ars poëtica</i> was less successful. The +work in which he set forth his opinions regarding the vicious +taste pervading the current Portuguese prose literature is entitled +<i>Maximas sobre a Arte Oratoria</i> (1745) and is preceded by a chronological +table forming almost a social and physical history of +Portugal. His best known work, however, is his <i>Vida do +Infante D. Henrique</i> (1758), which has given him a place in the +first rank of Portuguese historians, and has been translated into +French (Paris, 1781). He also wrote a poetical dictionary +(<i>Diccionario poetico</i>) and a translation of Racine’s <i>Athalie</i> (1762), +and his <i>Réflexions sur la langue portugaise</i> was published in 1842 +by the Lisbon society for the promotion of useful knowledge. +He died at Mafra on the 5th of July 1773.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREISCHÜTZ,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> in German folklore, a marksman who by a +compact with the devil has obtained a certain number of bullets +destined to hit without fail whatever object he wishes. As the +legend is usually told, six of the <i>Freikugeln</i> or “free bullets” +are thus subservient to the marksman’s will, but the seventh is +at the absolute disposal of the devil himself. Various methods +were adopted in order to procure possession of the marvellous +missiles. According to one the marksman, instead of swallowing +the sacramental host, kept it and fixed it on a tree, shot at it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span> +and caused it to bleed great drops of blood, gathered the drops +on a piece of cloth and reduced the whole to ashes, and then with +these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his +bullets were made. Various vegetable or animal substances had +the reputation of serving the same purpose. Stories about the +Freischütz were especially common in Germany during the 14th, +15th and 16th centuries; but the first time that the legend was +turned to literary profit is said to have been by Apel in the +<i>Gespensterbuch</i> or “Book of Ghosts.” It formed the subject +of Weber’s opera <i>Der Freischütz</i> (1821), the libretto of which +was written by Friedrich Kind, who had suggested Apel’s story +as an excellent theme for the composer. The name by which the +Freischütz is known in French is Robin des Bois.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Kind, <i>Freyschützbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1843); <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> +(February 1855); Grässe, <i>Die Quelle des Freischütz</i> (Dresden, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREISING,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, +on the Isar, 16 m. by rail N.N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 13,538. +Among its eight Roman Catholic churches the most remarkable +is the cathedral, which dates from about 1160 and is famous for +its curious crypt. Noteworthy also are the old palace of the +bishops, now a clerical seminary, the theological lyceum and the +town-hall. There are several schools in the town, and there is a +statue to the chronicler, Otto of Freising, who was bishop here +from 1138 to 1158. Freising has manufactures of agricultural +machinery and of porcelain, while printing and brewing are carried +on. Near the town is the site of the Benedictine abbey of +Weihenstephan, which existed from 725 to 1803. This is now +a model farm and brewery. Freising is a very ancient town and +is said to have been founded by the Romans. After being +destroyed by the Hungarians in 955 it was fortified by the emperor +Otto II. in 976 and by Duke Welf of Bavaria in 1082. A bishopric +was established here in 724 by St Corbinianus, whose brother +Erimbert was consecrated second bishop by St Boniface in 739. +Later on the bishops acquired considerable territorial power +and in the 17th century became princes of the Empire. In +1802 the see was secularized, the bulk of its territories being +assigned to Bavaria and the rest to Salzburg, of which Freising +had been a suffragan bishopric. In 1817 an archbishopric +was established at Freising, but in the following year it was +transferred to Munich. The occupant of the see is now called +archbishop of Munich and Freising.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Meichelbeck, <i>Historiae Frisingensis</i> (Augsburg, 1724-1729, +new and enlarged edition 1854).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRÉJUS,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France. +Pop. (1906) 3430. It is 28½ m. S.E. of Draguignan (the chief +town of the department), and 22½ m. S.W. of Cannes by rail. It +is only important on account of the fine Roman remains that it +contains, for it is now a mile from the sea, its harbour having been +silted up by the deposits of the Argens river. Since the 4th +century it has been a bishop’s see, which is in the ecclesiastical +province of Aix en Provence. In modern times the neighbouring +fishing village at St Raphaël (2½ m. by rail S.E., and on the seashore) +has become a town of 4865 inhabitants (in 1901); in 1799 +Napoleon disembarked there, on his return from Egypt, and reembarked +for Elba in 1814, while nowadays it is much frequented +as a health resort, as is also Valescure (2 m. N.W. on the heights +above). The cathedral church in part dates from the 12th century, +but only small portions of the old medieval episcopal palace +are now visible, as it was rebuilt about 1823. The ramparts of +the old town can still be traced for a long distance, and there +are fragments of two moles, of the theatre and of a gate. The +amphitheatre, which seated 12,000 spectators, is in a better state +of preservation. The ruins of the great aqueduct which brought +the waters of the Siagnole, an affluent of the Siagne, to the town, +can still be traced for a distance of nearly 19 m. The original +hamlet was the capital of the tribe of the Oxybii, while the town +of Forum Julii was founded on its site by Julius Caesar in order +to secure to the Romans a harbour independent of that of +Marseilles. The buildings of which ruins exist were mostly +built by Caesar or by Augustus, and show that it was an important +naval station and arsenal. But the town suffered much at the +hands of the Arabs, of Barbary pirates, and of its inhabitants, +who constructed many of their dwellings out of the ruined Roman +buildings. The ancient harbour (really but a portion of the +lagoons, which had been deepened) is now completely silted +up. Even in early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual +digging, while about 1700 this was closed, and now a sandy +and partly cultivated waste extends between the town and the +seashore.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. A. Aubenas, <i>Histoire de Fréjus</i> (Fréjus, 1881); Ch. Lenthéric, +<i>La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne</i> (Paris, 1880), chap. vii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1817-1885), +American lawyer and statesman, of Dutch descent, was born at +Millstone, New Jersey, on the 4th of August 1817. His grandfather, +Frederick Frelinghuysen (1753-1804), was an eminent +lawyer, one of the framers of the first New Jersey constitution, +a soldier in the War of Independence, and a member (1778-1779 +and 1782-1783) of the Continental Congress from New Jersey, +and in 1793-1796 of the United States senate; and his uncle, +Theodore (1787-1862), was attorney-general of New Jersey +from 1817 to 1829, was a United States senator from New +Jersey in 1829-1835, was the Whig candidate for vice-president +on the Clay ticket in 1844, and was chancellor of the university +of New York in 1839-1850 and president of Rutgers College +in 1850-1862. Frederick Theodore, left an orphan at the age of +three, was adopted by his uncle, graduated at Rutgers in 1836, +and studied law in Newark with his uncle, to whose practice +he succeeded in 1839, soon after his admission to the bar. He +became attorney for the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the +Morris Canal and Banking Company, and other corporations, +and from 1861 to 1867 was attorney-general of New Jersey. +In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace congress at Washington, +and in 1866 was appointed by the governor of New Jersey, as +a Republican, to fill a vacancy in the United States senate. +In the winter of 1867 he was elected to fill the unexpired term, +but a Democratic majority in the legislature prevented his +re-election in 1869. In 1870 he was nominated by President +Grant, and confirmed by the senate, as United States minister +to England to succeed John Lothrop Motley, but declined the +mission. From 1871 to 1877 he was again a member of the United +States senate, in which he was prominent in debate and in committee +work, and was chairman of the committee on foreign +affairs during the Alabama Claims negotiations. He was a strong +opponent of the reconstruction measures of President Johnson, +for whose conviction he voted (on most of the specific charges) +in the impeachment trial. He was a member of the joint committee +which drew up and reported (1877) the Electoral Commission +Bill, and subsequently served as a member of the commission. +On the 12th of December 1881 he was appointed +secretary of state by President Arthur to succeed James G. +Blaine, and served until the inauguration of President Cleveland +in 1885. Retiring, with his health impaired by overwork, to +his home in Newark, he died there on the 20th of May, less than +three months after relinquishing the cares of office.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREMANTLE,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a seaport of Swan county, Western Australia, +at the mouth of the Swan river, 12 m. by rail S.W. of Perth. +It is the terminus of the Eastern railway, and is a town of +some industrial activity, shipbuilding, soap-boiling, saw-milling, +smelting, iron-founding, furniture-making, flour-milling, brewing +and tanning being its chief industries. The harbour, by the +construction of two long moles and the blasting away of the rocks +at the bar, has been rendered secure. The English, French and +German mail steamers call at the port. Fremantle became a +municipality in 1871; but there are now three separate municipalities—Fremantle, +with a population in 1901 of 14,704; +Fremantle East (2494); and Fremantle North (3246). At Rottnest +Island, off the harbour, there are government salt-works +and a residence of the governor, also penal and reformatory +establishments.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRÉMIET, EMMANUEL<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1824-  ), French sculptor, born +in Paris, was a nephew and pupil of Rude; he chiefly devoted +himself to animal sculpture and to equestrian statues in armour. +His earliest work was in scientific lithography (osteology), and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span> +for a while he served in times of adversity in the gruesome office +of “painter to the Morgue.” In 1843 he sent to the Salon a +study of a “Gazelle,” and after that date was very prolific in his +works. His “Wounded Bear” and “Wounded Dog” were +produced in 1850, and the Luxembourg Museum at once secured +this striking example of his work. From 1855 to 1859 Frémiet +was engaged on a series of military statuettes for Napoleon III. +He produced his equestrian statue of “Napoleon I.” in 1868, +and of “Louis d’Orléans” in 1869 (at the Château de Pierrefonds) +and in 1874 the first equestrian statue of “Joan of Arc,” erected +in the Place des Pyramides, Paris; this he afterwards (1889) +replaced with another and still finer version. In the meanwhile +he had exhibited his masterly “Gorilla and Woman” which won +him a medal of honour at the Salon of 1887. Of the same +character, and even more remarkable, is his “Ourang-Outangs +and Borneo Savage” of 1895, a commission from the Paris +Museum of Natural History. Frémiet also executed the statue +of “St Michael” for the summit of the spire of the Église +St Michel, and the equestrian statue of Velasquez for the Jardin +de l’Infante at the Louvre. He became a member of the +Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1892, and succeeded Barye as +professor of animal drawing at the Natural History Museum of +Paris.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1813-1890), American explorer, +soldier and political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on +the 21st of January 1813. His father, a native of France, died +when the boy was in his sixth year, and his mother, a member of +an aristocratic Virginia family, then removed to Charleston, South +Carolina. In 1828, after a year’s special preparation, young +Frémont entered the junior class of the college of Charleston, +and here displayed marked ability, especially in mathematics; +but his irregular attendance and disregard of college discipline +led to his expulsion from the institution, which, however, conferred +upon him a degree in 1836. In 1833 he was appointed teacher +of mathematics on board the sloop of war “Natchez,” and was +so engaged during a cruise along the South American coast +which was continued for about two and a half years. Soon +after returning to Charleston he was appointed professor of +mathematics in the United States navy, but he chose instead to +serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken chiefly for +the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a proposed +railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. In July 1838 he +was appointed second lieutenant of Topographical Engineers in +the United States army, and for the next three years he was +assistant to the French explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollet (1786-1843), +employed by the war department to survey and map a +large part of the country lying between the upper waters of the +Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In 1841 Frémont surveyed, for +the government, the lower course of the Des Moines river. In +the same year he married Jessie, the daughter of Senator Thomas +H. Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure through +Benton’s influence with the government that Frémont was +enabled to accomplish within the next few years the exploration +of much of the territory between the Mississippi Valley and the +Pacific Ocean.</p> + +<p>When the claim of the United States to the Oregon territory +was being strengthened by occupation, Frémont was sent, at +his urgent request, to explore the frontier beyond the Missouri +river, and especially the Rocky Mountains in the vicinity of the +South Pass, through which the American immigrants travelled. +Within four months (1842) he surveyed the Pass and ascended +to the summit of the highest of the Wind River Mountains, since +known as Frémont’s Peak, and the interest aroused by his +descriptions was such that in the next year he was sent on a +second expedition to complete the survey across the continent +along the line of travel from Missouri to the mouth of the Columbia +river. This time he not only carried out his instructions but, +by further explorations together with interesting descriptions, +dispelled general ignorance with respect to the main features of +the country W. of the Rocky Mountains: the Great Salt Lake, +the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the fertile +river basins of the Mexican province of California.</p> + +<p>His report of this expedition upon his return to Washington, +D.C., in 1844, aroused much solicitude for California, which, it +was feared, might, in the event of war then threatening between +the United States and Mexico, be seized by Great Britain. In +the spring of 1845 Frémont was despatched on a third expedition +for the professed purposes of further exploring the Great Basin +and the Pacific Coast, and of discovering the easiest lines of +communication between them, as well as for the secret purpose +of assisting the United States, in case of war with Mexico, to +gain possession of California. He and his party of sixty-two +arrived there in January 1846. Owing to the number of American +immigrants who had settled in California, the Mexican +authorities there became suspicious and hostile, and ordered +Frémont out of the province. Instead of obeying he pitched +his camp near the summit of a mountain overlooking Monterey, +fortified his position, and raised the United States flag. A few +days later he was proceeding toward the Oregon border when +new instructions from Washington caused him to retrace his +steps and, perhaps, to consider plans for provoking war. The +extent of his responsibility for the events that ensued is not +wholly clear, and has been the subject of much controversy; +his defenders have asserted that he was not responsible for the +seizure of Sonoma or for the so-called “Bear-Flag War”; and +that he played a creditable part throughout. (For an opposite +view see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">California</a></span>.) Commodore John D. Sloat, after seizing +Monterey, transferred his command to Commodore Robert +Field Stockton (1795-1866), who made Frémont major of a +battalion; and by January 1847 Stockton and Frémont completed +the conquest of California. In the meantime General Stephen +Watts Kearny (1794-1848) had been sent by the Government +to conquer it and to establish a government. This created a +conflict of authority between Stockton and Kearny, both of +whom were Frémont’s superior officers. Stockton, ignoring +Kearny, commissioned Frémont military commandant and +governor. But Kearny’s authority being confirmed about the +1st of April, Frémont, for repeated acts of disobedience, was +sent under arrest to Washington, where he was tried by court-martial, +found guilty (January 1847) of mutiny, disobedience +and conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced +to dismissal from the service. President Polk approved of the +verdict except as to mutiny, but remitted the penalty, whereupon +Frémont resigned.</p> + +<p>With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring +acquired by the United States, Frémont was eager for a railway +from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out +at his own and Senator Benton’s expense to find passes for such +a railway along a line westward from the headwaters of the Rio +Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led astray by a +guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several of his +men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger, +he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and +then westward through the valley of the Gila into southern +California. Late in the year 1853, however, he returned to the +place where the guide had led him astray, found passes through +the mountains to the westward between latitudes 37° and 38° +N., and arrived in San Francisco early in May 1854. From the +conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855, when he +removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in December +1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators from +the new state. But as he drew the short term, he served only +from the 10th of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851. +Although a candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the +pro-slavery party. His opposition to slavery, however, together +with his popularity—won by the successes, hardships and dangers +of his exploring expeditions, and by his part in the conquest of +California—led to his nomination, largely on the ground of +“availability,” for the presidency in 1856 by the Republicans +(this being their first presidential campaign), and by the National +Americans or “Know-Nothings.” In the ensuing election he +was defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes.</p> + +<p>Soon after the Civil War began, Frémont was appointed +major-general and placed in command of the western department +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span> +with headquarters at St Louis, but his lack of judgment and +of administrative ability soon became apparent, the affairs of +his department fell into disorder, and Frémont seems to have +been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted. +On the 30th of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which +he declared the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated +and their slaves emancipated. For this he was applauded by +the radical Republicans, but his action was contrary to an act +of congress of the 6th of August and to the policy of the Administration. +On the 11th of September President Lincoln, who +regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might +alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he +was trying to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by +serious charges against Frémont, the president sent Montgomery +Blair, the postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs, +the quartermaster-general, to investigate the department; they +reported that Frémont’s management was extravagant and +inefficient; and in November he was removed. Out of consideration +for the “Radicals,” however, Frémont was placed in +command of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky +and Tennessee. In the spring and summer of 1862 he co-operated +with General N. P. Banks against “Stonewall” Jackson in the +Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability as a commander, was +defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his troops +were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form +the Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed +in command, Frémont declined to serve under Pope, whom he +outranked, and retired from active service. On the 31st of May +1864 he was nominated for the presidency by a radical faction +of the Republican party, opposed to President Lincoln, but +his following was so small that on the 21st of September he withdrew +from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor of +the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was +appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the +retired list. He died in New York on the 13th of July 1890.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. C. Frémont, <i>Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky +Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844</i> +(Washington, 1845); Frémont’s <i>Memoirs of my Life</i> (New York, +1887); and J. Bigelow, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Public Services +of John C. Frémont</i> (New York, 1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREMONT,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Dodge county, +Nebraska, U.S.A., about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank +of the Platte river, which here abounds in picturesque bluffs +and wooded islands. Pop. (1890) 6747; (1900) 7241 (1303 +foreign-born); (1910) 8718. It is on the main line of the Union +Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago & +North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the +formerly independent Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley and +the Sioux City & Pacific) converge here. The city has an attractive +situation and is beautifully shaded. It has a public library +and is the seat of the Fremont College, Commercial Institute +and School of Pharmacy (1875), a private institution. There is +considerable local trade with the rich farming country of the +Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale grain interests are +especially important. Among the manufactures are flour, +carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators +and beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant +and water-works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became +the county-seat in 1860. It was chartered as a city (second-class) +in 1871, and became a city of the first class in 1901.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FREMONT,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Sandusky county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo. +Pop. (1890) 7141; (1900) 8439, of whom 1074 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 9939. Fremont is served by the Lake Shore & +Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake Erie +& Western, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The river +is navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of +Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public +library (1873) and parks, in large measure the gifts of his uncle, +Sardis Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural +region; oil and natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the city +has various manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons, +cutlery, bricks, agricultural implements, stoves and ranges, +safety razors, carriage irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet +sugar, canned vegetables, malt extract, garters and suspenders. +The total factory product was valued at $2,833,385 in 1905, +an increase of 23.4% over that of 1900. Fremont is on the site +of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a trading post was at +times maintained here; but the place is best known in history as +the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of 1812, +and on the 2nd of August 1813 gallantly and successfully defended +by Major George Croghan (1791-1849), with 160 men, against +about 1000 British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry +A. Proctor. In 1906 Croghan’s remains were re-interred on the +site of the old fort. Until 1849, when the present name was +adopted in honour of J. C. Frémont, the place was known as +Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in 1829 +and was first chartered as a city in 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRÉMY, EDMOND<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1814-1894), French chemist, was born +at Versailles on the 29th of February 1814. Entering Gay-Lussac’s +laboratory in 1831, he became <i>préparateur</i> at the École +Polytechnique in 1834 and at the Collège de France in 1837. +His next post was that of <i>répétiteur</i> at the École Polytechnique, +where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in 1850 he succeeded +Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Muséum +d’Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession to +M. E. Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd +of February 1894. His work included investigations of osmic +acid, of the ferrates, stannates, plumbates, &c., and of ozone, +attempts to obtain free fluorine by the electrolysis of fused +fluorides, and the discovery of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and +of a series of <i>acides sulphazotés</i>, the precise nature of which long +remained a matter of discussion. He also studied the colouring +matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of bone, cerebral +matter and other animal substances, and the processes of fermentation, +in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of +Pasteur’s views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical +applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a +teacher to the training of industrial chemists. In this field he +contributed to our knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel, +sulphuric acid, glass and paper, and in particular worked at the +saponification of fats with sulphuric acid and the utilization of +palmitic acid for candle-making. In the later years of his life +he applied himself to the problem of obtaining alumina in the +crystalline form, and succeeded in making rubies identical with +the natural gem not merely in chemical composition but also in +physical properties.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1850-  ), American sculptor, +was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 20th of April 1850, +the son of Henry Flagg French, a lawyer, who for a time was +assistant-secretary of the United States treasury. After a year +at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, French spent a +month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then began to work on +commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received from the +town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known +statue “The Minute Man,” which was unveiled (April 19, 1875) +on the centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French +had gone to Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas +Ball. French’s best-known work is “Death Staying the Hand of +the Sculptor,” a memorial for the tomb of the sculptor Martin +Milmore, in the Forest Hills cemetery, Boston; this received a +medal of honour at Paris, in 1900. Among his other works are: +a monument to John Boyle O’Reilly, Boston; “Gen. Cass,” +National Hall of Statuary, Washington; “Dr Gallaudet and his +First Deaf-Mute Pupil,” Washington; the colossal “Statue +of the Republic,” for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago; +statues of Rufus Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge, +Mass.), and Thomas Starr King (San Francisco, California), a +memorial to the architect Richard M. Hunt, in Fifth Avenue, +opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large “Alma +Mater,” near the approach to Columbia University, New York. +In collaboration with Edward C. Potter he modelled the +“Washington,” presented to France by the Daughters of the +American Revolution; the “General Grant” in Fairmount Park, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span> +Philadelphia, and the “General Joseph Hooker” in Boston. +French became a member of the National Academy of Design +(1901), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League, +and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRENCH, NICHOLAS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an +Irish political pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He +was educated at Louvain, and returning to Ireland became a +priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was appointed bishop of +Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the political disturbances +of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave Ireland +in 1651, and the remainder of his life was +passed on the continent of Europe. He acted +as coadjutor to the archbishops of Santiago +de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop +of Ghent, and died at Ghent on the 23rd of +August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack +on James Butler, marquess of Ormonde, +entitled “The Unkinde Desertor of Loyall +Men and True Frinds,” and shortly afterwards +“The Bleeding Iphigenia.” The most important +of his other pamphlets is the “Narrative +of the Earl of Clarendon’s Settlement and Sale +of Ireland” (Louvain, 1668).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Historical Works</i> of Bishop French, comprising +the three pamphlets already mentioned +and some letters, were published by S. H. Bindon +at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, <i>Irish +Writers of the 17th Century</i> (Dublin, 1846); Sir +J. T. Gilbert, <i>Contemporary History of Affairs in +Ireland</i>, 1641-1652 (Dublin, 1879-1880); and T. +Carte, <i>Life of James, Duke of Ormond</i> (new ed., +Oxford, 1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRENCH CONGO,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> the general name of the +French possessions in equatorial Africa. They +have an area estimated at 700,000 sq. m., with +a population, also estimated, of 6,000,000 to +10,000,000. The whites numbered (1906) 1278, +of whom 502 were officials. French Congo, +officially renamed <span class="sc">French Equatorial Africa</span> +in 1910, comprises—(1) the Gabun Colony, +(2) the Middle Congo Colony, (3) the Ubangi-Shari +Circumscription, (4) the Chad Circumscription. +The two last-named divisions form +the Ubangi-Shari-Chad Colony.</p> + +<p>The present article treats of French Congo +as a unit. It is of highly irregular shape. It +is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish) Muni +River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the +Sahara, E. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian +Congo and the Portuguese territory of Kabinda. In the greater +part of its length the southern frontier is the middle course of +the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the chief northern +affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the frontier +keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course +is partitioned between Belgium and Portugal. The coast line, +some 600 m. long, extends from 5° S. to 1° N. The northern +frontier, starting inland from the Muni estuary, after skirting the +Spanish settlements follows a line drawn a little north of 2° N. +and extending east to 16° E. North of this line the country is +part of Cameroon, German territory extending so far inland from +the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the Ubangi. +From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French +Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east +until the Shari is reached in 10° 40′ N. The Shari then forms the +frontier up to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan +regions of French West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating +the colony from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting +between the Nile and the Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates +of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the northern part of +French Congo (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wadai</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagirmi</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The coast line, beginning in the north at +Corisco Bay, is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by +the estuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly +straight line until the delta of the Ogowé is reached, where Cape +Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends uniformly +S.E. without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of +Mayumba, the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be +mentioned. A large proportion of the coast region is occupied by +primeval forest, with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft., but +there is a considerable variety of scenery—open lagoons, mangrove +swamps, scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of +tangled underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches +of cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from +3000 to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with +an elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep river-valleys, +the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in some +places 760 ft. high.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:677px; height:683px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img99.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces. +On the higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand; +on the second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide +grassy tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin +forest, and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m. +broad. The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally +unnavigable. The most important, the Ogowé (<i>q.v.</i>), is, however, +navigable from its mouth to N’Jole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to +the south of the Ogowé are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu. +The latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi and the Luété; +it has a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south, +from east to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-west. +It is encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only +over 38 m., and for five months in the year. The mouth is 1100 ft. +wide. The Muni river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed +by cataracts in its passage through the escarpment to the coast.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the upper basin of the Shari (<i>q.v.</i>) as well as the right +bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part +of the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo +river. In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi, +330 m. of the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French protectorate +as well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some 100 m. +however, the right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these +subsidiary streams, is in German territory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congo</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Three main divisions are recognized in the French +Congo:—(1) the littoral zone, covered with alluvium and superficial +deposits and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the +mountain zone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite, +metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern +portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The +core of the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span> +Infolded with them, and on the flanks, are three rock systems ascribed +to the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossiliferous, +but fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congo +Free State</a></span>). Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal +Mountains. The plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist +of a lower red sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group. +They have not yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age, +with <i>Schloenbachia inflata</i>, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowé +basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene facies overlie +the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented +sand, erroneously termed laterite, covers large areas in the littoral +zone, on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The whole of the country being in the equatorial region, +the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans. +On the coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (15th +of May to 15th of September), the rainy season (15th of September +to 15th of January), then a second dry season (15th of January to +1st of March), and a second rainy season (1st of March to 15th of +May). The rainfall at Libreville is about 96 in. a year.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile +and several kinds of apes—including the chimpanzee and the rare +gorilla—are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are +various and beautiful—grey parrots, shrikes, fly-catchers, rhinoceros +birds, weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-birds, +from the <i>Cecyle Sharpii</i> to the dwarfish <i>Alcedo cristata</i>, butterfly +finches, and helmet-birds (<i>Turacus giganteus</i>), as well as more +familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious +climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the <i>Protopterus</i> or +lung-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry +season, the strange and poisonous <i>Tetrodon guttifer</i>, and the herring-like +<i>Pellona africana</i>, often caught in great shoals—are the more +remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the +lagoons, and the huge <i>Cardisoma armatum</i> or heart-crab is fattened +for table. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most +familiar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking +bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one +above the other.</p> + +<p>Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs, +silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms—especially <i>Hyphaene +guineensis</i> (a fan-palm), <i>Raphia</i> (the wine-palm), and <i>Elaeis guineensis</i> +(the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably <i>Anona senegalensis</i>), +and the <i>pallabanda</i>, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are common in the +prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft. along the rivers; +the banks are fringed by the cottony <i>Hibiscus tiliaceus</i>, ipomaeas +and fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bound together in one +inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the upper Shari +region, and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, are species of +the coffee tree, one species attaining a height of over 60 ft. Its bean +resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality. Among the +fruit trees are the mango and the papaw, the orange and the lemon. +Negro-pepper (a variety of capsicum) and ginger grow wild.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants and Chief Towns.</i>—A census, necessarily imperfect, +taken in 1906 showed a total population, exclusive of Wadai, of +3,652,000, divided in districts as follows:—Gabun, 376,000; Middle +Congo, 259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 885,000. The +country is peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions bordering +Lake Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-Arab +tribes. Among the best-known tribes living in French Congo +are the Fang (Fans), the Bakalai, the Batekes and the Zandeh or +Niam-Niam. Several of the tribes are cannibals and among many +of them the fetish worship characteristic of the West African negroes +prevails. Their civilization is of a low order. In the northern +regions the majority of the inhabitants are Mahommedans, and it is +only in those districts that organized and powerful states exist. +Elsewhere the authority of a chief or “king” extends, ordinarily, +little beyond the village in which he lives. (An account of the chief +tribes is given under their names.) The European inhabitants are +chiefly of French nationality, and are for the most part traders, +officials and missionaries.</p> + +<p>The chief towns are Libreville (capital of the Gabun colony) with +3000 inhabitants; Brazzaville, on the Congo on the north side of +Stanley Pool (opposite the Belgian capital of Leopoldville), the seat +of the governor-general; Franceville, on the upper Ogowé; Loango, +an important seaport in 4° 39′ S.; N’Jole, a busy trading centre on +the lower Ogowé; Chekna, capital of Bagirmi, which forms part of +the Chad territory; Abeshr, the capital of Wadai, Bangi on the +Ubangi river, the administrative capital of the Ubangi-Shari-Chad +colony. Kunde, Lame and Binder are native trading centres near +the Cameroon frontier.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The rivers are the chief means of internal +communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is obtained +by ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence +round the falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazzaville +on Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navigation +N.E. into the heart of Africa, 330 m. being on the Congo +and 350 m. on the Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo, +where rapids block the river, but beyond that port there are several +navigable stretches of the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to +the Nile is possible by means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries. +The Sanga, which joins the Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be +navigated by steamers for 350 m., <i>i.e.</i> up to and beyond the S.E. +frontier of the German colony of Cameroon. The Shari is also +navigable for a considerable distance and by means of its affluent, +the Logone, connects with the Benue and Niger, affording a waterway +between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad. Stores for government +posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by this route. There is, +however, no connecting link between the coast rivers—Gabun, +Ogowé and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about 500 m. +long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys for +the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that +from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line, 75 m. long, from +Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November +1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district +served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai +a caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengazi on the shores of +the Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Brazzaville +and Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe +by submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango +and Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg.</p> + +<p><i>Trade and Agriculture.</i>—The chief wealth of the colony consists in +the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to +manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and +tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and +vanilla are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold, +iron and copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from +Mindule since 1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next +in importance coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other +woods, coffee, cocoa and copal. The imports are mainly cotton and +metal goods, spirits and foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin +of the Ogowé the French customs tariff, with some modifications, +prevails, but in the Congo basin, that is, in the greater part of the +country, by virtue of international agreements, no discrimination +can be made between French and other merchandise, whilst customs +duties must not exceed 10% <i>ad valorem</i>.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the Shari basin and in +Wadai the Anglo-French declaration of March 1899 accorded for +thirty years equal treatment to British and French goods. The +value of the trade rose in the ten years 1896-1905 from £360,000 to +£850,000, imports and exports being nearly equal. The bulk of the +export trade is with Great Britain, which takes most of the rubber, +France coming second and Germany third. The imports are in about +equal proportions from France and foreign countries.</p> + +<p><i>Land Tenure. The Concessions Régime.</i>—Land held by the +natives is governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native +ownership in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater +part of the country is considered a state domain. Land held by +Europeans is subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates +as have been registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of +March 1899, when, registration having been effected, the title to the +land is guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has +been divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability +companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the +land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered +in 1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over £2,000,000, +whilst the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. m. +One effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the +business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most important +were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent +of the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the +European powers were signatories, equality of treatment in commercial +affairs was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin, +protests were raised against the terms of the concessions. The reply +was that the critics confused the exercise of the right of proprietorship +with the act of commerce, and that in no country was the +landowner who farmed his land and sold the produce regarded as a +merchant. Various decisions by the judges of the colony during +1902 and 1903 and by the French <i>cour de cassation</i> in 1905 confirmed +that contention. The action of the companies was, however, +in most cases, neither beneficial to the country nor financially +successful, whilst the native cultivators resented the prohibition of +their trading direct with their former customers. The case of the +Liverpool traders was taken up by the British government and it +was agreed that the dispute should be settled by arbitration. In +September 1908 the French government issued a decree reorganizing +and rendering more stringent the control exercised by the local +authorities over the concession companies, especially in matters +concerning the rights of natives and the liberty of commerce.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The Gabun was visited in the 15th century by the +Portuguese explorers, and it became one of the chief seats of +the slave trade. It was not, however, till well on in the 19th +century that Europeans made any more permanent settlement +than was absolutely necessary for the maintenance of their +commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral) Bouët-Willaumez +obtained for France the right of residence on the left +bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank. +The primary object of the French settlement was to secure a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span> +port wherein men-of-war could revictual. The chief establishment, +Libreville, was founded in 1849, with negroes taken from +a slave ship. The settlement in time acquired importance as a +trading port. In 1867 the troops numbered about 1000, and the +civil population about 5000, while the official reports about the +same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000 sq. m. +and a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to +France in 1862, and the colony’s coast-line extended, nominally, +to a length of 200 m. In consequence of the war with Germany +the colony was practically abandoned in 1871, the establishment +at Libreville being maintained as a coaling depot merely. In +1875, however, France again turned her attention to the Gabun +estuary, the hinterland of which had already been partly explored. +Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1855-1859 and 1863-1865) +to the south of the Ogowé; Walker, an English merchant, +explored the Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogowé, in 1866. In +1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a French naturalist, and the marquis +de Compiègne<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> explored a portion of the Ogowé basin, but it was +not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that the country east of +the Ogowé was reached. This expedition was led by Savorgnan +de Brazza (<i>q.v.</i>), who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugène +Ballay, and, for part of the time, by Marche. De Brazza’s +expedition, which was compelled to remain for many months at +several places, ascended the Ogowé over 400 m., and beyond the +basin of that stream discovered the Alima, which was, though the +explorers were ignorant of the fact, a tributary of the Congo. +From the Alima, de Brazza and Ballay turned north and finally +reached the Gabun in November 1878, the journey being less +fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate. +Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had +revealed the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey, +begun December 1879, the French traveller undertook to find a +way to the Congo above the rapids via the Ogowé. In this he +was successful, and in September 1880 reached Stanley Pool, +on the north side of which Brazzaville was subsequently founded. +Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de Brazza met +Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the +International African Association (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congo Free State</a></span>), +<span class="sidenote">De Brazza’s treaties.</span> +but de Brazza in reality acted solely in the interests of +France and concluded treaties with Makoko, “king +of the Batekes,” and other chieftains, placing very large +areas under the protection of that country. The conflicting +claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free +State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in +February 1885.<a name="fa3o" id="fa3o" href="#ft3o"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had +more fully explored the country behind the coast regions of Gabun +and Loango, the last-named seaport being occupied by France +in 1883. The conclusion of agreements with Germany (December +1885 and February-March 1894) and with Portugal (May 1886) +secured France in the possession of the western portion of the +colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo +Free State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the +Ubangi district.</p> + +<p>The extension of French influence northward towards Lake Chad +and eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed, though +not without involving the country in serious disputes +with the other European powers possessing rights in +<span class="sidenote">The advance towards the Nile: Fashoda.</span> +those regions. By creating the posts of Bangi (1890), +Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her +hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same +time the Congo Free State passed the parallel of 4° N.—which, +after the compromise of 1887, France had regarded as the southern +boundary of her possessions—and, occupying the sultanate of +Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed on as far as 9° N. +The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and after +the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the +Congo State of the 12th of May of that year, against which both +the German and the French governments protested, the last +named because it erected a barrier against the extension of French +territory to the Nile valley. By a compromise of the 14th of +August the boundary was definitely drawn and, in accordance +with this pact, which put the frontier back to about 4° N., +France from 1895 to 1897 took possession of the upper Ubangi, +with Bangasso, Rafai and Zemio. Then began the French +encroachment on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition, +despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-governor +of the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897 +and Fashoda in July 1898. A dispute with Great Britain arose, +and it was decided that the expedition should evacuate Fashoda. +The declaration of the 21st of March 1899 finally terminated the +dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the French colony as already +stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty of June 1900 +settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast, the +boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were determined +in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was +precisely defined by another Franco-German agreement in +April 1908, following a detailed survey made by joint commissioners +in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive description +of these international rivalries see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, § 5, and for the conquest +of the Chad regions see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagirmi</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rabah Zobeir</a></span>. In +the other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the +natives, for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France +with Wadai see that article.</p> + +<p>Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient +Gabun colony was joined to the Congo territories. From 1886 +to 1889 Gabun was, however, separately administered. By +decree of the 11th of December 1888 the whole of the French +possessions were created one “colony” under the style of Congo +français, with various subdivisions; they were placed under a commissioner-general +(de Brazza) having his residence at Brazzaville. +This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic development +of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits +of the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, +§ 5) enjoyed a separate tariff. By decree of the 29th of December +1903 (which became operative in July 1904) Congo français was +divided into four parts as named in the opening paragraph. +The first commissioner-general under the new scheme was Emile +Gentil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In 1905 de Brazza +was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and +maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several +of which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when +on his way home. The French government, after considering +the report he had drawn up, decided to retain Gentil as commissioner-general, +making however (decree of 15th of February +1906) various changes in administration with a view to protect +the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil, +who devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the +finances of the country and the development of its commerce, +resigned his post in February 1908. He was succeeded by +M. Merlin, whose title was changed (June 1908) to that of +governor-general.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Administration and Revenue.</i>—The governor-general has control +over the whole of French Congo, but does not directly administer +any part of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors. +The Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the +coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowé +river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the hinterland +not within the Congo free-trade zone (the Chad district excepted). +The Middle Congo has for its western frontier the Gabun +colony and Cameroon, and extends inland to the easterly bend of +the Ubangi river; the two circumscriptions extend east and north +of the Middle Congo. There is a general budget for the whole of +French Congo; each colony has also a separate budget and administrative +autonomy. As in other French colonies the legislative power +is in the French chambers only, but in the absence of specific legislation +presidential decrees have the force of law. A judicial service +independent of the executive exists, but the district administrators +also exercise judicial functions. Education is in the hands of the +missionaries, upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909. +The military force maintained consists of natives officered by +Europeans.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span></p> + +<p>Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid by concession +companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and customs receipts, +supplemented by a subvention from France. In addition to defraying +the military expenses, about £100,000 a year, a grant of £28,000 +yearly was made up to 1906 by the French chambers towards the +civil expenses. In 1907 the budget of the Congo balanced at about +£250,000 without the aid of this subvention. In 1909 the chambers +sanctioned a loan for the colony of £840,000, guaranteed by France +and to be applied to the establishment of administrative stations +and public works.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Fernand Rouget, <i>L’Expansion coloniale au +Congo français</i> (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, with bibliography +and maps; A. Chevalier, <i>L’Afrique centrale française</i> (Paris, +1907). For special studies see Lacroix, <i>Résultats minéralogiques et +zoologiques des récentes explorations de l’Afrique occidentale française +et de la région du Tchad</i> (Paris, 1905); M. Barrat, <i>Sur la géologie du +Congo français</i> (Paris, 1895), and <i>Ann. des mines</i>, sér. q. t. vii. (1895); +J. Cornet, “Les Formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo,” +<i>Ann. soc, géol. belg.</i> vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris <i>Bulletin du Muséum</i> +for 1903 and 1904 contains papers on the zoology of the country. +For flora see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in <i>Comptes rendus +de l’académie des sciences</i> (1902-1904), and the <i>Journal d’agriculture +pratique des pays chauds</i> (1901, &c.). For history, besides Rouget’s +book, see J. Ancel, “Étude historique. La formation de la colonie +du Congo français, 1843-1882,” containing an annotated bibliography, +in <i>Bull. Com. l’Afrique française</i>, vol. xii. (1902); the works +cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brazza</a></span>; and E. Gentil, <i>La Chute de l’empire de Rabah</i> +(Paris, 1902). Of earlier books of travels the most valuable are:—Paul +du Chaillu, <i>Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa</i> +(London, 1861); <i>A Journey to Ashonga Land</i> (London, 1867); and +Sir R. Burton, <i>Two Trips to Gorilla Land</i> (London, 1876). Of +later works see Mary H. Kingsley, <i>Travels in West Africa</i> (London, +1897); A. B. de Mézières, <i>Rapport de mission sur le Haut Oubangui, +le M’Bomou et le Bahr-el-Ghazal</i> (Paris, 1903); and C. Maistre, <i>A +travers l’Afrique centrale du Congo au Niger</i>, 1892-1893 (Paris, 1895). +For the story of the concession companies see E. D. Morel, <i>The +British Case in French Congo</i> (London, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Berlin Act of 1885; Brussels conference of 1890 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>: +<i>History</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Louis Eugène Henri Dupont, marquis de Compiègne (1846-1877), +on his return from the West coast replaced Georg Schweinfurth +at Cairo as president of the geographical commission. Arising +out of this circumstance de Compiègne was killed in a duel by a +German named Mayer.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3o" id="ft3o" href="#fa3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A Franco-Belgian agreement of the 23rd of Dec. 1908 defined +precisely the frontier in the lower Congo. Bamu Island in Stanley +Pool was recognized as French.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRENCH GUINEA,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a French colony in West Africa, formerly +known as Rivières du Sud. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, +N. by Portuguese Guinea and Senegal, E. by Upper Senegal +and the Ivory Coast, and S. by Liberia and Sierra Leone. With +a sea-board running N.N.W. and S.S.E. from 10° 50′ N. to 9° 2′ N., +a distance, without reckoning the indentations, of 170 m., the +colony extends eastward 450 m. in a straight line and attains +a maximum width N. to S. of nearly 300 m., covering fully 100,000 +sq. m., and containing a population estimated at 2,000,000 to +2,500,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—Though in one or two places rocky headlands +jut into the sea, the coast is in general sandy, low, and much broken +by rivers and deep estuaries, dotted with swampy islands, giving it +the appearance of a vast delta. In about 9° 30′ N., off the promontory +of Konakry, lie the Los Islands (<i>q.v.</i>), forming part of the colony. +The coast plain, formed of alluvial deposits, is succeeded about 30 m. +inland by a line of cliffs, the Susu Hills, which form the first step +in the terrace-like formation of the interior, culminating in the +massif of Futa Jallon, composed chiefly of Archean and granite +rocks. While the coast lands are either densely forested or covered +with savannas or park-like country, the Futa Jallon tableland is +mainly covered with short herbage. This tableland, the hydrographic +centre of West Africa, is most elevated in its southern parts, +where heights of 5000 ft. are found. Near the Sierra Leone frontier +this high land is continued westward to within 20 m. of the sea, +where Mount Kakulima rises over 3300 ft. East and south of Futa +Jallon the country slopes to the basin of the upper Niger, the greater +part of which is included in French Guinea. The southern frontier +is formed by the escarpments which separate the Niger basin from +those of the coast rivers of Liberia. Besides the Niger, Gambia and +Senegal, all separately noticed, a large number of streams running +direct to the Atlantic rise in Futa Jallon. Among them are the Great +and Little Scarcies, whose lower courses are in Sierra Leone, and +the Rio Grande which enters the sea in Portuguese Guinea. Those +whose courses are entirely in French Guinea include the Cogon (or +Componi), the Rio Nuñez, the Fatalla (which reaches the sea through +an estuary named Rio Pongo), the Konkure, whose estuary is +named Rio Bramaya, the Forekaria and the Melakori. The Cogon, +Fatallah and Konkure are all large rivers which descend from the +plateaus through deep, narrow valleys in rapids and cataracts, and +are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate of the coast district is hot, moist and unhealthy, +with a season of heavy rain lasting from May to November, +during which time variable winds, calms and tornadoes succeed one +another. The mean temperature in the dry season, when the +“harmattan” is frequent, is 62° Fahr., in the wet season 86°. +Throughout the year the humidity of the air is very great. There is +much rain in the Futa Jallon highlands, but the Niger basin is somewhat +drier. In that region and in the highlands the climate is fairly +healthy for Europeans and the heat somewhat less than on the coast.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The seashore and the river banks are lined with +mangroves, but the most important tree of the coast belt is the oil-palm. +The dense forests also contain many varieties of lianas or +rubber vines, huge bombax and bamboos. Gum-producing and +kola trees are abundant, and there are many fruit trees, the orange +and citron growing well in the Susu and Futa Jallon districts. The +cotton and coffee plants are indigenous; banana plantations +surround the villages. The baobab and the karite (shea butter tree) +are found only in the Niger districts. The fauna is not so varied as +was formerly the case, large game having been to a great extent +driven out of the coast regions. The elephant is rare save in the +Niger regions. The lion is now only found in the northern parts of +Futa Jallon; panthers, leopards, hyenas and wild cats are more +common and the civet is found. Hippopotamus, otter and the wild +boar are numerous; a species of wild ox of small size with black +horns and very agile is also found. The forests contain many kinds +of monkeys, including huge chimpanzees; antelope are widespread +but rather rare. Serpents are very common, both venomous and +non-venomous; the pythons attain a great size. Fights between +these huge serpents and the crocodiles which infest all the rivers are +said to be not uncommon. Turtles are abundant along the coasts +and in the Los Islands. Oysters are found in large numbers in the +estuaries and fixed to the submerged parts of the mangroves. Freshwater +oysters, which attain a large size, are also found in the rivers, +particularly in the Niger. Fish are abundant, one large-headed +species, in the Susu tongue called <i>khokon</i>, is so numerous as to have +given its name to a province, Kokunia. Birds are very numerous; +they include various eagles, several kinds of heron, the egret, the +marabout, the crane and the pelican; turacos or plantain-eaters, +are common, as are other brilliantly plumaged birds. Green and grey +parrots, ravens, swallows and magpies are also common.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—On the banks of the Cogon dwell the Tendas and +Iolas, primitive Negro tribes allied to those of Portuguese Guinea +(<i>q.v.</i>). All other inhabitants of French Guinea are regarded as comparatively +late arrivals from the interior who have displaced the +aborigines.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Among the earliest of the new comers are the Baga, +the Nalu, the Landuman and the Timni, regarded as typical Negroes +(<i>q.v.</i>). This migration southward appears to have taken place before +the 17th century. To-day the Baga occupy the coast land between +the Cogon and the Rio Pongo, and the Landuman the country +immediately behind that of the Baga. The other tribes named are +but sparsely represented in French Guinea, the coast region south +of the Nuñez and all the interior up to Futa Jallon being occupied +by the Susu, a tribe belonging to the great Mandingan race, which +forced its way seaward about the beginning of the 18th century +and pressed back the Timni into Sierra Leone. Futa Jallon is +peopled principally by Fula (<i>q.v.</i>), and the rest of the country by +Malinké and other tribes of Mandingo (<i>q.v.</i>). The Mandingo, the +Fula and the Susu are Mahommedans, though the Susu retain many +of their ancient rites and beliefs—those associated with spirit worship +and fetish, still the religion of the Baga and other tribes. In the +north-west part of Futa Jallon are found remnants of the aborigines, +such as the Tiapi, Koniagui and the Bassari, all typical Negro tribes. +The white inhabitants number a few hundreds only and are mainly +French. Many of the coast peoples show, however, distinct traces of +white blood, the result chiefly of the former presence of European +slave traders. Thus at the Rio Pongo there are numerous mulattos. +South of that river the coast tribes speak largely pidgin English.</p> + +<p><i>Towns.</i>—The principal towns are Konakry the capital, Boké, on +the Rio Nuñez, Dubreka, on the coast, a little north of Konakry, +Benty, on the Melakori, Timbo and Labe, the chief towns of Futa +Jallon, Heremakono and Kindia, on the main road to the Niger, +Kurussa and Siguiri, on a navigable stretch of that river, and Bissandugu, +formerly Samory’s capital, an important military station east +of the Niger. Konakry, in 9° 30′ N., 13° 46′ W., population about +20,000, is the one port of entry on the coast. It is built on the little +island of Tombo which lies off the promontory of Konakry, the town +being joined to the mainland by an iron bridge. During the administration +of Noël Ballay (1848-1902), governor of the colony 1890-1900, +Konakry was transformed from a place of small importance +to one of the chief ports on the west coast of Africa and a serious +rival to Freetown, Sierra Leone. It has since grown considerably, +and is provided with wharves and docks and a jetty 1066 ft. long. +There is an ample supply of good water, and a large public garden +in the centre of the town. In front of Government House is a statue +of M. Ballay. Konakry is a port of call for French, British and +German steamship companies, and is in telegraphic communication +with Europe. It is the starting-point of a railway to the Niger (see +below). The retail trade is in the hands of Syrians. The town is +governed by a municipality.</p> + +<p><i>Products and Industry.</i>—French Guinea possesses a fertile soil, +and is rich in tropical produce. The chief products are rubber, +brought from the interior, and palm oil and palm kernels, obtained +in the coast regions. Cotton is cultivated in the Niger basin. Gum +copal, ground-nuts and sesame are largely cultivated, partly for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span> +export. Among minor products are coffee, wax and ivory. Large +herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are raised in Futa Jallon; these are +sent in considerable numbers to Sierra Leone, Liberia and French +Congo. The trade in hides is also of considerable value. The chief +grain raised is millet, the staple food of the people. The rubber is +mainly exported to England, the palm products to Germany, and +the ground-nuts to France.</p> + +<p>The principal imports are cotton goods, of which 80% come from +Great Britain, rice, kola nuts, chiefly from Liberia, spirits, tobacco, +building material, and arms and ammunition, chiefly “trade guns.” +The average annual value of the trade for the period 1900-1907 was +about £1,250,000, the annual export of rubber alone being worth +£400,000 or more. The great bulk of the trade of the colony is with +France and Great Britain, the last-named country taking about +45% of the total; Germany comes third. Since April 1905 a surtax +of 7% has been imposed on all goods of other than French origin.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The railway from Konakry to the Niger at +Kurussa, by the route chosen a distance of 342 m., was begun in +1900, and from 1902 has been built directly by the colony. The +first section to Kindia, 93 m., was opened in 1904. The second +section, to near Timbo in Futa Jallon, was completed in 1907, and +the rails reached Kurussa in 1910. From Kurussa the Niger is +navigable at high water all the way to Bamako in Upper Senegal, +whence there is communication by rail and river with St Louis and +Timbuktu. Besides the railway there is an excellent road, about +390 m. long, from Konakry to Kurussa, the road in its lower part +being close to the Sierra Leone frontier, with the object of diverting +trade from that British colony. Several other main roads have +been built by the French, and there is a very complete telegraphic +system, the lines having been connected with those of Senegal in +1899.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—This part of the Guinea coast was made known by +the Portuguese voyagers of the 15th century. In consequence, +largely, of the dangers attending its navigation, it was not visited +by the European traders of the 16th-18th centuries so frequently +as other regions north and east, but in the Rio Pongo, at Matakong +(a diminutive island near the mouth of the Forekaria), +and elsewhere, slave traders established themselves, and ruins of +the strongholds they built, and defended with cannon, still exist. +When driven from other parts of Guinea the slavers made this +difficult and little known coast one of their last resorts, and many +barracoons were built in the late years of the 18th century. It +was not until after the restoration of Goree to her at the close +of the Napoleonic wars that France evinced any marked interest +in this region. At that time the British, from their bases at the +Gambia and Sierra Leone, were devoting considerable attention +to these Rivières du Sud (<i>i.e.</i> south of Senegal) and also to Futa +Jallon. René Caillié, who started his journey to Timbuktu from +Boké in 1827, did much to quicken French interest in the district, +and from 1838 onward French naval officers, Bouët-Willaumez +and his successors, made detailed studies of the coast. About the +time that the British government became wearied of its efforts +to open up the interior of West Africa, General Faidherbe was +appointed governor of Senegal (1854), and under his direction +vigorous efforts were made to consolidate French influence. +Already in 1848 treaty relations had been entered into with the +Nalu, and between that date and 1865 treaties of protectorate +were signed with several of the coast tribes. During 1876-1880 +new treaties were concluded with the chief tribes, and in 1881 +the almany (or emir) of Futa Jallon placed his country under +French protection, the French thus effectually preventing the +junction, behind the coast lands, of the British colonies of the +Gambia and Sierra Leone. The right of France to the littoral as +far south as the basin of the Melakori was recognized by Great +Britain in 1882; Germany (which had made some attempt to +acquire a protectorate at Konakry) abandoned its claims in 1885, +while in 1886 the northern frontier was settled in agreement with +Portugal, which had ancient settlements in the same region (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portuguese Guinea</a></span>). In 1899 the limits of the colony were +extended, on the dismemberment of the French Sudan, to include +the upper Niger districts. In 1904 the Los Islands were ceded by +Great Britain to France, in part return for the abandonment +of French fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. (See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p> + +<p>French Guinea was made a colony independent of Senegal in +1891, but in 1895 came under the supreme authority of the newly +constituted governor-generalship of French West Africa. Guinea +has a considerable measure of autonomy and a separate budget. +It is administered by a lieutenant-governor, assisted by a +nominated council. Revenue is raised principally from customs +and a capitation tax, which has replaced a hut tax. The local +budget for 1907 balanced at £205,000. Over the greater part +of the country the native princes retain their sovereignty under +the superintendence of French officials. The development of +agriculture and education are objects of special solicitude to the +French authorities. In general the natives are friendly towards +their white masters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Famechon, <i>Notice sur la Guinée française</i> (Paris, 1900); J. +Chautard, <i>Étude géophysique et géologique sur le Fouta-Djallon</i> (Paris, +1905); André Arcin, <i>La Guinée française</i> (Paris, 1906), a valuable +monograph; J. Machat, <i>Les Rivières du Sud et la Fouta-Diallon</i> (Paris, +1906), another valuable work, containing exhaustive bibliographies. +Consult also F. Rouget, <i>La Guinée</i> (Paris, 1908), an official publication, +the annual <i>Reports</i> on French West Africa, published by +the British Foreign Office, and the Carte de la Guinée française +by A. Méunier in 4 sheets on the scale 1:500,000 (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Numerous remains of a stone age have been discovered, both +on the coast and in the hinterland. See L. Desplagnes, “L’Archéologie +préhistorique en Guinée française,” in <i>Bull. Soc. Géog. Comm. +de Bordeaux</i>, March 1907, and the authorities there cited.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FRENCH LANGUAGE.<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> I. <i>Geography.</i>—French is the general +name of the north-north-western group of Romanic dialects, +the modern Latin of northern Gaul (carried by emigration to +some places—as lower Canada—out of France). In a restricted +sense it is that variety of the Parisian dialect which is spoken +by the educated, and is the general literary language of France. +The region in which the native language is termed French +consists of the northern half of France (including Lorraine) +and parts of Belgium and Switzerland; its boundaries on the +west are the Atlantic Ocean and the Celtic dialects of Brittany; +on the north-west and north, the English Channel; on the north-east +and east the Teutonic dialects of Belgium, Germany and +Switzerland. In the south-east and south the boundary is to a +great extent conventional and ill-defined, there being originally +no linguistic break between the southern French dialects and the +northern Provençal dialects of southern France, north-western +Italy and south-western Switzerland. It is formed partly by +spaces of intermediate dialects (some of whose features are +French, others Provençal), partly by spaces of mixed dialects +resulting from the invasion of the space by more northern and +more southern settlers, partly by lines where the intermediate +dialects have been suppressed by more northern (French) and +more southern (Provençal) dialects without these having mixed. +Starting in the west at the mouth of the Gironde, the boundary +runs nearly north soon after passing Bordeaux; a little north of +Angoulême it turns to the east, and runs in this direction into +Switzerland to the north of Geneva.</p> + +<p>II. <i>External History.</i>—(<i>a</i>) <i>Political.</i>—By the Roman conquests +the language of Rome was spread over the greater part of southern +and western Europe, and gradually supplanted the native +tongues. The language introduced was at first nearly uniform +over the whole empire, Latin provincialisms and many more +or less general features of the older vulgar language being +suppressed by the preponderating influence of the educated +speech of the capital. As legions became stationary, as colonies +were formed, and as the natives adopted the language of their +conquerors, this language split up into local dialects, the distinguishing +features of which are due, as far as can be ascertained +(except, to some extent, as to the vocabulary), not to speakers +of different nationalities misspeaking Latin, each with the +peculiarities of his native language, but to the fact that linguistic +changes, which are ever occurring, are not perfectly uniform +over a large area, however homogeneous the speakers. As Gaul +was not conquered by Caesar till the middle of the first century +before our era, its Latin cannot have begun to differ from that of +Rome till after that date; but the artificial retention of classical +Latin as the literary and official language after the popular +spoken language had diverged from it, often renders the chronology +of the earlier periods of the Romanic languages obscure. +It is, however, certain that the popular Latin of Gaul had become +differentiated from that of central Italy before the Teutonic +conquest of Gaul, which was not completed till the latter half +of the 5th century; the invaders gradually adopted the language +of their more civilized subjects, which remained unaffected, +except in its vocabulary. Probably by this time it had diverged +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span> +so widely from the artificially preserved literary language that +it could no longer be regarded merely as mispronounced Latin; +the Latin documents of the next following centuries contain +many clearly popular words and forms, and the literary and +popular languages are distinguished as <i>latina</i> and <i>romana</i>. +The term <i>gallica</i>, at first denoting the native Celtic language +of Gaul, is found applied to its supplanter before the end of the +9th century, and survives in the Breton <i>gallek</i>, the regular term +for “French.” After the Franks in Gaul had abandoned their +native Teutonic language, the term <i>francisca</i>, by which this +was denoted, came to be applied to the Romanic one they +adopted, and, under the form <i>française</i>, remains its native name +to this day; but this name was confined to the Romanic of +northern Gaul, which makes it probable that this, at the time +of the adoption of the name <i>francisca</i>, had become distinct +from the Romanic of southern Gaul. <i>Francisca</i> is the Teutonic +adjective <i>frankisk</i>, which occurs in Old English in the form +<i>frencise</i>; this word, with its umlauted <i>e</i> from <i>a</i> with following +<i>i</i>, survives under the form <i>French</i>, which, though purely Teutonic +in origin and form, has long been exclusively applied to the +Romanic language and inhabitants of Gaul. The German name +<i>franzose</i>, with its accent on, and <i>o</i> in, the second syllable, comes +from <i>françois</i>, a native French form older than <i>français</i>, but +later than the Early Old French <i>franceis</i>. The Scandinavian +settlers on the north-west coast of France early in the 10th +century quickly lost their native speech, which left no trace +except in some contributions to the vocabulary of the language +they adopted. The main feature since is the growth of the +political supremacy of Paris, carrying with it that of its dialect; +in 1539 Francis I. ordered that all public documents should be +in French (of Paris), which then became the official language +of the whole kingdom, though it is still foreign to nearly half its +population.</p> + +<p>The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of +Normandy, introduced into England, as the language of the rulers +and (for a time) most of the writers, the dialects spoken in +Normandy (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anglo-Norman Literature</a></span>). Confined in +their native country to definite areas, these dialects, following +their speakers, became mixed in England, so that their forms +were used to some extent indifferently; and the constant communication +with Normandy maintained during several reigns +introduced also later forms of continental Norman. As the +conquerors learned the language of the conquered, and as the +more cultured of the latter learned that of the former, the Norman +of England (including that of the English-speaking Lowlands of +Scotland) became anglicized; instead of following the changes +of the Norman of France, it followed those of English. The +accession in 1154 of Henry II. of Anjou disturbed the Norman +character of Anglo-French, and the loss of Normandy under John +in 1204 gave full play to the literary importance of the French +of Paris, many of whose forms afterwards penetrated to England. +At the same time English, with a large French addition to its +vocabulary, was steadily recovering its supremacy, and is +officially employed (for the first time since the Conquest) in the +Proclamation of Henry III., 1258. The semi-artificial result of +this mixture of French of different dialects and of different periods, +more or less anglicized according to the date or education of the +speaker or writer, is generally termed “the Anglo-Norman +dialect”; but the term is misleading for a great part of its +existence, because while the French of Normandy was not a +single dialect, the later French of England came from other +French provinces besides Normandy, and being to a considerable +extent in artificial conditions, was checked in the natural development +implied by the term “dialect.” The disuse of Anglo-French +as a natural language is evidenced by English being substituted +for it in legal proceedings in 1362, and in schools in 1387; but +law reports were written in it up to about 1600, and, converted +into modern literary French, it remains in official use for giving +the royal assent to bills of parliament.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Literary.</i>—Doubtless because the popular Latin of northern +Gaul changed more rapidly than that of any other part of the +empire, French was, of all the Romanic dialects, the first to be +recognized as a distinct language, and the first to be used in +literature; and though the oldest specimen now extant is probably +not the first, it is considerably earlier than any existing +documents of the allied languages. In 813 the council of Tours +ordered certain homilies to be translated into Rustic Roman or +into German; and in 842 Louis the German, Charles the Bald, +and their armies confirmed their engagements by taking oaths in +both languages at Strassburg. These have been preserved to +us by the historian Nithard (who died in 853); and though, in +consequence of the only existing manuscript (at Paris) being +more than a century later than the time of the author, certain +alterations have occurred in the text of the French oaths, they +present more archaic forms (probably of North-Eastern French) +than any other document. The next memorials are a short poem, +probably North-Eastern, on St Eulalia, preserved in a manuscript +of the 10th century at Valenciennes, and some autograph fragments +(also at Valenciennes) of a homily on the prophet Jonah, +in mixed Latin and Eastern French, of the same period. To the +same century belong a poem on Christ’s Passion, apparently in +a mixed (not intermediate) language of French and Provençal, +and one, probably in South-Eastern French, on St Leger; both +are preserved, in different handwritings, in a MS. at Clermont-Ferrand, +whose scribes have introduced many Provençal forms. +After the middle of the 11th century literary remains are comparatively +numerous; the chief early representative of the main +dialects are the following, some of them preserved in several +MSS., the earliest of which, however (the only ones here mentioned), +are in several cases a generation or two later than the +works themselves. In Western French are a verse life of St +Alexius (Alexis), probably Norman, in an Anglo-Norman MS. +at Hildesheim; the epic poem of Roland, possibly also Norman, +in an A.-N. MS. at Oxford; a Norman verbal translation of the +Psalms, in an A.-N. MS. also at Oxford; another later one, +from a different Latin version, in an A.-N. MS. at Cambridge; +a Norman translation of the Four Books of Kings, in a probably +A.-N. MS. at Paris. The earliest work in the Parisian dialect is +probably the Travels of Charlemagne, preserved in a late Anglo-Norman +MS. with much altered forms. In Eastern French, of +rather later date, there are translations of the Dialogues of Pope +Gregory, in a MS. at Paris, containing also fragments of Gregory’s +Moralities, and (still later) of some Sermons of St Bernard, in +a MS. also in Paris. From the end of the 12th century literary +and official documents, often including local charters, abound in +almost every dialect, until the growing influence of Paris caused +its language to supersede in writing the other local ones. This +influence, occasionally apparent about the end of the 12th century, +was overpowering in the 15th, when authors, though often displaying +provincialisms, almost all wrote in the dialect of the +capital; the last dialect to lose its literary independence was +the North-Eastern, which, being the Romanic language of +Flanders, had a political life of its own, and (modified by Parisian) +was used in literature after 1400.</p> + +<p>III. <i>Internal History.</i>—Though much has been done in recent +years, in the scientific investigation of the sounds, inflexions, and +syntax of the older stages and dialects of French, much still +remains to be done, and it must suffice here to give a sketch, +mainly of the dialects which were imported into England by the +Normans—in which English readers will probably take most +interest, and especially of the features which explain the forms +of English words of French origin. Dates and places are only +approximations, and many statements are liable to be modified +by further researches. The primitive Latin forms given are +often not classical Latin words, but derivatives from these; and +reference is generally made to the Middle English (Chaucerian) +pronunciation of English words, not the modern.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Vocabulary.</i>—The fundamental part of the vocabulary +of French is the Latin imported into Gaul, the French words being +simply the Latin words themselves, with the natural changes +undergone by all living speech, or derivatives formed at various +dates. Comparatively few words were introduced from the Celtic +language of the native inhabitants (<i>bec</i>, <i>lieue</i> from the Celtic +words given by Latin writers as <i>beccus</i>, <i>leuca</i>), but the number +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span> +adopted from the language of the Teutonic conquerors of Gaul +is large (<i>guerre</i> = <i>werra</i>; <i>laid</i> = <i>laidh</i>; <i>choisir</i> = <i>kausjan</i>). The +words were imported at different periods of the Teutonic supremacy, +and consequently show chronological differences in their +sounds (<i>haïr</i> = <i>hatan</i>; <i>français</i> = <i>frankisk</i>; <i>écrevisse</i> = <i>krebiz</i>; +<i>échine</i> = <i>skina</i>). Small separate importations of Teutonic words +resulted from the Scandinavian settlement in France, and the +commercial intercourse with the Low German nations on the +North Sea (<i>friper</i> = Norse <i>hripa</i>; <i>chaloupe</i> = Dutch <i>sloop</i>; <i>est</i> = +Old English <i>eást</i>). In the meantime, as Latin (with considerable +alterations in pronunciation, vocabulary, &c.) continued in +literary, official and ecclesiastical use, the popular language +borrowed from time to time various more or less altered classical +Latin words; and when the popular language came to be used +in literature, especially in that of the church, these importations +largely increased (<i>virginitet</i> Eulalia = <i>virginitātem</i>; <i>imagena</i> +Alexis = <i>imāginem</i>—the popular forms would probably have been +<i>vergedet</i>, <i>emain</i>). At the Renaissance they became very abundant, +and have continued since, stifling to some extent the developmental +power of the language. Imported words, whether +Teutonic, classical Latin or other, often receive some modification +at their importation, and always take part in all subsequent +natural phonetic changes in the language (Early Old French +<i>adversarie</i>, Modern French <i>adversaire</i>) . Those French words +which appear to contradict the phonetic laws were mostly introduced +into the language after the taking place (in words already +existing in the language) of the changes formulated by the laws +in question; compare the late imported <i>laïque</i> with the inherited +<i>lai</i>, both from Latin <i>laicum</i>. In this and many other cases the +language possesses two forms of the same Latin word, one +descended from it, the other borrowed (<i>meuble</i> and <i>mobile</i> from +<i>mōbilem</i>). Some Oriental and other foreign words were brought +in by the crusaders (<i>amiral</i> from <i>amir</i>); in the 16th century, +wars, royal marriages and literature caused a large number +of Italian words (<i>soldat</i> = <i>soldato</i>; <i>brave</i> = <i>bravo</i>; <i>caresser</i> = +<i>carezzare</i>) to be introduced, and many Spanish ones (<i>alcôve</i> = +<i>alcoba</i>; <i>hâbler</i> = <i>hablar</i>). A few words have been furnished by +Provençal (<i>abeille</i>, <i>cadenas</i>), and several have been adopted from +other dialects into the French of Paris (<i>esquiver</i> Norman or +Picard for the Paris-French <i>eschiver</i>). German has contributed +a few (<i>blocus</i> = <i>blochūs</i>; <i>choucroute</i> = <i>sūrkrūt</i>); and recently a +considerable number have been imported from England (<i>drain</i>, +<i>confortable</i>, <i>flirter</i>). In Old French, new words are freely +formed by derivation, and to a less extent by composition; in +Modern French, borrowing from Latin or other foreign languages +is the more usual course. Of the French words now obsolete +some have disappeared because the things they express are +obsolete; others have been replaced by words of native formation, +and many have been superseded by foreign words generally +of literary origin; of those which survive, many have undergone +considerable alterations in meaning. A large number of Old +French words and meanings, now extinct in the language of +Paris, were introduced into English after the Norman Conquest; +and though some have perished, many have survived—<i>strife</i> +from Old French <i>estrif</i> (Teutonic <i>strīt</i>); <i>quaint</i> from <i>cointe</i> +(<i>cognitum</i>); <i>remember</i> from <i>remembrer</i> (<i>rememorāre</i>); <i>chaplet</i> +(garland) from <i>chapelet</i> (Modern French “chaplet of beads”); +<i>appointment</i> (rendezvous) from <i>appointement</i> (now “salary”). +Many also survive in other French dialects.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Dialects.</i>—The history of the French language from the +period of its earliest extant literary memorials is that of the +dialects composing it. But as the popular notion of a dialect +as the speech of a definite area, possessing certain peculiarities +confined to and extending throughout that area, is far from +correct, it will be advisable to drop the misleading divisions into +“Norman dialect,” “Picard dialect” and the like, and take +instead each important feature in the chronological order (as +far as can be ascertained) of its development, pointing out roughly +the area in which it exists, and its present state. The local terms +used are intentionally vague, and it does not, for instance, at all +follow that because “Eastern” and “Western” are used to +denote the localities of more than one dialectal feature, the +boundary line between the two divisions is the same in each case. +It is, indeed, because dialectal differences as they arise do not +follow the same boundary lines (much less the political divisions +of provinces), but cross one another to any extent, that to speak +of the dialect of a large area as an individual whole, unless that +area is cut off by physical or alien linguistic boundaries, creates +only confusion. Thus the Central French of Paris, the ancestor +of classical Modern French, agrees with a more southern form +of Romanic (Limousin, Auvergne, Forez, Lyonnais, Dauphiné) +in having <i>ts</i>, not <i>tsh</i>, for Latin <i>k</i> (<i>c</i>) before <i>i</i> and <i>e</i>; <i>tsh</i>, not <i>k</i>, for +<i>k</i> (<i>c</i>) before <i>a</i>; and with the whole South in having <i>gu</i>, not <i>w</i>, +for Teutonic <i>w</i>; while it belongs to the East in having <i>oi</i> for +earlier <i>ei</i>; and to the West in having <i>é</i>, not <i>ei</i>, for Latin <i>a</i>; and <i>i</i>, +not <i>ei</i>, from Latin <i>ĕ</i> + <i>i</i>. It may be well to denote that Southern +<i>French</i> does not correspond to southern <i>France</i>, whose native +language is Provençal. “Modern French” means ordinary +educated Parisian French.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) <i>Phonology.</i>—The history of the sounds of a language is, +to a considerable extent, that of its inflections, which, no less +than the body of a word, are composed of sounds. This fact, +and the fact that unconscious changes are much more reducible +to law than conscious ones, render the phonology of a language +by far the surest and widest foundation for its dialectology, the +importance of the sound-changes in this respect depending, +not on their prominence, but on the earliness of their date. For +several centuries after the divergence between spoken and written +Latin, the history of these changes has to be determined mainly +by reasoning, aided by a little direct evidence in the misspellings +of inscriptions the semi-popular forms in glossaries, and the +warnings of Latin grammarians against vulgarities. With the +rise of Romanic literature the materials for tracing the changes +become abundant, though as they do not give us the sounds +themselves, but only their written representations, much +difficulty, and some uncertainty, often attach to deciphering the +evidence. Fortunately, early Romanic orthography, that of +Old French included (for which see next section), was phonetic, +as Italian orthography still is; the alphabet was imperfect, as +many new sounds had to be represented which were not provided +for in the Roman alphabet from which it arose, but writers aimed +at representing the sounds they uttered, not at using a fixed +combination of letters for each word, however they pronounced it.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of French as distinguished from the allied +languages and from Latin, and the relations of its sounds, inflections +and syntax to those of the last-named language, belong +to the general subject of the Romanic languages. It will be well, +however, to mention here some of the features in which it agrees +with the closely related Provençal, and some in which it differs. +As to the latter, it has already been pointed out that the two +languages glide insensibly into one another, there being a belt +of dialects which possess some of the features of each. French +and Provençal of the 10th century—the earliest date at which +documents exist in both—agree to a great extent in the treatment +of Latin final consonants and the vowels preceding them, a +matter of great importance for inflections (numerous French +examples occur in this section), (1) They reject all vowels, +except <i>a</i>, of Latin final (unaccented) syllables, unless preceded +by certain consonant combinations or followed by <i>nt</i> (here, +as elsewhere, certain exceptions cannot be noticed); (2) they do +not reject <i>a</i> similarly situated; (3) they reject final (unaccented) +<i>m</i>; (4) they retain final s. French and Northern Provençal +also agree in changing Latin <i>ü</i> from a labio-guttural to a labio-palatal +vowel; the modern sound (German <i>ü</i>) of the accented +vowel of French <i>lune</i>, Provençal <i>luna</i>, contrasting with that in +Italian and Spanish <i>luna</i>, appears to have existed before the +earliest extant documents. The final vowel laws generally apply +to the unaccented vowel preceding the accented syllable, if it is +preceded by another syllable, and followed by a single consonant—<i>matin</i> +(<i>mātūtinum</i>), <i>dortoir</i> (<i>dormītōrium</i>), with vowel dropped; +<i>canevas</i> (<i>cannabāceum</i>), <i>armedure</i>, later <i>armëure</i>, now <i>armure</i> +(<i>armātūram</i>), with <i>e</i> = <i>ǝ</i>, as explained below.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, French differs from Provençal: (1) in +uniformly preserving (in Early Old French) Latin final <i>t</i>, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span> +is generally rejected in Provençal—French <i>aimet</i> (Latin <i>amat</i>), +Provençal <i>ama</i>; <i>aiment</i> (<i>amant</i>), Prov. <i>aman</i>; (2) in always +rejecting, absorbing or consonantizing the vowel of the last +syllable but one, if unaccented; in such words as <i>angele</i> (often +spelt <i>angle</i>), the <i>e</i> after the <i>g</i> only serves to show its soft sound—French +<i>veintre</i> (now <i>vaincre</i>, Latin <i>vincere</i>), Prov. <i>vencer</i>, with +accent on first syllable; French <i>esclandre</i> (<i>scandalum</i>), Prov. +<i>escandol</i>; French <i>olie</i> (dissyllabic, <i>i</i> = <i>y</i> consonant, now <i>huile</i>), +Prov. <i>oli</i> (<i>oleum</i>); (3) in changing accented <i>a</i> not in position into +<i>ai</i> before nasals and gutturals and not after a palatal, and elsewhere +into <i>é</i> (West French) or <i>ei</i> (East French), which develops an +<i>i</i> before it when preceded by a palatal—French <i>main</i> (Latin +<i>manum</i>), Prov. <i>man</i>; <i>aigre</i> (<i>ācrem</i>), <i>agre</i>; <i>ele</i> (<i>ālam</i>), East +French <i>eile</i>, Prov. <i>ala</i>; <i>meitié</i> (<i>medietātem</i>), East French <i>moitieit</i>, +Prov. <i>meitat</i>; (4) in changing <i>a</i> in unaccented final syllables into +the vowel <i>ǝ</i>, intermediate to <i>a</i> and <i>e</i>; this vowel is written <i>a</i> +in one or two of the older documents, elsewhere <i>e</i>—French <i>aime</i> +(Latin <i>amā</i>), Prov. <i>ama</i>; <i>aimes</i> (<i>amās</i>), Prov. <i>amas</i>; <i>aimet</i> (<i>amat</i>), +Prov. <i>ama</i>; (5) in changing original <i>au</i> into <i>ò</i>—French <i>or</i> (<i>aurum</i>), +Prov. <i>aur</i>; <i>rober</i> (Teutonic <i>raubōn</i>), Prov. <i>raubar</i>; (6) in changing +general Romanic <i>é</i>, from accented <i>ē</i> and <i>ĭ</i> not in position, into <i>ei</i>—French +<i>veine</i> (<i>vēnam</i>), Prov. <i>vena</i>; <i>peil</i> (<i>pilum</i>), Prov. <i>pel</i>.</p> + +<p>As some of the dialectal differences were in existence at the +date of the earliest extant documents, and as the existing +materials, till the latter half of the 11th century, are scanty and +of uncertain locality, the chronological order (here adopted) +of the earlier sound-changes is only tentative.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) Northern French has <i>tsh</i> (written <i>c</i> or <i>ch</i>) for Latin <i>k</i> (<i>c</i>) and +<i>t</i> before palatal vowels, where Central and Southern French have <i>ts</i> +(written <i>c</i> or <i>z</i>)—North Norman and Picard <i>chire</i> (<i>cēram</i>), <i>brach</i> +(<i>brāchium</i>), <i>plache</i> (<i>plateam</i>); Parisian, South Norman, &c., <i>cire</i>, +<i>braz</i>, <i>place</i>. Before the close of the Early Old French period (12th +century) <i>ts</i> loses its initial consonant, and the same happened to <i>tsh</i> +a century or two later; with this change the old distinction is +maintained—Modern Guernsey and Picard <i>chire</i>, Modern Picard +<i>plache</i> (in ordinary Modern French spelling); usual French <i>cire</i>, +<i>place</i>. English, having borrowed from North and South Norman +(and later Parisian), has instances of both <i>tsh</i> and <i>s</i>, the former +in comparatively small number—<i>chisel</i> (Modern French <i>ciseau</i> = (?) +<i>caesellum</i>), <i>escutcheon</i> (<i>écusson</i>, <i>scūtiōnem</i>); <i>city</i> (<i>cité</i>, <i>cīvitātem</i>), +<i>place</i>. (2) Initial Teutonic <i>w</i> is retained in the north-east and along +the north coast; elsewhere, as in the other Romance languages, <i>g</i> +was prefixed—Picard, &c., <i>warde</i> (Teutonic <i>warda</i>), <i>werre</i> (<i>werra</i>); +Parisian, &c., <i>guarde</i>, <i>guerre</i>. In the 12th century the <i>u</i> or <i>w</i> of +<i>gu</i> dropped, giving the Modern French <i>garde</i>, <i>guerre</i> (with <i>gu</i> = <i>g</i>); +<i>w</i> remains in Picard and Walloon, but in North Normandy it +becomes <i>v</i>—Modern Guernsey <i>vâson</i>, Walloon <i>wazon</i>, Modern French +<i>gazon</i> (Teutonic <i>wason</i>). English has both forms, sometimes in +words originally the same—<i>wage</i> and <i>gage</i> (Modern French <i>gage</i>, +Teutonic <i>wadi</i>); <i>warden</i> and <i>guardian</i> (<i>gardien</i>, <i>warding</i>). (3) +Latin <i>b</i> after accented <i>a</i> in the imperfect of the first conjugation, +which becomes <i>v</i> in Eastern French, in Western French further +changes to <i>w</i>, and forms the diphthong <i>ou</i> with the preceding vowel—Norman +<i>amowe</i> (<i>amābam</i>), <i>portout</i> (<i>portābat</i>); Burgundian <i>ameve</i>, +<i>portevet</i>. <i>-eve</i> is still retained in some places, but generally the imperfect +of the first conjugation is assimilated to that of the others—amoit, +like <i>avoit</i> (<i>habēbat</i>). (4) The palatalization of every then existing +<i>k</i> and <i>g</i> (hard) when followed by <i>a</i>, <i>i</i> or <i>e</i>, after having caused +the development of <i>i</i> before the <i>e</i> (East French <i>ei</i>) derived from +<i>a</i> not in position, is abandoned in the north, the consonants returning +to ordinary <i>k</i> or <i>g</i>, while in the centre and south they are assibilated +to <i>tsh</i> or <i>dzh</i>—North Norman and Picard <i>cachier</i> (<i>captiāre</i>), <i>kier</i> +(<i>cārum</i>), <i>cose</i> (<i>causam</i>), <i>eskiver</i> (Teutonic <i>skiuhan</i>), <i>wiket</i> (Teutonic +<i>wik</i> + <i>ittum</i>), <i>gal</i> (<i>gallum</i>), <i>gardin</i> (from Teutonic <i>gard</i>); South +Norman and Parisian <i>chacier</i>, <i>chier</i>, <i>chose</i>, <i>eschiver</i>, <i>guichet</i>, <i>jal</i>, <i>jardin</i>. +Probably in the 14th century the initial consonant of <i>tsh</i>, <i>dzh</i> disappeared, +giving the modern French <i>chasser</i>, <i>jardin</i> with <i>ch</i> = <i>sh</i> +and <i>j</i> = <i>zh</i>; but <i>tsh</i> is retained in Walloon, and <i>dzh</i> in Lorraine. +The Northern forms survive—Modern Guernsey <i>cachier</i>, <i>gardìn</i>; +Picard <i>cacher</i>, <i>gardin</i>. English possesses numerous examples of both +forms, sometimes in related words—<i>catch</i> and <i>chase</i>; <i>wicket</i>, <i>eschew</i>; +<i>garden</i>, <i>jaundice</i> (<i>jaunisse</i>, from <i>galbanum</i>). (5) For Latin accented +<i>a</i> not in position Western French usually has <i>é</i>, Eastern French <i>ei</i>, +both of which take an <i>i</i> before them when a palatal precedes—Norman +and Parisian <i>per</i> (<i>parem</i>), <i>oiez</i> (<i>audiātis</i>); Lorraine <i>peir</i>, +<i>oieis</i>. In the 17th and 18th centuries close <i>é</i> changed to open <i>è</i>, +except when final or before a silent consonant—<i>amer</i> (<i>amārum</i>) now +having <i>è</i>, <i>aimer</i> (<i>amāre</i>) retaining <i>é</i>. English shows the Western +close <i>é</i>—<i>peer</i> (Modern French <i>pair</i>, Old French <i>per</i>), <i>chief</i> (<i>chef</i>, +<i>caput</i>); Middle High German the Eastern <i>ei</i>—<i>lameir</i> (Modern French +<i>l’amer</i>, <i>l’aimer</i>, <i>la mer</i> = Latin <i>mare</i>). (6) Latin accented <i>e</i> not in +position, when it came to be followed in Old French by <i>i</i> unites with +this to form <i>i</i> in the Western dialects, while the Eastern have the +diphthongs <i>ei</i>—Picard, Norman and Parisian <i>pire</i> (<i>pejor</i>), <i>piz</i> +(<i>pectus</i>); Burgundian <i>peire</i>, <i>peiz</i>. The distinction is still preserved—Modern +French <i>pire</i>, <i>pis</i>; Modern Burgundian <i>peire</i>, <i>pei</i>. English +words show always <i>i</i>—<i>price</i> (<i>prix</i>, <i>pretium</i>) <i>spite</i> (<i>dépit</i>, <i>dēspectum</i>). +(7) The nasalization of vowels followed by a nasal consonant did not +take place simultaneously with all the vowels. <i>A</i> and <i>e</i> before <i>ṇ</i> +(guttural <i>n</i>, as in <i>sing</i>), <i>ñ</i> (palatal <i>n</i>), <i>n</i> and <i>m</i> were nasal in the 11th +century, such words as <i>tant</i> (<i>tantum</i>) and <i>gent</i> (<i>gentem</i>) forming in the +Alexis assonances to themselves, distinct from the assonances with +<i>a</i> and <i>e</i> before non-nasal consonants. In the Roland <i>umbre</i> (<i>ombre</i>, +<i>umbram</i>) and <i>culchet</i> (<i>couche</i>, <i>collocat</i>), <i>fier</i> (<i>ferum</i>) and <i>chiens</i> (<i>canēs</i>), +<i>dit</i> (<i>dictum</i>) and <i>vint</i> (<i>vēnit</i>), <i>ceinte</i> (<i>ciṇctam</i>) and <i>veie</i> (<i>voie</i>, <i>viam</i>), +<i>brun</i> (Teutonic <i>brūn</i>) and <i>fut</i> (<i>fuit</i>) assonate freely, though <i>o</i> (<i>u</i>) before +nasals shows a tendency to separation. The nasalization of <i>i</i> and <i>u</i> +(= Modern French <i>u</i>) did not take place till the 16th century; and +in all cases the loss of the following nasal consonant is quite modern, +the older pronunciation of <i>tant</i>, <i>ombre</i> being <i>tãnt</i>, <i>õmbrǝ</i>, not as now +<i>tã</i>, <i>õbrh</i>. The nasalization took place whether the nasal consonant +was or was not followed by a vowel, <i>femme</i> (<i>fēminam</i>), <i>honneur</i> +(<i>honōrem</i>) being pronounced with nasal vowels m the first syllable +till after the 16th century, as indicated by the doubling of the nasal +consonant in the spelling and by the phonetic change (in <i>femme</i> and +other words) next to be mentioned. English generally has <i>au</i> (now +often reduced to <i>a</i>) for Old French <i>ã</i>—<i>vaunt</i> (<i>vanter</i>, <i>vānitāre</i>), <i>tawny</i> +(<i>tanné</i> (?) Celtic). (8) The assimilation of <i>ē</i> (nasal <i>e</i>) to <i>ã</i> (nasal <i>a</i>) +did not begin till the middle of the 11th century, and is not yet +universal, in France, though generally a century later. In the +Alexis nasal <i>a</i> (as in <i>tant</i>) is never confounded with nasal <i>e</i> (as in +<i>gent</i>) in the assonances, though the copyist (a century later) often +writes <i>a</i> for nasal <i>e</i> in unaccented syllables, as in <i>amfant</i> (<i>enfant</i>, +<i>infantem</i>); in the Roland there are several cases of mixture in the +assonances, <i>gent</i>, for instance, occurring in <i>ant</i> stanzas, <i>tant</i> in <i>ent</i> +ones. English has several words with <i>a</i> for <i>e</i> before nasals—<i>rank</i> +(<i>rang</i>, Old French <i>renc</i>, Teutonic <i>hriṇga</i>), <i>pansy</i> (<i>pensée</i>, <i>pēnsātam</i>); +but the majority show <i>e</i>—<i>enter</i> (<i>entrer</i>, <i>intrāre</i>), <i>fleam</i> (<i>flamme</i>, +Old French <i>fleme</i>, <i>phlebotomum</i>). The distinction is still preserved +in the Norman of Guernsey, where <i>an</i> and <i>en</i>, though both nasal, +have different sounds—<i>lànchier</i> (<i>lancer</i>, <i>laṇceāre</i>), but <i>mèntrie</i> (Old +French <i>menterie</i>, from <i>mentīrī</i>). (9) The loss of <i>s</i>, or rather <i>z</i>, before +voiced consonants began early, <i>s</i> being often omitted or wrongly +inserted in 12th century MSS.—Earliest Old French <i>masle</i> (<i>masculum</i>), +<i>sisdre</i> (<i>sīceram</i>); Modern French <i>mâle</i>, <i>cidre</i>. In English +it has everywhere disappeared—<i>male</i>, <i>cider</i>; except in two words, +where it appears, as occasionally in Old French, as <i>d</i>—<i>meddle</i> (<i>mêler</i>, +<i>misculāre</i>), <i>medlar</i> (<i>néflier</i>, Old French also <i>meslier</i>, <i>mespilārium</i>). +The loss of <i>s</i> before voiceless consonants (except <i>f</i>) is about two +centuries later, and it is not universal even in Parisian—Early Old +French <i>feste</i> (<i>festam</i>), <i>escuier</i> (<i>scūtārium</i>); Modern French <i>fête</i>, +<i>écuyer</i>, but <i>espérer</i> (<i>spērāre</i>). In the north-east <i>s</i> before <i>t</i> is still +retained—Walloon <i>chestai</i> (<i>château</i>, <i>castellum</i>), <i>fiess</i> (<i>fête</i>). English +shows <i>s</i> regularly—<i>feast</i>, <i>esquire</i>. (10) Medial <i>dh</i> (soft <i>th</i>, as in +<i>then</i>), and final <i>th</i> from Latin <i>t</i> or <i>d</i> between vowels, do not begin +to disappear till the latter half of the 11th century. In native +French MSS. <i>dh</i> is generally written <i>d</i>, and <i>th</i> written <i>t</i>; but the +German scribe of the Oaths writes <i>adjudha</i> (<i>adjūtam</i>), <i>cadhuna</i> +(Greek <i>katá</i> and <i>ūnam</i>); and the English one of the Alexis <i>cuntretha</i> +(<i>contrātam</i>), <i>lothet</i> (<i>laudātum</i>), and that of the Cambridge Psalter +<i>heriteth</i> (<i>hērēditātem</i>). Medial <i>dh</i> often drops even in the last-named +MSS., and soon disappears; the same is true for final <i>th</i> in Western +French—Modern French <i>contrée</i>, <i>loué</i>. But in Eastern French final +<i>th</i>, to which Latin <i>t</i> between vowels had probably been reduced +through <i>d</i> and <i>dh</i>, appears in the 12th century and later as <i>t</i>, rhyming +on ordinary French final <i>t</i>—Picard and Burgundian <i>pechiet</i> (<i>peccātum</i>) +<i>apeleit</i> (<i>appellātum</i>). In Western French some final <i>ths</i> were +saved by being changed to <i>f</i>—Modern French <i>soif</i> (<i>sitim</i>), <i>mœuf</i> +(obsolete, <i>modum</i>). English has one or two instances of final <i>th</i>, none +of medial <i>dh</i>—<i>faith</i> (<i>foi</i>, <i>fidem</i>); Middle English <i>cariteþ</i> (<i>charité</i>, +<i>caritātem</i>), <i>drutð</i> (Old French <i>dru</i>, Teutonic <i>drūd</i>); generally the +consonant is lost—<i>country</i>, <i>charity</i>. Middle High German shows +the Eastern French final consonant—<i>moraliteit</i> (<i>moralité</i>, <i>mōrālitātem</i>). +(11) <i>T</i> from Latin final <i>t</i>, if in an Old French unaccented +syllable, begins to disappear in the Roland, where sometimes <i>aimet</i> +(<i>amat</i>), sometimes <i>aime</i>, is required by the metre, and soon drops in +all dialects. The Modern French <i>t</i> of <i>aime-t-il</i> and similar forms +is an analogical insertion from such forms as <i>dort-il</i> (<i>dormit</i>), where +the <i>t</i> has always existed. (12) The change of the diphthong <i>ai</i> to <i>èi</i> +and afterwards to <i>èè</i> (the doubling indicates length) had not taken +place in the earliest French documents, words with <i>ai</i> assonating +only on words with <i>a</i>; in the Roland such assonances occur, but +those of <i>ai</i> on <i>è</i> are more frequent—<i>faire</i> (<i>facere</i>) assonating on +<i>parastre</i> (<i>patraster</i>) and on <i>estes</i> (<i>estis</i>); and the MS. (half a century +later than the poem) occasionally has <i>ei</i> and <i>e</i> for <i>ai</i>—<i>recleimet</i> +(<i>reclāmat</i>), <i>desfere</i> (<i>disfacere</i>), the latter agreeing with the Modern +French sound. Before nasals (as in <i>laine</i> = <i>lānam</i>) and <i>ié</i> (as in <i>payé</i> = <i>pācātum</i>), +<i>ai</i> remained a diphthong up to the 16th century, being +apparently <i>ei</i>, whose fate in this situation it has followed. English +shows <i>ai</i> regularly before nasals and when final, and in a few other +words—<i>vain</i> (<i>vain</i>, <i>vānum</i>), <i>pay</i> (<i>payer</i>, <i>pācāre</i>), <i>wait</i> (<i>guetter</i>, +Teutonic <i>wahtēn</i>); but before most consonants it has usually <i>èè</i>—<i>peace</i> +(<i>pais</i>, <i>pācum</i>), <i>feat</i> (<i>fait</i>, <i>factum</i>). (13) The loss or transposition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span> +of <i>i</i> (= y-consonant) following the consonant ending an accented +syllable begins in the 12th century—Early Old French <i>glorie</i> +(<i>glōriam</i>), <i>estudie</i> (<i>studium</i>), <i>olie</i> (<i>oleum</i>); Modern French <i>gloire</i>, +<i>étude</i>, <i>huile</i>. English sometimes shows the earlier form—<i>glory</i>, <i>study</i>; +sometimes the later—<i>dower</i> (<i>douaire</i>, Early Old French <i>doarie</i>, +<i>dōtārium</i>), <i>oil</i> (<i>huile</i>). (14) The vocalization of <i>l</i> preceded by a vowel +and followed by a consonant becomes frequent at the end of the 12th +century; when preceded by open <i>è</i>, an <i>a</i> developed before the <i>l</i> +while this was a consonant—11th century <i>salse</i> (<i>salsa</i>), <i>beltet</i> (<i>bellitatem</i>), +<i>solder</i> (<i>solidāre</i>); Modern French <i>sauce</i>, <i>beauté</i>, <i>souder</i>. In +Parisian, final <i>èl</i> followed the fate of <i>èl</i> before a consonant, becoming +the triphthong <i>èau</i>, but in Norman the vocalization did not take +place, and the <i>l</i> was afterwards rejected—Modern French <i>ruisseau</i>, +Modern Guernsey <i>russé</i> (<i>rīvicellum</i>). English words of French origin +sometimes show <i>l</i> before a consonant, but the general form is <i>u</i>—<i>scald</i> +(<i>échauder</i>, <i>excalidāre</i>), <i>Walter</i> (<i>Gautier</i>, Teutonic <i>Waldhari</i>); +<i>sauce</i>, <i>beauty</i>, <i>soder</i>. Final <i>èl</i> is kept—<i>veal</i> (<i>veau</i>, <i>vitellum</i>), <i>seal</i> +(<i>sceau</i>, <i>sigillum</i>). (15) In the east and centre <i>éi</i> changes to <i>òi</i>, while +the older sound is retained in the north-west and west—Norman +<i>estreit</i> (<i>étroit</i>, <i>strictum</i>), <i>preie</i> (<i>proie</i>, <i>praedam</i>), 12th century Picard, +Parisian, &c., <i>estroit</i>, <i>proie</i>. But the earliest (10th century) specimens +of the latter group of dialects have <i>éi</i>—<i>pleier</i> (<i>ployer</i>, <i>plicāre</i>) Eulalia, +<i>mettreiet</i> (<i>mettrait</i>, <i>mittere</i> <i>habēbat</i>) Jonah. Parisian <i>òi</i>, whether from +<i>ei</i> or from Old French <i>òi</i>, <i>ói</i>, became in the 15th century <i>uè</i> (spellings +with <i>oue</i> or <i>oe</i> are not uncommon—<i>mirouer</i> for <i>miroir</i>, <i>mīrātōrium</i>), +and in the following, in certain words, <i>è</i>, now written <i>ai</i>—<i>français</i>, +<i>connaître</i>, from <i>françois</i> (<i>franceis</i>, <i>franciscum</i>), <i>conoistre</i> (<i>conuistre</i>, +<i>cognōscere</i>); where it did not undergo the latter change it is now <i>ua</i> +or <i>wa</i>—<i>roi</i> (<i>rei</i>, <i>rēgem</i>), <i>croix</i> (<i>cruis</i>, <i>crūcem</i>). Before nasals and +palatal <i>l</i>, <i>ei</i> (now = <i>è</i>) was kept—<i>veine</i> (<i>vēna</i>), <i>veille</i> (<i>vigilā</i>), and it +everywhere survives unlabialized in Modern Norman—Guernsey +<i>ételle</i> (<i>étoile</i>, <i>stēlla</i>) with <i>é</i>, <i>ser</i> (<i>soir</i>, <i>sērum</i>) with <i>è</i>. English shows +generally <i>ei</i> (or <i>ai</i>) for original <i>ei</i>—<i>strait</i> (<i>estreit</i>), <i>prey</i> (<i>preie</i>); but +in several words the later Parisian <i>oi</i>—<i>coy</i> (<i>coi</i>, <i>qviētum</i>), <i>loyal</i> (<i>loyal</i>, +<i>lēgālem</i>). (16) The splitting of the vowel-sound from accented +Latin <i>ō</i> or <i>u</i> not in position, represented in Old French by <i>o</i> and <i>u</i> +indifferently, into <i>u</i>, <i>o</i> (before nasals), and <i>eu</i> (the latter at first a +diphthong, now = German <i>ö</i>), is unknown to Western French till +the 12th century, and is not general in the east. The sound in 11th +century Norman was much nearer to <i>u</i> (Modern French <i>ou</i>) than to <i>ó</i> +(Modern French <i>ô</i>), as the words borrowed by English show <i>uu</i> (at +first written <i>u</i>, afterwards <i>ou</i> or <i>ow</i>), never <i>óó</i>; but was probably +not quite <i>u</i>, as Modern Norman shows the same splitting of the +sound as Parisian. Examples are—Early Old French <i>espose</i> or +<i>espuse</i> (<i>spōnsam</i>), <i>nom</i> or <i>num</i> (<i>nōmen</i>), <i>flor</i> or <i>flur</i> (<i>flōrem</i>); Modern +French <i>épouse</i>, <i>nom</i>, <i>fleur</i>; Modern Guernsey <i>goule</i> (<i>gueule</i>, <i>gulam</i>), +<i>nom</i>, <i>flleur</i>. Modern Picard also shows <i>u</i>, which is the regular sound +before <i>r</i>—<i>flour</i>; but Modern Burgundian often keeps the original +Old French <i>ó</i>—<i>vo</i> (<i>vous</i>, <i>vōs</i>). English shows almost always <i>uu</i>—<i>spouse</i>, +<i>noun</i>, <i>flower</i> (Early Middle English <i>spuse</i>, <i>nun</i>, <i>flur</i>); but +<i>nephew</i> with <i>éu</i> (<i>neveu</i>, <i>nepōtem</i>). (17) The loss of the <i>u</i> (or <i>w</i>) of <i>qu</i> +dates from the end of the 12th century—Old French <i>quart</i> (<i>qvartum</i>), +<i>quitier</i> (<i>qviētāre</i>) with <i>qu</i> = <i>kw</i>, Modern French <i>quart</i>, <i>quitter</i> with <i>qu</i> = <i>k</i>. +In Walloon the <i>w</i> is preserved—<i>couâr</i> (<i>quart</i>), <i>cuitter</i>; as is +the case in English—<i>quart</i>, <i>quit</i>. The <i>w</i> of <i>gw</i> seems to have been +lost rather earlier, English having simple <i>g</i>—<i>gage</i> (<i>gage</i>, older <i>guage</i>, +Teutonic <i>wadi</i>), <i>guise</i> (<i>guise</i>, Teutonic <i>wīsa</i>). (18) The change of +the diphthong <i>òu</i> to <i>uu</i> did not take place till after the 12th century, +such words as <i>Anjou</i> (<i>Andegāvum</i>) assonating in the Roland on +<i>fort</i> (<i>fortem</i>); and did not occur in Picardy, where <i>òu</i> became <i>au</i> +<i>caus</i> from older <i>còus</i>, <i>còls</i> (<i>cous</i>, <i>collōs</i>) coinciding with <i>caus</i> from +<i>calz</i> (<i>chauds</i>, <i>calidōs</i>). English keeps <i>òu</i> distinct from <i>uu</i>—<i>vault</i> for +<i>vaut</i> (Modern French <i>voûte</i>, <i>volvitam</i>), <i>soder</i> (<i>souder</i>, <i>solidāre</i>). +(19) The change of the diphthong <i>ié</i> to simple <i>é</i> is specially Anglo-Norman, +in Old French of the Continent these sounds never rhyme, in that +of England they constantly do, and English words show, with rare +exceptions, the simple vowel—<i>fierce</i> (Old French <i>fiers</i>, <i>ferus</i>), chief +(<i>chief</i>, <i>caput</i>), with <i>ie</i> = <i>ee</i>; but <i>pannier</i> (<i>panier</i>, <i>panārium</i>). At the +beginning of the modern period, Parisian dropped the <i>i</i> of <i>ie</i> when +preceded by <i>ch</i> or <i>j</i>—<i>chef</i>, <i>abréger</i> (Old French <i>abregier</i>, <i>abbreviāre</i>); +elsewhere (except in verbs) <i>ie</i> is retained—<i>fier</i> (<i>ferum</i>), <i>pitié</i> (<i>pietātem</i>). +Modern Guernsey retains <i>ie</i> after <i>ch</i>—<i>ap’rchier</i> (<i>approcher</i>, <i>adpropeāre</i>).(20) +Some of the Modern French changes have found their places +under older ones; those remaining to be noticed are so recent that +English examples of the older forms are superfluous. In the 16th +century the diphthong <i>au</i> changed to <i>ao</i> and then to <i>ó</i>, its present +sound, rendering, for instance, <i>maux</i> (Old French <i>mals</i>, <i>malōs</i>) +identical with <i>mots</i> (<i>muttōs</i>). The <i>au</i> of <i>eau</i> underwent the same +change, but its <i>e</i> was still sounded as <i>ǝ</i> (the <i>e</i> of <i>que</i>); in the next +century this was dropped, making <i>veaux</i> (Old French <i>vëels</i>, <i>vitellōs</i>) +identical with <i>vaux</i> (<i>vals</i>, <i>vallēs</i>). (21) A more general and very +important change began much earlier than the last; this is the loss +of many final consonants. In Early Old French every consonant +was pronounced as written; by degrees many of them disappeared +when followed by another consonant, whether in the same word (in +which case they were generally omitted in writing) or in a following +one. This was the state of things in the 16th century; those final +consonants which are usually silent in Modern French were still +sounded, if before a vowel or at the end of a sentence or a line +of poetry, but generally not elsewhere. Thus a large number of +French words had two forms; the Old French <i>fort</i> appeared as <i>fòr</i> +(though still written <i>fort</i>) before a consonant, fòrt elsewhere. At a +later period final consonants were lost (with certain exceptions) +when the word stood at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry; +but they are generally kept when followed by a word beginning +with a vowel. (22) A still later change is the general loss of the +vowel (written e) of unaccented final syllables; this vowel preserved +in the 16th century the sound <i>ǝ</i>, which it had in Early Old French. +In later Anglo-Norman final <i>ǝ</i> (like every other sound) was treated +exactly as the same sound in Middle English; that is, it came to be +omitted or retained at pleasure, and in the 15th century disappeared. +In Old French the loss of final <i>ǝ</i> is confined to a few words and forms; +the 10th century <i>saveiet</i> (<i>sapēbat</i> for <i>sapiēbat</i>) became in the 11th +<i>saveit</i>, and <i>ore</i> (<i>ad hōram</i>), <i>ele</i> (<i>illam</i>) develop the abbreviated <i>or, el</i>. +In the 15th century <i>ǝ</i> before a vowel generally disappears—<i>mûr</i>, Old +French <i>mëur</i> (<i>mātūrum</i>); and in the 16th, though still written, <i>ǝ</i> +after an unaccented vowel, and in the syllable <i>ent</i> after a vowel, +does the same—<i>vraiment</i>, Old French <i>vraiement</i> (<i>vērācā mente</i>); +<i>avoient</i> two syllables, as now (<i>avaient</i>), in Old French three syllables +(as <i>habēbant</i>). These phenomena occur much earlier in the anglicized +French of England—13th century <i>aveynt</i> (Old French <i>aveient</i>). But +the universal loss of final <i>e</i>, which has clipped a syllable from half +the French vocabulary, did not take place till the 18th century, after +the general loss of final consonants; <i>fort</i> and <i>forte</i>, distinguished +at the end of a sentence or line in the 16th century as <i>fòrt</i> and <i>fòrtǝ</i>, +remain distinguished, but as <i>fòr</i> and <i>fòrt</i>. The metre of poetry is +still constructed on the obsolete pronunciation, which is even revived +in singing; “dîtes, la jeune belle,” actually four syllables (<i>dit, +la zhœn bèl</i>), is considered as seven, fitted with music accordingly, +and sung to fit the music (<i>ditǝ, la zhœna bèlǝ</i>). (23) In Old French, +as in the other Romanic languages, the stress (force, accent) is on the +syllable which was accented in Latin; compare the treatment of +the accented and unaccented vowels in <i>latrō amās</i>, giving <i>lére, +áime</i>, and in <i>latrōnem, amātis</i>, giving <i>larón, améz</i>, the accented vowels +being those which rhyme or assonate. At present, stress in French +is much less marked than in English, German or Italian, and is to a +certain extent variable; which is partly the reason why most native +French scholars find no difficulty in maintaining that the stress in +living Modern French is on the same syllable as in Old French. +The fact that stress in the French of to-day is independent of length +(quantity) and pitch (tone) largely aids the confusion; for though +the final and originally accented syllable (not counting the silent e +as a syllable) is now generally pronounced with less force, it very +often has a long vowel with raised pitch. In actual pronunciation +the chief stress is usually on the first syllable (counting according +to the sounds, not the spelling), but in many polysyllables it is on +the last but one; thus in <i>caution</i> the accented (strong) syllable +cau, in <i>occasion</i> it is <i>ca</i>. Poetry is still written according to the +original place of the stress; the rhyme-syllables of <i>larron, aimez</i> +are still <i>ron</i> and <i>mez</i>, which when set to music receive an accented +(strong) note, and are sung accordingly, though in speech the la +and ai generally have the principal stress. In reading poetry, as +distinguished from singing, the modern pronunciation is used, both +as to the loss of the final <i>ǝ</i> and the displacement of the stress, the +result being that the theoretical metre in which the poetry is +written disappears. (24) In certain cases accented vowels were +lengthened in Old French, as before a lost s; this was indicated in +the 16th century by a circumflex—<i>bête</i>, Old French <i>beste</i> (<i>bestiam</i>), +<i>âme</i>, Old French <i>anme</i> (<i>anima</i>). The same occurred in the plural of +many nouns, where a consonant was lost before the <i>s</i> of the flection; +thus singular <i>coc</i> with short vowel, plural <i>cos</i> with long. The plural +<i>cos</i>, though spelt <i>cogs</i> instead of <i>cô</i> (= <i>kóó</i>), is still sometimes to be +heard, but, like other similar ones, is generally refashioned after +the singular, becoming <i>kòk</i>. In present French, except where a +difference of quality has resulted, as in <i>côte</i> (Old French <i>coste, costam</i>) +with <i>ò</i> and <i>cotte</i> (Old French <i>cote</i>), with <i>ò</i>, short and long vowels +generally run together, quantity being now variable and uncertain; +but at the beginning of this century the Early Modern distinctions +appear to have been generally preserved.</p> +</div> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>Orthography</i>.—The history of French spelling is based on +that of French sounds; as already stated, the former (apart +from a few Latinisms in the earliest documents) for several +centuries faithfully followed the latter. When the popular Latin +of Gaul was first written, its sounds were represented by the letters +of the Roman alphabet; but these were employed, not in the +values they had in the time of Caesar, but in those they had acquired +in consequence of the phonetic changes that had meantime +taken place. Thus, as the Latin sound <i>u</i> had become <i>ó</i> (close <i>o</i>) +and <i>ū</i> had become <i>y</i> (French <i>u</i>, German <i>ü</i>), the letter <i>u</i> was used +sometimes to denote the sound <i>ó</i>, sometimes the sound <i>y</i>; as +Latin <i>k</i> (written <i>c</i>) had become <i>tsh</i> or <i>ts</i>, according to dialect, +before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i>, <i>c</i> was used to represent those sounds as well as +that of <i>k</i>. The chief features of early French orthography +(apart from the specialities of individual MSS., especially the +earliest) are therefore these:—<i>c</i> stood for <i>k</i> and <i>tsh</i> or <i>ts</i>; <i>d</i> for <i>d</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span> +and <i>dh</i> (soft <i>th</i>); <i>e</i> for <i>é</i>, <i>è</i>, and <i>ǝ</i>; <i>g</i> for <i>g</i> and <i>dzh</i>; <i>h</i> was often +written in words of Latin origin where not sounded; <i>i</i> (<i>j</i>) stood +for <i>i</i>, <i>y</i> consonant, and <i>dzh</i>; <i>o</i> for <i>ó</i> (Anglo-Norman <i>u</i>) and <i>ò</i>; +<i>s</i> for <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>; <i>t</i> for <i>t</i> and <i>th</i>; <i>u</i> (<i>v</i>) for <i>ó</i> (Anglo-Norman <i>u</i>), <i>y</i> and +<i>v</i>; <i>y</i> (rare) for <i>i</i>; <i>z</i> for <i>dz</i> and <i>ts</i>. Some new sounds had also +to be provided for: where <i>tsh</i> had to be distinguished from non-final +<i>ts</i>, <i>ch</i>—at first, as in Italian, denoting <i>k</i> before <i>i</i> and <i>e</i> (<i>chi</i> = <i>ki</i> +from <i>qvī</i>)—was used for it; palatal <i>l</i> was represented by <i>ill</i>, +which when final usually lost one <i>l</i>, and after <i>i</i> dropped its <i>i</i>; +palatal <i>n</i> by <i>gn</i>, <i>ng</i> or <i>ngn</i>, to which <i>i</i> was often prefixed; and +the new letter <i>w</i>, originally <i>uu</i> (<i>vv</i>), and sometimes representing +merely <i>uv</i> or <i>vu</i>, was employed for the consonant-sound still +denoted by it in English. All combinations of vowel-letters +represented diphthongs; thus <i>ai</i> denoted <i>a</i> followed by <i>i</i>, <i>ou</i> +either <i>óu</i> or <i>òu</i>, <i>ui</i> either <i>ói</i> (Anglo-Norman <i>ui</i>) or <i>yi</i>, and similarly +with the others—<i>ei</i>, <i>eu</i>, <i>oi</i>, <i>iu</i>, <i>ie</i>, <i>ue</i> (and <i>oe</i>), and the triphthong +<i>ieu</i>. Silent letters, except initial <i>h</i> in Latin words, are very rare; +though MSS. copied from older ones often retain letters whose +sounds, though existing in the language of the author, had disappeared +from that of the more modern scribe. The subsequent +changes in orthography are due mainly to changes of sound, +and find their explanation in the phonology. Thus, as Old +French progresses, <i>s</i>, having become silent before voiced consonants, +indicates only the length of the preceding vowel; <i>e</i> +before nasals, from the change of <i>ē</i> (nasal <i>e</i>) to <i>ã</i> (nasal <i>a</i>), represents +<i>ã</i>; <i>c</i>, from the change of <i>ts</i> to <i>s</i>, represents <i>s</i>; <i>qu</i> +and <i>gu</i>, from the loss of the <i>w</i> of <i>kw</i> and <i>gw</i>, represent +<i>k</i> and <i>g</i> (hard); <i>ai</i>, from the change of <i>ai</i> to <i>è</i>, represents <i>è</i>; <i>ou</i>, +from the change of <i>òu</i> and <i>óu</i> to <i>u</i>, represents <i>u</i>; <i>ch</i> and <i>g</i>, from +the change of <i>tsh</i> and <i>dzh</i> to <i>sh</i> and <i>zh</i>, represent <i>sh</i> and <i>zh</i>; <i>eu</i> +and ue, originally representing diphthongs, represent œ (German +<i>ö</i>); <i>z</i>, from the change of <i>ts</i> and <i>dz</i> to <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>, represents <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>. +The new values of some of these letters were applied to words +not originally spelt with them: Old French <i>k</i> before <i>i</i> and <i>e</i> +was replaced by <i>qu</i> (<i>evesque</i>, <i>eveske</i>, Latin <i>episcopum</i>); Old +French <i>u</i> and <i>o</i> for <i>ó</i>, after this sound had split into <i>eu</i> and <i>u</i>, +were replaced in the latter case by <i>ou</i> (<i>rous</i>, for <i>ros</i> or <i>rus</i>, Latin +<i>russum</i>); <i>s</i> was accidentally inserted to mark a long vowel +(<i>pasle</i>, <i>pale</i>, Latin <i>pallidum</i>); <i>eu</i> replaced <i>ue</i> and <i>oe</i> (<i>neuf</i>, <i>nuef</i>, +Latin <i>novum</i> and <i>novem</i>); <i>z</i> replaced <i>s</i> after <i>é</i> (<i>nez</i>, <i>nes</i>, <i>nāsum</i>). +The use of <i>x</i> for final <i>s</i> is due to an orthographical mistake; the +MS. contraction of <i>us</i> being something like <i>x</i> was at last confused +with it (<i>iex</i> for <i>ieus</i>, <i>oculōs</i>), and, its meaning being forgotten, <i>u</i> +was inserted before the <i>x</i> (<i>yeux</i>) which thus meant no more than +<i>s</i>, and was used for it after other vowels (<i>voix</i> for <i>vois</i>, <i>vōcem</i>). +As literature came to be extensively cultivated, traditional as +distinct from phonetic spelling began to be influential; and in the +14th century, the close of the Old French period, this influence, +though not overpowering, was strong—stronger than in England +at that time. About the same period there arose etymological as +distinct from traditional spelling. This practice, the alteration +of traditional spelling by the insertion or substitution of letters +which occurred (or were supposed to occur) in the Latin (or supposed +Latin) originals of the French words, became very prevalent +in the three following centuries, when such forms as <i>debvoir</i> +(<i>dēbēre</i>) for <i>devoir</i>, <i>faulx</i> (<i>falsum</i>) for <i>faus</i>, <i>autheur</i> (<i>auctōrem</i>, +supposed to be <i>authōrem</i>) for <i>auteur</i>, <i>poids</i> (supposed to be from +<i>pondus</i>, really from <i>pēnsum</i>) for <i>pois</i>, were the rule. But besides +the etymological, there was a phonetic school of spelling (Ramus, +in 1562, for instance, writes <i>èime</i>, <i>èimates</i>—with <i>e</i> = <i>é</i>, <i>è</i> = <i>è</i>, and +<i>ę</i> = <i>ǝ</i>—for <i>aimai</i>, <i>aimastes</i>), which, though unsuccessful on the +whole, had some effect in correcting the excesses of the other, +so that in the 17th century most of these inserted letters began to +drop; of those which remain, some (<i>flegme</i> for <i>flemme</i> or <i>fleume</i>, +Latin <i>phlegma</i>) have corrupted the pronunciation. Some important +reforms—as the dropping of silent <i>s</i>, and its replacement +by a circumflex over the vowel when this was long; the +frequent distinction of close and open <i>e</i> by acute and grave +accents; the restriction of <i>i</i> and <i>u</i> to the vowel sound, of <i>j</i> and <i>v</i> +to the consonant; and the introduction from Spain of the cedilla +to distinguish <i>c</i> = <i>s</i> from <i>c</i> = <i>k</i> before <i>a</i>, <i>u</i> and <i>o</i>—are due to the +16th century. The replacement of <i>oi</i>, where it had assumed the +value <i>è</i>, by <i>ai</i>, did not begin till the last century, and was not the +rule till the present one. Indeed, since the 16th century the +changes in French spelling have been small, compared with the +changes of the sounds; final consonants and final <i>e</i> (unaccented) +are still written, though the sounds they represent have disappeared.</p> + +<p>Still, a marked effort towards the simplification of French +orthography was made in the third edition of the <i>Dictionary</i> of +the French Academy (1740), practically the work of the Abbé +d’Olivet. While in the first (1694) and second (1718) editions of +this dictionary words were overburdened with silent letters, +supposed to represent better the etymology, in the third edition +the spelling of about 5000 words (out of about 18,000) was +altered and made more in conformity with the pronunciation. +So, for instance, <i>c</i> was dropped in <i>beinfaicteur</i> and <i>object, ç</i> in +<i>sçavoir, d</i> in <i>advocat, s</i> in <i>accroistre, albastre, aspre</i> and <i>bastard, e</i> in +the past part. <i>creu, deu, veu,</i> and in such words as <i>alleure, souilleure;</i> +<i>y</i> was replaced by <i>i</i> in <i>cecy, celuy, gay, joye</i>, &c. But those +changes were not made systematically, and many pedantic +spellings were left untouched, while many inconsistencies still +remain in the present orthography (<i>siffler</i> and <i>persifler, souffler</i> +and <i>boursoufler</i>, &c). The consequence of those efforts in contrary +directions is that French orthography is now quite as +traditional and unphonetic as English, and gives an even falser +notion than this of the actual state of the language it is supposed +to represent. Many of the features of Old French orthography, +early and late, are preserved in English orthography; to it we +owe the use of <i>c</i> for <i>s</i> (Old English <i>c = k</i> only), of <i>j</i> (<i>i</i>) for <i>dzh</i>, of +<i>v</i> (<i>u</i>) for <i>v</i> (in Old English written <i>f</i>), and probably of <i>ch</i> for <i>tsh</i>. +The English <i>w</i> is purely French, the Old English letter being +the runic <i>Þ</i>. When French was introduced into England, <i>kw</i> had +not lost its <i>w</i>, and the French <i>qu</i>, with that value, replaced the +Old English <i>cÞ</i> (<i>queen</i> for <i>cÞ</i>en). In Norman, Old French <i>ó</i> had +become very like <i>u</i>, and in England went entirely into it; <i>o</i>, +which was one of its French signs, thus came to be often used +for <i>u</i> in English (<i>come</i> for <i>cume</i>). <i>U</i>, having often in Old French +its Modern French value, was so used in England, and replaced +the Old English <i>y</i> (<i>busy</i> for <i>bysi</i>, Middle English <i>brud</i> for <i>brŷd</i>), +and <i>y</i> was often used for <i>i</i> (<i>day</i> for <i>dai</i>). In the 13th century, +when <i>ou</i> had come to represent <i>u</i> in France, it was borrowed by +English, and used for the long sound of that vowel (<i>sour</i> for <i>sūr</i>); +and <i>gu</i>, which had come to mean simply <i>g</i> (hard), was occasionally +used to represent the sound <i>g</i> before <i>i</i> and <i>e</i> (<i>guess</i> for <i>gesse</i>). +Some of the Early Modern etymological spellings were imitated +in England; <i>fleam</i> and <i>autour</i> were replaced by <i>phlegm</i> and +<i>authour</i>, the latter spelling having corrupted the pronunciation.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) <i>Inflections</i>.—In the earliest Old French extant, the influence +of analogy, especially in verbal forms, is very marked +when these are compared with Latin (thus the present participles +of all conjugations take <i>ant</i>, the ending of the first, Latin <i>antem</i>), +and becomes stronger as the language progresses. Such isolated +inflectional changes as <i>saveit</i> into <i>savoit</i>, which are cases of regular +phonetic changes, are not noticed here.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(i.) <i>Verbs</i>.—(1) In the oldest French texts the Latin pluperfect +(with the sense of the perfect) occasionally occurs—<i>avret</i> (<i>habuerat</i>), +<i>roveret</i> (<i>rogāverat</i>); it disappears before the 12th century. (2) +The <i>u</i> of the ending of the 1st pers. plur. <i>mus</i> drops in Old French, +except in the perfect, where its presence (as <i>ǝ</i>) is not yet satisfactorily +explained—<i>amoms</i> (<i>amāmus</i>, influenced by <i>sūmus</i>), but <i>amames</i> +(<i>amāvimus</i>). In Picard the atonic ending <i>mes</i> is extended to all tenses, +giving <i>amomes</i>, &c. (3) In the present indicative, 2nd person plur., +the ending <i>ez</i> of the first conjugation (Latin <i>atis</i>) extends, even in +the earliest documents, to all verbs—<i>avez, recevez, oez</i> (<i>habetis</i>, +<i>recipĭtis, auditis</i>) like <i>amez</i> (<i>amatis</i>); such forms as <i>dites</i>, <i>faites</i> +(<i>dicĭtis</i>, <i>facĭtis</i>) being exceptional archaisms. This levelling of the +conjugation does not appear at such an early time in the future +(formed from the infinitive and from <i>habētis</i> reduced to <i>ētis</i>); in +the Roland both forms occur, <i>portereiz</i> (<i>portare habētis</i>) assonating +on <i>rei</i> (<i>roi, rēgem</i>), and the younger <i>porterez</i> on <i>citet</i> (<i>cité</i>, +<i>cīvitātem</i>), but about the end of the 13th century the older form +<i>-eiz</i>, <i>-oiz</i>, is dropped, and <i>-ez</i> becomes gradually the uniform ending +for this 2nd person of the plural in the future tense. (4) In Eastern +French the 1st plur., when preceded by <i>i</i>, has <i>e</i>, not <i>o</i>, before the nasal, +while Western French has <i>u</i> (or <i>o</i>), as in the present; <i>posciomes</i> +(<i>posseāmus</i>) in the Jonah homily makes it probable that the latter +is the older form—Picard <i>aviemes</i>, Burgundian <i>aviens</i>, Norman +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span> +<i>aviums</i> (<i>habēbāmus</i>). (5) The subjunctive of the first conjugation +has at first in the singular no final <i>e</i>, in accordance with the final +vowel laws—<i>plur</i>, <i>plurs</i>, <i>plurt</i> (<i>plōrem</i>, <i>plōrēs</i>, <i>plōret</i>). The forms are +gradually assimilated to those of the other conjugations, which, +deriving from Latin <i>am</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>at</i>, have <i>e</i>, <i>es</i>, <i>e</i>(<i>t</i>); Modern French <i>pleure</i>, +<i>pleures</i>, <i>pleure</i>, like <i>perde</i>, <i>perdes</i>, <i>perde</i> (<i>perdam</i>, <i>perdās</i>, <i>perdat</i>). +(6) In Old French the present subjunctive and the 1st sing. pres. +ind. generally show the influence of the <i>i</i> or <i>e</i> of the Latin <i>iam</i>, <i>eam</i>, +<i>iō</i>, <i>eō</i>—Old French <i>muire</i> or <i>moerge</i> (<i>moriat</i> for <i>moriātur</i>), <i>tiegne</i> or +<i>tienge</i> (<i>teneat</i>), <i>muir</i> or <i>moerc</i> (<i>moriō</i> for <i>morior</i>), <i>tieng</i> or <i>tienc</i> (<i>teneō</i>). +By degrees these forms are levelled under the other present forms—Modern +French <i>meure</i> and <i>meurs</i> following <i>meurt</i> (<i>morit</i> for <i>morītur</i>), +<i>tienne</i> and <i>tiens</i> following <i>tient</i> (<i>tenet</i>). A few of the older forms +remain—the vowel of <i>aie</i> (<i>habeam</i>) and <i>ai</i> (<i>habeō</i>) contrasting with +that of <i>a</i> (<i>habet</i>). (7) A levelling of which instances occur in the 11th +century, but which is not yet complete, is that of the accented and +unaccented stem-syllables of verbs. In Old French many verb-stems +with shifting accent vary in accordance with phonetic laws—<i>parler</i> +(<i>parabolāre</i>), <i>amer</i> (<i>amāre</i>) have in the present indicative +<i>parol</i> (<i>parabolō</i>), <i>paroles</i> (<i>parabolās</i>), <i>parolet</i> (<i>parabolat</i>), <i>parlums</i> +(<i>parabolāmus</i>), <i>parlez</i> (<i>parabolātis</i>), <i>parolent</i> (<i>parabolant</i>); <i>aim</i> +(<i>amō</i>), <i>aimes</i> (<i>amās</i>), <i>aimet</i> (<i>amat</i>), <i>amums</i> (<i>amāmus</i>), <i>amez</i> (<i>amātis</i>), +<i>aiment</i> (<i>amant</i>). In the first case the unaccented, in the second +the accented form has prevailed—Modern French <i>parle</i>, <i>parler</i>; +<i>aime</i>, <i>aimer</i>. In several verbs, as <i>tenir</i> (<i>tenēre</i>), the distinction is +retained—<i>tiens</i>, <i>tiens</i>, <i>tient</i>, <i>tenons</i>, <i>tenez</i>, <i>tiennent</i>. (8) In Old +French, as stated above, <i>ié</i> instead of <i>é</i> from <i>a</i> occurs after a palatal +(which, if a consonant, often split into <i>i</i> with a dental); the diphthong +thus appears in several forms of many verbs of the 1st conjugation—<i>preier</i> +(= <i>prei-ier</i>, <i>precāre</i>), <i>vengier</i> (<i>vindicāre</i>), <i>laissier</i> +(<i>laxāre</i>), <i>aidier</i> (<i>adjūtāre</i>). At the close of the Old French period, +those verbs in which the stem ends in a dental replace <i>ie</i> by the <i>e</i> +of other verbs—Old French <i>laissier</i>, <i>aidier</i>, <i>laissiez</i> (<i>laxātis</i>), <i>aidiez</i> +(<i>adjūtātis</i>); Modern French <i>laisser</i>, <i>aider</i>, <i>laissez</i>, <i>aidez</i>, by analogy +of <i>aimer</i>, <i>aimez</i>. The older forms generally remain in Picard—<i>laissier</i>, +<i>aidier</i>. (9) The addition of <i>e</i> to the 1st sing. pres. ind. +of all verbs of the first conjugation is rare before the 13th century, +but is usual in the 15th; it is probably due to the analogy of the +third person—Old French <i>chant</i> (<i>cantō</i>), <i>aim</i> (<i>amō</i>); Modern French +<i>chante</i>, <i>aime</i>. (10) In the 13th century <i>s</i> is occasionally added to the +1st pers. sing., except those ending in <i>e</i> (= <i>ǝ</i>) and <i>ai</i>, and to the 2nd +sing. of imperatives; at the close of the 16th century this becomes +the rule, and extends to imperfects and conditionals in <i>oie</i> after the +loss of their <i>e</i>. It appears to be due to the influence of the 2nd pers. +sing.—Old French <i>vend</i> (<i>vendō</i> and <i>vende</i>), <i>vendoie</i> (<i>vendēbam</i>), <i>parti</i> +(<i>partīvī</i>), <i>ting</i> (<i>tenuī</i>); Modern French <i>vends</i>, <i>vendais</i>, <i>partis</i>, <i>tins</i>; +and <i>donne</i> (<i>dōnā</i>) in certain cases becomes <i>donnes</i>. (11) The 1st and +2nd plur. of the pres. subj., which in Old French were generally +similar to those of the indicative, gradually take an <i>i</i> before them, +which is the rule after the 16th century—Old French <i>perdons</i> (<i>perdāmus</i>), +<i>perdez</i> (<i>perdātis</i>); Modern French <i>perdions</i>, <i>perdiez</i>, apparently +by analogy of the imp. ind. (12) The loss in Late Old French +of final <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, &c., when preceding another consonant, caused many +words to have in reality (though often concealed by orthography) +double forms of inflection—one without termination, the other with. +Thus in the 16th century the 2nd sing. pres. ind. <i>dors</i> (<i>dormīs</i>) and +the 3rd <i>dort</i> (<i>dormit</i>) were distinguished as <i>dòrz</i> and <i>dòrt</i> when before +a vowel, as <i>dòrs</i> and <i>dòrt</i> at the end of a sentence or line of poetry, +but ran together as <i>dòr</i> when followed by a consonant. Still later, +the loss of the final consonant when not followed by a vowel further +reduced the cases in which the forms were distinguished, so that +the actual French conjugation is considerably simpler than is shown +by the customary spellings, except when, in consequence of an immediately +following vowel, the old terminations occasionally appear. +Even here the antiquity is to a considerable extent artificial or +delusive, some of the insertions being due to analogy, and the popular +language often omitting the traditional consonant or inserting a +different one. (13) The subsequent general loss of <i>e</i> = <i>ǝ</i> in unaccented +final syllables has still further reduced the inflections, but not the +distinctive forms—<i>perd</i> (<i>perdit</i>) and <i>perde</i> (<i>perdat</i>) being generally +<span class="correction" title="amended from ditinguished">distinguished</span> as <i>pèr</i> and <i>pèrd</i>, and before a vowel as <i>pèrt</i> and +<i>pèrd</i>.</p> + +<p>(ii.) <i>Substantives.</i>—(1) In Early Old French (as in Provençal) there +are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; with a +few exceptions the former <span class="correction" title="amended from ditinguishes">distinguishes</span> nominative and accusative +in both numbers, the latter in neither. The nom. and acc. sing, +and acc. plur. mas. correspond to those of the Latin 2nd or 3rd +declension, the nom. plur. to that of the 2nd declension. The sing, +fem. corresponds to the nom. and acc. of the Latin 1st declension, +or to the acc. of the 3rd; the plur. fem. to the acc. of the 1st declension, +or to the nom. and acc. of the 3rd. Thus masc. <i>tors</i> (<i>taurus</i>), +<i>lere</i> (<i>latrō</i>); <i>tor</i> (<i>taurum</i>), <i>laron</i> (<i>latrōnem</i>); <i>tor</i> (<i>taurī</i>), <i>laron</i> (<i>latrōnī</i> +for <i>-nēs</i>); <i>tors</i> (<i>taurōs</i>), <i>larons</i> (<i>latrōnēs</i>); but fem. only <i>ele</i> (<i>āla</i> and +<i>ālam</i>), <i>flor</i> (<i>flōrem</i>); <i>eles</i> (<i>ālās</i>), <i>flors</i> (<i>flōrēs</i> nom. and acc.). About +the end of the 11th century feminines not ending in <i>e</i> = <i>ǝ</i> take, by +analogy of the masculines, <i>s</i> in the nom. sing., thus distinguishing +nom. <i>flors</i> from acc. <i>flor</i>. A century later, masculines without <i>s</i> +in the nom. sing. take this consonant by analogy of the other masculines, +giving <i>leres</i> as nom. similar to <i>tors</i>. In Anglo-Norman the +accusative forms very early begin to replace the nominative, and +soon supersede them, the language following the tendency of contemporaneous +English. In continental French the declension-system +was preserved much longer, and did not break up till the 14th +century, though acc. forms are occasionally substituted for nom. +(rarely nom. for acc.) before that date. It must be noticed, however, +that in the current language the reduction of the declension to one +case (generally the accusative) per number appears much earlier +than in the language of literature proper and poetry; Froissart, for +instance, <i>c.</i> 1400, in his poetical works is much more careful of the +declension than in his Chronicles. In the 15th century the modern +system of one case is fully established; the form kept is almost +always the accusative (sing. without <i>s</i>, plural with <i>s</i>), but in a few +words, such as <i>fils</i> (<i>fīlius</i>), <i>sœur</i> (<i>soror</i>), <i>pastre</i> (<i>pastor</i>), and in proper +names such as <i>Georges</i>, <i>Gilles</i>, &c., often used as vocative (therefore +with the form of nom.); the nom. survives in the sing. Occasionally +both forms exist, in different senses—<i>sire</i> (<i>senior</i>) and <i>seigneur</i> +(<i>seniōrem</i>), <i>on</i> (<i>homō</i>) and <i>homme</i> (<i>hominem</i>). (2) Latin neuters are +generally masculine in Old French, and inflected according to their +analogy, as <i>ciels</i> (<i>caelus</i> for <i>caelum</i> nom.), <i>ciel</i> (<i>caelum</i> acc.), <i>ciel</i> (<i>caelī</i> +for <i>caela</i> nom.), <i>ciels</i> (<i>caelōs</i> for <i>caela</i> acc.); but in some cases the +form of the Latin neuter is preserved, as in <i>cors</i>, now <i>corps</i>, Lat. +<i>corpus</i>; <i>tens</i>, now <i>temps</i>, Lat. <i>tempus</i>. Many neuters lose their +singular form and treat the plural as a feminine singular, as in the +related languages—<i>merveill</i>e (<i>mīrābilia</i>), <i>feuille</i> (<i>folia</i>). But in a few +words the neuter plural termination is used, as in Italian, in its +primitive sense—<i>carre</i> (<i>carra</i>, which exists as well as <i>carrī</i>), <i>paire</i> +(<i>Lat. paria</i>); Modern French <i>chars</i>, <i>paires</i>. (3) In Old French the +inflectional <i>s</i> often causes phonetic changes in the stem; thus palatal +<i>l</i> before <i>s</i> takes <i>t</i> after it, and becomes dental <i>l</i>, which afterwards +changes to <i>u</i> or drops—<i>fil</i> (<i>fīlium</i> and <i>fīlii</i>) with palatal <i>l</i>, <i>filz</i> (<i>fīlius</i> +and <i>fīliōs</i>), afterwards <i>fiz</i>, with <i>z</i> = <i>ts</i> (preserved in English <i>Fitz</i>), +and then <i>fis</i>, as now (spelt <i>fils</i>). Many consonants before <i>s</i>, as the +<i>t</i> of <i>fiz</i>, disappear, and <i>l</i> is vocalized—<i>vif</i> (<i>vīvum</i>), <i>mal</i> (<i>malum</i>), +nominative sing. and acc. plur. <i>vis</i>, <i>maus</i> (earlier <i>mals</i>). These forms +of the plural are retained in the 16th century, though often etymologically +spelt with the consonant of the singular, as in <i>vifs</i>, +pronounced <i>vis</i>; but in Late Modern French many of them disappear, +<i>vifs</i>, with <i>f</i> sounded as in the singular, being the plural +of <i>vif</i>, <i>bals</i> (formerly <i>baux</i>) that of <i>bal</i>. In many words, as <i>chant</i> +(<i>cantūs</i>) and <i>champs</i> (<i>campōs</i>) with silent <i>t</i> and <i>p</i> (Old French <i>chans</i> +in both cases), <i>maux</i> (Old French <i>mals</i>, sing. <i>mal</i>), <i>yeux</i> (<i>oculōs</i>, +Old French <i>œlz</i>, sing. <i>œil</i>) the old change in the stem is kept. Sometimes, +as in <i>cieux</i> (<i>caelōs</i>) and <i>ciels</i>, the old traditional and the modern +analogical forms coexist, with different meanings. (4) The modern +loss of final <i>s</i> (except when kept as <i>z</i> before a vowel) has seriously +modified the French declension, the singulars <i>fort</i> (<i>fòr</i>) and <i>forte</i> +(<i>fòrt</i>) being generally undistinguishable from their plurals <i>forts</i> and +<i>fortes</i>. The subsequent loss of <i>ǝ</i> in finals has not affected the relation +between sing. and plur. forms; but with the frequent recoining of +the plural forms on the singular present Modern French has very +often no distinction between sing. and plur., except before a vowel. +Such plurals as <i>maux</i> have always been distinct from their singular +<i>mal</i>; in those whose singular ends in <i>s</i> there never was any distinction, +Old French <i>laz</i> (now spelt <i>lacs</i>) corresponding to <i>laqveus</i>, +<i>laqveum</i>, <i>laqveī</i> and <i>laqveōs</i>.</p> + +<p>(iii.) <i>Adjectives.</i>—(1) The terminations of the cases and numbers +of adjectives are the same as those of substantives, and are treated +in the preceding paragraph. The feminine generally takes no <i>e</i> if +the masc. has none, and if there is no distinction in Latin—fem. +sing. <i>fort</i> (<i>fortem</i>), <i>grant</i> (<i>grandem</i>), fem. plur. <i>forz</i> (<i>fortēs</i>), <i>granz</i> +(<i>grandēs</i>), like the acc. masc. Certain adjectives of this class, and +among them all the adjectives formed with the Latin suffix <i>-ensis</i>, +take regularly, even in the oldest French, the feminine ending <i>e</i>, in +<i>Provençal</i> a (<i>courtois</i>, fem. <i>courtoise</i>; <i>commun</i>, fem. <i>commune</i>). +To these must not be added <i>dous</i> (Mod. Fr. <i>dolz</i>, <i>dous</i>), fem. <i>douce</i>, +which probably comes from a Low Latin <i>dulcius</i>, <i>dulcia</i>. In the +11th century some other feminines, originally without <i>e</i>, begin in +Norman to take this termination—<i>grande</i> (in a feminine assonance +in the Alexis), plur. <i>grandes</i>; but other dialects generally preserve +the original form till the 14th century. In the 16th century the <i>e</i> is +general in the feminine, and is now universal, except in a few expressions—<i>grand’mère</i> +(with erroneous apostrophe, <i>grandem</i>, <i>mātrem</i>), +<i>lettres royaux</i> (<i>literās rēgālēs</i>), and most adverbs from adjectives in +<i>-ant</i>, <i>-ent</i>—<i>couramment</i> (<i>currante</i> for <i>-ente mente</i>), <i>sciemment</i> (<i>sciente +mente</i>). (2) Several adjectives have in Modern French replaced the +masc. by the feminine—Old French masc. <i>roit</i> (<i>rigidum</i>), fem. <i>roide</i> +(<i>rigidam</i>); Modern French <i>roide</i> for both genders. (3) In Old French +several Latin simple comparatives are preserved—<i>maiur</i> (<i>majōrem</i>), +nom. <i>maire</i> (<i>major</i>); <i>graignur</i> (<i>grandiōrem</i>), nom. <i>graindre</i> (<i>grandior</i>); +only a few of these now survive—<i>pire</i> (<i>pejor</i>), <i>meilleur</i> (<i>meliōrem</i>), +with their adverbial neuters <i>pis</i> (<i>pejus</i>), <i>mieux</i> (<i>melius</i>). The few +simple superlatives found in Old French, as <i>merme</i> (<i>minimum</i>), +<i>pesme</i> (<i>pessimus</i>), <i>proisme</i> (<i>proximum</i>), <i>haltisme</i> (<i>altissimum</i>), this +last one being clearly a literary word, are now extinct, and, when +they existed, had hardly the meaning of a superlative. (4) The +modern loss of many final consonants when not before vowels, and +the subsequent loss of final ǝ, have greatly affected the distinction +between the masc. and fem. of adjectives—<i>fort</i> and <i>forte</i> are still +distinguished as <i>fòr</i> and <i>fòrt</i>, but <i>amer</i> (<i>amārum</i>) and <i>amère</i> (<i>amāram</i>), +with their plurals <i>amers</i> and <i>amères</i>, have run together.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span></p> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) <i>Derivation</i>.—Most of the Old French prefixes and suffixes +are descendants of Latin ones, but a few are Teutonic (<i>ard = hard</i>), +and some are later borrowings from Latin (<i>arie</i>, afterwards <i>aire</i>, +from <i>ārium</i>). In Modern French many old affixes are hardly used +for forming new words; the inherited <i>ier</i> (<i>ārium</i>) is yielding to +the borrowed <i>aire</i>, the popular <i>contre</i> (<i>contrā</i>) to the learned anti +(Greek), and the native <i>ée</i> (<i>ātam</i>) to the Italian <i>ade</i>. The suffixes +of many words have been assimilated to more common ones; +thus <i>sengler</i> (<i>singulārem</i>) is now <i>sanglier</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>g</i>) <i>Syntax</i>.—Old French syntax, gradually changing from +the 10th to the 14th century, has a character of its own, distinct +from that of Modern French; though when compared with +Latin syntax it appears decidedly modern.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) The general formal distinction between nominative and +accusative is the chief feature which causes French syntax to resemble +that of Latin and differ from that of the modern language; +and as the distinction had to be replaced by a comparatively fixed +word-order, a serious loss of freedom ensued. If the forms are +modernized while the word-order is kept, the Old French <i>l’archevesque +ne puet flechir li reis Henris</i> (Latin <i>archiepiscopum nōn potest flectere +rex Henricus</i>) assumes a totally different meaning—<i>l’archevêque ne +peut fléchir le roi Henri</i>. (2) The replacement of the nominative form +of nouns by the accusative is itself a syntactical feature, though +treated above under inflection. A more modern instance is exhibited +by the personal pronouns, which, when not immediately the subject +of a verb, occasionally take even in Old French, and regularly in +the 16th century, the accusative form; the Old French <i>je qui sui</i> +(<i>ego qvī sum</i>) becomes <i>moi qui suis</i>, though the older usage survives +in the legal phrase <i>je soussigné</i>.... (3) The definite article is now +required in many cases where Old French dispenses with it—<i>jo +cunquis Engleterre, suffrir mort</i> (as Modern French <i>avoir faim</i>); +Modern French <i>l’Angleterre, la mort</i>. (4) Old French had distinct pronouns +for “this” and “that”—<i>cest</i> (<i>ecce istum</i>) and <i>cel</i> (<i>ecce illium</i>), +with their cases. Both exist in the 16th century, but the present +language employs <i>cet</i> as adjective, <i>cel</i> as substantive, in both meanings, +marking the old distinction by affixing the adverbs <i>ci</i> and <i>là</i>—<i>cet +homme-ci, cet homme-là</i>; <i>celui-ci, celui-là</i>. (5) In Old French, +the verbal terminations being clear, the subject pronoun is usually +not expressed—<i>si ferai</i> (<i>sīc facere habeō</i>), <i>est durs</i> (<i>dūrus est</i>), <i>que +feras</i> (<i>quid facere habēs</i>)<i>?</i> In the 16th century the use of the pronoun +is general, and is now universal, except in one or two impersonal +phrases, as <i>n’importe, peu s’en faut</i>. (6) The present participle in +Old French in its uninflected form coincided with the gerund (<i>amant = amantem</i> +and <i>amandō</i>), and in the modern language has been replaced +by the latter, except where it has become adjectival; the +Old French <i>complaingnans leur dolours</i> (Latin <i>plaṇgentēs</i>) is now +<i>plaignant leurs douleurs</i> (Latin <i>plaṇgendō</i>). The now extinct use of +<i>estre</i> with the participle present for the simple verb is not uncommon +in Old French down to the 16th century—<i>sont disanz</i> (<i>sunt dīcentēs</i>) = Modern +French <i>ils disent</i> (as English <i>they are saying</i>). (7) In present +Modern French the preterite participle when used with <i>avoir</i> to form +verb-tenses is invariable, except when the object precedes (an +exception now vanishing in the conversational language)—<i>j’ai +écrit les lettres, les lettres que j’ai écrites</i>. In Old French down to the +16th century, formal concord was more common (though by no +means necessary), partly because the object preceded the participle +much oftener than now—<i>ad la culur muée</i> (<i>habet colōrem mūtātam</i>), +<i>ad faite sa venjance, les turs ad rendues</i>. (8) The sentences +just quoted will serve as specimens of the freedom of Old French +word-order—the object standing either before verb and participle, +between them, or after both. The predicative adjective can stand +before or after the verb—<i>halt sunt li pui</i> (Latin <i>podia</i>), <i>e tenebrus e +grant</i>. (9) In Old French <i>ne</i> (Early Old French <i>nen</i>, Latin <i>nōn</i>) +suffices for the negation without <i>pas</i> (<i>passum</i>), <i>point</i> (<i>puṇctum</i>) or +<i>mie</i> (<i>mīcam</i>, now obsolete), though these are frequently used—<i>jo +ne sui lis sire</i> (<i>je ne suis pas ton seigneur</i>), <i>autre feme nen ara</i> (<i>il +n’aura pas autre femme</i>). In principal sentences Modern French uses +<i>ne</i> by itself only in certain cases—<i>je ne puis marcher, je n’ai rien</i>. +The slight weight as a negation usually attached to ne has caused +several originally positive words to take a negative meaning—<i>rien</i> +(Latin <i>rem</i>) now meaning “nothing” as well as “something.” (10) +In Old French interrogation was expressed with substantives as with +pronouns by putting them after the verb—<i>est Saul entre les prophètes?</i> +In Modern French the pronominal inversion (the substantive +being prefixed) or a verbal periphrasis must be used—<i>Saul +est-il? or est-ce que Saul est?</i></p> + +<p>(<i>h</i>) <i>Summary</i>.—Looking at the internal history of the French +language as a whole, there is no such strongly marked division as +exists between Old and Middle English, or even between Middle +and Modern English. Some of the most important changes are +quite modern, and are concealed by the traditional orthography; +but, even making allowance for this, the difference between French +of the 11th century and that of the 20th is less than that between +English of the same dates. The most important change in itself +and for its effects is probably that which is usually made the division +between Old and Modern French, the loss of the formal distinction +between nominative and accusative; next to this are perhaps the +gradual loss of many final consonants, the still recent loss of the +vowel of unaccented final syllables, and the extension of analogy in +conjugation and declension. In its construction Old French is distinguished +by a freedom strongly contrasting with the strictness of +the modern language, and bears, as might be expected, a much +stronger resemblance than the latter to the other Romanic dialects. +In many features, indeed, both positive and negative, Modern +French forms a class by itself, distinct in character from the other +modern representatives of Latin.</p> + +<p>IV. <span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The few works which treat of French philology +as a whole are now in many respects antiquated, and the +important discoveries of recent years, which have revolutionized +our ideas of Old French phonology and dialectology, are scattered +in various editions, periodicals, and separate treatises. For many +things Diez’s <i>Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen</i> (4th edition—a +reprint of the 3rd—Bonn, 1876-1877; French translation, Paris, +1872-1875) is still very valuable; Burguy’s <i>Grammaire de la Langue +d’Oïl</i> (2nd edition—a reprint of the 1st—Berlin, 1869-1870) is useful +only as a collection of examples. Schwan’s <i>Grammatik des Altfranzösischen</i>, +as revised by Behrens in the 3rd edition (Leipzig, 1898; +French translation, Leipzig and Paris, 1900), is by far the best old +French grammar we possess. For the history of French language in +general see F. Brunot, <i>Histoire de la langue française des origines à +1900</i> (Paris, 1905, 1906, &c.). For the history of spelling, A. F. +Didot, <i>Observations sur l’orthographe ou ortografie française suivies +d’une histoire de la réforme orthographique depuis le XV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle jusqu’à +nos jours</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1868). For the history of French sounds: +Ch. Thurot, <i>De la prononciation française depuis le commencement +du XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, d’après les témoignages des grammairiens</i> (2 vols., +Paris, 1881-1883). For the history of syntax, apart from various +grammatical works of a general character, much is to be gathered +from Ad. Tobler’s <i>Vermischte Beiträge zur französischen Grammatik</i> +(3 parts, 1886, 1894, 1899, parts i. and ii. in second editions, 1902, +1906). G. Paris’s edition of <i>La Vie de S. Alexis</i> (Paris, 1872) was +the pioneer of, and retains an important place among, the recent +original works on Old French. Darmesteter and Hatzfeld’s <i>Le +Seizième Siècle</i> (Paris, 1878) contains the first good account of Early +Modern French. Littré’s <i>Dictionnaire de la langue française</i> (4 vols., +Paris, 1863-1869, and a Supplement, 1877); and Hatzfeld, Darmesteter +and Thomas, <i>Dict. général de la langue française</i>, more condensed +(2 vols., Paris, 1888-1900), contain much useful and often +original information about the etymology and history of French +words. For the etymology of many French (and also Provençal) +words, reference must be made to Ant. Thomas’s <i>Essais de philologie +française</i> (Paris, 1897) and <i>Nouveaux essais de philologie française</i> +(Paris, 1904). But there is no French dictionary properly historical. +A <i>Dictionnaire historique de la langue française</i> was begun by the +Académie française (4 vols., 1859-1894), but it was, from the first, +antiquated. It contains only one letter (<i>A</i>) and has not been +continued. The leading periodicals now in existence are the <i>Romania</i> +(Paris), founded (in 1872) and edited by P. Meyer and G. Paris (with +Ant. Thomas since the death of G. Paris in 1903), and the <i>Zeitschrift +für romanische Philologie</i> (Halle), founded (in 1877) and +edited by G. Gröber. To these reference should be made for information +as to the very numerous articles, treatises and editions +by the many and often distinguished scholars who, especially in +France and Germany, now prosecute the scientific study of the +language. It may be well to mention that, Old French phonology +especially being complicated, and as yet incompletely investigated, +these publications, the views in which are of various degrees of +value, require not mere acquiescent reading, but critical study. The +dialects of France in their present state (<i>patois</i>) are now being +scientifically investigated. The special works on the subject (dictionaries, +grammars, &c.) cannot be fully indicated here; we must +limit ourselves to the mention of Behren’s <i>Bibliographie des patois +gallo-romans</i> (2nd ed., revised Berlin, 1893), and of Gilliéron and +Edmont’s <i>Atlas linguistique de la France</i> (1902 et seq.), a huge +publication planned to contain about 1800 maps.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. N.; P. M.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language", by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 20, 2011 [EBook #37806] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + AUTHOR LIST: "W. L. F. Walter Lynwood Fleming, M.A., Ph.D." 'M.A.' + amended from 'A.M.'. + + ARTICLE FRANCS-TIREURS: "... and prevented him from gaining + information, and that their soldierly qualities improved with + experience." 'improved' amended from 'inproved'. + + ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "... (which, as Franklin discovered, + was erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the + north) ..." 'degrees' amended from 'degress'. + + ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "The alternative course permitted + Franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not pursued, + and in the autumn of 1846 he had followed that route which was + specially commended to him." 'instructions' amended from + 'intructions'. + + ARTICLE FRAUENBURG: "Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received + the rights of a town in 1310." 'Frauenburg' amended from + 'Frauenberg'. + + ARTICLE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS: "Historical and religious + sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was tyrannical + to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy with the + smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe." 'detestation' + amended from 'destestation'. + + ARTICLE FREEMASONRY: "Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was + "made a Free Mason of Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," + seven brethern being named as in attendance at the lodge ..." + 'brethern' amended from 'brethen'. + + ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "... perd (perdit) and perde (perdat) + being generally distinguished as per and perd, and before a vowel + as pert and perd." 'distinguished' amended from 'ditinguished'. + + ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "In Early Old French (as in Provencal) + there are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; + with a few exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and + accusative in both numbers, the latter in neither." 'distinguishes' + amended from 'ditinguishes'. + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + + + FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. + SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. + THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. + FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. + FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. + SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. + SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. + EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. + NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. + TENTH " ninth edition and eleven + supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. + ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. + + + COPYRIGHT + + in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention + + by + + THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS + of the + UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE + + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF + ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XI + FRANCISCANS to GIBSON + + New York + + Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. + 342 Madison Avenue + + + Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, + by + The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. + + + VOLUME XI, SLICE I + + Franciscans to French Language + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FRANCISCANS FREDERICK I. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK FREDERICK II. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK, CESAR FREDERICK III. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK, SEBASTIAN FREDERICK III. (king of Sicily) + FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN FREDERICK I. (elector of Brandenburg) + FRANCKEN FREDERICK I. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCO-GERMAN WAR FREDERICK II. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, LOUIS FREDERICK III. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCONIA FREDERICK IV. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCS-ARCHERS FREDERICK V. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCS-TIREURS FREDERICK I. (duke of Saxony) + FRANEKER FREDERICK II. (duke of Saxony) + FRANK, JAKOB FREDERICK III. (elector of Saxony) + FRANK-ALMOIGN FREDERICK (Maryland, U.S.A.) + FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. + FRANKENBERG FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. + FRANKENHAUSEN FREDERICK CHARLES (KARL NIKOLAUS) + FRANKENSTEIN FREDERICK HENRY + FRANKENTHAL FREDERICK LOUIS + FRANKENWALD FREDERICK WILLIAM I. + FRANKFORT (Indiana, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM II. + FRANKFORT (Kentucky, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM III. + FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. + FRANKFORT-ON-ODER FREDERICK WILLIAM (of Brandenburg) + FRANKINCENSE FREDERICK-LEMAITRE, ANTOINE PROSPER + FRANKING FREDERICKSBURG + FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST FREDERICTON + FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD FREDONIA + FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN FREDRIKSHALD + FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN FREDRIKSTAD + FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL FREE BAPTISTS + FRANKLIN (district of Canada) FREEBENCH + FRANKLIN (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH FEDERATION + FRANKLIN (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND + FRANKLIN (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND + FRANKLIN (Tennessee, U.S.A.) FREEDMEN'S BUREAU + FRANKLIN (freeman) FREEHOLD (New Jersey, U.S.A.) + FRANKLINITE FREEHOLD (law) + FRANK-MARRIAGE FREELAND + FRANKPLEDGE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS + FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON FREEMAN + FRANKS FREEMASONRY + FRANZ, ROBERT FREEPORT + FRANZEN, FRANS MIKAEL FREE PORTS + FRANZENSBAD FREE REED VIBRATOR + FRANZ JOSEF LAND FREESIA + FRANZOS, KARL EMIL FREE SOIL PARTY + FRASCATI FREE-STONE + FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FREETOWN + FRASER, JAMES FREE TRADE + FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE FREGELLAE + FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS FREIBERG + FRASER (river) FREIBURG + FRASERBURGH FREIBURG IM BREISGAU + FRASERVILLE FREIDANK + FRATER FREIENWALDE + FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE FREIESLEBENITE + FRATICELLI FREIGHT + FRAUD FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND + FRAUENBURG FREIND, JOHN + FRAUENFELD FREINSHEIM, JOHANN + FRAUENLOB FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSE + FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM FREISCHUeTZ + FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON FREISING + FRAUSTADT FREJUS + FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE + FRECHETTE, LOUIS HONORE FREMANTLE + FREDEGOND FREMIET, EMMANUEL + FREDERIC, HAROLD FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES + FREDERICIA FREMONT (Nebraska, U.S.A.) + FREDERICK (name) FREMONT (Ohio, U.S.A.) + FREDERICK I. (Roman emperor) FREMY, EDMOND + FREDERICK II. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER + FREDERICK III. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, NICHOLAS + FREDERICK III. (German king) FRENCH CONGO + FREDERICK II. (king of Denmark) FRENCH GUINEA + FREDERICK III. (king of Denmark) FRENCH LANGUAGE + FREDERICK VIII. (king of Denmark) + + + + +INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH +THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. + + + A. B. R. + ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.L.S. + + Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book + on Classification of Flowering Plants_; &c. + + Fruit. + + A. B. W. K. + SIR ALEXANDER BLACKIE WILLIAM KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S. + + Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University College, London. + Consulting Engineer to Board of Ordnance. + + Friction. + + A. Ca. + ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR. + + Gauss. + + A. E. H. L. + AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of + Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College; formerly Fellow of St + John's College, Cambridge. Secretary to the London Mathematical + Society. + + Function: _Functions of Real Variables_. + + A. E. S. + ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, + Cambridge University. Joint-editor of the _Cambridge Natural + History_. + + Gastrotricha. + + A. Ge. + SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, GEIKIE, SIR A. + + Geology. + + A. Go.* + REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, MA. + + Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. + + Franck, Sebastian; + Gallars. + + A. G. B.* + HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.C.E. + + Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member + of Executive and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E. + + Georgetown, British Guiana. + + A. G. D. + ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R., HIST.S. + + Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of + Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor + of _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. + + Frontenac et Palluau. + + A. H. Sm. + ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. + + Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the + British Museum. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. Author of _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British + Museum_; &c. + + Gem: II. (_in part_). + + A. M.* + REV. ALLEN MENZIES, D.D. + + Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St + Andrews. Author of _History of Religion_; &c. Editor of _Review + of Theology and Philosophy_. + + Free Church of Scotland (_in part_). + + A. M. C. + AGNES MARY CLERKE. + + See the biographical article, CLERKE, AGNES M. + + Galileo. + + A. N. + ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. + + Frigate-Bird; + Gadwall; + Gannet; + Gare Fowl. + + A. N. B. + ALFRED NEAVE BRAYSHAW, LL.B. + + Author of _Bible Notes on the Hebrew Prophets_. + + Friends, Society of. + + A. N. W. + ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. + Author of _A Treatise on Universal Algebra_; &c. + + Geometry: VI. (_in part_) and VII. + + A. R. C. + ALEXANDER ROSS CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. + + Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In + charge of the trigonometrical operations of the Ordnance Survey, + 1854-1881. + + Geodesy (_in part_). + + A. S. M. + ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. + + Gem: II. (_in part_). + + A. W. H.* + ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. + + Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of + Gray's Inn, 1900. + + Frederick II., _Roman Emperor_; + French Revolution: _Republican Calendar_; + Germany: _History (in part) and Bibliography_. + + A. W. W. + ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. + + See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. + + Garrick, David (_in part_). + + B. A. W. R. + HON. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S. + + Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of + _Foundations of Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c._ + + Geometry: VI. (_in part_). + + B. S. P. + BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). + + Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. + + Germany: _Archaeology_. + + C. B.* + CHARLES BEMONT, LITT.D. (Oxon.). + + See the biographical article, Bemont, C. + + Fustel De Coulanges; + Gascony. + + C. D. W. + HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. + + See the biographical article, WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. + + Friendly Societies: _United States_. + + C. E.* + CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. + + Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. + + Geometry: _History_. + + C. F. A. + CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of + London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold + Harbour_. + + Franco-German War (_in part_); + French Revolutionary Wars: _Military Operations_; + Germany: _Army_; + Gibraltar: _History_. + + C. H. Ha. + CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, M.A., PH.D. + + Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York + City. Member of the American Historical Association. + + Gelasius II. + + C. K. S. + CLEMENT KING SHORTER. + + Editor of _The Sphere_. Author of _Sixty Years of Victorian + Literature_; _Immortal Memories_; _The Brontes, Life and Letters_; + &c. + + Gaskell, Elizabeth. + + C. Mi. + CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. + + Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, + 1895-1900 and 1902-1903. + + Garashanin. + + C. M. K. + SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908). + + Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer + on International Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in + the Levant, 1870-1871, at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, + Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor of Kennedy's _Ethnological and + Linguistic Essays_; _Diplomacy and International Law_. + + Free Ports. + + C. Pf. + CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES.-L. + + Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_; _Le + Duche merovingien d'Alsace et la legende de Sainte-Odile_. + + Franks; + Fredegond; + Germanic Laws, Early. + + C. R. B. + CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. + + Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. + Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer + in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. + Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; + _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c. + + Gerard of Cremona. + + C. R. C. + CLAUDE REGNIER CONDER, LL.D. + + Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of + Palestine. Author of _The City of Jerusalem_; _The Bible and the + East_; _The Hittites and their Language_; &c. + + Galilee (_in part_); + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_). + + C. T.* + REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908). + + Formerly Master of St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor, + Cambridge University, 1887-1888. Author of _Geometrical Conies_; + &c. + + Geometrical Continuity. + + C. We. + CECIL WEATHERLY. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. + + Gate. + + C. W. W. + SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). + + Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American + Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the + Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance + Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, + 1895-1898. Author of _From Korti to Khartoum_; _Life of Lord + Clive_; &c. + + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_). + + D. C. + DUGALD CLERK, M.INST.C.E., F.R.S. + + Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the + Clerk Cycle Gas Engine. + + Gas Engine. + + D. F. T. + DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. + + Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_, + comprising _The Classical Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, + and analyses of many other classical works. + + Fugue. + + D. H. + DAVID HANNAY. + + Formerly British Vice-consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short + History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; + &c. + + French Revolutionary Wars: _Naval Operations_. + + E. Br. + ERNEST BARKER, M.A. + + Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, + Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven + Scholar, 1895. + + Fulk, King of Jerusalem. + + E. B. El. + EDWIN BAILEY ELLIOTT, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. + + Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics, and Fellow of Magdalen + College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. + President of London Mathematical Society, 1896-1898. Author of + _Algebra of Quantics_; &c. + + Geometry, IV. + + E. C. B. + RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER; O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin). + + Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of + Palladius" in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_. + + Franciscans; + Friar. + + E. E. + LADY EASTLAKE. + + See the biographical article, EASTLAKE, SIR C. L. + + Gibson, John. + + E. G. + EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND. + + Fryxell; + Garland, John. + + E. J. D. + EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. + + Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. + + Galuppi. + + E. O.* + EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. + + Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the + Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery + at the Universities of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A + Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students_. + + Gastric Ulcer. + + E. Pr. + EDGAR PRESTAGE. + + Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of + Manchester. Commendador Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. + Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and + Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. + + Garcao; + Garrett, + + E. W. B. + SIR EDWARD WILLIAM BRABROOK, C.B., F.S.A. + + Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly + Societies, 1891-1904. Author of _Building Societies_; _Provident + Societies and Industrial Welfare_; _Institutions of Thrift_; &c. + + Friendly Societies. + + F. C. C. + FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Geissen). + + Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University + College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of + Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c. + + Funeral Rites. + + F. C. M. + FRANCIS CHARLES MONTAGUE, M.A. + + Astor Professor of European History, University College, London. + Formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Author of _Limits of + Individual Liberty_; chapters in _Cambridge Modern History_; &c. + + French Revolution. + + F. F.* + SIR JAMES FORTESCUE-FLANNERY, BART., M.P., M.INST.C.E. + + Ex-President of the Institute of Marine Engineers. M.P. for the + Maldon Division of Essex, 1910. M.P. for the Shipley Division of + Yorkshire, 1895-1906. + + Fuel: _Liquid_. + + F. G. M. B. + FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. + + Germany: _Ethnography and Early History_. + + F. H. B. + FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. + + Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of Royal School of Mines. + + Frankincense; + Galls. + + F. J. H. + FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. + + Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. + Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. + Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, + Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman + History, especially Roman Britain; &c. + + Gaul. + + F. N. M. + COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. + + Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of + _War and the World's Policy_; _The Leipzig Campaign_; _The Jena + Campaign_. + + Franco-German War (_in part_). + + F. R. C. + FRANK R. CANA. + + Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_. + + French Congo; + German East Africa; + German South-West Africa. + + F. R. H. + FRIEDRICH ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. + + Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. + + Geodesy (_in part_). + + F. S. + FRANCIS STORR. + + Editor of the _Journal of Education_, London. Officer d'Academie + (Paris). + + Games, Classical. + + F. W. R.* + FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, + 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. + + Garnet; + Gem: I. + + G. E. + REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S. + + Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's + Lecturer, 1909. + + Gelderland (_Duchy_). + + G. L. + GEORG LUNGE. + + See the biographical article. LUNGE, G. + + Fuel: _Gaseous_; + Gas: _Manufacture_, II. + + G. Sa. + GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D. + + See the biographical article, SAINTSBURY, G. + + French Literature; + Gautier. + + G. W. T. + REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. + + Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew + and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. + + Ghazali. + + H. B. + HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909). + + Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. + Author of _A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron_. + + Fuel: _Solid_. + + H. B. W. + HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. + + Late Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. + Wollaston Medallist, Geological Society. Author of _The History of + the Geological Society of London_; &c. + + Gaudry. + + H. Ch. + HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. + + Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the + 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the + 10th edition. + + Gambetta; + Garnett, Richard; + George IV. (_in part_). + + H. C. L. + HON. HENRY CABOT LODGE. + + See the biographical article, LODGE, HENRY CABOT. + + Gallatin. + + H. F. Ba. + HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley + Lecturer in Mathematics in the University. Author of _Abel's + Theorem and the Allied Theory_; &c. + + Function: _Functions of Complex Variables_. + + H. L. C. + HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. + + Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly + Professor of Physics in MacGill College, Montreal, and in + University College, London. + + Fusion. + + H. M.* + HUGH MITCHELL. + + Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. + + Gibraltar (_in part_). + + H. M. W. + H. MARSHALL WARD, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. (d. 1905). + + Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British + Mycological Society. Author of _Timber and Some of its Diseases_; + _The Oak_; _Sach's Lectures on the Physiology of Plants_; + _Diseases in Plants_; &c. + + Fungi (_in part_). + + H. N. + HENRY NICOL. + + French Language (_in part_). + + H. R. M. + HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.SC., LL.D. + + Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of _British + Rainfall_. Formerly President of the Royal Meteorological Society. + Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. Corresponding + Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St + Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of _The Realm of Nature_; _The + International Geography_; &c. + + Geography. + + H. W. C. D. + HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls + College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans + and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_. + + Geoffrey, _Archbishop of York_; + Geoffrey of Monmouth; + Gerard; + Gervase of Canterbury; + Gervase of Tilbury. + + H. W. S. + H. WICKHAM STEED. + + Correspondent of _The Times_ at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. + + Garibaldi. + + I. A. + ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. + + Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of + Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of + England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish + Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c. + + Frank, Jakob; + Frankel, Zecharias; + Frankl, Ludwig A.; + Friedmann, Meir; + Gaon; + Geiger (_in part_); + Gersonides. + + J. A. F. + JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of + London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of + St John's College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in + the University. Author of _Magnets and Electric Currents_. + + Galvanometer. + + J. A. H. + JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. + Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_. + + Fuller's Earth. + + J. B. B. + JOHN BAGNALL BURY, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, BURY, J. B. + + Gibbon, Edward. + + J. B. McM. + JOHN BACH MCMASTER, LL.D. + + Professor of American History in the University of Pennsylvania. + Author of _A History of the People of the United States_; &c. + + Garfield, James Abram. + + J. Ga. + JAMES GAIRDNER, LL.D., C.B. + + See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J. + + Gardiner, Stephen. + + J. G. C. A. + JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. + + Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of + Lincoln College; Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, + 1893. + + Galatia. + + J. G. R. + JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of German, University of London. Author of _History of + German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c. + + Freiligrath; + German Literature. + + J. Hn. + JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. + + Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. + Author of _Das Rheinland und die franzoesische Herrschaft_. + + Frederick Augustus I. and II.; + Frederick William I. + + J. H. Gr. + JOHN HILTON GRACE, M.A., F.R.S. + + Lecturer in Mathematics at Peterhouse and Pembroke College, + Cambridge. Fellow of Peterhouse. + + Geometry, V. + + J. H. H. + JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A. + + Author of _Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation_. + + Fust. + + J. H. R. + JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). + + Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family + History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_; &c. + + Geoffrey De Montbray. + + J. Hl. R. + JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. + + Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the + Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of + Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic Studies_; _The Development of the + European Nations_; _The Life of Pitt_; &c. + + Gardane. + + J. Mt. + JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. + + Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of _Historical New + Testament_; &c. + + Galatians, Epistle to the. + + J. P.-B. + JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. + + Editor of the _Guardian_ (London). + + Furniture. + + J. Si. + JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895). + + Author of _A History of Germany_; &c. + + Frederick the Great (_in part_). + + J. S. Bl. + JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. + + Assistant Editor 9th edition _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. + Joint-editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. + + Free Church of Scotland (_in part_). + + J. S. F. + JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S. + + Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on + Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal + Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society + of London. + + Fulgurite; + Gabbro. + + J. T. Be. + JOHN T. BEALBY. + + Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the + _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's + _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. + + Georgia (Russia), (_in part_). + + J. T. C. + JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. + + Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. + Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor + of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to + the Marine Biological Association. + + Gastropoda. + + J. V. B. + JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St. Andrews). + + Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of + _The Apostolic Age_; &c. + + Frommel. + + J. Ws. + JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. + + Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex County Council. Author + of _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_; _French Market Gardening_; + &c. + + Fruit and Flower Farming (_in part_). + + J. W. He. + JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. + + Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. + Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek + and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of + _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c. + + Frederick III. of Prussia; + Germany: _History (in part)_. + + K. S. + KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. + + Author of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c. Editor of the + _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. + + Free Reed Vibrator; + Geige. + + L. D. + LOUIS DUCHESNE. + + See the biographical article, DUCHESNE, L. M. O. + + Gelasius I. + + L. H.* + LOUIS HALPHEN, D.-ES.-L. + + Principal of the course of the Faculty of Letters in the + University of Bordeaux. Author of _Le Comte d'Anjou au XI^e + siecle; Recueil des actes angevines_; &c. + + Fulk Nerra; + Geoffrey, Count of Anjou; + Geoffrey Plantaganet. + + L. J. S. + LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. + + Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly + Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. + Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. + + Galena. + + L. V. + LINDA MARY VILLARI. + + See the biographical article, VILLARI, PASQUALE. + + Frederick III. King of Sicily. + + M. G. + MOSES GASTER, PH.D. + + Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. + Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester + Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and + 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, + Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of _History of Rumanian Popular + Literature_; _A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira_; _The Hebrew + Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle_. + + Ghica. + + M. N. T. + MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in + Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. + + Gerousia. + + O. Ba. + OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. + + Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing + Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage. + + Genealogy: _Modern_. + + O. H. + OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. + + Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical + College of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of + _Vectors and Rotors_; _Congruent Figures_; &c. + + Geometry, I., II., and III. + + P. A. + PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. + + Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes + etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les + heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_. + + Fraticelli. + + P. A. A. + PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC.JURIS. + + New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von + Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_. + + Germany: _Geography_. + + P. Gi. + PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. + + Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and + University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of + the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of + Comparative Philology_; &c. + + G. + + P. La. + PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. + + Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge + University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. _Author of + Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and editor + of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_. + + Germany: _Geology_. + + P. M. + PAUL MEYER. + + See the biographical article, MEYER, M. P. H. + + French Language (_in part_). + + R. Ad. + ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. + + See the biographical article. ADAMSON, ROBERT. + + Gassendi (_in part_). + + R. A. S. M. + ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. + + St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the + Palestine Exploration Fund. + + Gadara; + Galilee (_in part_); + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_); + Gerasa; + Gerizim; + Gezer; + Gibeon. + + R. Ca. + ROBERT CARRUTHERS, LL.D. (1799-1878). + + Editor of the _Inverness Courier_, 1828-1878. Part-editor of + Chambers's _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_; Lecturer at the + Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh. Author of _History of + Huntingdon_; _Life of Pope_. + + Garrick, David (_in part_). + + R. H. Q. + REV. ROBERT HEBERT QUICK, M.A., (1831-1891). + + Formerly Lecturer on Education, University of Cambridge. Author of + _Essays on Educational Reformers_. + + Froebel. + + R. L.* + RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. + + Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. + Author of Catalogues of _Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in + British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; &c. + + Galago; + Galeopithecus; + Ganodonta; + Gelada; + Gibbon. + + R. N. B. + ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). + + Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of + _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, + 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725_; _Slavonic Europe, + the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; + &c. + + Frederick II. and III. of Denmark and Norway; + Gedymin. + + R. Pr. + ROBERT PRIEBSCH, PH.D. + + Professor of German Philology, University of London. Author of + _Deutsche Handschriften in England_; &c. + + German Language. + + R. P. S. + R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. + + Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, + London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and + Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the + Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of + Architecture_. _Author of Architecture: East and West_; &c. + + Garnier, J. + + R. We. + RICHARD WEBSTER, M.A. (Princeton). + + Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The + Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. + + Franklin, Benjamin. + + S. A. C. + STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. + + Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and + Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, + Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, + 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. Author of + _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses and the + Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament History_; + _Religion of Ancient Palestine, &c._ + + Genealogy: _Biblical_; + Genesis. + + St. C. + VISCOUNT ST CYRES. + + See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF. + + Gallicanism. + + S. R. G. + SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, GARDINER, S. R. + + George I., II., III.; + George IV. (_in part_). + + T. As. + THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.). + + Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly + Scholar at Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897, Conington + Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. + + Frascati Fregellae; + Frascati; + Fregellae; + Fucino,Lago Di; + Fulginiae; + Fusaro, Lago; + Gabii; + Gaeta; + Gallipoli (Italy); + Gela; + Genoa. + + T. Ba. + SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. + + Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the + Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and + Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. + + Geneva Convention. + + T. C. H. + THOMAS CALLAN HODSON. + + Registrar, East London College, University of London. Late Indian + Civil Service. Author of _The Metheis_; &c. + + Genna. + + T. E. H. + THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. + + Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of International + Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Fellow + of the British Academy. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of + _Studies in International Law_; _The Elements of Jurisprudence_; + _Alberici Gentilis de jure belli_; _The Laws of War on Land_; + _Neutral Duties in a Maritime War_; &c. + + Gentili. + + T. G. S. + THOMAS GASKELL SHEARMAN (d. 1900). + + Author of _The Single Tax_; _Natural Taxation_; _Distribution of + Wealth_; &c. + + George, Henry. + + T. H. H.* + COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC. + + Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, + R.G.S. (London), 1887. Author of _The Indian Borderland_; _The + Countries of the King's Award_; _India_; _Tibet_; &c. + + Ganges. + + T. M. L. + REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, D.D. + + Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church + College, Glasgow. Author of _Life of Luther_; &c. + + Gerson (_in part_). + + V. B. L. + VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. + + Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Chief + Superintending Gas Examiner to City of London. + + Gas: _Manufacture_, I. + + V. H. B. + VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC. + + Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of + St John's College, Cambridge. + + Fungi (_in part_). + + W. A. B. C. + REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. + (Bern). + + Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, + St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide du Haut + Dauphine_; _The Range of the Toedi_; _Guide to Grindelwald_; _Guide + to Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor + of _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1881; &c. + + Frauenfeld; + Frejus; + Fribourg; + Gap; + Garda, Lake of; + Gemmi Pass; + Geneva; + Geneva, Lake of. + + W. A. P. + WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. + + Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St + John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. + + Frederick II. of Prussia (_in part_); + Gentleman; + Gentz, Friedrich; + Germany: _History_ (_in part_) + + W. Ba. + WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D. + + Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, + Budapest. + + Gamaliel. + + W. Be. + SIR WALTER BESANT. + + See the biographical article, BESANT, SIR W. + + Froissart. + + W. C. + SIR WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM. + + Gem, Artificial. + + W. Cu. + THE VEN. WILLIAM CUNNINGHAM, M.A., D.D. + + Archdeacon of Ely. Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, + Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow + of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _Growth of English + Industry and Commerce_; &c. + + Free Trade. + + W. E. D. + WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. + + Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and + Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South + Kensington. Formerly University Demonstrator in the Engineering + Department of Cambridge University. Author of _The Balancing of + Engines_; _Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism_; &c. + + Friction (_in part_). + + W. Fr. + WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). + + Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of + Edinburgh, and Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. + + Fruit and Flower Farming (_in part_). + + W. F. C. + WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. + + Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's + College, London. Editor of Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd + edition). + + Game Laws; + Gaming and Wagering. + + W. Hu. + REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., LITT.D. + + President of the Royal Historical Society 1905-1909. Author of + _History of English Church_, 597-1066; _The Church of England in + the Middle Ages_; _Political History of England, 1760-1801_; &c. + + Freeman, Edward A.; + Froude; + Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. + + W. J. H.* + WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN. + + Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England. Author of _Origin of + the English Rite of Freemasonry_. + + Freemasonry. + + W. L. F. + WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of + _Documentary History of Reconstruction_; &c. + + Freedmen's Bureau. + + W. L. G. + WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. + + Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, + Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford + University. Editor of _Acts of the Privy Council_ (Canadian + Series). + + Gait, Sir Alexander T. + + W. M. R. + WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. + + See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE G. + + Fuseli; + Gaddi; + Gainsborough; + Ghirlandajo, Domenico; + Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo. + + W. R. B.* + WILLIAM RAIMOND BAIRD, LL.D. + + Author of _Manual of American College Fraternities_; &c. Editor + of _The Beta Theta Pi_. + + Fraternities, College. + + W. S. P. + WALTER SUTHERLAND PARKER. + + Deputy Chairman, Fur Section, London Chamber of Commerce. + + Fur. + + + + +PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES + + Franz Josef Land. Galicia. Geraniaceae. + Free Church Federation. Galway. Geranium. + French Guinea. Gambia. German Baptist Brethren. + French West Africa. Gawain. German Catholics. + Friedland. Gelatin. Gettysburg. + Frisian Islands. Genius. Geyser. + Frisians. Gentian. Ghazni. + Fronde, The. Gentianaceae. Ghent. + Fuero. George, Saint. Ghor. + Furnace. George Junior Republic. Giant. + Galapagos Islands. Georgia (U.S.A.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in + the final volume. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XI + + + + +FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the +Seraphic Order; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the +habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey), a religious order +founded by St Francis of Assisi (q.v.). It was in 1206 that St Francis +left his father's house and devoted himself to a life of poverty and to +the service of the poor, the sick and the lepers; and in 1209 that he +felt the call to add preaching to his other ministrations, and to lead a +life in the closest imitation of Christ's life. Within a few weeks +disciples began to join themselves to him; the condition was that they +should dispose of all their possessions. When their number was twelve +Francis led the little flock to Rome to obtain the pope's sanction for +their undertaking. Innocent III. received them kindly, but with some +misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of life; these +difficulties were overcome, and the pope accorded a provisional approval +by word of mouth: they were to become clerics and to elect a superior. +Francis was elected and made a promise of obedience to the pope, and the +others promised obedience to Francis. + +This formal inauguration of the institute was in 1209 or (as seems more +probable) 1210. Francis and his associates were first known as +"Penitents of Assisi," and then Francis chose the title of "Minors." On +their return to Assisi they obtained from the Benedictine abbey on Mount +Subasio the use of the little chapel of St Mary of the Angels, called +the Portiuncula, in the plain below Assisi, which became the cradle and +headquarters of the order. Around the Portiuncula they built themselves +huts of branches and twigs, but they had no fixed abode; they wandered +in pairs over the country, dressed in the ordinary clothes of the +peasants, working in the fields to earn their daily bread, sleeping in +barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of the churches, mixing with +the labourers and the poor, with the lepers and the outcasts, ever +joyous--the "joculatores" or "jongleurs" of God--ever carrying out their +mission of preaching to the lowly and to the wretched religion and +repentance and the kingdom of God. The key-note of the movement was the +imitation of the public life of Christ, especially the poverty of +Christ. Francis and his disciples were to aim at possessing nothing, +absolutely nothing, so far as was compatible with life; they were to +earn their bread from day to day by the work of their hands, and only +when they could not do so were they to beg; they were to make no +provision for the morrow, lay by no store, accumulate no capital, +possess no land; their clothes should be the poorest and their dwellings +the meanest; they were forbidden to receive or to handle money. On the +other hand they were bound only to the fast observed in those days by +pious Christians, and were allowed to eat meat--the rule said they +should eat whatever was set before them; no austerities were imposed, +beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived. + +Thus the institute in its original conception was quite different from +the monastic institute, Benedictine or Canon Regular. It was a +confraternity rather than an order, and there was no formal novitiate, +no organization. But the number of brothers increased with extraordinary +rapidity, and the field of work soon extended itself beyond the +neighbourhood of Assisi and even beyond Umbria--within three or four +years there were settlements in Perugia, Cortona, Pisa, Florence and +elsewhere, and missions to the Saracens and Moors were attempted by +Francis himself. About 1217 Franciscan missions set out for Germany, +France, Spain, Hungary and the Holy Land; and in 1219 a number of +provinces were formed, each governed by a provincial minister. These +developments, whereby the little band of Umbrian apostles had grown into +an institute spread all over Europe and even penetrating to the East, +and numbering thousands of members, rendered impossible the continuance +of the original free organization whereby Francis's word and example +were the sufficient practical rule of life for all: it was necessary as +a condition of efficiency and even of existence and permanence that some +kind of organization should be provided. From an early date yearly +meetings or chapters had been held at the Portiuncula, at first attended +by the whole body of friars; but as the institute extended this became +unworkable, and after 1219 the chapter consisted only of the officials, +provincial ministers and others. During Francis's absence in the East +(1219-1220) a deliberate movement was initiated by the two vicars whom +he had left in charge of the order, towards assimilating it to the +monastic orders. Francis hurried back, bringing with him Elias of +Cortona, the provincial minister of Syria, and immediately summoned an +extraordinary general chapter (September 1220). Before it met he had an +interview on the situation with Cardinal Hugolino of Ostia (afterwards +Gregory IX.), the great friend and supporter of both Francis and +Dominic, and he went to Honorius III. at Orvieto and begged that +Hugolino should be appointed the official protector of the order. The +request was granted, and a bull was issued formally approving the order +of Friars Minor, and decreeing that before admission every one must pass +a year's novitiate, and that after profession it was not lawful to leave +the order. By this bull the Friars Minor were constituted an order in +the technical sense of the word. When the chapter assembled, Francis, no +doubt from a genuine feeling that he was not able to govern a great +world-wide order, practically abdicated the post of minister-general by +appointing a vicar, and the policy of turning the Friars Minor into a +great religious order was consistently pursued, especially by Elias, who +a year later became Francis's vicar. + + St Francis's attitude towards this change is of primary importance for + the interpretation of Franciscan history. There can be little doubt + that his affections never altered from his first love, and that he + looked back regretfully on the "Umbrian idyll" that had passed away; + on the other hand, there seems to be no reason for doubting that he + saw that the methods of the early days were now no longer possible, + and that he acquiesced in the inevitable. This seems to be Professor + Goetz's view, who holds that Sabatier's picture of Francis's agonized + sadness at witnessing the destruction of his great creation going on + under his eyes, has no counterpart in fact, and who rejects the view + that the changes were forced on Francis against his better judgment by + Hugolino and Elias (see "Note on Sources" at end of article FRANCIS OF + ASSISI; also ELIAS OF CORTONA); Goetz holds that the only conflict was + the inevitable one between an unrealizable ideal and its practical + working among average men. But there does seem to be evidence that + Francis deplored tendencies towards a departure from the severe + simplicity of life and from the strict observance of poverty which he + considered the ground-idea of his institute. In the final redaction of + his Rule made in 1223 and in his Testament, made after it, he again + clearly asserts his mind on these subjects, especially on poverty; and + in the Testament he forbids any glosses in the interpretation of the + Rule, declaring that it is to be taken simply as it stands. Sabatier's + view as to the difference between the "First Rule" and that of 1223 is + part of his general theory, and is, to say the least, a grave + exaggeration. No doubt the First Rule, which is fully four times as + long, gives a better picture of St Francis's mind and character; the + later Rule has been formed from the earlier by the elimination of the + frequent scripture texts and the edificatory element; but the greater + portion of it stood almost verbally in the earlier. + +On Francis's death in 1226 the government of the order rested in the +hands of Elias until the chapter of 1227. At this chapter Elias was not +elected minister-general; the building of the great basilica and +monastery at Assisi was so manifest a violation of St Francis's ideas +and precepts that it produced a reaction, and John Parenti became St +Francis's first successor. He held fast to St Francis's ideas, but was +not a strong man. At the chapter of 1230 a discussion arose concerning +the binding force of St Francis's Testament, and the interpretation of +certain portions of the Rule, especially concerning poverty, and it was +determined to submit the questions to Pope Gregory IX., who had been St +Francis's friend and had helped in the final redaction of the Rule. He +issued a bull, _Quo elongati_, which declared that as the Testament had +not received the sanction of the general chapter it was not binding on +the order, and also allowed trustees to hold and administer money for +the order. John Parenti and those who wished to maintain St Francis's +institute intact were greatly disturbed by these relaxations; but a +majority of the chapter of 1232, by a sort of _coup d'etat_, proclaimed +Elias minister-general, and John retired, though in those days the +office was for life. Under Elias the order entered on a period of +extraordinary extension and prosperity: the number of friars in all +parts of the world increased wonderfully, new provinces were formed, new +missions to the heathen organized, the Franciscans entered the +universities and vied with the Dominicans as teachers of theology and +canon law, and as a body they became influential in church and state. +With all this side of Elias's policy the great bulk of the order +sympathized; but his rule was despotic and tyrannical and his private +life was lax--at least according to any Franciscan standard, for no +charge of grave irregularity was ever brought against him. And so a +widespread movement against his government arose, the backbone of which +was the university element at Paris and Oxford, and at a dramatic scene +in a chapter held in the presence of Gregory IX. Elias was deposed +(1239). + + The story of these first years after St Francis's death is best told + by Ed. Lempp, _Frere Elie de Cortone_ (1901) (but see the warning at + the end of the article ELIAS OF CORTONA). + +At this time the Franciscans were divided into three parties: there were +the Zealots, or Spirituals, who called for a literal observance of St +Francis's Rule and Testament; they deplored all the developments since +1219, and protested against turning the institute into an order, the +frequentation of the universities and the pursuit of learning; in a +word, they wished to restore the life to what it had been during the +first few years--the hermitages and the huts of twigs, and the care of +the lepers and the nomadic preaching. The Zealots were few in number but +of great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of the +first disciples and the most intimate companions of St Francis. They had +been grievously persecuted under Elias--Br. Leo and others had been +scourged, several had been imprisoned, one while trying to escape was +accidentally killed, and Br. Bernard, the "first disciple," passed a +year in hiding in the forests and mountains hunted like a wild beast. At +the other extreme was a party of relaxation, that abandoned any serious +effort to practise Franciscan poverty and simplicity of life. Between +these two stood the great middle party of moderates, who desired indeed +that the Franciscans should be really poor and simple in their manner of +life, and really pious, but on the other hand approved of the +development of the Order on the lines of other orders, of the +acquisition of influence, of the cultivation of theology and other +sciences, and of the frequenting of the universities. + + The questions of principle at issue in these controversies is + reasonably and clearly stated, from the modern Capuchin standpoint, in + the "Introductory Essay" to _The Friars and how they came to England_, + by Fr. Cuthbert (1903). + +The moderate party was by far the largest, and embraced nearly all the +friars of France, England and Germany. It was the Moderates and not the +Zealots that brought about Elias's deposition, and the next general +ministers belonged to this party. Further relaxations of the law of +poverty, however, caused a reaction, and John of Parma, one of the +Zealots, became minister-general, 1247-1257. Under him the more extreme +of the Zealots took up and exaggerated the theories of the Eternal +Gospel of the Calabrian Cistercian abbot Joachim of Fiore (Floris); some +of their writings were condemned as heretical, and John of Parma, who +was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies, had to resign. He was +succeeded by St Bonaventura (1257-1274), one of the best type of the +middle party. He was a man of high character, a theologian, a mystic, a +holy man and a strong ruler. He set himself with determination to effect +a working compromise, and proceeded with firmness against the extremists +on both sides. But controversy and recrimination and persecution had +stiffened the more ardent among the Zealots into obstinate +fanatics--some of them threw themselves into a movement that may best be +briefly described as a recrudescence of Montanism (see Emile Gebhart's +_Italie mystique_, 1899, cc. v. and vi.), and developed into a number of +sects, some on the fringe of Catholic Christianity and others beyond its +pale. But the majority of the Zealot party, or Spirituals, did not go so +far, and adopted as the principle of Franciscan poverty the formula "a +poor and scanty use" (_usus pauper et tenuis_) of earthly goods, as +opposed to the "moderate use" advocated by the less strict party. The +question thus posed came before the Council of Vienne, 1312, and was +determined, on the whole, decidedly in favour of the stricter view. Some +of the French Zealots were not satisfied and formed a semi-schismatical +body in Provence; twenty-five of them were tried before the Inquisition, +and four were burned alive at Marseilles as obstinate heretics, 1318. +After this the schism in the Order subsided. But the disintegrating +forces produced by the Great Schism and by the other disorders of the +14th century caused among the Franciscans the same relaxations and +corruptions, and also the same reactions and reform movements, as among +the other orders. + +The chief of these reforms was that of the Observants, which began at +Foligno about 1370. The Observant reform was on the basis of the "poor +and scanty use" of worldly goods, but it was organized as an order and +its members freely pursued theological studies; thus it did not +represent the position of the original Zealot party, nor was it the +continuation of it. The Observant reform spread widely throughout Italy +and into France, Spain and Germany. The great promoters of the movement +were St Bernardine of Siena and St John Capistran. The council of +Constance, 1415, allowed the French Observant friaries to be ruled by a +vicar of their own, under the minister-general, and the same privilege +was soon accorded to other countries. By the end of the middle ages the +Observants had some 1400 houses divided into 50 provinces. This movement +produced a "half-reform" among the Conventuals or friars of the +mitigated observance; it also called forth a number of lesser imitations +or congregations of strict observance. + +After many attempts had been made to bring about a working union among +the many observances, in 1517 Leo X. divided the Franciscan order into +two distinct and independent bodies, each with its own minister-general, +its own provinces and provincials and its own general chapter: (1) The +Conventuals, who were authorized to use the various papal dispensations +in regard to the observance of poverty, and were allowed to possess +property and fixed income, corporately, like the monastic orders; (2) +The Observants, who were bound to as close an observance of St Francis's +Rule in regard to poverty and all else as was practically possible. + +At this time a great number of the Conventuals went over to the +Observants, who have ever since been by far the more numerous and +influential branch of the order. Among the Observants in the course of +the sixteenth century arose various reforms, each striving to approach +more and more nearly to St Francis's ideal; the chief of these reforms +were the Alcantarines in Spain (St Peter of Alcantara, St Teresa's +friend, d. 1562), the Riformati in Italy and the Recollects in France: +all of these were semi-independent congregations. The Capuchins (q.v.), +established c. 1525, who claim to be the reform which approaches nearest +in its conception to the original type, became a distinct order of +Franciscans in 1619. Finally Leo XIII. grouped the Franciscans into +three bodies or orders--the Conventuals; the Observants, embracing all +branches of the strict observance, except the Capuchins; and the +Capuchins--which together constitute the "First Order." For the "Second +Order," or the nuns, see CLARA, ST, and CLARES, POOR; and for the "Third +Order" see TERTIARIES. Many of the Tertiaries live a fully monastic life +in community under the usual vows, and are formed into Congregations of +Regular Tertiaries, both men and women. They have been and are still +very numerous, and give themselves up to education, to the care of the +sick and of orphans and to good works of all kinds. + +No order has had so stormy an internal history as the Franciscans; yet +in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings that have +marred Franciscan history, the Friars Minor of every kind have in each +age faithfully and zealously carried on St Francis's great work of +ministering to the spiritual needs of the poor. Always recruited in +large measure from among the poor, they have ever been the order of the +poor, and in their preaching and missions and ministrations they have +ever laid themselves out to meet the needs of the poor. Another great +work of the Franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has +been their missions to the Mahommedans, both in western Asia and in +North Africa, and to the heathens in China, Japan and India, and North +and South America; a great number of the friars were martyred. The news +of the martyrdom of five of his friars in Morocco was one of the joys of +St Francis's closing years. Many of these missions exist to this day. In +the Universities, too, the Franciscans made themselves felt alongside of +the Dominicans, and created a rival school of theology, wherein, as +contrasted with the Aristotelianism of the Dominican school, the +Platonism of the early Christian doctors has been perpetuated. + +The Franciscans came to England in 1224 and immediately made foundations +in Canterbury, London and Oxford; by the middle of the century there +were fifty friaries and over 1200 friars in England; at the Dissolution +there were some 66 Franciscan friaries, whereof some six belonged to the +Observants (for list see _Catholic Dictionary_ and F. A. Gasquet's +_English Monastic Life_, 1904). Though nearly all the English houses +belonged to what has been called the "middle party," as a matter of fact +they practised great poverty, and the commissioners of Henry VIII. often +remark that the Franciscan Friary was the poorest of the religious +houses of a town. The English province was one of the most remarkable in +the order, especially in intellectual achievement; it produced Friar +Roger Bacon, and, with the single exception of St Bonaventure, all the +greatest doctors of the Franciscan theological school--Alexander Hales, +Duns Scotus and Occam. + +The Franciscans have always been the most numerous by far of the +religious orders; it is estimated that about the period of the +Reformation the Friars Minor must have numbered nearly 100,000. At the +present day the statistics are roughly (including lay-brothers): +Observants, 15,000, Conventuals, 1500; to these should be added 9500 +Capuchins, making the total number of Franciscan friars about 26,000. +There are various houses of Observants and Capuchins in England and +Ireland; and the old Irish Conventuals survived the penal times and +still exist. + +There have been four Franciscan popes: Nicholas IV. (1288-1292), Sixtus +IV. (1471-1484), Sixtus V. (1585-1590), Clement XIV. (1769-1774); the +three last were Conventuals. + + The great source for Franciscan history is Wadding's _Annales_; it has + been many times continued, and now extends in 25 vols. fol. to the + year 1622. The story is also told by Helyot, _Hist. des ordres + religieux_ (1714), vol. vii. Abridgments, with references to recent + literature, will be found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden und + Kongregationen_ (1896), i. Sec.Sec. 37-51; in Wetzer und Welte, + _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), articles "Armut (III.)," "Franciscaner + orden" (this article contains the best account of the inner history + and the polity of the order up to 1886); in Herzog, _Realencyklopaedie_ + (3rd ed.), articles "Franz von Assisi" (fullest references to + literature up to 1899), "Fraticellen." Of modern critical studies on + Franciscan origins, K. Mueller's _Anfaenge des Minoritenordens und der + Bussbruderschaften_ (1885), and various articles by F. Ehrle in + _Archiv fuer Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ and + _Zeitschrift fuer Katholische Theologie_, deserve special mention. + Eccleston's charming chronicle of "The Coming of the Friars Minor into + England" has been translated into English by the Capuchin Fr. + Cuthbert, who has prefixed an Introductory Essay giving by far the + best account in English of "the Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan + Friars" (_The Friars and how they came to England_, 1903). Fuller + information on the English Franciscans will be found in A. G. Little's + _Grey Friars in Oxford_ (Oxford Hist. Soc., 1892). (E. C. B.) + + + + +FRANCK. The name of Franck has been given indiscriminately but +improperly to painters of the school of Antwerp who belong to the +families of Francken (q.v.) and Vrancx (q.v.). One artist truly entitled +to be called Franck is Gabriel, who entered the gild of Antwerp in 1605, +became its president in 1636 and died in 1639. But his works cannot now +be traced. + + + + +FRANCK, CESAR (1822-1890), French musical composer, a Belgian by birth, +who came of German stock, was born at Liege on the 10th of December +1822. Though one of the most remarkable of modern composers, Cesar +Franck laboured for many years in comparative obscurity. After some +preliminary studies at Liege he came to Paris in 1837 and entered the +conservatoire. He at once obtained the first prize for piano, +transposing a fugue at sight to the astonishment of the professors, for +he was only fifteen. He won the prize for the organ in 1841, after which +he settled down in the French capital as teacher of the piano. His +earliest compositions date from this period, and include four trios for +piano and strings, besides several piano pieces. _Ruth_, a biblical +cantata was produced with success at the Conservatoire in 1846. An opera +entitled _Le Valet de ferme_ was written about this time, but has never +been performed. For many years Franck led a retired life, devoting +himself to teaching and to his duties as organist, first at +Saint-Jean-Saint-Francois, then at Ste Clotilde, where he acquired a +great reputation as an improviser. He also wrote a mass, heard in 1861, +and a quantity of motets, organ pieces and other works of a religious +character. + +Franck was appointed professor of the organ at the Paris conservatoire, +in succession to Benoist, his old master, in 1872, and the following +year he was naturalized a Frenchman. Until then he was esteemed as a +clever and conscientious musician, but he was now about to prove his +title to something more. A revival of his early oratorio, _Ruth_, had +brought his name again before the public, and this was followed by the +production of _Redemption_, a work for solo, chorus and orchestra, given +under the direction of M. Colonne on the 10th of April 1873. The +unconventionality of the music rather disconcerted the general public, +but the work nevertheless made its mark, and Franck became the central +figure of an enthusiastic circle of pupils and adherents whose devotion +atoned for the comparative indifference of the masses. His creative +power now manifested itself in a series of works of varied kinds, and +the name of Franck began gradually to emerge from its obscurity. The +following is an enumeration of his subsequent compositions: _Rebecca_ +(1881), a biblical idyll for solo, chorus and orchestra; Les Beatitudes, +an oratorio composed between 1870 and 1880, perhaps his greatest work; +the symphonic poems, _Les Eolides_ (1876), _Le Chasseur maudit_ (1883), +_Les Djinns_ (1884), for piano and orchestra; _Psyche_ (1888), for +orchestra and chorus; symphonic variations for piano and orchestra +(1885); symphony in D (1889); quintet for piano and strings (1880); +sonata for piano and violin (1886); string quartet (1889); prelude, +choral and fugue for piano (1884); prelude, aria and finale for piano +(1889); various songs, notably "La Procession" and "Les Cloches du +Soir." Franck also composed two four-act operas, _Hulda_ and _Ghiselle_, +both of which were produced at Monte Carlo after his death, which took +place in Paris on the 8th of November 1890. The second of these was left +by the master in an unfinished state, and the instrumentation was +completed by several of his pupils. + +Cesar Franck's influence on younger French composers has been very +great. Yet his music is German in character rather than French. A more +sincere, modest, self-respecting composer probably never existed. In the +centre of the brilliant French capital he was able to lead a laborious +existence consecrated to his threefold career of organist, teacher and +composer. He never sought to gain the suffrages of the public by +unworthy concessions, but kept straight on his path, ever mindful of an +ideal to be reached and never swerving therefrom. A statue was erected +to the memory of Cesar Franck in Paris on the 22nd of October 1904, the +occasion producing a panegyric from Alfred Bruneau, in which he speaks +of the composer's works as "cathedrals in sound." + + + + +FRANCK, or FRANK [latinized FRANCUS], SEBASTIAN (c. 1499-c. 1543), +German freethinker, was born about 1499 at Donauwoerth, whence he +constantly styled himself Franck von Woerd. He entered the university of +Ingoldstadt (March 26, 1515), and proceeded thence to the Dominican +College, incorporated with the university, at Heidelberg. Here he met +his subsequent antagonists, Bucer and Frecht, with whom he seems to have +attended the Augsburg conference (October 1518) at which Luther declared +himself a true son of the Church. He afterwards reckoned the Leipzig +disputation (June-July 1519) and the burning of the papal bull (December +1520) as the beginning of the Reformation. Having taken priest's orders, +he held in 1524 a cure in the neighbourhood of Augsburg, but soon (1525) +went over to the Reformed party at Nuremberg and became preacher at +Gustenfelden. His first work (finished September 1527) was a German +translation with additions (1528) of the first part of the _Diallage_, +or _Conciliatio locorum Scripturae_, directed against Sacramentarians +and Anabaptists by Andrew Althamer, then deacon of St Sebald's at +Nuremberg. On the 17th of March 1528 he married Ottilie Beham, a gifted +lady, whose brothers, pupils of Albrecht Duerer, had got into trouble +through Anabaptist leanings. In the same year he wrote a very popular +treatise against drunkenness. In 1529 he produced a free version +(_Klagbrief der armen Duerftigen in England_) of the famous _Supplycacyon +of the Beggers_, written abroad (1528?) by Simon Fish. Franck, in his +preface, says the original was in English; elsewhere he says it was in +Latin; the theory that his German was really the original is +unwarrantable. Advance in his religious ideas led him to seek the freer +atmosphere of Strassburg in the autumn of 1529. To his translation +(1530) of a Latin _Chronicle and Description_ of Turkey, by a +Transylvanian captive, which had been prefaced by Luther, he added an +appendix holding up the Turks as in many respects an example to +Christians, and presenting, in lieu of the restrictions of Lutheran, +Zwinglian and Anabaptist sects, the vision of an invisible spiritual +church, universal in its scope. To this ideal he remained faithful. At +Strassburg began his intimacy with Caspar Schwenkfeld, a congenial +spirit. Here, too, he published, in 1531, his most important work, the +_Chronica, Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibel_, largely a compilation on the +basis of the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493), and in its treatment of social +and religious questions connected with the Reformation, exhibiting a +strong sympathy with heretics, and an unexampled fairness to all kinds +of freedom in opinion. It is too much to call him "the first of German +historians"; he is a forerunner of Gottfried Arnold, with more vigour +and directness of purpose. Driven from Strassburg by the authorities, +after a short imprisonment in December 1531, he tried to make a living +in 1532 as a soapboiler at Esslingen, removing in 1533 for a better +market to Ulm, where (October 28, 1534) he was admitted as a burgess. + +His _Weltbuch_, a supplement to his _Chronica_, was printed at Tuebingen +in 1534; the publication, in the same year, of his _Paradoxa_ at Ulm +brought him into trouble with the authorities. An order for his +banishment was withdrawn on his promise to submit future works for +censure. Not interpreting this as applying to works printed outside Ulm, +he published in 1538 at Augsburg his _Guldin Arch_ (with pagan parallels +to Christian sentiments) and at Frankfort his _Germaniae chronicon_, +with the result that he had to leave Ulm in January 1539. He seems +henceforth to have had no settled abode. At Basel he found work as a +printer, and here, probably, it was that he died in the winter of +1542-1543. He had published in 1539 his _Kriegbuechlein des Friedens_ +(pseudonymous), his _Schrifftliche und ganz gruendliche Auslegung des 64 +Psalms_, and his _Das verbuetschierte mit sieben Siegeln verschlossene +Buch_ (a biblical index, exhibiting the dissonance of Scripture); in +1541 his _Spruchwoerter_ (a collection of proverbs, several times +reprinted with variations); in 1542 a new edition of his _Paradoxa_; and +some smaller works. + +Franck combined the humanist's passion for freedom with the mystic's +devotion to the religion of the spirit. His breadth of human sympathy +led him to positions which the comparative study of religions has made +familiar, but for which his age was unprepared. Luther contemptuously +dismissed him as a "devil's mouth." Pastor Frecht of Nuremberg pursued +him with bitter zeal. But his courage did not fail him, and in his last +year, in a public Latin letter, he exhorted his friend John Campanus to +maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge of heresy. + + See Hegler, in Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_ (1899); C. A. Hase, + _Sebastian Franck von Woerd_ (1869); J. F. Smith, in _Theological + Review_ (April 1874); E. Tausch, _Sebastian Franck von Donauwoerth und + seine Lehrer_ (1893). (A. Go.*) + + + + +FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN (1663-1727), German Protestant divine, was born +on the 22nd of March 1663 at Luebeck. He was educated at the gymnasium in +Gotha, and afterwards at the universities of Erfurt, Kiel, where he came +under the influence of the pietist Christian Kortholt (1633-1694), and +Leipzig. During his student career he made a special study of Hebrew and +Greek; and in order to learn Hebrew more thoroughly, he for some time +put himself under the instructions of Rabbi Ezra Edzardi at Hamburg. He +graduated at Leipzig, where in 1685 he became a _Privatdozent_. A year +later, by the help of his friend P. Anton, and with the approval and +encouragement of P. J. Spener, he founded the Collegium Philobiblicum, +at which a number of graduates were accustomed to meet for the +systematic study of the Bible, philologically and practically. He next +passed some months at Lueneburg as assistant or curate to the learned +superintendent, C. H. Sandhagen (1639-1697), and there his religious +life was remarkably quickened and deepened. On leaving Lueneburg he spent +some time in Hamburg, where he became a teacher in a private school, and +made the acquaintance of Nikolaus Lange (1659-1720). After a long visit +to Spener, who was at that time a court preacher in Dresden, he +returned to Leipzig in the spring of 1689, and began to give Bible +lectures of an exegetical and practical kind, at the same time resuming +the Collegium Philobiblicum of earlier days. He soon became popular as a +lecturer; but the peculiarities of his teaching almost immediately +aroused a violent opposition on the part of the university authorities; +and before the end of the year he was interdicted from lecturing on the +ground of his alleged pietism. Thus it was that Francke's name first +came to be publicly associated with that of Spener, and with pietism. +Prohibited from lecturing in Leipzig, Francke in 1690 found work at +Erfurt as "deacon" of one of the city churches. Here his evangelistic +fervour attracted multitudes to his preaching, including Roman +Catholics, but at the same time excited the anger of his opponents; and +the result of their opposition was that after a ministry of fifteen +months he was commanded by the civil authorities (27th of September +1691) to leave Erfurt within forty-eight hours. The same year witnessed +the expulsion of Spener from Dresden. + +In December, through Spener's influence, Francke accepted an invitation +to fill the chair of Greek and oriental languages in the new university +of Halle, which was at that time being organized by the elector +Frederick III. of Brandenburg; and at the same time, the chair having no +salary attached to it, he was appointed pastor of Glaucha in the +immediate neighbourhood of the town. He afterwards became professor of +theology. Here, for the next thirty-six years, until his death on the +8th of June 1727, he continued to discharge the twofold office of pastor +and professor with rare energy and success. At the very outset of his +labours he had been profoundly impressed with a sense of his +responsibility towards the numerous outcast children who were growing up +around him in ignorance and crime. After a number of tentative plans, he +resolved in 1695 to institute what is often called a "ragged school," +supported by public charity. A single room was at first sufficient, but +within a year it was found necessary to purchase a house, to which +another was added in 1697. In 1698 there were 100 orphans under his +charge to be clothed and fed, besides 500 children who were taught as +day scholars. The schools grew in importance and are still known as the +_Francke'sche Stiftungen_. The education given was strictly religious. +Hebrew was included, while the Greek and Latin classics were neglected; +the _Homilies_ of Macarius took the place of Thucydides. The same +principle was consistently applied in his university teaching. Even as +professor of Greek he had given great prominence in his lectures to the +study of the Scriptures; but he found a much more congenial sphere when, +in 1698, he was appointed to the chair of theology. Yet his first +courses of lectures in that department were readings and expositions of +the Old and New Testament; and to this, as also to hermeneutics, he +always attached special importance, believing that for theology a sound +exegesis was the one indispensable requisite. "Theologus nascitur in +scripturis," he used to say; but during his occupancy of the theological +chair he lectured at various times upon other branches of theology also. +Amongst his colleagues were Paul Anton (1661-1730), Joachim J. +Breithaupt (1658-1732) and Joachim Lange (1670-1744),--men like-minded +with himself. Through their influence upon the students, Halle became a +centre from which pietism (q.v.) became very widely diffused over +Germany. + + His principal contributions to theological literature were: + _Manuductio ad lectionem Scripturae Sacrae_ (1693); _Praelectiones + hermeneuticae_ (1717); _Commentatio de scopo librorum Veteris et Novi + Testamenti_ (1724); and _Lectiones paraeneticae_ (1726-1736). The + _Manuductio_ was translated into English in 1813, under the title _A + Guide to the Reading and Study of the Holy Scriptures_. An account of + his orphanage, entitled _Segensvolle Fussstapfen_, &c. (1709), which + subsequently passed through several editions, has also been partially + translated, under the title _The Footsteps of Divine Providence: or, + The bountiful Hand of Heaven defraying the Expenses of Faith_. See H. + E. F. Guericke's _A. H. Francke_ (1827), which has been translated + into English (_The Life of A. H. Francke_, 1837); Gustave Kramer's + _Beitraege zur Geschichte A. H. Francke's_ (1861), and _Neue Beitraege_ + (1875); A. Stein, _A. H. Francke_ (3rd ed., 1894); article in + Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_ (ed. 1899); Knuth, _Die + Francke'schen Stiftungen_ (2nd ed., 1903). + + + + + +FRANCKEN. Eleven painters of this family cultivated their art in Antwerp +during the 16th and 17th centuries. Several of these were related to +each other, whilst many bore the same Christian name in succession. +Hence unavoidable confusion in the subsequent classification of +paintings not widely differing in style or execution. When Franz +Francken the first found a rival in Franz Francken the second, he +described himself as the "elder," in contradistinction to his son, who +signed himself the "younger." But when Franz the second was threatened +with competition from Franz the third, he took the name of "the elder," +whilst Franz the third adopted that of Franz "the younger." + +It is possible, though not by any means easy, to sift the works of these +artists. The eldest of the Franckens, Nicholas of Herenthals, died at +Antwerp in 1596, with nothing but the reputation of having been a +painter. None of his works remain. He bequeathed his art to three +children. Jerom Francken, the eldest son, after leaving his father's +house, studied under Franz Floris, whom he afterwards served as an +assistant, and wandered, about 1560, to Paris. In 1566 he was one of the +masters employed to decorate the palace of Fontainebleau, and in 1574 he +obtained the appointment of court painter from Henry III., who had just +returned from Poland and visited Titian at Venice. In 1603, when Van +Mander wrote his biography of Flemish artists, Jerom Francken was still +in Paris living in the then aristocratic Faubourg St Germain. Among his +earliest works we should distinguish a "Nativity" in the Dresden museum, +executed in co-operation with Franz Floris. Another of his important +pieces is the "Abdication of Charles V." in the Amsterdam museum. +Equally interesting is a "Portrait of a Falconer," dated 1558, in the +Brunswick gallery. In style these pieces all recall Franz Floris. Franz, +the second son of Nicholas of Herenthals, is to be kept in memory as +Franz Francken the first. He was born about 1544, matriculated at +Antwerp in 1567, and died there in 1616. He, too, studied under Floris, +and never settled abroad, or lost the hard and gaudy style which he +inherited from his master. Several of his pictures are in the museum of +Antwerp; one dated 1597 in the Dresden museum represents "Christ on the +Road to Golgotha," and is signed by him as D. o (Den ouden) F. Franck. +Ambrose, the third son of Nicholas of Herenthals, has bequeathed to us +more specimens of his skill than Jerom or Franz the first. He first +started as a partner with Jerom at Fontainebleau, then he returned to +Antwerp, where he passed for his gild in 1573, and he lived at Antwerp +till 1618. His best works are the "Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes" and +the "Martyrdom of St Crispin," both large and ambitious compositions in +the Antwerp museum. In both these pieces a fair amount of power is +displayed, but marred by want of atmosphere and shadow or by hardness of +line and gaudiness of tone. There is not a trace in the three painters +named of the influence of the revival which took place under the lead of +Rubens. Franz Francken the first trained three sons to his profession, +the eldest of whom, though he practised as a master of gild at Antwerp +from 1600 to 1610, left no visible trace of his labours behind. Jerom +the second took service with his uncle Ambrose. He was born in 1578, +passed for his gild in 1607, and in 1620 produced that curious picture +of "Horatius Cocles defending the Sublician Bridge" which still hangs in +the Antwerp museum. The third son of Franz Francken the first is Franz +Francken the second, who signed himself in pictures till 1616 "the +younger," from 1630 till his death "the elder" F. Francken. These +pictures are usually of a small size, and are found in considerable +numbers in continental collections. Franz Francken the second was born +in 1581. In 1605 he entered the gild, of which he subsequently became +the president, and in 1642 he died. His earliest composition is the +"Crucifixion" in the Belvedere at Vienna, dated 1606. His latest +compositions as "the younger" F. Francken are the "Adoration of the +Virgin" (1616) in the gallery of Amsterdam, and the "Woman taken in +Adultery" (1628) in Dresden. From 1616 to 1630 many of his pieces are +signed F. Francken; then come the "Seven Works of Charity" (1630) at +Munich, signed "the elder F. F.," the "Prodigal Son" (1633) at the +Louvre, and other almost countless examples. It is in F. Francken the +second's style that we first have evidence of the struggle which +necessarily arose when the old customs, hardened by Van Orley and +Floris, or Breughel and De Vos, were swept away by Rubens. But F. +Francken the second, as before observed, always clung to small surfaces; +and though he gained some of the freedom of the moderns, he lost but +little of the dryness or gaudiness of the earlier Italo-Flemish +revivalists. F. Francken the third, the last of his name who deserves to +be recorded, passed in the Antwerp gild in 1639 and died at Antwerp in +1667. His practice was chiefly confined to adding figures to the +architectural or landscape pieces of other artists. As Franz Pourbus +sometimes put in the portrait figures for Franz Francken the second, so +Franz Francken the third often introduced the necessary personages into +the works of Pieter Neefs the younger (museums of St Petersburg, Dresden +and the Hague). In a "Moses striking the Rock," dated 1654, of the +Augsburg gallery, this last of the Franckens signs D. o (Den ouden) F. +Franck. In the pictures of this artist we most clearly discern the +effects of Rubens's example. + + + + +FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). The victories of Prussia in 1866 over the +Austrians and their German allies (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) rendered it +evident to the statesmen and soldiers of France that a struggle between +the two nations could only be a question of time. Army reforms were at +once undertaken, and measures were initiated in France to place the +armament and equipment of the troops on a level with the requirements of +the times. The chassepot, a new breech-loading rifle, immensely superior +to the Prussian needle-gun, was issued; the artillery trains were +thoroughly overhauled, and a new machine-gun, the _mitrailleuse_, from +which much was expected, introduced. Wide schemes of reorganization (due +mainly to Marshal Niel) were set in motion, and, since these required +time to mature, recourse was had to foreign alliances in the hope of +delaying the impending rupture. In the first week of June 1870, General +Lebrun, as a confidential agent of the emperor Napoleon III., was sent +to Vienna to concert a plan of joint operations with Austria against +Prussia. Italy was also to be included in the alliance, and it was +agreed that in case of hostilities the French armies should concentrate +in northern Bavaria, where the Austrians and Italians were to join them, +and the whole immense army thus formed should march via Jena on Berlin. +To what extent Austria and Italy committed themselves to this scheme +remains uncertain, but that the emperor Napoleon believed in their _bona +fides_ is beyond doubt. + +Whether the plan was betrayed to Prussia is also uncertain, and almost +immaterial, for Moltke's plans were based on an accurate estimate of the +time it would take Austria to mobilize and on the effect of a series of +victories on French soil. At any rate Moltke was not taken into +Bismarck's confidence in the affair of Ems in July 1870, and it is to be +presumed that the chancellor had already satisfied himself that the +schemes of operations prepared by the chief of the General Staff fully +provided against all eventualities. These schemes were founded on +Clausewitz's view of the objects to be pursued in a war against +France--in the first place the defeat of the French field armies and in +the second the occupation of Paris. On these lines plans for the +strategic deployment of the Prussian army were prepared by the General +Staff and kept up to date year by year as fresh circumstances (e.g. the +co-operation of the minor German armies) arose and new means of +communication came into existence. The campaign was actually opened on a +revise of 1868-1869, to which was added, on the 6th of May 1870, a +secret memorandum for the General Staff. + + + Strategic deployment of the German armies. + +Under the German organization then existing the preliminary to all +active operations was of necessity full and complete mobilization. Then +followed transport by road and rail to the line selected for the +"strategic deployment," and it was essential that no part of these +operations should be disturbed by action on the part of the enemy. But +no such delay imposed itself of necessity upon the French, and a +vigorous offensive was so much in harmony with their traditions that +the German plan had to be framed so as to meet such emergencies. On the +whole, Moltke concluded that the enemy could not undertake this +offensive before the eighth day after mobilization. At that date about +five French army corps (150,000 men) could be collected near Metz, and +two corps (70,000) near Strassburg; and as it was six days' march from +Metz to the Rhine, no serious attack could be delivered before the +fourteenth day, by which day it could be met by superior forces near +Kirchheimbolanden. Since, however, the transport of the bulk of the +Prussian forces could not begin till the ninth day, their ultimate line +of detrainment need not be fixed until the French plans were disclosed, +and, as it was important to strike at the earliest moment possible, the +deployment was provisionally fixed to be beyond the Rhine on the line +Wittlich-Neunkirchen-Landau. Of the thirteen North German corps three +had to be left behind to guard the eastern frontier and the coast, one +other, the VIII., was practically on the ground already and could +concentrate by road, and the remaining nine were distributed to the nine +through railway lines available. These ten corps were grouped in three +armies, and as the French might violate Belgian neutrality or endeavour +to break into southern Germany, two corps (Prussian Guard and Saxon XII. +corps) were temporarily held back at a central position around Mainz, +whence they could move rapidly up or down the Rhine valley. If Belgian +neutrality remained unmolested, the reserve would join the III. army on +the left wing, giving it a two to one superiority over its adversary; +all three armies would then wheel to the right and combine in an effort +to force the French army into a decisive battle on the Saar on or about +the twenty-third day. As in this wheel the army on the right formed the +pivot and was required only to stand fast, two corps only were allotted +to it; two corps for the present formed the III. army, and the remaining +five were assigned to the II. army in the centre. + +When (16th-17th July) the South German states decided to throw in their +lot with the rest, their three corps were allotted to the III. army, the +Guards and Saxons to the II. army, whilst the three corps originally +left behind were finally distributed one to each army, so that up to the +investment of Metz the order of battle was as follows: + + Headquarters: + The king of Prussia (General v. Moltke, chief of staff). + + I. Army: / (I. corps, v. Manteuffel) + General v. Steinmetz < VII. " v. Zastrow + (C. of S., v. Sperling) | VIII. " v. Goeben + \ (1st) and 3rd cavalry divisions + + Total 85,000 + + / Guard Pr. August of Wuerttemberg + | (II. corps, v. Fransecky) + | III. " v. Alvensleben II. + II. Army: | IV. " v. Alvensleben I. + Prince Frederick Charles < IX. " v. Manstein + (C. of S., v. Stiehle) | X. " v. Voigts-Rhetz + | XII. " (Saxons) crown prince + | of Saxony + \ 5th and 6th cavalry divisions + + Total 210,000 + + / V. corps, v. Kirchbach + | (VI.) " v. Tuempling + | XI. " v. Bose + III. Army: | I. Bavarian, v. der Tann + crown prince of Prussia < II. " v. Hartmann + (C. of S., v. Blumenthal) | Wuerttemberg div. \ v. Werder + | Baden div. / + \ (2nd) and 4th cavalry divisions + + Total 180,000 + ------- + Grand Total 475,000 + + (The units within brackets were those at first retained in Germany.) + + + Positions of the French forces. + +On the French side no such plan of operations was in existence when on +the night of the 15th of July _Krieg mobil_ was telegraphed all over +Prussia. An outline scheme had indeed been prepared as a basis for +agreement with Austria and Italy, but practically no details were fixed, +and the troops were without transport and supplies. Nevertheless, since +speed was the essence of the contract, the troops were hurried up +without waiting for their reserves, and delivered, as Moltke had +foreseen, just where the lie of the railways and convenience of +temporary supply dictated, and the Prussian Intelligence Department was +able to inform Moltke on the 22nd of July (seventh day of mobilization) +that the French stood from right to left in the following order, on or +near the frontier: + + 1st corps Marshal MacMahon, duke of Magenta, Strassburg + 5th corps General de Failly, Saargemuend and Bitche + 2nd corps General Frossard, St Avold + 4th corps General de Ladmirault, Thionville + With, behind them: + 3rd corps Marshal Bazaine, Metz + Guard General Bourbaki, Nancy + 6th corps Marshal Canrobert, Chalons + 7th corps General Felix Douay, Belfort + +If therefore they began a forward movement on the 23rd (eighth day) the +case foreseen by Moltke had arisen, and it became necessary to detrain +the II. army upon the Rhine. Without waiting for further confirmation of +this intelligence, Moltke, with the consent of the king, altered the +arrangements accordingly, a decision which, though foreseen, exercised +the gravest influence on the course of events. As it happened this +decision was premature, for the French could not yet move. Supply trains +had to be organized by requisition from the inhabitants, and even arms +and ammunition procured for such reserves as had succeeded in joining. +Nevertheless, by almost superhuman exertions on the part of the railways +and administrative services, all essential deficiencies were made good, +and by the 28th of July (13th day) the troops had received all that was +absolutely indispensable and might well have been led against the enemy, +who, thanks to Moltke's premature action, were for the moment at a very +serious disadvantage. But the French generals were unequal to their +responsibilities. It is now clear that, had the great Napoleon and his +marshals been in command, they would have made light of the want of +cooking pots, cholera belts, &c., and, by a series of rapid marches, +would have concentrated odds of at least three to one upon the heads of +the Prussian columns as they struggled through the defiles of the Hardt, +and won a victory whose political results might well have proved +decisive. + +To meet this pressing danger, which came to his knowledge during the +course of the 29th, Moltke sent a confidential staff officer, Colonel v. +Verdy du Vernois, to the III. army to impress upon the crown prince the +necessity of an immediate advance to distract the enemy's attention from +the I. and II. armies; but, like the French generals, the crown prince +pleaded that he could not move until his trains were complete. +Fortunately for the Germans, the French intelligence service not only +failed to inform the staff of this extraordinary opportunity, but it +allowed itself to be hypnotized by the most amazing rumours. In +imagination they saw armies of 100,000 men behind every forest, and, to +guard against these dangers, the French troops were marched and +counter-marched along the frontiers in the vain hope of discovering an +ideal defensive position which should afford full scope to the power of +their new weapons. + +As these delays were exerting a most unfavourable effect on public +opinion not only in France but throughout Europe, the emperor decided on +the 1st of August to initiate a movement towards the Saar, chiefly as a +guarantee of good faith to the Austrians and Italians. + +On this day the French corps held the following positions from right to +left: + + 1st corps Hagenau + 2nd corps Forbach + 3rd corps St Avold + 4th corps Bouzonville + 5th corps Bitche + 6th corps Chalons + 7th corps Belfort and Colmar + Guard near Metz + + + Action of Saarbruecken. + +The French 2nd corps was directed to advance on the following morning +direct on Saarbruecken, supported on the flanks by two divisions from the +5th and 3rd corps. The order was duly carried out, and the Prussians +(one battalion, two squadrons and a battery), seeing the overwhelming +numbers opposed to them, fell back fighting and vanished to the +northward, having given a very excellent example of steadiness and +discipline to their enemy.[1] The latter contented themselves by +occupying Saarbruecken and its suburb St Johann, and here, as far as the +troops were concerned, the incident closed. Its effect, however, proved +far-reaching. The Prussian staff could not conceive that nothing lay +behind this display of five whole divisions, and immediately took steps +to meet the expected danger. In their excitement, although they had +announced the beginning of the action to the king's headquarters at +Mainz, they forgot to notify the close and its results, so that Moltke +was not in possession of the facts till noon on the 3rd of August. +Meanwhile, Steinmetz, left without instructions and fearing for the +safety of the II. army, the heads of whose columns were still in the +defiles of the Hardt, moved the I. army from the neighbourhood of Merzig +obliquely to his left front, so as to strike the flank of the French +army if it continued its march towards Kaiserslautern, in which +direction it appeared to be heading. + + + Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles and Steinmetz. + +Whilst this order was in process of execution, Moltke, aware that the +II. army was behind time in its march, issued instructions to Steinmetz +for the 4th of August which entailed a withdrawal to the rear, the idea +being that both armies should, if the French advanced, fight a defensive +battle in a selected position farther back. Steinmetz obeyed, though +bitterly resenting the idea of retreat. This movement, further, drew his +left across the roads reserved for the right column of the II. army, and +on receipt of a peremptory order from Prince Frederick Charles to +evacuate the road, Steinmetz telegraphed for instructions direct to the +king, over Moltke's head. In reply he received a telegram from Moltke, +ordering him to clear the road at once, and couched in terms which he +considered as a severe reprimand. An explanatory letter, meant to soften +the rebuke, was delayed in transmission and did not reach him till too +late to modify the orders he had already issued. It must be remembered +that Steinmetz at the front was in a better position to judge the +apparent situation than was Moltke at Mainz, and that all through the +day of the 5th of August he had received intelligence indicating a +change of attitude in the French army. + + + Battle of Spicheren. + +The news of the German victory at Weissenburg on the 4th (see below) had +in fact completely paralysed the French headquarters, and orders were +issued by them during the course of the 5th to concentrate the whole +army of the Rhine on the selected position of Cadenbronn. As a +preliminary, Frossard's corps withdrew from Saarbruecken and began to +entrench a position on the Spicheren heights, 3000 yds. to the +southward. Steinmetz, therefore, being quite unaware of the scheme for a +great battle on the Saar about the 12th of August, felt that the +situation would best be met, and the letter of his instructions strictly +obeyed, by moving his whole command forward to the line of the Saar, and +orders to this effect were issued on the evening of the 5th. In +pursuance of these orders, the advance guard of the 14th division +(Lieutenant General von Kameke) reached Saarbruecken about 9 A.M. on the +6th, where the Germans found to their amazement that the bridges were +intact. To secure this advantage was the obvious duty of the commander +on the spot, and he at once ordered his troops to occupy a line of low +heights beyond the town to serve as a bridge-head. As the leading troops +deployed on the heights Frossard's guns on the Spicheren Plateau opened +fire, and the advanced guard battery replied. The sound of these guns +unchained the whole fighting instinct carefully developed by a long +course of Prussian manoeuvre training. Everywhere, generals and troops +hurried towards the cannon thunder. Kameke, even more in the dark than +Steinmetz as to Moltke's intentions and the strength of his adversaries, +attacked at once, precisely as he would have done at manoeuvres, and in +half an hour his men were committed beyond recall. As each fresh unit +reached the field it was hurried into action where its services were +most needed, and each fresh general as he arrived took a new view of the +combat and issued new orders. On the other side, Frossard, knowing the +strength of his position, called on his neighbours for support, and +determined to hold his ground. Victory seemed certain. There were +sufficient troops within easy reach to have ensured a crushing numerical +superiority. But the other generals had not been trained to mutual +support, and thought only of their own immediate security, and their +staffs were too inexperienced to act upon even good intentions; and, +finding himself in the course of the afternoon left to his own devices, +Frossard began gradually to withdraw, even before the pressure of the +13th German division on his left flank (about 8 P.M.) compelled his +retirement. When darkness ended the battle the Prussians were scarcely +aware of their victory. Steinmetz, who had reached the field about 6 +P.M., rode back to his headquarters without issuing any orders, while +the troops bivouacked where they stood, the units of three army corps +being mixed up in almost inextricable confusion. But whereas out of +42,900 Prussians with 120 guns, who in the morning lay within striking +distance of the enemy, no fewer than 27,000, with 78 guns were actually +engaged; of the French, out of 64,000 with 210 guns only 24,000 with 90 +guns took part in the action. + + + Action of Weissenburg. + +Meanwhile on the German left wing the III. army had begun its advance. +Early on the 4th of August it crossed the frontier and fell upon a +French detachment under Abel Douay, which had been placed near +Weissenburg, partly to cover the Pigeonnier pass, but principally to +consume the supplies accumulated in the little dismantled fortress, as +these could not easily be moved. Against this force of under 4000 men of +all arms, the Germans brought into action successively portions of three +corps, in all over 25,000 men with 90 guns. After six hours' fighting, +in which the Germans lost some 1500 men, the gallant remnant of the +French withdrew deliberately and in good order, notwithstanding the +death of their leader at the critical moment. The Germans were so elated +by their victory over the enemy, whose strength they naturally +overestimated, that they forgot to send cavalry in pursuit, and thus +entirely lost touch with the enemy. + +Next day the advance was resumed, the two Bavarian corps moving via +Mattstall through the foothills of the Vosges, the V. corps on their +left towards Preuschdorf, and the XI. farther to the left again, through +the wooded plain of the Rhine valley. The 4th cavalry division scouted +in advance, and army headquarters moved to Sulz. About noon the advanced +patrols discovered MacMahon's corps in position on the left bank of the +Sauer (see WOeRTH: _Battle of_). As his army was dispersed over a wide +area, the crown prince determined to devote the 6th to concentrating the +troops, and, probably to avoid alarming the enemy, ordered the cavalry +to stand fast. + +At night the outposts of the I. Bavarians and V. corps on the Sauer saw +the fires of the French encampment and heard the noise of railway +traffic, and rightly conjectured the approach of reinforcements. +MacMahon had in fact determined to stand in the very formidable position +he had selected, and he counted on receiving support both from the 7th +corps (two divisions of which were being railed up from Colmar) and from +the 5th corps, which lay around Bitche. It was also quite possible, and +the soundest strategy, to withdraw the bulk of the troops then facing +the German I. and II. armies to his support, and these would reach him +by the 8th. He was therefore justified in accepting battle, though it +was to his interest to delay it as long as possible. + + + Battle of Woerth. + +At dawn on the 6th of August the commander of the V. corps outposts +noticed certain movements in the French lines, and to clear up the +situation brought his guns into action. As at Spicheren, the sound of +the guns set the whole machinery of battle in motion. The French +artillery immediately accepted the Prussian challenge. The I. Bavarians, +having been ordered to be ready to move if they heard artillery fire, +immediately advanced against the French left, encountering presently +such a stubborn resistance that parts of their line began to give way. +The Prussians of the V. corps felt that they could not abandon their +allies, and von Kirchbach, calling on the XI. corps for support, +attacked with the troops at hand. When the crown prince tried to break +off the fight it was too late. Both sides were feeding troops into the +firing line, as and where they could lay hands on them. Up to 2 P.M. the +French fairly held their own, but shortly afterwards their right yielded +to the overwhelming pressure of the XI. corps, and by 3.30 it was in +full retreat. The centre held on for another hour, but in its turn was +compelled to yield, and by 4.30 all organized resistance was at an end. +The debris of the French army was hotly pursued by the German divisional +squadrons towards Reichshofen, where serious panic showed itself. When +at this stage the supports sent by de Failly from Bitche came on the +ground they saw the hopelessness of intervention, and retired whence +they had come. Fortunately for the French, the German 4th cavalry +division, on which the pursuit should have devolved, had been forgotten +by the German staff, and did not reach the front before darkness fell. +Out of a total of 82,000 within reach of the battlefield, the Germans +succeeded in bringing into action 77,500. The French, who might have had +50,000 on the field, deployed only 37,000, and these suffered a +collective loss of no less than 20,100; some regiments losing up to 90% +and still retaining some semblance of discipline and order. + +Under cover of darkness the remnants of the French army escaped. When at +length the 4th cavalry division had succeeded in forcing a way through +the confusion of the battlefield, all touch with the enemy had been +lost, and being without firearms the troopers were checked by the French +stragglers in the woods and the villages, and thus failed to establish +the true line of retreat of the French. Ultimately the latter, having +gained the railway near Luneville, disappeared from the German front +altogether, and all trace of them was lost until they were discovered, +about the 26th of August, forming part of the army of Chalons, whither +they had been conveyed by rail via Paris. This is a remarkable example +of the strategical value of railways to an army operating in its own +country. + +In the absence of all resistance, the III. army now proceeded to carry +out the original programme of marches laid down in Moltke's memorandum +of the 6th of May, and marching on a broad front through a fertile +district it reached the line of the Moselle in excellent order about the +17th of August, where it halted to await the result of the great battle +of Gravelotte-St Privat. + + + Movements on the Saar. + +We return now to the I. army at Saarbruecken. Its position on the morning +of the 7th of August gave cause for the gravest anxiety. At daylight a +dense fog lay over the country, and through the mist sounds of heavy +firing came from the direction of Forbach, where French stragglers had +rallied during the night. The confusion on the battlefield was +appalling, and the troops in no condition to go forward. Except the 3rd, +5th and 6th cavalry divisions no closed troops were within a day's +march; hence Steinmetz decided to spend the day in reorganizing his +infantry, under cover of his available cavalry. But the German cavalry +and staff were quite new to their task. The 6th cavalry division, which +had bivouacked on the battlefield, sent on only one brigade towards +Forbach, retaining the remainder in reserve. The 5th, thinking that the +6th had already undertaken all that was necessary, withdrew behind the +Saar, and the 3rd, also behind the Saar, reported that the country in +its front was unsuited to cavalry movements, and only sent out a few +officers' patrols. These were well led, but were too few in number, and +their reports were consequently unconvincing. + +In the course of the day Steinmetz became very uneasy, and ultimately he +decided to concentrate his army by retiring the VII. and VIII. corps +behind the river on to the I. (which had arrived near Saarlouis), thus +clearing the Saarbruecken-Metz road for the use of the II. army. But at +this moment Prince Frederick Charles suddenly modified his views. During +the 6th of August his scouts had reported considerable French forces +near Bitche (these were the 5th, de Failly's corps), and early in the +morning of the 7th he received a telegram from Moltke informing him +that MacMahon's beaten army was retreating on the same place (the troops +observed were in fact those which had marched to MacMahon's assistance). +The prince forthwith deflected the march of the Guards, IV. and X. +corps, towards Rohrbach, whilst the IX. and XII. closed up to supporting +distance behind them. Thus, as Steinmetz moved away to the west and +north, Frederick Charles was diverging to the south and east, and a +great gap was opening in the very centre of the German front. This was +closed only by the III. corps, still on the battle-field, and by +portions of the X. near Saargemuend,[2] whilst within striking distance +lay 130,000 French troops, prevented only by the incapacity of their +chiefs from delivering a decisive counter-stroke. + +Fortunately for the Prussians, Moltke at Mainz took a different view. +Receiving absolutely no intelligence from the front during the 7th, he +telegraphed orders to the I. and II. armies (10.25 P.M.) to halt on the +8th, and impressed on Steinmetz the necessity of employing his cavalry +to clear up the situation. The I. army had already begun the marches +ordered by Steinmetz. It was now led back practically to its old +bivouacs amongst the unburied dead. Prince Frederick Charles only +conformed to Moltke's order with the III. and X. corps; the remainder +executed their concentration towards the south and east. + +During the night of the 7th of August Moltke decided that the French +army must be in retreat towards the Moselle and forthwith busied himself +with the preparation of fresh tables of march for the two armies, his +object being to swing up the left wing to outflank the enemy from the +south. This work, and the transfer of headquarters to Homburg, needed +time, hence no fresh orders were issued to either army, and neither +commander would incur the responsibility of moving without any. The I. +army therefore spent a fourth night in bivouac on the battlefield. But +Constantin von Alvensleben, commanding the III. corps, a man of very +different stamp from his colleagues, hearing at first hand that the +French had evacuated St Avold, set his corps in motion early in the +morning of the 10th August down the St Avold-Metz road, reached St Avold +and obtained conclusive evidence that the French were retreating. + + + Advance to the Moselle. + +During the 9th the orders for the advance to the Moselle were issued. +These were based, not on an exact knowledge of where the French army +actually stood, but on the opinion Moltke had formed as to where it +ought to have been on military grounds solely, overlooking the fact that +the French staff were not free to form military decisions but were +compelled to bow to political expediency. + +Actually on the 7th of August the emperor had decided to attack the +Germans on the 8th with the whole Rhine Army, but this decision was +upset by alarmist reports from the beaten army of MacMahon. He then +decided to retreat to the Moselle, as Moltke had foreseen, and there to +draw to himself the remnants of MacMahon's army (now near Luneville). At +the same time he assigned the executive command over the whole Rhine +Army to Marshal Bazaine. This retreat was begun during the course of the +8th and 9th of August; but on the night of the 9th urgent telegrams from +Paris induced the emperor to suspend the movement, and during the 10th +the whole army took up a strong position on the French Nied. + +Meanwhile the II. German army had received its orders to march in a line +of army corps on a broad front in the general direction of +Pont-a-Mousson, well to the south of Metz. The I. army was to follow by +short marches in echelon on the right; only the III. corps was directed +on Falkenberg, a day's march farther towards Metz along the St +Avold-Metz road. The movement was begun on the 10th, and towards evening +the French army was located on the right front of the III. corps. This +entirely upset Moltke's hypothesis, and called for a complete +modification of his plans, as the III. corps alone could not be expected +to resist the impact of Bazaine's five corps. The III. corps therefore +received orders to stand fast for the moment, and the remainder of the +II. army was instructed to wheel to the right and concentrate for a +great battle to the east of Metz on the 16th or 17th. + +Before, however, these orders had been received the sudden retreat of +the French completely changed the situation. The Germans therefore +continued their movement towards the Moselle. On the 13th the French +took up a fresh position 5 m. to the east of Metz, where they were +located by the cavalry and the advanced guards of the I. army. + + + Battle of Colombey-Borny. + +Again Moltke ordered the I. army to observe and hold the enemy, whilst +the II. was to swing round to the north. The cavalry was to scout beyond +the Moselle and intercept all communication with the heart of France +(see Metz). By this time the whole German army had imbibed the idea that +the French were in full retreat and endeavouring to evade a decisive +struggle. When therefore during the morning of the 14th their outposts +observed signs of retreat in the French position, their impatience could +no longer be restrained; as at Woerth and Spicheren, an outpost commander +brought up his guns, and at the sound of their fire, every unit within +reach spontaneously got under arms (battle of Colombey-Borny). In a +short time, with or without orders, the I., VII., VIII. and IX. corps +were in full march to the battle-field. But the French too turned back +to fight, and an obstinate engagement ensued, at the close of which the +Germans barely held the ground and the French withdrew under cover of +the Metz forts. + +Still, though the fighting had been indecisive, the conviction of +victory remained with the Germans, and the idea of a French retreat +became an obsession. To this idea Moltke gave expression in his orders +issued early on the 15th, in which he laid down that the "fruits of the +victory" of the previous evening could only be reaped by a vigorous +pursuit towards the passages of the Meuse, where it was hoped the French +might yet be overtaken. This order, however, did not allow for the +hopeless inability of the French staff to regulate the movement of +congested masses of men, horses and vehicles, such as were now +accumulated in the streets and environs of Metz. Whilst Bazaine had come +to no definite decision whether to stand and fight or continue to +retreat, and was merely drifting under the impressions of the moment, +the Prussian leaders, in particular Prince Frederick Charles, saw in +imagination the French columns in rapid orderly movement towards the +west, and calculated that at best they could not be overtaken short of +Verdun. + +In this order of ideas the whole of the II. army, followed on its right +rear by two-thirds of the I. army (the I. corps being detached to +observe the eastern side of the fortress), were pushed on towards the +Moselle, the cavalry far in advance towards the Meuse, whilst only the +5th cavalry division was ordered to scout towards the Metz-Verdun road, +and even that was disseminated over far too wide an area. + +Later in the day (15th) Frederick Charles sent orders to the III. corps, +which was on the right flank of his long line of columns and approaching +the Moselle at Corny and Noveant, to march via Gorze to Mars-la-Tour on +the Metz-Verdun road; to the X. corps, strung out along the road from +Thiaucourt to Pont-a-Mousson, to move to Jarny; and for the remainder to +push on westward to seize the Meuse crossings. No definite information +as to the French army reached him in time to modify these instructions. + +Meanwhile the 5th (Rheinbaben's) cavalry division, at about 3 P.M. in +the afternoon, had come into contact with the French cavalry in the +vicinity of Mars-la-Tour, and gleaned intelligence enough to show that +no French infantry had as yet reached Rezonville. The commander of the +X. corps at Thiaucourt, informed of this, became anxious for the +security of his flank during the next day's march and decided to push +out a strong flanking detachment under von Caprivi, to support von +Rheinbaben and maintain touch with the III. corps marching on his right +rear. + + + Battle of Vionville-Mars-la-Tour. + +Von Alvensleben, to whom the 6th cavalry division had meanwhile been +assigned, seems to have received no local intelligence whatsoever; and +at daybreak on the 16th he began his march in two columns, the 6th +division on Mars-la-Tour, the 5th towards the Rezonville-Vionville +plateau. And shortly after 9.15 A.M. he suddenly discovered the truth. +The entire French army lay on his right flank, and his nearest supports +were almost a day's march distant. In this crisis he made up his mind at +once to attack with every available man, and to continue to attack, in +the conviction that his audacity would serve to conceal his weakness. +All day long, therefore, the Brandenburgers of the III. corps, supported +ultimately by the X. corps and part of the IX., attacked again and +again. The enemy was thrice their strength, but very differently led, +and made no adequate use of his superiority (battle of Vionville-Mars-la +Tour). + + + The 17th of August. + +Meanwhile Prince Frederick Charles, at Pont-a-Mousson, was still +confident in the French retreat to the Meuse, and had even issued orders +for the 17th on that assumption. Firing had been heard since 9.15 A.M., +and about noon Alvensleben's first report had reached him, but it was +not till after 2 that he realized the situation. Then, mounting his +horse, he covered the 15 m. to Flavigny over crowded and difficult roads +within the hour, and on his arrival abundantly atoned for his strategic +errors by his unconquerable determination and tactical skill. When +darkness put a stop to the fighting, he considered the position. +Cancelling all previous orders, he called all troops within reach to the +battle-field and resigned himself to wait for them. The situation was +indeed critical. The whole French army of five corps, only half of which +had been engaged, lay in front of him. His own army lay scattered over +an area of 30 m. by 20, and only some 20,000 fresh troops--of the IX. +corps--could reach the field during the forenoon of the 17th. He did not +then know that Moltke had already intervened and had ordered the VII., +VIII. and II. corps[3] to his assistance. Daylight revealed the extreme +exhaustion of both men and horses. The men lay around in hopeless +confusion amongst the killed and wounded, each where sleep had overtaken +him, and thus the extent of the actual losses, heavy enough, could not +be estimated. Across the valley, bugle sounds revealed the French +already alert, and presently a long line of skirmishers approached the +Prussian position. But they halted just beyond rifle range, and it was +soon evident that they were only intended to cover a further withdrawal. +Presently came the welcome intelligence that the reinforcements were +well on their way. + +About noon the king and Moltke drove up to the ground, and there was an +animated discussion as to what the French would do next. Aware of their +withdrawal from his immediate front, Prince Frederick Charles reverted +to his previous idea and insisted that they were in full retreat towards +the north, and that their entrenchments near Point du Jour and St Hubert +(see map in article METZ) were at most a rearguard position. Moltke was +inclined to the same view, but considered the alternative possibility of +a withdrawal towards Metz, and about 2 P.M. orders were issued to meet +these divergent opinions. The whole army was to be drawn up at 6 A.M. on +the 18th in an echelon facing north, so as to be ready for action in +either direction. The king and Moltke then drove to Pont-a-Mousson, and +the troops bivouacked in a state of readiness. The rest of the 17th was +spent in restoring order in the shattered III. and X. corps, and by +nightfall both corps were reported fit for action. Strangely enough, +there were no organized cavalry reconnaissances, and no intelligence of +importance was collected during the night of the 17th-18th. + +Early on the 18th the troops began to move into position in the +following order from left to right: XII. (Saxons), Guards, IX., VIII. +and VII. The X. and III. were retained in reserve. + + + Battle of Gravelotte-Saint Privat. + +The idea of the French retreat was still uppermost in the prince's mind, +and the whole army therefore moved north. But between 10 and 11 A.M. +part of the truth--viz. that the French had their backs to Metz and +stood in battle order from St Hubert northwards--became evident, and +the II. army, pivoting on the I., wheeled to the right and moved +eastward. Suddenly the IX. corps fell right on the centre of the French +line (Amanvillers), and a most desperate encounter began, superior +control, as before, ceasing after the guns had opened fire. Prince +Frederick Charles, however, a little farther north, again asserted his +tactical ability, and about 7 P.M. he brought into position no less than +five army corps for the final attack. The sudden collapse of French +resistance, due to the frontal attack of the Guards (St Privat) and the +turning movement of the Saxons (Roncourt), rendered the use of this mass +unnecessary, but the resolution to use it was there. On the German right +(I. army), about Gravelotte, all superior leading ceased quite early in +the afternoon, and at night the French still showed an unbroken front. +Until midnight, when the prince's victory was reported, the suspense at +headquarters was terrible. The I. army was exhausted, no steps had been +taken to ensure support from the III. army, and the IV. corps (II. army) +lay inactive 30 m. away. + + + Bazaine in Metz. + +This seems a fitting place to discuss the much-disputed point of +Bazaine's conduct in allowing himself to be driven back into Metz when +fortune had thrown into his hands the great opportunity of the 16th and +17th of August. He had been appointed to command on the 10th, but the +presence of the emperor, who only left the front early on the 16th, and +their dislike of Bazaine, exercised a disturbing influence on the +headquarters staff officers. During the retreat to Metz the marshal had +satisfied himself as to the inability of his corps commanders to handle +their troops, and also as to the ill-will of the staff. In the +circumstances he felt that a battle in the open field could only end in +disaster; and, since it was proved that the Germans could outmarch him, +his army was sure to be overtaken and annihilated if he ventured beyond +the shelter of the fortress. But near Metz he could at least inflict +very severe punishment on his assailants, and in any case his presence +in Metz would neutralize a far superior force of the enemy for weeks or +months. What use the French government might choose to make of the +breathing space thus secured was their business, not his; and subsequent +events showed that, had they not forced MacMahon's hand, the existence +of the latter's nucleus army of trained troops might have prevented the +investment of Paris. Bazaine was condemned by court-martial after the +war, but if the case were reheard to-day it is certain that no charge of +treachery could be sustained. + +On the German side the victory at St Privat was at once followed up by +the headquarters. Early on the 19th the investment of Bazaine's army in +Metz was commenced. A new army, the Army of the Meuse (often called the +IV.), was as soon as possible formed of all troops not required for the +maintenance of the investment, and marched off under the command of the +crown prince of Saxony to discover and destroy the remainder of the +French field army, which at this moment was known to be at Chalons. + + + Campaign of Sedan. + +The operations which led to the capture of MacMahon's army in Sedan call +for little explanation. Given seven corps, each capable of averaging 15 +m. a day for a week in succession, opposed to four corps only, shaken by +defeat and unable as a whole to cover more than 5 m. a day, the result +could hardly be doubtful. But Moltke's method of conducting operations +left his opponent many openings which could only be closed by excessive +demands on the marching power of the men. Trusting only to his cavalry +screen to secure information, he was always without any definite fixed +point about which to manoeuvre, for whilst the reports of the screen and +orders based thereon were being transmitted, the enemy was free to move, +and generally their movements were dictated by political expediency, not +by calculable military motives. + +Thus whilst the German army, on a front of nearly 50 m., was marching +due west on Paris, MacMahon, under political pressure, was moving +parallel to them, but on a northerly route, to attempt the relief of +Metz. + +So unexpected was this move and so uncertain the information which +called attention to it, that Moltke did not venture to change at once +the direction of march of the whole army, but he directed the Army of +the Meuse northward on Damvillers and ordered Prince Frederick Charles +to detach two corps from the forces investing Metz to reinforce it. For +the moment, therefore, MacMahon's move had succeeded, and the +opportunity existed for Bazaine to break out. But at the critical moment +the hopeless want of real efficiency in MacMahon's army compelled the +latter so to delay his advance that it became evident to the Germans +that there was no longer any necessity for the III. army to maintain the +direction towards Paris, and that the probable point of contact between +the Meuse army and the French lay nearer to the right wing of the III. +army than to Prince Frederick Charles's investing force before Metz. + +The detachment from the II. army was therefore countermanded, and the +whole III. army changed front to the north, while the Meuse army headed +the French off from the east. The latter came into contact with the head +of the French columns, during the 29th, about Nouart, and on the 30th at +Buzancy (battle of Beaumont); and the French, yielding to the force of +numbers combined with superior moral, were driven north-westward upon +Sedan (q.v.), right across the front of the III. army, which was now +rapidly coming up from the south. + +During the 31st the retreat practically became a rout, and the morning +of the 1st of September found the French crowded around the little +fortress of Sedan, with only one line of retreat to the north-west still +open. By 11 A.M. the XI. corps (III. army) had already closed that line, +and about noon the Saxons (Army of the Meuse) moving round between the +town and the Belgian frontier joined hands with the XI., and the circle +of investment was complete. The battle of Sedan was closed about 4.15 +P.M. by the hoisting of the white flag. Terms were agreed upon during +the night, and the whole French army, with the emperor, passed into +captivity. (F. N. M.) + + + Later operations. + +Thus in five weeks one of the French field armies was imprisoned in +Metz, the other destroyed, and the Germans were free to march upon +Paris. This seemed easy. There could be no organized opposition to their +progress,[4] and Paris, if not so defenceless as in 1814, was more +populous. Starvation was the best method of attacking an overcrowded +fortress, and the Parisians were not thought to be proof against the +deprivation of their accustomed luxuries. Even Moltke hoped that by the +end of October he would be "shooting hares at Creisau," and with this +confidence the German III. and IV. armies left the vicinity of Sedan on +the 4th of September. The march called for no more than good staff +arrangements, and the two armies arrived before Paris a fortnight later +and gradually encircled the place--the III. army on the south, the IV. +on the north side--in the last days of September. Headquarters were +established at Versailles. Meanwhile the Third Empire had fallen, giving +place on the 4th of September to a republican Government of National +Defence, which made its appeal to, and evoked, the spirit of 1792. +Henceforward the French nation, which had left the conduct of the war to +the regular army and had been little more than an excited spectator, +took the burden upon itself. + +The regular army, indeed, still contained more than 500,000 men (chiefly +recruits and reservists), and 50,000 sailors, marines, douaniers, &c., +were also available. But the Garde Mobile, framed by Marshal Niel in +1868, doubled this figure, and the addition of the Garde Nationale, +called into existence on the 15th of September, and including all +able-bodied men of from 31 to 60 years of age, more than trebled it. The +German staff had of course to reckon on the Garde Mobile, and did so +beforehand, but they wholly underestimated both its effective members +and its willingness, while, possessing themselves a system in which all +the military elements of the German nation stood close behind the +troops of the active army, they ignored the potentialities of the Garde +Nationale. + +Meanwhile, both as a contrast to the events that centred on Paris and +because in point of time they were decided for the most part in the +weeks immediately following Sedan, we must briefly allude to the sieges +conducted by the Germans--Paris (q.v.), Metz (q.v.) and Belfort (q.v.) +excepted. Old and ruined as many of them were, the French fortresses +possessed considerable importance in the eyes of the Germans. +Strassburg, in particular, the key of Alsace, the standing menace to +South Germany and the most conspicuous of the spoils of Louis XIV.'s +_Raubkriege_, was an obvious target. Operations were begun on the 9th of +August, three days after Woerth, General v. Werder's corps (Baden troops +and Prussian Landwehr) making the siege. The French commandant, General +Uhrich, surrendered after a stubborn resistance on the 28th of +September. Of the smaller fortresses many, being practically unarmed and +without garrisons, capitulated at once. Toul, defended by Major Huck +with 2000 mobiles, resisted for forty days, and drew upon itself the +efforts of 13,000 men and 100 guns. Verdun, commanded by General Guerin +de Waldersbach, held out till after the fall of Metz. Some of the +fortresses lying to the north of the Prussian line of advance on Paris, +e.g. Mezieres, resisted up to January 1871, though of course this was +very largely due to the diminution of pressure caused by the appearance +of new French field armies in October. On the 9th of September a strange +incident took place at the surrender of Laon. A powder magazine was +blown up by the soldiers in charge and 300 French and a few German +soldiers were killed by the explosion. But as the Germans advanced, +their lines of communication were thoroughly organized, and the belt of +country between Paris and the Prussian frontier subdued and garrisoned. +Most of these fortresses were small town enceintes, dating from Vauban's +time, and open, under the new conditions of warfare, to concentric +bombardment from positions formerly out of range, upon which the +besieger could place as many guns as he chose to employ. In addition +they were usually deficient in armament and stores and garrisoned by +newly-raised troops. Belfort, where the defenders strained every nerve +to keep the besiegers out of bombarding range, and Paris formed the only +exceptions to this general rule. + + + The "Defense Nationale." + +The policy of the new French government was defined by Jules Favre on +the 6th of September. "It is for the king of Prussia, who has declared +that he is making war on the Empire and not on France, to stay his hand; +we shall not cede an inch of our territory or a stone of our +fortresses." These proud words, so often ridiculed as empty bombast, +were the prelude of a national effort which re-established France in the +eyes of Europe as a great power, even though provinces and fortresses +were ceded in the peace that that effort proved unable to avert. They +were translated into action by Leon Gambetta, who escaped from Paris in +a balloon on the 7th of October, and established the headquarters of the +defence at Tours, where already the "Delegation" of the central +government--which had decided to remain in Paris--had concentrated the +machinery of government. Thenceforward Gambetta and his principal +assistant de Freycinet directed the whole war in the open country, +co-ordinating it, as best they could with the precarious means of +communication at their disposal, with Trochu's military operations in +and round the capital. His critics--Gambetta's personality was such as +to ensure him numerous enemies among the higher civil and military +officials, over whom, in the interests of _La Patrie_, he rode +rough-shod--have acknowledged the fact, which is patent enough in any +case, that nothing but Gambetta's driving energy enabled France in a few +weeks to create and to equip twelve army corps, representing thirty-six +divisions (600,000 rifles and 1400 guns), after all her organized +regular field troops had been destroyed or neutralized. But it is +claimed that by undue interference with the generals at the front, by +presuming to dictate their plans of campaign, and by forcing them to act +when the troops were unready, Gambetta and de Freycinet nullified the +efforts of themselves and the rest of the nation and subjected France +to a humiliating treaty of peace. We cannot here discuss the justice or +injustice of such a general condemnation, or even whether in individual +instances Gambetta trespassed too far into the special domain of the +soldier. But even the brief narrative given below must at least suggest +to the reader the existence amongst the generals and higher officials of +a dead weight of passive resistance to the Delegation's orders, of +unnecessary distrust of the qualities of the improvised troops, and +above all of the utter fear of responsibility that twenty years of +literal obedience had bred. The closest study of the war cannot lead to +any other conclusion than this, that whether or not Gambetta as a +strategist took the right course in general or in particular cases, no +one else would have taken any course whatever. + +On the approach of the enemy Paris hastened its preparations for defence +to the utmost, while in the provinces, out of reach of the German +cavalry, new army corps were rapidly organized out of the few +constituted regular units not involved in the previous catastrophes, the +depot troops and the mobile national guard. The first-fruits of these +efforts were seen in Beauce, where early in October important masses of +French troops prepared not only to bar the further progress of the +invader but actually to relieve Paris. The so-called "fog of war"--the +armed inhabitants, francs-tireurs, sedentary national guard and +volunteers--prevented the German cavalry from venturing far out from the +infantry camps around Paris, and behind this screen the new 15th army +corps assembled on the Loire. But an untimely demonstration of force +alarmed the Germans, all of whom, from Moltke downwards, had hitherto +disbelieved in the existence of the French new formations, and the still +unready 15th corps found itself the target of an expedition of the I. +Bavarian corps, which drove the defenders out of Orleans after a sharp +struggle, while at the same time another expedition swept the western +part of Beauce, sacked Chateaudun as a punishment for its brave defence, +and returned via Chartres, which was occupied. + +After these events the French forces disappeared from German eyes for +some weeks. D'Aurelle de Paladines, the commander of the "Army of the +Loire" (15th and 16th corps), improvised a camp of instruction at +Salbris in Sologne, several marches out of reach, and subjected his raw +troops to a stern regime of drill and discipline. At the same time an +"Army of the West" began to gather on the side of Le Mans. This army was +almost imaginary, yet rumours of its existence and numbers led the +German commanders into the gravest errors, for they soon came to suspect +that the main army lay on that side and not on the Loire, and this +mistaken impression governed the German dispositions up to the very eve +of the decisive events around Orleans in December. Thus when at last +D'Aurelle took the offensive from Tours (whither he had transported his +forces, now 100,000 strong) against the position of the I. Bavarian +corps near Orleans, he found his task easy. The Bavarians, outnumbered +and unsupported, were defeated with heavy losses in the battle of +Coulmiers (November 9), and, had it not been for the inexperience, want +of combination, and other technical weaknesses of the French, they would +have been annihilated. What the results of such a victory as Coulmiers +might have been, had it been won by a fully organized, smoothly working +army of the same strength, it is difficult to overestimate. As it was, +the retirement of the Bavarians rang the alarm bell all along the line +of the German positions, and that was all. + +Then once again, instead of following up its success, the French army +disappeared from view. The victory had emboldened the "fog of war" to +make renewed efforts, and resistance to the pressure of the German +cavalry grew day by day. The Bavarians were reinforced by two Prussian +divisions and by all available cavalry commands, and constituted as an +"army detachment" under the grand-duke Friedrich Franz of +Mecklenburg-Schwerin to deal with the Army of the Loire, the strength of +which was far from being accurately known. Meantime the capitulation of +Metz on the 28th of October had set free the veterans of Prince +Frederick Charles, the best troops in the German army, for field +operations. The latter were at first misdirected to the upper Seine, and +yet another opportunity arose for the French to raise the siege of +Paris. But D'Aurelle utilized the time he had gained in strengthening +the army and in imparting drill and discipline to the new units which +gathered round the original nucleus of the 15th and 16th corps. All this +was, however, unknown and even unsuspected at the German headquarters, +and the invaders, feeling the approaching crisis, became more than +uneasy as to their prospects of maintaining the siege of Paris. + + + The Orleans campaign. + +At this moment, in the middle of November, the general situation was as +follows: the German III. and Meuse armies, investing Paris, had had to +throw off important detachments to protect the enterprise, which they +had undertaken on the assumption that no further field armies of the +enemy were to be encountered. The maintenance of their communications +with Germany, relatively unimportant when the struggle took place in the +circumstances of field warfare, had become supremely necessary, now that +the army had come to a standstill and undertaken a great siege, which +required heavy guns and constant replenishment of ammunition and stores. +The rapidity of the German invasion had left no time for the proper +organization and full garrisoning of these communications, which were +now threatened, not merely by the Army of the Loire, but by other forces +assembling on the area protected by Langres and Belfort. The latter, +under General Cambriels, were held in check and no more by the Baden +troops and reserve units (XIV. German corps) under General Werder, and +eventually without arousing attention they were able to send 40,000 men +to the Army of the Loire. This army, still around Orleans, thus came to +number perhaps 150,000 men, and opposed to it, about the 14th of +November, the Germans had only the Army Detachment of about 40,000, the +II. army being still distant. It was under these conditions that the +famous Orleans campaign took place. After many vicissitudes of fortune, +and with many misunderstandings between Prince Frederick Charles, Moltke +and the grand-duke, the Germans were ultimately victorious, thanks +principally to the brilliant fighting of the X. corps at +Beaune-la-Rolande (28th of November), which was followed by the battle +of Loigny-Poupry on the 2nd of December and the second capture of +Orleans after heavy fighting on the 4th of December. + +The result of the capture of Orleans was the severance of the two wings +of the French army, henceforward commanded respectively by Chanzy and +Bourbaki. The latter fell back at once and hastily, though not closely +pursued, to Bourges. But Chanzy, opposing the Detachment between +Beaugency and the Forest of Marchenoir, was of sterner metal, and in the +five days' general engagement around Beaugency (December 7-11) the +Germans gained little or no real advantage. Indeed their solitary +material success, the capture of Beaugency, was due chiefly to the fact +that the French there were subjected to conflicting orders from the +military and the governmental authorities. Chanzy then abandoned little +but the field of battle, and on the grand-duke's representations Prince +Frederick Charles, leaving a mere screen to impose upon Bourbaki (who +allowed himself to be deceived and remained inactive), hurried thither +with the II. army. After that Chanzy was rapidly driven north-westward, +though always presenting a stubborn front. The Delegation left Tours and +betook itself to Bordeaux, whence it directed the government for the +rest of the war. But all this continuous marching and fighting, and the +growing severity of the weather, compelled Prince Frederick Charles to +call a halt for a few days. About the 19th of December, therefore, the +Germans (II. army and Detachment) were closed up in the region of +Chartres, Orleans, Auxerre and Fontainebleau, Chanzy along the river +Sarthe about Le Mans and Bourbaki still passive towards Bourges. + +During this, as during other halts, the French government and its +generals occupied themselves with fresh plans of campaign, the former +with an eager desire for results, the latter (Chanzy excepted) with many +misgivings. Ultimately, and fatally, it was decided that Bourbaki, whom +nothing could move towards Orleans, should depart for the south-east, +with a view to relieving Belfort and striking perpendicularly against +the long line of the Germans' communications. This movement, bold to the +point of extreme rashness judged by any theoretical rules of strategy, +seems to have been suggested by de Freycinet. As the execution of it +fell actually into incapable hands, it is difficult to judge what would +have been the result had a Chanzy or a Faidherbe been in command of the +French. At any rate it was vicious in so far as immediate advantages +were sacrificed to hopes of ultimate success which Gambetta and de +Freycinet did wrong to base on Bourbaki's powers of generalship. Late in +December, for good or evil, Bourbaki marched off into Franche-Comte and +ceased to be a factor in the Loire campaign. A mere calculation of time +and space sufficed to show the German headquarters that the moment had +arrived to demolish the stubborn Chanzy. + + + Le Mans. + +Prince Frederick Charles resumed the interrupted offensive, pushing +westward with four corps and four cavalry divisions which converged on +Le Mans. There on the 10th, 11th and 12th of January 1871 a stubbornly +contested battle ended with the retreat of the French, who owed their +defeat solely to the misbehaviour of the Breton mobiles. These, after +deserting their post on the battlefield at a mere threat of the enemy's +infantry, fled in disorder and infected with their terrors the men in +the reserve camps of instruction, which broke up in turn. But Chanzy, +resolute as ever, drew off his field army intact towards Laval, where a +freshly raised corps joined him. The prince's army was far too exhausted +to deliver another effective blow, and the main body of it gradually +drew back into better quarters, while the grand duke departed for the +north to aid in opposing Faidherbe. Some idea of the strain to which the +invaders had been subjected may be gathered from the fact that army +corps, originally 30,000 strong, were in some cases reduced to 10,000 +and even fewer bayonets. And at this moment Bourbaki was at the head of +120,000 men! Indeed, so threatening seemed the situation on the Loire, +though the French south of that river between Gien and Blois were mere +isolated brigades, that the prince hurried back from Le Mans to Orleans +to take personal command. A fresh French corps, bearing the number 25, +and being the twenty-first actually raised during the war, appeared in +the field towards Blois. Chanzy was again at the head of 156,000 men. He +was about to take the offensive against the 40,000 Germans left near Le +Mans when to his bitter disappointment he received the news of the +armistice. "We have still France," he had said to his staff, undeterred +by the news of the capitulation of Paris, but now he had to submit, for +even if his improvised army was still cheerful, there were many +significant tokens that the people at large had sunk into apathy and +hoped to avoid worse terms of peace by discontinuing the contest at +once. + +So ended the critical period of the "Defense nationale." It may be taken +to have lasted from the day of Coulmiers to the last day of Le Mans, and +its central point was the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande. Its +characteristics were, on the German side, inadequacy of the system of +strategy practised, which became palpable as soon as the organs of +reconnaissance met with serious resistance, misjudgment of and indeed +contempt for the fighting powers of "new formations," and the rise of a +spirit of ferocity in the man in the ranks, born of his resentment at +the continuance of the war and the ceaseless sniping of the +franc-tireur's rifle and the peasant's shot-gun. On the French side the +continual efforts of the statesmen to stimulate the generals to decisive +efforts, coupled with actual suggestions as to the plans of the campaign +to be followed (in default, be it said, of the generals themselves +producing such plans), and the professional soldiers' distrust of +half-trained troops, acted and reacted upon one another in such a way as +to neutralize the powerful, if disconnected and erratic, forces that the +war and the Republic had unchained. As for the soldiers themselves, +their most conspicuous qualities were their uncomplaining endurance of +fatigues and wet bivouacs, and in action their capacity for a single +great effort and no more. But they were unreliable in the hands of the +veteran regular general, because they were heterogeneous in recruiting, +and unequal in experience and military qualities, and the French staff +in those days was wholly incapable of moving masses of troops with the +rapidity demanded by the enemy's methods of war, so that on the whole it +is difficult to know whether to wonder more at their missing success or +at their so nearly achieving it. + +The decision, as we have said, was fought out on the Loire and the +Sarthe. Nevertheless the glorious story of the "Defense nationale" +includes two other important campaigns--that of Faidherbe in the north +and that of Bourbaki in the east. + + + Faidherbe's campaign. + +In the north the organization of the new formations was begun by Dr +Testelin and General Farre. Bourbaki held the command for a short time +in November before proceeding to Tours, but the active command in field +operations came into the hands of Faidherbe, a general whose natural +powers, so far from being cramped by years of peace routine and court +repression, had been developed by a career of pioneer warfare and +colonial administration. General Farre was his capable chief of staff. +Troops were raised from fugitives from Metz and Sedan, as well as from +depot troops and the Garde Mobile, and several minor successes were won +by the national troops in the Seine valley, for here, as on the side of +the Loire, mere detachments of the investing army round Paris were +almost powerless. But the capitulation of Metz came too soon for the +full development of these sources of military strength, and the German +I. army under Manteuffel, released from duty at Metz, marched +north-eastward, capturing the minor fortresses on its way. Before +Faidherbe assumed command, Farre had fought several severe actions near +Amiens, but, greatly outnumbered, had been defeated and forced to retire +behind the Somme. Another French general, Briand, had also engaged the +enemy without success near Rouen. Faidherbe assumed the command on the +3rd of December, and promptly moved forward. A general engagement on the +little river Hallue (December 23), east-north-east of Amiens, was fought +with no decisive results, but Faidherbe, feeling that his troops were +only capable of winning victories in the first rush, drew them off on +the 24th. His next effort, at Bapaume (January 2-3, 1871), was more +successful, but its effects were counterbalanced by the surrender of the +fortress of Peronne (January 9) and the consequent establishment of the +Germans on the line of the Somme. Meanwhile the Rouen troops had been +contained by a strong German detachment, and there was no further chance +of succouring Paris from the north. But Faidherbe, like Chanzy, was far +from despair, and in spite of the deficiencies of his troops in +equipment (50,000 pairs of shoes, supplied by English contractors, +proved to have paper soles), he risked a third great battle at St +Quentin (January 19). This time he was severely defeated, though his +loss in killed and wounded was about equal to that of the Germans, who +were commanded by Goeben. Still the attempt of the Germans to surround +him failed and he drew off his forces with his artillery and trains +unharmed. The Germans, who had been greatly impressed by the solidity of +his army, did not pursue him far, and Faidherbe was preparing for a +fresh effort when he received orders to suspend hostilities. + +The last episode is Bourbaki's campaign in the east, with its mournful +close at Pontarlier. Before the crisis of the last week of November, the +French forces under General Cremer, Cambriels' successor, had been so +far successful in minor enterprises that, as mentioned above, the right +wing of the Loire army, severed from the left by the battle of Orleans +and subsequently held inactive at Bourges and Nevers, was ordered to +Franche Comte to take the offensive against the XIV. corps and other +German troops there, to relieve Belfort and to strike a blow across the +invaders' line of communications. But there were many delays in +execution. The staff work, which was at no time satisfactory in the +French armies of 1870, was complicated by the snow, the bad state of the +roads, and the mountainous nature of the country, and Bourbaki, a brave +general of division in action, but irresolute and pretentious as a +commander in chief, was not the man to cope with the situation. Only the +furious courage and patient endurance of hardships of the rank and file, +and the good qualities of some of the generals, such as Clinchant, +Cremer and Billot, and junior staff officers such as Major Brugere +(afterwards generalissimo of the French army), secured what success was +attained. + + + The campaign in the East. + +Werder, the German commander, warned of the imposing concentration of +the French, evacuated Dijon and Dole just in time to avoid the blow and +rapidly drew together his forces behind the Ognon above Vesoul. A +furious attack on one of his divisions at Villersexel (January 9) cost +him 2000 prisoners as well as his killed and wounded, and Bourbaki, +heading for Belfort, was actually nearer to the fortress than the +Germans. But at the crisis more time was wasted, Werder (who had almost +lost hope of maintaining himself and had received both encouragement and +stringent instructions to do so) slipped in front of the French, and +took up a long weak line of defence on the river Lisaine, almost within +cannon shot of Belfort. The cumbrous French army moved up and attacked +him there with 150,000 against 60,000 (January 15-17, 1871). It was at +last repulsed, thanks chiefly to Bourbaki's inability to handle his +forces, and, to the bitter disappointment of officers and men alike, he +ordered a retreat, leaving Belfort to its fate. + +Ere this, so urgent was the necessity of assisting Werder, Manteuffel +had been placed at the head of a new Army of the South. Bringing two +corps from the I. army opposing Faidherbe and calling up a third from +the armies around Paris, and a fourth from the II. army, Manteuffel +hurried southward by Langres to the Saone. Then, hearing of Werder's +victory on the Lisaine, he deflected the march so as to cut off +Bourbaki's retreat, drawing off the left flank guard of the latter +(commanded with much _eclat_ and little real effect by Garibaldi) by a +sharp feint attack on Dijon. The pressure of Werder in front and +Manteuffel in flank gradually forced the now thoroughly disheartened +French forces towards the Swiss frontier, and Bourbaki, realizing at +once the ruin of his army and his own incapacity to re-establish its +efficiency, shot himself, though not fatally, on the 26th of January. +Clinchant, his successor, acted promptly enough to remove the immediate +danger, but on the 29th he was informed of the armistice without at the +same time being told that Belfort and the eastern theatre of war had +been on Jules Favre's demand expressly excepted from its operation.[5] +Thus the French, the leaders distracted by doubts and the worn-out +soldiers fully aware that the war was practically over, stood still, +while Manteuffel completed his preparations for hemming them in. On the +1st of February General Clinchant led his troops into Switzerland, where +they were disarmed, interned and well cared for by the authorities of +the neutral state. The rearguard fought a last action with the advancing +Germans before passing the frontier. On the 16th, by order of the French +government, Belfort capitulated, but it was not until the 11th of March +that the Germans took possession of Bitche, the little fortress on the +Vosges, where in the early days of the war de Failly had illustrated so +signally the want of concerted action and the neglect of opportunities +which had throughout proved the bane of the French armies. + +The losses of the Germans during the whole war were 28,000 dead and +101,000 wounded and disabled, those of the French, 156,000 dead (17,000 +of whom died, of sickness and wounds, as prisoners in German hands) and +143,000 wounded and disabled. 720,000 men surrendered to the Germans or +to the authorities of neutral states, and at the close of the war there +were still 250,000 troops on foot, with further resources not +immediately available to the number of 280,000 more. In this connexion, +and as evidence of the respective numerical yields of the German system +working normally and of the French improvised for the emergency, we +quote from Berndt (_Zahl im Kriege_) the following comparative +figures:-- + + End of July French 250,000, Germans 384,000 under arms. + Middle of November " 600,000 " 425,000 " + After the surrender + of Paris and the + disarmament of + Bourbaki's army " 534,000 " 835,000 " + +The date of the armistice was the 28th of January, and that of the +ratification of the treaty of Frankfurt the 23rd of May 1871. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the war is ever increasing in volume, + and the following list only includes a very short selection made + amongst the most important works. + + _General._--German official history, _Der deutsch-franzoesische Krieg_ + (Berlin, 1872-1881; English and French translations); monographs of + the German general staff (_Kriegsgesch. Einzelschriften_); Moltke, + _Gesch. des deutsch-franzoes. Krieges_ (Berlin, 1891; English + translation) and _Gesammelte Schriften des G. F. M. Grafen v. Moltke_ + (Berlin, 1900- ); French official history, _La Guerre de 1870-1871_ + (Paris, 1902- ) (the fullest and most accurate account); P. + Lehautcourt (General Palat), _Hist. de la guerre de 1870-1871_ (Paris, + 1901-1907); v. Verdy du Vernois, _Studien ueber den Krieg ... auf + Grundlage_ 1870-1871 (Berlin, 1892-1896); G. Cardinal von Widdern, + _Kritische Tage 1870-1871_ (French translation, _Journees critiques_). + Events preceding the war are dealt with in v. Bernhardi, _Zwischen + zwei Kriegen_; Baron Stoffel, _Rapports militaires_ 1866-1870 (Paris, + 1871; English translation); G. Lehmann, _Die Mobilmachung_ 1870-1871 + (Berlin, 1905). + + For the war in Lorraine: Prince Kraft of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, + _Briefe ueber Strategie_ (English translation, _Letters on Strategy_); + F. Foch, _Conduite de la guerre_, pt. ii.; H. Bonnal, _Manoeuvre de + Saint Privat_ (Paris, 1904-1906); Maistre, _Spicheren_ (Paris, 1908); + v. Schell, _Die Operationen der I. Armee unter Gen. von Steinmetz_ + (Berlin, 1872; English translation); F. Hoenig, _Taktik der Zukunft_ + (English translation), and _24 Stunden Moltke'schen Strategie_ + (Berlin, 1892; English and French translations). + + For the war in Alsace and Champagne: H. Kunz, _Schlacht von Woerth_ + (Berlin, 1891), and later works by the same author; H. Bonnal, + _Froeschweiler_ (Paris, 1899); Hahnke, _Die Operationen des III. Armee + bis Sedan_ (Berlin, 1873; French translation). + + For the war in the Provinces: v. der Goltz, _Leon Gambetta und seine + Armeen_ (Berlin, 1877); _Die Operationen der II. Armee an die Loire_ + (Berlin, 1875); _Die sieben Tage von Le Mans_ (Berlin, 1873); Kunz, + _Die Zusammensetzung der franzoes. Provinzialheeren_; de Freycinet, _La + Guerre en province_ (Paris, 1871); L. A. Hale, _The People's War_ + (London, 1904); Hoenig, _Volkskrieg an die Loire_ (Berlin, 1892); + Blume, _Operationen v. Sedan bis zum Ende d. Kriegs_ (Berlin, 1872; + English translation); v. Schell, _Die Operationen der I. Armee unter + Gen. v. Goeben_ (Berlin, 1873; English translation); Count + Wartensleben, _Feldzug der Nordarmee unter Gen. v. Manteuffel_ + (Berlin, 1872), _Operationen der Sudarmee_ (Berlin, 1872; English + translation); Faidherbe, _Campagne de l'armee du nord_ (Paris, 1872). + + For the sieges: Frobenius, _Kriegsgesch. Beispiele d. Festungskriegs + aus d. deutsch.-franz. Kg._ (Berlin, 1899-1900); Goetze, _Taetigkeit + der deutschen Ingenieuren_ (Berlin, 1871; English translation). + + The most useful bibliography is that of General Palat ("P. + Lehautcourt"). (C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This was the celebrated "bapteme de feu" of the prince imperial. + + [2] The II. corps had not yet arrived from Germany. + + [3] Of the I. army the I. corps was retained on the east side of + Metz. The II. corps belonged to the II. army, but had not yet reached + the front. + + [4] The 13th corps (Vinoy), which had followed MacMahon's army at + some distance, was not involved in the catastrophe of Sedan, and by + good luck as well as good management evaded the German pursuit and + returned safely to Paris. + + [5] Jules Favre, it appears, neglected to inform Gambetta of the + exception. + + + + +FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, NICOLAS LOUIS, COUNT (1750-1828), French +statesman and poet, was born at Saffais near Rozieres in Lorraine on the +17th of April 1750, the son of a school-teacher. He studied at the +Jesuit college of Neufchateau in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen +published a volume of poetry which obtained the approbation of Rousseau +and of Voltaire. Neufchateau conferred on him its name, and he was +elected member of some of the principal academies of France. In 1783 he +was named _procureur-general_ to the council of Santo Domingo. He had +previously been engaged on a translation of Ariosto, which he finished +before his return to France five years afterwards, but it perished +during the shipwreck which occurred during his voyage home. After the +Revolution he was elected deputy _suppleant_ to the National Assembly, +was charged with the organization of the Department of the Vosges, and +was elected later to the Legislative Assembly, of which he first became +secretary and then president. In 1793 he was imprisoned on account of +the political sentiments, in reality very innocent, of his drama _Pamela +ou la vertu recompensee_ (Theatre de la Nation, 1st August 1793), but +was set free a few days afterwards at the revolution of the 9th +Thermidor. In 1797 he became minister of the interior, in which office +he distinguished himself by the thoroughness of his administration in +all departments. It is to him that France owes its system of inland +navigation. He inaugurated the museum of the Louvre, and was one of the +promoters of the first universal exhibition of industrial products. From +1804 to 1806 he was president of the Senate, and in that capacity the +duty devolved upon him of soliciting Napoleon to assume the title of +emperor. In 1808 he received the dignity of count. Retiring from public +life in 1814, he occupied himself chiefly in the study of agriculture, +until his death on the 10th of January 1828. + +Francois de Neufchateau had very multifarious accomplishments, and +interested himself in a great variety of subjects, but his fame rests +chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the encouragement and +development of the industries of France. His maturer poetical +productions did not fulfil the promise of those of his early years, for +though some of his verses have a superficial elegance, his poetry +generally lacks force and originality. He had considerable +qualifications as a grammarian and critic, as is witnessed by his +editions of the _Provinciales_ and _Pensees_ of Pascal (Paris, 1822 and +1826) and _Gil Blas_ (Paris, 1820). His principal poetical works are +_Poesies diverses_ (1765); _Ode sur les parlements_ (1771); _Nouveaux +Contes moraux_ (1781); _Les Vosges_ (1796); _Fables et contes_ (1814); +and _Les Tropes, ou les figures de mots_ (1817). He was also the author +of a large number of works on agriculture. + + See _Recueil des lettres, circulaires, discours et autres actes + publics emanes du Cte. Francois pendant ses deux exercices du + ministere de l'interieur_ (Paris, An. vii.-viii., 2 vols.); _Notice + biographique sur M. le comte Francois de Neufchateau_ (1828), by A. F. + de Sillery; H. Bonnelier, _Memoires sur Francois de Neufchateau_ + (Paris, 1829); J. Lamoureux, _Notice historique et litteraire sur la + vie et les ecrits de Francois de Neufchateau_ (Paris, 1843); E. + Meaume, _Etude historique et biographique sur les Lorrains + revolutionnaires: Palissot, Gregoire, Francois de Neufchateau_ (Nancy, + 1882); Ch. Simian, _Francois de Neufchateau et les expositions_ + (Paris, 1889). + + + + +FRANCONIA (Ger. _Franken_), the name of one of the stem-duchies of +medieval Germany. It stretched along the valley of the Main from the +Rhine to Bohemia, and was bounded on the north by Saxony and Thuringia, +and on the south by Swabia and Bavaria. It also included a district +around Mainz, Spires and Worms, on the left bank of the Rhine. The word +_Franconia_, first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the +words _France_, _Francia_ and _Franken_, to a portion of the land +occupied by the Franks. + +About the close of the 5th century this territory was conquered by +Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, was afterwards incorporated with the +kingdom of Austrasia, and at a later period came under the rule of +Charlemagne. After the treaty of Verdun in 843 it became the centre of +the East Frankish or German kingdom, and in theory remained so for a +long period, and was for a time the most important of the duchies which +arose on the ruins of the Carolingian empire. The land was divided into +counties, or _gauen_, which were ruled by counts, prominent among whom +were members of the families of Conradine and Babenberg, by whose feuds +it was frequently devastated. Conrad, a member of the former family, who +took the title of "duke in Franconia" about the year 900, was chosen +German king in 911 as the representative of the foremost of the German +races. Conrad handed over the chief authority in Franconia to his +brother Eberhard, who remained on good terms with Conrad's successor +Henry I. the Fowler, but rose against the succeeding king, Otto the +Great, and was killed in battle in 939, when his territories were +divided. The influence of Franconia began to decline under the kings of +the Saxon house. It lacked political unity, had no opportunities for +extension, and soon became divided into Rhenish Franconia (_Francia +rhenensis_, Ger. _Rheinfranken_) and Eastern Franconia (_Francia +orientalis_, Ger. _Ostfranken_). The most influential family in Rhenish +Franconia was that of the Salians, the head of which early in the 10th +century was Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine, and son-in-law of Otto the +Great. This Conrad, his son Otto and his grandson Conrad are sometimes +called dukes of Franconia, and in 1024 his great-grandson Conrad, also +duke of Franconia, was elected German king as Conrad II. and founded the +line of Franconian or Salian emperors. Rhenish Franconia gradually +became a land of free towns and lesser nobles, and under the earlier +Franconian emperors sections passed to the count palatine of the Rhine, +the archbishop of Mainz, the bishops of Worms and Spires and other +clerical and lay nobles; and the name Franconia, or _Francia orientalis_ +as it was then called, was confined to the eastern portion of the duchy. +Clerical authority was becoming predominant in this region. A series of +charters dating from 822 to 1025 had granted considerable powers to the +bishops of Wuerzburg, who, by the time of the emperor Henry II., +possessed judicial authority over the whole of eastern Franconia. The +duchy was nominally retained by the emperors in their own hands until +1115, when the emperor Henry V., wishing to curb the episcopal influence +in this neighbourhood, appointed his nephew Conrad of Hohenstaufen as +duke of Franconia. Conrad's son Frederick took the title of duke of +Rothenburg instead of duke of Franconia, but in 1196, on the death of +Conrad of Hohenstaufen, son of the emperor Frederick I., the title fell +into disuse. Meanwhile the bishop of Wuerzburg had regained his former +power in the duchy, and this was confirmed in 1168 by the emperor +Frederick I. + +The title remained in abeyance until the early years of the 15th +century, when it was assumed by John II., bishop of Wuerzburg, and +retained by his successors until the bishopric was secularized in 1802. +The greater part of the lands were united with Bavaria, and the name +Franconia again fell into abeyance. It was revived in 1837, when Louis +I., king of Bavaria, gave to three northern portions of his kingdom the +names of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia. In 1633 Bernhard, duke of +Saxe-Weimar, hoping to create a principality for himself out of the +ecclesiastical lands, had taken the title of duke of Franconia, but his +hopes were destroyed by his defeat at Noerdlingen in 1634. When Germany +was divided into circles by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1500, the name +Franconia was given to that circle which included the eastern part of +the old duchy. The lands formerly comprised in the duchy of Franconia +are now divided between the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wuerttemberg, the +grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau. + + See J. G. ab Eckhart, _Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis et + episcopatus Wirceburgensis_ (Wuerzburg, 1729); F. Stein, _Geschichte + Frankens_ (Schweinfurt, 1885-1886); T. Henner, _Die herzogliche Gewalt + der Bischoefe von Wuerzburg_ (Wuerzburg, 1874). + + + + +FRANCS-ARCHERS. The institution of the _francs-archers_ was the first +attempt at the formation of regular infantry in France. They were +created by the ordinance of Montils-les-Tours on the 28th of August +1448, which prescribed that in each parish an archer should be chosen +from among the most apt in the use of arms; this archer to be exempt +from the _taille_ and certain obligations, to practise shooting with the +bow on Sundays and feast-days, and to hold himself ready to march fully +equipped at the first signal. Under Charles VII. the _francs-archers_ +distinguished themselves in numerous battles with the English, and +assisted the king to drive them from France. During the succeeding +reigns the institution languished, and finally disappeared in the middle +of the 16th century. The _francs-archers_ were also called +_francs-taupins_. + + See Daniel, _Histoire de la milice francaise_ (1721); and E. Boutaric, + _Institutions militaires de la France avant les armees permanentes_ + (1863). + + + + +FRANCS-TIREURS ("Free-Shooters"), irregular troops, almost exclusively +infantry, employed by the French in the war of 1870-1871. They were +originally rifle clubs or unofficial military societies formed in the +east of France at the time of the Luxemburg crisis of 1867. The members +were chiefly concerned with the practice of rifle-shooting, and were +expected in war to act as light troops. As under the then system of +conscription the greater part of the nation's military energy was +allowed to run to waste, the francs-tireurs were not only popular, but +efficient workers in their sphere of action. As they wore no uniforms, +were armed with the best existing rifles and elected their own officers, +the government made repeated attempts to bring the societies, which were +at once a valuable asset to the armed strength of France and a possible +menace to internal order, under military discipline. This was +strenuously resisted by the societies, to their sorrow as it turned out, +for the Germans treated captured francs-tireurs as irresponsible +non-combatants found with arms in their hands and usually exacted the +death penalty. In July 1870, at the outbreak of the war, the societies +were brought under the control of the minister of war and organized for +field service, but it was not until the 4th of November--by which time +the _levee en masse_ was in force--that they were placed under the +orders of the generals in the field. After that they were sometimes +organized in large bodies and incorporated in the mass of the armies, +but more usually they continued to work in small bands, blowing up +culverts on the invaders' lines of communication, cutting off small +reconnoitring parties, surprising small posts, &c. It is now +acknowledged, even by the Germans, that though the francs-tireurs did +relatively little active mischief, they paralysed large detachments of +the enemy, contested every step of his advance (as in the Loire +campaign), and prevented him from gaining information, and that their +soldierly qualities improved with experience. Their most celebrated +feats were the blowing up of the Moselle railway bridge at Fontenoy on +the 22nd of January 1871 (see _Les Chasseurs des Vosges_ by +Lieut.-Colonel St Etienne, Toul, 1906), and the heroic defence of +Chateaudun by Lipowski's Paris corps and the francs-tireurs of Cannes +and Nantes (October 18, 1870). It cannot be denied that the original +members of the rifle clubs were joined by many bad characters, but the +patriotism of the majority was unquestionable, for little mercy was +shown by the Germans to those francs-tireurs who fell into their hands. +The severity of the German reprisals is itself the best testimony to the +fear and anxiety inspired by the presence of active bands of +francs-tireurs on the flanks and in rear of the invaders. + + + + +FRANEKER, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, 5 m. E. of +Harlingen on the railway and canal to Leeuwarden. Pop. (1900) 7187. It +was at one time a favourite residence of the Frisian nobility, many of +whom had their castles here, and it possessed a celebrated university, +founded by the Frisian estates in 1585. This was suppressed by Napoleon +I. in 1811, and the endowments were diverted four years later to the +support of an athenaeum, and afterwards of a gymnasium, with which a +physiological cabinet and a botanical garden are connected. Franeker +also possesses a town hall (1591), which contains a _planetarium_, made +by one Eise Eisinga in 1774-1881. The fine observatory was founded about +1780. The church of St Martin (1420) contains several fine tombs of the +15th-17th centuries. The industries of the town include silk-weaving, +woollen-spinning, shipbuilding and pottery-making. It is also a +considerable market for agricultural produce. + + + + +FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791), a Jewish theologian, who founded in Poland, in +the middle of the 18th century, a sect which emanated from Judaism but +ended by merging with Christianity. The sect was the outcome of the +Messianic mysticism of Sabbetai Zebi. It was an antinomian movement in +which the authority of the Jewish law was held to be superseded by +personal freedom. The Jewish authorities, alarmed at the moral laxity +which resulted from the emotional rites of the Frankists, did their +utmost to suppress the sect. But the latter, posing as an anti-Talmudic +protest in behalf of a spiritual religion, won a certain amount of +public sympathy. There was, however, no deep sincerity in the tenets of +the Frankists, for though in 1759 they were baptized _en masse_, amid +much pomp, the Church soon became convinced that Frank was not a genuine +convert. He was imprisoned on a charge of heresy, but on his release in +1763 the empress Maria Theresa patronized him, regarding him as a +propagandist of Christianity among the Jews. He thenceforth lived in +state as baron of Offenbach, and on his death (1791) his daughter Eva +succeeded him as head of the sect. The Frankists gradually merged in the +general Christian body, the movement leaving no permanent trace in the +synagogue. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANK-ALMOIGN (_libera eleemosyna_, free alms), in the English law of +real property, a species of spiritual tenure, whereby a religious +corporation, aggregate or sole, holds lands of the donor to them and +their successors for ever. It was a tenure dating from Saxon times, held +not on the ordinary feudal conditions, but discharged of all services +except the _trinoda necessitas_. But "they which hold in frank-almoign +are bound of right before God to make orisons, prayers, masses and other +divine services for the souls of their grantor or feoffor, and for the +souls of their heirs which are dead, and for the prosperity and good +life and good health of their heirs which are alive. And therefore they +shall do no fealty to their lord, because that this divine service is +better for them before God than any doing of fealty" (Litt. s. 135). It +was the tenure by which the greater number of the monasteries and +religious houses held their lands; it was expressly exempted from the +statute 12 Car. II. c. 24 (1660), by which the other ancient tenures +were abolished, and it is the tenure by which the parochial clergy and +many ecclesiastical and eleemosynary foundations hold their lands at the +present day. As a form of donation, however, it came to an end by the +passing of the statute _Quia Emptores_, for by that statute no new +tenure of frank-almoign could be created, except by the crown. + + See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, where the history + of frank-almoign is given at length. + + + + +FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS (1801-1875), Jewish theologian, one of the founders +of the Breslau school of "historical Judaism." This school attempts to +harmonize critical treatment of the documents of religion with fidelity +to traditional beliefs and observances. For a time at least, the +compromise succeeded in staying the disintegrating effects of the +liberal movement in Judaism. Frankel was the author of several valuable +works, among them _Septuagint Studies_, an _Introduction to the Mishnah_ +(1859), and a similar work on the Palestinian Talmud (1870). He also +edited the _Monatsschrift_, devoted to Jewish learning on modern lines. +But his chief claim to fame rests on his headship of the Breslau +Seminary. This was founded in 1854 for the training of rabbis who should +combine their rabbinic studies with secular courses at the university. +The whole character of the rabbinate has been modified under the +influence of this, the first seminary of the kind. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANKENBERG, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, +on the Zschopau, 7 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway +Niederwiesa-Rosswein. Pop. (1905) 13,303. The principal buildings are +the large Evangelical parish church, restored in 1874-1875, and the +town-hall. Its industries include I extensive woollen, cotton and silk +weaving, dyeing, the manufacture of brushes, furniture and cigars, +iron-founding and machine building. It is well provided with schools, +including one of weaving. + + + + +FRANKENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the principality of +Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on an artificial arm of the Wipper, a tributary +of the Saale, 36 m. N.N.E. of Gotha. Pop. (1905) 6534. It consists of an +old and a new town, the latter mostly rebuilt since a destructive fire +in 1833, and has an old chateau of the princes of Schwarzburg, three +Protestant churches, a seminary for teachers, a hospital and a modern +town-hall. Its industries include the manufacture of sugar, cigars and +buttons, and there are brine springs, with baths, in the vicinity. At +Frankenhausen a battle was fought on the 15th of May 1525, in which the +insurgent peasants under Thomas Muenzer were defeated by the allied +princes of Saxony and Hesse. + + + + +FRANKENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on +the Pausebach, 35 m. S. by W. of Breslau. Pop. (1905) 7890. It is still +surrounded by its medieval walls, has two Evangelical and three Roman +Catholic churches, among the latter the parish church with a curious +overhanging tower, and a monastery. The industries include the +manufacture of artificial manures, bricks, beer and straw hats. There +are also mills for grinding the magnesite found in the neighbourhood. + + + + +FRANKENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the +Isenach, connected with the Rhine by a canal 3 m. in length, 6 m. N.W. +from Mannheim, and on the railways Neunkirchen-Worms and +Frankenthal-Grosskarlbach. Pop. (1905) 18,191. It has two Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, a fine medieval town-hall, two interesting +old gates, remains of its former environing walls, several public +monuments, including one to the veterans of the Napoleonic wars, and a +museum. Its industries include the manufacture of machinery, casks, +corks, soap, dolls and furniture, iron-founding and bell-founding--the +famous "Kaiserglocke" of the Cologne cathedral was cast here. +Frankenthal was formerly famous for its porcelain factory, established +here in 1755 by Paul Anton Hannong of Strassburg, who sold it in 1762 to +the elector palatine Charles Theodore. Its fame is mainly due to the +modellers Konrad Link (1732-1802) and Johann Peter Melchior (d. 1796) +(who worked at Frankenthal between 1779 and 1793). The best products of +this factory are figures and groups representing contemporary life, or +allegorical subjects in the rococo taste of the period, and they are +surpassed only by those of the more famous factory at Meissen. In 1795 +the factory was sold to Peter von Reccum, who removed it to Gruenstadt. + +Frankenthal (Franconodal) is mentioned as a village in the 8th century. +A house of Augustinian canons established here in 1119 by Erkenbert, +chamberlain of Worms, was suppressed in 1562 by the elector palatine +Frederick III., who gave its possessions to Protestant refugees from the +Netherlands. In 1577 this colony received town rights from the elector +John Casimir, whose successor fortified the place. From 1623 until 1652, +save for two years, it was occupied by the Spaniards, and in 1688-1689 +it was stormed and burned by the French, the fortifications being razed. +In 1697 it was reconstituted as a town, and under the elector Charles +Theodore it became the capital of the Palatinate. From 1798 to 1814 it +was incorporated in the French department of Mont Tonnerre. + + See Wille, _Stadt u. Festung Frankenthal waehrend des dreissigjaehrigen + Krieges_ (Heidelberg, 1877); Hildenbrand, Gesch. _der Stadt + Frankenthal_ (1893). For the porcelain see Heuser, _Frankenthaler + Gruppen und Figuren_ (Spires, 1899). + + + + +FRANKENWALD, a mountainous district of Germany, forming the geological +connexion between the Fichtelgebirge and the Thuringian Forest. It is a +broad well-wooded plateau, running for about 30 m. in a north-westerly +direction, descending gently on the north and eastern sides towards the +Saale, but more precipitously to the Bavarian plain in the west, and +attaining its highest elevation in the Kieferle near Steinheid (2900 +ft.). Along the centre lies the watershed between the basins of the Main +and the Saale, belonging to the systems of the Rhine and Elbe +respectively. The principal tributaries of the Main from the Frankenwald +are the Rodach and Hasslach, and of the Saale, the Selbitz. + + See H. Schmid, _Fuehrer durch den Frankenwald_ (Bamberg, 1894); Meyer, + _Thueringen und der Frankenwald_ (15th ed., Leipzig, 1900), and Guembel, + _Geognostische Beschreibung des Fichtelgebirges mit dem Frankenwald_ + (Gotha, 1879). + + + + +FRANKFORT, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Indiana, +U.S.A., 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 5919; (1900) 7100 (144 +foreign-born); (1910) 8634. Frankfort is served by the Chicago, +Indianapolis & Louisville, the Lake Erie & Western, the Vandalia, and +the Toledo, St Louis & Western railways, and by the Indianapolis & +North-Western Traction Interurban railway (electric). The city is a +division point on the Toledo, St Louis & Western railway, which has +large shops here. Frankfort is a trade centre for an agricultural and +lumbering region; among its manufactures are handles, agricultural +implements and foundry products. The first settlement in the +neighbourhood was made in 1826; in 1830 the town was founded, and in +1875 it was chartered as a city. The city limits were considerably +extended immediately after 1900. + + + + +FRANKFORT, the capital city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Franklin county, on the Kentucky river, about 55 m. E. of Louisville. +Pop. (1890) 7892; (1900) 9487, of whom 3316 were negroes; (1910 census) +10,465. The city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Louisville & +Nashville, and the Frankfort & Cincinnati railways, by the Central +Kentucky Traction Co. (electric), and by steamboat lines to Cincinnati, +Louisville and other river ports. It is built among picturesque hills on +both sides of the river, and is in the midst of the famous Kentucky +"blue grass region" and of a rich lumber-producing region. The most +prominent building is the Capitol, about 400 ft. long and 185 ft. wide, +built of granite and white limestone in the Italian Renaissance style, +with 70 large Ionic columns, and a dome 205 ft. above the terrace line, +supported by 24 other columns. The Capitol was built in 1905-1907 at a +cost of more than $2,000,000; in it are housed the state library and the +library of the Kentucky State Historical Society. At Frankfort, also, +are the state arsenal, the state penitentiary and the state home for +feeble-minded children, and just outside the city limits is the state +coloured normal school. The old capitol (first occupied in 1829) is +still standing. In Franklin cemetery rest the remains of Daniel Boone +and of Theodore O'Hara (1820-1867), a lawyer, soldier, journalist and +poet, who served in the U.S. army in 1846-1848 during the Mexican War, +took part in filibustering expeditions to Cuba, served in the +Confederate army, and is best known as the author of "The Bivouac of the +Dead," a poem written for the burial in Frankfort of some soldiers who +had lost their lives at Buena Vista. Here also are the graves of Richard +M. Johnson, vice-president of the United States in 1837-1841, and the +sculptor Joel T. Hart (1810-1877). The city has a considerable trade +with the surrounding country, in which large quantities of tobacco and +hemp are produced; its manufactures include lumber, brooms, chairs, +shoes, hemp twine, canned vegetables and glass bottles. The total value +of the city's factory product in 1905 was $1,747,338, being 31.6% more +than in 1900. Frankfort (said to have been named after Stephen Frank, +one of an early pioneer party ambushed here by Indians) was founded in +1786 by General James Wilkinson, then deeply interested in trade with +the Spanish at New Orleans, and in the midst of his Spanish intrigues. +In 1792 the city was made the capital of the state. In 1862, during the +famous campaign in Kentucky of General Braxton Bragg (Confederate) and +General D. C. Buell (Federal), Frankfort was occupied for a short time +by Bragg, who, just before being forced out by Buell, took part in the +inauguration of Richard J. Hawes, chosen governor by the Confederates of +the state. Hawes, however, never discharged the duties of his office. +During the bitter contest for the governorship in 1900 between William +Goebel (Democrat) and William S. Taylor (Republican), each of whom +claimed the election, Goebel was assassinated at Frankfort. (See also +KENTUCKY.) Frankfort received a city charter in 1839. + + + + +FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN (Ger. _Frankfurt am Main_), a city of Germany, in the +Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, principally on the right bank of the +Main, 24 m. above its confluence with the Rhine at Mainz, and 16 m. N. +from Darmstadt. Always a place of great trading importance, long the +place of election for the German kings, and until 1866, together with +Hamburg, Bremen and Luebeck, one of the four free cities of Germany, it +still retains its position as one of the leading commercial centres of +the German empire. Its situation in the broad and fertile valley of the +Main, the northern horizon formed by the soft outlines of the Taunus +range, is one of great natural beauty, the surrounding country being +richly clad with orchard and forest. + +Frankfort is one of the most interesting, as it is also one of the +wealthiest, of German cities. Apart from its commercial importance, its +position, close to the fashionable watering-places of Homburg, Nauheim +and Wiesbaden, has rendered it "cosmopolitan" in the best sense of the +term. The various stages in the development of the city are clearly +indicated in its general plan and the surviving names of many of its +streets. The line of the original 12th century walls and moat is marked +by the streets of which the names end in _-graben_, from the +Hirschgraben on the W. to the Wollgraben on the E. The space enclosed by +these and by the river on the S. is known as the "old town" +(_Altstadt_). The so-called "new town" (_Neustadt_), added in 1333, +extends to the _Anlagen_, the beautiful gardens and promenades laid out +(1806-1812) on the site of the 17th century fortifications, of which +they faithfully preserve the general ground plan. Of the medieval +fortifications the picturesque Eschenheimer Tor, a round tower 155 ft. +high, dating from 1400 to 1428, the Rententurm (1456) on the Main and +the Kuhhirtenturm (_c._ 1490) in Sachsenhausen, are the sole remains. +Since the demolition of the fortifications the city has greatly +expanded. Sachsenhausen on the south bank of the river, formerly the +seat of a commandery of the Teutonic Order (by treaty with Austria in +1842 all property and rights of the order in Frankfort territory were +sold to the city, except the church and house), is now a quarter of the +city. In other directions also the expansion has been rapid; the village +of Bornheim was incorporated in Frankfort in 1877, the former Hessian +town of Bockenheim in 1895, and the suburbs of Niederrad, Oberrad and +Seckbach in 1900. + +The main development of the city has been to the north of the river, +which is crossed by numerous bridges and flanked by fine quays and +promenades. The Altstadt, though several broad streets have been opened +through it, still preserves many of its narrow alleys and other medieval +features. The Judengasse (Ghetto), down to 1806 the sole Jews' quarter, +has been pulled down, with the exception of the ancestral house of the +Rothschild family--No. 148--which has been restored and retains its +ancient facade. As the Altstadt is mainly occupied by artisans and petty +tradesmen, so the Neustadt is the principal business quarter of the +city, containing the chief public buildings and the principal hotels. +The main arteries of the city are the Zeil, a broad street running from +the Friedberger Anlage to the Rossmarkt and thence continued, by the +Kaiserstrasse, through the fine new quarter built after 1872, to the +magnificent principal railway station; and the Steinweg and +Goethestrasse, which lead by the Bockenheimer Tor to the Bockenheimer +Landstrasse, a broad boulevard intersecting the fashionable residential +suburb to the N.W. + +_Churches._--The principal ecclesiastical building in Frankfort is the +cathedral (Dom). Built of red sandstone, with a massive tower +terminating in a richly ornamented cupola and 300 ft. in height, it is +the most conspicuous object in the city. This building, in which the +Roman emperors were formerly elected and, since 1562, crowned, was +founded in 852 by King Louis the German, and was later known as the +Salvator Kirche. After its reconstruction (1235-1239), it was dedicated +to St Bartholomew. From this period date the nave and the side aisles; +the choir was completed in 1315-1338 and the long transepts in +1346-1354. The cloisters were rebuilt in 1348-1447, and the electoral +chapel, on the south of the choir, was completed in 1355. The tower was +begun in 1415, but remained unfinished. On the 15th of August 1867 the +tower and roof were destroyed by fire and considerable damage was done +to the rest of the edifice. The restoration was immediately taken in +hand, and the whole work was finished in 1881, including the completion +of the tower, according to the plans of the 15th century architect, Hans +von Ingelheim. In the interior is the tomb of the German king Guenther of +Schwarzburg, who died in Frankfort in 1349, and that of Rudolph, the +last knight of Sachsenhausen, who died in 1371. Among the other Roman +Catholic churches are the Leonhardskirche, the Liebfrauenkirche (church +of Our Lady) and the Deutschordenskirche (14th century) in +Sachsenhausen. The Leonhardskirche (restored in 1882) was begun in 1219, +it is said on the site of the palace of Charlemagne. It was originally a +three-aisled basilica, but is now a five-aisled _Hallenkirche_; the +choir was added in 1314. It has two Romanesque towers. The +Liebfrauenkirche is first mentioned in 1314 as a collegiate church; the +nave was consecrated in 1340. The choir was added in 1506-1509 and the +whole church thoroughly restored in the second half of the 18th century, +when the tower was built (1770). Of the Protestant churches the oldest +is the Nikolaikirche, which dates from the 13th century; the fine +cast-iron spire erected in 1843 had to be taken down in 1901. The +Paulskirche, the principal Evangelical (Lutheran) church, built between +1786 and 1833, is a red sandstone edifice of no architectural +pretensions, but interesting as the seat of the national parliament of +1848-1849. The Katharinenkirche, built 1678-1681 on the site of an older +building, is famous in Frankfort history as the place where the first +Protestant sermon was preached in 1522. Among the more noteworthy of the +newer Protestant churches are the Peterskirche (1892-1895) in the North +German Renaissance style, with a tower 256 ft. high, standing north from +the Zeil, the Christuskirche (1883) and the Lutherkirche (1889-1893). An +English church, in Early English Gothic style, situated adjacent to the +Bockenheimer Landstrasse, was completed and consecrated in 1906. + +Of the five synagogues, the chief (or Hauptsynagoge), lying in the +Boernestrasse, is an attractive building of red sandstone in the +Moorish-Byzantine style. + +_Public Buildings._--Of the secular buildings in Frankfort, the Roemer, +for almost five hundred years the Rathaus (town hall) of the city, is of +prime historical interest. It lies on the Roemerberg, a square flanked by +curious medieval houses. It is first mentioned in 1322, was bought with +the adjacent hostelry in 1405 by the city and rearranged as a town hall, +and has since, from time to time, been enlarged by the purchase of +adjoining patrician houses, forming a complex of buildings of various +styles and dates surmounted by a clock tower. The facade was rebuilt +(1896-1898) in late Gothic style. It was here, in the Wahlzimmer (or +election-chamber) that the electors or their plenipotentiaries chose the +German kings, and here in the Kaisersaal (emperors' hall) that the +coronation festival was held, at which the new king or emperor dined +with the electors after having shown himself from the balcony to the +people. The Kaisersaal retained its antique appearance until 1843, when, +as also again in 1904, it was restored and redecorated; it is now +furnished with a series of modern paintings representing the German +kings and Roman emperors from Charlemagne to Francis II., in all +fifty-two, and a statue of the first German emperor, William I. New +municipal buildings adjoining the "Roemer" on the north side were erected +in 1900-1903 in German Renaissance style, with a handsome tower 220 ft. +high; beneath it is a public wine-cellar, and on the first storey a +grand municipal hall. The palace of the princes of Thurn and Taxis in +the Eschenheimer Gasse was built (1732-1741) from the designs of Robert +de Cotte, chief architect to Louis XIV. of France. From 1806 to 1810 it +was the residence of Karl von Dalberg, prince-primate of the +Confederation of the Rhine, with whose dominions Frankfort had been +incorporated by Napoleon. From 1816 to 1866 it was the seat of the +German federal diet. It is now annexed to the principal post office +(built 1892-1894), which lies close to it on the Zeil. The Saalhof, +built on the site of the palace erected by Louis the Pious in 822, +overlooking the Main, has a chapel of the 12th century, the substructure +dating from Carolingian times. This is the oldest building in Frankfort. +The facade of the Saalhof in the Saalgasse dates from 1604, the southern +wing with the two gables from 1715 to 1717. Of numerous other medieval +buildings may be mentioned the Leinwandhaus (linendrapers' hall), a 15th +century building reconstructed in 1892 as a municipal museum. In the +Grosser Hirschgraben is the Goethehaus, a 16th century building which +came into the possession of the Goethe family in 1733. Here Goethe lived +from his birth in 1749 until 1775. In 1863 the house was acquired by the +_Freies deutsche Hochstift_ and was opened to the public. It has been +restored, from Goethe's account of it in _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, as +nearly as possible to its condition in the poet's day, and is now +connected with a Goethemuseum (1897), with archives and a library of +25,000 volumes representative of the Goethe period of German literature. + +_Literary and Scientific Institutions._--Few cities of the same size as +Frankfort are so richly endowed with literary, scientific and artistic +institutions, or possess so many handsome buildings appropriated to +their service. The opera-house, erected near the Bockenheimer Tor in +1873-1880, is a magnificent edifice in the style of the Italian +Renaissance and ranks among the finest theatres in Europe. There are +also a theatre (_Schauspielhaus_) in modern Renaissance style +(1899-1902), devoted especially to drama, a splendid concert hall +(_Saalbau_), opened in 1861, and numerous minor places of theatrical +entertainment. The public picture gallery in the Saalhof possesses works +by Hans Holbein, Gruenewald, Van Dyck, Teniers, Van der Neer, Hans von +Kulmbach, Lucas Cranach and other masters. The Staedel Art Institute +(Staedel'sches Kunstinstitut) in Sachsenhausen, founded by the banker J. +F. Staedel in 1816, contains a picture gallery and a cabinet of +engravings extremely rich in works of German art. The municipal library, +with 300,000 volumes, boasts among its rarer treasures a Gutenberg +Bible printed at Mainz between 1450 and 1455, another on parchment dated +1462, the _Institutiones Justiniani_ (Mainz, 1468), the _Theuerdank_, +with woodcuts by Hans Schaeufelein, and numerous valuable autographs. It +also contains a fine collection of coins. The Bethmann Museum owes its +celebrity principally to Dannecker's "Ariadne," but it also possesses +the original plaster model of Thorwaldsen's "Entrance of Alexander the +Great into Babylon." There may also be mentioned the Industrial Art +Exhibition of the Polytechnic Association and two conservatories of +music. Among the scientific institutions the first place belongs to the +_Senckenberg'sches naturhistorische Museum_, containing valuable +collections of birds and shells. Next must be mentioned the Kunstgewerbe +(museum of arts and crafts) and the Musical Museum, with valuable MSS. +and portraits. Besides the municipal library (_Stadtbibliothek_) +mentioned above there are three others of importance, the Rothschild, +the Senckenberg and the Jewish library (with a well-appointed +reading-room). There are numerous high-grade schools, musical and other +learned societies and excellent hospitals. The last include the large +municipal infirmary and the Senckenberg'sches Stift, a hospital and +almshouses founded by a doctor, Johann C. Senckenberg (d. 1772). The +Royal Institute for experimental therapeutics (_Koenigl. Institut fuer +experimentelle Therapie_), moved to Frankfort in 1899, attracts numerous +foreign students, and is especially concerned with the study of +bacteriology and serums. + +_Bridges._--Seven bridges (of which two are railway) cross the Main. The +most interesting of these is the Alte Mainbruecke, a red sandstone +structure of fourteen arches, 815 ft. long, dating from the 14th +century. On it are a mill, a statue of Charlemagne and an iron crucifix +surmounted by a gilded cock. The latter commemorates, according to +tradition, the fowl which was the first living being to cross the bridge +and thus fell a prey to the devil, who in hope of a nobler victim had +sold his assistance to the architect. Antiquaries, however, assert that +it probably marks the spot where criminals were in olden times flung +into the river. Other bridges are the Obermainbruecke of five iron +arches, opened in 1878; an iron foot (suspension) bridge, the +Untermainbruecke; the Wilhelmsbruecke, a fine structure, which from 1849 +to 1890 served as a railway bridge and was then opened as a road bridge; +and two new iron bridges at Gutleuthof and Niederrad (below the city), +which carry the railway traffic from the south to the north bank of the +Main, where all lines converge in a central station of the Prussian +state railways. This station, which was built in 1883-1888 and has +replaced the three stations belonging to private companies, which +formerly stood in juxtaposition on the Anlagen (or promenades) near the +Mainzer Tor, lies some half-mile to the west. The intervening ground +upon which the railway lines and buildings stood was sold for building +sites, the sum obtained being more than sufficient to cover the cost of +the majestic central terminus (the third largest in the world), which, +in addition to spacious and handsome halls for passenger accommodation, +has three glass-covered spans of 180 ft. width each. Yet the exigencies +of traffic demand further extensions, and another large station was in +1909 in process of construction at the east end of the city, devised to +receive the local traffic of lines running eastward, while a through +station for the north to south traffic was projected on a site farther +west of the central terminus. + +Frankfort lies at the junction of lines of railway connecting it +directly with all the important cities of south and central Germany. +Here cross and unite the lines from Berlin to Basel, from Cologne to +Wuerzburg and Vienna, from Hamburg and Cassel, and from Dresden and +Leipzig to France and Switzerland. The river Main has been dredged so as +to afford heavy barge traffic with the towns of the upper Main and with +the Rhine, and cargo boats load and unload alongside its busy quays. A +well-devised system of electric tramways provides for local +communication within the city and with the outlying suburbs. + +_Trade, Commerce and Industries._--Frankfort has always been more of a +commercial than an industrial town, and though of late years it has +somewhat lost its pre-eminent position as a banking centre it has +counterbalanced the loss in increased industrial development. The +suburbs of Sachsenhausen and Bockenheim have particularly developed +considerable industrial activity, especially in publishing and printing, +brewing and the manufacture of quinine. Other sources of employment are +the cutting of hair for making hats, the production of fancy goods, +type, machinery, soap and perfumery, ready-made clothing, chemicals, +electro-technical apparatus, jewelry and metal wares. Market gardening +is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood and cider largely +manufactured. There are two great fairs held in the town,--the +Ostermesse, or spring fair, and the Herbstmesse, or autumn fair. The +former, which was the original nucleus of all the commercial prosperity +of the city, begins on the second Wednesday before Easter; and the +latter on the second Wednesday before the 8th of September. They last +three weeks, and the last day save one, called the _Nickelchestag_, is +distinguished by the influx of people from the neighbouring country. The +trade in leather is of great and growing importance. A horse fair has +been held twice a year since 1862 under the patronage of the +agricultural society; and the wool market was reinstituted in 1872 by +the German Trade Society (Deutscher Handelsverein). Frankfort has long +been famous as one of the principal banking centres of Europe, and is +now only second to Berlin, in this respect, among German cities, and it +is remarkable for the large business that is done in government stock. +In the 17th century the town was the seat of a great book-trade; but it +has long been distanced in this department by Leipzig. The _Frankfurter +Journal_ was founded in 1615, the _Postzeitung_ in 1616, the _Neue +Frankfurter Zeitung_ in 1859, and the _Frankfurter Presse_ in 1866. + +Of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in Frankfort is +that erected in 1858 in honour of the early German printers. It was +modelled by Ed. von der Launitz and executed by Herr von Kreis. The +statues of Gutenberg, Fust and Schoeffer form a group on the top; an +ornamented frieze presents medallions of a number of famous printers; +below these are figures representing the towns of Mainz, Strassburg, +Venice and Frankfort; and on the corners of the pedestal are allegorical +statues of theology, poetry, science and industry. The statue of Goethe +(1844) in the Goetheplatz is by Ludwig von Schwanthaler. The Schiller +statue, erected in 1863, is the work of a Frankfort artist, Johann +Dielmann. A monument in the Bockenheim Anlage, dated 1837, preserves the +memory of Guiollett, the burgomaster, to whom the town is mainly +indebted for the beautiful promenades which occupy the site of the old +fortifications; and similar monuments have been reared to Senckenberg +(1863), Schopenhauer, Klemens Brentano the poet and Samuel Thomas +Soemmerring (1755-1830), the anatomist and inventor of an electric +telegraph. In the Opernplatz is an equestrian statue of the emperor +Wilhelm I. by Buscher. + +_Cemeteries._--The new cemetery (opened in 1828) contains the graves of +Arthur Schopenhauer and Feuerbach, of Passavant the biographer of +Raphael, Ballenberger the artist, Hessemer the architect, Soemmerring, +and Johann Friedrich Boehmer the historian. The Bethmann vault attracts +attention by three bas-reliefs from the chisel of Thorwaldsen; and the +Reichenbach mausoleum is a vast pile designed by Hessemer at the command +of William II. of Hesse, and adorned with sculptures by Zwerger and von +der Lausitz. In the Jewish section, which is walled off from the rest of +the burying-ground, the most remarkable tombs are those of the +Rothschild family. + +_Parks._--In addition to the park in the south-western district, +Frankfort possesses two delightful pleasure grounds, which attract large +numbers of visitors, the Palmengarten in the west and the zoological +garden in the east of the city. The former is remarkable for the +collection of palms purchased in 1868 from the deposed duke Adolph of +Nassau. + +_Government._--The present municipal constitution of the city dates from +1867 and presents some points of difference from the ordinary Prussian +system. Bismarck was desirous of giving the city, in view of its former +freedom, a more liberal constitution than is usual in ordinary cases. +Formerly fifty-four representatives were elected, but provision was made +(in the constitution) for increasing the number, and they at present +number sixty-four, elected for six years. Every two years a third of the +number retire, but they are eligible for re-election. These sixty-four +representatives elect twenty town-councillors, ten of whom receive a +salary and ten do not. The chief burgomaster (Oberbuergermeister) is +nominated by the emperor for twelve years, and the second burgomaster +must receive the emperor's approval. + +Since 1885 the city has been supplied with water of excellent quality +from the Stadtwald, Goldstein and Hinkelstein, and the favourable +sanitary condition of the town is seen in the low death rate. + +_Population._--The population of Frankfort has steadily increased since +the beginning of the 19th century; it amounted in 1817 to 41,458; (1840) +55,269; (1864) 77,372; (1871) 59,265; (1875) 103,136; (1890) 179,985; +and (1905), including the incorporated suburban districts, 334,951, of +whom 175,909 were Protestants, 88,457 Roman Catholics and 21,974 Jews. + +_History._--Excavations around the cathedral have incontestably proved +that Frankfort-on-Main (_Trajectum ad Moenum_) was a settlement in Roman +times and was probably founded in the 1st century of the Christian era. +It may thus be accounted one of the earliest German--the so-called +"Roman"--towns. Numerous places in the valley of the Main are mentioned +in chronicles anterior to the time that Frankfort is first noticed. +Disregarding popular tradition, which connects the origin of the town +with a legend that Charlemagne, when retreating before the Saxons, was +safely conducted across the river by a doe, it may be asserted that the +first genuine historical notice of the town occurs in 793, when Einhard, +Charlemagne's biographer, tells us that he spent the winter in the villa +Frankonovurd. Next year there is mention more than once of a royal +palace here, and the early importance of the place is indicated by the +fact that in this year it was chosen as the seat of the ecclesiastical +council by which image-worship was condemned. The name Frankfort is also +found in several official documents of Charlemagne's reign; and from the +notices that occur in the early chronicles and charters it would appear +that the place was the most populous at least of the numerous villages +of the Main district. During the Carolingian period it was the seat of +no fewer than 16 imperial councils or colloquies. The town was probably +at first built on an island in the river. It was originally governed by +the royal officer or _actor dominicus_, and down even to the close of +the Empire it remained a purely imperial or royal town. It gradually +acquired various privileges, and by the close of the 14th century the +only mark of dependence was the payment of a yearly tax. Louis the Pious +dwelt more frequently at Frankfort than his father Charlemagne had done, +and about 823 he built himself a new palace, the basis of the later +Saalhof. In 822 and 823 two great diets were held in the palace, and at +the former there were present deputies from the eastern Slavs, the Avars +and the Normans. The place continued to be a favourite residence with +Louis the German, who died there in 876, and was the capital of the East +Frankish kingdom. By the rest of the Carolingian kings it was less +frequently visited, and this neglect was naturally greater during the +period of the Saxon and Salic emperors from 919 to 1137. Diets, however, +were held in the town in 951, 1015, 1069 and 1109, and councils in 1000 +and 1006. From a privilege of Henry IV., in 1074, granting the city of +Worms freedom from tax in their trade with several royal cities, it +appears that Frankfort was even then a place of some commercial +importance. + +Under the Hohenstaufens many brilliant diets were held within its walls. +That of 1147 saw, also, the first election of a German king at +Frankfort, in the person of Henry, son of Conrad III. But as the father +outlived the son, it was Frederick I., Barbarossa, who was actually the +first reigning king to be elected here (in 1152). With the beginning of +the 13th century the municipal constitution appears to have taken +definite shape. The chief official was the royal bailiff +(_Schultheiss_), who is first mentioned in 1193, and whose powers were +subsequently enlarged by the abolition, in 1219, of the office of the +royal _Vogt_ or _advocatus_. About this time a body of _Schoeffen_ +(_scabini_, jurats), fourteen in number, was formed to assist in the +control of municipal affairs, and with their appointment the first step +was taken towards civic representative government. Soon, however, the +activity of the _Schoeffen_ became specifically confined to the +determination of legal disputes, and in their place a new body +(_Collegium_) of counsellors--_Ratmannen_--also fourteen in number, was +appointed for the general administration of local matters. In 1311, the +two burgomasters, now chiefs of the municipality, take the place of the +royal _Schultheiss_. In the 13th century, the Frankfort Fair, which is +first mentioned in 1150, and the origin of which must have been long +anterior to that date, is referred to as being largely frequented. No +fewer than 10 new churches were erected in the years from 1220 to 1270. +It was about the same period, probably in 1240, that the Jews first +settled in the town. In the contest which Louis the Bavarian maintained +with the papacy Frankfort sided with the emperor, and it was +consequently placed under an interdict for 20 years from 1329 to 1349. +On Louis' death it refused to accept the papal conditions of pardon, and +only yielded to Charles IV., the papal nominee, when Guenther of +Schwarzburg thought it more prudent to abdicate in his favour. Charles +granted the city a full amnesty, and confirmed its liberties and +privileges. + +By the famous Golden Bull of 1356 Frankfort was declared the seat of the +imperial elections, and it still preserves an official contemporaneous +copy of the original document as the most precious of the eight imperial +bulls in its possession. From the date of the bull to the close of the +Empire Frankfort retained the position of "Wahlstadt," and only five of +the two-and-twenty monarchs who ruled during that period were elected +elsewhere. In 1388-1389 Frankfort assisted the South German towns in +their wars with the princes and nobles (the Staedtekrieg), and in a +consequent battle with the troops of the Palatinate, the town banner was +lost and carried to Kronberg, where it was long preserved as a trophy. +On peace being concluded in 1391, the town had to pay 12,562 florins, +and this brought it into great financial difficulties. In the course of +the next 50 years debt was contracted to the amount of 126,772 florins. +The diet at Worms in 1495 chose Frankfort as the seat of the newly +instituted imperial chamber, or "_Reichskammergericht_," and it was not +till 1527 that the chamber was removed to Spires. At the Reformation +Frankfort heartily joined the Protestant party, and in consequence it +was hardly treated both by the emperor Charles V. and by the archbishop +of Mainz. It refused to subscribe the Augsburg Recess, but at the same +time it was not till 1536 that it was persuaded to join the League of +Schmalkalden. On the failure of this confederation it opened its gates +to the imperial general Bueren on the 29th of December 1546, although he +had passed by the city, which he considered too strong for the forces +under his command. The emperor was merciful enough to leave it in +possession of its privileges, but he inflicted a fine of 80,000 gold +gulden, and until October 1547 the citizens had to endure the presence +of from 8000 to 10,000 soldiers. This resulted in a pestilence which not +only lessened the population, but threatened to give the death-blow to +the great annual fairs; and at the close of the war it was found that it +had cost the city no less than 228,931 gulden. In 1552 Frankfort was +invested for three weeks by Maurice of Saxony, who was still in arms +against the emperor Charles V., but it continued to hold out till peace +was concluded between the principal combatants. Between 1612 and 1616 +occurred the great Fettmilch insurrection, perhaps the most remarkable +episode in the internal history of Frankfort. The magistracy had been +acquiring more and more the character of an oligarchy; all power was +practically in the hands of a few closely-related families; and the +gravest peculation and malversation took place without hindrance. The +ordinary citizens were roused to assert their rights, and they found a +leader in Vincenz Fettmilch, who carried the contest to dangerous +excesses, but lacked ability to bring it to a successful issue. An +imperial commission was ultimately appointed, and the three principal +culprits and several of their associates were executed in 1616. It was +not till 1801 that the last mouldering head of the Fettmilch company +dropped unnoticed from the Rententurm, the old tower near the bridge. In +the words of Dr Kriegk, _Geschichte von Frankfurt_, (1871), the +insurrection completely destroyed the political power of the gilds, gave +new strength to the supremacy of the patriciate, and brought no further +advantage to the rest of the citizens than a few improvements in the +organization and administration of the magistracy. The Jews, who had +been attacked by the popular party, were solemnly reinstated by imperial +command in all their previous privileges, and received full compensation +for their losses. + +During the Thirty Years' War Frankfort did not escape. In 1631 Gustavus +Adolphus garrisoned it with 600 men, who remained in possession till +they were expelled four years later by the imperial general Lamboy. In +1792 the citizens had to pay 2,000,000 gulden to the French general +Custine; and in 1796 Kleber exacted 8,000,000 francs. The independence +of Frankfort was brought to an end in 1806, on the formation of the +Confederation of the Rhine; and in 1810 it was made the capital of the +grand-duchy of Frankfort, which had an area of 3215 sq. m. with 302,100 +inhabitants, and was divided into the four districts of Frankfort, +Aschaffenburg, Fulda and Hanau. On the reconstitution of Germany in 1815 +it again became a free city, and in the following year it was declared +the seat of the German Confederation. In April 1833 occurred what is +known as the Frankfort Insurrection (Frankfurter Attentat), in which a +number of insurgents led by Georg Bunsen attempted to break up the diet. +The city joined the German Zollverein in 1836. During the revolutionary +period of 1848 the people of Frankfort, where the united German +parliament held its sessions, took a chief part in political movements, +and the streets of the town were more than once the scene of conflict. +In the war of 1866 they were on the Austrian side. On the 16th of July +the Prussian troops, under General Vogel von Falkenstein, entered the +town, and on the 18th of October it was formally incorporated with the +Prussian state. A fine of 6,000,000 florins was exacted. In 1871 the +treaty which concluded the Franco-German War was signed in the Swan +Hotel by Prince Bismarck and Jules Favre, and it is consequently known +as the peace of Frankfort. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Rittweger, _Frankfurt im Jahre 1848_ (1898); R. Jung, + _Das historische Archiv der Stadt Frankfurt_ (1897); A. Horne, + _Geschichte von Frankfurt_ (4th ed., 1903); H. Grotefend, _Quellen zur + Frankfuerter Geschichte_ (Frankfort, 1884-1888); J. C. von Fichard, + _Die Entstehung der Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (Frankfort, 1819); G. L. + Kriegk, _Geschichte von Frankfurt_ (Frankfort, 1871); J. F. Boehmer, + _Urkundenbuch der Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (new ed., 1901); B. Weber, + _Zur Reformationsgeschichte der freien Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (1895); + O. Speyer, _Die Frankfurter Revolution 1612-1616_ (1883); and L. + Woerl, _Guide to Frankfort_ (Leipzig, 1898). + + + + +FRANKFORT-ON-ODER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Brandenburg, 50 m. S.E. from Berlin on the main line of railway to +Breslau and at the junction of lines to Cuestrin, Posen and Grossenhain. +Pop. (1905) 64,943. The town proper lies on the left bank of the river +Oder and is connected by a stone bridge (replacing the old historical +wooden structure) 900 ft. long, with the suburb of Damm. The town is +agreeably situated and has broad and handsome streets, among them the +"Linden," a spacious avenue. Above, on the western side, and partly +lying on the site of the old ramparts, is the residential quarter, +consisting mainly of villas and commanding a fine prospect of the Oder +valley. Between this suburb and the town lies the park, in which is a +monument to the poet Ewald Christian von Kleist, who died here of wounds +received in the battle of Kunersdorf. Among the more important public +buildings must be noticed the Evangelical Marienkirche (Oberkirche), a +handsome brick edifice of the 13th century with five aisles, the Roman +Catholic church, the Rathhaus dating from 1607, and bearing on its +southern gable the device of a member of the Hanseatic League, the +government offices and the theatre. The university of Frankfort, founded +in 1506 by Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was removed to Breslau in +1811, and the academical buildings are now occupied by a school. To +compensate it for the loss of its university, Frankfort-on-Oder was long +the seat of the court of appeal for the province, but of this it was +deprived in 1879. There are several handsome public monuments, notably +that to Duke Leopold of Brunswick, who was drowned in the Oder while +attempting to save life, on the 27th of April 1785. The town has a large +garrison, consisting of nearly all arms. Its industries are +considerable, including the manufacture of machinery, metal ware, +chemicals, paper, leather and sugar. Situated on the high road from +Berlin to Silesia, and having an extensive system of water communication +by means of the Oder and its canals to the Vistula and the Elbe, and +being an important railway centre, it has a lively export trade, which +is further fostered by its three annual fairs, held respectively at +_Reminiscere_ (the second Sunday in Lent), St Margaret's day and at +Martinmas. In the neighbourhood are extensive coal fields. + +Frankfort-on-the-Oder owes its origin and name to a settlement of +Franconian merchants here, in the 13th century, on land conquered by the +margrave of Brandenburg from the Wends. In 1253 it was raised to the +rank of a town by the margrave John I. and borrowed from Berlin the +Magdeburg civic constitution. In 1379 it received from King Sigismund, +then margrave of Brandenburg, the right to free navigation of the Oder; +and from 1368 to about 1450 it belonged to the Hanseatic League. The +university, which is referred to above, was opened by the elector +Joachim I. in 1506, was removed in 1516 to Kottbus and restored again to +Frankfort in 1539, at which date the Reformation was introduced. It was +dispersed during the Thirty Years' War and again restored by the Great +Elector, but finally transferred to Breslau in 1811. + +Frankfort has suffered much from the vicissitudes of war. In the 15th +century it successfully withstood sieges by the Hussites (1429 and +1432), by the Poles (1450) and by the duke of Sagan (1477). In the +Thirty Years' War it was successively taken by Gustavus Adolphus (1631), +by Wallenstein (1633), by the elector of Brandenburg (1634), and again +by the Swedes, who held it from 1640 to 1644. During the Seven Years' +War it was taken by the Russians (1759). In 1812 it was occupied by the +French, who remained till March 1813, when the Russians marched in. + + See K. R. Hausen, _Geschichte der Universitaet und Stadt Frankfurt_ + (1806), and Bieder und Gurnik, _Bilder aus der Geschichte der Stadt + Frankfurt-an-der-Oder_ (1898). + + + + +FRANKINCENSE,[1] or OLIBANUM[2] (Gr. [Greek: libanotos], later [Greek: +thyos]; Lat., _tus_ or _thus_; Heb., _lebonah_;[3] Ar., _luban_;[4] +Turk., _ghyunluk_; Hind., _ganda-birosa_[5]), a gum-resin obtained from +certain species of trees of the genus _Boswellia_, and natural order +_Burseraceae_. The members of the genus are possessed of the following +characters:--Bark often papyraceous; leaves deciduous, compound, +alternate and imparipinnate, with leaflets serrate or entire; flowers in +racemes or panicles, white, green, yellowish or pink, having a small +persistent, 5-dentate calyx, 5 petals, 10 stamens, a sessile 3 to +5-chambered ovary, a long style, and a 3-lobed stigma; fruit trigonal or +pentagonal; and seed compressed. Sir George Birdwood (_Trans. Lin. Soc._ +xxvii., 1871) distinguishes five species of _Boswellia_: (A) _B. +thurifera_, Colebr. (_B. glabra_ and _B. serrata_, Roxb.), indigenous to +the mountainous tracts of central India and the Coromandel coast, and +_B. papyrifera_ (_Ploesslea floribunda_, Endl.) of Abyssinia, which, +though both thuriferous, are not known to yield any of the olibanum of +commerce; and (B) _B. Frereana_ (see ELEMI, vol. x. p. 259), _B. +Bhua-Dajiana_, and _B. Carterii_, the "Yegaar," "Mohr Add," and "Mohr +Madow" of the Somali country, in East Africa, the last species including +a variety, the "Maghrayt d'Sheehaz" of Hadramaut, Arabia, all of which +are sources of true frankincense or olibanum. The trees on the Somali +coast are described by Captain G. B. Kempthorne as growing, without +soil, out of polished marble rocks, to which they are attached by a +thick oval mass of substance resembling a mixture of lime and mortar: +the purer the marble the finer appears to be the growth of the tree. The +young trees, he states, furnish the most valuable gum, the older +yielding merely a clear glutinous fluid resembling copal varnish.[6] To +obtain the frankincense a deep incision is made in the trunk of the +tree, and below it a narrow strip of bark 5 in. in length is peeled off. +When the milk-like juice ("spuma pinguis," Pliny) which exudes has +hardened by exposure to the atmosphere, the incision is deepened. In +about three months the resin has attained the required degree of +consistency. The season for gathering lasts from May until the first +rains in September. The large clear globules are scraped off into +baskets, and the inferior quality that has run down the tree is +collected separately. The coast of south Arabia is yearly visited by +parties of Somalis, who pay the Arabs for the privilege of collecting +frankincense.[7] In the interior of the country about the plain of +Dhofar,[8] during the south-west monsoon, frankincense and other gums +are gathered by the Beni Gurrah Bedouins, and might be obtained by them +in much larger quantities; their lawlessness, however, and the lack of a +safe place of exchange or sale are obstacles to the development of +trade. (See C. Y. Ward, _The Gulf of Aden Pilot_, p. 117, 1863.) Much as +formerly in the region of Sakhalites in Arabia (the tract between Ras +Makalla and Ras Agab),[9] described by Arrian, so now on the sea-coast +of the Somali country, the frankincense when collected is stored in +heaps at various stations. Thence, packed in sheep- and goat-skins, in +quantities of 20 to 40 lb., it is carried on camels to Berbera, for +shipment either to Aden, Makalla and other Arabian ports, or directly to +Bombay.[10] At Bombay, like gum-acacia, it is assorted, and is then +packed for re-exportation to Europe, China and elsewhere.[11] Arrian +relates that it was an import of Barbarike on the Sinthus (Indus). The +idea held by several writers, including Niebuhr, that frankincense was a +product of India, would seem to have originated in a confusion of that +drug with benzoin and other odoriferous substances, and also in the sale +of imported frankincense with the native products of India. The gum +resin of _Boswellia thurifera_ was described by Colebrooke (in _Asiatick +Researches_, ix. 381), and after him by Dr J. Fleming (Ib. xi. 158), as +true frankincense, or olibanum; from this, however, it differs in its +softness, and tendency to melt into a mass[12] (Birdwood, _loc. cit._, +p. 146). It is sold in the village bazaars of Khandeish in India under +the name of _Dup-Salai_, i.e. incense of the "Salai tree"; and according +to Mr F. Porter Smith, M.B. (_Contrib. towards the Mat. Med. and Nat. +Hist, of China_, p. 162, Shanghai, 1871), is used as incense in China. +The last authority also mentions olibanum as a reputed natural product +of China. Bernhard von Breydenbach,[13] Ausonius, Florus and others, +arguing, it would seem, from its Hebrew and Greek names, concluded that +olibanum came from Mount Lebanon; and Chardin (_Voyage en Perse_, &c., +1711) makes the statement that the frankincense tree grows in the +mountains of Persia, particularly Caramania. + +Frankincense, or olibanum, occurs in commerce in semi-opaque, round, +ovate or oblong tears or irregular lumps, which are covered externally +with a white dust, the result of their friction against one another. It +has an amorphous internal structure, a dull fracture; is of a yellow to +yellowish-brown hue, the purer varieties being almost colourless, or +possessing a greenish tinge, and has a somewhat bitter aromatic taste, +and a balsamic odour, which is developed by heating. Immersed in alcohol +it becomes opaque, and with water it yields an emulsion. It contains +about 72% of resin soluble in alcohol (Kurbatow); a large proportion of +gum soluble in water, and apparently identical with gum arabic; and a +small quantity of a colourless inflammable essential oil, one of the +constituents of which is the body oliben, C10H16. Frankincense burns +with a bright white flame, leaving an ash consisting mainly of calcium +carbonate, the remainder being calcium phosphate, and the sulphate, +chloride and carbonate of potassium (Braconnot).[14] Good frankincense, +Pliny tells us, is recognized by its whiteness, size, brittleness and +ready inflammability. That which occurs in globular drops is, he says, +termed "male frankincense"; the most esteemed, he further remarks, is in +breast-shaped drops, formed each by the union of two tears.[15] The best +frankincense, as we learn from Arrian,[16] was formerly exported from +the neighbourhood of Cape Elephant in Africa (the modern Ras Fiel); and +A. von Kremer, in his description of the commerce of the Red Sea +(_Aegypten_, &c., p. 185, ii. Theil, Leipzig, 1863), observes that the +African frankincense, called by the Arabs "asli," is of twice the value +of the Arabian "luban." Captain S. B. Miles (_loc. cit._, p. 64) states +that the best kind of frankincense, known to the Somali as "bedwi" or +"sheheri," comes from the trees "Mohr Add" and "Mohr Madow" (_vide +supra_), and from a taller species of _Boswellia_, the "Boido," and is +sent to Bombay for exportation to Europe; and that an inferior "mayeti," +the produce of the "Yegaar," is exported chiefly to Jeddah and Yemen +ports.[17] The latter may possibly be what Niebuhr alludes to as "Indian +frankincense."[18] Garcias da Horta, in asserting the Arabian origin of +the drug, remarks that the term "Indian" is often applied by the Arabs +to a dark-coloured variety.[19] + +According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xiv. 1; cf. Ovid, _Fasti_ i. 337 sq.), +frankincense was not sacrificially employed in Trojan times. It was used +by the ancient Egyptians in their religious rites, but, as Herodotus +tells us (ii. 86), not in embalming. It constituted a fourth part of the +Jewish incense of the sanctuary (Ex. xxx. 34), and is frequently +mentioned in the Pentateuch. With other spices it was stored in a great +chamber of the house of God at Jerusalem (1 Chron. ix. 29, Neh. xiii. +5-9). On the sacrificial use and import of frankincense and similar +substances see INCENSE. + +In the Red Sea regions frankincense is valued not only for its sweet +odour when burnt, but as a masticatory; and blazing lumps of it are not +infrequently used for illumination instead of oil lamps. Its fumes are +an excellent insectifuge. As a medicine it was in former times in high +repute. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxv. 82) mentions it as an antidote to +hemlock. Avicenna (ed. Plempii, lib. ii. p. 161, Lovanii, 1658, fol.) +recommends it for tumours, ulcers of the head and ears, affections of +the breast, vomiting, dysentery and fevers. In the East frankincense has +been found efficacious as an external application in carbuncles, blind +boils and gangrenous sores, and as an internal agent is given in +gonorrhoea. In China it was an old internal remedy for leprosy and +struma, and is accredited with stimulant, tonic, sedative, astringent +and vulnerary properties. It is not used in modern medicine, being +destitute of any special virtues. (See Waring, _Pharm. of India_, p. +443, &c.; and F. Porter Smith, _op. cit._, p. 162.) + +Common frankincense or thus, _Abietis resina_, is the term applied to a +resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the Norway spruce fir, +_Abies excelsa_, D.C.; when melted in hot water and strained it +constitutes "Burgundy pitch," _Pix abietina_. The concreted turpentine +obtained in the United States by making incisions in the trunk of a +species of pine, _Pinus australis_, is also so designated. It is +commercially known as "scrape," and is similar to the French "galipot" +or "barras." Common frankincense is an ingredient in some ointments and +plasters, and on account of its pleasant odour when burned has been used +in incense as a substitute for olibanum. (See Flueckiger and Hanbury, +_Pharmacographia_.) The "black frankincense oil" of the Turks is stated +by Hanbury (_Science Papers_, p. 142, 1876) to be liquid storax. + (F. H. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Stephen Skinner, M.D. (Etymologicon linguae Anglicanae, Lond., + 1671), gives the derivation: "Frankincense, Thus, q.d. Incensum (i.e. + Thus Libere) seu Liberaliter, ut in sacris officiis par est, + adolendum." + + [2] "Sic _olibanum_ dixere pro thure ex Graeco [Greek: o libanos]" + (Salmasius, C. S. _Plinianae exercitationes_, t. ii. p. 926, b. F., + Traj. ad Rhen., 1689 fol.). So also Fuchs (Op. didact. pars. ii. p. + 42, 1604 fol.), "Officinis non sine risu eruditorum, Graeco articulo + adjecto, _Olibanus_ vocatur." The term _olibano_ was used in + ecclesiastical Latin as early as the pontificate of Benedict IX., in + the 11th century. (See Ferd. Ughellus, _Italia sacra_, tom. i. 108, + D., Ven., 1717 fol.) + + [3] So designated from its whiteness (J. G. Stuckius, _Sacror. et + sacrific. gent. descrip._, p. 79, Lugd. Bat., 1695, fol.; Kitto, + _Cycl. Bibl. Lit._ ii. p. 806, 1870); cf. _Laben_, the Somali name + for cream (R. F. Burton, _First Footsteps in E. Africa_, p. 178, + 1856). + + [4] Written _Louan_ by Garcias da Horta (_Aromat. et simpl. + medicament. hist., C. Clusii Atrebatis Exoticorum lib. sept._, p. + 157, 1605, fol.), and stated to have been derived by the Arabs from + the Greek name, the term less commonly used by them being _Conder_: + cf. Sanskrit _Kunda_. According to Colebrooke (in _Asiatick Res._ ix. + p. 379, 1807), the Hindu writers on Materia Medica use for the resin + of _Boswellia thurifera_ the designation _Cunduru_. + + [5] A term applied also to the resinous exudation of _Pinus + longifolia_ (see Dr E. J. Waring, _Pharmacopoeia of India_, p. 52, + Lond., 1868). + + [6] See "Appendix," vol. i. p. 419 of Sir W. C. Harris's _Highland of + Aethiopia_ (2nd ed., Lond., 1844); and _Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc._ + xiii. (1857), p. 136. + + [7] Cruttenden, _Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc._ vii. (1846), p. 121; S. B. + Miles, J. Geog. Soc. (1872). + + [8] Or Dhafar. The incense of "Dofar" is alluded to by Camoens, _Os + Lusiadas_, x. 201. + + [9] H. J. Carter, "Comparative Geog. of the South-East Coast of + Arabia," in _J. Bombay Branch of R. Asiatic Soc._ iii. (Jan. 1851), + p. 296; and Mueller, _Geog. Graeci Minores_, i. p. 278 (Paris, 1855). + + [10] J. Vaughan, _Pharm. Journ._ xii. (1853) pp. 227-229; and Ward, + _op. cit._ p. 97. + + [11] Pereira, _Elem. of Mat. Med._ ii. pt. 2, p. 380 (4th ed., 1847). + + [12] "_Boswellia thurifera_," ... says Waring (_Pharm. of India_, p. + 52), "has been thought to yield East Indian olibanum, but there is no + reliable evidence of its so doing." + + [13] "Libanus igitur est mons redolentie & summe aromaticitatis. nam + ibi herbe odorifere crescunt. ibi etiam arbores thurifere coalescunt + quarum gummi electum olibanum a medicis nuncupatur."--_Perigrinatio_, + p. 53 (1502, fol.). + + [14] See, on the chemistry of frankincense, Braconnot, _Ann. de + chimie_, lxviii. (1808) pp. 60-69; Johnston, _Phil. Trans_. (1839), + pp. 301-305; J. Stenhouse, _Ann. der Chem. und Pharm_. xxxv. (1840) + p. 306; and A. Kurbatow, _Zeitsch. fuer Chem_. (1871), p. 201. + + [15] "Praecipua autem gratia est mammoso, cum haerente lacryma priore + consecuta alia miscuit se" (_Nat. Hist._ xii. 32). One of the Chinese + names for frankincense, _Ju-hiang_, "milk-perfume," is explained by + the _Pen Ts'au_ (xxxiv. 45), a Chinese work, as being derived from + the nipple-like form of its drops. (See E. Bretschneider, _On the + Knowledge possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs_, &c., p. 19, + Lond., 1871.) + + [16] _The Voyage of Nearchus, loc. cit._ + + [17] Vaughan (_Pharm. Journ._ xii. 1853) speaks of the Arabian Luban, + commonly called _Morbat_ or _Shaharree Luban_, as realizing higher + prices in the market than any of the qualities exported from Africa. + The incense of "Esher," i.e. Shihr or Shehr, is mentioned by Marco + Polo, as also by Barbosa. (See Yule, _op. cit._ ii. p. 377.) J. + Raymond Wellsted (_Travels to the City of the Caliphs_, p. 173, + Lond., 1840) distinguishes two kinds of frankincense--"_Meaty_," + selling at $4 per cwt., and an inferior article fetching 20% less. + + [18] "Es scheint, dass selber die Araber ihr eignes Raeuchwerk nicht + hoch schaetzen; denn die Vornehmen in Jemen brauchen gemeiniglich + indianisches Raeuchwerk, ja eine grosse Menge Mastix von der Insel + Scio" (_Beschreibung von Arabien_, p. 143, Kopenh., 1772). + + [19] "De Arabibus minus mirum, qui nigricantem colorem, quo Thus + Indicum praeditum esse vult Dioscorides [lib. i. c. 70], Indum + plerumque vocent, ut ex Myrobalano nigro quem Indum appellant, patet" + (_op. sup. cit._ p. 157). + + + + +FRANKING, a term used for the right of sending letters or postal +packages free (Fr. _franc_) of charge. The privilege was claimed by the +House of Commons in 1660 in "a Bill for erecting and establishing a Post +Office," their demand being that all letters addressed to or sent by +members during the session should be carried free. The clause embodying +this claim was struck out by the Lords, but with the proviso in the Act +as passed for the free carriage of all letters to and from the king and +the great officers of state, and also the single inland letters of the +members of that present parliament during that session only. It seems, +however, that the practice was tolerated until 1764, when by an act +dealing with postage it was legalized, every peer and each member of the +House of Commons being allowed to send free ten letters a day, not +exceeding an ounce in weight, to any part of the United Kingdom, and to +receive fifteen. The act did not restrict the privilege to letters +either actually written by or to the member, and thus the right was very +easily abused, members sending and receiving letters for friends, all +that was necessary being the signature of the peer or M.P. in the corner +of the envelope. Wholesale franking grew usual, and M.P.'s supplied +their friends with envelopes already signed to be used at any time. In +1837 the scandal had become so great that stricter regulations came into +force. The franker had to write the full address, to which he had to add +his name, the post-town and the day of the month; the letter had to be +posted on the day written or the following day at the latest, and in a +post-town not more than 20 m. from the place where the peer or M.P. was +then living. On the 10th of January 1840 parliamentary franking was +abolished on the introduction of the uniform penny rate. + +In the United States the franking privilege was first granted in January +1776 to the soldiers engaged in the American War of Independence. The +right was gradually extended till it included nearly all officials and +members of the public service. By special acts the privilege was +bestowed on presidents and their widows. By an act of the 3rd of March +1845, franking was limited to the president, vice-president, members and +delegates in Congress and postmasters, other officers being required to +keep quarterly accounts of postage and pay it from their contingent +funds. In 1851 free exchange of newspapers was re-established. By an act +of the 3rd of March 1863 the privilege was granted the president and his +private secretary, the vice-president, chiefs of executive departments, +such heads of bureaus and chief clerks as might be designated by the +postmaster-general for official letters only; senators and +representatives in Congress for all correspondence, senders of petitions +to either branch of the legislature, and to publishers of newspapers for +their exchanges. There was a limit as to weight. Members of Congress +could also frank, in matters concerning the federal department of +agriculture, "seeds, roots and cuttings," the weight to be fixed by the +postmaster-general. This act remained in force till the 31st of January +1873, when franking was abolished. Since 1875, by sundry acts, franking +for official correspondence, government publications, seeds, &c., has +been allowed to congressmen, ex-congressmen (for 9 months after the +close of their term), congressmen-elect and other government officials. +By special acts of 1881, 1886, 1902, 1909, respectively, the franking +privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents Garfield, Grant, +McKinley and Cleveland. + + + + +FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST (1810-1894), Austrian poet. He took part in the +revolution of 1848, and his poems on liberty had considerable vogue. His +lyrics are among his best work. He was secretary of the Jewish community +in Vienna, and did a lasting service to education by his visit to the +Orient in 1856. He founded the first modern Jewish school (the Von +Laemmel Schule) in Jerusalem. His brilliant volumes _Nach Jerusalem_ +describing his eastern tour have been translated into English, as is the +case with many of his poems. His collected poems appeared in three +volumes in 1880. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD (1825-1899), English chemist, was born at +Churchtown, near Lancaster, on the 18th of January 1825. After attending +the grammar school at Lancaster he spent six years as an apprentice to a +druggist in that town. In 1845 he went to London and entered Lyon +Playfair's laboratory, subsequently working under R. W. Bunsen at +Marburg. In 1847 he was appointed science-master at Queenwood school, +Hampshire, where he first met J. Tyndall, and in 1851 first professor of +chemistry at Owens College, Manchester. Returning to London six years +later he became lecturer in chemistry at St Bartholomew's hospital, and +in 1863 professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. From an early +age he engaged in original research with great success. + +Analytical problems, such as the isolation of certain organic radicals, +attracted his attention to begin with, but he soon turned to synthetical +studies, and he was only about twenty-five years of age when an +investigation, doubtless suggested by the work of his master, Bunsen, on +cacodyl, yielded the interesting discovery of the organo-metallic +compounds. The theoretical deductions which he drew from the +consideration of these bodies were even more interesting and important +than the bodies themselves. Perceiving a molecular isonomy between them +and the inorganic compounds of the metals from which they may be formed, +he saw their true molecular type in the oxygen, sulphur or chlorine +compounds of those metals, from which he held them to be derived by the +substitution of an organic group for the oxygen, sulphur, &c. In this +way they enabled him to overthrow the theory of conjugate compounds, and +they further led him in 1852 to publish the conception that the atoms of +each elementary substance have a definite saturation capacity, so that +they can only combine with a certain limited number of the atoms of +other elements. The theory of valency thus founded has dominated the +subsequent development of chemical doctrine, and forms the groundwork +upon which the fabric of modern structural chemistry reposes. + +In applied chemistry Frankland's great work was in connexion with +water-supply. Appointed a member of the second royal commission on the +pollution of rivers in 1868, he was provided by the government with a +completely-equipped laboratory, in which, for a period of six years, he +carried on the inquiries necessary for the purposes of that body, and +was thus the means of bringing to light an enormous amount of valuable +information respecting the contamination of rivers by sewage, +trade-refuse, &c., and the purification of water for domestic use. In +1865, when he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann at the School of Mines, he +undertook the duty of making monthly reports to the registrar-general on +the character of the water supplied to London, and these he continued +down to the end of his life. At one time he was an unsparing critic of +its quality, but in later years he became strongly convinced of its +general excellence and wholesomeness. His analyses were both chemical +and bacteriological, and his dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue +for the former at the time of his appointment caused him to spend two +years in devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 he passed a +night on the very top of Mont Blanc in company with John Tyndall. One of +the purposes of the expedition was to discover whether the rate of +combustion of a candle varies with the density of the atmosphere in +which it is burnt, a question which was answered in the negative. Other +observations made by Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of +a series of experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed +that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was thereby +led to investigate the effect produced on luminous flames by varying the +pressure of the atmosphere in which they are burning. He found that +pressure increases luminosity, so that hydrogen, for example, the flame +of which in normal circumstances gives no light, burns with a luminous +flame under a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference +he drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only factor +that determines the light-giving power of a flame. Further, he showed +that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas resembles that of an +incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a gradual change in the +spectrum of an incandescent gas under increasing pressure, the sharp +lines observable when it is extremely attenuated broadening out to +nebulous bands as the pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous +spectrum as the gas approaches a density comparable with that of the +liquid state. An application of these results to solar physics in +conjunction with Sir Norman Lockyer led to the view that at least the +external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the liquid or +solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours. Frankland and +Lockyer were also the discoverers of helium. In 1868 they noticed in the +solar spectrum a bright yellow line which did not correspond to any +substance then known, and which they therefore attributed to the then +hypothetical element, helium. + +Sir Edward Frankland, who was made a K.C.B. in 1897, died on the 9th of +August 1899 while on a holiday at Golaa, Gudbrandsdalen, Norway. + + A memorial lecture delivered by Professor H. E. Armstrong before the + London Chemical Society on the 31st of October 1901 contained many + personal details of Frankland's life, together with a full discussion + of his scientific work; and a volume of _Autobiographical Sketches_ + was printed for private circulation in 1902. His original papers, down + to 1877, were collected and published in that year as _Experimental + Researches in Pure, Applied and Physical Chemistry_. + + + + +FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790), American diplomat, statesman and +scientist, was born on the 17th of January 1706 in a house in Milk +Street, opposite the Old South church, Boston, Massachusetts. He was the +tenth son of Josiah Franklin, and the eighth child and youngest son of +ten children borne by Abiah Folger, his father's second wife. The elder +Franklin was born at Ecton in Northamptonshire, England, where the +strongly Protestant Franklin family may be traced back for nearly four +centuries. He had married young and had migrated from Banbury to Boston, +Massachusetts, in 1685. Benjamin could not remember when he did not know +how to read, and when eight years old he was sent to the Boston grammar +school, being destined by his father for the church as a tithe of his +sons. He spent a year there and a year in a school for writing and +arithmetic, and then at the age of ten he was taken from school to +assist his father in the business of a tallow-chandler and soapboiler. +In his thirteenth year he was apprenticed to his half-brother James, who +was establishing himself in the printing business, and who in 1721 +started the _New England Courant_, one of the earliest newspapers in +America. + +Benjamin's tastes had at first been for the sea rather than the pulpit; +now they inclined rather to intellectual than to other pleasures. At an +early age he had made himself familiar with _The Pilgrim's Progress_, +with Locke, _On the Human Understanding_, and with a volume of _The +Spectator_. Thanks to his father's excellent advice, he gave up writing +doggerel verse (much of which had been printed by his brother and sold +on the streets) and turned to prose composition. His success in +reproducing articles he had read in _The Spectator_ led him to write an +article for his brother's paper, which he slipped under the door of the +printing shop with no name attached, and which was printed and attracted +some attention. After repeated successes of the same sort Benjamin threw +off his disguise and contributed regularly to the _Courant_. When, after +various journalistic indiscretions, James Franklin in 1722 was forbidden +to publish the _Courant_, it appeared with Benjamin's name as that of +the publisher and was received with much favour, chiefly because of the +cleverness of his articles signed "Dr Janus," which, like those +previously signed "Mistress Silence Dogood," gave promise of "Poor +Richard." But Benjamin's management of the paper, and particularly his +free-thinking, displeased the authorities; the relations of the two +brothers gradually grew unfriendly, possibly, as Benjamin thought, +because of his brother's jealousy of his superior ability; and Benjamin +determined to quit his brother's employ and to leave New England. He +made his way first to New York City, and then (October 1723) to +Philadelphia, where he got employment with a printer named Samuel +Keimer.[1] + +A rapid composer and a workman full of resource, Franklin was soon +recognized as the master spirit of the shop. Sir William Keith +(1680-1749), governor of the province, urged him to start in business +for himself, and when Franklin had unsuccessfully appealed to his father +for the means to do so, Keith promised to furnish him with what he +needed for the equipment of a new printing office and sent him to +England to buy the materials. Keith had repeatedly promised to send a +letter of credit by the ship on which Franklin sailed, but when the +Channel was reached and the ship's mails were examined no such letter +was found. Franklin reached London in December 1724, and found +employment first at Palmer's, a famous printing house in Bartholomew +Close, and afterwards at Watts's Printing House. At Palmer's he had set +up a second edition of Wollaston's _Religion of Nature Delineated_. To +refute this book and to prove that there could be no such thing as +religion, he wrote and printed a small pamphlet, _A Dissertation on +Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain_, which brought him some +curious acquaintances, and of which he soon became thoroughly ashamed. +After a year and a half in London, Franklin was persuaded by a friend +named Denham, a Quaker merchant, to return with him to America and +engage in mercantile business; he accordingly gave up printing, but a +few days before sailing he received a tempting offer to remain and give +lessons in swimming--his feats as a swimmer having given him +considerable reputation--and he says that he might have consented "had +the overtures been sooner made." He reached Philadelphia in October +1726, but a few months later Denham died, and Franklin was induced by +large wages to return to his old employer Keimer; with Keimer he +quarrelled repeatedly, thinking himself ill used and kept only to train +apprentices until they could in some degree take his place. In 1728 +Franklin and Hugh Meredith, a fellow-worker at Keimer's, set up in +business for themselves; the capital being furnished by Meredith's +father. In 1730 the partnership was dissolved, and Franklin, through the +financial assistance of two friends, secured the sole management of the +printing house. In September 1729 he bought at a merely nominal price +_The Pennsylvania Gazette_, a weekly newspaper which Keimer had started +nine months before to defeat a similar project of Franklin's, and which +Franklin conducted until 1765. Franklin's superior management of the +paper, his new type, "some spirited remarks" on the controversy between +the Massachusetts assembly and Governor Burnet, brought his paper into +immediate notice, and his success both as a printer and as a journalist +was assured and complete. In 1731 he established in Philadelphia one of +the earliest circulating libraries in America (often said to have been +the earliest), and in 1732 he published the first of his Almanacks, +under the pseudonym of Richard Saunders. These "Poor Richard's +Almanacks" were issued for the next twenty-five years with remarkable +success, the annual sale averaging 10,000 copies, and far exceeding the +sale of any other publication in the colonies. + +Beginning in 1733 Franklin taught himself enough French, Italian, +Spanish and Latin to read these languages with some ease. In 1736 he was +chosen clerk of the General Assembly, and served in this capacity until +1751. In 1737 he had been appointed postmaster at Philadelphia, and +about the same time he organized the first police force and fire company +in the colonies; in 1749, after he had written _Proposals Relating to +the Education of Youth in Pensilvania_, he and twenty-three other +citizens of Philadelphia formed themselves into an association for the +purpose of establishing an academy, which was opened in 1751, was +chartered in 1753, and eventually became the University of Pennsylvania; +in 1727 he organized a debating club, the "Junto," in Philadelphia, and +later he was one of the founders of the American Philosophical Society +(1743; incorporated 1780); he took the lead in the organization of a +militia force, and in the paving of the city streets, improved the +method of street lighting, and assisted in the founding of a city +hospital (1751); in brief, he gave the impulse to nearly every measure +or project for the welfare and prosperity of Philadelphia undertaken in +his day. In 1751 he became a member of the General Assembly of +Pennsylvania, in which he served for thirteen years. In 1753 he and +William Hunter were put in charge of the post service of the colonies, +which he brought in the next ten years to a high state of efficiency and +made a financial success; this position he held until 1774. He visited +nearly every post office in the colonies and increased the mail service +between New York and Philadelphia from once to three times a week in +summer, and from twice a month to once a week in winter. When war with +France appeared imminent in 1754, Franklin was sent to the Albany +Convention, where he submitted his plan for colonial union (see ALBANY, +N.Y.). When the home government sent over General Edward Braddock[2] +with two regiments of British troops, Franklin undertook to secure the +requisite number of horses and waggons for the march against Ft. +Duquesne, and became personally responsible for payment to the +Pennsylvanians who furnished them. Notwithstanding the alarm occasioned +by Braddock's defeat, the old quarrel between the proprietors of +Pennsylvania and the assembly prevented any adequate preparations for +defence; "with incredible meanness" the proprietors had instructed their +governors to approve no act for levying the necessary taxes, unless the +vast estates of the proprietors were by the same act exempted. So great +was the confidence in Franklin in this emergency that early in 1756 the +governor of Pennsylvania placed him in charge of the north-western +frontier of the province, with power to raise troops, issue commissions +and erect blockhouses; and Franklin remained in the wilderness for over +a month, superintending the building of forts and watching the Indians. +In February 1757 the assembly, "finding the proprietary obstinately +persisted in manacling their deputies with instructions inconsistent not +only with the privileges of the people, but with the service of the +crown, resolv'd to petition the king against them," and appointed +Franklin as their agent to present the petition. He arrived in London on +the 27th of July 1757, and shortly afterwards, when, at a conference +with Earl Granville, president of the council, the latter declared that +"the King is the legislator of the colonies," Franklin in reply declared +that the laws of the colonies were to be made by their assemblies, to be +passed upon by the king, and when once approved were no longer subject +to repeal or amendment by the crown. As the assemblies, said he, could +not make permanent laws without the king's consent, "neither could he +make a law for them without theirs." This opposition of views distinctly +raised the issue between the home government and the colonies. As to the +proprietors Franklin succeeded in 1760 in securing an understanding that +the assembly should pass an act exempting from taxation the _unsurveyed_ +waste lands of the Penn estate, the surveyed waste lands being assessed +at the usual rate for other property of that description. Thus the +proprietors finally acknowledged the right of the assembly to tax their +estates. + +The success of Franklin's first foreign mission was, therefore, +substantial and satisfactory. During this sojourn of five years in +England he had made many valuable friends outside of court and political +circles, among whom Hume, Robertson and Adam Smith were conspicuous. In +1759, for his literary and more particularly his scientific attainments, +he received the freedom of the city of Edinburgh and the degree of +doctor of laws from the university of St Andrews. He had been made a +Master of Arts at Harvard and at Yale in 1753, and at the college of +William and Mary in 1756; and in 1762 he received the degree of D.C.L. +at Oxford. While in England he had made active use of his remarkable +talent for pamphleteering. In the clamour for peace following the death +of George II. (25th of October 1760), he was for a vigorous prosecution +of the war with France; he had written what purported to be a chapter +from an old book written by a Spanish Jesuit, _On the Meanes of +Disposing the Enemie to Peace_, which had a great effect; and in the +spring of 1760 there had been published a more elaborate paper written +by Franklin with the assistance of Richard Jackson, agent of +Massachusetts and Connecticut in London, entitled _The Interest of Great +Britain Considered with Regard to Her Colonies, and the Acquisitions of +Canada and Guadeloupe_ (1760). This pamphlet answered the argument that +it would be unsafe to keep Canada because of the added strength that +would thus be given to any possible movement for independence in the +English colonies, by urging that so long as Canada remained French there +could be no safety for the English colonies in North America, nor any +permanent peace in Europe. Tradition reports that this pamphlet had +considerable weight in determining the ministry to retain Canada. + +Franklin sailed again for America in August 1762, hoping to be able to +settle down in quiet and devote the remainder of his life to experiments +in physics. This quiet was interrupted, however, by the "Paxton +Massacre" (Dec. 14, 1763)--the slaughter of a score of Indians +(children, women and old men) at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, by some young +rowdies from the town of Paxton, who then marched upon Philadelphia to +kill a few Christian Indians there. Franklin, appealed to by the +governor, raised a troop sufficient to frighten away the "Paxton boys," +and for the moment there seemed a possibility of an understanding +between Franklin and the proprietors. But the question of taxing the +estates of the proprietors came up in a new form, and a petition from +the assembly was drawn by Franklin, requesting the king "to resume the +government" of Pennsylvania. In the autumn election of 1764 the +influence of the proprietors was exerted against Franklin, and by an +adverse majority of 25 votes in 4000 he failed to be re-elected to the +assembly. The new assembly sent Franklin again to England as its special +agent to take charge of another petition for a change of government, +which, however, came to nothing. Matters of much greater consequence +soon demanded Franklin's attention. + +Early in 1764 Lord Grenville had informed the London agents of the +American colonies that he proposed to lay a portion of the burden left +by the war with France upon the shoulders of the colonists by means of a +stamp duty, unless some other tax equally productive and less +inconvenient were proposed. The natural objection of the colonies, as +voiced, for example, by the assembly of Pennsylvania, was that it was a +cruel thing to tax colonies already taxed beyond their strength, and +surrounded by enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defence, +and that it was an indignity that they should be taxed by a parliament +in which they were not represented; at the same time the Pennsylvania +assembly recognized it as "their duty to grant aid to the crown, +according to their abilities, whenever required of them in the usual +manner." To prevent the introduction of the Stamp Act, which he +characterized as "the mother of mischief," Franklin used every effort, +but the bill was easily passed, and it was thought that the colonists +would soon be reconciled to it. Because he, too, thought so, and because +he recommended John Hughes, a merchant of Philadelphia, for the office +of distributor of stamps, Franklin himself was denounced--he was even +accused of having planned the Stamp Act--and his family in Philadelphia +was in danger of being mobbed. Of Franklin's examination, in February +1766, by the House in Committee of the Whole, as to the effects of the +Stamp Act, Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined +by a parcel of schoolboys, and George Whitefield said: "Dr Franklin has +gained immortal honour by his behaviour at the bar of the House. His +answer was always found equal to the questioner. He stood unappalled, +gave pleasure to his friends and did honour to his country."[3] Franklin +compared the position of the colonies to that of Scotland in the days +before the union, and in the same year (1766) audaciously urged a +similar union with the colonies before it was too late. The knowledge of +colonial affairs gained from Franklin's testimony, probably more than +all other causes combined, determined the immediate repeal of the Stamp +Act. For Franklin this was a great triumph, and the news of it filled +the colonists with delight and restored him to their confidence and +affection. Another bill (the Declaratory Act), however, was almost +immediately passed by the king's party, asserting absolute supremacy of +parliament over the colonies, and in the succeeding parliament, by the +Townshend Acts of 1767, duties were imposed on paper, paints and glass +imported by the colonists; a tax was imposed on tea also. The imposition +of these taxes was bitterly resented in the colonies, where it quickly +crystallized public opinion round the principle of "No taxation without +representation." In spite of the opposition in the colonies to the +Declaratory Act, the Townshend Acts and the tea tax, Franklin continued +to assure the British ministry and the British public of the loyalty of +the colonists. He tried to find some middle ground of reconciliation, +and kept up his quiet work of informing England as to the opinions and +conditions of the colonies, and of moderating the attitude of the +colonies toward the home government; so that, as he said, he was accused +in America of being too much an Englishman, and in England of being too +much an American. He was agent now, not only of Pennsylvania, but also +of New Jersey, of Georgia and of Massachusetts. Hillsborough, who became +secretary of state for the colonies in 1768, refused to recognize +Franklin as agent of Massachusetts, because the governor of +Massachusetts had not approved the appointment, which was by resolution +of the assembly. Franklin contended that the governor, as a mere agent +of the king, could have nothing to do with the assembly's appointment of +its agent to the king; that "the King, and not the King, Lords, and +Commons collectively, is their sovereign; and that the King, with +_their_ respective Parliaments, is their only legislator." Franklin's +influence helped to oust Hillsborough, and Dartmouth, whose name +Franklin suggested, was made secretary In 1772 and promptly recognized +Franklin as the agent of Massachusetts. + +In 1773 there appeared in the _Public Advertiser_ one of Franklin's +cleverest hoaxes, "An Edict of the King of Prussia," proclaiming that +the island of Britain was a colony of Prussia, having been settled by +Angles and Saxons, having been protected by Prussia, having been +defended by Prussia against France in the war just past, and never +having been definitely freed from Prussia's rule; and that, therefore, +Great Britain should now submit to certain taxes laid by Prussia--the +taxes being identical with those laid upon the American colonies by +Great Britain. In the same year occurred the famous episode of the +Hutchinson Letters. These were written by Thomas Hutchinson, Governor of +Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver (1706-1774), his lieutenant-governor, and +others to William Whately, a member of Parliament, and private secretary +to George Grenville, suggesting an increase of the power of the governor +at the expense of the assembly, "an abridgement of what are called +English liberties," and other measures more extreme than those +undertaken by the government. The correspondence was shown to Franklin +by a mysterious "member of parliament" to back up the contention that +the quartering of troops in Boston was suggested, not by the British +ministry, but by Americans and Bostonians. Upon his promise not to +publish the letters Franklin received permission to send them to +Massachusetts, where they were much passed about and were printed, and +they were soon republished in English newspapers. The Massachusetts +assembly on receiving the letters resolved to petition the crown for the +removal of both Hutchinson and Oliver. The petition was refused and was +condemned as scandalous, and Franklin, who took upon himself the +responsibility for the publication of the letters, in the hearing before +the privy council at the Cockpit on the 29th of January 1774 was +insulted and was called a thief by Alexander Wedderburn (the +solicitor-general, who appeared for Hutchinson and Oliver), and was +removed from his position as head of the post office in the American +colonies. + +Satisfied that his usefulness in England was at an end, Franklin +entrusted his agencies to the care of Arthur Lee, and on the 21st of +March 1775 again set sail for Philadelphia. During the last years of his +stay in England there had been repeated attempts to win him (probably +with an under-secretaryship) to the British service, and in these same +years he had done a great work for the colonies by gaining friends for +them among the opposition, and by impressing France with his ability and +the excellence of his case. Upon reaching America, he heard of the +fighting at Lexington and Concord, and with the news of an actual +outbreak of hostilities his feeling toward England seems to have changed +completely. He was no longer a peacemaker, but an ardent war-maker. On +the 6th of May, the day after his arrival in Philadelphia, he was +elected by the assembly of Pennsylvania a delegate to the Continental +Congress in Philadelphia. In October he was elected a member of the +Pennsylvania assembly, but, as members of this body were still required +to take an oath of allegiance to the crown, he refused to serve. In the +Congress he served on as many as ten committees, and upon the +organization of a continental postal system, he was made +postmaster-general, a position he held for one year, when (in 1776) he +was succeeded by his son-in-law, Richard Bache, who had been his deputy. +With Benjamin Harrison, John Dickinson, Thomas Johnson and John Jay he +was appointed in November 1775 to a committee to carry on a secret +correspondence with the friends of America "in Great Britain, Ireland +and other parts of the world." He planned an appeal to the king of +France for aid, and wrote the instructions of Silas Deane who was to +convey it. In April 1776 he went to Montreal with Charles Carroll, +Samuel Chase and John Carroll, as a member of the commission which +conferred with General Arnold, and attempted without success to gain the +co-operation of Canada. Immediately after his return from Montreal he +was a member of the committee of five appointed to draw up the +Declaration of Independence, but he took no actual part himself in +drafting that instrument, aside from suggesting the change or insertion +of a few words in Jefferson's draft. From July 16 to September 28 he +acted as president of the Constitutional Convention of Pennsylvania. + +With John Adams and Edward Rutledge he was selected by Congress to +discuss with Admiral Howe (September 1776, at Staten Island) the terms +of peace proposed by Howe, who had arrived in New York harbour in July +1776, and who had been an intimate friend of Franklin; but the +discussion was fruitless, as the American commissioners refused to treat +"_back_ of this step of independency." On the 26th of September in the +same year Franklin was chosen as commissioner to France to join Arthur +Lee, who was in London, and Silas Deane, who had arrived in France in +June 1776. He collected all the money he could command, between L3000 +and L4000, lent it to Congress before he set sail, and arrived at Paris +on the 22nd of December. He found quarters at Passy,[4] then a suburb of +Paris, in a house belonging to Le Ray de Chaumont, an active friend of +the American cause, who had influential relations with the court, and +through whom he was enabled to be in the fullest communication with the +French government without compromising it in the eyes of Great Britain. + +At the time of Franklin's arrival in Paris he was already one of the +most talked about men in the world. He was a member of every important +learned society in Europe; he was a member, and one of the managers, of +the Royal Society, and was one of eight foreign members of the Royal +Academy of Sciences in Paris. Three editions of his scientific works had +already appeared in Paris, and a new edition had recently appeared in +London. To all these advantages he added a political purpose--the +dismemberment of the British empire--which was entirely congenial to +every citizen of France. "Franklin's reputation," wrote John Adams with +characteristic extravagance, "was more universal than that of Leibnitz +or Newton, Frederick or Voltaire; and his character more esteemed and +beloved than all of them.... If a collection could be made of all the +gazettes of Europe, for the latter half of the 18th century, a greater +number of panegyrical paragraphs upon _le grand Franklin_ would appear, +it is believed, than upon any other man that ever lived." "Franklin's +appearance in the French salons, even before he began to negotiate," +says Friedrich Christoph Schlosser, "was an event of great importance to +the whole of Europe.... His dress, the simplicity of his external +appearance, the friendly meekness of the old man, and the apparent +humility of the Quaker, procured for Freedom a mass of votaries among +the court circles who used to be alarmed at its coarseness and +unsophisticated truths. Such was the number of portraits,[5] busts and +medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris that he would have +been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the +civilized world." + +Franklin's position in France was a difficult one from the start, +because of the delicacy of the task of getting French aid at a time when +France was unready openly to take sides against Great Britain. But on +the 6th of February 1778, after the news of the defeat and surrender of +Burgoyne had reached Europe, a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity +and commerce between France and the United States were signed at Paris +by Franklin, Deane and Lee. On the 28th of October this commission was +discharged and Franklin was appointed sole plenipotentiary to the French +court. Lee, from the beginning of the mission to Paris, seems to have +been possessed of a mania of jealousy toward Franklin, or of +misunderstanding of his acts, and he tried to undermine his influence +with the Continental Congress. John Adams, when he succeeded Deane +(recalled from Paris through Lee's machinations) joined in the chorus of +fault-finding against Franklin, dilated upon his social habits, his +personal slothfulness and his complete lack of business-like system; but +Adams soon came to see that, although careless of details, Franklin was +doing what no other man could have done, and he ceased his harsher +criticism. Even greater than his diplomatic difficulties were Franklin's +financial straits. Drafts were being drawn on him by all the American +agents in Europe, and by the Continental Congress at home. Acting as +American naval agent for the many successful privateers who harried the +English Channel, and for whom he skilfully got every bit of assistance +possible, open and covert, from the French government, he was +continually called upon for funds in these ventures. Of the vessels to +be sent to Paris with American cargoes which were to be sold for the +liquidation of French loans to the colonies made through Beaumarchais, +few arrived; those that did come did not cover Beaumarchais's advances, +and hardly a vessel came from America without word of fresh drafts on +Franklin. After bold and repeated overtures for an exchange of +prisoners--an important matter, both because the American frigates had +no place in which to stow away their prisoners, and because of the +maltreatment of American captives in such prisons as Dartmoor--exchanges +began at the end of March 1779, although there were annoying delays, and +immediately after November 1781 there was a long break in the agreement; +and the Americans discharged from English prisons were constantly in +need of money. Franklin, besides, was constantly called upon to meet the +indebtedness of Lee and of Ralph Izard (1742-1804), and of John Jay, who +in Madrid was being drawn on by the American Congress. In spite of the +poor condition in Europe of the credit of the struggling colonies, and +of the fact that France was almost bankrupt (and in the later years was +at war), and although Necker strenuously resisted the making of any +loans to the colonies, France, largely because of Franklin's appeals, +expended, by loan or gift to the colonies, or in sustenance of the +French arms in America, a sum estimated at $60,000,000. + +In 1781 Franklin, with John Adams, John Jay, Jefferson, who remained in +America, and Henry Laurens, then a prisoner in England, was appointed on +a commission to make peace with Great Britain. In the spring of 1782 +Franklin had been informally negotiating with Shelburne, secretary of +state for the home department, through the medium of Richard Oswald, a +Scotch merchant, and had suggested that England should cede Canada to +the United States in return for the recognition of loyalist claims by +the states. When the formal negotiations began Franklin held closely to +the instructions of Congress to its commissioners, that they should +maintain confidential relations with the French ministers and that they +were "to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce +without their knowledge and concurrence," and were ultimately to be +governed by "their advice and opinion." Jay and Adams disagreed with him +on this point, believing that France intended to curtail the territorial +aspirations of the Americans for her own benefit and for that of her +ally, Spain. At last, after the British government had authorized its +agents to treat with the commissioners as representatives of an +independent power, thus recognizing American independence before the +treaty was made, Franklin acquiesced in the policy of Jay. The +preliminary treaty was signed by the commissioners on the 30th of +November 1782, the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783. Franklin +had repeatedly petitioned Congress for his recall, but his letters were +unanswered or his appeals refused until the 7th of March 1785, when +Congress resolved that he be allowed to return to America; on the 10th +of March Thomas Jefferson, who had joined him in August of the year +before, was appointed to his place. Jefferson, when asked if he replaced +Franklin, replied, "No one can replace him, sir; I am only his +successor." Before Franklin left Paris on the 12th of July 1785 he had +made commercial treaties with Sweden (1783) and Prussia (1785; signed +after Franklin's departure by Jefferson and John Adams). Franklin +arrived in Philadelphia on the 13th of September, disembarking at the +same wharf as when he had first entered the city. He was immediately +elected a member of the municipal council of Philadelphia, becoming its +chairman; and was chosen president of the Supreme Executive Council (the +chief executive officer) of Pennsylvania, and was re-elected in 1786 and +1787, serving from October 1785 to October 1788. In May 1787 he was +elected a delegate to the Convention which drew up the Federal +Constitution, this body thus having a member upon whom all could agree +as chairman, should Washington be absent. He opposed over-centralization +of government and favoured the Connecticut Compromise, and after the +work of the Convention was done used his influence to secure the +adoption of the Constitution.[6] As president of the Pennsylvania +Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Franklin signed a +petition to Congress (12th February 1790) for immediate abolition of +slavery, and six weeks later in his most brilliant manner parodied the +attack on the petition made by James Jackson (1757-1806) of Georgia, +taking off Jackson's quotations of Scripture with pretended texts from +the Koran cited by a member of the Divan of Algiers in opposition to a +petition asking for the prohibition of holding Christians in slavery. +These were his last public acts. His last days were marked by a fine +serenity and calm; he died in his own house in Philadelphia on the 17th +of April 1790, the immediate cause being an abscess in the lungs. He was +buried with his wife in the graveyard (Fifth and Arch Streets) of Christ +Church, Philadelphia. + +Physically Franklin was large, about 5 ft. 10 in. tall, with a +well-rounded, powerful figure; he inherited an excellent constitution +from his parents--"I never knew," says he, "either my father or mother +to have any sickness but that of which they dy'd, he at 89, and she at +85 years of age"--but injured it somewhat by excesses; in early life he +had severe attacks of pleurisy, from one of which, in 1727, it was not +expected that he would recover, and in his later years he was the victim +of stone and gout. When he was sixteen he became a vegetarian for a +time, rather to save money for books than for any other reason, and he +always preached moderation in eating, though he was less consistent in +his practice in this particular than as regards moderate drinking. He +was always enthusiastically fond of swimming, and was a great believer +in fresh air, taking a cold air bath regularly in the morning, when he +sat naked in his bedroom beguiling himself with a book or with writing +for a half-hour or more. He insisted that fresh, cold air was not the +cause of colds, and preached zealously the "gospel of ventilation." He +was a charming talker, with a gay humour and a quiet sarcasm and a +telling use of anecdote for argument. Henri Martin, the French +historian, speaks of him as "of a mind altogether French in its grace +and elasticity." In 1730 he married Deborah Read, in whose father's +house he had lived when he had first come to Philadelphia, to whom he +had been engaged before his first departure from Philadelphia for +London, and who in his absence had married a ne'er-do-well, one Rogers, +who had deserted her. The marriage to Franklin is presumed to have been +a common law marriage, for there was no proof that Miss Read's former +husband was dead, nor that, as was suspected, a former wife, alive when +Rogers married Miss Read, was still alive, and that therefore his +marriage to Deborah was void. His "Debby," or his "dear child," as +Franklin usually addressed her in his letters, received into the family, +soon after her marriage, Franklin's illegitimate son, William Franklin +(1729-1813),[7] with whom she afterwards quarrelled, and whose mother, +tradition says, was Barbara, a servant in the Franklin household. +Another illegitimate child became the wife of John Foxcroft of +Philadelphia. Deborah, who was "as much dispos'd to industry and +frugality as" her husband, was illiterate and shared none of her +husband's tastes for literature and science; her dread of an ocean +voyage kept her in Philadelphia during Franklin's missions to England, +and she died in 1774, while Franklin was in London. She bore him two +children, one a son, Francis Folger, "whom I have seldom since seen +equal'd in everything, and whom to this day [thirty-six years after the +child's death] I cannot think of without a sigh," who died (1736) when +four years old of small-pox, not having been inoculated; the other was +Sarah (1744-1808), who married Richard Bache (1737-1811), Franklin's +successor in 1776-1782 as postmaster-general. Franklin's gallant +relations with women after his wife's death were probably innocent +enough. Best known of his French _amies_ were Mme Helvetius, widow of +the philosopher, and the young Mme Brillon, who corrected her "Papa's" +French and tried to bring him safely into the Roman Catholic Church. +With him in France were his grandsons, William Temple Franklin, William +Franklin's natural son, who acted as private secretary to his +grandfather, and Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798), Sarah's son, whom +he sent to Geneva to be educated, for whom he later asked public office +of Washington, and who became editor of the _Aurora_, one of the leading +journals in the Republican attacks on Washington. + +Franklin early rebelled against New England Puritanism and spent his +Sundays in reading and in study instead of attending church. His +free-thinking ran its extreme course at the time of his publication in +London of _A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain_ +(1725), which he recognized as one of the great _errata_ of his life. He +later called himself a deist, or theist, not discriminating between the +terms. To his favourite sister he wrote: "There are some things in your +New England doctrine and worship which I do not agree with; but I do not +therefore condemn them, or desire to shake your belief or practice of +them." Such was his general attitude. He did not believe in the divinity +of Christ, but thought "his system of morals and his religion, as he +left them to us, the best the world ever saw, or is like to see." His +intense practical-mindedness drew him away from religion, but drove him +to a morality of his own (the "art of virtue," he called it), based on +thirteen virtues each accompanied by a short precept; the virtues were +Temperance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity, +Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility, Chastity and Humility, +the precept accompanying the last-named virtue being "Imitate Jesus and +Socrates." He made a business-like little notebook, ruled off spaces for +the thirteen virtues and the seven days of the week, "determined to give +a week's strict attention to each of the virtues successively ... +[going] thro' a course compleate in thirteen weeks and four courses in a +year," marking for each day a record of his adherence to each of the +precepts. "And conceiving God to be the fountain of wisdom," he "thought +it right and necessary to solicit His assistance for obtaining it," and +drew up the following prayer for daily use: "O powerful Goodness! +bountiful Father! merciful Guide! Increase in me that wisdom which +discovers my truest interest. Strengthen my resolution to perform what +that wisdom dictates. Accept my kind offices to Thy other children, as +the only return in my power for Thy continual favours to me." He was by +no means prone to overmuch introspection, his great interest in the +conduct of others being shown in the wise maxims of Poor Richard, which +were possibly too utilitarian but were wonderfully successful in +instructing American morals. His _Art of Virtue_ on which he worked for +years was never completed or published in any form. + +"Benjamin Franklin, Printer," was Franklin's own favourite description +of himself. He was an excellent compositor and pressman; his +workmanship, clear impressions, black ink and comparative freedom from +errata did much to get him the public printing in Pennsylvania and New +Jersey, and the printing of the paper money[8] and other public matters +in Delaware. The first book with his imprint is _The Psalms of David +Imitated in the Language of the New Testament and apply'd to the +Christian State and Worship. By I. Watts ..., Philadelphia: Printed by +B. F. and H. M. for Thomas Godfrey, and Sold at his Shop, 1729._ The +first novel printed in America was Franklin's reprint in 1744 of +_Pamela_; and the first American translation from the classics which was +printed in America was a version by James Logan (1674-1751) of Cato's +_Moral Distichs_ (1735). In 1744 he published another translation of +Logan's, Cicero _On Old Age_, which Franklin thought typographically the +finest book he had ever printed. In 1733 he had established a press in +Charleston, South Carolina, and soon after did the same in Lancaster, +Pa., in New Haven, Conn., in New York, in Antigua, in Kingston, Jamaica, +and in other places. Personally he had little connexion with the +Philadelphia printing office after 1748, when David Hall became his +partner and took charge of it. But in 1753 he was eagerly engaged in +having several of his improvements incorporated in a new press, and more +than twenty years after was actively interested in John Walter's scheme +of "logography." In France he had a private press in his house in Passy, +on which he printed "bagatelles." Franklin's work as a publisher is for +the most part closely connected with his work in issuing the _Gazette_ +and _Poor Richard's Almanack_ (a summary of the proverbs from which +appeared in the number for 1758, and has often been reprinted--under +such titles as _Father Abraham's Speech_, and _The Way to Wealth_).[9] + +Of much of Franklin's work as an author something has already been said. +Judged as literature, the first place belongs to his _Autobiography_, +which unquestionably ranks among the few great autobiographies ever +written. His style in its simplicity, facility and clearness owed +something to De Foe, something to Cotton Mather, something to Plutarch, +more to Bunyan and to his early attempts to reproduce the manner of the +third volume of the _Spectator_; and not the least to his own careful +study of word usage. From Xenophon's _Memorabilia_ he learned when a boy +the Socratic method of argument. Swift he resembled in the occasional +broadness of his humour, in his brilliantly successful use of sarcasm +and irony,[10] and in his mastery of the hoax. Balzac said of him that +he "invented the lightning-rod, the hoax ('le canard') and the +republic." Among his more famous hoaxes were the "Edict of the King of +Prussia" (1773), already described; the fictitious supplement to the +Boston _Chronicle_, printed on his private press at Passy in 1782, and +containing a letter with an invoice of eight packs of 954 cured, dried, +hooped and painted scalps of rebels, men, women and children, taken by +Indians in the British employ; and another fictitious _Letter from the +Count de Schaumberg to the Baron Hohendorf commanding the Hessian Troops +in America_ (1777)--the count's only anxiety is that not enough men will +be killed to bring him in moneys he needs, and he urges his officer in +command in America "to prolong the war ... for I have made arrangements +for a grand Italian opera, and I do not wish to be obliged to give it +up."[11] + +Closely related to Franklin's political pamphlets are his writings on +economics, which, though undertaken with a political or practical +purpose and not in a purely scientific spirit, rank him as the first +American economist. He wrote in 1729 _A Modest Enquiry into the Nature +and Necessity of a Paper Currency_, which argued that a plentiful +currency will make rates of interest low and will promote immigration +and home manufactures, and which did much to secure the further issue of +paper money in Pennsylvania. After the British Act of 1750 forbidding +the erection or the operating of iron or steel mills in the colonies, +Franklin wrote _Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind and the +Peopling of Countries_ (1751); its thesis was that manufactures come to +be common only with a high degree of social development and with great +density of population, and that Great Britain need not, therefore, fear +the industrial competition of the colonies, but it is better known for +the estimate (adopted by Adam Smith) that the population of the colonies +would double every quarter-century; and for the likeness to +Malthus's[12] "preventive check" of its statement: "The greater the +common fashionable expense of any rank of people the more cautious they +are of marriage." His _Positions to be examined concerning National +Wealth_ (1769) shows that he was greatly influenced by the French +physiocrats after his visit to France in 1767. His _Wail of a Protected +Manufacturer_ voices a protest against protection as raising the cost of +living; and he held that free trade was based on a natural right. He +knew Kames, Hume and Adam Smith, and corresponded with Mirabeau, "the +friend of Man." Some of the more important of his economic theses, as +summarized by W. A. Wetzel, are: that money as coin may have more than +its bullion value; that natural interest is determined by the rent of +land valued at the sum of money loaned--an anticipation of Turgot; that +high wages are not inconsistent with a large foreign trade; that the +value of an article is determined by the amount of labour necessary to +produce the food consumed in making the article; that manufactures are +advantageous but agriculture only is truly productive; and that when +practicable (as he did not think it practicable at the end of the War of +Independence) state revenue should be raised by direct tax. + +Franklin as a scientist[13] and as an inventor has been decried by +experts as an amateur and a dabbler; but it should be remembered that it +was always his hope to retire from public life and devote himself to +science. In the American Philosophical Society (founded 1743) scientific +subjects were much discussed. Franklin wrote a paper on the causes of +earthquakes for his _Gazette_ of the 15th of December 1737; and he +eagerly collected material to uphold his theory that waterspouts and +whirlwinds resulted from the same causes. In 1743, from the circumstance +that an eclipse not visible in Philadelphia because of a storm had been +observed in Boston, where the storm although north-easterly did not +occur until an hour after the eclipse, he surmised that storms move +_against_ the wind along the Atlantic coast. In the year before (1742) +he had planned the "Pennsylvania fire-place," better known as the +"Franklin stove," which saved fuel, heated all the room, and had the +same principle as the hot-air furnace; the stove was never patented by +Franklin, but was described in his pamphlet dated 1744. He was much +engaged at the same time in remedying smoking chimneys, and as late as +1785 wrote to Jan Ingenhousz, physician to the emperor of Austria, on +chimneys and draughts; smoking street lamps he remedied by a simple +contrivance. The study of electricity he took up in 1746 when he first +saw a Leyden jar, in the manipulation of which he became expert and +which he improved by the use of granulated lead in the place of water +for the interior armatures; he recognized that condensation is due to +the dielectric and not to the metal coatings. A note in his diary, dated +the 7th of November 1749, shows that he had then conjectured that +thunder and lightning were electrical manifestations; in the same year +he planned the lightning-rod (long known as "Franklin's rod"), which he +described and recommended to the public in 1753, when the Copley medal +of the Royal Society was awarded him for his discoveries. The famous +experiment with the kite, proving lightning an electrical phenomenon, +was performed by Franklin in June 1752. He overthrew entirely the +"friction" theory of electricity and conceived the idea of plus and +minus charges (1753); he thought the sea the source of electricity. On +light Franklin wrote to David Rittenhouse in June 1784; the sum of his +own conjectures was that the corpuscular theory of Newton was wrong, and +that light was due to the vibration of an elastic aether. He studied +with some care the temperature of the Gulf Stream. In navigation he +suggested many new contrivances, such as water-tight compartments, +floating anchors to lay a ship to in a storm, and dishes that would not +upset during a gale; and beginning in 1757 made repeated experiments +with oil on stormy waters. As a mathematician he devised various +elaborate magic squares and novel magic circles, of which he speaks +apologetically, because they are of no practical use. Always much +interested in agriculture, he made an especial effort (like Robert R. +Livingston) to promote the use of plaster of Paris as a fertiliser. He +took a prominent part in aeronautic experiments during his stay in +France. He made an excellent clock, which because of a slight +improvement introduced by James Ferguson in 1757 was long known as +Ferguson's clock. In medicine Franklin was considered important enough +to be elected to the Royal Medical Society of Paris in 1777, and an +honorary member of the Medical Society of London in 1787. In 1784 he was +on the committee which investigated Mesmer, and the report is a document +of lasting scientific value. Franklin's advocacy of vegetarianism, of +sparing and simple diet, and of temperance in the use of liquors, and of +proper ventilation has already been referred to. His most direct +contribution to medicine was the invention for his own use of bifocal +eyeglasses. + +A summary of so versatile a genius is impossible. His services to +America in England and France rank him as one of the heroes of the +American War of Independence and as the greatest of American diplomats. +Almost the only American scientist of his day, he displayed remarkably +deep as well as remarkably varied abilities in science and deserved the +honours enthusiastically given him by the _savants_ of Europe. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Franklin's works were not collected in his own + lifetime, and he made no effort to publish his writings. _Experiments + and Observations on Electricity_ (London, 1769) was translated into + French by Barbeu Dubourg (Paris, 1773); Vaughan attempted a more + complete edition, _Political, Miscellaneous and Philosophical Pieces_ + (London, 1779); an edition in three volumes appeared after Franklin's + death (London, 1806); what seemed the authentic _Works_, as it was + under the care of Temple Franklin, was published at London (6 vols., + 1817-1819; 3 vols., 1818) and with some additional matter at + Philadelphia (6 vols., 1818). Sparks's edition (10 vols., Boston, + 1836-1842; revised, Philadelphia, 1858) also contained fresh matter; + and there are further additions in the edition of John Bigelow + (Philadelphia, 1887-1888; 5th ed., 1905) and in that by Albert Henry + Smyth (10 vols., New York, 1905-1907). There are important + Frankliniana, about 13,000 papers, in the possession of the American + Philosophical Society, to which they were conveyed by the son of + Temple Franklin's executor, George Fox. Other papers which had been + left to Fox lay for years in barrels in a stable garret; they were + finally cleared out, their owner, Mary Fox, intending to send them to + a paper mill. One barrel went to the mill. The others, it was found, + contained papers belonging to Franklin, and this important collection + was bought and presented to the university of Pennsylvania. The + valuable Frankliniana collected by Henry Stevens were purchased by + Congress in 1885. These MS. collections were first carefully gone over + for the edition of the _Works_ by A. H. Smyth. Franklin's + _Autobiography_ was begun in 1771 as a private chronicle for his son, + Governor William Franklin; the papers, bringing the story of his + father's life down to 1730, were lost by the governor during the War + of Independence, and in 1783 came into the possession of Abel James, + who restored them to Franklin and urged him to complete the sketch. He + wrote a little in 1784, more in 1788, when he furnished a copy to his + friend le Veillard, and a little more in 1790. The original manuscript + was long in the possession of Temple Franklin, who spent years + rearranging the matter in it and making over into politer English his + grandfather's plain-spokenness. So long was the publication delayed + that it was generally believed that Temple Franklin had sold all the + papers to the British government; a French version, _Memoires de la + vie privee_ (Paris, 1791), was retranslated into English twice in 1793 + (London), and from one of these versions (by Robinson) still another + French version was made (Paris, 1798). Temple Franklin, deciding to + print, got from le Veillard the copy sent to him in 1788 (sending in + return the original with autograph alterations and the final + addition), and from the copy published (London, 1817) an edition + supposed to be authentic and complete. The complete autograph of the + biography, acquired by John Bigelow in 1867 from its French owners, + upon collation with Temple Franklin's edition showed that the latter + contained 1200 emasculations and that it omitted entirely what had + been written in 1790. Bigelow published the complete _Autobiography_ + with additions from Franklin's correspondence and other writings in + 1868; a second edition (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1888) was published + under the title, _The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Written by Himself_. + + In addition to the _Autobiography_ see James Parton, _Life and Times + of Benjamin Franklin_ (2 vols., New York, 1864); John T. Morse, Jr., + _Benjamin Franklin_ (Boston, 1889, in the American Statesmen series); + J. B. McMaster, _Benjamin Franklin as a Man of Letters_ (Boston, 1887, + in American Men of Letters series); Paul L. Ford, _The Many-Sided + Franklin_ (New York, 1899) and _Franklin Bibliography_ (Brooklyn, + 1889); E. E. Hale and E. E. Hale, Jr., _Franklin in France_ (2 vols., + Boston, 1888); J. H. A. Doniol, _Histoire de la participation de la + France a l'etablissement des Etats-Unis d'Amerique_ (Paris, 6 vols., + 1886-1900); S. G. Fisher, _The True Benjamin Franklin_ (Philadelphia, + 1899); E. Robins, _Benjamin Franklin_ (New York, 1898, in the American + Men of Energy series); W. A. Wetzel, "Benjamin Franklin as an + Economist," No. 9, in series 13 of _Johns Hopkins Studies in + Historical and Political Science_; and the prefaces and biographical + matter in A. H. Smyth's edition of the _Works_ (New York, 10 vols., + 1905-1907). (R. We.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Keimer and his sister had come the year before from London, where + he had learned his trade; both were ardent members of the fanatic + band of "French prophets." He proposed founding a new sect with the + help of Franklin, who after leaving his shop ridiculed him for his + long square beard and for keeping the seventh day. Keimer settled in + the Barbadoes about 1730; and in 1731 began to publish at Bridgetown + the semi-weekly _Barbadoes Gazette_. Selections from it called + _Caribbeana_ (1741) and _A Brand Plucked from the Burning, + Exemplified in the Unparalleled Case of Samuel Keimer_ (1718) are + from his pen. He died about 1738. + + [2] The meeting between Franklin, the type of the shrewd, cool + provincial, and Braddock, a blustering, blundering, drinking British + soldier, is dramatically portrayed by Thackeray in the 9th chapter of + _The Virginians_. + + [3] Many questions (about 20 of the first 25) were put by his friends + to draw out what he wished to be known. + + [4] The house is familiar from the drawing of it by Victor Hugo. + + [5] Many of these portraits bore inscriptions, the most famous of + which was Turgot's line, "Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis." + + [6] Notably in a pamphlet comparing the Jews and the + Anti-Federalists. + + [7] William Franklin served on the Canadian frontier with + Pennsylvania troops, becoming captain in 1750; was in the post-office + in 1754-1756; went to England with his father in 1758; was admitted + to legal practice in 1758; in 1763, recommended by Lord Fairfax, + became governor of New Jersey; he left the Whig for the Tory party; + and in the War of Independence was a faithful loyalist, much to the + pain and regret of his father, who, however, was reconciled to him in + part in 1784. He was held as a prisoner from 1776 until exchanged in + 1778; and lived four years in New York, and during the remainder of + his life in England with an annual pension of L800 from the crown. + + [8] For the prevention of counterfeiting continental paper money + Franklin long afterwards suggested the use on the different + denominations of different leaves, having noted the infinite variety + of leaf venation. + + [9] "Seventy-five editions of it have been printed in English, + fifty-six in French, eleven in German and nine in Italian. It has + been translated into Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Welsh, Polish, Gaelic, + Russian, Bohemian, Dutch, Catalan, Chinese, modern Greek and phonetic + writing. It has been printed at least four hundred times, and is + to-day as popular as ever."--P. L. Ford, in _The Many-Sided Franklin_ + (1899). + + [10] Both Swift and Franklin made sport of the typical astrologer + almanack-maker. + + [11] Another hoax was Franklin's parable against religious + persecution thrown into Scriptural form and quoted by him as the + fifty-first chapter of Genesis. In a paper on a "Proposed New Version + of the Bible" he paraphrased a few verses of the first chapter of + Job, making them a satiric attack on royal government; but the + version may well rank with these hoaxes, and even modern writers have + been taken in by it, regarding it as a serious proposal for a + "modernized" version and decrying it as poor taste. Matthew Arnold, + for example, declared this an instance in which Franklin was lacking + in his "imperturbable common sense"; and J. B. McMaster, though + devoting several pages to its discussion, very ingenuously declares + it "beneath criticism." + + [12] Malthus quoted Franklin in his first edition, but it was not + until the second that he introduced the theory of the "preventive + check." Franklin noted the phenomenon with disapproval in his + advocacy of increased population; Malthus with approval in his search + for means to decrease population. + + [13] The title of philosopher as used in Franklin's lifetime referred + neither in England nor in France to him as author of moral maxims, + but to him as a scientist--a "natural philosopher." + + + + +FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786-1847), English rear-admiral and explorer, was +born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire, on the 16th of April 1786. His family was +descended from a line of free-holders or "franklins" from whom some +centuries earlier they had derived their surname; but the small family +estate was sold by his father, who went into business. John, who was the +fifth and youngest son and ninth child, was destined for the church. At +the age of ten he was sent to school at St Ives, and soon afterwards was +transferred to Louth grammar school, which he attended for two years. +About this time his imagination was deeply impressed by a holiday walk +of 12 m. which he made with a companion to look at the sea, and he +determined to be a sailor. In the hope of dispelling this fancy his +father sent him on a trial voyage to Lisbon in a merchantman; but it +being found on his return that his wishes were unchanged he was entered +as a midshipman on board the "Polyphemus," and shortly afterwards took +part in her in the hard-fought battle of Copenhagen (2nd of April 1801). +Two months later he joined the "Investigator," a discovery-ship +commanded by his cousin Captain Matthew Flinders, and under the training +of that able scientific officer was employed in the exploration and +mapping of the coasts of Australia, where he acquired a correctness of +astronomical observation and a skill in surveying which proved of +eminent utility in his future career. He was on board the "Porpoise" +when that ship and the "Cato" were wrecked (18th of August 1803) on a +coral reef off the coast of Australia, and after this misfortune +proceeded to China. Thence he obtained a passage to England in the "Earl +Camden," East Indiaman, commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) Nathaniel +Dance, and performed the duty of signal midshipman in the famous action +of the 15th of February 1804 when Captain Dance repulsed a strong French +squadron led by the redoubtable Admiral Linois. On reaching England he +joined the "Bellerophon," 74, and was in charge of the signals on board +that ship during the battle of Trafalgar. Two years later he joined the +"Bedford," attaining the rank of lieutenant the year after, and served +in her on the Brazil station (whither the "Bedford" went as part of the +convoy which escorted the royal family of Portugal to Rio de Janeiro in +1808), in the blockade of Flushing, and finally in the disastrous +expedition against New Orleans (1814), in which campaign he displayed +such zeal and intelligence as to merit special mention in despatches. + +On peace being established, Franklin turned his attention once more to +the scientific branch of his profession, and sedulously extended his +knowledge of surveying. In 1818 the discovery of a North-West Passage to +the Pacific became again, after a long interval, an object of national +interest, and Lieutenant Franklin was given the command of the "Trent" +in the Arctic expedition, under the orders of Captain Buchan in the +"Dorothea". During a heavy storm the "Dorothea" was so much damaged by +the pack-ice that her reaching England became doubtful, and, much to the +chagrin of young Franklin, the "Trent" was compelled to convoy her home +instead of being allowed to prosecute the voyage alone. This voyage, +however, had brought Franklin into personal intercourse with the leading +scientific men of London, and they were not slow in ascertaining his +peculiar fitness for the command of such an enterprise. To calmness in +danger, promptness and fertility of resource, and excellent seamanship, +he added an ardent desire to promote science for its own sake, together +with a love of truth that led him to do full justice to the merits of +his subordinate officers, without wishing to claim their discoveries as +a captain's right. Furthermore, he possessed a cheerful buoyancy of +mind, sustained by deep religious principle, which was not depressed in +the most gloomy times. It was therefore with full confidence in his +ability and exertions that, in 1819, he was placed in command of an +expedition appointed to proceed overland from the Hudson Bay to the +shores of the Arctic Sea, and to determine the trendings of that coast +eastward of the Coppermine river. At this period the northern coast of +the American continent was known at two isolated points only,--this, the +mouth of the Coppermine river (which, as Franklin discovered, was +erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the north), and +the mouth of the Mackenzie far to the west of it. Lieutenant Franklin +and his party, consisting of Dr Richardson, Midshipmen George Back and +Richard Hood, and a few ordinary boatmen, arrived at the depot of the +Hudson's Bay Company at the end of August 1819, and making an autumnal +journey of 700 m. spent the first winter on the Saskatchewan. Owing to +the supplies which had been promised by the North-West and Hudson's Bay +Companies not being forthcoming the following year, it was not until the +summer of 1821 that the Coppermine was ascended to its mouth, and a +considerable extent of sea-coast to the eastward surveyed. The return +journey led over the region known as the Barren Ground, and was marked +by the most terrible sufferings and privations and the tragic death of +Lieutenant Hood. The survivors of the expedition reached York Factory in +the month of June 1822, having accomplished altogether 5550 m. of +travel. While engaged on this service Franklin was promoted to the rank +of commander (1st of January 1821), and upon his return to England at +the end of 1822 he obtained the post rank of captain and was elected a +fellow of the Royal Society. The narrative of this expedition was +published in the following year and became at once a classic of travel, +and soon after he married Eleanor, the youngest daughter of William +Porden, an eminent architect. + +Early in 1825 he was entrusted with the command of a second overland +expedition, and upon the earnest entreaty of his dying wife, who +encouraged him to place his duty to his country before his love for her, +he set sail without waiting to witness her end. Accompanied as before by +Dr (afterwards Sir) John Richardson and Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) +George Back, he descended the Mackenzie river in the season of 1826 and +traced the North American coast as far as 149 deg. 37' W. long., whilst +Richardson at the head of a separate party connected the mouths of the +Coppermine and Mackenzie rivers. Thus between the years 1819 and 1827 he +had added 1200 m. of coast-line to the American continent, or one-third +of the whole distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific. These exertions +were fully appreciated at home and abroad. He was knighted in 1829, +received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, +was awarded the gold medal of the Geographical Society of Paris, and was +elected corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. The +results of these expeditions are described by Franklin and Dr Richardson +in two magnificent works published in 1824-1829. In 1828 he married his +second wife, Jane, second daughter of John Griffin. His next official +employment was on the Mediterranean station, in command of the +"Rainbow," and his ship soon became proverbial in the squadron for the +happiness and comfort of her officers and crew. As an acknowledgment of +the essential service which he rendered off Patras in the Greek War of +Independence, he received the cross of the Redeemer of Greece from King +Otto, and after his return to England he was created knight commander of +the Guelphic order of Hanover. + +In 1836 he accepted the lieutenant-governorship of Van Diemen's Land (now +Tasmania), and held that post till the end of 1843. His government was +marked by several events of much interest, one of his most popular +measures being the opening of the doors of the legislative council to the +public. He also founded a college, endowing it largely from his private +funds, and in 1838 established a scientific society at Hobart Town (now +called the Royal Society of Tasmania), the meetings of which were held in +Government House and its papers printed at his expense. In his time also +the colony of Victoria was founded by settlers from Tasmania; and towards +its close, transportation to New South Wales having been abolished, the +convicts from every part of the British empire were sent to Tasmania. On +an increase of the lieutenant-governor's salary being voted by the +colonial legislature, Sir John declined to derive any advantage from it +personally, while he secured the augmentation to his successors. He +welcomed eagerly the various expeditions for exploration and surveying +which visited Hobart Town, conspicuous among these, and of especial +interest to himself, being the French and English Antarctic expeditions +of Dumont d'Urville and Sir James C. Ross--the latter commanding the +"Erebus" and "Terror," with which Franklin's own name was afterwards to +be so pathetically connected. A magnetic observatory fixed at Hobart +Town, as a dependency of the central establishment under Colonel Sabine, +was also an object of deep interest up to the moment of his leaving the +colony. That his unflinching efforts for the social and political +advancement of the colony were appreciated was abundantly proved by the +affection and respect shown him by every section of the community on his +departure; and several years afterwards the colonists showed their +remembrance of his virtues and services by sending Lady Franklin a +subscription of L1700 in aid of her efforts for the search and relief of +her husband, and later still by a unanimous vote of the legislature for +the erection of a statue in honour of him at Hobart Town. + +Sir John found on reaching England that there was about to be a renewal +of polar research, and that the confidence of the admiralty in him was +undiminished, as was shown by his being offered the command of an +expedition for the discovery of a North-West Passage to the Pacific. +This offer he accepted. The prestige of Arctic service and of his former +experiences attracted a crowd of volunteers of all classes, from whom +were selected a body of officers conspicuous for talent and energy. +Captain Crozier, who was second in command, had been three voyages with +Sir Edward Parry, and had commanded the "Terror" in Ross's Antarctic +expedition. Captain Fitzjames, who was commander on board the "Erebus," +had been five times gazetted for brilliant conduct in the operations of +the first China war, and in a letter which he wrote from Greenland has +bequeathed some good-natured but masterly sketches of his brother +officers and messmates on this expedition. Thus supported, with crews +carefully chosen (some of whom had been engaged in the whaling service), +victualled for three years, and furnished with every appliance then +known, Franklin's expedition, consisting of the "Erebus" and "Terror" +(129 officers and men), with a transport ship to convey additional +stores as far as Disco in Greenland, sailed from Greenhithe on the 19th +of May 1845. The letters which Franklin despatched from Greenland were +couched in language of cheerful anticipation of success, while those +received from his officers expressed their glowing hope, their +admiration of the seamanlike qualities of their commander, and the +happiness they had in serving under him. The ships were last seen by a +whaler near the entrance of Lancaster Sound, on the 26th of July, and +the deep gloom which settled down upon their subsequent movements was +not finally raised till fourteen years later. + +Franklin's instructions were framed in conjunction with Sir John Barrow +and upon his own suggestions. The experience of Parry had established +the navigability of Lancaster Sound (leading westwards out of Baffin +Bay), whilst Franklin's own surveys had long before satisfied him that a +navigable passage existed along the north coast of America from the Fish +river to Bering Strait. He was therefore directed to push through +Lancaster Sound and its continuation, Barrow Strait, without loss of +time, until he reached the portion of land on which Cape Walker is +situated, or about long. 98 deg. W., and from that point to pursue a course +southward towards the American coast. An explicit prohibition was given +against a westerly course beyond the longitude of 98 deg. W., but he was +allowed the single alternative of previously examining Wellington +Channel (which leads out of Barrow Strait) for a northward route, if the +navigation here were open. + +In 1847, though there was no real public anxiety as to the fate of the +expedition, preparations began to be made for the possible necessity of +sending relief. As time passed, however, and no tidings reached England, +the search began in earnest, and from 1848 onwards expedition after +expedition was despatched in quest of the missing explorers. The work of +these expeditions forms a story of achievement which has no parallel in +maritime annals, and resulted in the discovery and exploration of +thousands of miles of new land within the grim Arctic regions, the +development of the system of sledge travelling, and the discovery of a +second North-West Passage in 1850 (see Polar Regions). Here it is only +necessary to mention the results so far as the search for Franklin was +concerned. In this great national undertaking Lady Franklin's exertions +were unwearied, and she exhausted her private funds in sending out +auxiliary vessels to quarters not comprised in the public search, and by +her pathetic appeals roused the sympathy of the whole civilized world. + +The first traces of the missing ships, consisting of a few scattered +articles, besides three graves, were discovered at Franklin's winter +quarters (1845-1846) on Beechey Island, by Captain (afterwards Sir) +Erasmus Ommanney of the "Assistance," in August 1851, and were brought +home by the "Prince Albert," which had been fitted out by Lady Franklin. +No further tidings were obtained until the spring of 1854, when Dr John +Rae, then conducting a sledging expedition of the Hudson's Bay Company +from Repulse Bay, was told by the Eskimo that (as was inferred) in 1850 +white men, to the number of about forty, had been seen dragging a boat +southward along the west shore of King William's Island, and that later +in the same season the bodies of the whole party were found by the +natives at a point a short distance to the north-west of Back's Great +Fish river, where they had perished from the united effects of cold and +famine. The latter statement was afterwards disproved by the discovery +of skeletons upon the presumed line of route; but indisputable proof was +given that the Eskimo had communicated with members of the missing +expedition, by the various articles obtained from them and brought home +by Dr Rae. In consequence of the information obtained by Dr Rae, a party +in canoes, under Messrs Anderson and Stewart, was sent by government +down the Great Fish river in 1855, and succeeded in obtaining from the +Eskimo at the mouth of the river a considerable number of articles which +had evidently belonged to the Franklin expedition; while others were +picked up on Montreal Island a day's march to the northward. It was +clear, therefore, that a party from the "Erebus" and "Terror" had +endeavoured to reach the settlements of the Hudson's Bay Company by the +Fish river route, and that in making a southerly course it had been +arrested within the channel into which the Great Fish river empties +itself. The admiralty now decided to take no further steps to determine +the exact fate of the expedition, and granted to Dr Rae the reward of +L10,000 which had been offered in 1849 to whosoever should first succeed +in obtaining authentic news of the missing men. It was therefore +reserved for the latest effort of Lady Franklin to develop, not only the +fate of her husband's expedition but also the steps of its progress up +to the very verge of success, mingled indeed with almost unprecedented +disaster. With all her available means, and aided, as she had been +before, by the subscriptions of sympathizing friends, she purchased and +fitted out the little yacht "Fox," which sailed from Aberdeen in July +1857. The command was accepted by Captain (afterwards Sir) Leopold +M'Clintock, whose high reputation had been won in three of the +government expeditions sent out in search of Franklin. Having been +compelled to pass the first winter in Baffin Bay, it was not till the +autumn of 1858 that the "Fox" passed down Prince Regent's Inlet, and put +into winter quarters at Port Kennedy at the eastern end of Bellot +Strait, between North Somerset and Boothia Felix. In the spring of 1859 +three sledging parties went out, Captain (afterwards Sir) Allen Young to +examine Prince of Wales Island, Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Hobson +the north and west coasts of King William's Island, and M'Clintock the +east and south coasts of the latter, the west coast of Boothia, and the +region about the mouth of Great Fish river. This splendid and exhaustive +search added 800 m. of new coast-line to the knowledge of the Arctic +regions, and brought to light the course and fate of the expedition. +From the Eskimo in Boothia many relics were obtained, and reports as to +the fate of the ships and men; and on the west and south coast of King +William's Island were discovered skeletons and remains of articles that +told a terrible tale of disaster. Above all, in a cairn at Point Victory +a precious record was discovered by Lieutenant Hobson that briefly told +the history of the expedition up to April 25, 1848, three years after it +set out full of hope. In 1845-1846 the "Erebus" and "Terror" wintered at +Beechey Island on the S.W. coast of North Devon, in lat. 74 deg. 43' 28" +N., long. 91 deg. 39' 15" W., after having ascended Wellington Channel to +lat. 77 deg. and returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island. This +statement was signed by Graham Gore, lieutenant, and Charles F. des +Voeux, mate, and bore date May 28, 1847. These two officers and six men, +it was further told, left the ships on May 24, 1847 (no doubt for an +exploring journey), at which time all was well. + +Such an amount of successful work has seldom been accomplished by an +Arctic expedition within any one season. The alternative course +permitted Franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not +pursued, and in the autumn of 1846 he had followed that route which was +specially commended to him. But after successfully navigating Peel and +Franklin Straits on his way southward, his progress had been suddenly +and finally arrested by the obstruction of heavy ("palaeocrystic") ice, +which presses down from the north-west through M'Clintock Channel (not +then known to exist) upon King William's Island. It must be remembered +that in the chart which Franklin carried King William's Island was laid +down as a part of the mainland of Boothia, and he therefore could pursue +his way _only_ down its western coast. Upon the margin of the printed +admiralty form on which this brief record was written was an addendum +dated the 25th of April 1848, which extinguished all further hopes of a +successful termination of this grand enterprise. The facts are best +conveyed in the terse and expressive words in which they were written, +and are therefore given _verbatim_: "April 25th, 1848. H.M. Ships +'Terror' and 'Erebus' were deserted on 22nd April, five leagues N.N.W. +of this, having been beset since 12th September 1846. The officers and +crews, consisting of 105 souls under the command of Captain F. R. M. +Crozier, landed in lat. 69 deg. 37' 42" N., long. 98 deg. 41' W. This paper was +found by Lieut. Irving ... where it had been deposited by the late +Commander Gore in June 1847. Sir John Franklin died on the 11th June +1847; and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this +date 9 officers and 15 men." The handwriting is that of Captain +Fitzjames, to whose signature is appended that of Captain Crozier, who +also adds the words of chief importance, namely, that they would "start +on to-morrow 26th April 1848 for Back's Fish river." A briefer record +has never been told of so tragic a story. + +All the party had without doubt been greatly reduced through want of +sufficient food, and the injurious effects of three winters in these +regions. They had attempted to drag with them two boats, besides heavily +laden sledges, and doubtless had soon been compelled to abandon much of +their burden, and leave one boat on the shore of King William's Island, +where it was found by M'Clintock, near the middle of the west coast, +containing two skeletons. The route adopted was the shortest possible, +but their strength and supplies had failed, and at that season of the +year the snow-covered land afforded no subsistence. An old Eskimo woman +stated that these heroic men "fell down and died as they walked," and, +as Sir John Richardson has well said, they "forged the last link of the +North-West Passage with their lives." From all that can be gathered, one +of the ships must have been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water, +and the other, stranded on the shore of King William's Island, lay there +for years, forming a mine of wealth for the neighbouring Eskimo. + +This is all we know of the fate of Franklin and his brave men. His +memory is cherished as one of the most conspicuous of the naval heroes +of Britain, and as one of the most successful and daring of her +explorers. He is certainly entitled to the honour of being the first +discoverer of the North-West Passage; the point reached by the ships +having brought him to within a few miles of the known waters of America, +and on the monument erected to him by his country, in Waterloo Place, +London, this honour is justly awarded to him and his companions,--a fact +which was also affirmed by the president of the Royal Geographical +Society, when presenting their gold medal to Lady Franklin in 1860. On +the 26th of October 1852 Franklin had been promoted to the rank of +rear-admiral. He left an only daughter by his first marriage. Lady +Franklin died in 1875 at the age of eighty-three, and a fortnight after +her death a fine monument was unveiled in Westminster Abbey, +commemorating the heroic deeds and fate of Sir John Franklin, and the +inseparable connexion of Lady Franklin's name with the fame of her +husband. Most of the relics brought home by M'Clintock were presented by +Lady Franklin to the United Service Museum, while those given by Dr Rae +to the admiralty are deposited in Greenwich hospital. In 1864-1869 the +American explorer Captain Hall made two journeys in endeavouring to +trace the remnant of Franklin's party, bringing back a number of +additional relics and some information confirmatory of that given by +M'Clintock, and in 1878 Lieutenant F. Schwatka of the United States army +and a companion made a final land search, but although accomplishing a +remarkable record of travel discovered nothing which threw any fresh +light on the history of the expedition. + + See H. D. Traill, _Life of Sir John Franklin_ (1896). + + + + +FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1903), Federal general in the American +Civil War, was born at York, Pennsylvania, on the 27th of February 1823. +He graduated at West Point, at the head of his class, in 1843, was +commissioned in the Engineer Corps, U.S.A., and served with distinction +in the Mexican War, receiving the brevet of first lieutenant for his +good conduct at Buena Vista, in which action he was on the staff of +General Taylor. After the war he was engaged in miscellaneous +engineering work, becoming a first lieutenant in 1853 and a captain in +1857. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he was made +colonel of a regular infantry regiment, and a few days later +brigadier-general of volunteers. He led a brigade in the first battle of +Bull Run, and on the organization by McClellan of the Army of the +Potomac he received a divisional command. He commanded first a division +and then the VI. Corps in the operations before Richmond in 1862, +earning the brevet of brigadier-general in the U.S. Army; was promoted +major-general, U.S.V., in July 1862; commanded the VI. corps at South +Mountain and Antietam; and at Fredericksburg commanded the "Left Grand +Division" of two corps (I. and VI.). His part in the last battle led to +charges of disobedience and negligence being preferred against him by +the commanding general, General A. E. Burnside, on which the +congressional committee on the conduct of the war reported unfavourably +to Franklin, largely, it seems, because Burnside's orders to Franklin +were not put in evidence. Burnside had issued on the 23rd of January +1863 an order relieving Franklin from duty, and Franklin's only other +service in the war was as commander of the XIX. corps in the abortive +Red River Expedition of 1864. In this expedition he received a severe +wound at the action of Sabine Cross Roads (April 8, 1864), in +consequence of which he took no further active part in the war. He +served for a time on the retiring board, and was captured by the +Confederates on the 11th of July 1864, but escaped the same night. In +1865 he was brevetted major-general in the regular army, and in 1866 he +was retired. After the war General Franklin was vice-president of the +Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, was president of the +commission to lay out Long Island City, N.Y. (1871-1872), of the +commission on the building of the Connecticut state house (1872-1873), +and, from 1880 to 1899, of the board of managers of the national home +for disabled volunteer soldiers; as a commissioner of the United States +to the Paris Exposition of 1889 he was made a grand officer of the +Legion of Honour; and he was for a time a director of the Panama +railway. He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 8th of March 1903. He +wrote a pamphlet, _The Gatling Gun for Service Ashore and Afloat_ +(1874). + + See _A Reply of Major-General William B. Franklin to the Report of the + Joint Committee of Congress on the Conduct of the War_ (New York, + 1863; 2nd ed., 1867), and Jacob L. Greene, _Gen. W. B. Franklin and + the Operations of the Left Wing at the Battle of Fredericksburg_ + (Hartford, 1900). + + + + +FRANKLIN, an organized district of Canada, extending from the Arctic +Circle to the North Pole. It was formed by order-in-council on the 2nd +of October 1895, and includes numerous islands and peninsulas, such as +Banks, Prince Albert, Victoria, Wollaston, King Edward and Baffin Land, +Melville, Bathurst, Prince of Wales and Cockburn Islands. Of these, +Baffin Land alone extends south of the Arctic Circle. The area is +estimated at 500,000 sq. m., but the inhabitants consist of a few +Indians, Eskimo and fur-traders. Musk-oxen, polar bears, foxes and other +valuable fur-bearing animals are found in large numbers. The district is +named after Sir John Franklin. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., with an +area of 29 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1900) 5017, of whom 1250 +were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 5244; (1910 census) 5641. The +principal village, also named Franklin, is about 27 m. S.W. of Boston, +and is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. Franklin +has a public library (housed in the Ray memorial building and containing +7700 volumes in 1910) and is the seat of Dean Academy (Universalist; +founded in 1865), a secondary school for boys and girls. Straw goods, +felt, cotton and woollen goods, pianos and printing presses are +manufactured here. The township was incorporated in 1778, previous to +which it was a part of Wrentham (1673). It was the first of the many +places in the United States named in honour of Benjamin Franklin (who +later contributed books for the public library). Horace Mann was born +here. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a city of Merrimack county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., at the +confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnepesaukee rivers to form the +Merrimac; about 95 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 4085; (1900) 5846 +(1323 foreign-born); (1910) 6132; area, about 14.4 sq. m. Franklin is +served by the Concord Division of the Boston & Maine railway, with a +branch to Bristol (13 m. N.W.) and another connecting at Tilton (about 5 +m. E.) with the White Mountains Division. It contains the villages of +Franklin, Franklin Falls, Webster Place and Lake City, the last a summer +resort. The rivers furnish good water power, which is used in the +manufacture of a variety of commodities, including foundry products, +paper and pulp, woollen goods, hosiery, saws, needles and knitting +machines. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality. +Here, in what was then a part of the town of Salisbury, Daniel Webster +was born, and on the Webster farm is the New Hampshire orphans' home, +established in 1871. The town of Franklin was formed in 1828 by the +union of portions of Salisbury, Sanbornton, Andover and Northfield. The +earliest settlement within its limits was made in 1748 in the portion +taken from Salisbury. Franklin was incorporated as a city in 1895. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a city and the county-seat of Venango county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., at the confluence of French Creek and Allegheny river, about 55 +m. S. by E. of Erie, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 6221; +(1900) 7317 (489 being foreign-born); (1910) 9767. Franklin is served by +the Erie, the Pennsylvania, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the +Franklin & Clearfield railways. Its streets are broad and well paved and +shaded, and there are two public parks, a public library and many +handsome residences. Franklin is the centre of the chief oil region of +the state, and from it great quantities of refined oil are shipped. +Natural gas also abounds. The city's manufacture include oil-well +supplies, boilers, engines, steel castings, iron goods, lumber, bricks, +asbestos goods, manifolding paper and flour. On the site of the present +city the French built in 1754 a fortification, Fort Machault, which +after the capture of Fort Duquesne by the English was a rallying place +for Indians allied with the French. In 1759 the French abandoned and +completely destroyed the fort; and in the following year the English +built in the vicinity Fort Venango, which was captured by the Indians in +1763 during the Conspiracy of Pontiac, the whole garrison being +massacred. In 1787 the United States built Fort Franklin (about 1 m. +above the mouth of French Creek) as a protection against the Indians; in +1796 the troops were removed to a strongly built and well-fortified +wooden building, known as "Old Garrison," at the mouth of French Creek, +and in 1803 they were permanently withdrawn from the neighbourhood. +Franklin was laid out as a town in 1795, was incorporated as a borough +in 1828, and was chartered as a city in 1868. Most of its growth dates +from the discovery of oil in 1860. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a town and the county-seat of Williamson county, Tennessee, +U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on the Harpeth river, and +about 20 m. S.W. of Nashville. Pop. (1900) 2180; (1910) 2924. Franklin +is served by the Louisville & Nashville railway. It is the seat of the +Tennessee Female College and the Battle Ground Academy, and its chief +objects of interest are the battle-ground, the Confederate cemetery and +the Confederate monument. During the Civil War Franklin was the scene of +a minor engagement on the 10th of April 1863, and of a battle, +celebrated as one of the most desperately fought of the war, which took +place on the 30th of November 1864. The Union general Schofield, who was +slowly withdrawing to Nashville before the advance of General J. B. +Hood's army, which he was ordered to hold in check in order to give +Thomas time to prepare for battle (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, Sec. 32), was +unable immediately to cross the Harpeth river and was compelled to +entrench his forces south of the town until his wagon trains and +artillery could be sent over the stream by means of two small bridges. +In the afternoon Schofield's outposts and advanced lines were attacked +by the Confederates in full strength, and instead of withdrawing as +ordered they made a determined stand. Thus the assailants, carrying the +advanced works by storm, rushed upon the main defences on the heels of +the broken advanced guard, and a general engagement was brought on which +lasted from 3.30 until nine o'clock in the evening. Against, it is said, +thirteen separate assaults, all delivered with exceptional fury, +Schofield managed to hold his position, and shortly before midnight he +withdrew across the river in good order. The engagement was indecisive +in its results, but the Union commander's purpose, to hold Hood +momentarily in check, was gained, and Hood's effort to crush Schofield +was unavailing. The losses were very heavy; Hood's effective forces in +the engagement numbered about 27,000, Schofield's about 28,000; the +Confederate losses (excluding cavalry) were about 6500, excluding the +slightly wounded; six general officers were killed (including +Major-General P. R. Cleburne, a brave Irishman who had been a corporal +in the British army), six wounded, and one captured; the Union losses +(excluding cavalry) were 2326. In two of the Confederate brigades all +the general and field officers were killed or wounded. + + See J. D. Cox, _The Battle of Franklin_ (New York, 1897). + + + + +FRANKLIN, a word derived from the Late Lat. _francus_, free, and meaning +primarily a freeman. Subsequently it was used in England to denote a +land-holder who was of free but not of noble birth. Some of the older +English writers occasionally use it to mean a liberal host. The Latin +form of the word is _franchilanus_. + + + + +FRANKLINITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals, consisting of +oxides of iron, manganese and zinc in varying proportions, (Fe, Zn, +Mn)"(Fe, Mn)2"'O4. It occurs as large octahedral crystals often with +rounded edges, and as granular masses. The colour is iron-black and the +lustre metallic; hardness 6, specific gravity 5.2. It thus resembles +magnetite in external characters, but is readily distinguished from this +by the fact that it is only slightly magnetic. It is found in +considerable amount, associated with zinc minerals (zincite and +willemite) in crystalline limestone, at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, +where it is mined as an ore of zinc (containing 5 to 20% of the metal); +after the extraction of the zinc, the residue is used in the manufacture +of spiegeleisen (the mineral containing 15 to 20% of manganese oxides). +Associated with franklinite at Franklin Furnace, and found also at some +other localities, is another member of the spinel group, namely, gahnite +or zinc-spinel, which is a zinc aluminate, ZnAl2O4, with a little of the +zinc replaced by iron and manganese. + + + + +FRANK-MARRIAGE (_liberum maritagium_), in real property law, a species +of estate tail, now obsolete. When a man was seized of land in fee +simple, and gave it to a daughter on marriage, the daughter and her +husband were termed the donees in frank-marriage, because they held the +land granted to them and the heirs of their two bodies free from all +manner of service, except fealty, to the donor or his heirs until the +fourth degree of consanguinity from the donor was passed. This right of +a freeholder so to give away his land at will was first recognized in +the reign of Henry II., and became up to the reign of Elizabeth the most +usual kind of settlement. + + + + +FRANKPLEDGE (Lat. _francum plegium_), an early English institution, +consisting (as defined by Stubbs) of an association for mutual security +whose members, according to Hallam, "were perpetual bail for each +other." The custom whereby the Inhabitants of a district were +responsible for any crime or injury committed by one of their number is +old and widespread; it prevailed in England before the Norman Conquest, +and is an outcome of the earlier principle whereby this responsibility +rested on kinship. Thus a law of Edgar (d. 975) says "and let every man +so order that he have a _borh_ (or surety), and let the borh then bring +and hold him to every justice; and if any one then do wrong and run +away, let the borh bear that which he ought to bear"; and a law of +Canute about 1030 says "and that every one be brought into a hundred and +in borh, and let the borh hold and lead him to every plea." About this +time these societies, each having its headman, were called _frithborhs_, +or peace-borhs, and the Normans translated the Anglo-Saxon word by +frankpledge. But the history of the frankpledge proper begins not +earlier than the time of the Norman Conquest. The laws, which although +called the laws of Edward the Confessor were not drawn up until about +1130, contain a clause about frithborhs which decrees that in every +place societies of ten men shall be formed for mutual security and +reparation. And before this date William the Conqueror had ordered that +"every one who wishes to be regarded as free must be in a pledge, and +that the pledge must hold and bring him to justice if he commits any +offence"; and the laws of Henry I. ordered every person of substance +over twelve years of age to be enrolled in a frankpledge. This +association of ten, or as it often was at a later date of twelve men, +was also called a _tithing_, or _decima_, and in the north of England +was known as _tenmanne_ tale. + +The view of frankpledge (_visus franciplegii_), or the duty of +ascertaining that the law with regard to frankpledges was complied with, +was in the hands of the sheriffs, who held an itinerant court called the +"sheriff's tourn" for this and other purposes. This court was held twice +a year, but in 1217 it was ordered that the view of frankpledge should +only be taken once--at Michaelmas. Introduced at or before the time of +Henry I., the view was regulated by the Assize of Clarendon of 1166 and +by Magna Carta as reissued in 1217. Although the former of these lays +stress upon the fact that the sheriff's supervisory powers are universal +many men did not attend his tourn. Some lords of manors and of hundreds +held a court of their own for view of frankpledge, and in the 13th +century it may be fairly said "of all the franchises, the royal rights +in private hands, view of frankpledge is perhaps the commonest." At the +end of the same century the court for the view of frankpledge was +generally known as the court leet, and was usually a manorial court in +private hands. However, the principle of the frankpledge was still +enforced. Thus Bracton says "every male of the age of twelve years, be +he free be he serf, ought to be in frankpledge," but he allows for +certain exceptions. + +As the word frankpledge denotes, these societies were originally +concerned only with freemen; but the unfree were afterwards admitted, +and during the 13th century the frankpledges were composed chiefly of +villains. From petitions presented to parliament in 1376 it seems that +the view of frankpledge was in active operation at this time, but it +soon began to fall into disuse, and its complete decay coincides with +the new ideas of government introduced by the Tudors. In a formal +fashion courts leet for the view of frankpledge were held in the time of +the jurist Selden, and a few of these have survived until the present +day. Sir F. Palgrave has asserted that the view of frankpledge was +unknown in that part of the country which had been included in the +kingdom of Northumbria. This statement is open to question, but it is +highly probable that the system was not so deeply rooted in this part of +England as elsewhere. The machinery of the frankpledge was probably used +by Henry II. when he introduced the jury of presentment; and commenting +on this connexion F. W. Maitland says "the duty of producing one's +neighbour to answer accusations (the duty of the frankpledges) could +well be converted into the duty of telling tales against him." The +system of frankpledge prevailed in some English boroughs. Sometimes a +court for view of frankpledge, called in some places a _mickleton_, +whereat the mayor or the bailiffs presided, was held for the whole +borough; in other cases the borough was divided into wards, or into +_leets_, each of which had its separate court. + + See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1895); G. Waitz, + _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, Band i. (1880); and W. Stubbs, + _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (1897). + + + + +FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897), English antiquary, was born +on the 20th of March 1826, and was educated at Eton and at Trinity +College, Cambridge. He early showed inclination for antiquarian +pursuits, and in 1851 was appointed assistant in the Antiquities +Department of the British Museum. Here, and as director of the Society +of Antiquaries, an appointment he received in 1858, he made himself the +first authority in England upon medieval antiquities of all +descriptions, upon porcelain, glass, the manufactures of savage nations, +and in general upon all Oriental curiosities and works of art later than +the Classical period. In 1866 the British and medieval antiquities, with +the ethnographical collections, were formed into a distinct department +under his superintendence; and the Christy collection of ethnography in +Victoria Street, London, prior to its amalgamation with the British +Museum collections, was also under his care. He became vice-president +and ultimately president of the Society of Antiquaries, and in 1878 +declined the principal librarianship of the museum. He retired on his +seventieth birthday, 1896, and died on the 21st of May 1897. His ample +fortune was largely devoted to the collection of ceramics and precious +objects of medieval art, most of which became the property of the +nation, either by donation in his lifetime or by bequest at his death. +Although chiefly a medieval antiquary, Franks was also an authority on +classical art, especially Roman remains in Britain: he was also greatly +interested in book-marks and playing-cards, of both of which he formed +important collections. He edited Kemble's _Horae Ferales_, and wrote +numerous memoirs on archaeological subjects. Perhaps his most important +work of this class is the catalogue of his own collection of porcelain. + + + + + +FRANKS. The name Franks seems to have been given in the 4th century to a +group of Germanic peoples dwelling north of the Main and reaching as far +as the shores of the North Sea; south of the Main was the home of the +Alamanni. The names of some of these tribes have come down to us. On the +_Tabula Peutingeriana_ appear the "Chamavi qui et _Pranci_," which +should doubtless read "qui et _Franci_"; these Chamavi apparently dwelt +between the Yssel and the Ems. Later, we find them a little farther +south, on the banks of the Rhine, in the district called Hamalant, and +it is their customs which were brought together in the 9th century in +the document known as the _Lex Francorum Chamavorum_. After the Chamavi +we may mention the Attuarii or Chattuarii, who are referred to by +Ammianus Marcellinus (xx. 10, 2): "Rheno exinde transmisso, regionem +pervasit (Julianus) Francorum quos Atthuarios vocant." Later, the _pagus +Attuariorum_ corresponds to the district of Emmerich and Xanten. It +should be noted that this name occurs again in the middle ages in +Burgundy, not far from Dijon; in all probability a detachment of this +people had settled in that spot in the 5th or 6th century. The Bructeri, +Ampsivarii and Chatti may also be classed among the Frankish tribes. +They are mentioned in a celebrated passage of Sulpicius Alexander, which +is cited by Gregory of Tours (_Historia Francorum_, ii. 9). Sulpicius +shows the general Arbogast, a barbarian in the service of Rome, seeking +to take vengeance on the Franks (392): "Collecto exercitu, transgressus +Rhenum, Bricteros ripae proximos, pagum etiam quem Chamavi incolunt +depopulatus est, nullo unquam occursante, nisi quod pauci ex Ampsivariis +et Catthis Marcomere duce in ulterioribus collium jugis apparuere." It +is evidently this Marcomeres, the chief of these tribes, who is regarded +by later historians as the father of the legendary Faramund (Pharamund) +although in fact Marcomeres has nothing to do with the Salian Franks. + +The earliest mention in history of the name Franks is the entry on the +_Tabula Peutingeriana_, at least if we assume that the term "et Franci" +is not a later emendation. The earliest occurrence of the name in any +author is in the _Vita Aureliani_ of Vopiscus (ch. vii.). When, in 241, +Aurelian, who was then only a tribune, had just defeated some Franks in +the neighbourhood of Mainz and was marching against the Persians, his +troops sang the following refrain: + + Mille Sarmatas, mille _Francos_, semel et semel occidimus; + Mille Persas, quaerimus. + +All these Germanic tribes, which were known from the 3rd century onwards +by the generic name of Franks, doubtless spoke a similar dialect and +were governed by customs which must scarcely have differed from one +another; but this was all they had in common. Each tribe was politically +independent; they formed no confederations. Sometimes two or three +tribes joined forces to wage a war; but, the struggle over, the bond was +broken, and each tribe resumed its isolated life. Waitz holds with some +show of probability that the Franks represent the ancient Istaevones of +Tacitus, the Alamanni and the Saxons representing the Herminones and the +Ingaevones. + +Of all these Frankish tribes one especially was to become prominent, the +tribe of the Salians. They are mentioned for the first time in 358, by +Ammianus Marcellinus (xvii. 8, 3), who says that the Caesar Julian +"petit primos omnium Francos, videlicet eos quos consuetudo Salios +appellavit." As to the origin of the name, it was long held to be +derived from the river Yssel or Saal. It is more probable, however, that +it arose from the fact that the Salians for a long period occupied the +shores of the salt sea.[1] The Salians inhabited the sea-coast, whereas +the Ripuarians dwelt on the banks of the river Rhine. + +The Salians, at the time when they are mentioned by Ammianus, occupied +Toxandria, i.e. the region south of the Meuse, between that river and +the Scheldt. Julian defeated them completely, but allowed them to remain +in Toxandria, not, as of old, as conquerors, but as _foederati_ of the +Romans. They perhaps paid tribute, and they certainly furnished Rome +with soldiers; _Salii seniores_ and _Salii juniores_ are mentioned in +the _Notitia dignitatum_, and Salii appear among the _auxilia palatina_. + +At the end of the 4th century and at the beginning of the 5th, when the +Roman legions withdrew from the banks of the Rhine, the Salians +installed themselves in the district as an independent people. The +place-names became entirely Germanic; the Latin language disappeared; +and the Christian religion suffered a check, for the Franks were to a +man pagans. The Salians were subdivided into a certain number of tribes, +each tribe placing at its head a king, distinguished by his long hair +and chosen from the most noble family (_Historia Francorum_, ii. 9). + +The most ancient of these kings, reigning over the principal tribe, who +is known to us is Chlodio.[2] According to Gregory of Tours Chlodio +dwelt at a place called Dispargum, which it is impossible to identify. +Towards 431 he crossed the great Roman road from Bavay to Cologne, which +was protected by numerous forts and had long arrested the invasions of +the barbarians. He then invaded the territory of Arras, but was severely +defeated at Hesdin-le-Vieux by Aetius, the commander of the Roman army +in Gaul. Chlodio, however, soon took his revenge. He explored the region +of Cambrai, seized that town, and occupied all the country as far as the +Somme. At this time Tournai became the capital of the Salian Franks. + +After Chlodio a certain Meroveus (Merowech) was king of the Salian +Franks. We do not know if he was the son of Chlodio; Gregory of Tours +simply says that he belonged to Chlodio's stock--"de hujus stirpe quidam +Merovechum regem fuisse adserunt,"--and then only gives the fact at +second hand. Perhaps the remarks of the Byzantine historian Priscus may +refer to Meroveus. A king of the Franks having died, his two sons +disputed the power. The elder journeyed into Pannonia to obtain support +from Attila; the younger betook himself to the imperial court at Rome. +"I have seen him," writes Priscus; "he was still very young, and we all +remarked his fair hair which fell upon his shoulders." Aetius welcomed +him warmly and sent him back a friend and _foederatus_. In any case, +eventually, Franks fought (451) in the Roman ranks at the great battle +of Mauriac (the Catalaunian Fields), which arrested the progress of +Attila into Gaul; and in the _Vita Lupi_, which, though undoubtedly of +later date, is a recension of an earlier document, the name of Meroveus +appears among the combatants. Towards 457 Meroveus was succeeded by his +son Childeric. At first Childeric was a faithful _foederatus_ of the +Romans, fighting for them against the Visigoths and the Saxons south of +the Loire; but he soon sought to make himself independent and to extend +his conquests. He died in 481 and was succeeded by his son Clovis, who +conquered the whole of Gaul with the exception of the kingdom of +Burgundy and Provence. Clovis made his authority recognized over the +other Salian tribes (whose kings dwelt at Cambrai and other cities), and +put an end to the domination of the Ripuarian Franks. + +These Ripuarians must have comprised a certain number of Frankish +tribes, such as the Ampsivarii and the Bructeri. They settled in the 5th +century in compact masses on the left bank of the Rhine, but their +progress was slow. It was not until the Christian writer Salvian (who +was born about 400) had already reached a fairly advanced age that they +were able to seize Cologne. The town, however, was recaptured and was +not definitely in their possession until 463. The Ripuarians +subsequently occupied all the country from Cologne to Trier. +Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn and Zuelpich were their principal centres, and they +even advanced southward as far as Metz, which appears to have resisted +their attacks. The Roman civilization and the Latin language disappeared +from the countries which they occupied; indeed it seems that the actual +boundaries of the German and French languages nearly coincide with those +of their dominion. In their southward progress the Ripuarians +encountered the Alamanni, who, already masters of Alsace, were +endeavouring to extend their conquests in all directions. There were +numerous battles between the Ripuarians and the Alamanni; and the memory +of one fought at Zuelpich has come down to us. In this battle Sigebert, +the king of the Ripuarians, was wounded in the knee and limped during +the remainder of his life--hence his surname Claudus (the Lame). The +Ripuarians long remained allies of Clovis, Sigebert's son Chloderic +fighting under the king of the Salian Franks at Vouille in 507. Clovis, +however, persuaded Chloderic to assassinate his father, and then posed +as Sigebert's avenger, with the result that Chloderic was himself +assassinated and the Ripuarians raised Clovis on the shield and chose +him as king. Thus the Salian Franks united under their rule all the +Franks on the left bank of the Rhine. During the reigns of Clovis's sons +they again turned their eyes on Germany, and imposed their suzerainty +upon the Franks on the right bank. This country, north of the Main and +the first residence of the Franks, then received the name of _Francia +Orientalis_, and became the origin of one of the duchies into which +Germany was divided in the 10th century--the duchy of Franconia +(Franken). + +The Franks were redoubtable warriors, and were generally of great +stature. Their fair or red hair was brought forward from the crown of +the head towards the forehead, leaving the nape of the neck uncovered; +they shaved the face except the upper lip. They wore fairly close +breeches reaching to the knee and a tunic fastened by brooches. Round +the waist over the tunic was worn a leathern girdle having a broad iron +buckle damascened with silver. From the girdle hung the single-edged +missile axe or _francisca_, the _scramasax_ or short knife, a poniard +and such articles of toilet as scissors, a comb (of wood or bone), &c. +The Franks also used a weapon called the _framea_ (an iron lance set +firmly in a wooden shaft), and bows and arrows. They protected +themselves in battle with a large wooden or wicker shield, the centre of +which was ornamented with an iron boss (_umbo_). Frankish arms and +armour have been found in the cemeteries which abound throughout +northern France, the warriors being buried fully armed. + + See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthuemer_ (Goettingen, 1828); K. + Muellenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_ (Berlin, 1883-1900); E. von + Wietersheim, _Geschichte der Voelkerwanderung_, 2nd ed., ed. by F. Dahn + (Leipzig, 1880-1881); G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, vol. + i. (4th ed. revised by Zeumer); R. Schroeder, "Die Ausbreitung der + salischen Franken," in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, vol. + xix.; K. Lamprecht, _Fraenkische Wanderungen und Ansiedelungen_ + (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1882); W. Schultz, _Deutsche Geschichte von der + Urzeit bis zu den Karolingern_, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896); Fustel de + Coulanges, _Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne + France--l'invasion germanique_ (Paris, 1891). Also the articles SALIC + LAW and GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY. (C. Pf.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Their legends are connected with the sea, the name Meroveus + signifying "sea-born." + + [2] The chronicler Fredegarius and the author of the _Liber historiae + Francorum_ make Sunno and Marcomeres his predecessors, but in reality + they were chiefs of other Frankish tribes. The author of the _Liber_ + also claims that Chlodio was the son of Pharamund, but this personage + is quite legendary. In the _Chronicon_ of Fredegarius it is already + affirmed that the Franks are descended from the Trojans. + + + + +FRANZ, ROBERT (1815-1892), German composer, was born at Halle on the +28th of June 1815. One of the most gifted of German song writers, he +suffered in early life, as many musicians have suffered, from the +hostility of his parents to a musical career. He was twenty years old +when, his father's animosity conquered, he was allowed to live in Dessau +to study organ-playing under Schneider. The two years of dry study under +that famous teacher were advantageous chiefly in making him uncommonly +intimate with the works of Bach and Handel, his knowledge of which he +showed in his editions of the _Matthaeus Passion_, _Magnificat_, ten +cantatas, and of the _Messiah_ and _L'Allegro_, though some of these +editions have long been a subject of controversy among musicians. In +1843 he published his first book of songs, which ultimately was followed +by some fifty more books, containing in all about 250 songs. At Halle, +Franz filled various public offices, including those of organist to the +city, conductor of the Sing-akademie and of the Symphony concerts, and +he was also a royal music-director and master of the music at the +university. The first book of songs was warmly praised by Schumann and +Liszt, the latter of whom wrote a lengthy review of it in Schumann's +paper, _Die neue Zeitschrift_, which later was published separately. +Deafness had begun to make itself apparent as early as 1841, and Franz +suffered also from a nervous disorder, which in 1868 compelled him to +resign his offices. His future was then provided for by Liszt, Dr +Joachim, Frau Magnus and others, who gave him the receipts of a concert +tour, amounting to some 100,000 marks. Franz died on the 24th of October +1892. On his seventieth birthday he published his first and only +pianoforte piece. It is easy to find here and there among his songs gems +that are hardly less brilliant than the best of Schumann's. Certainly no +musician was ever more thoughtful and more painstaking. In addition to +songs he wrote a setting for double choir of the 117th Psalm, and a +four-part Kyrie; he also edited Astorga's _Stabat Mater_ and Durante's +_Magnificat_. + + + + +FRANZEN, FRANS MIKAEL (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was born at Uleaborg in +Finland on the 9th of February 1772. At thirteen he entered the +university of Abo, where he attended the lectures of H. G. Porthan +(1739-1804), a pioneer in the study of Finnish history and legend. He +graduated in 1789, and became "_eloquentiae docens_" in 1792. Three +years later he started on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France and +England, returning in 1796 to accept the office of university librarian +at Abo. In 1801 he became professor of history and ethics, and in 1808 +was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. On the cession of Finland +to Russia, Franzen removed to Sweden, where he was successively +appointed parish priest of Kumla in the diocese of Strengnaes (1810), +minister of the Clara Church in Stockholm (1824) and bishop of Hernoesand +(1831). He died at Saebra parsonage on the 14th of August 1847. From the +autumn of 1793, when his _Till en ung Flicka_ and _Menniskans anlete_ +were inserted by Kellgren in the _Stockholmspost_, Franzen grew in +popular favour by means of many minor poems of singular simplicity and +truth, as _Till Selma_, _Den gamle knekten_, _Riddar St Goeran_, _De Sma +blommorna_, _Modren vid vaggan_, _Nyarsmorgonen_ and _Stjernhimmelen_. +His songs _Goda gosse glaset toem_, _Soerj ej den gryende dagen foerut_, +_Champagnevinet_ and _Bevaeringssang_ were widely sung, and in 1797 he +won the prize of the Swedish Academy by his _Sang oefver grefve Filip +Creutz_. Henceforth his muse, touched with the academic spirit, grew +more reflective and didactic. His longer works, as _Emili eller en afton +i Lappland_, and the epics _Svante Sture eller moetet vid Alvastra_, +_Kolumbus eller Amerikas upptaeckt_ and _Gustaf Adolf i Tyskland_ (the +last two incomplete), though rich in beauties of detail, are far +inferior to his shorter pieces. + + The poetical works of Franzen are collected under the title + _Skaldestycken_ (7 vols., 1824-1861); new ed., _Samlade dikter_, with + a biography by A. A. Grafstroem (1867-1869); also a selection (_Valda + dikter_) in 2 vols. (1871). His prose writings, _Om svenska + drottningar_ (Abo, 1798; Oerebro, 1823), _Skrifter i obunden stil_, + vol. i. (1835), _Predikningar_ (5 vols., 1841-1845) and + _Minnesteckningar_, prepared for the Academy (3 vols., 1848-1860), are + marked by faithful portraiture and purity of style. See B. E. + Malmstroem, in the _Handlingar_ of the Swedish Academy (1852, new + series 1887), vol. ii.; S. A. Hollander, _Minne af F. M. Franzen_ + (Oerebro, 1868); F. Cygnaeus, _Teckningar ur F. M. Franzens lefnad_ + (Helsingfors, 1872); and Gustaf Ljunggren, _Svenska vitterhetens + haefder efter Gustaf III.'s doed_, vol. ii. (1876). + + + + +FRANZENSBAD, or KAISER-FRANZENSBAD, a town and watering-place of +Bohemia, Austria, 152 m. W.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 2330. It +is situated at an altitude of about 1500 ft. between the spurs of the +Fichtelgebirge, the Boehmerwald and the Erzgebirge, and lies 4 m. N.W. of +Eger. It possesses a large kursaal, several bathing establishments, a +hospital for poor patients and several parks. There are altogether 12 +mineral springs with saline, alkaline and ferruginous waters, of which +the oldest and most important is the Franzensquelle. One of the springs +gives off carbonic acid gas and another contains a considerable +proportion of lithia salts. The waters, which have an average +temperature between 50.2 deg. F. and 54.5 deg. F., are used both internally and +externally, and are efficacious in cases of anaemia, nervous disorders, +sexual diseases, specially for women, and heart diseases. Franzensbad is +frequently resorted to as an after-cure by patients from Carlsbad and +Marienbad. Another important part of the cure is the so-called _moor_ or +mud-baths, prepared from the peat of the Franzensbad marsh, which is +very rich in mineral substances, like sulphates of iron, of soda and of +potash, organic acids, salt, &c. + +The first information about the springs dates from the 16th century, and +an analysis of the waters was made in 1565. They were first used for +bathing purposes in 1707. But the foundation of Franzensbad as a +watering-place really dates from 1793, when Dr Adler built here the +first _Kurhaus_, and the place received its name after the emperor +Francis I. + + See Dr Loimann, _Franzensbad_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1900). + + + + +FRANZ JOSEF LAND, an arctic archipelago lying E. of Spitsbergen and N. +of Novaya Zemlya, extending northward from about 80 deg. to 82 deg. N., and +between 42 deg. and 64 deg. E. It is described as a lofty glacier-covered land, +reaching an extreme elevation of about 2400 ft. The glaciers front, with +a perpendicular ice-wall, a shore of debris on which a few low plants +are found to grow--poppies, mosses and the like. The islands are +volcanic, the main geological formation being Tertiary or Jurassic +basalt, which occasionally protrudes through the ice-cap in high +isolated blocks near the shore. A connecting island-chain between Franz +Josef Land and Spitzbergen is probable. The bear and fox are the only +land mammals; insects are rare; but the avifauna is of interest, and the +Jackson expedition distinguished several new species. + +August Petermann expressed the opinion that Baffin may have sighted the +west of Franz Josef Land in 1614, but the first actual discovery is due +to Julius Payer, a lieutenant in the Austrian army, who was associated +with Weyprecht in the second polar expedition fitted out by Count +Wilczek on the ship "Tegetthof" in 1872. On the 13th of August 1873, the +"Tegetthof" being then beset, high land was seen to the north-west. +Later in the season Payer led expeditions to Hochstetter and Wilczek +islands, and after a second winter in the ice-bound ship, a difficult +journey was made northward through Austria Sound, which was reported to +separate two large masses of land, Wilczek Land on the east from Zichy +Land on the west, to Cape Fligely, in 82 deg. 5' N., where Rawlinson Sound +branched away to the north-east. Cape Fligely was the highest latitude +attained by Payer, and remained the highest attained in the Old World +till 1895. Payer reported that from Cape Fligely land (Rudolf Land) +stretched north-east to a cape (Cape Sherard Osborn), and mountain +ranges were visible to the north, indicating lands beyond the 83rd +parallel, to which the names King Oscar Land and Petermann Land were +given. In 1879 De Bruyne sighted high land in the Franz Josef Land +region, but otherwise it remained untouched until Leigh Smith, in the +yacht "Eira," explored the whole southern coast from 42 deg. to 54 deg. E. in +1881 and 1882, discovering many islands and sounds, and ascertaining +that the coast of Alexandra Land, in the extreme west, trended to +north-west and north. + +After Leigh Smith came another pause, and no further mention is made of +Franz Josef Land till 1894. In that year Mr Alfred Harmsworth +(afterwards Lord Northcliffe) fitted out an expedition in the ship +"Windward" under the leadership of Mr F. G. Jackson, with the object of +establishing a permanent base from which systematic exploration should +be carried on for successive years and, if practicable, a journey should +be made to the Pole. Mr Jackson and his party landed at "Elmwood" (which +was named from Lord Northcliffe's seat in the Isle of Thanet), near Cape +Flora, at the western extremity of Northbrook Island, on the 7th of +September. After a preliminary reconnaissance to the north, which +afterwards turned out to be vitally important, the summer of 1895 was +spent in exploring the coast to the north-west by a boating expedition. +This expedition visited many of the points seen by Leigh Smith, and +discovered land, which it has been suggested may be the Gillies Land +reported by the Dutch captain Gillies in 1707. In 1896 the +Jackson-Harmsworth expedition worked northwards through an archipelago +for about 70 m. and reached Cape Richthofen, a promontory 700 ft. high, +whence an expanse of open water was seen to the northward, which +received the name of Queen Victoria Sea. To the west, on the opposite +side of a wide opening which was called the British Channel, appeared +glacier-covered land, and an island lay to the northward. The island was +probably the King Oscar Land of Payer. To north and north-east was the +land which had been visited in the reconnaissance of the previous year, +but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the supposed position of +Petermann Land. Thus Zichy Land itself was resolved into a group of +islands, and the outlying land sighted by Payer was found to be islands +also. Meanwhile Nansen, on his southward journey, had approached Franz +Josef Land from the north-east, finding only sea at the north end of +Wilczek Land, and seeing nothing of Payer's Rawlinson Sound, or of the +north end of Austria Sound. Nansen wintered near Cape Norway, only a few +miles from the spot reached by Jackson in 1895. He had finally proved +that a deep oceanic basin lies to the north. On the 17th of June 1896 +the dramatic meeting of Jackson and Nansen took place, and in the same +year the "Windward" revisited "Elmwood" and brought Nansen home, the +work of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition being continued for another +year. As the non-existence of land to the north had been proved, the +attempt to penetrate northwards was abandoned, and the last season was +devoted to a survey and scientific examination of the archipelago, +especially to the west; this was carried out by Messrs Jackson, +Armitage, R. Koettlitz, H. Fisher and W. S. Bruce. + +Further light was thrown on the relations of Franz Josef Land and +Spitsbergen during 1897 by the discoveries of Captain Robertson of +Dundee, and Wyche's Land was circumnavigated by Mr Arnold Pike and Sir +Savile Crossley. The latter voyage was repeated in the following year by +a German expedition under Dr Th. Lerner and Captain Ruediger. In August +1898 an expedition under Mr Walter Wellman, an American, landed at Cape +Tegetthof. Beginning a northward journey with sledges at the end of the +winter, Wellman met with an accident which compelled him to return, but +not before some exploration had been accomplished, and the eastern +extension of the archipelago fairly well defined. In June 1899 H.R.H. +the duke of Abruzzi started from Christiania in his yacht, the "Stella +Polare," to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly +discovered ocean north of Franz Josef Land. The "Stella Polare" +succeeded in making her way through the British Channel to Crown Prince +Rudolf Land, and wintered in Teplitz Bay, in 81 deg. 33' N. lat. The ship +was nearly wrecked in the autumn, and the party had to spend most of the +winter on shore, the duke of Abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite. +In March 1900 a sledge party of thirteen, under Captain Cagni, started +northwards. They found no trace of Petermann Land, but with great +difficulty crossed the ice to 86 deg. 33' N. lat., 20 m. beyond Nansen's +farthest, and 240 m. from the Pole. The party, with the exception of +three, returned to the ship after an absence of 104 days, and the +"Stella Polare" returned to Tromsoe in September 1900. In 1901-1902 the +Baldwin-Ziegler expedition also attempted a northward journey from Franz +Josef Land. + + See _Geographical Journal_, vol. xi., February 1898; F. G. Jackson, _A + Thousand Days in the Arctic_ (1899). + + + + +FRANZOS, KARL EMIL (1848-1904), German novelist, was born of Jewish +parentage on the 25th of October 1848 in Russian Podolia, and spent his +early years at Czortkow in Galicia. His father, a district physician, +died early, and the boy, after attending the gymnasium of Czernowitz, +was obliged to teach in order to support himself and prepare for +academic study. He studied law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, +but after passing the examination for employment in the state judicial +service abandoned this career and, becoming a journalist, travelled +extensively in south-east Europe, and visited Asia Minor and Egypt. In +1877 he returned to Vienna, where from 1884 to 1886 he edited the _Neue +illustrierte Zeitung_. In 1887 he removed to Berlin and founded the +fortnightly review _Deutsche Dichtung_. Franzos died on the 28th of +January 1904. His earliest collections of stories and sketches, _Aus +Halb-Asien_, _Land und Leute des oestlichen Europas_ (1876) and _Die +Juden von Barnow_ (1877) depict graphically the life and manners of the +races of south-eastern Europe. Among other of his works may be mentioned +the short stories, _Junge Liebe_ (1878), _Stille Geschichten_ (1880), +and the novels _Moschko von Parma_ (1880), _Ein Kampf ums Recht_ (1882), +_Der Praesident_ (1884), _Judith Trachtenberg_ (1890), _Der +Wahrheitsucher_ (1894). + + + + +FRASCATI, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15 +m. S.E. of Rome by rail, and also reached by electric tramway via +Grottaferrata. Pop. (1901) 8453. The town is situated 1056 ft. above the +sea-level, on the N. slopes of the outer crater ring of the Alban Hills, +and commands a very fine view of the Campagna of Rome. The cathedral +contains a memorial tablet to Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, whose +body for some while rested here; his brother, Henry, Cardinal York, +owned a villa at Frascati. The villas of the Roman nobility, with their +beautiful gardens and fountains, are the chief attraction of Frascati. +The earliest in date is the Villa Falconieri, planned by Cardinal +Ruffini before 1550; the most important of the rest are the Villa +Torlonia (formerly Conti), Lancelotti (formerly Piccolomini), Ruffinella +(now belonging to Prince Lancellotti), Aldobrandini, Borghese and +Mondragone (now a Jesuit school). The surrounding country, covered with +remains of ancient villas, is fertile and noted for its wine. Frascati +seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancient villa, which, +under Domitian at any rate, belonged to the imperial house about the 9th +century in which period we find in the _Liber Pontificalis_ the names of +four churches _in Frascata_. The medieval stronghold of the counts of +Tusculum (q.v.), which occupied the site of the ancient city, was +dismantled by the Romans in 1191, and the inhabitants put to the sword +or mutilated. Many of the fugitives naturally took refuge in Frascati. +The see of Tusculum had, however, always had its cathedral church in +Frascati. For the greater part of the middle ages Frascati belonged to +the papacy. + + See G. Tomassetti, _La Via Latina nel medio evo_ (Rome, 1886), 170 + seq.; T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iv. (London, + 1907). (T. As.) + + + + +FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819- ), Scottish philosopher, was born at +Ardchattan, Argyllshire, on the 3rd of September 1819. He was educated +at Glasgow and Edinburgh, where, from 1846 to 1856, he was professor of +Logic at New College. He edited the _North British Review_ from 1850 to +1857, and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church minister, he +succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logic and Metaphysics at +Edinburgh University. In 1859 he became dean of the faculty of arts. He +devoted himself to the study of English philosophers, especially +Berkeley, and published a _Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop +Berkeley with Annotations, &c._ (1871; enlarged 1901), a _Biography of +Berkeley_ (1881), an _Annotated Edition of Locke's Essay_ (1894), the +_Philosophy of Theism_ (1896) and the _Biography of Thomas Reid_ (1898). +He contributed the article on John Locke to the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_. In 1904 he published an autobiography entitled _Biographia +philosophica_, in which he sketched the progress of his intellectual +development. From this work and from his Gifford lectures we learn +objectively what had previously been inferred from his critical works. +After a childhood spent in an austerity which stigmatized as unholy even +the novels of Sir Walter Scott, he began his college career at the age +of fourteen at a time when Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were +lecturing on Moral Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical advance +was stimulated by Thomas Brown's _Cause and Effect_, which introduced +him to the problems which were to occupy his thought. From this point he +fell into the scepticism of Hume. In 1836 Sir William Hamilton was +appointed to the chair of Logic and Metaphysics, and Fraser became his +pupil. He himself says, "I owe more to Hamilton than to any other +influence." It was about this time also that he began his study of +Berkeley and Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for the +conception of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In the +_Biographia_ this "Theistic faith" appears in its full development (see +the concluding chapter), and is especially important as perhaps the +nearest approach to Kantian ethics made by original English philosophy. +Apart from the philosophical interest of the Biographia, the work +contains valuable pictures of the Land of Lorne and Argyllshire society +in the early 19th century, of university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh, +and a history of the _North British Review_. + + + + +FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885), English bishop, was born at Prestbury, in +Gloucestershire, on the 18th of August 1818, and was educated at +Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, and Lincoln College, Oxford. In 1839 he was +Ireland scholar, and took a first class. In 1840 he gained an Oriel +fellowship, and was for some time tutor of the college, but did not take +orders until 1846. He was successively vicar of Cholderton, in +Wiltshire, and rector of Ufton Nervet, in Berkshire; but his subsequent +importance was largely due to W. K. Hamilton, bishop of Salisbury, who +recommended him as an assistant commissioner of education. His report on +the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions, made in May 1859, +was described by Thomas Hughes as "a superb, almost a unique piece of +work." In 1865 he was commissioned to report on the state of education +in the United States and Canada, and his able performance of this task +brought him an offer of the bishopric of Calcutta, which he declined, +but in January 1870 he accepted the see of Manchester. The task before +him was an arduous one, for although his predecessor, James Prince Lee, +had consecrated no fewer than 130 churches, the enormous population was +still greatly in advance of the ecclesiastical machinery. Fraser worked +with the utmost energy, and did even more for the church by the +liberality and geniality which earned him the title of "the bishop of +all denominations." He was prominent in secular as well as religious +works, interesting himself in every movement that promoted health, +morality, or education; and especially serviceable as the friendly, +unofficious counsellor of all classes. His theology was that of a +liberal high-churchman, and his sympathies were broad. In convocation he +seconded a motion for the disuse of the Athanasian Creed, and in the +House of Lords he voted for the abolition of university tests. He died +suddenly on the 22nd of October 1885. + + A biography by Thomas Hughes was published in 1887, and an account of + his Lancashire life by J. W. Diggle (1889), who also edited 2 vols. of + _University and Parochial Sermons_ (1887). + + + + +FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783-1856), Scottish traveller and author, was +born at Reelick in the county of Inverness on the 11th of June 1783. He +was the eldest of the four sons of Edward Satchell Fraser of Reelick, +all of whom found their way to the East, and gave proof of their +ability. In early life he went to the West Indies and thence to India. +In 1815 he made a tour of exploration in the Himalayas, accompanied by +his brother William (d. 1835). When Reza Kuli Mirza and Nejeff Kuli +Mirza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was appointed to +look after them during their stay, and on their return he accompanied +them as far as Constantinople. He was afterwards sent to Persia on a +diplomatic mission by Lord Glenelg, and effected a most remarkable +journey on horseback through Asia Minor to Teheran. His health, however, +was impaired by the exposure. In 1823 he married a daughter of Alexander +Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee, a sister of the historian Patrick +Fraser Tytler. He died at Reelick in January 1856. Fraser is said to +have displayed great skill in water-colours, and several of his drawings +have been engraved; and the astronomical observations which he took +during some of his journeys did considerable service to the cartography +of Asia. The works by which he attained his literary reputation were +accounts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of Eastern +life. In both he employed a vigorous and impassioned style, which was on +the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor faults in taste and +flaws in structure. + + Fraser's earliest writings are: _Journal of a Tour through Part of the + Himala Mountains and to the Sources of the Jumna and the Ganges_ + (1820); _A Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 and + 1822, including some Account of the Countries to the North-East of + Persia_ (1825); and _Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces + on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea_ (1826). His romances include + _The Kuzzilbash, a Tale of Khorasan_ (1828), and its sequel, _The + Persian Adventurer_ (1830); _Allee Neemroo_ (1842); and _The Dark + Falcon_ (1844). He also wrote _An Historical and Descriptive Account + of Persia_ (1834); _A Winter's Journey (Tatar) from Constantinople to + Teheran_ (1838); _Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, &c._ (1840); + _Mesopotamia and Assyria_ (1842); and _Military Memoirs of Col. James + Skinner_ (1851). + + + + +FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, Bart. (1826-1898), English politician, +author and collector, was born on the 10th of February 1826, the son of +Sir James John Fraser, 3rd baronet, a colonel of the 7th Hussars, who +had served on Wellington's staff at Waterloo. He was educated at Eton +and at Christ Church, Oxford, entered the 1st Life Guards in 1847, but +retired with a captain's rank in 1852. He then set about entering +parliament, and the ups and downs of his political career were rather +remarkable. He was returned for Barnstaple in 1852, but the election was +declared void on account of bribery, and the constituency was +disfranchised for two years. At the election of 1857 Sir William, who +had meantime been defeated at Harwich, was again returned at Barnstaple. +He was, however, defeated in 1859, but was elected in 1863 at Ludlow. +This seat he held for only two years, when he was again defeated and did +not re-enter parliament until 1874, when be was returned for +Kidderminster, a constituency he represented for six years, when he +retired. He was a familiar figure at the Carlton Club, always ready with +a copious collection of anecdotes of Wellington, Disraeli and Napoleon +III. He died on the 17th of August 1898. He was an assiduous collector +of relics; and his library was sold for some L20,000. His own books +comprise _Words on Wellington_ (1889), _Disraeli and his Day_ (1891), +_Hic et Ubique_ (1893), _Napoleon III._ (1896) and the _Waterloo Ball_ +(1897). + + + + +FRASER, the chief river of British Columbia, Canada, rising in two +branches among the Rocky Mountains near 52 deg. 45' N., 118 deg. 30' W. Length +740 m. It first flows N.W. for about 160 m., then rounds the head of the +Cariboo Mountains, and flows directly S. for over 400 m. to Hope, where +it again turns abruptly and flows W. for 80 m., falling into the Gulf of +Georgia at New Westminster. After the junction of the two forks near its +northern extremity, the first important tributary on its southern course +is the Stuart, draining Lakes Stuart, Fraser and Francois. One hundred +miles lower down the Quesnel, draining a large lake of the same name, +flows in from the east at a town also so named. Farther on the Fraser +receives from the west the Chilcotin, and at Lytton, about 180 m. from +the sea, the Thompson, its largest tributary, flows in from the east, +draining a series of mountain lakes, and receiving at Kamloops the North +Thompson, which flows through deep and impassable canyons. Below Hope +the Lillooet flows in from the north. The Fraser is a typical mountain +stream, rapid and impetuous through all its length, and like most of its +tributaries is in many parts not navigable even by canoes. On its +southern course between Lytton and Yale, while bursting its way through +the Coast Range, it flows through majestic canyons, which, like those of +the Thompson, were the scene of many tragedies during the days of the +gold-rush to the Cariboo district. At Yale, about 80 m. from its mouth, +it becomes navigable, though its course is still very rapid. In the +Cariboo district, comprised within the great bend of the river, near +Tete Jaune Cache, are many valuable gold deposits. With its tributaries +the Fraser drains the whole province from 54 deg. to 49 deg. N., except the +extreme south-eastern corner, which is within the basin of the Columbia +and its tributary the Kootenay. + + + + +FRASERBURGH, a police burgh and seaport, on the N. coast of +Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 7466; (1901), 9105. It is situated +471/4 m. by rail N. of Aberdeen, from which there is a branch line, of +which it is the terminus, of the Great North of Scotland railway. It +takes its name from Sir Alexander Fraser, the ancestor of Lord Saltoun, +whose seat, Philorth House, lies 2 m. to the south. Sir Alexander +obtained for it in 1613 a charter as a burgh of royalty, and also in +1592 a charter for the founding of a university. This latter project, +however, was not carried out, and all that remains of the building +intended for the college is a three-storeyed tower. The old castle of +the Frasers on Kinnaird Head now contains a lighthouse, and close by is +the Wine Tower, with a cave below. The town cross is a fine structure +standing upon a huge hexagon, surmounted by a stone pillar 12 ft. high, +ornamented by the royal and Fraser arms. The port is one of the leading +stations of the herring fishery in the north of Scotland and the head +of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to September) +the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 persons. The fleet +numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual value of the catch exceeds +L200,000. The harbour, originally constructed as a refuge for British +ships of war, is one of the best on the east coast, and has been +improved by the widening of the piers and the extension of the +breakwaters. It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of +access, and affords anchorage for vessels of every size. + + + + +FRASERVILLE (formerly Riviere du Loup en Bas), a town and watering-place +in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada, 107 m. (by water) north-east of +Quebec, on the south shore of the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of +the Riviere du Loup, at the junction of the Intercolonial and +Temiscouata railways. It contains a convent, boys' college, hospital, +several mills, and is a favourite summer resort on account of the +angling and shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1901) 4569. + + + + +FRATER, FRATER HOUSE or FRATERY, a term in architecture for the hall +where the members of a monastery or friary met for meals or refreshment. +The word is by origin the same as "refectory." The older forms, such as +_freitur_, _fraytor_ and the like, show the word to be an adaptation of +the O. Fr. _fraitour_, a shortened form of _refraitour_, from the Med. +Lat. _rejectorium_. The word has been confused with _frater_, a brother +or friar, and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall of +a friary, while "refectory" is used of a monastery. + + + + +FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE, a class of student societies peculiar to the +colleges and universities of the United States and Canada, with certain +common characteristics, and mostly named from two or three letters of +the Greek alphabet; hence they are frequently called "Greek Letter +Societies." They are organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity +comprises a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one +fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges, called +"chapters," in memory of the convocations of monks of medieval times, +are usually designated by Greek letters also. They are nominally secret, +with one exception (_Delta Upsilon_). Each chapter admits members from +the lowest or freshman class, and of course loses its members as the +students depart from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the +same time members of all the four college classes and frequently those +pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a college is +large the material from which fraternity members may be drawn is +correspondingly abundant, and in some of the large colleges (e.g. at +Cornell University and the University of Michigan) there are chapters of +over twenty fraternities. All the fraternities aim to be select and to +pick their members from the mass of incoming students. Where, however, +the material to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities +are numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any +one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men. Many of +the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent selection of +men of about the same tastes at different colleges, acquired a distinct +character and individuality; for instance, _Alpha Delta Phi_ is +literary. + +The first of these fraternities was the _Phi Beta Kappa_, founded at the +College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1776. It was a +little social club of five students: John Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas +Smith, Armistead Smith and John Jones. Its badge was a square silver +medal displaying the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In +1779 it authorized Elisha Parmelee, one of its members, to establish +"meetings" or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being +authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective states. +In 1781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its buildings being +occupied in turn by the British, French and American troops, and the +society ceased to exist. The two branches, however, were +established--that at Yale in 1780 and that at Harvard in 1781. Chapters +were established at Dartmouth in 1787, at Union in 1817, at Bowdoin in +1824 and at Brown in 1830. This society changed its character in 1826 +and became non-secret and purely honorary in character, admitting to +membership a certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in +each class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions +only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies of similar +character among schools of science and engineering are _Sigma Xi_ and +_Tau Beta Pi_. + +In 1825, at Union College, _Kappa Alpha_ was organized, copying in style +of badge, membership restrictions and the like, its predecessor. In 1827 +two other similar societies, _Sigma Phi_ and _Delta Phi_, were founded +at the same place. In 1831 _Sigma Phi_ placed a branch at Hamilton +College and in 1832 _Alpha Delta Phi_ originated there. In 1833 _Psi +Upsilon_, a fourth society, was organized at Union. In 1835 _Alpha Delta +Phi_ placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 _Beta Theta Pi_ +originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities, it will +be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the male students. +In 1910 the total number of men's general fraternities was 32, with 1068 +living chapters, and owning property worth many millions of dollars. In +1864 _Theta Xi_, the first professional fraternity restricting its +membership to students intending to engage in the same profession, was +organized. There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations with some +400 chapters. In addition there are about 100 local societies or +chapters acting as independent units. Some of the older of these, such +as _Kappa Kappa Kappa_ at Dartmouth, _IKA_ at Trinity, _Phi Nu Theta_ at +Wesleyan and _Delta Psi_ at Vermont, are permanent in character, but the +majority of them are purely temporary, designed to maintain an +organization until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general +fraternities. In 1870 the first women's society or "sorority," the +_Kappa Alpha Theta_, was organized at De Pauw University. There were in +1910, 17 general sororities with some 300 active chapters. + +It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant +organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college life +of America and have had a wide influence. Members join in the +impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their organizations +a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contribute with money and +influence to their advancement. + +Almost universally the members of any particular chapter (or part of +them) live together in a lodge or chapter house. The men's fraternities +own hundreds of houses and rent as many more. The fraternities form a +little aristocracy within the college community. Sometimes the line of +separation is invisible, sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this +condition militates against the college discipline and sometimes it +assists it. Conflicts not infrequently occur between the fraternity and +non-fraternity element in a college. + +It can readily be understood how young men living together in the +intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house, having much +the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form among themselves +enduring friendships. In addition each fraternity has a reputation to +maintain, and this engenders an esprit du corps which at times places +loyalty to fraternity interests above loyalty to college interest or the +real advantage of the individual. At commencements and upon other +occasions the former members of the chapters return to their chapter +houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the undergraduates. +The chapter houses are commonly owned by corporations made up of the +alumni. This brings the undergraduates into contact with men of mature +age and often of national fame, who treat their membership as a serious +privilege. + +The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to jealousy and +bitter animosity among those not selected for membership. Some of the +states, notably South Carolina and Arkansas, have by legislation, either +abolished the fraternities at state-controlled institutions or seriously +limited the privileges of their members. The constitutionality of such +legislation has never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen +out of attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the +fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held, may +lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endowment but not at +an institution supported by public funds. In the latter case all +classes of the public are equally entitled to the same educational +privileges and members of the fraternities may not be discriminated +against. + +The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system comprises a +legislative body made up of delegates from the different chapters and an +executive or administrative body elected by the delegates. Few of the +fraternities have any judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems +are sound, and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the +United States, several hundred in number, spend thousands of dollars in +travel and entertainment, and attract much public attention. Most of the +fraternities have an inspection system by which chapters are +periodically visited and kept up to a certain level of excellence. + +The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to eight +times during the college year. The earliest of these was the _Beta Theta +Pi_, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues of their members and +the most prosperous have issued histories. They also publish song books, +music and many ephemeral and local publications. + +The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associations +having headquarters at centres of population. These organizations are +somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable of much exertion and +influence should occasion arise. + +The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students of +colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about it, +however, is that while it is practically uniform throughout the United +States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard, Yale and +Princeton it differs in many respects from its character elsewhere. At +Harvard, although there are chapters of a few of the fraternities, their +influence is insignificant, their place being taken by a group of local +societies, some of them class organizations. At Yale, the regular system +of fraternities obtains in the engineering or technical department (the +Sheffield Scientific School), but in the classical department the +fraternity chapters are called "junior" societies, because they limit +their membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors each +year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain senior +societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones, which are +inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of the fraternities, +are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities themselves. Princeton +has two (secret) literary and fraternal societies, the American Whig and +the Cliosophic, and various local social clubs, with no relationship to +organizations in other colleges and not having Greek letter names. + +At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Virginia), +senior societies or other inter-fraternity societies exert great +influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system. + +Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and imitating the +externals of the college fraternities have sprung up in the high schools +and academies of the country, but have excited the earnest and +apparently united opposition of the authorities of such schools. + + See William Raimond Baird, _American College Fraternities_ (6th ed., + New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, _Cyclopedia of Fraternities_ + (Paterson, N. J., 1899); Henry D. Sheldon, _Student Life and Customs_ + (New York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, _Patterson's College and School + Directory_ (Chicago, 1904); H. K. Kellogg, _College Secret Societies_ + (Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, _Greek Letter Societies_ (Detroit, + 1879). (W. R. B.*) + + + + +FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. _frate_, brother), the name given +during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries to a number of religious groups +in Italy, differing widely from each other, but all derived more or less +directly from the Franciscan movement. Fra Salimbene says in his +_Chronicle_ (Parma ed., p. 108): "All who wished to found a new rule +borrowed something from the Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit." +As early as 1238 Gregory IX., in his bull _Quoniam abundavit iniquitas_, +condemned and denounced as forgers (_tanquam falsarios_) all who begged +or preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders, and this +condemnation was repeated by him or his successors. The term Fraticelli +was used contemptuously to denote, not any particular sect, but the +members of orders formed on the fringe of the church. Thus Giovanni +Villani, speaking of the heretic Dolcino, says in his _Chronicle_ (bk. +viii. ch. 84): "He is not a brother of an ordered rule, but a +_fraticello_ without an order." Similarly, John XXII., in his bull +_Sancta Romana et Universalis Ecclesia_ (28th of December 1317), +condemns vaguely those "_profanae multitudinis viri_ commonly called +Fraticelli, or Brethren of the Poor Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguines, or +by all manner of other names." + +Some historians, in their zeal for rigid classification, have regarded +the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted to discover its +dogmas and its founder. Some of the contemporaries of these religious +groups fell into the same error, and in this way the vague term +Fraticelli has sometimes been applied to the disciples of Armanno +Pongilupo of Ferrara (d. 1269), who was undoubtedly a Cathar, and to the +followers of Gerard Segarelli and Dolcino, who were always known among +themselves as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems +absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans as +Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrle (_Arch. f. Lit. u. +Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, ii. 107, &c.), Angelo of Clarino, in +his _De septem tribulationibus_, written to the glory of the Spirituals, +does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as "disciples of the +devil." It is equally absurd to include in the same category the +ignorant Bizocchi and Segarellists and such learned disciples of Michael +of Cesena and Louis of Bavaria as William of Occam and Bonagratia of +Bergamo, who have often been placed under this comprehensive rubric. + +The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most exalted +fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners declared to the +inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the Franciscan order was divided +into three sections--the Conventuals, who were allowed to retain their +real and personal property; the Spirituals or Beguines, who were at that +time the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose +leader was Henry of Ceva (see Gui's _Practica Inquisitionis_, v.). It is +this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned in his bull +_Gloriosam Ecclesiam_ (23rd of January 1318), but without calling them +Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge in Sicily at the time of Pope +Boniface VIII.'s persecution of the Spirituals, and thanks to the good +offices of Frederick of Sicily, a little colony of Franciscans who +rejected all property had soon established itself in the island. Under +Pope Clement V., and more especially under Pope John XXII., fresh +Spirituals joined them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics +soon began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the +Minorites and then as the sole Catholic Church. After being +excommunicated as "schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious +sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines," they +proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cesena had disavowed them) +and then a pope called Celestine (L. Wadding, _Annales_, at date 1313). +The rebels continued to carry on an active propaganda. In Tuscany +particularly the Inquisition made persistent efforts to suppress them; +Florence afflicted them with severe laws, but failed to rouse the +populace against them. The papacy dreaded their social even more than +their dogmatic influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout +Italy the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and the +malcontents who had either left the church or were on the point of +leaving it, were attracted by these communities of needy rebels; and the +tribune Rienzi was at one time disposed to join them. To overcome these +ascetics it was necessary to have recourse to other ascetics, and from +the outset the reformed Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict +Observance, under the direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da +Trinci (d. 1390), Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bernardine of +Siena, had been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy. +These early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the number +of the sectaries and the extent of their influence, Pope Martin V., who +had encouraged the Observants, and particularly Bernardine of Siena, +fulminated two bulls (1418 and 1421) against the heretics, and entrusted +different legates with the task of hunting them down. These measures +failing, he decided, in 1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors +without territorial limitation to make a special crusade against the +heresy of the Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their +duties under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.) were +Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The latter's valuable +_Dialogus contra Fraticellos_ (Baluze and Mansi, _Miscellanea_, iv. +595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of these heretics and of the +activity of the two inquisitors, and shows that the Fraticelli not only +constituted a distinct church but a distinct society. They had a pope +called Rinaldo, who was elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother +named Gabriel. This supreme head of their church they styled "bishop of +Philadelphia," Philadelphia being the mystic name of their community; +under him were bishops, e.g. the bishops of Florence, Venice, &c.; and, +furthermore, a member of the community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore +the title of "Emperor of the Christians." This organization, at least in +so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed among +the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council of Siena +affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an heretical pope +surrounded with a college of cardinals who made no attempt at +concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli were unremittingly +pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect gradually died out after losing +the protection of the common people, whose sympathy was now transferred +to the austere Observants and their miracle-worker Capistrano. From 1466 +to 1471 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471 Tommaso +di Scarlino was sent to Piombino and the littoral of Tuscany to track +out some Fraticelli who had been discovered in those parts. After that +date the name disappears from history. + + See F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhaeltnis zum Franziskanerorden + und zu den Fraticellen" and "Zur Vorgeschichte des Concils von + Vienne," in _Archiv fuer Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte des + Mittelalters_, vols. i., ii., iii.; Wetzer and Welte, + _Kirchenlexikon_, s.v. "Fraticellen"; H. C. Lea, _History of the + Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888). + (P. A.) + + + + +FRAUD (Lat. _fraus_, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which has +never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law, and for +legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But as denoting a +cause of action for which damages can be recovered in civil proceedings +it now has a clear and settled meaning. In actions in which damages are +claimed for fraud, the difficulties and obscurities which commonly arise +are due rather to the complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of +modern swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern +law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must first prove +a representation of fact, made either by words, by writing or by +conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere concealment is not actionable +unless it amounts not only to _suppressio veri_, but to _suggestio +falsi_. An expression of opinion or of intention is not enough, unless +it can be shown that the opinion was not really held, or that the +intention was not really entertained, in which case it must be borne in +mind, to use the phrase of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man's mind is +as much a matter of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, it must be +proved that the representation was made without any honest belief in its +truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with a +reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally +established, after much controversy, in the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ in +1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable. Further, +the person aggrieved must prove that the offender made the +representation with the intention that he should act on it, though not +necessarily directly to him, and that he did in fact act in reliance on +it. Lastly, the complainant must prove that, as the direct consequence, +he has suffered actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement. + +As soon as the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ had established, as the general +rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable, a +statutory exception was made to the rule in the case of directors and +promoters of companies who publish prospectuses and similar documents. +By the Directors' Liability Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage +caused by untrue statements in such documents, unless they can prove +that they had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be +true. It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be recovered +in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest belief in its +truth, still any person induced to enter into a contract by a +misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is entitled to avoid +the contract and to obtain a declaration that it is not binding upon +him. This is in accordance with the rule of equity, which since the +Judicature Act prevails in all the courts. Whether the representation is +fraudulent or innocent, the contract is not void, but voidable. The +party misled must exercise his option to avoid the contract without +delay, and before it has become impossible to restore the other party to +the position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he is +too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in order to +assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the misrepresentation +was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of dishonest dealing, though +not a distinct cause of action, is often material as preventing the +acquisition of a right, for which good faith is a necessary condition. +Also a combination or conspiracy by two or more persons to defraud gives +rise to liabilities not very clearly or completely defined. + + + + +FRAUENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Frische +Haff, at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m. S.W. from Koenigsberg on the +railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500. The cathedral (founded 1329), with six +towers, stands on a commanding eminence adjoining the town and +surrounded by castellated walls and bastions. This is known as +Dom-Frauenburg, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of +Ermeland. Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer +Copernicus bearing the inscription _Astronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen +et gloria utrumque implevit orbem_. There is a small port with +inconsiderable trade. Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received the +rights of a town in 1310. + + + + +FRAUENFELD, the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau, 27 m. by rail +N.E. of Zuerich or 141/2 m. W. of Romanshorn. It is built on the Murg +stream a little above its junction with the Thur. It is a prosperous +commercial town, being situated at the meeting point of several routes, +while it possesses several industrial establishments, chiefly concerned +with different branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population +(including the neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking, +while there were 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauenfeld is the +artillery depot for North-East Switzerland. The upper town is the older +part, and centres round the castle, of which the tower dates from the +10th century, though the rest is of a later period. Both stood on land +belonging to the abbot of Reichenau, who, with the count of Kyburg, +founded the town, which is first mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained +all manorial rights till 1803, while the political powers of the +Kyburgers (who were the "protectors" of Reichenau) passed to the +Habsburgs in 1273, and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of +the Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the +meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital of +the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1799 it was +successively occupied by the Austrians and the French. The old Capuchin +convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a vicarage by the Romanist +priest. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +FRAUENLOB, the name by which HEINRICH VON MEISSEN, a German poet of the +13th century, is generally known. He seems to have acquired the +sobriquet because in a famous _Liederstreit_ with his rival Regenbogen +he defended the use of the word _Frau_ (i.e. _frouwe_, = lady) instead +of _Weib_ (_wip_ = woman). Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble +burgher family. His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he +gradually acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of the +German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph I. in the Marchfeld, in +1286 he was at Prague at the knighting of Wenceslaus (Wenzel) II., and +in 1311 he was present at a knightly festival celebrated by Waldemar of +Brandenburg before Rostock. After this he settled in Mainz, and there +according to the popular account, founded the first school of +Meistersingers (q.v.). He died in 1318, and was buried in the cloisters +of the cathedral at Mainz. His grave is still marked by a copy made in +1783 of the original tombstone of 1318; and in 1842 a monument by +Schwanthaler was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob's poems make a +great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors, and his +versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme. + + Frauenlob's poetry was edited by L. Ettmueller in 1843; a selection + will be found in K. Bartsch, _Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. + Jahrhunderts_ (3rd ed., 1893). An English translation of Frauenlob's + _Cantica canticorum_, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877 + at St Louis, U.S.A. See A. Boerkel, _Frauenlob_ (2nd ed., 1881). + + + + +FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM (c. 1558-1633), English poet, a native of Shropshire, +was born between 1558 and 1560. His name was registered as a pupil of +Shrewsbury School in January 1571/2, and he joined St John's College, +Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of +_Victoria_, dedicated to Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge, +where he remained until he had taken his M.A. degree in 1583. He was +called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised +as a barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of his +patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney's sister Mary, +countess of Pembroke. His last work was published in 1592, and we have +no further knowledge of him until 1633, when he is said to have written +an _Epithalamium_ in honour of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egerton, +7th daughter of the earl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly +have entered. + +His works are: _The Lamentations of Amintas for the death of Phyllis_ +(1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend's, Thomas +Watson's, Latin _Amyntas; The Lawiers Logike, exemplifying the praecepts +of Logike by the practise of the common Lawe_ (1588); _Arcadian +Rhetorike_ (1588); _Abrahami Fransi Insignium, Armorum ... explicatio_ +(1588); _The Countess of Pembroke's Yvychurch_ (1591/2), containing a +translation of Tasso's _Aminta_, a reprint of his earlier version of +Watson, "The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis" (Virgil, +eclogue ii.), a short translation from Heliodorus, and, in the third +part (1592) "Aminta's Dale," a collection of "conceited" tales supposed +to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch; _The Countess of Pembroke's +Emanuell_ (1591); _The Third Part of the Countess of Pembroke's +Ivychurch, entituled Aminta's Dale_ (1592). His _Arcadian Rhetorike_ +owes much to earlier critical treatises, but has a special interest from +its references to Spenser, and Fraunce quotes from the _Faerie Queene_ a +year before the publication of the first books. In "Colin Clout's come +home again," Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his +translations of Virgil's second eclogue. His poems are written in +classical metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries as the best +exponent of Gabriel Harvey's theory. Even Thomas Nashe had a good word +for "sweete Master France." + + _The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell_, hexameters on the nativity and + passion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted by Dr + A. B. Grosart in the third volume of his _Miscellanies of the Fuller + Worthies Library_ (1872). Joseph Hunter in his _Chorus Vatum_ stated + that five of Fraunce's songs were included in Sidney's _Astrophel and + Stella_, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to + Fraunce, but to Thomas Campion. See a life prefixed to the + transcription of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, _Victoria_, by + Professor G. C. Moore Smith, published in Bang's _Materialien zur + Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas_, vol. xiv., 1906. + + + + +FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON (1787-1826), German optician and physicist, was +born at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th of March 1787, the son of a +glazier who died in 1798. He was apprenticed in 1799 to Weichselberger, +a glass-polisher and looking-glass maker. On the 21st of July 1801 he +nearly lost his life by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and +the elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his +extrication from the ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this +sum he obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship, +and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He now +employed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving on metal, +devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on mathematics and +optics. In 1806 he obtained the place of optician in the mathematical +institute which in 1804 had been founded at Munich by Joseph von +Utzschneider, G. Reichenbach and J. Liebherr; and in 1807 arrangements +were made by Utzschneider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand, +a skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, in +which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Wissensch. in +Deutschl._ bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utzschneider, +Fraunhofer established in 1809 an optical institute at Benedictbeuern, +near Munich, of which he in 1818 became sole manager. The institute was +in 1819 removed to Munich, and on Fraunhofer's death came under the +direction of G. Merz. + +Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer was a machine +for polishing mathematically uniform spherical surfaces. He was the +inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of a form of heliometer; and in +1816 he succeeded in constructing for the microscope achromatic glasses +of long focus, consisting of a single lens, the constituent glasses of +which were in juxtaposition, but not cemented together. The great +reflecting telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was +the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic telescopes +that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed his willingness to +furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter. Fraunhofer is especially +known for the researches, published in the _Denkschriften der Muenchener +Akademie_ for 1814-1815, by which he laid the foundation of solar and +stellar chemistry. The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest +noted by Dr W. H. Wollaston (_Phil. Trans._, 1802, p. 378), were +independently discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a +theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the light a prism +was interposed, were for the first time carefully observed by +Fraunhofer, and have on that account been designated "Fraunhofer's +lines." He constructed a map of as many as 576 of these lines, the +principal of which he denoted by the letters of the alphabet from A to +G; and by ascertaining their refractive indices he determined that their +relative positions are constant, whether in spectra produced by the +direct rays of the sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and +planets. The spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the +object-glass of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light +passed to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed +that in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were +different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other well-known +solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was not by any action +of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light passing through it that the +lines were produced. He further expressed the belief that the dark lines +D of the solar spectrum coincide with the bright lines of the sodium +flame. He was also the inventor of the diffraction grating. + +In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet at Munich, +and in the following year he received from the king of Bavaria the civil +order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th of June 1826, and was +buried near Reichenbach, whose decease had taken place eight years +previously. On his tomb is the inscription "Approximavit sidera." + + See J. von Utzschneider, _Kurzer Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des Herrn + Dr J. von Fraunhofer_ (Munich, 1826); and G. Merz, _Das Leben und + Wirken Fraunhofers_ (Landshut, 1865). + + + + +FRAUSTADT (Polish, _Wszowa_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with windmills, 50 m. +S.S.W. of Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan. Pop. (including a garrison) +7500. It has three Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a +classical school and a teachers' seminary; the manufactures include +woollen and cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is +a considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was founded by +Silesians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the principality of +Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles XII. defeated the Saxons +on the 13th of February 1706. + + + + +FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC, COMTE DE (1765-1841), French prelate and +statesman, distinguished as an orator and as a controversial writer, was +born of humble parentage at Curieres, in the department of Aveyron, on +the 9th of May 1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on +dogmatic theology, known as the "conferences" of Saint Sulpice, +delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, from 1803 to 1809, to +which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid exposition and by his +graceful oratory. The freedom of his language in 1809, when Napoleon had +arrested the pope and declared the annexation of Rome to France, led to +a prohibition of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of +Saint Sulpice in 1811 was followed by his temporary retirement from the +capital. He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his lectures in +1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again compelled him to withdraw +into private life, from which he did not emerge until February 1816. As +court preacher and almoner to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the +period of his greatest public activity and influence. In connexion with +the controversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of +1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled _Vrais Principes de +l'eglise Gallicane sur la puissance ecclesiastique_, which though +unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received with favour by the +civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of Frayssinous as +bishop of Hermopolis "in partibus," his election to the French Academy, +and his appointment to the grand-mastership of the university, followed +in rapid succession. In 1824, on the accession of Charles X., he became +minister of public instruction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the +administration of Villele; and about the same time he was created a peer +of France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly marked +by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his lectures under +the title _Defense du christianisme_. The work passed through 15 +editions within 18 years, and was translated into several European +languages. In 1828 he, along with his colleagues in the Villele +ministry, was compelled to resign office, and the subsequent revolution +of July 1830 led to his retirement to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became +tutor to the duke of Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord) at Prague, where he +continued to live until 1838. He died at St Geniez on the 12th of +December 1841. + + See Bertrand, _Bibl. Sulpicienne_ (t. ii. 135 sq.; iii. 253) for + bibliography, and G. A. Henrion (Paris, 2 vols., 1844) for biography. + + + + +FRECHETTE, LOUIS HONORE (1839-1908), French-Canadian poet, was born at +Levis, Quebec, on the 16th of November 1839, the son of a contractor. He +was educated in his native province, and called to the Canadian bar in +1864. He started the _Journal de Levis_, and his revolutionary doctrines +compelled him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years +spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the Liberal +candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament. At the +elections of 1878 and 1882 he was defeated, and thereafter confined +himself to literature. He edited _La Patrie_ and other French papers in +the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed clerk of the Quebec legislative +council. He was long a warm advocate of the political union of Canada +and the United States, but in later life became less ardent, and in 1897 +accepted the honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of +the Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts, and +received numerous honorary degrees. His works include: _Mes Loisirs_ +(1863); _La Voix d'un exile_ (1867), a satire against the Canadian +government; _Pele-mele_ (1877); _Les Fleurs boreales_, and _Les Oiseaux +de neige_ (1880), crowned by the French academy; _La Legende d'un +peuple_ (1887); two historical dramas, _Papineau_ (1880) and _Felix +Poutre_ (1880); _La Noel au Canada_ (1900), and several prose works and +translations. An exponent of local French sentiment, he won the title of +the "Canadian Laureate." He died on the 1st of June 1908. + + + + +FREDEGOND (_Fredigundis_) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Originally a +serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic I., with a +violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his first wife +Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha, Queen Brunhilda's +sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic married Fredegond (567). +This woman exercised a most pernicious influence over him. She forced +him into war against Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the +assassination of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a +malignant struggle against Chilperic's sons by his first wife, +Theodebert, Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she +persistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children. Her +first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of Paris stood +godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond tortured a number of +women whom she accused of having bewitched the child. Her second son +also died in infancy. Finally, she gave birth to a child who afterwards +became king as Clotaire II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, +Chilperic himself perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond +has been accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of +probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter. + +Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the kingdom for her +child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame at Paris, she appealed +to King Guntram of Burgundy, who took Clotaire under his protection and +defended him against his other nephew, Childebert II., king of +Austrasia. From that time until her death Fredegond governed the western +kingdom. She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram +and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot; and made +several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending against him hired +bravoes armed with poisoned _scramasaxes_ (heavy single-edged knives). +After the death of Childebert in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom +of Neustria at the expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some +cities near Paris and defeated Theudebert at the battle of Laffaux, near +Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died quietly in +her bed in 597 soon after her victory. + + See V. N. Augustin Thierry, _Recits des temps merovingiens_ (Brussels, + 1840); Ulysse Chevalier, _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed.), s.v. + "Fredegonde." (C. Pf.) + + + + +FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist, was born on the +19th of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was educated there, and took to +journalism. He went to live in England as London correspondent of the +_New York Times_ in 1884, and was soon recognized for his ability both +as a writer and as a talker. He wrote several clever early stories, but +it was not till he published _Illumination_ (1896), followed by _Gloria +Mundi_ (1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully +realized. He died in England on the 19th of October 1898. + + + + +FREDERICIA (FRIEDERICIA), a seaport of Denmark, near the S.E. corner of +Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt opposite the island of +Fuenen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has railway communication with both south +and north, and a steam ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort +and railway station on Fuenen. There is a considerable shipping trade, +and the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and +chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected on the +site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his successor, +Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a powerful fortress. +Free exercise of religion was offered to all who should settle in the +new town, which at first bore the name of Frederiksodde, and only +received its present designation in 1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm +by the Swedish general Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been +dismantled, it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was +not till 1709-1710 that the works were again put in a state of defence. +In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to oppose the Prussians, who +entered on the 2nd of May, and maintained their position against the +Danish gunboats. During the armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was +strengthened, and soon afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which +was brought to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of +July 1849. In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected +in the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the +bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of Thorvaldsen's +pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in the cemetery of the Holy +Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by the same sculptor. On the outbreak +of the war of 1864, the fortress was again strengthened by new works and +an entrenched camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of +April after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly +destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town till the +conclusion of peace. + + + + +FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. _Friedrich_; Ital. _Federigo_; Fr. _Frederic_ and +_Federic_; M.H.G. _Friderich_; O.H.G. _Fridurih_, "king or lord of +peace," from O.H.G. _fridu_, A.S. _frith_, "peace," and _rih_ "rich," "a +ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY), a Christian name borne by +many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of whom are +given below in the following order:--(1) Roman emperors and German +kings; (2) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (3) +other reigning princes in the same order. + + + + +FREDERICK I. (c. 1123-1190), Roman emperor, surnamed "Barbarossa" by the +Italians, was the son of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, +and Judith, daughter of Henry IX. the Black, duke of Bavaria. The +precise date and place of his birth, together with details of his early +life, are wanting; but in 1143 he assisted his maternal uncle, Count +Welf VI., in his attempts to conquer Bavaria, and by his conduct in +several local feuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful +warrior. When his father died in 1147 Frederick became duke of Swabia, +and immediately afterwards accompanied his uncle, the German king Conrad +III., on his disastrous crusade, during which he greatly distinguished +himself and won the complete confidence of the king. Abandoning the +cause of the Welfs, he fought for Conrad against them, and in 1152 the +dying king advised the princes to choose Frederick as his successor to +the exclusion of his own young son. Energetically pressing his +candidature, he was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 4th or 5th of +March 1152, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 9th of the same month, +owing his election partly to his personal qualities, and partly to the +fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival families of Welf +and Waiblingen. + +The new king was anxious to restore the Empire to the position it had +occupied under Charlemagne and Otto the Great, and saw clearly that the +restoration of order in Germany was a necessary preliminary to the +enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy. Issuing a general order for +peace, he was prodigal in his concessions to the nobles. Count Welf was +made duke of Spoleto and margrave of Tuscany; Berthold VI., duke of +Zaehringen, was entrusted with extensive rights in Burgundy; and the +king's nephew, Frederick, received the duchy of Swabia. Abroad Frederick +decided a quarrel for the Danish throne in favour of Svend, or Peter as +he is sometimes called, who did homage for his kingdom, and negotiations +were begun with the East Roman emperor, Manuel Comnenus. It was probably +about this time that the king obtained a divorce from his wife Adela, +daughter of Dietpold, margrave of Vohburg and Cham, on the ground of +consanguinity, and made a vain effort to obtain a bride from the court +of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick had communicated the news +of his election to Pope Eugenius III., but neglected to ask for the +papal confirmation. In spite of this omission, however, and of some +trouble arising from a double election to the archbishopric of +Magdeburg, a treaty was concluded between king and pope at Constance in +March 1153, by which Frederick promised in return for his coronation to +make no peace with Roger I. king of Sicily, or with the rebellious +Romans, without the consent of Eugenius, and generally to help and +defend the papacy. + +The journey to Italy made by the king in 1154 was the precursor of five +other expeditions which engaged his main energies for thirty years, +during which the subjugation of the peninsula was the central and +abiding aim of his policy. Meeting the new pope, Adrian IV., near Nepi, +Frederick at first refused to hold his stirrup; but after some +negotiations he consented and received the kiss of peace, which was +followed by his coronation as emperor at Rome on the 18th of June 1155. +As his slender forces were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility +which he aroused, he left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a +new and more formidable campaign. Disorder was again rampant in Germany, +especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored by Frederick's +vigorous measures. Bavaria was transferred from Henry II. Jasomirgott, +margrave of Austria, to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; and the former +was pacified by the erection of his margraviate into a duchy, while +Frederick's step-brother Conrad was invested with the Palatinate of the +Rhine. On the 9th of June 1156 the king was married at Wuerzburg to +Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the dead count of Upper Burgundy, +Renaud III., when Upper Burgundy or Franche Comte, as it is sometimes +called, was added to his possessions. An expedition into Poland reduced +Duke Boleslaus IV. to an abject submission, after which Frederick +received the homage of the Burgundian nobles at a diet held at Besancon +in October 1157, which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor. +A Swedish archbishop, returning from Rome, had been seized by robbers, +and as Frederick had not punished the offenders Adrian sent two legates +to remonstrate. The papal letter when translated referred to the +imperial crown as a benefice conferred by the pope, and its reading +aroused great indignation. The emperor had to protect the legates from +the fury of the nobles; and afterwards issued a manifesto to his +subjects declaring that he held the Empire from God alone, to which +Adrian replied that he had used the ambiguous word _beneficia_ as +meaning benefits, and not in its feudal sense. + +In June 1158 Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, which +was signalized by the establishment of imperial officers called +_podestas_ in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt and capture of +Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with pope Alexander III., +who excommunicated the emperor on the 2nd of March 1160. During this +visit Frederick summoned the doctors of Bologna to the diet held near +Roncaglia in November 1158, and as a result of their inquiries into the +rights belonging to the kingdom of Italy he obtained a large amount of +wealth. Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick +prevented a conflict between Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and a +number of neighbouring princes, and severely punished the citizens of +Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold. A further visit to +Italy in 1163 saw his plans for the conquest of Sicily checked by the +formation of a powerful league against him, brought together mainly by +the exactions of the _podestas_ and the enforcement of the rights +declared by the doctors of Bologna. Frederick had supported an anti-pope +Victor IV. against Alexander, and on Victor's death in 1163 a new +anti-pope called Paschal III. was chosen to succeed him. Having tried in +vain to secure the general recognition of Victor and Paschal in Europe, +the emperor held a diet at Wuerzburg in May 1165; and by taking an oath, +followed by many of the clergy and nobles, to remain true to Paschal and +his successors, brought about a schism in the German church. A temporary +alliance with Henry II., king of England, the magnificent celebration of +the canonization of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the restoration +of peace in the Rhineland, occupied Frederick's attention until October +1166, when he made his fourth journey to Italy. Having captured Ancona, +he marched to Rome, stormed the Leonine city, and procured the +enthronement of Paschal, and the coronation of his wife Beatrix; but his +victorious career was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence +which destroyed the German army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to +Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years. Henry the Lion was +again saved from a threatening combination; conflicting claims to +various bishoprics were decided; and the imperial authority was asserted +over Bohemia, Poland and Hungary. Friendly relations were entered into +with the emperor Manuel, and attempts made to come to a better +understanding with Henry II., king of England, and Louis VII., king of +France. + +In 1174, when Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy, the Lombard +league had been formed, and the fortress of Alessandria raised to check +his progress. The campaign was a complete failure. The refusal of Henry +the Lion to bring help into Italy was followed by the defeat of the +emperor at Legnano on the 29th of May 1176, when he was wounded and +believed to be dead. Reaching Pavia, he began negotiations for peace +with Alexander, which ripened into the treaty of Venice in August 1177, +and at the same time a truce with the Lombard league was arranged for +six years. Frederick, loosed from the papal ban, recognized Alexander as +the rightful pope, and in July 1177 knelt before him and kissed his +feet. The possession of the vast estates left by Matilda, marchioness +of Tuscany, and claimed by both pope and emperor, was to be decided by +arbitration, and in October 1178 the emperor was again in Germany. +Various small feuds were suppressed; Henry the Lion was deprived of his +duchy, which was dismembered, and sent into exile; a treaty was made +with the Lombard league at Constance in June 1183; and most important of +all, Frederick's son Henry was betrothed in 1184 to Constance, daughter +of Roger I., king of Sicily, and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, +William II. This betrothal, which threatened to unite Sicily with the +Empire, made it difficult for Frederick, when during his last Italian +expedition in 1184 he met Pope Lucius III. at Verona, to establish +friendly relations with the papacy. Further causes of trouble arose, +moreover, and when the potentates separated the question of Matilda's +estates was undecided; and Lucius had refused to crown Henry or to +recognize the German clergy who had been ordained during the schism. +Frederick then formed an alliance with Milan, where the citizens +witnessed a great festival on the 27th of January 1186. The emperor, who +had been crowned king of Burgundy, or Arles, at Arles on the 30th of +July 1178, had this ceremony repeated; while his son Henry was crowned +king of Italy and married to Constance, who was crowned queen of +Germany. + +The quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new pope Urban III., +and open warfare was begun. But Frederick was soon recalled to Germany +by the news of a revolt raised by Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of +Cologne, in alliance with the pope. The German clergy remained loyal to +the emperor, and hostilities were checked by the death of Urban and the +election of a new pope as Gregory VIII., who adopted a more friendly +policy towards the emperor. In 1188 Philip submitted, and immediately +afterwards Frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious +career of Saladin, who had just taken Jerusalem. After extensive +preparations he left Regensburg in May 1189 at the head of a splendid +army, and having overcome the hostility of the East Roman emperor Isaac +Angelus, marched into Asia Minor. On the 10th of June 1190 Frederick was +either bathing or crossing the river Calycadnus (Geuksu), near Seleucia +(Selefke) in Cilicia, when he was carried away by the stream and +drowned. The place of his burial is unknown, and the legend which says +he still sits in a cavern in the Kyffhaeuser mountain in Thuringia +waiting until the need of his country shall call him, is now thought to +refer, at least in its earlier form, to his grandson, the emperor +Frederick II. He left by his wife, Beatrix, five sons, of whom the +eldest afterwards became emperor as Henry VI. + +Frederick's reign, on the whole, was a happy and prosperous time for +Germany. He encouraged the growth of towns, easily suppressed the few +risings against his authority, and took strong and successful measures +to establish order. Even after the severe reverses which he experienced +in Italy, his position in Germany was never seriously weakened; and in +1181, when, almost without striking a blow, he deprived Henry the Lion +of his duchy, he seemed stronger than ever. This power rested upon his +earnest and commanding personality, and also upon the support which he +received from the German church, the possession of a valuable private +domain, and the care with which he exacted feudal dues from his +dependents. + +Frederick I. is said to have taken Charlemagne as his model; but the +contest in which he engaged was entirely different both in character and +results from that in which his great predecessor achieved such a +wonderful temporary success. Though Frederick failed to subdue the +republics, the failure can scarcely be said to reflect either on his +prudence as a statesman or his skill as a general, for his ascendancy +was finally overthrown rather by the ravages of pestilence than by the +might of human arms. In Germany his resolute will and sagacious +administration subdued or disarmed all discontent, and he not only +succeeded in welding the various rival interests into a unity of +devotion to himself against which papal intrigues were comparatively +powerless, but won for the empire a prestige such as it had not +possessed since the time of Otto the Great. The wide contrast between +his German and Italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that, +while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in Italy, he held in +check the power of the nobles in Germany, by conferring municipal +franchises and independent rights on the principal cities. Even in +Italy, though his general course of action was warped by wrong +prepossessions, he in many instances manifested exceptional practical +sagacity in dealing with immediate difficulties and emergencies. +Possessing frank and open manners, untiring and unresting energy, and a +prowess which found its native element in difficulty and danger, he +seemed the embodiment of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age, +and was the model of all the qualities which then won highest +admiration. Stern and ambitious he certainly was, but his aims can +scarcely be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor; and +though he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients almost +diabolically ingenious in their cruelty, yet his general conduct was +marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional. His quarrel with +the papacy was an inherited conflict, not reflecting at all on his +religious faith, but the inevitable consequence of inconsistent theories +of government, which had been created and could be dissipated only by a +long series of events. His interference in the quarrels of the republics +was not only quite justifiable from the relation in which he stood to +them, but seemed absolutely necessary. From the beginning, however, he +treated the Italians, as indeed was only natural, less as rebellious +subjects than as conquered aliens; and it must be admitted that in +regard to them the only effective portion of his procedure was, not his +energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories, but, after +the battle of Legnano, his quiet and cheerful acceptance of the +inevitable, and the consequent complete change in his policy, by which +if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition, he at least did +much to render innoxious for the Empire his previous mistakes. + +In appearance Frederick was a man of well-proportioned, medium stature, +with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard. He delighted in hunting +and the reading of history, was zealous in his attention to public +business, and his private life was unimpeachable. Carlyle's tribute to +him is interesting: "No king so furnished out with apparatus and arena, +with personal faculty to rule and scene to do it in, has appeared +elsewhere. A magnificent, magnanimous man; holding the reins of the +world, not quite in the imaginary sense; scourging anarchy down, and +urging noble effort up, really on a grand scale. A terror to evil-doers +and a praise to well-doers in this world, probably beyond what was ever +seen since." + + The principal contemporary authority for the earlier part of the reign + of Frederick is the _Gesta Friderici imperatoris_, mainly the work of + Otto, bishop of Freising. This is continued from 1156 to 1160 by + Rahewin, a canon of Freising, and from 1160 to 1170 by an anonymous + author. The various annals and chronicles of the period, among which + may be mentioned the _Chronica regia Coloniensis_ and the _Annales + Magdeburgenses_, are also important. Other authorities for the + different periods in Frederick's reign are Tageno of Passau, + _Descriptio expeditionis asiaticae Friderici I._; Burchard, _Historia + Friderici imperatoris magni_; Godfrey of Viterbo, _Carmen de gestis + Friderici I._, which are all found in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica. Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); Otto Morena of + Lodi, _Historia rerum Laudensium_, continued by his son, Acerbus, also + in the _Monumenta_; Ansbert, _Historia de expeditione Friderici, + 1187-1196_, published in the _Fontes rerum Austriacarum. Scriptores_ + (Vienna, 1855 fol.). Many valuable documents are found in the + _Monumenta Germaniae selecta_, Band iv., edited by M. Doeberl (Munich, + 1889-1890). + + The best modern authorities are J. Jastrow, _Deutsche Geschichte im + Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); W. von Giesebrecht, + _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); H. + von Buenau, _Leben und Thaten Friedrichs I._ (Leipzig, 1872); H. Prutz, + _Kaiser Friedrich I._ (Dantzig, 1871-1874); C. Peters, _Die Wahl + Kaiser Friedrichs I._ in the _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, + Band xx. (Goettingen, 1862-1886); W. Gundlach, _Barbarossalieder_ + (Innsbruck, 1899). For a complete bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz, + _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Goettingen, 1894), and U. + Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age_, tome + iii. (Paris, 1904). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1194-1250), Roman emperor, king of Sicily and Jerusalem, +was the son of the emperor Henry VI. and Constance, daughter of Roger +I., king of Sicily, and therefore grandson of the emperor Frederick I. +and a member of the Hohenstaufen family. Born at Jesi near Ancona on +the 26th of December 1194, he was baptized by the name of Frederick +Roger, chosen German king at Frankfort in 1196, and after his father's +death crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 17th of May 1198. His +mother, who assumed the government, died in November 1198, leaving Pope +Innocent III. as regent of Sicily and guardian of her son. The young +king passed his early years amid the terrible anarchy in his island +kingdom, which Innocent was powerless to check; but his education was +not neglected, and his character and habits were formed by contact with +men of varied nationalities and interests, while the darker traits of +his nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which he +lived. In 1208 he was declared of age, and soon afterwards Innocent +arranged a marriage, which was celebrated the following year, between +him and Constance, daughter of Alphonso II. king of Aragon, and widow of +Emerich or Imre, king of Hungary. + +The dissatisfaction felt in Germany with the emperor Otto IV. came to a +climax in September 1211, when a number of influential princes met at +Nuremberg, declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to come and +occupy the vacant throne. In spite of the reluctance of his wife, and +the opposition of the Sicilian nobles, he accepted the invitation; and +having recognized the papal supremacy over Sicily, and procured the +coronation of his son Henry as its king, reached Germany after an +adventurous journey in the autumn of 1212. This step was taken with the +approval of the pope, who was anxious to strike a blow at Otto IV. + +Frederick was welcomed in Swabia, and the renown of the Hohenstaufen +name and a liberal distribution of promises made his progress easy. +Having arranged a treaty against Otto with Louis, son of Philip +Augustus, king of France, whom he met at Vaucouleurs, he was chosen +German king a second time at Frankfort on the 5th of December 1212, and +crowned four days later at Mainz. Anxious to retain the support of the +pope, Frederick promulgated a bull at Eger on the 12th of July 1213, by +which he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the +emperor Henry VI. in 1197, gave up the right of spoils and all +interference in episcopal elections, and acknowledged the right of +appeal to Rome. He again affirmed the papal supremacy over Sicily, and +promised to root out heresy in Germany. The victory of his French allies +at Bouvines on the 27th of July 1214 greatly strengthened his position, +and a large part of the Rhineland having fallen into his power, he was +crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1215. His +cause continued to prosper, fresh supporters gathered round his +standard, and in May 1218 the death of Otto freed him from his rival and +left him undisputed ruler of Germany. A further attempt to allay the +pope's apprehension lest Sicily should be united with the Empire had +been made early in 1216, when Frederick, in a letter to Innocent, +promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize his son Henry +as king of Sicily, and to place him under the suzerainty of Rome. Henry +nevertheless was brought to Germany and chosen German king at Frankfort +in April 1220, though Frederick assured the new pope, Honorius III., +that this step had been taken without his consent. The truth, however, +seems to be that he had taken great trouble to secure this election, and +for the purpose had won the support of the spiritual princes by +extensive concessions. In August 1220 Frederick set out for Italy, and +was crowned emperor at Rome on the 22nd of November 1220; after which he +repeated the undertaking he had entered into at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215 +to go on crusade, and made lavish promises to the Church. The clergy +were freed from taxation and from lay jurisdiction, the ban of the +Empire was to follow the ban of the Church, and heretics were to be +severely punished. + +Neglecting his promise to lead a crusade, Frederick was occupied until +1225 in restoring order in Sicily. The island was seething with +disorder, but by stern and sometimes cruel measures the emperor +suppressed the anarchy of the barons, curbed the power of the cities, +and subdued the rebellious Saracens, many of whom, transferred to the +mainland and settled at Nocera, afterwards rendered him valuable +military service. Meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and again; +until under a threat of excommunication, after the fall of Damietta in +1221, Frederick definitely undertook by a treaty made at San Germano in +1225 to set out in August 1227 or to submit to this penalty. His own +interests turned more strongly to the East, when on the 9th of November +1225, after having been a widower since 1222, he married Iolande +(Yolande or Isabella), daughter of John, count of Brienne, titular king +of Jerusalem. John appears to have expected that this alliance would +restore him to his kingdom, but his hopes were dashed to the ground when +Frederick himself assumed the title of king of Jerusalem. The emperor's +next step was an attempt to restore the imperial authority in northern +Italy, and for the purpose a diet was called at Cremona. But the cities, +watchful and suspicious, renewed the Lombard league and took up a +hostile attitude. Frederick's reply was to annul the treaty of Constance +and place the cities under the imperial ban; but he was forced by lack +of military strength to accept the mediation of Pope Honorius and the +maintenance of the _status quo_. + +After these events, which occurred early in 1227, preparations for the +crusade were pressed on, and the emperor sailed from Brindisi on the 8th +of September. A pestilence, however, which attacked his forces compelled +him to land in Italy three days later, and on the 29th of the same month +he was excommunicated by the new pope, Gregory IX. The greater part of +the succeeding year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarrel. +Alarmed at the increase in his opponent's power, Gregory denounced him +in a public letter, to which Frederick replied in a clever document +addressed to the princes of Europe. The reading of this manifesto, +drawing attention to the absolute power claimed by the popes, was +received in Rome with such evidences of approval that Gregory was +compelled to fly to Viterbo. Having lost his wife Isabella on the 8th of +May 1228, Frederick again set sail for Palestine, where he met with +considerable success, the result of diplomatic rather than of military +skill. By a treaty made in February 1229 he secured possession of +Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood. +Entering Jerusalem, he crowned himself king of that city on the 18th of +March 1229. These successes had been won in spite of the hostility of +Gregory, which deprived Frederick of the assistance of many members of +the military orders and of the clergy of Palestine. But although the +emperor's possessions on the Italian mainland had been attacked in his +absence by the papal troops and their allies, Gregory's efforts had +failed to arouse serious opposition in Germany and Sicily; so that when +Frederick returned unexpectedly to Italy in June 1229 he had no +difficulty in driving back his enemies, and compelling the pope to sue +for peace. The result was the treaty of San Germano, arranged in July +1230, by which the emperor, loosed from the ban, promised to respect the +papal territory, and to allow freedom of election and other privileges +to the Sicilian clergy. Frederick was next engaged in completing the +pacification of Sicily. In 1231 a series of laws were published at Melfi +which destroyed the ascendancy of the feudal nobles. Royal officials +were appointed for administrative purposes, large estates were recovered +for the crown, and fortresses were destroyed, while the church was +placed under the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were prohibited. +At the same time certain privileges of self-government were granted to +the towns, representatives from which were summoned to sit in the diet. +In short, by means of a centralized system of government, the king +established an almost absolute monarchical power. + +In Germany, on the other hand, an entirely different policy was pursued. +The concessions granted by Frederick in 1220, together with the +Privilege of Worms, dated the 1st of May 1231, made the German princes +virtually independent. All jurisdiction over their lands was vested in +them, no new mints or toll-centres were to be erected on their domains, +and the imperial authority was restricted to a small and dwindling area. +A fierce attack was also made on the rights of the cities. Compelled to +restore all their lands, their jurisdiction was bounded by their +city-walls; they were forbidden to receive the dependents of the +princes; all trade gilds were declared abolished; and all official +appointments made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were +annulled. A further attack on the Lombard cities at the diet of Ravenna +in 1231 was answered by a renewal of their league, and was soon +connected with unrest in Germany. About 1231 a breach took place between +Frederick and his elder son Henry, who appears to have opposed the +Privilege of Worms and to have favoured the towns against the princes. +After refusing to travel to Italy, Henry changed his mind and submitted +to his father at Aquileia in 1232; and a temporary peace was made with +the Lombard cities in June 1233. But on his return to Germany Henry +again raised the standard of revolt, and made a league with the Lombards +in December 1234. Frederick, meanwhile, having helped Pope Gregory +against the rebellious Romans and having secured the friendship of +France and England, appeared in Germany early in 1235 and put down this +rising without difficulty. Henry was imprisoned, but his associates were +treated leniently. In August 1235 a splendid diet was held at Mainz, +during which the marriage of the emperor with Isabella (1214-1241), +daughter of John, king of England, was celebrated. A general peace +(_Landfrieden_), which became the basis of all such peaces in the +future, was sworn to; a new office, that of imperial justiciar, was +created, and a permanent judicial record was first instituted. Otto of +Brunswick, grandson of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, was made duke of +Brunswick-Lueneburg; and war was declared against the Lombards. + +Frederick was now at the height of his power. His second son, Conrad, +was invested with the duchy of Swabia, and the claim of Wenceslaus, king +of Bohemia, to some lands which had belonged to the German king Philip +was bought off. The attitude of Frederick II. (the Quarrelsome), duke of +Austria, had been considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a +visit paid by Frederick to Italy a war against him was begun. Compelled +to return by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign, the emperor +took command of his troops, seized Austria, Styria and Carinthia, and +declared these territories to be immediately dependent on the Empire. In +January 1237 he secured the election of his son Conrad as German king at +Vienna; and in September went to Italy to prosecute the war which had +broken out with the Lombards in the preceding year. Pope Gregory +attempted to mediate, but the cities refused to accept the insulting +terms offered by Frederick. The emperor gained a great victory over +their forces at Cortenuova in November 1237; but though he met with some +further successes, his failure to take Brescia in October 1238, together +with the changed attitude of Gregory, turned the fortune of war. The +pope had become alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage +between the heiress of Sardinia, Adelasia, and his natural son Enzio, +who afterwards assumed the title of king of Sardinia. But as his +warnings had been disregarded, he issued a document after the emperor's +retreat from Brescia, teeming with complaints against Frederick, and +followed it up by an open alliance with the Lombards, and by the +excommunication of the emperor on the 20th of March 1239. A violent war +of words ensued. Frederick, accused of heresy, blasphemy and other +crimes, called upon all kings and princes to unite against the pope, who +on his side made vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where +his emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching +rebellion. It was, however, impossible to find an anti-king. In Italy, +Spoleto and Ancona were declared part of the imperial dominions, and +Rome itself, faithful on this occasion to the pope, was threatened. A +number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a council called by Gregory were +captured by Enzio at the sea-fight of Meloria, and the emperor was about +to undertake the siege of Rome, when the pope died (August 1241). +Germany was at this time menaced by the Mongols; but Frederick contented +himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them, until in +1242 he was able to pay a short visit to Germany, where he gained some +support from the towns by grants of extensive privileges. + +The successor of Gregory was Pope Celestine IX. But this pontiff died +soon after his election; and after a delay of eighteen months, during +which Frederick marched against Rome on two occasions and devastated the +lands of his opponents, one of his partisans, Sinibaldo Fiesco, was +chosen pope, and took the name of Innocent IV. Negotiations for peace +were begun, but the relations of the Lombard cities to the Empire could +not be adjusted, and when the emperor began again to ravage the papal +territories Innocent fled to Lyons. Hither he summoned a general +council, which met in June 1245; but although Frederick sent his +justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, to represent him, and expressed his +willingness to treat, sentence of excommunication and deposition was +pronounced against him. Once more an interchange of recriminations +began, charged with all the violent hyperbole characteristic of the +controversial style of the age. Accused of violating treaties, breaking +oaths, persecuting the church and abetting heresy, Frederick replied by +an open letter rebutting these charges, and in equally unmeasured terms +denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from the pope +downwards. The source of all the evil was, he declared, the excessive +wealth of the church, which, in retaliation for the sentence of +excommunication, he threatened to confiscate. In vain the mediation of +the saintly king of France, Louis IX., was invoked. Innocent surpassed +his predecessors in the ferocity and unscrupulousness of his attacks on +the emperor (see INNOCENT IV.). War soon became general in Germany and +Italy. Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was chosen German king in +opposition to Frederick in May 1246, but neither he nor his successor, +William II., count of Holland, was successful in driving the +Hohenstaufen from Germany. In Italy, during the emperor's absence, his +cause had been upheld by Enzio and by the ferocious Eccelino da Romano. +In 1246 a formidable conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons +against the emperor's power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was +discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty. The emperor's power seemed +more firmly established than ever, when suddenly the news reached him +that Parma, a stronghold of the imperial authority in the north, had +been surprised, while the garrison was off its guard, by the Guelphs. To +recover the city was a matter of prime importance, and in 1247 Frederick +concentrated his forces round it, building over against it a wooden town +which, in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted, he +named Vittoria. The siege, however, was protracted, and finally, in +February 1248, during the absence of the emperor on a hunting +expedition, was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of the men of +Parma, who stormed the imperial camp. The disaster was complete. The +emperor's forces were destroyed or scattered; the treasury, with the +imperial insignia, together with Frederick's harem and some of the most +trusted of his ministers, fell into the hands of the victors. Thaddeus +of Suessa was hacked to pieces by the mob; the imperial crown was placed +in mockery on the head of a hunch-backed beggar, who was carried back in +triumph into the city. + +Frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes, and for a while with +success. But his old confidence had left him; he had grown moody and +suspicious, and his temper gave a ready handle to his enemies. Pier +della Vigna, accused of treasonable designs, was disgraced; and the once +all-powerful favourite and minister, blinded now and in rags, was +dragged in the emperor's train, as a warning to traitors, till in +despair he dashed out his brains. Then, in May 1248, came the tidings of +Enzio's capture by the Bolognese, and of his hopeless imprisonment, the +captors refusing all offers of ransom. This disaster to his favourite +son broke the emperor's spirit. He retired to southern Italy, and after +a short illness died at Fiorentino on the 13th of December 1250, after +having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of Palermo. He was +buried in the cathedral of that city, where his splendid tomb may still +be seen. By his will he appointed his son Conrad to succeed him in +Germany and Sicily, and Henry, his son by Isabella of England, to be +king of Jerusalem or Arles, neither of which kingdoms, however, he +obtained. Frederick left several illegitimate children: Enzio has +already been referred to; Frederick, who was made the imperial vicar in +Tuscany; and Manfred, his son by the beloved Bianca Lancia or Lanzia, +who was legitimatized just before his father's death, and was appointed +by his will prince of Tarento and regent of Sicily. + +The character of Frederick is one of extraordinary interest and +versatility, and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words _stupor +mundi et immutator mirabilis_. Licentious and luxurious in his manners, +cultured and catholic in his tastes, he united in his person the most +diverse qualities. His Sicilian court was a centre of intellectual +activity. Michael Scott, the translator of some treatises of Aristotle +and of the commentaries of Averroes, Leonard of Pisa, who introduced +Arabic numerals and algebra to the West, and other scholars, Jewish and +Mahommedan as well as Christian, were welcome at his court. Frederick +himself had a knowledge of six languages, was acquainted with +mathematics, philosophy and natural history, and took an interest in +medicine and architecture. In 1224 he founded the university of Naples, +and he was a liberal patron of the medical school at Salerno. He formed +a menagerie of strange animals, and wrote a treatise on falconry (_De +arte venandi cum avibus_) which is remarkable for its accurate +observation of the habits of birds.[1] It was at his court, too, +that--as Dante points out--Italian poetry had its birth. Pier della +Vigna there wrote the first sonnet, and Italian lyrics by Frederick +himself are preserved to us. His wives were kept secluded in oriental +fashion; a harem was maintained at Lucera, and eunuchs were a prominent +feature of his household. His religious ideas have been the subject of +much controversy. The theory of M. Huillard-Breholles that he wished to +unite to the functions of emperor those of a spiritual pontiff, and +aspired to be the founder of a new religion, is insufficiently supported +by evidence to be credible. Although at times he persecuted heretics +with great cruelty, he tolerated Mahommedans and Jews, and both acts +appear rather to have been the outcome of political considerations than +of religious belief. His jests, which were used by his enemies as a +charge against him, seem to have originated in religious indifference, +or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which anticipated the ideas of a later +age. Frederick's rule in Germany and Italy was a failure, but this fact +may be accounted for by the conditions of the time and the inevitable +conflict with the papacy. In Germany the enactments of 1220 and 1231 +contributed to the disintegration of the Empire and the fall of the +Hohenstaufen, while conflicting interests made the government of Italy a +problem of exceptional difficulty. In Sicily Frederick was more +successful. He quelled disorder, and under his rule the island was +prosperous and contented. His ideas of government were those of an +absolute monarch, and he probably wished to surround himself with some +of the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of Rome. His chief +claim to fame, perhaps, is as a lawgiver. The code of laws which he gave +to Sicily in 1231 bears the impress of his personality, and has been +described as "the fullest and most adequate body of legislation +promulgated by any western ruler since Charlemagne." Without being a +great soldier, Frederick was not unskilful in warfare, but was better +acquainted with the arts of diplomacy. In person he is said to have been +"red, bald and short-sighted," but with good features and a pleasing +countenance. It was seriously believed in Germany for about a century +after his death that Frederick was still alive, and many impostors +attempted to personate him. A legend, afterwards transferred to +Frederick Barbarossa, told how he sat in a cavern in the Kyffhaeusser +before a stone table through which his beard had grown, waiting for the +time for him to awake and restore to the Empire the golden age of peace. + + The contemporary documents relating to the reign of Frederick II. are + very numerous. Among the most important are: Richard of San Germano, + _Chronica regni Siciliae_; _Annales Placentini, Gibellini_; Albert of + Stade, _Annales_; Matthew Paris, _Historia major Angliae_; Burchard, + _Chronicon Urspergense_. All these are in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica_. _Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The _Rerum + Italicarum scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), + contains _Annales Mediolanenses_; Nicholas of Jamsilla, _Historia de + rebus gestis Friderici II._, and _Vita Gregorii IX. pontificis_. There + are also the _Epistolarum libri_ of Peter della Vigna, edited by J. R. + Iselin (Basel, 1740); and Salimbene of Parma's _Chronik_, published at + Parma (1857). Many of the documents concerning the history of the time + are found in the _Historia diplomatica Friderici II._, edited by M. + Huillard-Breholles (Paris, 1852-1861); _Acta imperii selecta. + Urkunden deutscher Koenige und Kaiser_, edited by J. F. Boehmer and J. + Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); _Acta imperii inedita seculi XIII. Urkunden + und Briefe zur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs und des Koenigreichs + Sicilien_, edited by E. Winkelmann (Innsbruck, 1880); _Epistolae + saeculi XIII. selecta e regestis pontificum Romanorum_, edited by C. + Rodenberg, tome i. (Berlin, 1883); P. Pressutti, _Regesta Honorii + papae III_. (Rome, 1888); L. Auvray, _Les Registres de Gregoire IX_. + (Paris, 1890). + + The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der + deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); J. Jastrow, _Deutsche + Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); F. W. + Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite_ (Goettingen, 1859-1865); + "Beitraege zur Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II." in the _Forschungen + zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Goettingen, 1862-1886), and _Die + letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Goettingen, 1871); E. Winkelmann, _Geschichte + Kaiser Friedrichs II und seiner Reiche_ (Berlin, 1865) and _Kaiser + Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889); G. Blondel, _Etude sur la politique de + l'empereur Frederic II. en Allemagne_ (Paris, 1892); M. Halbe, + _Friedrich II. und der paepstliche Stuhl_ (Berlin, 1888); R. Roehricht, + _Die Kreuzfahrt des Kaisers Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1874); C. Koehler, + _Das Verhaeltnis Kaiser Friedrichs II. zu den Paepsten seiner Zeit_ + (Breslau, 1888); J. Feiten, _Papst Gregor IX_. (Freiburg, 1886); C. + Rodenberg, _Innocenz IV. und das Koenigreich Sicilien_ (Halle, 1892); + K. Lamprecht, _Deutsche Geschichte_, Band iii. (Berlin, 1891); M. + Huillard-Breholles, _Vie et correspondance de Pierre de la Vigne_ + (Paris, 1865); A. del Vecchio, _La legislazione de Federico II_ + (Turin, 1874); and K. Hampe, _Kaiser Friedrich II_. (Munich, 1899). + (A. W. H.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] First printed at Augsburg in 1596; a German edition was published + at Berlin in 1896. + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1415-1493), Roman emperor,--as Frederick IV., German +king, and as Frederick V., archduke of Austria,--son of Ernest of +Habsburg, duke of Styria and Carinthia, was born at Innsbruck on the +21st of September 1415. After his father's death in 1424 he passed his +time at the court of his uncle and guardian, Frederick IV., count of +Tirol. In 1435, together with his brother, Albert the Prodigal, he +undertook the government of Styria and Carinthia, but the peace of these +lands was disturbed by constant feuds between the brothers, which lasted +until Albert's death in 1463. In 1439 the deaths of the German king +Albert II. and of Frederick of Tirol left Frederick the senior member of +the Habsburg family, and guardian of Sigismund, count of Tirol. In the +following year he also became guardian of Ladislaus, the posthumous son +of Albert II., and heir to Bohemia, Hungary and Austria, but these +responsibilities brought only trouble and humiliation in their train. On +the 2nd of February 1440 Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort, +but, owing to his absence from Germany, the coronation was delayed until +the 17th of June 1442, when it took place at Aix-la-Chapelle. + +Disregarding the neutral attitude of the German electors towards the +papal schism, and acting under the influence of Aeneas Sylvius +Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., Frederick in 1445 made a secret +treaty with Pope Eugenius IV. This developed into the Concordat of +Vienna, signed in 1448 with the succeeding pope, Nicholas V., by which +the king, in return for a sum of money and a promise of the imperial +crown, pledged the obedience of the German people to Rome, and so +checked for a time the rising tide of liberty in the German church. +Taking up the quarrel between the Habsburgs and the Swiss cantons, +Frederick invited the Armagnacs to attack his enemies, but after meeting +with a stubborn resistance at St Jacob on the 26th of August 1444, these +allies proved faithless, and the king soon lost every vestige of +authority in Switzerland. In 1451 Frederick, disregarding the revolts in +Austria and Hungary, travelled to Rome, where, on the 16th of March +1452, his marriage with Leonora, daughter of Edward, king of Portugal, +was celebrated, and three days later he was crowned emperor by pope +Nicholas. On his return he found Germany seething with indignation. His +capitulation to the pope was not forgotten; his refusal to attend the +diets, and his apathy in the face of Turkish aggressions, constituted a +serious danger; and plans for his deposition failed only because the +electors could not unite upon a rival king. In 1457 Ladislaus, king of +Hungary and Bohemia, and archduke of Austria, died; Frederick failed to +secure either kingdom, but obtained lower Austria, from which, however, +he was soon driven by his brother Albert, who occupied Vienna. On +Albert's death in 1463 the emperor united upper and lower Austria under +his rule, but these possessions were constantly ravaged by George +Podebrad, king of Bohemia, and by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary. A +visit to Rome in 1468 to discuss measures against the Turks with Pope +Paul II. had no result, and in 1470 Frederick began negotiations for a +marriage between his son Maximilian and Mary, daughter and heiress of +Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The emperor met the duke at Treves +in 1473, when Frederick, disliking to bestow the title of king upon +Charles, left the city secretly, but brought about the marriage after +the duke's death in 1477. Again attacked by Matthias, the emperor was +driven from Vienna, and soon handed over the government of his lands to +Maximilian, whose election as king of the Romans he vainly opposed in +1486. Frederick then retired to Linz, where he passed his time in the +study of botany, alchemy and astronomy, until his death on the 19th of +August 1493. + +Frederick was a listless and incapable ruler, lacking alike the +qualities of the soldier and of the diplomatist, but possessing a +certain cleverness in evading difficulties. With a fine presence, he had +many excellent personal qualities, is spoken of as mild and just, and +had a real love of learning. He had a great belief in the future +greatness of his family, to which he contributed largely by arranging +the marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy, and delighted to +inscribe his books and other articles of value with the letters +A.E.I.O.U. (_Austriae est imperare orbi universo_; or in German, _Alles +Erdreich ist Oesterreich unterthan_). His personality counts for very +little in German history. One chronicler says: "He was a useless +emperor, and the nation during his long reign forgot that she had a +king." His tomb, a magnificent work in red and white marble, is in the +cathedral of St Stephen at Vienna. + + See Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, _De rebus et gestis Friderici III_. + (trans. Th. Ilgen, Leipzig, 1889); J. Chmel, _Geschichte Kaiser + Friedrichs IV. und seines Sohnes Maximilians I_. (Hamburg, 1840); A. + Bachmann, _Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III. und + Maximilians I_. (Leipzig, 1884); A. Huber, _Geschichte Oesterreichs_ + (Gotha, 1885-1892); and E. M. Fuerst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des + Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (c. 1286-1330), surnamed "the Fair," German king and duke +of Austria, was the second son of the German king, Albert I., and +consequently a member of the Habsburg family. In 1298, when his father +was chosen German king, Frederick was invested with some of the family +lands, and in 1306, when his elder brother Rudolph became king of +Bohemia, he succeeded to the duchy of Austria. In 1307 Rudolph died, and +Frederick sought to obtain the Bohemian throne; but an expedition into +that country was a failure, and his father's murder in May 1308 deprived +him of considerable support. He was equally unsuccessful in his efforts +to procure the German crown at this time, and the relations between the +new king, Henry VII., and the Habsburgs were far from friendly. +Frederick asked not only to be confirmed in the possession of Austria, +but to be invested with Moravia, a demand to which Henry refused to +accede; but an arrangement was subsequently made by which the duke +agreed to renounce Moravia in return for a payment of 50,000 marks. +Frederick then became involved in a quarrel with his cousin Louis IV., +duke of Upper Bavaria (afterwards the emperor Louis IV.), over the +guardianship of Henry II., duke of Lower Bavaria. Hostilities broke out, +and on the 9th of November 1313 he was defeated by Louis at the battle +of Gammelsdorf and compelled to renounce his claim. + +Meanwhile the emperor Henry VII. had died in Italy, and a stubborn +contest ensued for the vacant throne. After a long delay Frederick was +chosen German king at Frankfort by a minority of the electors on the +19th of October 1314, while a majority elected Louis of Bavaria. Six +days later Frederick was crowned at Bonn by the archbishop of Cologne, +and war broke out at once between the rivals. During this contest, which +was carried on in a desultory fashion, Frederick drew his chief strength +from southern and eastern Germany, and was supported by the full power +of the Habsburgs. The defeat of his brother Leopold by the Swiss at +Morgarten in November 1315 was a heavy blow to him, but he prolonged the +struggle for seven years. On the 28th of September 1322 a decisive +battle was fought at Muehldorf; Frederick was defeated and sent as a +prisoner to Trausnitz. Here he was retained until three years later a +series of events induced Louis to come to terms. By the treaty of +Trausnitz, signed on the 13th of March 1325, Frederick acknowledged the +kingship of Louis in return for freedom, and promised to return to +captivity unless he could induce his brother Leopold to make a similar +acknowledgment. As Leopold refused to take this step, Frederick, +although released from his oath by Pope John XXII., travelled back to +Bavaria, where he was treated by Louis rather as a friend than as a +prisoner. A suggestion was then made that the kings should rule jointly, +but as this plan aroused some opposition it was agreed that Frederick +should govern Germany while Louis went to Italy for the imperial crown. +But this arrangement did not prove generally acceptable, and the death +of Leopold in 1326 deprived Frederick of a powerful supporter. In these +circumstances he returned to Austria broken down in mind and body, and +on the 13th of January 1330 he died at Gutenstein, and was buried at +Mauerbach, whence his remains were removed in 1783 to the cathedral of +St Stephen at Vienna. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James I., king +of Aragon, and left two daughters. His voluntary return into captivity +is used by Schiller in his poem _Deutsche Treue_, and by J. L. Uhland in +the drama _Ludwig der Bayer_. + + The authorities for the life of Frederick are found in the _Fontes + rerum Germanicarum_, Band i., edited by J. F. Boehmer (Stuttgart, + 1843-1868), and in the _Fontes rerum Austriacarum_, part i. (Vienna, + 1855). Modern works which may be consulted are: E. M. Fuerst von + Lichnowsky, G_eschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); Th. + Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ + (Stuttgart, 1888-1893). R. Doebner, _Die Auseinandersetzung zwischen + Ludwig IV. dem Bayer und Friedrich dem Schoenen von Oesterreich_ + (Goettingen, 1875); F. Kurz, _Oesterreich unter Koenig Friedrich dem + Schoenen_ (Linz, 1818); F. Krones, _Handbuch der Geschichte + Oesterreichs_ (Berlin, 1876-1879); H. Schrohe, _Der Kampf der + Gegenkoenige Ludwig und Friedrich_ (Berlin, 1902); W. Friedensburg, + _Ludwig IV. der Bayer und Friedrich von Oesterreich_ (Goettingen, 1877); + B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_ (Berlin, 1901). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1534-1588), king of Denmark and Norway, son of Christian +III., was born at Hadersleben on the 1st of July 1534. His mother, +Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg, was the elder sister of Catherine, the first +wife of Gustavus Vasa and the mother of Eric XIV. The two little +cousins, born the same year, were destined to be lifelong rivals. At the +age of two Frederick was proclaimed successor to the throne at the +_Rigsdag_ of Copenhagen (October 30th, 1536), and homage was done to him +at Oslo for Norway in 1548. The choice of his governor, the patriotic +historiographer Hans Svaning, was so far fortunate that it ensured the +devotion of the future king of Denmark to everything Danish; but Svaning +was a poor pedagogue, and the wild and wayward lad suffered all his life +from the defects of his early training. Frederick's youthful, innocent +attachment to the daughter of his former tutor, Anna Hardenberg, +indisposed him towards matrimony at the beginning of his reign (1558). +After the hands of Elizabeth of England, Mary of Scotland and Renata of +Lorraine had successively been sought for him, the council of state grew +anxious about the succession, but he finally married his cousin, Sophia +of Mecklenburg, on the 20th of July 1572. + +The reign of Frederick II. falls into two well-defined divisions: (1) a +period of war, 1559-1570; and (2) a period of peace, 1570-1588. The +period of war began with the Ditmarsh expedition, when the independent +peasant-republic of the Ditmarshers of West Holstein, which had stoutly +maintained its independence for centuries against the counts of Holstein +and the Danish kings, was subdued by a Dano-Holstein army of 20,000 men +in 1559, Frederick and his uncles John and Adolphus, dukes of Holstein, +dividing the land between them. Equally triumphant was Frederick in his +war with Sweden, though here the contest was much more severe, lasting +as it did for seven years; whence it is generally described in northern +history as the Scandinavian Seven Years' War. The tension which had +prevailed between the two kingdoms during the last years of Gustavus +Vasa reached breaking point on the accession of Gustavus's eldest son +Eric XIV. There were many causes of quarrel between the two ambitious +young monarchs, but the detention at Copenhagen in 1563 of a splendid +matrimonial embassy on its way to Germany, to negotiate a match between +Eric and Christina of Hesse, which King Frederick for political reasons +was determined to prevent, precipitated hostilities. During the war, +which was marked by extraordinary ferocity throughout, the Danes were +generally victorious on land owing to the genius of Daniel Rantzau, but +at sea the Swedes were almost uniformly triumphant. By 1570 the strife +had degenerated into a barbarous devastation of border provinces; and in +July of the same year both countries accepted the mediation of the +Emperor, and peace was finally concluded at Stettin on Dec. 13, 1570. +During the course of this Seven Years' War Frederick II. had narrowly +escaped the fate of his deposed cousin Eric XIV. The war was very +unpopular in Denmark, and the closing of the Sound against foreign +shipping, in order to starve out Sweden, had exasperated the maritime +powers and all the Baltic states. On New Year's Day 1570 Frederick's +difficulties seemed so overwhelming that he threatened to abdicate; but +the peace of Stettin came in time to reconcile all parties, and though +Frederick had now to relinquish his ambitious dream of re-establishing +the Union of Kalmar, he had at least succeeded in maintaining the +supremacy of Denmark in the north. After the peace Frederick's policy +became still more imperial. He aspired to the dominion of all the seas +which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died he succeeded in +suppressing the pirates who so long had haunted the Baltic and the +German Ocean. He also erected the stately fortress of Kronborg, to guard +the narrow channel of the Sound. Frederick possessed the truly royal +gift of discovering and employing great men, irrespective of personal +preferences and even of personal injuries. With infinite tact and +admirable self-denial he gave free scope to ministers whose superiority +in their various departments he frankly recognized, rarely interfering +personally unless absolutely called upon to do so. His influence, always +great, was increased by his genial and unaffected manners as a host. He +is also remarkable as one of the few kings of the house of Oldenburg who +had no illicit _liaison_. He died at Antvorskov on the 4th of April +1588. No other Danish king was ever so beloved by his people. + + See _Lund_ (_Troels_), _Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af + det XVI. Aarh._ (Copenhagen, 1879); _Danmarks Riges Historie_ + (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. 3; Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, + cap. 4 (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.) + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1609-1670), king of Denmark and Norway, son of Christian +IV. and Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, was born on the 18th of March +1609 at Hadersleben. His position as a younger son profoundly influenced +his future career. In his youth and early manhood there was no prospect +of his ascending the Danish throne, and he consequently became the +instrument of his father's schemes of aggrandizement in Germany. While +still a lad he became successively bishop of Bremen, bishop of Verden +and coadjutor of Halberstadt, while at the age of eighteen he was the +chief commandant of the fortress of Stade. Thus from an early age he had +considerable experience as an administrator, while his general education +was very careful and thorough. He had always a pronounced liking for +literary and scientific studies. On the 1st of October 1643 Frederick +wedded Sophia Amelia of Brunswick Lueneburg, whose energetic, passionate +and ambitious character was profoundly to affect not only Frederick's +destiny but the destiny of Denmark. During the disastrous Swedish War of +1643-1645 Frederick was appointed generalissimo of the duchies by his +father, but the laurels he won were scanty, chiefly owing to his +quarrels with the Earl-Marshal Anders Bille, who commanded the Danish +forces. This was Frederick's first collision with the Danish nobility, +who ever afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust. The death of his +elder brother Christian in June 1647 first opened to him the prospect of +succeeding to the Danish throne, but the question was still unsettled +when Christian IV. died on the 28th of February 1648. Not till the 6th +of July in the same year did Frederick III. receive the homage of his +subjects, and only after he had signed a _Haandfaestning_ or charter, by +which the already diminished royal prerogative was still further +curtailed. It had been doubtful at first whether he would be allowed to +inherit his ancestral throne at all; but Frederick removed the last +scruples of the _Rigsraad_ by unhesitatingly accepting the conditions +imposed upon him. + +The new monarch was a reserved, enigmatical prince, who seldom laughed, +spoke little and wrote less--a striking contrast to Christian IV. But if +he lacked the brilliant qualities of his impulsive, jovial father, he +possessed in a high degree the compensating virtues of moderation, +sobriety and self-control. But with all his good qualities Frederick was +not the man to take a clear view of the political horizon, or even to +recognize his own and his country's limitations. He rightly regarded the +accession of Charles X. of Sweden (June 6th, 1654) as a source of danger +to Denmark. He felt that temperament and policy would combine to make +Charles an aggressive warrior-king: the only uncertainty was in which +direction he would turn his arms first. Charles's invasion of Poland +(July 1654) came as a distinct relief to the Danes, though even the +Polish War was full of latent peril to Denmark. Frederick was resolved +upon a rupture with Sweden at the first convenient opportunity. The +_Rigsdag_ which assembled on the 23rd of February 1657 willingly granted +considerable subsidies for mobilization and other military expenses; on +the 15th of April Frederick III. desired, and on the 23rd of April he +received, the assent of the majority of the _Rigsraad_ to attack +Sweden's German provinces; in the beginning of May the still pending +negotiations with that power were broken off, and on the 1st of June +Frederick signed the manifesto justifying a war which was never formally +declared. The Swedish king traversed all the plans of his enemies by his +passage of the frozen Belts, in January and February 1658 (see CHARLES +X. of Sweden). The effect of this unheard-of achievement on the Danish +government was crushing. Frederick III. at once sued for peace; and, +yielding to the persuasions of the English and French ministers, Charles +finally agreed to be content with mutilating instead of annihilating the +Danish monarchy (treaties of Taastrup, February 18th, and of Roskilde, +February 26th, 1658). The conclusion of peace was followed by a +remarkable episode. Frederick expressed the desire to make the personal +acquaintance of his conqueror; and Charles X. consented to be his guest +for three days (March 3-5) at the castle of Fredriksborg. Splendid +banquets lasting far into the night, private and intimate conversations +between the princes who had only just emerged from a mortal struggle, +seemed to point to nothing but peace and friendship in the future. But +Charles's insatiable lust for conquest, and his ineradicable suspicion +of Denmark, induced him, on the 17th of July, without any reasonable +cause, without a declaration of war, in defiance of all international +equity, to endeavour to despatch an inconvenient neighbour. + +Terror was the first feeling produced at Copenhagen by the landing of +the main Swedish army at Korsoer in Zealand. None had anticipated the +possibility of such a sudden and brutal attack, and every one knew that +the Danish capital was very inadequately fortified and garrisoned. +Fortunately Frederick had never been deficient in courage. "I will die +in my nest" were the memorable words with which he rebuked those +counsellors who advised him to seek safety in flight. On the 8th of +August representatives from every class in the capital urged the +necessity of a vigorous resistance; and the citizens of Copenhagen, +headed by the great burgomaster Hans Nansen (q.v.), protested their +unshakable loyalty to the king, and their determination to defend +Copenhagen to the uttermost. The Danes had only three days' warning of +the approaching danger; and the vast and dilapidated line of defence had +at first but 2000 regular defenders. But the government and the people +displayed a memorable and exemplary energy, under the constant +supervision of the king, the queen, and burgomaster Nansen. By the +beginning of September all the breaches were repaired, the walls +bristled with cannon, and 7000 men were under arms. So strong was the +city by this time that Charles X., abandoning his original intention of +carrying the place by assault, began a regular siege; but this also he +was forced to abandon when, on the 29th of October, an auxiliary Dutch +fleet, after reinforcing and reprovisioning the garrison, defeated, in +conjunction with the Danish fleet, the Swedish navy of 44 liners in the +Sound. Thus the Danish capital had saved the Danish monarchy. But it was +Frederick III. who profited most by his spirited defence of the common +interests of the country and the dynasty. The traditional loyalty of the +Danish middle classes was transformed into a boundless enthusiasm for +the king personally, and for a brief period Frederick found himself the +most popular man in his kingdom. He made use of his popularity by +realizing the dream of a lifetime and converting an elective into an +absolute monarchy by the Revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: _History_). +Frederick III. died on the 6th of February 1670 at the castle of +Copenhagen. + + See R. Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, caps. ix. and x. (Cambridge, 1905). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +FREDERICK VIII. (1843- ), king of Denmark, eldest son of King +Christian IX., was born at Copenhagen on the 3rd of June 1843. As crown +prince of Denmark he took part in the war of 1864 against Austria and +Prussia, and subsequently assisted his father in the duties of +government, becoming king on Christian's death in January 1906. In 1869 +Frederick married Louise (b. 1851), daughter of Charles XV., king of +Sweden, by whom he had a family of four sons and four daughters. His +eldest son Christian, crown prince of Denmark (b. 1870), was married in +1898 to Alexandrina (b. 1879), daughter of Frederick Francis III., +grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; and his second son, Charles (b. +1872), who married his cousin Maud, daughter of Edward VII. of Great +Britain, became king of Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905. + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1657-1713), king of Prussia, and (as Frederick III.) +elector of Brandenburg, was the second son of the great elector, +Frederick William, by his first marriage with Louise Henriette, daughter +of Frederick Henry of Orange. Born at Koenigsberg on the 11th of July +1657, he was educated and greatly influenced by Eberhard Danckelmann, +and became heir to the throne of Brandenburg through the death of his +elder brother, Charles Emil, in 1674. He appears to have taken some part +in public business before the death of his father; and the court at +Berlin was soon disturbed by quarrels between the young prince and his +stepmother, Dorothea of Holstein-Gluecksburg. In 1686 Dorothea persuaded +her husband to bequeath outlying portions of his lands to her four sons; +and Frederick, fearing he would be poisoned, left Brandenburg determined +to prevent any diminution of his inheritance. By promising to restore +Schwiebus to Silesia after his accession he won the support of the +emperor Leopold I.; but eventually he gained his end in a peaceable +fashion. Having become elector of Brandenburg in May 1688, he came to +terms with his half-brothers and their mother. In return for a sum of +money these princes renounced their rights under their father's will, +and the new elector thus secured the whole of Frederick William's +territories. After much delay and grumbling he fulfilled his bargain +with Leopold and gave up Schwiebus in 1695. At home and abroad Frederick +continued the policy of the great elector. He helped William of Orange +to make his descent on England; added various places, including the +principality of Neuchatel, to his lands; and exercised some influence on +the course of European politics by placing his large and efficient army +at the disposal of the emperor and his allies (see BRANDENBURG). He was +present in person at the siege of Bonn in 1689, but was not often in +command of his troops. The elector was very fond of pomp, and, striving +to model his court upon that of Louis XIV., he directed his main +energies towards obtaining for himself the title of king. In spite of +the assistance he had given to the emperor his efforts met with no +success for some years; but towards 1700 Leopold, faced with the +prospect of a new struggle with France, was inclined to view the idea +more favourably. Having insisted upon various conditions, prominent +among them being military aid for the approaching war, he gave the +imperial sanction to Frederick's request in November 1700; whereupon the +elector, hurrying at once to Koenigsberg, crowned himself with great +ceremony king of Prussia on the 18th of January 1701. According to his +promise the king sent help to the emperor; and during the War of the +Spanish Succession the troops of Brandenburg-Prussia rendered great +assistance to the allies, fighting with distinction at Blenheim and +elsewhere. Frederick, who was deformed through an injury to his spine, +died on the 25th of February 1713. By his extravagance the king +exhausted the treasure amassed by his father, burdened his country with +heavy taxes, and reduced its finances to chaos. His constant obligations +to the emperor drained Brandenburg of money which might have been +employed more profitably at home, and prevented her sovereign from +interfering in the politics of northern Europe. Frederick, however, was +not an unpopular ruler, and by making Prussia into a kingdom he +undoubtedly advanced it several stages towards its future greatness. He +founded the university of Halle, and the Academy of Sciences at Berlin; +welcomed and protected Protestant refugees from France and elsewhere; +and lavished money on the erection of public buildings. + +The king was married three times. His second wife, Sophie Charlotte +(1668-1705), sister of the English king George I., was the friend of +Leibnitz and one of the most cultured princesses of the age; she bore +him his only son, his successor, King Frederick William I. + + See W. Hahn, _Friedrich I., Koenig in Preussen_ (Berlin, 1876); J. G. + Droysen, _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_, Band iv. (Leipzig, + 1872); E. Heyck, _Friedrich I. und die Begruendung des preussischen + Koenigtums_ (Bielefeld, 1901): C. Graf von Dohna, _Memoires originaux + sur le regne et la cour de Frederic I^er_ (Berlin, 1883); _Aus dem + Briefwechsel Koenig Friedrichs I. von Preussen und seiner Familie_ + (Berlin, 1901); and T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. + i. (London, 1872). + + + + +FREDERICK II., known as "the Great" (1712-1786), king of Prussia, born +on the 24th of January 1712, was the eldest son of Frederick William I. +He was brought up with extreme rigour, his father devising a scheme of +education which was intended to make him a hardy soldier, and +prescribing for him every detail of his conduct. So great was Frederick +William's horror of everything which did not seem to him practical, that +he strictly excluded Latin from the list of his son's studies. +Frederick, however, had free and generous impulses which could not be +restrained by the sternest system. Encouraged by his mother, and under +the influence of his governess Madame de Roucoulle, and of his first +tutor Duhan, a French refugee, he acquired an excellent knowledge of +French and a taste for literature and music. He even received secret +lessons in Latin, which his father invested with all the charms of +forbidden fruit. As he grew up he became extremely dissatisfied with the +dull and monotonous life he was compelled to lead; and his discontent +was heartily shared by his sister, Wilhelmina, a bright and intelligent +young princess for whom Frederick had a warm affection. + +Frederick William, seeing his son apparently absorbed in frivolous and +effeminate amusements, gradually conceived for him an intense dislike, +which had its share in causing him to break off the negotiations for a +double marriage between the prince of Wales and Wilhelmina, and the +princess Amelia, daughter of George II., and Frederick; for Frederick +had been so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the +English court and to vow that he would marry Amelia or no one. Frederick +William's hatred of his son, openly avowed, displayed itself in violent +outbursts and public insults, and so harsh was his treatment that +Frederick frequently thought of running away and taking refuge at the +English court. He at last resolved to do so during a journey which he +made with the king to south Germany in 1730, when he was eighteen years +of age. He was helped by his two friends, Lieutenant Katte and +Lieutenant Keith; but by the imprudence of the former the secret was +found out. Frederick was placed under arrest, deprived of his rank as +crown prince, tried by court-martial, and imprisoned in the fortress of +Cuestrin. Warned by Frederick, Keith escaped; but Katte delayed his +flight too long, and a court-martial decided that he should be punished +with two years' fortress arrest. But the king was determined by a +terrible example to wake Frederick once for all to a consciousness of +the heavy responsibility of his position. He changed the sentence on +Katte to one of death and ordered the execution to take place in +Frederick's presence, himself arranging its every detail; Frederick's +own fate would depend upon the effect of this terrible object-lesson and +the response he should make to the exhortations of the chaplain sent to +reason with him. On the morning of the 7th of November Katte was +beheaded before Frederick's window, after the crown prince had asked his +pardon and received the answer that there was nothing to forgive. On +Frederick himself lay the terror of death, and the chaplain was able to +send to the king a favourable report of his orthodoxy and his changed +disposition. Frederick William, whose temper was by no means so +ruthlessly Spartan as tradition has painted it,was overjoyed, and +commissioned the clergyman to receive from the prince an oath of filial +obedience, and in exchange for this proof of "his intention to improve +in real earnest" his arrest was to be lightened, pending the earning of +a full pardon. "The whole town shall be his prison," wrote the king; "I +will give him employment, from morning to night, in the departments of +war, and agriculture, and of the government. He shall work at financial +matters, receive accounts, read minutes and make extracts.... But if he +kicks or rears again, he shall forfeit the succession to the crown, and +even, according to circumstances, life itself." + +For about fifteen months Frederick lived in Custrin, busy according to +the royal programme with the details of the Prussian administrative +system. He was very careful not to "kick or rear," and his good conduct +earned him a further stage in the restoration to favour. During this +period of probation he had been deprived of his status as a soldier and +refused the right to wear uniform, while officers and soldiers were +forbidden to give him the military salute; in 1732 he was made colonel +in command of the regiment at Neuruppin. In the following year he +married, in obedience to the king's orders, the princess Elizabeth +Christina, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Bevern. He was given the +estate of Rheinsberg in the neighbourhood of Neuruppin, and there he +lived until he succeeded to the throne. These years were perhaps the +happiest of his life. He discharged his duties with so much spirit and +so conscientiously that he ultimately gained the esteem of Frederick +William, who no longer feared that he would leave the crown to one +unworthy of wearing it. At the same time the crown prince was able to +indulge to the full his personal tastes. He carried on a lively +correspondence with Voltaire and other French men of letters, and was a +diligent student of philosophy, history and poetry. Two of his +best-known works were written at this time--_Considerations sur l'etat +present du corps politique de l'Europe_ and his _Anti-Macchiavel_. In +the former he calls attention to the growing strength of Austria and +France, and insists on the necessity of some third power, by which he +clearly means Prussia, counterbalancing their excessive influence. The +second treatise, which was issued by Voltaire in Hague in 1740, contains +a generous exposition of some of the favourite ideas of the 18th-century +philosophers respecting the duties of sovereigns, which may be summed up +in the famous sentence: "the prince is not the absolute master, but only +the first servant of his people." + +On the 31st of May 1740 he became king. He maintained all the forms of +government established by his father, but ruled in a far more +enlightened spirit; he tolerated every form of religious opinion, +abolished the use of torture, was most careful to secure an exact and +impartial administration of justice, and, while keeping the reins of +government strictly in his own hands, allowed every one with a genuine +grievance free access to his presence. The Potsdam regiment of giants +was disbanded, but the real interests of the army were carefully +studied, for Frederick realized that the two pillars of the Prussian +state were sound finances and a strong army. On the 20th of October 1740 +the emperor Charles VI. died. Frederick at once began to make extensive +military preparations, and it was soon clear to all the world that he +intended to enter upon some serious enterprise. He had made up his mind +to assert the ancient claim of the house of Brandenburg to the three +Silesian duchies, which the Austrian rulers of Bohemia had ever denied, +but the Hohenzollerns had never abandoned. Projects for the assertion of +this claim by force of arms had been formed by more than one of +Frederick's predecessors, and the extinction of the male line of the +house of Habsburg may well have seemed to him a unique opportunity for +realizing an ambition traditional in his family. For this resolution he +is often abused still by historians, and at the time he had the approval +of hardly any one out of Prussia. He himself, writing of the scheme in +his _Memoires_, laid no claim to lofty motives, but candidly confessed +that "it was a means of acquiring reputation and of increasing the power +of the state." He firmly believed, however, in the lawfulness of his +claims; and although his father had recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, +whereby the hereditary dominions of Charles VI. were to descend to his +daughter, Maria Theresa, Frederick insisted that this sanction could +refer only to lands which rightfully belonged to the house of Austria. +He could also urge that, as Charles VI. had not fulfilled the +engagements by which Frederick William's recognition of the Pragmatic +Sanction had been secured, Prussia was freed from her obligation. + +Frederick sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering, in the event of his +rights in Silesia being conceded, to aid Maria Theresa against her +enemies. The queen of Hungary, who regarded the proposal as that of a +mere robber, haughtily declined; whereupon Frederick immediately invaded +Silesia with an army of 30,000 men. His first victory was gained at +Mollwitz on the 10th of April 1741. Under the impression, in consequence +of a furious charge of Austrian cavalry, that the battle was lost, he +rode rapidly away at an early stage of the struggle--a mistake which +gave rise for a time to the groundless idea that he lacked personal +courage. A second Prussian victory was gained at Chotusitz, near Caslau, +on the 17th May 1742; by this time Frederick was master of all the +fortified places of Silesia. Maria Theresa, in the heat of her struggle +with France and the elector of Bavaria, now Charles VII., and pressed by +England to rid herself of Frederick, concluded with him, on the 11th of +June 1742, the peace of Breslau, conceding to Prussia, Upper and Lower +Silesia as far as the Oppa, together with the county of Glatz. Frederick +made good use of the next two years, fortifying his new territory, and +repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war. By the death of the +prince of East Friesland without heirs, he also gained possession of +that country (1744). He knew well that Maria Theresa would not, if she +could help it, allow him to remain in Silesia; accordingly, in 1744, +alarmed by her victories, he arrived at a secret understanding with +France, and pledged himself, with Hesse-Cassel and the palatinate, to +maintain the imperial rights of Charles VII., and to defend his +hereditary Bavarian lands. Frederick began the second Silesian War by +entering Bohemia in August 1744 and taking Prague. By this brilliant but +rash venture he put himself in great danger, and soon had to retreat; +but in 1745 he gained the battles of Hohenfriedberg, Soor and +Hennersdorf; and Leopold of Dessau ("Der alte Dessauer") won for him the +victory of Kesselsdorf in Saxony. The latter victory was decisive, and +the peace of Dresden (December 25, 1745) assured to Frederick a second +time the possession of Silesia. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.) + +Frederick had thus, at the age of thirty-three, raised himself to a +great position in Europe, and henceforth he was the most conspicuous +sovereign of his time. He was a thoroughly absolute ruler, his so-called +ministers being mere clerks whose business was to give effect to his +will. To use his own famous phrase, however, he regarded himself as but +"the first servant of the state"; and during the next eleven years he +proved that the words expressed his inmost conviction and feeling. All +kinds of questions were submitted to him, important and unimportant; and +he is frequently censured for having troubled himself so much with mere +details. But in so far as these details related to expenditure he was +fully justified, for it was absolutely essential for him to have a large +army, and with a small state this was impossible unless he carefully +prevented unnecessary outlay. Being a keen judge of character, he filled +the public offices with faithful, capable, energetic men, who were kept +up to a high standard of duty by the consciousness that their work might +at any time come under his strict supervision. The Academy of Sciences, +which had fallen into contempt during his father's reign, he restored, +infusing into it vigorous life; and he did more to promote elementary +education than any of his predecessors. He did much too for the economic +development of Prussia, especially for agriculture; he established +colonies, peopling them with immigrants, extended the canal system, +drained and diked the great marshes of the Oderbruch, turning them into +rich pasturage, encouraged the planting of fruit trees and of root +crops; and, though in accordance with his ideas of discipline he +maintained serfdom, he did much to lighten the burdens of the peasants. +All kinds of manufacture, too, particularly that of silk, owed much to +his encouragement. To the army he gave unremitting attention, reviewing +it at regular intervals, and sternly punishing negligence on the part of +the officers. Its numbers were raised to 160,000 men, while fortresses +and magazines were always kept in a state of readiness for war. The +influence of the king's example was felt far beyond the limits of his +immediate circle. The nation was proud of his genius, and displayed +something of his energy in all departments of life. Lessing, who as a +youth of twenty came to Berlin in 1749, composed enthusiastic odes in +his honour, and Gleim, the Halberstadt poet, wrote of him as of a kind +of demi-god. These may be taken as fair illustrations of the popular +feeling long before the Seven Years' War. + +He despised German as the language of boors, although it is remarkable +that at a later period, in a French essay on German literature, he +predicted for it a great future. He habitually wrote and spoke French, +and had a strong ambition to rank as a distinguished French author. +Nobody can now read his verses, but his prose writings have a certain +calm simplicity and dignity, without, however, giving evidence of the +splendid mental qualities which he revealed in practical life. To this +period belong his _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de Brandebourg_ and +his poem _L'Art de la guerre_. The latter, judged as literature, is +intolerably dull; but the former is valuable, throwing as it does +considerable light on his personal sympathies as well as on the motives +of important epochs in his career. He continued to correspond with +French writers, and induced a number of them to settle in Berlin, +Maupertuis being president of the Academy. In 1752 Voltaire, who had +repeatedly visited him, came at Frederick's urgent entreaty, and +received a truly royal welcome. The famous Hirsch trial, and Voltaire's +vanity and caprice, greatly lowered him in the esteem of the king, who, +on his side, irritated his guest by often requiring him to correct bad +verses, and by making him the object of rude banter. The publication of +_Doctor Akakia_, which brought down upon the president of the Academy a +storm of ridicule, finally alienated Frederick; while Voltaire's wrongs +culminated in the famous arrest at Frankfort, the most disagreeable +elements of which were due to the misunderstanding of an order by a +subordinate official. + +The king lived as much as possible in a retired mansion, to which he +gave the name of Sanssouci--not the palace so called, which was built +after the Seven Years' War, and was never a favourite residence. He rose +regularly in summer at five, in winter at six, devoting himself to +public business till about eleven. During part of this time, after +coffee, he would aid his reflections by playing on the flute, of which +he was passionately fond, being a really skilful performer. At eleven +came parade, and an hour afterwards, punctually, dinner, which continued +till two, or later, if conversation happened to be particularly +attractive. After dinner he glanced through and signed cabinet orders +written in accordance with his morning instructions, often adding +marginal notes and postscripts, many of which were in a caustic tone. +These disposed of, he amused himself for a couple of hours with literary +work; between six and seven he would converse with his friends or listen +to his reader (a post held for some time by La Mettrie); at seven there +was a concert; and at half-past eight he sat down to supper, which might +go on till midnight. He liked good eating and drinking, although even +here the cost was sharply looked after, the expenses of his kitchen +mounting to no higher figure than L1800 a year. At supper he was always +surrounded by a number of his most intimate friends, mainly Frenchmen; +and he insisted on the conversation being perfectly free. His wit, +however, was often cruel, and any one who responded with too much spirit +was soon made to feel that the licence of talk was to be complete only +on one side. + +At Frederick's court ladies were seldom seen, a circumstance that gave +occasion to much scandal for which there seems to have been no +foundation. The queen he visited only on rare occasions. She had been +forced upon him by his father, and he had never loved her; but he always +treated her with marked respect, and provided her with a generous +income, half of which she gave away in charity. Although without charm, +she was a woman of many noble qualities; and, like her husband, she +wrote French books, some of which attracted a certain attention in their +day. She survived him by eleven years, dying in 1797. + +Maria Theresa had never given up hope that she would recover Silesia; +and as all the neighbouring sovereigns were bitterly jealous of +Frederick, and somewhat afraid of him, she had no difficulty in inducing +several of them to form a scheme for his ruin. Russia and Saxony entered +into it heartily, and France, laying aside her ancient enmity towards +Austria, joined the empress against the common object of dislike. +Frederick, meanwhile, had turned towards England, which saw in him a +possible ally of great importance against the French. A convention +between Prussia and Great Britain was signed in January 1756, and it +proved of incalculable value to both countries, leading as it did to a +close alliance during the administration of Pitt. Through the treachery +of a clerk in the Saxon foreign office Frederick was made aware of the +future which was being prepared for him. Seeing the importance of taking +the initiative, and if possible, of securing Saxony, he suddenly, on the +24th of August 1756, crossed the frontier of that country, and shut in +the Saxon army between Pirna and Koenigstein, ultimately compelling it, +after a victory gained over the Austrians at Lobositz, to surrender. +Thus began the Seven Years' War, in which, supported by England, +Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel, he had for a long time to oppose Austria, +France, Russia, Saxony and Sweden. Virtually the whole Continent was in +arms against a small state which, a few years before, had been regarded +by most men as beneath serious notice. But it happened that this small +state was led by a man of high military genius, capable of infusing into +others his own undaunted spirit, while his subjects had learned both +from him and his predecessors habits of patience, perseverance and +discipline. In 1757, after defeating the Austrians at Prague, he was +himself defeated by them at Kolin; and by the shameful convention of +Closter-Seven, he was freely exposed to the attack of the French. In +November 1757, however, when Europe looked upon him as ruined, he rid +himself of the French by his splendid victory over them at Rossbach, and +in about a month afterwards, by the still more splendid victory at +Leuthen, he drove the Austrians from Silesia. From this time the French +were kept well employed in the west by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, +who defeated them at Crefeld in 1758, and at Minden in 1759. In the +former year Frederick triumphed, at a heavy cost, over the Russians at +Zorndorf; and although, through lack of his usual foresight, he lost the +battle of Hochkirch, he prevented the Austrians from deriving any real +advantage from their triumph, Silesia still remaining in his hands at +the end of the year. The battle of Kunersdorf, fought on the 12th of +August 1759, was the most disastrous to him in the course of the war. He +had here to contend both with the Russians and the Austrians; and +although at first he had some success, his army was in the end +completely broken. "All is lost save the royal family," he wrote to his +minister Friesenstein; "the consequences of this battle will be worse +than the battle itself. I shall not survive the ruin of the Fatherland. +Adieu for ever!" But he soon recovered from his despair, and in 1760 +gained the important victories of Liegnitz and Torgau. He had now, +however, to act on the defensive, and fortunately for him, the Russians, +on the death of the empress Elizabeth, not only withdrew in 1762 from +the compact against him, but for a time became his allies. On the 29th +of October of that year he gained his last victory over the Austrians at +Freiberg. Europe was by that time sick of war, every power being more or +less exhausted. The result was that, on the 15th of February 1763, a +few days after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, the treaty of +Hubertusburg was signed, Austria confirming Prussia in the possession of +Silesia. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.) + +It would be difficult to overrate the importance of the contribution +thus made by Frederick to the politics of Europe. Prussia was now +universally recognized as one of the great powers of the Continent, and +she definitely took her place in Germany as the rival of Austria. From +this time it was inevitable that there should be a final struggle +between the two nations for predominance, and that the smaller German +states should group themselves around one or the other. Frederick +himself acquired both in Germany and Europe the indefinable influence +which springs from the recognition of great gifts that have been proved +by great deeds. + +His first care after the war was, as far as possible, to enable the +country to recover from the terrific blows by which it had been almost +destroyed; and he was never, either before or after, seen to better +advantage than in the measures he adopted for this end. Although his +resources had been so completely drained that he had been forced to melt +the silver in his palaces and to debase the coinage, his energy soon +brought back the national prosperity. Pomerania and Neumark were freed +from taxation for two years, Silesia for six months. Many nobles whose +lands had been wasted received corn for seed; his war horses were within +a few months to be found on farms all over Prussia; and money was freely +spent in the re-erection of houses which had been destroyed. The coinage +was gradually restored to its proper value, and trade received a +favourable impulse by the foundation of the Bank of Berlin. All these +matters were carefully looked into by Frederick himself, who, while +acting as generously as his circumstances would allow, insisted on +everything being done in the most efficient manner at the least possible +cost. Unfortunately, he adopted the French ideas of excise, and the +French methods of imposing and collecting taxes--a system known as the +Regie. This system secured for him a large revenue, but it led to a vast +amount of petty tyranny, which was all the more intolerable because it +was carried out by French officials. It was continued to the end of +Frederick's reign, and nothing did so much to injure his otherwise +immense popularity. He was quite aware of the discontent the system +excited, and the good-nature with which he tolerated the criticisms +directed against it and him is illustrated by a well-known incident. +Riding along the Jaeger Strasse one day, he saw a crowd of people. "See +what it is," he said to the groom who was attending him. "They have +something posted up about your Majesty," said the groom, returning. +Frederick, riding forward, saw a caricature of himself: "King in very +melancholy guise," says Preuss (as translated by Carlyle), "seated on a +stool, a coffee-mill between his knees, diligently grinding with the one +hand, and with the other picking up any bean that might have fallen. +'Hang it lower,' said the king, beckoning his groom with a wave of the +finger; 'lower, that they may not have to hurt their necks about it.' No +sooner were the words spoken, which spread instantly, than there rose +from the whole crowd one universal huzzah of joy. They tore the +caricature into a thousand pieces, and rolled after the king with loud +'_Lebe Hoch_, our Frederick for ever,' as he rode slowly away." There +are scores of anecdotes about Frederick, but not many so well +authenticated as this. + +There was nothing about which Frederick took so much trouble as the +proper administration of justice. He disliked the formalities of the +law, and in one instance, "the miller Arnold case," in connexion with +which he thought injustice had been done to a poor man, he dismissed the +judges, condemned them to a year's fortress arrest, and compelled them +to make good out of their own pockets the loss sustained by their +supposed victim--not a wise proceeding, but one springing from a +generous motive. He once defined himself as "l'avocat du pauvre," and +few things gave him more pleasure than the famous answer of the miller +whose windmill stood on ground which was wanted for the king's garden. +The miller sturdily refused to sell it. "Not at any price?" said the +king's agent; "could not the king take it from you for nothing, if he +chose?" "Have we not the Kammergericht at Berlin?" was the answer, which +became a popular saying in Germany. Soon after he came to the throne +Frederick began to make preparations for a new code. In 1747 appeared +the _Codex Fridericianus_, by which the Prussian judicial body was +established. But a greater monument of Frederick's interest in legal +reform was the _Allgemeines preussisches Landrecht_, completed by the +grand chancellor Count Johann H. C. von Carmer (1721-1801) on the basis +of the _Project des Corporis Juris Fridericiani_, completed in the year +1749-1751 by the eminent jurist Samuel von Cocceji (1679-1755). The +_Landrecht_, a work of vast labour and erudition, combines the two +systems of German and Roman law supplemented by the law of nature; it +was the first German code, but only came into force in 1794, after +Frederick's death. + +Looking ahead after the Seven Years' War, Frederick saw no means of +securing himself so effectually as by cultivating the goodwill of +Russia. In 1764 he accordingly concluded a treaty of alliance with the +empress Catherine for eight years. Six years afterwards, unfortunately +for his fame, he joined in the first partition of Poland, by which he +received Polish Prussia, without Danzig and Thorn, and Great Poland as +far as the river Netze. Prussia was then for the first time made +continuous with Brandenburg and Pomerania. + +The emperor Joseph II. greatly admired Frederick, and visited him at +Neisse, in Silesia, in 1769, a visit which Frederick returned, in +Moravia, in the following year. The young emperor was frank and cordial; +Frederick was more cautious, for he detected under the respectful manner +of Joseph a keen ambition that might one day become dangerous to +Prussia. Ever after these interviews a portrait of the emperor hung +conspicuously in the rooms in which Frederick lived, a circumstance on +which some one remarked. "Ah yes," said Frederick, "I am obliged to keep +that young gentleman in my eye." Nothing came of these suspicions till +1777, when, after the death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, +without children, the emperor took possession of the greater part of his +lands. The elector palatine, who lawfully inherited Bavaria, came to an +arrangement, which was not admitted by his heir, Charles, duke of +Zweibruecken. Under these circumstances the latter appealed to Frederick, +who, resolved that Austria should gain no unnecessary advantage, took +his part, and brought pressure to bear upon the emperor. Ultimately, +greatly against his will, Frederick felt compelled to draw the sword, +and in July 1778 crossed the Bohemian frontier at the head of a powerful +army. No general engagement was fought, and after a great many delays +the treaty of Teschen was signed on the 13th of May 1779. Austria +received the circle of Burgau, and consented that the king of Prussia +should take the Franconian principalities. Frederick never abandoned his +jealousy of Austria, whose ambition he regarded as the chief danger +against which Europe had to guard. He seems to have had no suspicion +that evil days were coming in France. It was Austria which had given +trouble in his time; and if her pride were curbed, he fancied that +Prussia at least would be safe. Hence one of the last important acts of +his life was to form, in 1785, a league of princes (the "Fuerstenbund") +for the defence of the imperial constitution, believed to be imperilled +by Joseph's restless activity. The league came to an end after +Frederick's death; but it is of considerable historical interest, as the +first open attempt of Prussia to take the lead in Germany. + +Frederick's chief trust was always in his treasury and his army. By +continual economy he left in the former the immense sum of 70 million +thalers; the latter, at the time of his death, numbered 200,000 men, +disciplined with all the strictness to which he had throughout life +accustomed his troops. He died at Sanssouci on the 17th of August 1786; +his death being hastened by exposure to a storm of rain, stoically +borne, during a military review. He passed away on the eve of tremendous +events, which for a time obscured his fame; but now that he can be +impartially estimated, he is seen to have been in many respects one of +the greatest figures in modern history. + +He was rather below the middle size, in youth inclined to stoutness, +lean in old age, but of vigorous and active habits. An expression of +keen intelligence lighted up his features, and his large, sparkling grey +eyes darted penetrating glances at every one who approached him. In his +later years an old blue uniform with red facings was his usual dress, +and on his breast was generally some Spanish snuff, of which he consumed +large quantities. He shared many of the chief intellectual tendencies of +his age, having no feeling for the highest aspirations of human nature, +but submitting all things to a searching critical analysis. Of +Christianity he always spoke in the mocking tone of the "enlightened" +philosophers, regarding it as the invention of priests; but it is +noteworthy that after the Seven Years' War, the trials of which steadied +his character, he sought to strengthen the church for the sake of its +elevating moral influence. In his judgments of mankind he often talked +as a misanthrope. He was once conversing with Sulzer, who was a school +inspector, about education. Sulzer expressed the opinion that education +had of late years greatly improved. "In former times, your Majesty," he +said, "the notion being that mankind were naturally inclined to evil, a +system of severity prevailed in schools; but now, when we recognize that +the inborn inclination of men is rather to good than to evil, +schoolmasters have adopted a more generous procedure." "Ah, my dear +Sulzer," replied the king, "you don't know this damned race" ("Ach, mein +lieber Sulzer, er kennt nicht diese verdammte Race"). This fearful +saying unquestionably expressed a frequent mood of Frederick's; and he +sometimes acted with great harshness, and seemed to take a malicious +pleasure in tormenting his acquaintances. Yet he was capable of genuine +attachments. He was beautifully loyal to his mother and his sister +Wilhelmina; his letters to the duchess of Gotha are full of a certain +tender reverence; the two Keiths found him a devoted friend. But the +true evidence that beneath his misanthropical moods there was an +enduring sentiment of humanity is afforded by the spirit in which he +exercised his kingly functions. Taking his reign as a whole, it must be +said that he looked upon his power rather as a trust than as a source of +personal advantage; and the trust was faithfully discharged according to +the best lights of his day. He has often been condemned for doing +nothing to encourage German literature; and it is true that he was +supremely indifferent to it. Before he died a tide of intellectual life +was rising all about him; yet he failed to recognize it, declined to +give Lessing even the small post of royal librarian, and thought _Goetz +von Berlichingen_ a vulgar imitation of vulgar English models. But when +his taste was formed, German literature did not exist; the choice was +between Racine and Voltaire on the one hand and Gottsched and Gellert on +the other. He survived into the era of Kant, Goethe and Schiller, but he +was not of it, and it would have been unreasonable to expect that he +should in old age pass beyond the limits of his own epoch. As Germans +now generally admit, it was better that he let their literature alone, +since, left to itself, it became a thoroughly independent product. +Indirectly he powerfully promoted it by deepening the national life from +which it sprang. At a time when there was no real bond of cohesion +between the different states, he stirred among them a common enthusiasm; +and in making Prussia great he laid the foundation of a genuinely united +empire. + + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--The main sources for the biography of Frederick + the Great are his own works, which, in the words of Leopold von Ranke, + "deal with the politics and wars of the period with the greatest + possible objectivity, i.e. truthfulness, and form an imperishable + monument of his life and opinions." A magnificent edition of + Frederick's complete works was issued (1846-1857), at the instance of + Frederick William IV., under the supervision of the historian Johann + D. E. Preuss (1785-1868). It is in thirty volumes, of which six + contain verse, seven are historical, two philosophical, and three + military, twelve being made up of correspondence. So long as the + various state archives remained largely inaccessible historians relied + upon this as their chief authority. Among works belonging to this + period may be mentioned Thomas Carlyle, _History of Frederick II. of + Prussia_ (6 vols., London, 1858-1865); J. G. Droysen, _Friedrich der + Grosse_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1876, forming part V. of his + _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_); Ranke, _Friedrich II., Koenig + von Preussen_ (_Werke_, vols. li. and lii.). A great stimulus to the + study of Frederick's history has since been given by the publication + of collections of documents preserved in various archives. Of these + the most important is the great official edition of Frederick's + political correspondence (Berlin, 1879), of which the thirty-first + vol. appeared in 1906. Of later works, based on modern research, may + be mentioned R. Koser, _Koenig Friedrich der Grosse_, Bd. 2 (Stuttgart, + 1893 and 1903; 3rd ed., 1905); Bourdeau, _Le Grand Frederic_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1900-1902); L. Paul-Dubois, _Frederic le Grand, d'apres sa + correspondance politique_ (Paris, 1903); W. F. Reddaway, _Frederick + the Great and the Rise of Prussia_ (London, 1904). Of the numerous + special studies may be noticed E. Zeller, _Friedrich der Grosse als + Philosoph_ (Berlin, 1886); H. Pigge, _Die Staatstheorie Friedrichs des + Grossen_ (Muenster, 1904); T. von Bernhardi, _Friedrich der Grosse als + Feldherr_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1881); Ernest Lavisse, _La Jeunesse du + Grand Frederic_ (Paris, 1891, 3rd ed., 1899; Eng. transl., London, + 1891); R. Brode, _Friedrich der Grosse und der Konflikt mit seinem + Vater_ (Leipzig, 1904); W. von Bremen, _Friedrich der Grosse_ (Bd. ii. + of _Erzieher des preussischen Heeres_, Berlin, 1905); G. Winter, + _Friedrich der Grosse_ (3 vols. in _Geisteshelden_ series, Berlin, + 1906); _Dreissig Jahre am Hofe Friedrichs des Grossen_. _Aus den + Tagebuechern des Reichsgrafen Ahasuerus Heinrich von Lehndorff, + Kammerherrn der Koenigin Elisabett Christine von Preussen_ (Gotha, + 1907). The great work on the wars of Frederick is that issued by the + Prussian General Staff: _Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen_ (12 vols. + in three parts, Berlin, 1890-1904). For a full list of other works see + Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde_ (Leipzig, 1906). (J. Si.; W. A. P.). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1831-1888), king of Prussia and German emperor, was born +at Potsdam on the 18th of October 1831, being the eldest son of Prince +William of Prussia, afterwards first German emperor, and the princess +Augusta. He was carefully educated, and in 1849-1850 studied at the +university of Bonn. The next years were spent in military duties and in +travels, in which he was accompanied by Moltke. In 1851 he visited +England on the occasion of the Great Exhibition, and in 1855 became +engaged to Victoria, princess royal of Great Britain, to whom he was +married in London on the 25th of January 1858. On the death of his uncle +in 1861 and the accession of his father, Prince Frederick William, as he +was then always called, became crown prince of Prussia. His education, +the influence of his mother, and perhaps still more that of his wife's +father, the Prince Consort, had made him a strong Liberal, and he was +much distressed at the course of events in Prussia after the appointment +of Bismarck as minister. He was urged by the Liberals to put himself +into open opposition to the government; this he refused to do, but he +remonstrated privately with the king. In June 1863, however, he publicly +dissociated himself from the press ordinances which had just been +published. He ceased to attend meetings of the council of state, and was +much away from Berlin. The opposition of the crown prince to the +ministers was increased during the following year, for he was a warm +friend of the prince of Augustenburg, whose claims to Schleswig-Holstein +Bismarck refused to support. During the war with Denmark he had his +first military experience, being attached to the staff of Marshal von +Wrangel; he performed valuable service in arranging the difficulties +caused by the disputes between the field marshal and the other officers, +and was eventually given a control over him. After the war he continued +to support the prince of Augustenburg and was strongly opposed to the +war with Austria. During the campaign of 1866 he received the command of +an army consisting of four army corps; he was assisted by General von +Blumenthal, as chief of the staff, but took a very active part in +directing the difficult operations by which his army fought its way +through the mountains from Silesia to Bohemia, fighting four engagements +in three days, and showed that he possessed genuine military capacity. +In the decisive battle of Koeniggraetz the arrival of his army on the +field of battle, after a march of nearly 20 m., secured the victory. +During the negotiations which ended the war he gave valuable assistance +by persuading the king to accept Bismarck's policy as regards peace with +Austria. From this time he was very anxious to see the king of Prussia +unite the whole of Germany, with the title of emperor, and was impatient +of the caution with which Bismarck proceeded. In 1869 he paid a visit to +Italy, and in the same year was present at the opening of the Suez +Canal; on his way he visited the Holy Land. + +He played a conspicuous part in the year 1870-1871, being appointed to +command the armies of the Southern States, General Blumenthal again +being his chief of the staff; his troops won the victory of Woerth, took +an important part in the battle of Sedan, and later in the siege of +Paris. The popularity he won was of political service in preparing the +way for the union of North and South Germany, and he was the foremost +advocate of the imperial idea at the Prussian court. During the years +that followed, little opportunity for political activity was open to +him. He and the crown princess took a great interest in art and +industry, especially in the royal museums; and the excavations conducted +at Olympia and Pergamon with such great results were chiefly due to him. +The crown princess was a keen advocate of the higher education of women, +and it was owing to her exertions that the Victoria Lyceum at Berlin +(which was named after her) was founded. In 1878, when the emperor was +incapacitated by the shot of an assassin, the prince acted for some +months as regent. His palace was the centre of all that was best in the +literary and learned society of the capital. He publicly expressed his +disapproval of the attacks on the Jews in 1878; and the coalition of +Liberal parties founded in 1884 was popularly known as the "crown +prince's party," but he scrupulously refrained from any act that might +embarrass his father's government. For many reasons the accession of the +prince was looked forward to with great hope by a large part of the +nation. Unfortunately he was attacked by cancer in the throat; he spent +the winter of 1887-1888 at San Remo; in January 1888 the operation of +tracheotomy had to be performed. On the death of his father, which took +place on the 9th of March, he at once journeyed to Berlin; but his days +were numbered, and he came to the throne only to die. In these +circumstances his accession could not have the political importance +which would otherwise have attached to it, though it was disfigured by a +vicious outburst of party passion in which the names of the emperor and +the empress were constantly misused. While the Liberals hoped the +emperor would use his power for some signal declaration of policy, the +adherents of Bismarck did not scruple to make bitter attacks on the +empress. The emperor's most important act was a severe reprimand +addressed to Herr von Puttkamer, the reactionary minister of the +interior, which caused his resignation; in the distribution of honours +he chose many who belonged to classes and parties hitherto excluded from +court favour. A serious difference of opinion with the chancellor +regarding the proposal for a marriage between Prince Alexander of +Battenberg and the princess Victoria of Prussia was arranged by the +intervention of Queen Victoria, who visited Berlin to see her dying +son-in-law. He expired at Potsdam on the 15th of June 1888, after a +reign of ninety-nine days. + +After the emperor's death Professor Geffcken, a personal friend, +published in the _Deutsche Rundschau_ extracts from the diary of the +crown prince containing passages which illustrated his differences with +Bismarck during the war of 1870. The object was to injure Bismarck's +reputation, and a very unseemly dispute ensued. Bismarck at first, in a +letter addressed to the new emperor, denied the authenticity of the +extracts on the ground that they were unworthy of the crown prince. +Geffcken was then arrested and imprisoned. He had undoubtedly shown that +he was an injudicious friend, for the diary proved that the prince, in +his enthusiasm for German unity, had allowed himself to consider +projects which would have seriously compromised the relations of Prussia +and Bavaria. The treatment of the crown prince's illness also gave rise +to an acrimonious controversy. It arose from the fact that as early as +May 1887 the German physicians recognized the presence of cancer in the +throat, but Sir Morell Mackenzie, the English specialist who was also +consulted, disputed the correctness of this diagnosis, and advised that +the operation for removal of the larynx, which they had recommended, +should not be undertaken. His advice was followed, and the differences +between the medical men were made the occasion for a considerable +display of national and political animosity. + +The empress VICTORIA, who, after the death of her husband, was known as +the empress Frederick, died on the 5th of August 1901 at the castle of +Friedrichskron, Cronberg, near Homburg v. d. H., where she spent her +last years. Of the emperor's children two, Prince Sigismund (1864-1866) +and Prince Waldemar (1869-1879), died in childhood. He left two sons, +William, his successor as emperor, and Henry, who adopted a naval +career. Of his daughters, the princess Charlotte was married to Bernard, +hereditary prince of Meiningen; the princess Victoria to Prince Adolf of +Schaumburg-Lippe; the princess Sophie to the duke of Sparta, crown +prince of Greece; and the princess Margaretha to Prince Friedrich Karl +of Hesse. + + AUTHORITIES.--M. von Poschinger, _Kaiser Friedrich_ (3 vols., Berlin, + 1898-1900). Adapted into English by Sidney Whitman, _Life of the + Emperor Frederick_ (1901). See also Bismarck, _Reflections and + Reminiscences_; Rennell Rodd, _Frederick, Crown Prince and Emperor_ + (1888); Gustav Freytag, _Der Kronprinz und die deutsche Kaiserkrone_ + (1889; English translation, 1890); Otto Richter, _Kaiser Friedrich + III._ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1903). For his illness, the official + publications, published both in English and German: _Die Krankheit + Kaiser Friedrichs III._ (Berlin, 1888), and Morell Mackenzie, _The + Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble_ (1888). Most of the copies of + the _Deutsche Rundschau_ containing the extracts from the crown + prince's diary were confiscated, but there is an English edition, + published in 1889. (J. W. He.) + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1272-1337), king of Sicily, third son of King Peter of +Aragon and Sicily, and of Constance, daughter of Manfred. Peter died in +1285, leaving Aragon to his eldest son Alphonso, and Sicily to his +second son James. When Alphonso died in 1291 James became king of +Aragon, and left his brother Frederick as regent of Sicily. The war +between the Angevins and the Aragonese for the possession of Sicily was +still in progress, and although the Aragonese were successful in Italy, +James's position in Spain became very insecure to internal troubles and +French attacks. Peace negotiations were begun with Charles II. of Anjou, +but were interrupted by the successive deaths of two popes; at last +under the auspices of Boniface VIII. James concluded a shameful treaty, +by which, in exchange for being left undisturbed in Aragon and promised +possession of Sardinia and Corsica, he gave up Sicily to the Church, for +whom it was to be held by the Angevins (1295). The Sicilians refused to +be made over once more to the hated French whom they had expelled in +1282, and found a national leader in the regent Frederick. In vain the +pope tried to bribe him with promises and dignities; he was determined +to stand by his subjects, and was crowned king by the nobles at Palermo +in 1296. Young, brave and handsome, he won the love and devotion of his +people, and guided them through the long years of storm and stress with +wisdom and ability. Although the second Frederick of Sicily, he called +himself third, being the third son of King Peter. He reformed the +administration and extended the powers of the Sicilian parliament, which +was composed of the barons, the prelates and the representatives of the +towns. + +His refusal to comply with the pope's injunctions led to a renewal of +the war. Frederick landed in Calabria, where he seized several towns, +encouraged revolt in Naples, negotiated with the Ghibellines of Tuscany +and Lombardy, and assisted the house of Colonna against Pope Boniface. +In the meanwhile James, who received many favours from the Church, +married his sister Yolanda to Robert, the third son of Charles II. +Unfortunately for Frederick, a part of the Aragonese nobles of Sicily +favoured King James, and both John of Procida and Ruggiero di Lauria, +the heroes of the war of the Vespers, went over to the Angevins, and the +latter completely defeated the Sicilian fleet off Cape Orlando. +Charles's sons Robert and Philip landed in Sicily, but after capturing +Catania were defeated by Frederick, Philip being taken prisoner (1299), +while several Calabrian towns were captured by the Sicilians. For two +years more the fighting continued with varying success, until Charles of +Valois, who had been sent by Boniface to invade Sicily, was forced to +sue for peace, his army being decimated by the plague, and in August +1302 the treaty of Caltabellotta was signed, by which Frederick was +recognized king of Trinacria (the name Sicily was not to be used) for +his lifetime, and was to marry Eleonora, the daughter of Charles II.; at +his death the kingdom was to revert to the Angevins (this clause was +inserted chiefly to save Charles's face), and his children would receive +compensation elsewhere. Boniface tried to induce King Charles to break +the treaty, but the latter was only too anxious for peace, and finally +in May 1303 the pope ratified it, Frederick agreeing to pay him a +tribute. + +For a few years Sicily enjoyed peace, and the kingdom was reorganized. +But on the descent of the emperor Henry VII., Frederick entered into an +alliance with him, and in violation of the pact of Caltabellotta made +war on the Angevins again (1313) and captured Reggio. He set sail for +Tuscany to cooperate with the emperor, but on the latter's death (1314) +he returned to Sicily. Robert, who had succeeded Charles II. in 1309, +made several raids into the island, which suffered much material injury. +A truce was concluded in 1317, but as the Sicilians helped the north +Italian Ghibellines in the attack on Genoa, and Frederick seized some +Church revenues for military purposes, the pope (John XXII.) +excommunicated him and placed the island under an interdict (1321) which +lasted until 1335. An Angevin fleet and army, under Robert's son +Charles, was defeated at Palermo by Giovanni da Chiaramonte in 1325, and +in 1326 and 1327 there were further Angevin raids on the island, until +the descent into Italy of the emperor Louis the Bavarian distracted +their attention. The election of Pope Benedict XII. (1334), who was +friendly to Frederick, promised a respite; but after fruitless +negotiations the war broke out once more, and Chiaramonte went over to +Robert, owing to a private feud. In 1337 Frederick died at Paternione, +and in spite of the peace of Caltabellotta his son Peter succeeded. +Frederick's great merit was that during his reign the Aragonese dynasty +became thoroughly national and helped to weld the Sicilians into a +united people. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. M. Mira, _Bibliografia Siciliana_ (Palermo, 1875); + of the contemporary authorities N. Speciale's "Historia Sicula" (in + Muratori's _Script. rer. ital._ x.) is the most important; for the + first years of Frederick's reign see M. Amari, _La Guerra del Vespro + Siciliano_ (Florence, 1876), and F. Lanzani, _Storia dei Comuni + italiani_ (Milan, 1882); for the latter years C. Cipolla, _Storia + delle signorie italiane_ (Milan, 1881); also Testa, _Vita di Federigo + di Sicilia_. (L. V.) + + + + +FREDERICK I. (c. 1371-1440), elector of Brandenburg, founder of the +greatness of the House of Hohenzollern, was a son of Frederick V., +burgrave of Nuremberg, and first came into prominence by saving the life +of Sigismund, king of Hungary, at the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. In +1397 he became burgrave of Nuremberg, and after his father's death in +1398 he shared Ansbach, Bayreuth, and the smaller possessions of the +family, with his only brother John, but became sole ruler after his +brother's death in 1420. Loyal at first to King Wenceslaus, the king's +neglect of Germany drove Frederick to take part in his deposition in +1400, and in the election of Rupert III., count palatine of the Rhine, +whom he accompanied to Italy in the following year. In 1401 he married +Elizabeth, or Elsa, daughter of Frederick, duke of Bavaria-Landshut (d. +1393), and after spending some time in family and other feuds, took +service again with King Sigismund in 1409, whom he assisted in his +struggle with the Hungarian rebels. The double election to the German +throne in 1410 first brought Frederick into relation with Brandenburg. +Sigismund, anxious to obtain another vote in the electoral college, +appointed Frederick to exercise the Brandenburg vote on his behalf, and +it was largely through his efforts that Sigismund was chosen German +king. Frederick then passed some time as administrator of Brandenburg, +where he restored a certain degree of order, and was formally invested +with the electorate and margraviate by Sigismund at Constance on the +18th of April 1417 (see BRANDENBURG). He took part in the war against +the Hussites, but became estranged from Sigismund when in 1423 the king +invested Frederick of Wettin, margrave of Meissen, with the vacant +electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg. In 1427 he sold his rights as +burgrave to the town of Nuremberg, and he was a prominent member of the +band of electors who sought to impose reforms upon Sigismund. After +having been an unsuccessful candidate for the German throne in 1438, +Frederick was chosen king of Bohemia in 1440, but declined the proffered +honour. He took part in the election of Frederick III. as German king +in 1440, and died at Radolzburg on the 21st of September in the same +year. In 1902 a bronze statue was erected to his memory at Friesack, and +there is also a marble one of the elector in the "Siegesallee" at +Berlin. + + See A. F. Riedel, _Zehn Jahre aus der Geschichte der Ahnherren des + preussischen Koenigshauses_ (Berlin, 1851); E. Brandenburg, _Koenig + Sigmund und Kurfuerst Friedrich I. von Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1891); and + O. Franklin, _Die deutsche Politik Friedrichs I. Kurfuersten von + Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1851). + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1425-1476), elector palatine of the Rhine, surnamed "the +Victorious," and called by his enemies "wicked Fritz," second son of the +elector palatine Louis III., was born on the 1st of August 1425. He +inherited a part of the Palatinate on his father's death in 1439, but +soon surrendered this inheritance to his elder brother, the elector +Louis IV. On his brother's death in 1449, however, he became guardian of +the young elector Philip, and ruler of the land. In 1451 he persuaded +the nobles to recognize him as elector, on condition that Philip should +be his successor, a scheme which was disliked by the emperor Frederick +III. The elector was successful in various wars with neighbouring +rulers, and was a leading member of the band of princes who formed plans +to secure a more efficient government for Germany, and even discussed +the deposition of Frederick III. Frederick himself was mentioned as a +candidate for the German throne, but the jealousies of the princes +prevented any decisive action, and soon became so acute that in 1459 +they began to fight among themselves. In alliance with Louis IX., duke +of Bavaria-Landshut, Frederick gained several victories during the +struggle, and in 1462 won a decisive battle at Seckenheim over Ulrich +V., count of Wuerttemberg. In 1472 the elector married Clara Tott, or +Dett, the daughter of an Augsburg citizen, and by her he had two sons, +Frederick, who died during his father's lifetime, and Louis (d. 1524), +who founded the line of the counts of Loewenstein. He died at Heidelberg +on the 12th of December 1476, and was succeeded, according to the +compact, by his nephew Philip. Frederick was a cultured prince, and, in +spite of his warlike career, a wise and intelligent ruler. He added +largely to the area of the Palatinate, and did not neglect to further +its internal prosperity. + + See N. Feeser, _Friedrich der Siegreiche, Kurfuerst von der Pfalz_ + (Neuburg, 1880); C. J. Kremer, _Geschichte des Kurfuersten Friedrichs + I. von der Pfalz_ (Leipzig, 1765); and K. Menzel, _Kurfuerst Friedrich + der Siegreiche von der Pfalz_ (Munich, 1861). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1482-1556), surnamed "the Wise," elector palatine of the +Rhine, fourth son of the elector Philip, was bom on the 9th of December +1482. Of an active and adventurous temperament, he fought under the +emperor Maximilian I. in 1508, and afterwards served the Habsburgs +loyally in other ways. He worked to secure the election of Charles, +afterwards the emperor Charles V., as the successor of Maximilian in +1519; fought in two campaigns against the Turks; and being disappointed +in his hope of obtaining the hand of one of the emperor's sisters, +married in 1535 Dorothea (d. 1580), daughter of Christian II., who had +been driven from the Danish throne. The Habsburgs promised their aid in +securing this crown for Frederick, but, like many previous promises made +to him, this came to nothing. Having spent his time in various parts of +Europe, and incurred heavy debts on account of his expensive tastes, +Frederick became elector palatine by the death of his brother, Louis V., +in March 1544. With regard to the religious troubles of Germany, he took +up at first the role of a mediator, but in 1545 he joined the league of +Schmalkalden, and in 1546 broke definitely with the older faith. He gave +a little assistance to the league in its war with Charles, but soon +submitted to the emperor, accepted the _Interim_ issued from Augsburg in +May 1548, and afterwards acted in harmony with Charles. The elector died +on the 26th of February 1556, and as he left no children was succeeded +by his nephew, Otto Henry (1502-1559). He was a great benefactor to the +university of Heidelberg. + + Frederick's life, _Annales de vita et rebus gestis Friderici II. + electoris palatini_ (Frankfort, 1624), was written by his secretary + Hubert Thomas Leodius; this has been translated into German by E. von + Buelow (Breslau, 1849). See also Rott, _Friedrich II. von der Pfalz und + die Reformation_ (Heidelberg, 1904). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1515-1576), called "the Pious," elector palatine of the +Rhine, eldest son of John II., count palatine of Simmern, was born at +Simmern on the 14th of February 1515. In 1537 he married Maria (d. +1567), daughter of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth, and in 1546, mainly as a +result of this union, adopted the reformed doctrines, which had already +made considerable progress in the Palatinate. He lived in comparative +obscurity and poverty until 1557, when he became count palatine of +Simmern by his father's death, succeeding his kinsman, Otto Henry +(1502-1559), as elector palatine two years later. Although inclined to +the views of Calvin rather than to those of Luther, the new elector +showed great anxiety to unite the Protestants; but when these efforts +failed, and the breach between the followers of the two reformers became +wider, he definitely adopted Calvinism. This form of faith was quickly +established in the Palatinate; in its interests the "Heidelberg +Catechism" was drawn up in 1563; and Catholics and Lutherans were +persecuted alike, while the churches were denuded of all their +ornaments. The Lutheran princes wished to root out Calvinism in the +Palatinate, but were not willing to exclude the elector from the +benefits of the religious peace of Augsburg, which were confined to the +adherents of the confession of Augsburg, and the matter came before the +diet in 1566. Boldly defending his position, Frederick refused to give +way an inch, and as the Lutherans were unwilling to proceed to +extremities the emperor Maximilian II. could only warn him to mend his +ways. The elector was an ardent supporter of the Protestants abroad, +whom, rather than the German Lutherans, he regarded as his +co-religionists. He aided the Huguenots in France and the insurgents in +the Netherlands with men and money; one of his sons, John Casimir +(1543-1592), took a prominent part in the French wars of religion, while +another, Christopher, was killed in 1574 fighting for the Dutch at +Mooker Heath. In his later years Frederick failed in his efforts to +prevent the election of a member of the Habsburg family as Roman king, +to secure the abrogation of the "ecclesiastical reservation" clause in +the peace of Augsburg, or to obtain security for Protestants in the +territories of the spiritual princes. He was assiduous in caring for the +material, moral and educational welfare of his electorate, and was a +benefactor to the university of Heidelberg. The elector died at +Heidelberg on the 26th of October 1576, and was succeeded by his elder +surviving son, Louis (1539-1583), who had offended his father by +adopting Lutheranism. + + See A. Kluckhohn, _Friedrich der Fromme_ (Noerdlingen, 1877-1879); and + _Briefe Friedrichs des Frommen_, edited by Kluckhohn (Brunswick, + 1868-1872). + + + + +FREDERICK IV. (1574-1610), elector palatine of the Rhine, only surviving +son of the elector Louis VI., was born at Amberg on the 5th of March +1574. His father died in October 1583, when the young elector came under +the guardianship of his uncle John Casimir, an ardent Calvinist, who, in +spite of the wishes of the late elector, a Lutheran, had his nephew +educated in his own form of faith. In January 1592, on the death of John +Casimir, Frederick undertook the government of the Palatinate, and +continued the policy of his uncle, hostility to the Catholic Church and +the Habsburgs, and co-operation with foreign Protestants. He was often +in communication with Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, +and like him was unremitting in his efforts to conclude a league among +the German Protestants, while he sought to weaken the Habsburgs by +refusing aid for the Turkish War. After many delays and disappointments +the Union of Evangelical Estates was actually formed in May 1608, under +the leadership of the elector, and he took a prominent part in directing +the operations of the union until his death, which occurred on the 19th +of September 1610. Frederick was very extravagant, and liked to surround +himself with pomp and luxury. He married in 1593 Louise, daughter of +William the Silent, prince of Orange, and was succeeded by Frederick, +the elder of his two sons. + + See M. Ritter, _Geschichte der deutschen Union_ (Schaffhausen, + 1867-1873); and L. Haeusser, _Geschichte der rheinischen Pfalz_ + (Heidelberg, 1856). + + + + + +FREDERICK V. (1596-1632), elector palatine of the Rhine and king of +Bohemia, son of the elector Frederick IV. by his wife, Louisa Juliana, +daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, was born at Amberg on +the 26th of August 1596. He became elector on his father's death in +September 1610, and was under the guardianship of his kinsman, John II., +count palatine of Zweibruecken (d. 1635), until he was declared of age in +July 1614. Having received a good education, Frederick had married +Elizabeth, daughter of the English king James I., in February 1613, and +was the recognized head of the Evangelical Union founded by his father +to protect the interests of the Protestants. In 1619 he stepped into a +larger arena. Before this date the estates of Bohemia, Protestant in +sympathy and dissatisfied with the rule of the Habsburgs, had been in +frequent communication with the elector palatine, and in August 1619, a +few months after the death of the emperor Matthias, they declared his +successor, Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II., deposed, and +chose Frederick as their king. After some hesitation the elector yielded +to the entreaties of Christian I., prince of Anhalt (1568-1630), and +other sanguine supporters, and was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague on +the 4th of November 1619. By this time the emperor Ferdinand was able to +take the aggressive, while Frederick, disappointed at receiving no +assistance either from England or from the Union, had few soldiers and +little money. Consequently on the 8th of November, four days after his +coronation, his forces were easily routed by the imperial army under +Tilly at the White Hill, near Prague, and his short reign in Bohemia +ended abruptly. Soon afterwards the Palatinate was overrun by the +Spaniards and Bavarians, and after a futile attempt to dislodge them, +Frederick, called in derision the "Winter King," sought refuge in the +Netherlands. Having been placed under the imperial ban his electorate +was given in 1623 to Maximilian I. of Bavaria, who also received the +electoral dignity. + +The remainder of Frederick's life was spent in comparative obscurity, +although his restoration was a constant subject of discussion among +European diplomatists. He died at Mainz on the 29th of November 1632, +having had a large family, among his children being Charles Louis +(1617-1680), who regained the Palatinate at the peace of Westphalia in +1648, and Sophia, who married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of +Hanover, and was the mother of George I., king of Great Britain. His +third son was Prince Rupert, the hero of the English civil war, and +another son was Prince Maurice (1620-1652), who also assisted his uncle +Charles I. during the civil war. Having sailed with Rupert to the West +Indies, Maurice was lost at sea in September 1652. + + In addition to the numerous works which treat of the outbreak of the + Thirty Years' War see A. Gindely, _Friedrich V. von der Pfalz_ + (Prague, 1884); J. Krebs, _Die Politik der evangelischen Union im + Jahre 1618_ (Breslau, 1890-1901); M. Ritter, "Friedrich V.," in the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band vii. (Leipzig, 1878); and + _Deutsche Lieder auf den Winterkoenig_, edited by R. Wolkan (Prague, + 1899). + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1369-1428), surnamed "the Warlike," elector and duke of +Saxony, was the eldest son of Frederick "the Stern," count of Osterland, +and Catherine, daughter and heiress of Henry VIII., count of Coburg. He +was born at Altenburg on the 29th of March 1369, and was a member of the +family of Wettin. When his father died in 1381 some trouble arose over +the family possessions, and in the following year an arrangement was +made by which Frederick and his brothers shared Meissen and Thuringia +with their uncles Balthasar and William. Frederick's brother George died +in 1402, and his uncle William in 1407. A further dispute then arose, +but in 1410 a treaty was made at Naumburg, when Frederick and his +brother William added the northern part of Meissen to their lands; and +in 1425 the death of William left Frederick sole ruler. In the German +town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of +Nuremberg, and in 1391 did the same for the Teutonic Order against +Ladislaus V., king of Poland and prince of Lithuania. He supported +Rupert III., elector palatine of the Rhine, in his struggle with King +Wenceslaus for the German throne, probably because Wenceslaus refused +to fulfil a promise to give him his sister Anna in marriage. The danger +to Germany from the Hussites induced Frederick to ally himself with the +German and Bohemian king Sigismund; and he took a leading part in the +war against them, during the earlier years of which he met with +considerable success. In the prosecution of this enterprise Frederick +spent large sums of money, for which he received various places in +Bohemia and elsewhere in pledge from Sigismund, who further rewarded him +in January 1423 with the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg; and +Frederick's formal investiture followed at Ofen on the 1st of August +1425. Thus spurred to renewed efforts against the Hussites, the elector +was endeavouring to rouse the German princes to aid him in prosecuting +this war when the Saxon army was almost annihilated at Aussig on the +16th of August 1426. Returning to Saxony, Frederick died at Altenburg on +the 4th of January 1428, and was buried in the cathedral at Meissen. In +1402 he married Catherine of Brunswick, by whom he left four sons and +two daughters. In 1409, in conjunction with his brother William, he +founded the university of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students +who had just left the university of Prague. Frederick's importance as an +historical figure arises from his having obtained the electorate of +Saxe-Wittenberg for the house of Wettin, and transformed the margraviate +of Meissen into the territory which afterwards became the kingdom of +Saxony. In addition to the king of Saxony, the sovereigns of England and +of the Belgians are his direct descendants. + + There is a life of Frederick by G. Spalatin in the _Scriptores rerum + Germanicarum praecipue Saxonicarum_, Band ii., edited by J. B. Mencke + (Leipzig, 1728-1730). See also C. W. Boettiger and Th. Flathe, + _Geschichte des Kurstaates und Koenigreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, + 1867-1873); and J. G. Horn, _Lebens- und Heldengeschichte Friedrichs + des Streitbaren_ (Leipzig, 1733). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1411-1464), called "the Mild," elector and duke of +Saxony, eldest son of the elector Frederick I., was born on the 22nd of +August 1411. He succeeded his father as elector in 1428, but shared the +family lands with his three brothers, and was at once engaged in +defending Saxony against the attacks of the Hussites. Freed from these +enemies about 1432, and turning his attention to increasing his +possessions, he obtained the burgraviate of Meissen in 1439, and some +part of Lower Lusatia after a struggle with Brandenburg about the same +time. In 1438 it was decided that Frederick, and not his rival, Bernard +IV., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was entitled to exercise the Saxon +electoral vote at the elections for the German throne; and the elector +then aided Albert II. to secure this dignity, performing a similar +service for his own brother-in-law, Frederick, afterwards the emperor +Frederick III., two years later. Family affairs, meanwhile, occupied +Frederick's attention. One brother, Henry, having died in 1435, and +another, Sigismund (d. 1463), having entered the church and become +bishop of Wuerzburg, Frederick and his brother William (d. 1482) were the +heirs of their childless cousin, Frederick "the Peaceful," who ruled +Thuringia and other parts of the lands of the Wettins. On his death in +1440 the brothers divided Frederick's territory, but this arrangement +was not satisfactory, and war broke out between them in 1446. Both +combatants obtained extraneous aid, but after a desolating struggle +peace was made in January 1451, when William received Thuringia, and +Frederick Altenburg and other districts. The remainder of the elector's +reign was uneventful, and he died at Leipzig on the 7th of September +1464. By his wife, Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Ernest, duke of +Styria, he left two sons and four daughters. In July 1455 occurred the +celebrated _Prinzenraub_, the attempt of a knight named Kunz von +Kaufungen (d. 1455) to abduct Frederick's two sons, Ernest and Albert. +Having carried them off from Altenburg, Kunz was making his way to +Bohemia when the plot was accidentally discovered and the princes +restored. + + See W. Schaefer, _Der Montag vor Kiliani_ (1855); J. Gersdorf, _Einige + Aktenstuecke zur Geschichte des saechsischen Prinzenraubes_ (1855); and + T. Carlyle, _Critical and Miscellaneous Essays_, vol. iv. (London, + 1899). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1463-1525), called "the Wise," elector of Saxony, eldest +son of Ernest, elector of Saxony, and Elizabeth, daughter of Albert, +duke of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1508), was born at Torgau, and succeeded his +father as elector in 1486. Retaining the government of Saxony in his own +hands, he shared the other possessions of his family with his brother +John, called "the Stedfast" (1468-1532). Frederick was among the princes +who pressed the need of reform upon the German king Maximilian I. in +1495, and in 1500 he became president of the newly-formed council of +regency (_Reichsregiment_). He took a genuine interest in learning; was +a friend of Georg Spalatin; and in 1502 founded the university of +Wittenberg, where he appointed Luther and Melanchthon to professorships. +In 1493 he had gone as a pilgrim to Jerusalem, and had been made a +knight of the Holy Sepulchre; but, although he remained throughout life +an adherent of the older faith, he seems to have been drawn into +sympathy with the reformers, probably through his connexion with the +university of Wittenberg. In 1520 he refused to put into execution the +papal bull which ordered Luther's writings to be burned and the reformer +to be put under restraint or sent to Rome; and in 1521, after Luther had +been placed under the imperial ban by the diet at Worms, the elector +caused him to be conveyed to his castle at the Wartburg, and afterwards +protected him while he attacked the enemies of the Reformation. In 1519, +Frederick, who alone among the electors refused to be bribed by the +rival candidates for the imperial throne, declined to be a candidate for +this high dignity himself, and assisted to secure the election of +Charles V. He died unmarried at Langau, near Annaberg, on the 5th of May +1525. + + See G. Spalatin, _Das Leben und die Zeitgeschichte Friedrichs des + Weisen_, edited by C. G. Neudecker and L. Preller (Jena, 1851); M. M. + Tutzschmann, _Friedrich der Weise, Kurfuerst von Sachsen_ (Grimma, + 1848); and T. Kolde, _Friedrich der Weise und die Anfaenge der + Reformation_ (Erlangen, 1881). + + + + +FREDERICK, a city and the county-seat of Frederick county, Maryland, +U.S.A., on Carroll's Creek, a tributary of the Monocacy, 61 m. by rail +W. by N. from Baltimore and 45 m. N.W. from Washington. Pop. (1890) +8193; (1900) 9296, of whom 1535 were negroes; (1910 census) 10,411. It +is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Northern Central railways, and +by two interurban electric lines. Immediately surrounding it is the rich +farming land of the Monocacy valley, but from a distance it appears to +be completely shut in by picturesque hills and mountains; to the E., the +Linga ore Hills; to the W., Catoctin Mountain; and to the S., Sugar Loaf +Mountain. It is built for the most part of brick and stone. Frederick is +the seat of the Maryland school for the deaf and dumb and of the Woman's +College of Frederick (1893; formerly the Frederick Female Seminary, +opened in 1843), which in 1907-1908 had 212 students, 121 of whom were +in the Conservatory of Music. Francis Scott Key and Roger Brooke Taney +were buried here, and a beautiful monument erected to the memory of Key +stands at the entrance to Mount Olivet cemetery. Frederick has a +considerable agricultural trade and is an important manufacturing +centre, its industries including the canning of fruits and vegetables, +and the manufacture of flour, bricks, brushes, leather goods and +hosiery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,937,921, +being 34.7% more than in 1900. The municipality owns and operates its +water-works and electric-lighting plant. Frederick, so named in honour +of Frederick Calvert, son and afterward successor of Charles, Lord +Baltimore, was settled by Germans in 1733, and was laid out as a town in +1745, but was not incorporated until 1817. Here in 1755 General Braddock +prepared for his disastrous expedition against the French at Fort +Duquesne (Pittsburg). During the Civil War the city was occupied on +different occasions by Unionists and Confederates, and was made famous +by Whittier's poem "Barbara Frietchie." + + + + +FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. (1750-1827), king of Saxony, son of the elector +Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden on the 23rd of December 1750. +He succeeded his father under the guardianship of Prince Xavier in 1763, +and was declared of age in 1768. In the following year (January 17, +1769) he married Princess Maria Amelia, daughter of Duke Frederick of +Zweibruecken, by whom he had only one child, Princess Augusta (born June +21, 1782). One of his chief aims was the reduction of taxes and imposts +and of the army. He was always extremely methodical and conscientious, +and a good example to all his officials, whence his surname "the Just." +On account of the claims of his mother on the inheritance of her +brother, the elector of Bavaria, he sided with Frederick the Great in +the short Bavarian succession war of 1778 against Austria. At the peace +of Teschen, which concluded the war, he received 6 million florins, +which he employed partly in regaining those parts of his kingdom which +had been lost, and partly in favour of his relatives. In 1785 he joined +the league of German princes (_Deutscher Fuerstenbund_) formed by +Prussia, but without prejudice to his neutrality. Thus he remained +neutral during the quarrel between Austria and Prussia in 1790. In the +following year he declined the crown of Poland. He refused to join the +league against France (February 7, 1792), but when war was declared his +duty to the Empire necessitated his taking part in it. Even after the +peace of Basel (April 5, 1795) he continued the war. But when the French +army, during the following year, advanced into the heart of Germany, he +was compelled by General Jourdan to retreat (August 13, 1796). He +maintained his neutrality during the war between France and Austria in +1805, but in the following year he joined Prussia against France. After +the disastrous battle of Jena he concluded a treaty of peace with +Napoleon at Posen (December 11, 1806), and, assuming the title of king, +he joined the Confederation of the Rhine. But he did not alter the +constitution and administration of his new kingdom. After the peace of +Tilsit (July 9, 1807) he was created by Napoleon grand-duke of Warsaw, +but his sovereignty of Poland was little more than nominal. There was a +kind of friendship between Frederick Augustus and Napoleon. In 1809 +Frederick Augustus fought with him against Austria. On several occasions +(1807, 1812, 1813) Napoleon was entertained at Dresden, and when, on his +return from his disastrous Russian campaign, he passed through Saxony by +Dresden (December 16, 1812), Frederick Augustus remained true to his +friend and ally. It was only during April 1813 that he made overtures to +Austria, but he soon afterwards returned to the side of the French. He +returned to Dresden on the 10th of May and was present at the terrible +battle of August 26 and 27, in which Napoleon's army and his own were +defeated. He fell into the hands of the Allies after their entry into +Leipzig on the 19th of October 1813; and, although he regained his +freedom after the congress of Vienna, he was compelled to give up the +northern part--three-fifths--of his kingdom to Prussia (May 21, 1814). +He entered Dresden on the 7th of July, and was enthusiastically welcomed +by his people. The remainder of his life was spent in repairing the +damages caused by the Napoleonic wars, in developing the agricultural, +commercial and industrial resources of his kingdom, reforming the +administration of justice, establishing hospitals and other charitable +institutions, encouraging art and science and promoting education. He +had a special interest in botany, and originated the beautiful park at +Pillnitz. His reign throughout was characterized by justice, probity, +moderation and prudence. He died on the 5th of May 1827. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The earlier lives, by C. E. Weisse (1811), A. L. + Herrmann (1827), Poelitz (1830), are mere panegyrics. On the other side + see Flathe in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, and Boettiger-Flathe, + _History of Saxony_ (2nd ed., 1867 ff.), vols. ii. and iii.; A. + Bonnefons, _Un Allie de Napoleon, Frederic Auguste, premier roi de + Saxe_ ... (Paris, 1902); Fritz Friedrich, _Politik Sachsens 1801-1803_ + (1898); P. Ruehlmann, _Oeffentliche Meinung ... 1806-1813_ (1902). There + are many pamphlets bearing on the Saxon question and on Frederick + Augustus during the years 1814 and 1815. (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. (1797-1854), king of Saxony, eldest son of Prince +Maximilian and of Caroline Maria Theresa of Parma, was born on the 18th +of May 1797. The unsettled times in which his youth was passed +necessitated his frequent change of residence, but care was nevertheless +taken that his education should not be interrupted, and he also +acquired, through his journeys in foreign states (Switzerland 1818, +Montenegro 1838, England and Scotland 1844) and his intercourse with men +of eminence, a special taste for art and for natural science. He was +himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine collection of +engravings on copper. He was twice married--in 1819 (October 7) to the +duchess Caroline, fourth daughter of the emperor Francis I. of Austria +(d. May 22, 1832), and in 1833 (April 4) to Maria, daughter of +Maximilian I. of Bavaria. There were no children of either marriage. +During the government of his uncles (Frederick Augustus I. and Anthony) +he took no part in the administration of the country, though he was the +sole heir to the crown. In 1830 a rising in Dresden led to his being +named joint regent of the kingdom along with King Anthony on the 13th of +September; and in this position his popularity and his wise and liberal +reforms (for instance, in arranging public audiences) speedily quelled +all discontent. On the 6th of June 1836 he succeeded his uncle. Though +he administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality +Saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon Germany in +1848. He elected Liberal ministers, and he was at first in favour of the +programme of German unity put forward at Frankfort, but he refused to +acknowledge the democratic constitution of the German parliament. This +attitude led to the insurrection at Dresden in May 1849, which was +suppressed by the help of Prussian troops. From that time onward his +reign was tranquil and prosperous. Later Count Beust, leader of the +Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal minister and +guided his policy on most occasions. His death occurred accidentally +through the upsetting of his carriage near Brennbuehel, between Imst and +Wenns in Tirol (August 9, 1854). Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure +hours chiefly to the study of botany. He made botanical excursions into +different countries, and _Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pflanzen und +Gebirgsarten, gesammelt und beschrieben_, written by him, was published +at Prague by Kedler, 1837. + + See Boettiger-Flathe, _History of Saxony_, vol. iii.; R. Freiherr von + Friesen, _Erinnerungen_ (2 vols., Dresden, 1881); F. F. Graf von + Beust, Aus _drei-viertel Jahrhunderten_ (2 vols., 1887); Flathe, in + _Allg. deutsche Biogr._ (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK CHARLES (FRIEDRICH KARL NIKOLAUS), PRINCE (1828-1885), +Prussian general field marshal, son of Prince Charles of Prussia and +grandson of King Frederick William III., was born in Berlin on the 20th +of March 1828. He was educated for the army, which he entered on his +tenth birthday as second lieutenant in the 14th Foot Guards. He became +first lieutenant in 1844, and in 1846 entered the university of Bonn, +where he stayed for two years, being accompanied throughout by Major von +Roon, afterwards the famous war minister. In 1848 he became a company +commander in his regiment, and soon afterwards served in the +Schleswig-Holstein War on the staff of Marshal von Wrangel, being +present at the battle of Schleswig (April 23, 1848). Later in 1848 he +became _Rittmeister_ in the _Garde du Corps_ cavalry regiment, and in +1849 major in the Guard Hussars. In this year the prince took part in +the campaign against the Baden insurgents, and was wounded at the action +of Wiesenthal while leading a desperate charge against entrenched +infantry. After this experience the wild courage of his youth gave place +to the unshakable resolution which afterwards characterized the prince's +generalship. In 1852 he became colonel, and in 1854 major-general and +commander of a cavalry brigade. In this capacity he was brought closely +in touch with General von Reyher, the chief of the general staff, and +with Moltke. He married, in the same year, Princess Marie Anne of +Anhalt. In 1857 he became commander of the 1st Guard Infantry division, +but very shortly afterwards, on account of disputes concerned with the +training methods then in force, he resigned the appointment. + +In 1858 he visited France, where he minutely investigated the state of +the French army, but it was not long before he was recalled, for in +1859, in consequence of the Franco-Austrian War, Prussia mobilized her +forces, and Frederick Charles was made a divisional commander in the II. +army corps. In this post he was given the liberty of action which had +previously been denied to him. About this time (1860) the prince gave a +lecture to the officers of his command on the French army and its +methods, the substance of which (_Eine militaerische Denkschrift von +P.F.K._, Frankfort on Main, 1860) was circulated more widely than the +author intended, and in the French translation gave rise to much +indignation in France. In 1861 Frederick Charles became general of +cavalry. He was then commander of the III. (Brandenburg) army corps. +This post he held from 1860 to 1870, except during the campaigns of 1864 +and 1866, and in it he displayed his real qualities as a troop leader. +His self-imposed task was to raise the military spirit of his troops to +the highest possible level, and ten years of his continuous and thorough +training brought the III. corps to a pitch of real efficiency which the +Guard corps alone, in virtue of its special recruiting powers, slightly +surpassed. Prince Frederick Charles' work was tested to the full when +von Alvensleben and the III. corps engaged the whole French army on the +16th of August 1870. In 1864 the prince once more fought against the +Danes under his old leader "Papa" Wrangel. The Prussian contingent under +Frederick Charles formed a corps of the allied army, and half of it was +drawn from the III. corps. After the storming of the Dueppel lines the +prince succeeded Wrangel in the supreme command, with Lieutenant-General +Freiherr von Moltke as his chief of staff. These two great soldiers then +planned and brilliantly carried out the capture of the island of Alsen, +after which the war came to an end. + +In 1860 came the Seven Weeks' War with Austria. Prince Frederick Charles +was appointed to command the I. Army, which he led through the mountains +into Bohemia, driving before him the Austrians and Saxons to the upper +Elbe, where on the 3rd of July took place the decisive battle of +Koeniggraetz or Sadowa. This was brought on by the initiative of the +leader of the I. Army, which had to bear the brunt of the fighting until +the advance of the II. Army turned the Austrian flank. After the peace +he returned to the III. army corps, which he finally left, in July 1870, +when appointed to command the II. German Army in the war with France. In +the early days of the advance the prince's ruthless energy led to much +friction between the I. and II. Armies (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR), while +his strategical mistakes seriously embarrassed the great headquarters +staff. The advance of the II. Army beyond the Saar to the Moselle and +from that river to the Meuse displayed more energy than careful +strategy, but herein at least the "Red Prince" (as he was called from +the colour of his favourite hussar uniform) was in thorough sympathy +with the king's headquarters on the one hand and the feelings of the +troops on the other. Then came the discovery that the French were not in +front, but to the right rear of the II. Army (August 16). Alvensleben +with the III. corps held the French to their ground at Vionville while +the prince hurried together his scattered forces. He himself directed +with superb tactical skill the last efforts of the Germans at Vionville, +and the victory of St Privat on the 18th was due to his leadership (see +METZ), which shone all the more by contrast with the failures of the I. +Army at Gravelotte. The prince was left in command of the forces which +blockaded Bazaine in Metz, and received the surrender of that place and +of the last remaining field army of the enemy. He was promoted at once +to the rank of general field marshal, and shortly afterwards the II. +Army was despatched to aid in crushing the newly organized army of the +French republic on the Loire. Here again he retrieved strategical errors +by energy and tactical skill, and his work was in the end crowned by the +victory of Le Mans on the 12th of January 1871. Of all the subordinate +leaders on the German side none enjoyed a greater and a better deserved +reputation than the Red Prince. + +He now became inspector-general of the 3rd "army inspection," and a +little later inspector of cavalry, and in the latter post he was largely +instrumental in bringing the German cavalry to the degree of perfection +in manoeuvre and general training which it gradually attained in the +years after the war. He never ceased to improve his own soldierly +qualities by further study and by the conduct of manoevres on a large +scale. His sternness of character kept him aloof from the court and from +his own family, and he spent his leisure months chiefly on his various +country estates. In 1872 and in 1882 he travelled in the Mediterranean +and the Near East. He died on the 15th of June 1885 at Klein-Glienicke +near Berlin, and was buried at the adjacent church of Nikolskoe. His +third daughter, Princess Louise Margareta, was married, in March 1879, +to the duke of Connaught. + + + + +FREDERICK HENRY (1584-1647), prince of Orange, the youngest child of +William the Silent, was born at Delft about six months before his +father's assassination on the 29th of January 1584. His mother, Louise +de Coligny, was daughter of the famous Huguenot leader, Admiral de +Coligny, and was the fourth wife of William the Silent. The boy was +trained to arms by his elder brother, Maurice of Nassau, one of the +first generals of his age. On the death of Maurice in 1625, Frederick +Henry succeeded him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in +the stadtholderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, +Overysel and Gelderland, and in the important posts of captain and +admiral-general of the Union. Frederick Henry proved himself scarcely +inferior to his brother as a general, and a far more capable statesman +and politician. During twenty-two years he remained at the head of +affairs in the United Provinces, and in his time the power of the +stadtholderate reached its highest point. The "Period of Frederick +Henry," as it is usually styled by Dutch writers, is generally accounted +the golden age of the republic. It was marked by great military and +naval triumphs, by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion, and by +a wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature. +The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges and +captures of Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632, of Breda in +1637, of Sas van Ghent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645. During the greater +part of his administration the alliance with France against Spain had +been the pivot of Frederick Henry's foreign policy, but in his last +years he sacrificed the French alliance for the sake of concluding a +separate peace with Spain, by which the United Provinces obtained from +that power all the advantages for which they had for eighty years been +contending. Frederick Henry died on the 14th of March 1647, and was +buried with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The +treaty of Muenster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch and the +Spaniards, was not actually signed until the 30th of January 1648, the +illness and death of the stadtholder having caused a delay in the +negotiations. Frederick Henry was married in 1625 to Amalia von Solms, +and left one son, William II. of Orange, and four daughters. + + Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his _Memoires de + Frederic Henri_ (Amsterdam, 1743). See _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ vol. iv. + chap. 24, and the bibliography on p. 931. + + + + +FREDERICK LOUIS (1707-1751), prince of Wales, eldest son of George II., +was born at Hanover on the 20th of January 1707. After his grandfather, +George I., became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714, Frederick +was known as duke of Gloucester[1] and made a knight of the Garter, +having previously been betrothed to Wilhelmina Sophia Dorothea +(1709-1758), daughter of Frederick William I., king of Prussia, and +sister of Frederick the Great. Although he was anxious to marry this +lady, the match was rendered impossible by the dislike of George II. and +Frederick William for each other. Soon after his father became king in +1727 Frederick took up his residence in England and in 1729 was created +prince of Wales; but the relations between George II. and his son were +very unfriendly, and there existed between them the jealousy which +Stubbs calls the "incurable bane of royalty." The faults were not all on +one side. The prince's character was not attractive, and the king +refused to make him an adequate allowance. In 1735 Frederick wrote, or +inspired the writing of, the _Histoire du prince Titi_, a book +containing offensive caricatures of both king and queen; and losing no +opportunity of irritating his father, "he made," says Lecky, "his court +the special centre of opposition to the government, and he exerted all +his influence for the ruin of Walpole." After a marriage between the +prince and Lady Diana Spencer, afterwards the wife of John, 4th duke of +Bedford, had been frustrated by Walpole, Frederick was married in April +1736 to Augusta (1719-1772), daughter of Frederick II., duke of +Saxe-Gotha, a union which was welcomed by his parents, but which led to +further trouble between father and son. George proposed to allow the +prince L50,000 a year; but this sum was regarded as insufficient by the +latter, whose appeal to parliament was unsuccessful. After the birth of +his first child, Augusta, in 1737, Frederick was ordered by the king to +quit St James' Palace, and the foreign ambassadors were requested to +refrain from visiting him. The relations between the two were now worse +than before. In 1745 George II. refused to allow his son to command the +British army against the Jacobites. On the 20th of March 1751 the prince +died in London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He left five sons +and two daughters. The sons were George (afterwards King George III.), +Edward Augustus, duke of York and Albany (1739-1767), William Henry, +duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh (1743-1805), Henry Frederick, duke of +Cumberland (1745-1790), and Frederick William (1750-1765); the daughters +were Augusta (1737-1813), wife of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of +Brunswick, and Caroline Matilda (1751-1775), wife of Christian VII., +king of Denmark. + + See Lord Hervey of Ickworth, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, + edited by J. W. Croker (London, 1884); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the + Reign of George II._ (London, 1847); and Sir N. W. Wraxall, _Memoirs_, + edited by H. B. Wheatley, vol. i. (London, 1884). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Frederick was never actually created duke of Gloucester, and when + he was raised to the peerage in 1736 it was as duke of Edinburgh + only. See G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, sub "Gloucester." + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM I. (1688-1740), king of Prussia, son of Frederick I. +by his second marriage was born on the 15th of August 1688. He spent a +considerable time in early youth at the court of his grandfather, the +elector Ernest Augustus of Hanover. On his return to Berlin he was +placed under General von Dohna and Count Finkenstein, who trained him to +the energetic and regular habits which ever afterwards characterized +him. He was soon imbued with a passion for military life, and this was +deepened by acquaintance with the duke of Marlborough (1709), Prince +Eugene, whom he visited during the siege of Tournai, and Prince Leopold +of Anhalt (the "Old Dessauer"). In nearly every respect he was the +opposite of his father, having frugal, simple tastes, a passionate +temper and a determined will. Throughout his life he was always the +protector of the church and of religion. But he detested religious +quarrels and was very tolerant towards his Catholic subjects, except the +Jesuits. His life was simple and puritanical, being founded on the +teaching of the Bible. He was, however, fond of hunting and somewhat +given to drinking. He intensely disliked the French, and highly +disapproved of the imitation of their manners by his father and his +court. When he came to the throne (February 25, 1713) his first act was +to dismiss from the palace every unnecessary official and to regulate +the royal household on principles of the strictest parsimony. The +greater part of the beautiful furniture was sold. His importance for +Prussia is twofold: in internal politics he laid down principles which +continued to be followed long after his death. This was a province +peculiarly suited to his genius; he was one of the greatest +administrators who have ever worn the Prussian crown. His foreign policy +was less successful, though under his rule the kingdom acquired some +extension of territory. + +Thus at the peace of Utrecht (April 11, 1713), after the War of the +Spanish Succession, he acquired the greater part of the duchy of +Gelderland. By the treaty of Schwedt, concluded with Russia on the 6th +of October, he was assured of an important influence in the solution of +the Baltic question, which during the long absence of Charles XII. had +become burning; and Swedish Pomerania, as far as the Peene, was occupied +by Prussia. But Charles XII. on his return turned against the king, +though without success, for the Pomeranian campaign of 1715 ended in +favour of Prussia (fall of Stralsund, December 22). This enabled +Frederick William I. to maintain a more independent attitude towards the +tsar; he refused, for example, to provide him with troops for a campaign +(in Schonen) against the Swedes. When on the 28th of May 1718, in view +of the disturbances in Mecklenburg, he signed at Havelberg the alliance +with Russia, he confined himself to taking up a defensive attitude, and, +on the other hand, on the 14th of August 1719 he also entered into +relations with his former enemies, England and Hanover. And so, by the +treaty of Stockholm (February 1, 1720), Frederick William succeeded in +obtaining the consent of Sweden to the cession of that part of Pomerania +which he had occupied (Usedom, Wollin, Stettin, Hither Pomerania, east +of the Peene) in return for a payment of 2,000,000 thalers. + +While Frederick William I. succeeded in carrying his wishes into effect +in this direction, he was unable to realize another project which he had +much at heart, namely, the Prussian succession to the Lower Rhine +duchies of Juelich and Berg. The treaty concluded in 1725 at Vienna +between the emperor and Spain brought the whole of this question up +again, for both sides had pledged themselves to support the +Palatinate-Sulzbach succession (in the event of the Palatinate-Neuberg +line becoming extinct). Frederick William turned for help to the western +powers, England and France, and secured it by the treaty of alliance +signed at Herrenhausen on the 3rd of September 1725 (League of Hanover). +But since the western powers soon sought to use the military strength of +Prussia for their own ends, Frederick again turned towards the east, +strengthened above all his relations with Russia, which had continued to +be good, and finally, by the treaty of Wuesterhausen (October 12, 1726; +ratified at Berlin, December 23, 1728), even allied himself with his +former adversary, the court of Vienna; though this treaty only +imperfectly safeguarded Prussian interests, inasmuch as Frederick +William consented to renounce his claims to Juelich. But as in the +following years the European situation became more and more favourable +to the house of Habsburg, the latter began to try to withdraw part of +the concessions which it had made to Frederick William. As early as 1728 +Duesseldorf, the capital, was excluded from the guarantee of Berg. +Nevertheless, in the War of the Polish Succession against France +(1734-1735), Frederick William remained faithful to the emperor's cause, +and sent an auxiliary force of 10,000 men. The peace of Vienna, which +terminated the war, led to a reconciliation between France and Austria, +and so to a further estrangement between Frederick William and the +emperor. Moreover, in 1738 the western powers, together with the +emperor, insisted in identical notes on the recognition of the emperor's +right to decide the question of the succession in the Lower Rhine +duchies. A breach with the emperor was now inevitable, and this explains +why in a last treaty (April 5, 1739) Frederick William obtained from +France a guarantee of a part, at least, of Berg (excluding Duesseldorf). + +But Frederick William's failures in foreign policy were more than +compensated for by his splendid services in the internal administration +of Prussia. He saw the necessity of rigid economy not only in his +private life but in the whole administration of the state. During his +reign Prussia obtained for the first time a centralized and uniform +financial administration. It was the king himself who composed and wrote +in the year 1722 the famous instruction for the general directory +(_Generaldirektorium_) of war, finance and domains. When he died the +income of the state was about seven million thalers (L1,050,000). The +consequence was that he paid off the debts incurred by his father, and +left to his successor a well filled treasury. In the administration of +the domains he made three innovations: (1) the private estates of the +king were turned into domains of the crown (August 13, 1713); (2) the +freeing of the serfs on the royal domains (March 22, 1719); (3) the +conversion of the hereditary lease into a short-term lease on the basis +of productiveness. His industrial policy was inspired by the mercantile +spirit. On this account he forbade the importation of foreign +manufactures and the export of raw materials from home, a policy which +had a very good effect on the growth of Prussian industries. + +The work of internal colonization he carried on with especial zeal. Most +notable of all was his _retablissement_ of East Prussia, to which he +devoted six million thalers (c. L900,000). His policy in respect of the +towns was motived largely by fiscal considerations, but at the same time +he tried also to improve their municipal administration; for example, in +the matter of buildings, of the letting of domain lands and of the +collection of the excise in towns. Frederick William had many opponents +among the nobles because he pressed on the abolition of the old feudal +rights, introduced in East Prussia and Lithuania a general land tax (the +_Generalhufenschoss_), and finally in 1739 attacked in a special edict +the _Legen_, i.e. the expropriation of the peasant proprietors. He did +nothing for the higher learning, and even banished the philosopher +Christian Wolff at forty-eight hours' notice "on pain of the halter," +for teaching, as he believed, fatalist doctrines. Afterwards he modified +his judgment in favour of Wolff, and even, in 1739, recommended the +study of his works. He established many village schools, which he often +visited in person; and after the year 1717 (October 23) all Prussian +parents were obliged to send their children to school (_Schulzwang_). He +was the especial friend of the _Franckische Stiftungen_ at Halle on the +Saale. Under him the people flourished; and although it stood in awe of +his vehement spirit it respected him for his firmness, his honesty of +purpose and his love of justice. He was devoted also to his army, the +number of which he raised from 38,000 to 83,500, so that under him +Prussia became the third military power in the world, coming next after +Russia and France. There was not a more thoroughly drilled or better +appointed force. The Potsdam guard, made up of giants collected from all +parts of Europe, sometimes kidnapped, was a sort of toy with which he +amused himself. The reviewing of his troops was his chief pleasure. But +he was also fond of meeting his friends in the evening in what he called +his Tobacco-College, where amid clouds of tobacco smoke he not only +discussed affairs of state but heard the newest "guard-room jokes." He +died on the 31st of May 1740, leaving behind him his widow, Sophia +Dorothea of Hanover, whom he had married on the 26th of November 1706. +His son was Frederick the Great, who was the opposite of Frederick +William. This opposition became so strong in 1730 that the crown prince +fled from the court, and was later arrested and brought before a +court-martial. A reconciliation was brought about, at first gradually. +In later years the relations between father and son came to be of the +best (see FREDERICK II., king of Prussia). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--D. Fassmann, _Leben und Thaten Friedrich Wilhelms_ (2 + vols., Hamburg and Breslau, 1735, 1741); F. Foerster, _Friedrich + Wilhelm I._ (3 vols., Potsdam, 1834 and 1835); C. v. Noorden, + _Historische Vortraege_ (Leipzig, 1884); O. Krauske, "Vom Hofe + Friedrich Wilhelms I.," _Hohenzollernjahrbuch_, v. (1902); R. Koser, + _Friedrich der Grosse als Kronprinz_ (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1901); W. + Oncken, "Sir Charles Hotham und Friedrich Wilhelm I. im Jahre 1730," + _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte_, vol. vii. et seq.; J. + G. Droysen in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vii. (1878), and + in _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_, section iv., vols. ii.-iv. + (2nd ed., 1868 et seq.); L. v. Ranke, _Zwoelf Buecher preussischer + Geschichte_ (1874 et seq.); Stenzel, _Geschichte des preussischen + Staates_, iii. (1841); F. Holke, "Strafrechtspflege unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Beitraege zur brandenburgischen Rechtsgeschichte_, iii. + (1894); V. Loewe, "Allodifikation der Leben unter Friedrich Wilhelm + I.," _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte_, xi.; G. + Schmoller, "Epochen der preuss. Finanzpolitik," _Umrisse und + Untersuchungen_ (Leipzig, 1898), "Innere Verwaltung unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Preuss. Jahrbuecher_, xxvi., "Staedtewesen unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Zeitschrift fuer preussische Geschichte_, x. et seq.; B. + Reuter, "Koenig Friedrich Wilhelm I. und das General-Direktorium," + _ibid._ xii.; V. Loewe, "Zur Grundungsgeschichte des + General-Direktoriums," _Forschungen_, &c., xiii.; R. Stadelmann, + _Preussens Koenige in ihrer Taetigkeit fuer die Landeskultur_, vol. i. + "Friedrich Wilhelm I." (1878); M. Beheim-Schwarzbach, + _Hohenzollern'sche Kolonizationen_ (Leipzig, 1874); W. Naude, "Die + merkantilistische Wirtschaftspolitik Friedrich Wilhelms I.," + _Historische Zeitschrift_, xc.; M. Lehmann, "Werbung, &c., im Heere + Friedrich Wilhelms I.," _ibid._ lxvii.; Isaacson, "Erbpachtsystem in + der preussischen Domaenenverwaltung," _Zeitschrift fuer preuss. Gesch._ + xi. Cf. also _Hohenzollernjahrbuch_, viii. (1905), for particulars of + his education and death; letters to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau in + the _Acta Borussica_ (1905). English readers will find a picturesque + account of him in Thomas Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_. (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM II. (1744-1797), king of Prussia, son of Augustus +William, second son of King Frederick William I. and of Louise Amalie of +Brunswick, sister of the wife of Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin +on the 25th of September 1744, and became heir to the throne on his +father's death in 1757. The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving +disposition, averse from sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by +nature. His marriage with Elisabeth Christine, daughter of Duke Charles +of Brunswick, contracted in 1765, was dissolved in 1769, and he soon +afterwards married Frederika Louisa, daughter of the landgrave Louis +IX. of Hesse-Darmstadt. Although he had a numerous family by his wife, +he was completely under the influence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, +afterwards created Countess Lichtenau, a woman of strong intellect and +much ambition. He was a man of singularly handsome presence, not without +mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the arts--Beethoven +and Mozart enjoyed his patronage and his private orchestra had a +European reputation. But an artistic temperament was hardly that +required of a king of Prussia on the eve of the Revolution; and +Frederick the Great, who had employed him in various services--notably +in an abortive confidential mission to the court of Russia in +1780--openly expressed his misgivings as to the character of the prince +and his surroundings. + +The misgivings were justified by the event. Frederick William's +accession to the throne (August 17, 1786) was, indeed, followed by a +series of measures for lightening the burdens of the people, reforming +the oppressive French system of tax-collecting introduced by Frederick, +and encouraging trade by the diminution of customs dues and the making +of roads and canals. This gave the new king much popularity with the +mass of the people; while the educated classes were pleased by his +removal of Frederick's ban on the German language by the admission of +German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active encouragement +given to schools and universities. But these reforms were vitiated in +their source. In 1781 Frederick William, then prince of Prussia, +inclined, like many sensual natures, to mysticism, had joined the +Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the influence of Johann Christof +Woellner (1732-1800), and by him the royal policy was inspired. Woellner, +whom Frederick the Great had described as a "treacherous and intriguing +priest," had started life as a poor tutor in the family of General von +Itzenplitz, a noble of the mark of Brandenburg, had, after the general's +death and to the scandal of king and nobility, married the general's +daughter, and with his mother-in-law's assistance settled down on a +small estate. By his practical experiments and by his writings he gained +a considerable reputation as an economist; but his ambition was not +content with this, and he sought to extend his influence by joining +first the Freemasons and afterwards (1779) the Rosicrucians. Woellner, +with his impressive personality and easy if superficial eloquence, was +just the man to lead a movement of this kind. Under his influence the +order spread rapidly, and he soon found himself the supreme director +(_Oberhauptdirektor_) of some 26 "circles," which included in their +membership princes, officers and high officials. As a Rosicrucian +Woellner dabbled in alchemy and other mystic arts, but he also affected +to be zealous for Christian orthodoxy, imperilled by Frederick II.'s +patronage of "enlightenment," and a few months before Frederick's death +wrote to his friend the Rosicrucian Johann Rudolph von Bischoffswerder +(1741-1803) that his highest ambition was to be placed at the head of +the religious department of the state "as an unworthy instrument in the +hand of Ormesus" (the prince of Prussia's Rosicrucian name) "for the +purpose of saving millions of souls from perdition and bringing back the +whole country to the faith of Jesus Christ." + +Such was the man whom Frederick William II., immediately after his +accession, called to his counsels. On the 26th of August 1786 he was +appointed privy councillor for finance (_Geheimer Oberfinanzrath_), and on +the 2nd of October was ennobled. Though not in name, in fact he was prime +minister; in all internal affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal +and economic reforms of the new reign were the application of his +theories. Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the +king's counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general. These were +the two men who enmeshed the king in a web of Rosicrucian mystery and +intrigue, which hampered whatever healthy development of his policy might +have been possible, and led ultimately to disaster. The opposition to +Woellner was, indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being +entrusted with the department of religion; but this too in time was +overcome, and on the 3rd of July 1788 he was appointed active privy +councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual department +for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. War was at once declared on what--to +use a later term--we may call the "modernists." The king, so long as +Woellner was content to condone his immorality (which Bischoffswerder, to +do him justice, condemned), was eager to help the orthodox crusade. On the +9th of July was issued the famous religious edict, which forbade +Evangelical ministers to teach anything not contained in the letter of +their official books, proclaimed the necessity of protecting the Christian +religion against the "enlighteners" (_Aufklaerer_), and placed educational +establishments under the supervision of the orthodox clergy. On the 18th +of December a new censorship law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of +all published books; and finally, in 1791, a sort of Protestant +Inquisition was established at Berlin (_Immediat-Examinations-commission_) +to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic appointments. In his zeal +for orthodoxy, indeed, Frederick William outstripped his minister; he even +blamed Woellner's "idleness and vanity" for the inevitable failure of the +attempt to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one of +his secular offices in order that he might have more time "to devote +himself to the things of God"; in edict after edict the king continued to +the end of his reign to make regulations "in order to maintain in his +states a true and active Christianity, as the path to genuine fear of +God." + +The effects of this policy of blind obscurantism far outweighed any good +that resulted from the king's well-meant efforts at economic and +financial reform; and even this reform was but spasmodic and partial, +and awoke ultimately more discontent than it allayed. But far more +fateful for Prussia was the king's attitude towards the army and foreign +policy. The army was the very foundation of the Prussian state, a truth +which both Frederick William I. and the great Frederick had fully +realized; the army had been their first care, and its efficiency had +been maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick +William, who had no taste for military matters, put his authority as +"War-Lord" into commission under a supreme college of war +(_Oberkriegs-Collegium_) under the duke of Brunswick and General von +Moellendorf. It was the beginning of the process that ended in 1806 at +Jena. + +In the circumstances Frederick William's intervention in European +affairs was not likely to prove of benefit to Prussia. The Dutch +campaign of 1787, entered on for purely family reasons, was indeed +successful; but Prussia received not even the cost of her intervention. +An attempt to intervene in the war of Russia and Austria against Turkey +failed of its object; Prussia did not succeed in obtaining any +concessions of territory from the alarms of the Allies, and the +dismissal of Hertzberg in 1791 marked the final abandonment of the +anti-Austrian tradition of Frederick the Great. For, meanwhile, the +French Revolution had entered upon alarming phases, and in August 1791 +Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz, arranged with the emperor +Leopold to join in supporting the cause of Louis XVI. But neither the +king's character, nor the confusion of the Prussian finances due to his +extravagance, gave promise of any effective action. A formal alliance +was indeed signed on the 7th of February 1792, and Frederick William +took part personally in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. He was hampered, +however, by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the +affairs of Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be +gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy treaty +with the sea powers (April 19, 1794) filled his coffers; but the +insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793, and the +threat of the isolated intervention of Russia, hurried him into the +separate treaty of Basel with the French Republic (April 5, 1795), which +was regarded by the great monarchies as a betrayal, and left Prussia +morally isolated in Europe on the eve of the titanic struggle between +the monarchical principle and the new political creed of the Revolution. +Prussia had paid a heavy price for the territories acquired at the +expense of Poland in 1793 and 1795, and when, on the 16th of November +1797, Frederick William died, he left the state in bankruptcy and +confusion, the army decayed and the monarchy discredited. + +Frederick William II. was twice married: (1) in 1765 to Elizabeth of +Brunswick (d. 1841), by whom he had a daughter, Frederika, afterwards +duchess of York, and from whom he was divorced in 1769; (2) in 1769 to +Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, by whom he had four sons, Frederick +William III., Louis (d. 1796), Henry and William, and two daughters, +Wilhelmina, wife of William of Orange, afterwards William I., king of +the Netherlands, and Augusta, wife of William II., elector of Hesse. +Besides his relations with his _maitresse en titre_, the countess +Lichtenau, the king--who was a frank polygamist--contracted two +"marriages of the left hand" with Fraeulein von Voss and the countess +Doenhoff. + + See article by von Hartmann in _Allgem. deutsche Biog._ (Leipzig, + 1878); Stadelmann, _Preussens Koenige in ihrer Taetigkeit fuer die + Landeskultur_, vol. iii. "Friedrich Wilhelm II." (Leipzig, 1885); + Paulig, _Friedrich Wilhelm II., sein Privatleben u. seine Regierung_ + (Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, 1896). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM III. (1770-1840), king of Prussia, eldest son of King +Frederick William II., was born at Potsdam on the 3rd of August 1770. +His father, then prince of Prussia, was out of favour with Frederick the +Great and entirely under the influence of his mistress; and the boy, +handed over to tutors appointed by the king, lived a solitary and +repressed life which tended to increase the innate weakness of his +character. But though his natural defects of intellect and will-power +were not improved by the pedantic tutoring to which he was submitted, he +grew up pious, honest and well-meaning; and had fate cast him in any but +the most stormy times of his country's history he might well have left +the reputation of a model king. As a soldier he received the usual +training of a Prussian prince, obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became +a colonel commanding in 1790, and took part in the campaigns of 1792-94. +In 1793 he married Louise, daughter of Prince Charles of +Mecklenburg-Strelitz, whom he had met and fallen in love with at +Frankfort (see LOUISE, queen of Prussia). He succeeded to the throne on +the 16th of November 1797 and at once gave earnest of his good +intentions by cutting down the expenses of the royal establishment, +dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most oppressive +abuses of the late reign. Unfortunately, however, he had all the +Hohenzollern tenacity of personal power without the Hohenzollern genius +for using it. Too distrustful to delegate his responsibility to his +ministers, he was too infirm of will to strike out and follow a +consistent course for himself. + +The results of this infirmity of purpose are written large on the +history of Prussia from the treaty of Luneville in 1801 to the downfall +that followed the campaign of Jena in 1806. By the treaty of Tilsit +(July 9th, 1807) Frederick William had to surrender half his dominions, +and what remained to him was exhausted by French exactions and liable at +any moment to be crushed out of existence by some new whim of Napoleon. +In the dark years that followed it was the indomitable courage of Queen +Louise that helped the weak king not to despair of the state. She +seconded the reforming efforts of Stein and the work of Scharnhorst and +Gneisenau in reorganizing the army, by which the resurrection of Prussia +became a possibility. When Stein was dismissed at the instance of +Napoleon, Hardenberg succeeded him as chancellor (June 1810). In the +following month Queen Louise died, and the king was left alone to deal +with circumstances of ever-increasing difficulty. He was forced to join +Napoleon in the war against Russia; and even when the disastrous +campaign of 1812 had for the time broken the French power, it was not +his own resolution, but the loyal disloyalty of General York in +concluding with Russia the convention of Tauroggen that forced him into +line with the patriotic fervour of his people. + +Once committed to the Russian alliance, however, he became the faithful +henchman of the emperor Alexander, whose fascinating personality +exercised over him to the last a singular power, and began that +influence of Russia at the court of Berlin which was to last till +Frederick William IV.'s supposed Liberalism was to shatter the +cordiality of the _entente_. That during and after the settlement of +1815 Frederick William played a very secondary part in European affairs +is explicable as well by his character as by the absorbing character of +the internal problems of Prussia. He was one of the original +co-signatories of the Holy Alliance, though, in common with most, he +signed it with reluctance; and in the counsels of the Grand Alliance he +allowed himself to be practically subordinated to Alexander and later to +Metternich. In a ruler of his character it is not surprising that the +Revolution and its developments had produced an unconquerable suspicion +of constitutional principles and methods, which the Liberal agitations +in Germany tended to increase. At the various congresses, from +Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) to Verona (1822), therefore, he showed himself +heartily in sympathy with the repressive policy formulated in the +Troppau Protocol. The promise of a constitution, which in the excitement +of the War of Liberation he had made to his people, remained unfulfilled +partly owing to this mental attitude, partly, however, to the all but +insuperable difficulties in the way of its execution. But though +reluctant to play the part of a constitutional king, Frederick William +maintained to the full the traditional character of "first servant of +the state." Though he chastised Liberal professors and turbulent +students, it was in the spirit of a benevolent _Landesvater_; and he +laboured assiduously at the enormous task of administrative +reconstruction necessitated by the problem of welding the heterogeneous +elements of the new Prussian kingdom into a united whole. He was +sincerely religious; but his well-meant efforts to unite the Lutheran +and Reformed Churches, in celebration of the tercentenary of the +Reformation (1817), revealed the limits of his paternal power; eleven +years passed in vain attempts to devise common formulae; a stubborn +Lutheran minority had to be coerced by military force, the confiscation +of their churches and the imprisonment or exile of their pastors; not +till 1834 was outward union secured on the basis of common worship but +separate symbols, the opponents of the measure being forbidden to form +communities of their own. With the Roman Church, too, the king came into +conflict on the vexed question of "mixed marriages," a conflict in which +the Vatican gained an easy victory (see BUNSEN, C. C. J., BARON VON). + +The revolutions of 1830 strengthened Frederick William in his +reactionary tendencies; the question of the constitution was +indefinitely shelved; and in 1831 Prussian troops concentrated on the +frontier helped the task of the Russians in reducing the military rising +in Poland. Yet, in spite of all, Frederick William was beloved by his +subjects, who valued him for the simplicity of his manners, the goodness +of his heart and the memories of the dark days after 1806. He died on +the 7th of June 1840. In 1824 he had contracted a morganatic marriage +with the countess Auguste von Harrach, whom he created Princess von +Liegnitz. He wrote _Luther in Bezug auf die Kirchenagenda von 1822 und +1823_ (Berlin, 1827), _Reminiszenzen aus der Kampagne 1792 in +Frankreich_, and _Journal meiner Brigade in der Kampagne am Rhein 1793_. + + The correspondence (_Briefwechsel_) of King Frederick William III. and + Queen Louise with the emperor Alexander I. has been published + (Leipzig, 1900) and also that between the king and queen (ib. 1903), + both edited by P. Bailleu. See W. Hahn, _Friedrich Wilhelm III. und + Luise_ (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1877); M. W. Duncker, _Aus der Zeit + Friedrichs des Grossen und Friedrich Wilhelms III._ (Leipzig, 1876); + Bishop R. F. Eylert, _Charakterzuege aus dem Leben des Koenigs von + Preussen Friedrich Wilhelm III._ (3 vols., Magdeburg, 1843-1846). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. (1795-1861), king of Prussia, eldest son of +Frederick William III., was born on the 15th of October 1795. From his +first tutor, Johann Delbrueck, he imbibed a love of culture and art, and +possibly also the dash of Liberalism which formed an element of his +complex habit of mind. But after a time Delbrueck, suspected of inspiring +his charge with a dislike of the Prussian military caste and even of +belonging to a political secret society, was dismissed, his place being +taken by the pastor and historian Friedrich Ancillon, while a military +governor was also appointed. By Ancillon he was grounded in religion, in +history and political science, his natural taste for the antique and the +picturesque making it easy for his tutor to impress upon him his own +hatred of the Revolution and its principles. This hatred was confirmed +by the sufferings of his country and family in the terrible years after +1806, and his first experience of active soldiering was in the campaigns +that ended in the occupation of Paris by the Allies in 1814. In action +his reckless bravery had earned him rebuke, and in Paris he was remarked +for the exact performance of his military duties, though he found time +to whet his appetite for art in the matchless collections gathered by +Napoleon as the spoil of all Europe. On his return to Berlin he studied +art under the sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and the painter and +architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), proving himself in the +end a good draughtsman, a born architect and an excellent landscape +gardener. At the same time he was being tutored in law by Savigny and in +finance by a series of distinguished masters. In 1823 he married the +princess Elizabeth of Bavaria, who adopted the Lutheran creed. The +union, though childless, was very happy. A long tour in Italy in 1828 +was the beginning of his intimacy with Bunsen and did much to develop +his knowledge of art and love of antiquity. + +On his accession to the throne in 1840 much was expected of a prince so +variously gifted and of so amiable a temper, and his first acts did not +belie popular hopes. He reversed the unfortunate ecclesiastical policy +of his father, allowing a wide liberty of dissent, and releasing the +imprisoned archbishop of Cologne; he modified the strictness of the +press censorship; above all he undertook, in the presence of the +deputations of the provincial diets assembled to greet him on his +accession, to carry out the long-deferred project of creating a central +constitution, which he admitted to be required alike by the royal +promises, the needs of the country and the temper of the times. The +story of the evolution of the Prussian parliament belongs to the history +of Prussia. Here it must suffice to notice Frederick William's personal +share in the question, which was determined by his general attitude of +mind. He was an idealist; but his idealism was of a type the exact +reverse of that which the Revolution in arms had sought to impose upon +Europe. The idea of the sovereignty of the people was to him utterly +abhorrent, and even any delegation of sovereign power on his own part +would have seemed a betrayal of a God-given trust. "I will never," he +declared, "allow to come between Almighty God and this country a blotted +parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to replace the ancient, +sacred bond of loyalty." His vision of the ideal state was that of a +patriarchial monarchy, surrounded and advised by the traditional estates +of the realm--nobles, peasants, burghers--and cemented by the bonds of +evangelical religion; but in which there should be no question of the +sovereign power being vested in any other hands than those of the king +by divine right. In Prussia, with its traditional loyalty and its +old-world caste divisions, he believed that such a conception could be +realized, and he took up an attitude half-way between those who would +have rejected the proposal for a central diet altogether as a dangerous +"thin end of the wedge," and those who would have approximated it more +to the modern conception of a parliament. With a charter, or a +representative system based on population, he would have nothing to do. +The united diet which was opened on the 3rd of February 1847 was no more +than a congregation of the diets instituted by Frederick William III. in +the eight provinces of Prussia. Unrepresentative though it was--for the +industrial working-classes had no share in it--it at once gave voice to +the demand for a constitutional system. + +This demand gained overwhelmingly in force with the revolutionary +outbreaks of 1848. To Frederick William these came as a complete +surprise, and, rudely awakened from his medieval dreamings, he even +allowed himself to be carried away for a while by the popular tide. The +loyalty of the Prussian army remained inviolate; but the king was too +tender-hearted to use military force against his "beloved Berliners," +and when the victory of the populace was thus assured his impressionable +temper yielded to the general enthusiasm. He paraded the streets of +Berlin wrapped in a scarf of the German black and gold, symbol of his +intention to be the leader of the united Germany; and he even wrote to +the indignant tsar in praise of "the glorious German revolution." The +change of sentiment was, however, apparent rather than real. The shadow +of venerable institutions, past or passing, still darkened his +counsels. The united Germany which he was prepared to champion was not +the democratic state which the theorists of the Frankfort national +parliament were evolving on paper with interminable debate, but the old +Holy Roman Empire, the heritage of the house of Habsburg, of which he +was prepared to constitute himself the guardian so long as its lawful +possessors should not have mastered the forces of disorder by which they +were held captive. Finally, when Austria had been excluded from the new +empire, he replied to the parliamentary deputation that came to offer +him the imperial crown that he might have accepted it had it been freely +offered to him by the German princes, but that he would never stoop "to +pick up a crown out of the gutter." + +Whatever may be thought of the manner of this refusal, or of its +immediate motives, it was in itself wise, for the German empire would +have lost immeasurably had it been the cause rather than the result of +the inevitable struggle with Austria, and Bismarck was probably right +when he said that, to weld the heterogeneous elements of Germany into a +united whole, what was needed was, not speeches and resolutions, but a +policy of "blood and iron." In any case Frederick William, uneasy enough +as a constitutional king, would have been impossible as a constitutional +emperor. As it was, his refusal to play this part gave the deathblow to +the parliament and to all hope of the immediate creation of a united +Germany. For Frederick William the position of leader of Germany now +meant the employment of the military force of Prussia to crush the +scattered elements of revolution that survived the collapse of the +national movement. His establishment of the northern confederacy was a +reversion to the traditional policy of Prussia in opposition to Austria, +which, after the emperor Nicholas had crushed the insurrection in +Hungary, was once more free to assert her claims to dominance in +Germany. But Prussia was not ripe for a struggle with Austria, even had +Frederick William found it in his conscience to turn his arms against +his ancient ally, and the result was the humiliating convention of +Olmuetz (November 29th, 1850), by which Prussia agreed to surrender her +separatist plans and to restore the old constitution of the +confederation. Yet Frederick William had so far profited by the lessons +of 1848 that he consented to establish (1850) a national parliament, +though with a restricted franchise and limited powers. The House of +Lords (_Herrenhaus_) justified the king's insistence in calling it into +being by its support of Bismarck against the more popular House during +the next reign. + +In religious matters Frederick William was also largely swayed by his +love for the ancient and picturesque. In concert with his friend Bunsen +he laboured to bring about a rapprochement between the Lutheran and +Anglican churches, the first-fruits of which was the establishment of +the Jerusalem bishopric under the joint patronage of Great Britain and +Prussia; but the only result of his efforts was to precipitate the +secession of J. H. Newman and his followers to the Church of Rome. In +general it may be said that Frederick William, in spite of his talents +and his wide knowledge, lived in a dream-land of his own, out of touch +with actuality. The style of his letters reveals a mind enthusiastic and +ill-balanced. In the summer of 1857 he had a stroke of paralysis, and a +second in October. From this time, with the exception of brief +intervals, his mind was completely clouded, and the duties of government +were undertaken by his brother William (afterwards emperor), who on the +7th of October 1858 was formally recognized as regent. Frederick William +died on the 2nd of January 1861. + + Selections from the correspondence (_Briefwechsel_) of Frederick + William IV. and Bunsen were edited by Ranke (Leipzig, 1873); his + proclamations, speeches, &c., from the 6th of March 1848 to the 31st + of May 1851 have been published (Berlin, 1851); also his + correspondence with Bettina von Arnim, _Bettina von Arnim und + Friedrich Wilhelm IV., ungedruckte Briefe und Aktenstuecke_, ed. L. + Geiger (Frankfort-on-Main, 1902). See L. von Ranke, _Friedrich Wilhelm + IV., Koenig von Preussen_ (works 51, 52 also in _Allgem. deutsche + Biog._ vol. vii.), especially for the king's education and the inner + history of the debates leading up to the united diet of 1847; H. von + Petersdorff, _Koenig Friedrich Wilhelm IV._ (Stuttgart, 1900); F. + Rachfahl, _Deutschland, Koenig Friedrich Wilhelm IV. und die Berliner + Maerzrevolution_ (Halle, 1901); H. von Poschinger (ed.), _Unter + Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Denkwuerdigkeiten des Ministers Otto Frhr. von + Manteuffel_, 1848-1858 (3 vols., Berlin, 1900-1901); and _Preussens + auswaertige Politik_, 1850-1858 (3 vols., ib., 1902), documents + selected from those left by Manteuffel; E. Friedberg, _Die Grundlagen + der preussischen Kirchenpolitik unter Friedrich Wilhelm IV._ (Leipzig, + 1882). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM (1620-1688), elector of Brandenburg, usually called +the "Great Elector," was born in Berlin on the 16th of February 1620. +His father was the elector George William, and his mother was Elizabeth +Charlotte, daughter of Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine. +Owing to the disorders which were prevalent in Brandenburg he passed +part of his youth in the Netherlands, studying at the university of +Leiden and learning something of war and statecraft under Frederick +Henry, prince of Orange. During his boyhood a marriage had been +suggested between him and Christina, afterwards queen of Sweden; but +although the idea was revived during the peace negotiations between +Sweden and Brandenburg, it came to nothing, and in 1646 he married +Louise Henriette (d. 1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange, a +lady whose counsel was very helpful to him and who seconded his efforts +for the welfare of his country. + +Having become ruler of Brandenburg and Prussia by his father's death in +December 1640, Frederick William set to work at once to repair the +extensive damage wrought during the Thirty Years' War, still in +progress. After some difficulty he secured his investiture as duke of +Prussia from Wladislaus, king of Poland, in October 1641, but was not +equally successful in crushing the independent tendencies of the estates +of Cleves. It was in Brandenburg, however, that he showed his supreme +skill as a diplomatist and administrator. His disorderly troops were +replaced by an efficient and disciplined force; his patience and +perseverance freed his dominions from the Swedish soldiers; and the +restoration of law and order was followed by a revival of trade and an +increase of material prosperity. After a tedious struggle he succeeded +in centralizing the administration, and controlling and increasing the +revenue, while no department of public life escaped his sedulous care +(see BRANDENBURG). The area of his dominions was largely increased at +the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and this treaty and the treaty of Oliva +in 1660 alike added to his power and prestige. By a clever but +unscrupulous use of his intermediate position between Sweden and Poland +he procured his recognition as independent duke of Prussia from both +powers, and eventually succeeded in crushing the stubborn and lengthened +opposition which was offered to his authority by the estates of the +duchy (see PRUSSIA). After two checks he made his position respected in +Cleves, and in 1666 his title to Cleves, Juelich and Ravensberg was +definitely recognized. His efforts, however, to annex the western part +of the duchy of Pomerania, which he had conquered from the Swedes, +failed owing to the insistence of Louis XIV. at the treaty of St +Germain-en-Laye in 1679, and he was unable to obtain the Silesian +duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau from the emperor Leopold I. after +they had been left without a ruler in 1675. + +Frederick William played an important part in European politics. +Although found once or twice on the side of France, he was generally +loyal to the interests of the empire and the Habsburgs, probably because +his political acumen scented danger to Brandenburg from the aggressive +policy of Louis XIV. He was a Protestant in religion, but he supported +Protestant interests abroad on political rather than on religious +grounds, and sought, but without much success, to strengthen Brandenburg +by allaying the fierce hostility between Lutherans and Calvinists. His +success in founding and organizing the army of Brandenburg-Prussia was +amply demonstrated by the great victory which he gained over the Swedes +at Fehrbellin in June 1675, and by the eagerness with which foreign +powers sought his support. He was also the founder of the Prussian navy. +The elector assisted trade in every possible way. He made the canal +which still bears his name between the Oder and the Spree; established a +trading company; and founded colonies on the west coast of Africa. He +encouraged Flemings to settle in Brandenburg, and both before and after +the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 welcomed large numbers of +Huguenots, who added greatly to the welfare of the country. Education +was not neglected; and if in this direction some of his plans were +abortive, it was from lack of means and opportunity rather than effort +and inclination. It is difficult to overestimate the services of the +great elector to Brandenburg and Prussia. They can only be properly +appreciated by those who compare the condition of his country in 1640 +with its condition in 1688. Both actually and relatively its importance +had increased enormously; poverty had given place to comparative wealth, +and anarchy to a system of government which afterwards made Prussia the +most centralized state in Europe. He had scant sympathy with local +privileges, and in fighting them his conduct was doubtless despotic. His +aim was to make himself an absolute ruler, as he regarded this as the +best guarantee for the internal and external welfare of the state. + +The great elector died at Potsdam from dropsy on the 9th of May 1688, +and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Frederick. His personal +appearance was imposing, and although he was absolutely without scruples +when working for the interests of Brandenburg, he did not lack a sense +of justice and generosity. At all events he deserves the eulogy passed +upon him by Frederick the Great, "_Messieurs; celui-ci a fait de grandes +choses_." His second wife, whom he married in 1668, was Dorothea (d. +1689), daughter of Philip, duke of Holstein-Gluecksburg, and widow of +Christian Louis, duke of Brunswick-Lueneburg; she bore him four sons and +three daughters. His concluding years were troubled by differences +between his wife and her step-son, Frederick; and influenced by Dorothea +he bequeathed portions of Brandenburg to her four sons, a bequest which +was annulled under his successor. + + See S. de Pufendorf, _De rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni_ + (Leipzig and Berlin, 1733); L. von Orlich, _Friedrich Wilhelm der + grosse Kurfuerst_ (Berlin, 1836); K. H. S. Roedenbeck, _Zur Geschichte + Friedrich Wilhelms des grossen Kurfuersten_ (Berlin, 1851); B. + Erdmannsdoerffer, _Der grosse Kurfuerst_ (Leipzig, 1879); J. G. Droysen, + _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886); M. + Philippson, _Der grosse Kurfuerst_ (Berlin, 1897-1903); E. Heyck, _Der + grosse Kurfuerst_ (Bielefeld, 1902); Spahn, _Der grosse Kurfuerst_ + (Mainz, 1902); H. Landwehr, _Die Kirchenpolitik des grossen + Kurfuersten_ (Berlin, 1894); H. Prutz, _Aus des grossen Kurfuersten + letzten Jahren_ (Berlin, 1897). Also _Urkunden und Aktenstuecke zur + Geschichte des Kurfuersten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg_ (Berlin, + 1864-1902); T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. i. + (London, 1858); and A. Waddington, _Le Grand Electeur et Louis XIV_ + (Paris, 1905). + + + + +FREDERICK-LEMAITRE, ANTOINE LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1876) French actor, the +son of an architect, was born at Havre on the 28th of July 1800. He +spent two years at the Conservatoire, and made his first appearance at a +variety performance in one of the basement restaurants at the Palais +Royal. At the Ambigu on the 12th of July 1823 he played the part of +Robert Macaire in _L'Auberge des Adrets_. The melodrama was played +seriously on the first night and was received with little favour, but it +was changed on the second night to burlesque, and thanks to him had a +great success. All Paris came to see it, and from that day he was +famous. He created a number of parts that added to his popularity, +especially Cardillac, Cagliostro and Cartouche. His success in the last +led to an engagement at the Porte St Martin, where in 1827 he produced +_Trente ans, ou la vie d'un joueur_, in which his vivid acting made a +profound impression. Afterwards at the Odeon and other theatres he +passed from one success to another, until he put the final touch to his +reputation as an artist by creating the part of Ruy Blas in Victor +Hugo's play. On his return to the Porte St Martin he created the +title-role in Balzac's _Vautrin_, which was forbidden a second +presentation, on account, it is said, of the resemblance of the actor's +wig to the well-known _toupet_ worn by Louis Philippe. His last +appearance was at this theatre in 1873 as the old Jew in _Marie Tudor_, +and he died at Paris on the 26th of January 1876. + + + + +FREDERICKSBURG, a city of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the +Rappahannock river, at the head of tide-water navigation, about 60 m. +N. of Richmond and about 55 m. S.S.W. of Washington. Pop. (1890) 4528; +(1900) 5068 (1621 negroes); (1910) 5874. It is served by the Potomac, +Fredericksburg & Piedmont, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac +railways, and by several coasting steamship lines. The city is built on +a series of terraces between the river and hills of considerable height. +The river is here spanned by iron bridges, and just above the city is a +dam 900 ft. long and 18 ft. high. By means of this dam and a canal good +water-power is furnished, and the city's manufactures include flour, +leather, shoes, woollens, silks, wagons, agricultural implements and +excelsior (fine wood-shavings for packing or stuffing). The water-works, +gas and electric-lighting plants are owned and operated by the +municipality. At Fredericksburg are Fredericksburg College (founded in +1893; co-educational), which includes the Kenmore school for girls and +the Saunders memorial school for boys (both preparatory); a Confederate +and a National cemetery (the latter on Marye's Heights), a monument +(erected in 1906) to General Hugh Mercer (c. 1720-1777), whose home for +several years was here and who fell in the battle of Princeton; and a +monument to the memory of Washington's mother, who died here in 1789 and +whose home is still standing. Other buildings of interest are the old +Rising Sun Hotel, a popular resort during Washington's time, and +"Kenmore," the home of Colonel Fielding Lewis, who married a sister of +Washington. The city was named in honour of Frederick, father of George +III., and was incorporated in 1727, long after its first settlement; in +1871 it was re-chartered by act of the General Assembly of Virginia. + +The battle of Fredericksburg in the American Civil War was fought on the +13th of December 1862 between the Union forces (Army of the Potomac) +under Major-General A. E. Burnside and the Confederates (Army of +Northern Virginia) under General R. E. Lee. In the middle of November, +Burnside, newly appointed to command the Army of the Potomac, had +manoeuvred from the neighbourhood of Warrenton with a view to beginning +an offensive move from Fredericksburg and, as a preliminary, to seizing +a foothold beyond the Rappahannock at or near that place. On arriving +near Falmouth, however, he found that the means of crossing that he had +asked for had not been forwarded from Washington, and he sat down to +wait for them, while, on the other side, the Confederate army gradually +assembled south of the Rappahannock in a strong position with the left +on the river above Fredericksburg and the right near Hamilton's Crossing +on the Richmond railway. On the 10th of December Burnside, having by now +received his pontoons, prepared to cross the river and to attack the +Confederate entrenched position on the heights beyond the town. The +respective forces were Union 122,000, Confederate 79,000. Major-General +E. V. Sumner, commanding the Federal right wing (II. and IX. corps), was +to cross at Fredericksburg, Major-General W. B. Franklin with the left +(I. and VI. corps) some miles below, while the centre (III. and V. +corps) under Major-General Joseph Hooker was to connect the two attacks +and to reinforce either at need. The Union artillery took position along +the heights of the north bank to cover the crossing, and no opposition +was encountered opposite Franklin's command, which formed up on the +other side during the 11th and 12th. Opposite Sumner, however, the +Confederate riflemen, hidden in the gardens and houses of +Fredericksburg, caused much trouble and considerable losses to the Union +pioneers, and a forlorn hope of volunteers from the infantry had to be +rowed across under fire before the enemy's skirmishers could be +dislodged. Sumner's two corps crossed on the 12th. The battle took place +next morning. + +Controversy has raged round Burnside's plan of action and in particular +round his orders to Franklin, as to which it can only be said that +whatever chance of success there was in so formidable an undertaking as +attacking the well-posted enemy was thrown away through +misunderstandings, and that nothing but misunderstandings could be +expected from the vague and bewildering orders issued by the general in +command. The actual battle can be described in a few words. Jackson held +the right of Lee's line, Longstreet the left, both entrenched. Franklin, +tied by his instructions, attacked with one division only, which a +little later he supported by two more (I. corps, Major-General J. F. +Reynolds) out of eight or nine available. His left flank was harassed by +the Confederate horse artillery under the young and brilliant Captain +John Pelham, and after breaking the first line of Stonewall Jackson's +corps the assailants were in the end driven back with heavy losses. On +the other flank, where part of Longstreet's corps held the low ridge +opposite Fredericksburg called Marye's Heights, Burnside ordered in the +II. corps under Major-General D. N. Couch about 11 A.M., and +thenceforward division after division, on a front of little more than +800 yds., was sent forward to assault with the bayonet. The "Stone Wall" +along the foot of Marye's was lined with every rifle of Longstreet's +corps that could find room to fire, and above them the Confederate guns +fired heavily on the assailants, whose artillery, on the height beyond +the river, was too far off to assist them. Not a man of the Federals +reached the wall, though the bravest were killed a few paces from it, +and Sumner's and most of Hooker's brigades were broken one after the +other as often as they tried to assault. At night the wrecks of the +right wing were withdrawn. Burnside proposed next day to lead the IX. +corps, which he had formerly commanded, in one mass to the assault of +the Stone Wall, but his subordinates dissuaded him, and on the night of +the 15th the Army of the Potomac withdrew to its camps about Falmouth. +The losses of the Federals were 12,650 men, those of the Confederates +4200, little more than a third of which fell on Longstreet's corps. + + See F. W. Palfrey, _Antietam and Fredericksburg_ (New York, 1881); G. + W. Redway, _Fredericksburg_ (London, 1906); and G. F. R. Henderson, + _Fredericksburg_ (London, 1889). + + + + +FREDERICTON, a city and port of entry of New Brunswick, Canada, capital +of the province, situated on the St John river, 84 m. from its mouth, +and on the Canadian Pacific railway. It stands on a plain bounded on one +side by the river, which is here 3/4 m. broad, and on the other by a range +of hills which almost encircle the town. It is regularly built with long +and straight streets, and contains the parliament buildings, government +house, the Anglican cathedral, the provincial university and several +other educational establishments. Fredericton is the chief commercial +centre in the interior of the province, and has also a large trade in +lumber. Its industries include canneries, tanneries and wooden ware +factories. The river is navigable for large steamers up to the city, and +above it by vessels of lighter draught. Two bridges, passenger and +railway, unite the city with the towns of St Marye's and Gibson on the +east side of the river, at its junction with the Nashwaak. The city was +founded in 1785 by Sir Guy Carleton, and made the capital of the +province, in spite of the jealousy of St John, on account of its +superior strategical position. Pop. (1901) 7117. + + + + +FREDONIA, a village of Chautauqua county, New York, U.S.A., about 45 m. +S.W. of Buffalo, and 3 m. from Lake Erie. Pop. (1900) 4127; (1905, state +census) 5148; (1910 census) 5285. Fredonia is served by the Dunkirk, +Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railway, which connects at Dunkirk, 3 m. to +the N., with the Erie, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, +Chicago & St Louis, and the Pennsylvania railways; and by electric +railway to Erie, Buffalo and Dunkirk. It is the seat of a State Normal +School. The Darwin R. Barker public library contained 9700 volumes in +1908. Fredonia is situated in the grape-growing region of western New +York, is an important shipping point for grapes, and has large +grape-vine and general nurseries. The making of wine and of unfermented +grape-juice are important industries of the village. Among other +manufactures are canned goods, coal dealers' supplies, and patent +medicines. The first settlement here was made in 1804, and the place was +called Canandaway until 1817, when the present name was adopted. The +village was incorporated in 1829. Fredonia was one of the first places +in the United States, if not the first, to make use of natural gas for +public purposes. Within the village limits, near a creek, whose waters +showed the presence of gas, a well was sunk in 1821, and the supply of +gas thus tapped was sufficient to light the streets of the village. +Another well was sunk within the village limits in 1858. About 1905 +natural gas was again obtained by deep drilling near Fredonia and came +into general use for heat, light and power. In the Fredonia Baptist +church on the 14th of December 1873 a Woman's Temperance Union was +organized, and from this is sometimes dated the beginning of the Woman's +Christian Temperance Union movement. + + + + +FREDRIKSHALD (FREDERICKSHALD, FRIEDERICHSHALL), a seaport and garrison +town of Norway, in Smaalenene _amt_ (county), 85 m. by rail S. by E. of +Christiania. Pop. (1900) 11,948. It is picturesquely situated on both +banks of the Tistedal river at its outflow to the Ide fjord, surrounded +by several rocky eminences. The chief of these is occupied by the famous +fortress Fredriksten, protected on three sides by precipices, founded by +Frederick III. (1661), and mainly showing, in its present form, the +works of Frederick V. (1766) and Christian VII. (1808). Between it and +the smaller Gyldenloeve fort a monument marks the spot where Charles XII. +was shot in the trenches while besieging the town (1718). The siege, +which was then raised, is further commemorated by a monument to the +brave defence of the brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjoernsen. Fredrikshald +is close to the Swedish frontier, and had previously (1660) withstood +invasion, after which its name was changed from Halden to the present +form in 1665 in honour of Frederick III. The town was almost totally +destroyed by fire in 1759 and 1826. The castle surrendered to the +Swedish crown prince Bernadotte in 1814, and its capture was speedily +followed by the conquest of the kingdom and its union with Sweden. +Fredrikshald is one of the principal ports of the kingdom for the export +of timber. Marble of very fine quality and grain is extensively quarried +and exported for architectural ornamentation and for furniture-making. +Wood-pulp is also exported. The industries embrace granite quarries, +wood-pulp factories, and factories for sugar, tobacco, curtains, +travelling-bags, boots, &c. There are railway communications with +Gothenburg and all parts of Sweden and regular coastal and steamer +services. + + + + +FREDRIKSTAD (FREDERIKSTAD), a seaport and manufacturing town of Norway +in Smaalenene _amt_ (county), 58 m. S. by E. of Christiania by the +Christiania-Gothenburg railway. Pop. (1900) 14,553. It lies at the mouth +and on the eastern shore of Christiania fjord, occupying both banks of +the great river Glommen, which, descending from the richly-wooded +district of Oesterdal, floats down vast quantities of timber. The new +town on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade, +this place being the principal port in Norway for the export of +pit-props, planed boards, and other varieties of timber. There is also a +great industry in the making of red bricks, owing to the expansion of +Christiania, Gothenburg and other towns. Granite is quarried and +exported. Besides the large number of saw and planing mills, there are +shipbuilding yards, engine and boiler works, cotton and woollen mills, +and factories for acetic acid and naphtha. The harbour, which can be +entered by vessels drawing 14 ft., is kept open in winter by an +ice-breaker. In the vicinity is the island Hankoe, the most fashionable +Norwegian seaside resort. The old town on the left bank was founded by +Frederick II. in 1567. It was for a long time strongly fortified, and in +1716 Charles XII. of Sweden made a vain attempt to capture it. + + + + +FREE BAPTISTS, formerly called (but no longer officially) FREEWILL +BAPTISTS, an American denomination holding anti-paedobaptist and +anti-Calvinistic doctrines, and practically identical in creed with the +General Baptists of Great Britain. Many of the early Baptist churches in +Rhode Island and throughout the South were believers in "general +redemption" (hence called "general" Baptists); and there was a largely +attended conference of this Arminian branch of the church at Newport in +1729. But the denomination known as "Free-willers" had its rise in +1779-1780, when anti-Calvinists in Loudon, Barrington and Canterbury, +New Hampshire, seceded and were organized by Benjamin Randall +(1749-1808), a native of New Hampshire. Randall was an itinerant +missionary, who had been preaching for two years before his ordination +in 1780; in the same year he was censured for "heterodox" teaching. The +work of the church suffered a relapse after his death, and a movement to +join the Freewill Baptists with the "Christians," who were led by Elias +Smith (1769-1846) and had been bitterly opposed by Randall, was nearly +successful. Between 1820 and 1830 the denomination made considerable +progress, especially in New England and the Middle West. The Freewill +Baptists were joined in 1841 by many "open-communion Baptists"--those in +the Carolinas who did not join the larger body distinguishing themselves +by the name of Original Freewill Baptists--and soon afterwards by some +of the General Baptists of North Carolina and some of the Six Principle +Baptists of Rhode Island (who had added the "laying on of hands" to the +Five Principles hitherto held); and the abbreviation of the +denominational name to "Free Baptists" suggests their liberal +policy--indeed open communion is the main if not the only hindrance to +union with the "regular" Baptist Church. + +Colleges founded by the denomination, all co-educational, are: Hillsdale +College, opened at Spring Harbor as Michigan Central College in 1844, +and established at Hillsdale, Michigan, in 1855; Bates College, +Lewiston, Maine, 1863, now non-sectarian; Rio Grande College, Rio +Grande, Ohio, 1876; and Parker College, Winnebago City, Minnesota, +opened in 1888. At the close of 1909 there were 1294 ministers, 1303 +churches, and 73,536 members of the denomination in the United States. +_The Morning Star_ of Boston, established in 1826, is the most prominent +journal published by the church. In British North America, according to +a Canadian census bulletin of 1902, there were, in 1901, 24,229 Free +Baptists, of whom 15,502 were inhabitants of New Brunswick, 8355 of Nova +Scotia, 246 of Ontario, and 87 of Quebec. The United Societies of Free +Baptist Young People, an international organization founded in 1888, had +in 1907 about 15,000 members. At the close of 1907 the "Original +Freewill Baptists" had 120 ministers, 167 churches, and 12,000 members, +practically all in the Carolinas. + + See I. D. Stewart, _History of the Free Will Baptists_ (Dover, N. H., + 1862) for 1780-1830, and his edition of the _Minutes of the General + Conference of the Free Will Baptist Connection_ (Boston, 1887); James + B. Taylor, _The Centennial Record of the Free Will Baptists_ (Dover, + 1881); John Buzzell, _Memoir of Elder Benjamin Randall_ (Parsonfield, + Maine, 1827); and P. Richardson, "Randall and the Free Will Baptists," + in _The Christian Review_, vol. xxiii. (Baltimore, 1858). + + + + +FREEBENCH, in English law, the interest which a widow has in the +copyhold lands of her husband, corresponding to dower in the case of +freeholds. It depends upon the custom of the manor, but as a general +rule the widow takes a third for her life of the lands of which her +husband dies seised, but it may be an estate greater or less than a +third. If the husband surrenders his copyhold and the surrenderee is +admitted, or if he contracts for a sale, it will defeat the widow's +freebench. As freebench is regarded as a continuation of the husband's +estate, the widow does not (except by special custom) require to be +admitted. + + + + +FREE CHURCH FEDERATION, a voluntary association of British Nonconformist +churches for co-operation in religious, social and civil work. It was +the outcome of a unifying tendency displayed during the latter part of +the 19th century. About 1890 the proposal that there should be a +Nonconformist Church Congress analogous to the Anglican Church Congress +was seriously considered, and the first was held in Manchester on the +7th of November 1892. In the following year it was resolved that the +basis of representation should be neither personal (as in the Anglican +Church Congress) nor denominational, but territorial. England and Wales +have since been completely covered with a network of local councils, +each of which elects its due proportion of representatives to the +national gathering. This territorial arrangement eliminated all +sectarian distinctions, and also the possibility of committing the +different churches as such to any particular policy. The representatives +of the local councils attend not as denominationalists but as +Evangelical Free Churchmen. The name of the organization was changed +from Congress to National Council as soon as the assembly ceased to be a +fortuitous concourse of atoms, and consisted of duly appointed +representatives from the local councils of every part of England. The +local councils consist of representatives of the Congregational and +Baptist Churches, the Methodist Churches, the Presbyterian Church of +England, the Free Episcopal Churches, the Society of Friends, and such +other Evangelical Churches as the National Council may at any time +admit. The constitution states the following as the objects of the +National Council: (a) To facilitate fraternal intercourse and +co-operation among the Evangelical Free Churches; (b) to assist in the +organization of local councils; (c) to encourage devotional fellowship +and mutual counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious +activities of the Churches; (d) to advocate the New Testament doctrine +of the Church, and to defend the rights of the associated Churches; (e) +to promote the application of the law of Christ in every relation of +human life. Although the objects of the Free Church councils are thus in +their nature and spirit religious rather than political, there are +occasions on which action is taken on great national affairs. Thus a +thorough-going opposition was offered to the Education Act of 1902, and +whole-hearted support accorded to candidates at the general election of +1906 who pledged themselves to altering that measure. + +A striking feature of the movement is the adoption of the parochial +system for the purpose of local work. Each of the associated churches is +requested to look after a parish, not of course with any attempt to +exclude other churches, but as having a special responsibility for those +in that area who are not already connected with some existing church. +Throughout the United Kingdom local councils are formed into +federations, some fifty in number, which are intermediate between them +and the national council. The local councils do what is possible to +prevent overlapping and excessive competition between the churches. They +also combine the forces of the local churches for evangelistic and +general devotional work, open-air services, efforts on behalf of Sunday +observance, and the prevention of gambling. Services are arranged in +connexion with workhouses, hospitals and other public institutions. +Social work of a varied character forms a large part of the operations +of the local councils, and the Free Church Girls' Guild has a function +similar to that of the Anglican Girls' Friendly Society. The national +council engages in mission work on a large scale, and a considerable +number of periodicals, hymn-books for special occasions, and works of +different kinds explaining the history and ideals of the Evangelical +Free Churches have been published. The churches represented in the +National Council have 9966 ministers, 55,828 local preachers, 407,991 +Sunday-school teachers, 3,416,377 Sunday scholars, 2,178,221 +communicants, and sitting accommodation for 8,555,460. + +A remarkable manifestation of this unprecedented reunion was the fact +that a committee of the associated churches prepared and published a +catechism expressing the positive and fundamental agreement of all the +Evangelical Free Churches on the essential doctrines of Christianity +(see _The Contemporary Review_, January 1899). The catechism represents +substantially the creed of not less than 80,000,000 Protestants. It has +been widely circulated throughout Great Britain, the British Colonies +and the United States of America, and has also been translated into +Welsh, French and Italian. + +The movement has spread to all parts of Australia, New Zealand, South +Africa, Jamaica, the United States of America and India. It is perhaps +necessary to add that it differs essentially from the Evangelical +Alliance, inasmuch as its unit is not an individual, private Christian, +but a definitely organized and visible Church. The essential doctrine of +the movement is a particular doctrine of churchmanship which, as +explained in the catechism, regards the Lord Jesus Christ as the sole +and Divine Head of every branch of the Holy Catholic Church throughout +the world. For this reason those who do not accept the deity of Christ +are necessarily excluded from the national council and its local +constituent councils. + + + + +FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, a Protestant episcopal church "essentially one +with the established church of England, but free to go into any parish, +to use a revised edition of the Book of Common Prayer, to associate the +laity with the clergy in the government and work of the church, and to +hold communion with Christians of other denominations." It was founded +in 1844 in opposition to the Tractarian movement, and embodies the +distinctively evangelical elements of the Reformation. It preserves and +maintains to the letter all that is Protestant and evangelical in the +liturgy and services of the Anglican church, while its free constitution +and revised formularies meet the needs of members of that communion who +resent sacerdotal and ritualistic tendencies. There are two dioceses +(northern and southern) each with a bishop, about 30 churches and +ministers, and about 1300 members. + + + + +FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. In one sense the Free Church of Scotland dated +its existence from the Disruption of 1843, in another it claimed to be +the rightful representative of the National Church of Scotland (see +SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF) as it was reformed in 1560.[1] In the +ecclesiastical history of Scotland the Free Churchman sees three great +reforming periods. In his view these deserve to be called reforming on +many accounts, but most especially because in them the independence of +the church, her inherent scriptural right to exercise a spiritual +jurisdiction in which she is responsible to her Divine Head alone, was +both earnestly asserted and practically maintained. The first +reformation extended from 1560, when the church freely held her first +General Assembly, and of her own authority acted on the First Book of +Discipline, to 1592, when her Presbyterian order was finally and fully +ratified by the parliament. The second period began in 1638, when, after +20 years of suspended animation, the Assembly once more shook off +Episcopacy, and terminated in 1649, when the parliament of Scotland +confirmed the church in her liberties in a larger and ampler sense than +before. The third period began in 1834, when the Assembly made use of +what the church believed to be her rights in passing the Veto and Chapel +Acts. It culminated in the Disruption of 1843. + +The fact that the Church, as led first by John Knox and afterwards by +Andrew Melville, claimed an inherent right to exercise a spiritual +jurisdiction is notorious. More apt to be overlooked is the comparative +freedom with which that right was actually used by the church +irrespective of state recognition. That recognition was not given until +after the queen's resignation in 1567;[2] but, for several years before +it came, the church had been holding her Assemblies and settling all +questions of discipline, worship, and administration as they arose, in +accordance with the first book of polity or discipline which had been +drawn up in 1560. Further, in 1581 she, of her own motion, adopted a +second book of a similar character, in which she expressly claimed an +independent and exclusive jurisdiction or power in all matters +ecclesiastical, "which flows directly from God and the Mediator Jesus +Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth, but only +Christ, the only king and governor of his church"; and this claim, +though directly negatived in 1584 by the "Black Acts," which included an +Act of Supremacy over estates spiritual and temporal, continued to be +asserted by the Assemblies, until at last it also was practically +allowed in the act of 1592.[3] This legislation of 1592, however, did +not long remain in force. An act of parliament in 1606, which "reponed, +restored and reintegrated" the estate of bishops to their ancient +dignities, prerogatives and privileges, was followed by several acts of +various subservient assemblies, which, culminating in that of 1618, +practically amounted to a complete surrender of jurisdiction by the +church itself. For twenty years no Assemblies whatever were held. This +interval must necessarily be regarded from the Presbyterian point of +view as having been one of very deep depression. But a second +reformation, characterized by great energy and vigour, began in 1638. +The proceedings of the Assembly of that year, afterwards tardily and +reluctantly acquiesced in by the state, finally issued in the acts of +parliament of 1649, by which the Westminster standards were ratified, +lay-patronage was abolished, and the coronation oath itself framed in +accordance with the principles of Presbyterian church government. +Another period of intense reaction soon set in. No Assemblies were +permitted by Cromwell after 1653; and, soon after the Restoration, +Presbytery was temporarily overthrown by a series of rescissory acts. +Nor was the Revolution Settlement of 1690 so entirely favourable to the +freedom of the church as the legislation of 1649 had been. Prelacy was +abolished, and various obnoxious statutes were repealed, but the acts +rescissory were not cancelled; presbyterianism was re-established, but +the statutory recognition of the Confession of Faith took no notice of +certain qualifications under which that document had originally been +approved by the Assembly of 1647;[4] the old rights of patrons were +again discontinued, but the large powers which had been conferred on +congregations by the act of 1649 were not wholly restored. Nevertheless +the great principle of a distinct ecclesiastical jurisdiction, embodied +in the Confession of Faith, was accepted without reservation, and a +Presbyterian polity effectively confirmed both then and at the +ratification of the treaty of Union. This settlement, however, did not +long subsist unimpaired. In 1712 the act of Queen Anne, restoring +patronage to its ancient footing, was passed in spite of the earnest +remonstrances of the Scottish people. For many years afterwards (until +1784) the Assembly continued to instruct each succeeding commission to +make application to the king and the parliament for redress of the +grievance. But meanwhile a new phase of Scottish ecclesiastical politics +commonly known as Moderatism had been inaugurated, during the prevalence +of which the church became even more indifferent than the lay patrons +themselves to the rights of her congregations with regard to the +"calling" of ministers. From the Free Church point of view, the period +from which the secessions under Ebenezer Erskine and Thomas Gillespie +are dated was also characterized by numerous other abuses on the +Church's part which amounted to a practical surrender of the most +important and distinctive principles of her ancient Presbyterian +polity.[5] Towards the beginning of the present century there were many +circumstances, both within and without the church, which conspired to +bring about an evangelical and popular reaction against this reign of +"Moderatism." The result was a protracted struggle, which is commonly +referred to as the Ten Years' Conflict, and which has been aptly +described as the last battle in the long war which for nearly 300 years +had been waged within the church itself, between the friends and the +foes of the doctrine of an exclusive ecclesiastical jurisdiction. That +final struggle may be said to have begun with the passing in 1834 of the +"Veto" Act, by which it was declared to be a fundamental law of the +church that no pastor should be intruded on a congregation contrary to +the will of the people,[6] and by which it was provided that the simple +dissent of a majority of heads of families in a parish should be enough +to warrant a presbytery in rejecting a presentee. The question of the +legality of this measure soon came to be tried in the civil courts; and +it was ultimately answered in a sense unfavourable to the church by the +decision (1838) of the court of session in the Auchterarder case, to the +effect that a presbytery had no right to reject a presentee simply +because the parishioners protested against his settlement, but was bound +to disregard the veto (see CHALMERS, THOMAS). This decision elicited +from the Assembly of that year a new declaration of the doctrine of the +spiritual independence of the church. The "exclusive jurisdiction of the +civil courts in regard to the civil rights and emoluments secured by law +to the church and the ministers thereof" was acknowledged without +qualification; and continued implicit obedience to their decisions with +reference to these rights and emoluments was pledged. At the same time +it was insisted on "that, as is declared in the Confession of Faith of +this National Established Church, 'the Lord Jesus Christ, as King and +Head of the church, hath therein appointed a government in the hand of +church officers distinct from the civil magistrate'; and that in all +matters touching the doctrine, discipline and government of the church +her judicatories possess an exclusive jurisdiction, founded on the Word +of God, which power ecclesiastical" (in the words of the Second Book of +Discipline) "flows immediately from God and the Mediator the Lord Jesus +Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth, but only +Christ, the only spiritual King and Governor of His Kirk." And it was +resolved to assert, and at all hazards defend, this spiritual +jurisdiction, and firmly to enforce obedience to the same upon the +office-bearers and members of the church. The decision of the court of +session having been confirmed by the House of Lords early in 1839, it +was decided in the Assembly of that year that the church, while +acquiescing in the loss of the temporalities at Auchterarder, should +reaffirm the principle of non-intrusion as an integral part of the +constitution of the Reformed Church of Scotland, and that a committee +should be appointed to confer with the government with a view to the +prevention, if possible, of any further collision between the civil and +ecclesiastical authorities. While the conference with the government had +no better result than an unsuccessful attempt at compromise by means of +Lord Aberdeen's Bill, which embodied the principle of a dissent with +reasons, still graver complications were arising out of the Marnoch and +other cases.[7] In the circumstances it was resolved by the Assembly of +1842 to transmit to the queen, by the hands of the lord high +commissioner, a "claim, declaration, and protest," complaining of the +encroachments of the court of session,[8] and also an address praying +for the abolition of patronage. The home secretary's answer (received in +January 1843) gave no hope of redress. Meanwhile the position of the +evangelical party had been further hampered by the decision of the +court of session declaring the ministers of chapels of ease to be +unqualified to sit in any church court. A final appeal to parliament by +petition was made in March 1843, when, by a majority of 135 (211 against +76), the House of Commons declined to attempt any redress of the +grievances of the Scottish Church.[9] At the first session of the +following General Assembly (18th May 1843) the reply of the +non-intrusion party was made in a protest, signed by upwards of 200 +commissioners, to the effect that since, in their opinion, the recent +decisions of the civil courts, and the still more recent sanction of +these decisions by the legislature, had made it impossible at that time +to hold a free Assembly of the church as by law established, they +therefore "protest that it shall be lawful for us, and such other +commissioners as may concur with us, to withdraw to a separate place of +meeting, for the purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who +adhere to us--maintaining with us the Confession of Faith and standards +of the Church of Scotland as heretofore understood--for separating in an +orderly way from the Establishment, and thereupon adopting such measures +as may be competent to us, in humble dependence on God's grace and the +aid of His Holy Spirit, for the advancement of His glory, the extension +of the gospel of our Lord and Saviour, and the administration of the +affairs of Christ's house according to His holy word." The reading of +this document was followed by the withdrawal of the entire non-intrusion +party to another place of meeting, where the first Assembly of the Free +Church was constituted, with Dr Thomas Chalmers as moderator. This +Assembly sat from the 18th to the 30th of May, and transacted a large +amount of important business. On Tuesday the 23rd, 396[10] ministers and +professors publicly adhibited their names to the Act of Separation and +deed of demission by which they renounced all claim to the benefices +they had held in connexion with the Establishment, declaring them to be +vacant, and consenting to their being dealt with as such. By this +impressive proceeding the signatories voluntarily surrendered an annual +income amounting to fully L100,000. + +The first care of the voluntarily disestablished church was to provide +incomes for her clergy and places of worship for her people. As early as +1841 indeed the leading principle of a "sustentation fund" for the +support of the ministry had been announced by Dr Robert Smith Candlish; +and at "Convocation," a private unofficial meeting of the members of the +evangelical or non-intrusion party held in November 1842, Dr Chalmers +was prepared with a carefully matured scheme according to which "each +congregation should do its part in sustaining the whole, and the whole +should sustain each congregation." Between November 1842 and May 1843, +647 associations had been formed; and at the first Assembly it was +announced that upwards of L17,000 had already been contributed. At the +close of the first financial year (1843-1844) it was reported that the +fund had exceeded L61,000. It was participated in by 583 ministers; and +470 drew the full equal dividend of L105. Each successive year showed a +steady increase in the gross amount of the fund; but owing to an almost +equally rapid increase of the number of new ministerial charges +participating in its benefits, the stipend payable to each minister did +not for many years reach the sum of L150 which had been aimed at as a +minimum. Thus in 1844-1845 the fund had risen to L76,180, but the +ministers had also increased to 627, and the equal dividend therefore +was only L122. During the first ten years the annual income averaged +L84,057; during the next decade L108,643; and during the third L130,246. +The minimum of L150 was reached at last in 1868; and subsequently the +balance remaining after that minimum had been provided was treated as a +surplus fund, and distributed among those ministers whose congregations +have contributed at certain specified rates per member. In 1878 the +total amount received for this fund was upwards of L177,000; in this +1075 ministers participated. The full equal dividend of L157 was paid to +766 ministers; and additional grants of L36 and L18 were paid out of +the surplus fund to 632 and 129 ministers respectively. + +To provide for the erection of the buildings which, it was foreseen, +would be necessary, a general building fund, in which all should share +alike, was also organized, and local building funds were as far as +possible established in each parish, with the result that at the first +Assembly a sum of L104,776 was reported as already available. By May +1844 a further sum of L123,060 had been collected, and 470 churches were +reported as completed or nearly so. In the following year L131,737 was +raised and 60 additional churches were built. At the end of four years +considerably more than 700 churches had been provided. + +During the winter session 1843-1844 the divinity students who had joined +the Free Church continued their studies under Dr Chalmers and Dr David +Welsh (1793-1845); and at the Assembly of 1844 arrangements were made +for the erection of suitable collegiate buildings. The New College, +Edinburgh, was built in 1847 at a cost of L46,506; and divinity halls +were subsequently set up also in Glasgow and Aberdeen. In 1878 there +were 13 professors of theology, with an aggregate of 230 students,--the +numbers at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen respectively being 129, 69 +and 32. + +A somewhat unforeseen result of the Disruption was the necessity for a +duplicate system of elementary schools. At the 1843 Assembly it was for +the first time announced by Dr Welsh that "schools to a certain extent +must be opened to afford a suitable sphere of occupation for parochial +and still more for private teachers of schools, who are threatened with +deprivation of their present office on account of their opinions upon +the church question." The suggestion was taken up with very great +energy, with the result that in May 1845, 280 schools had been set up, +while in May 1847 this number had risen to 513, with an attendance of +upwards of 44,000 scholars. In 1869 it was stated in an authoritative +document laid before members of parliament that at that time there were +connected with and supported by the Free Church 598 schools (including +two normal schools), with 633 teachers and 64,115 scholars. The school +buildings had been erected at a cost of L220,000, of which the committee +of privy council had contributed L35,000, while the remainder had been +raised by voluntary effort. Annual payments made to teachers, &c., as at +1869, amounted to L16,000. In accordance with certain provisions of the +Education Act of 1872 most of the schools of the Free Church were +voluntarily transferred, without compensation, to the local school +boards. The normal schools are now transferred to the state. + +It has been seen already that during the period of the Ten Years' +Conflict the non-intrusion party strenuously denied that in any one +respect it was departing from acknowledged principles of the National +Church. It continued to do so after the Disruption. In 1846, however, it +was found to have become necessary, "in consequence of the late change +in the outward condition of the church," to amend the "questions and +formula" to be used at the licensing of probationers and the ordination +of office-bearers. These were amended accordingly; and at the same time +it was declared that, "while the church firmly maintains the same +scriptural principles as to the duties of nations and their rulers in +reference to true religion and the Church of Christ for which she has +hitherto contended, she disclaims intolerant or persecuting principles, +and does not regard her Confession of Faith, or any portion thereof when +fairly interpreted, as favouring intolerance or persecution, or consider +that her office-bearers by subscribing it profess any principles +inconsistent with liberty of conscience and the right of private +judgment." The main difference between the "formula" of the Free Church +and that of the Established Church (as at the year 1900) was that the +former referred to the Confession of Faith simply as "approven by +General Assemblies of this Church," while the latter described it as +"approven by the General Assemblies of this National Church, and +ratified by law in the year 1690, and frequently confirmed by divers +Acts of Parliament since that time." The former inserted an additional +clause,--"I also approve of the general principles respecting the +jurisdiction of the church, and her subjection to Christ as her only +Head, which are contained in the Claim of Right and in the Protest +referred to in the questions already put to me"; and also added the +words which are here distinguished by italics,--"And I promise that +through the grace of God I shall firmly and constantly adhere to the +same, and to the utmost of my power shall in my station assert, +maintain, and defend the said doctrine, worship, discipline and +government of this church by kirk-sessions, presbyteries, provincial +synods, and general assemblies, _together with the liberty and exclusive +jurisdiction thereof_; and that I shall, in my practice, conform myself +to the said worship and submit to the said discipline [and] government, +_and exclusive jurisdiction_, and not endeavour directly or indirectly +the prejudice or subversion of the same." In the year 1851 an act and +declaration anent the publication of the subordinate standards and other +authoritative documents of the Free Church of Scotland was passed, in +which the historical fact is recalled that the Church of Scotland had +formally consented to adopt the Confession of Faith, catechisms, +directory of public worship, and form of church government agreed upon +by the Westminster Assembly; and it is declared that "these several +formularies, as ratified, with certain explanations, by divers Acts of +Assembly in the years 1645, 1646, and particularly in 1647, this church +continues till this day to acknowledge as her subordinate standards of +doctrine, worship and government."[11] + +In 1858 circumstances arose which, in the opinion of many, seemed fitted +to demonstrate to the Free Church that her freedom was an illusion, and +that all her sacrifices had been made in vain. John Macmillan, minister +of Cardross, accused of immorality, had been tried and found guilty by +the Free Presbytery of Dumbarton. Appeal having been taken to the synod, +an attempt was there made to revive one particular charge, of which he +had been finally acquitted by the presbytery; and this attempt was +successful in the General Assembly. That ultimate court of review did +not confine itself to the points appealed, but went into the merits of +the whole case as it had originally come before the presbytery. The +result was a sentence of suspension. Macmillan, believing that the +Assembly had acted with some irregularity, applied to the court of +session for an interdict against the execution of that sentence; and for +this act he was summoned to the bar of the Assembly to say whether or +not it was the case that he had thus appealed. Having answered in the +affirmative, he was deposed on the spot. Forthwith he raised a new +action (his previous application for an interdict had been refused) +concluding for reduction of the spiritual sentence of deposition and for +substantial damages. The defences lodged by the Free Church were to the +effect that the civil courts had no right to review and reduce spiritual +sentences, or to decide whether the General Assembly of the Free Church +had acted irregularly or not. Judgments adverse to the defenders were +delivered on these points; and appeals were taken to the House of Lords. +But before the case could be heard there, the lord president took an +opportunity in the court of session to point out to the pursuer that, +inasmuch as the particular General Assembly against which the action was +brought had ceased to exist, it could not therefore be made in any +circumstances to pay damages, and that the action of reduction of the +spiritual sentence, being only auxiliary to the claim of damages, ought +therefore to be dismissed. He further pointed out that Macmillan might +obtain redress in another way, should he be able to prove malice against +individuals. Very soon after this deliverance of the lord president, the +case as it had stood against the Free Church was withdrawn, and +Macmillan gave notice of an action of a wholly different kind. But this +last was not persevered in. The appeals which had been taken to the +House of Lords were, in these circumstances, also departed from by the +Free Church. The case did not advance sufficiently to show how far the +courts of law would be prepared to go in the direction of recognizing +voluntary tribunals and a kind of secondary exclusive jurisdiction +founded on contract.[12] But, whether recognized or not, the church for +her part continued to believe that she had an inherent spiritual +jurisdiction, and remained unmoved in her determination to act in +accordance with that resolution "notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble +or persecution may arise."[13] + +In 1863 a motion was made and unanimously carried in the Free Church +Assembly for the appointment of a committee to confer with a +corresponding committee of the United Presbyterian Synod, and with the +representatives of such other disestablished churches as might be +willing to meet and deliberate with a view to an incorporating union. +Formal negotiations between the representatives of these two churches +were begun shortly afterwards, which resulted in a report laid before +the following Assembly. From this document it appeared that the +committees of the two churches were not at one on the question as to the +relation of the civil magistrate to the church. While on the part of the +Free Church it was maintained that he "may lawfully acknowledge, as +being in accordance with the Word of God, the creed and jurisdiction of +the church," and that "it is his duty, when necessary and expedient, to +employ the national resources in aid of the church, provided always that +in doing so, while reserving to himself full control over the +temporalities which are his own gift, he abstain from all authoritative +interference in the internal government of the church," it was declared +by the committee of the United Presbyterian Church that, "inasmuch as +the civil magistrate has no authority in spiritual things, and as the +employment of force in such matters is opposed to the spirit and +precepts of Christianity, it is not within his province to legislate as +to what is true in religion, to prescribe a creed or form of worship to +his subjects, or to endow the church from national resources." In other +words, while the Free Church maintained that in certain circumstances it +was lawful and even incumbent on the magistrate to endow the church and +on the church to accept his endowment, the United Presbyterians +maintained that in no case was this lawful either for the one party or +for the other. Thus in a very short time it had been made perfectly +evident that a union between the two bodies, if accomplished at all, +could only be brought about on the understanding that the question as to +the lawfulness of state endowments should be an open one. The Free +Church Assembly, by increasing majorities, manifested a readiness for +union, even although unanimity had not been attained on that theoretical +point. But there was a minority which did not sympathize in this +readiness, and after ten years of fruitless effort it was in 1873 found +to be expedient that the idea of union with the United Presbyterians +should for the time be abandoned. Other negotiations, however, which had +been entered upon with the Reformed Presbyterian Church at a somewhat +later date proved more successful; and a majority of the ministers of +that church with their congregations were united with the Free Church in +1876. (J. S. Bl.) + +In the last quarter of the 19th century the Free Church continued to be +the most active, theologically, of the Scottish Churches. The College +chairs were almost uniformly filled by advanced critics or theologians, +inspired more or less by Professor A. B. Davidson. Dr A. B. Bruce, +author of _The Training of the Twelve_, &c., was appointed to the chair +of apologetics and New Testament exegesis in the Glasgow College in +1875; Henry Drummond (author of _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_, +&c.) was made lecturer in natural science in the same college in 1877 +and became professor in 1884; and Dr George Adam Smith (author of _The +Twelve Prophets_, &c.) was called to the Hebrew chair in 1892. Attempts +were made between 1890 and 1895 to bring all these professors except +Davidson (similar attacks were also made on Dr Marcus Dods, afterwards +principal of the New College, Edinburgh) to the bar of the Assembly for +unsound teaching or writing; but in every case these were abortive, the +Assembly never taking any step beyond warning the accused that their +primary duty was to teach and defend the church's faith as embodied in +the confession. In 1892 the Free Church, following the example of the +United Presbyterian Church and the Church of Scotland (1889), passed a +Declaratory Act relaxing the stringency of subscription to the +confession, with the result that a small number of ministers and +congregations, mostly in the Highlands, severed their connexion with the +church and formed the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, on strictly +and straitly orthodox lines. In 1907 this body had twenty congregations +and twelve ministers. + +The Free Church always regarded herself as a National Church, and during +this period she sought actively to be true to that character by +providing church ordinances for the increasing population of Scotland +and applying herself to the new problems of non-church-going, and of the +changing habits of the people. Her Assembly's committee on religion and +morals worked toward the same ends as the similar organization of the +Established Church, and in her, as in the other churches, the standard +of parochial and congregational activity was raised and new methods of +operation devised. She passed legislation on the difficult problem of +ridding the church of inefficient ministers. The use of instrumental +music was sanctioned in Free Churches during this period. An association +was formed in 1891 to promote the ends of edification, order and +reverence in the public services of the church, and published in 1898 _A +New Directory for Public Worship_ which does not provide set forms of +prayer, but directions as to the matter of prayer in the various +services. The Free Church took a large share in the study of hymnology +and church music, which led to the production of _The Church Hymnary_. +From 1885 to 1895 much of the energy of all the Presbyterian churches +was absorbed by the disestablishment agitation. In the former year the +Free Church, having almost entirely shed the establishment principle on +which it was founded, began to rival the United Presbyterian Church in +its resolutions calling for the disestablishment of the Church of +Scotland. In spite of the offers of the Establishment Assembly to confer +with the dissenting churches about union, the assaults upon its status +waxed in vigour, till in 1893 the Free Church hailed the result of the +general election as a verdict of the constituencies in favour of +disestablishment, and insisted upon the government of the day taking up +Sir Charles Cameron's bill. + +During the last four or five years of the century the Free and United +Presbyterian churches, which after the failure of their union +negotiations in 1873 had been connected together by a Mutual Eligibility +Act enabling a congregation of one church to call a minister from the +other, devoted their energy to the arrangement of an incorporating +union. The Synod of the United Presbyterian Church resolved in 1896 to +"take steps towards union," and in the following year the Free Assembly +responded by appointing a committee to confer with a committee of the +other church. The joint committee discovered a "remarkable and happy +agreement" between the doctrinal standards, rules and methods of the two +bodies, and with very little concessions on either side a common +constitution and common "questions and formula" for the admission of +ministers and office-bearers were arranged. A minority, always growing +smaller, of the Free Church Assembly, protested against the proposed +union, and threatened if it were carried through to test its legality in +the courts. To meet this opposition, the suggestion is understood to +have been made that an act of parliament should be applied for to +legalize the union; but this was not done, and the union was carried +through on the understanding that the question of the lawfulness of +church establishments should be an open one. + +The supreme courts of the churches met for the last time in their +respective places of meeting on the 30th of October 1900, and on the +following day the joint meeting took place at which the union was +completed, and the United Free Church of Scotland (q.v.) entered on its +career. The protesting and dissenting minority at once claimed to be +the Free Church. They met outside the Free Assembly Hall on the 31st of +October, and, failing to gain admission to it, withdrew to another hall, +where they elected Mr Colin Bannatyne their moderator and held the +remaining sittings of the Assembly. It was reported that between 16,000 +and 17,000 names had been received of persons adhering to the +anti-unionist principle. At the Assembly of 1901 it was stated that the +Free Church had twenty-five ministers and at least sixty-three +congregations. The character of the church is indicated by the fact that +its office-bearers were the faithful survivors of the decreasing +minority of the Old Free Church, which had protested against the +disestablishment resolutions, against the relaxation of subscription, +against toleration of the teaching of the Glasgow professors, and +against the use in worship of organs or of human hymns. Her +congregations were mostly in the Gaelic-speaking districts of Scotland. +She was confronted with a very arduous undertaking; her congregations +grew in number, but were far from each other and there were not nearly +enough ministers. The Highlands were filled, by the Union, with +exasperation and dispeace which could not soon subside. The church met +with no sympathy or assistance at the hands of the United Free Church, +and her work was conducted at first under considerable hardships, nor +was her position one to appeal to the general popular sentiment of +Scotland. But the little church continued her course with indomitable +courage and without any compromise of principle. The Declaratory Act of +1892 was repealed after a consultation of presbyteries, and the old +principles as to worship were declared. A professor was obliged to +withdraw a book he had written, in which the results of criticism, with +regard to the Synoptic Gospels, had been accepted and applied. The +desire of the Church of Scotland to obtain relaxation of her formula was +declared to make union with her impossible. Along with this unbending +attitude, signs of material growth were not wanting. The revenue of the +church increased; the grant from the sustentation fund was in 1901 only +L75, but from 1903 onwards it was L167. + +The decision of the House of Lords in 1904 did not bring the trials of +the Free Church to an end. In the absence of any arrangement with the +United Free Church, she could only gain possession of the property +declared to belong to her by an application in each particular case to +the Court of Session, and a series of law-suits began which were trying +to all parties. In the year 1905 the Free Church Assembly met in the +historic Free Church Assembly Hall, but it did not meet there again. +Having been left by the awards of the commission without any station in +the foreign mission field, the Free Church resolved to start a foreign +mission of her own. The urgent task confronting the church was that of +supplying ordinances to her congregations. The latter numbered 200 in +1907, and the church had as yet only 74 ordained ministers, so that many +of the manses allocated to her by the commissioners were not yet +occupied, and catechists and elders were called to conduct services +where possible. The gallant stand this little church had made for +principles which were no longer represented by any Presbyterian church +outside the establishment attracted to her much interest and many hopes +that she might be successful in her endeavours to do something for the +religious life of Scotland. + + See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, for bibliography and statistics. (A. M.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "It is her being free, not her being established, that + constitutes the real historical and hereditary identity of the + Reformed National Church of Scotland." See _Act and Declaration, + &c._, of Free Assembly, 1851. + + [2] In the act _Anent the true and holy Kirk, and of those that are + declared not to be of the same_. This act was supplemented by that of + 1579, _Anent the Jurisdiction of the Kirk_. + + [3] The Second Book of Discipline was not formally recognized in that + act; but all former acts against "the jurisdiction and discipline of + the true Kirk as the same is used and exercised within the realm" + were abolished; and all "liberties, privileges, immunities and + freedoms whatsoever" previously granted were ratified and approved. + + [4] The most important of these had reference to the full right of a + constituted church to the enjoyment of an absolutely unrestricted + freedom in convening Assemblies. This very point on one occasion at + least threatened to be the cause of serious misunderstandings between + William and the people of Scotland. The difficulties were happily + smoothed, however, by the wisdom and tact of William Carstares. + + [5] See _Act and Declaration_ of Free Assembly, 1851. + + [6] This principle had been asserted even by an Assembly so late as + that of 1736, and had been invariably presupposed in the "call," + which had never ceased to be regarded as an indispensable + prerequisite for the settlement of a minister. + + [7] According to the Free Church "Protest" of 1843 it was in these + cases decided (1) that the courts of the church were liable to be + compelled to intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations; (2) that + the civil courts had power to interfere with and interdict the + preaching of the gospel and administration of ordinances as + authorized and enjoined by the church; (3) that the civil courts had + power to suspend spiritual censures pronounced by the courts of the + church, and to interdict their execution as to spiritual effects, + functions and privileges; (4) that deposed ministers, and + probationers deprived of their licence, could be restored by the + mandate of the civil courts to the spiritual office and status of + which the church courts had deprived them; (5) that the right of + membership in ecclesiastical courts could be determined by the civil + courts; (6) that the civil courts had power to supersede the majority + of a church court of the Establishment in regard to the exercise of + its spiritual functions as a church court, and to authorize the + minority to exercise the said functions in opposition to the court + itself and to the superior judicatories of the church; (7) that + processes of ecclesiastical discipline could be arrested by the civil + courts; and (8) that without the sanction of the civil courts no + increased provision could be made for the spiritual care of a parish, + although such provision left all civil rights and patrimonial + interests untouched. + + [8] The narrative and argument of this elaborate and able document + cannot be reproduced here. In substance it is a claim "as of right" + on behalf of the church and of the nation and people of Scotland that + the church shall freely possess and enjoy her liberties, government, + discipline, rights and privileges according to law, and that she + shall be protected therein from the foresaid unconstitutional and + illegal encroachments of the said court of session, and her people + secured in their Christian and constitutional rights and liberties. + This claim is followed by the "declaration" that the Assembly cannot + intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations, or carry on the + government of Christ's church subject to the coercion of the court of + session; and by the "protest" that all acts of the parliament of + Great Britain passed without the consent of the Scottish church and + nation, in alteration or derogation of the government, discipline, + rights and privileges of the church, as also all sentences of courts + in contravention of said government, discipline, rights and + privileges, "are and shall be in themselves void and null, and of no + legal force or effect." + + [9] The Scottish members voted with the minority in the proportion of + 25 to 12. + + [10] The number ultimately rose to 474. + + [11] By this formal recognition of the qualifications to the + Confession of Faith made in 1647 the scruples of the majority of the + Associate Synod of Original Seceders were removed, and 27 ministers, + along with a considerable number of their people, joined the Free + Church in the following year. + + [12] See Taylor Innes, _Law of Creeds in Scotland_, p. 258 seq. + + [13] The language of Dr Buchanan, for example, in 1860 was (_mutatis + mutandis_) the same as that which he had employed in 1838 in moving + the Independence resolution already referred to. + + + + +FREEDMEN'S BUREAU (officially the BUREAU OF FREEDMEN, REFUGEES AND +ABANDONED LANDS), a bureau created in the United States war department +by an act of Congress, 3rd of March 1865, to last one year, but +continued until 1872 by later acts passed over the president's veto. Its +establishment was due partly to the fear entertained by the North that +the Southerners if left to deal with the blacks would attempt to +re-establish some form of slavery, partly to the necessity for extending +relief to needy negroes and whites in the lately conquered South, and +partly to the need of creating some commission or bureau to take charge +of lands confiscated in the South. During the Civil War a million +negroes fell into the hands of the Federals and had to be cared for. +Able-bodied blacks were enlisted in the army, and the women, children +and old men were settled in large camps on confiscated Southern +property, where they were cared for alternately by the war department +and by the treasury department until the organization of the Freedmen's +Bureau. At the head of the bureau was a commissioner, General O. O. +Howard, and under him in each Southern state was an assistant +commissioner with a corps of local superintendents, agents and +inspectors. The officials had the broadest possible authority in all +matters that concerned the blacks. The work of the bureau may be +classified as follows: (1) distributing rations and medical supplies +among the blacks; (2) establishing schools for them and aiding +benevolent societies to establish schools and churches; (3) regulating +labour and contracts; (4) taking charge of confiscated lands; and (5) +administering justice in cases in which blacks were concerned. For +several years the ex-slaves were under the almost absolute control of +the bureau. Whether this control had a good or bad effect is still +disputed, the Southern whites and many Northerners holding that the +results of the bureau's work were distinctly bad, while others hold that +much good resulted from its work. There is now no doubt, however, that +while most of the higher officials of the bureau were good men, the +subordinate agents were generally without character or judgment and that +their interference between the races caused permanent discord. Much +necessary relief work was done, but demoralization was also caused by +it, and later the institution was used by its officials as a means of +securing negro votes. In educating the blacks the bureau made some +progress, but the instruction imparted by the missionary teachers +resulted in giving the ex-slaves notions of liberty and racial equality +that led to much trouble, finally resulting in the hostility of the +whites to negro education. The secession of the blacks from the white +churches was aided and encouraged by the bureau. The whole field of +labour and contracts was covered by minute regulations, which, good in +theory, were absurd in practice, and which failed altogether, but not +until labour had been disorganized for several years. The administration +of justice by the bureau agents amounted simply to a ceaseless +persecution of the whites who had dealings with the blacks, and bloody +conflicts sometimes resulted. The law creating the bureau provided for +the division of the confiscated property among the negroes, and though +carried out only in parts of South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, it +caused the negroes to believe that they were to be cared for at the +expense of their former masters. This belief made them subject to +swindling schemes perpetrated by certain bureau agents and others who +promised to secure lands for them. When negro suffrage was imposed by +Congress upon the Southern States, the bureau aided the Union League +(q.v.) in organizing the blacks into a political party opposed to the +whites. A large majority of the bureau officials secured office through +their control of the blacks. The failure of the bureau system and its +discontinuance in the midst of reconstruction without harm to the +blacks, and the intense hostility of the Southern whites to the +institution caused by the irritating conduct of bureau officials, are +indications that the institution was not well conceived nor wisely +administered. + + See P. S. Pierce, _The Freedmen's Bureau_ (Iowa City, 1904); _Report + of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction_ (Washington, 1866); W. L. + Fleming (ed.), _Documents relating to Reconstruction_ (Cleveland, O., + 1906); W. L. Fleming, _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_ (New + York, 1905); and James W. Garner, _Reconstruction in Mississippi_ (New + York, 1901). (W. L. F.) + + + + +FREEHOLD, a town and the county-seat of Monmouth county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., in the township of Freehold, about 25 m. E. by N. of Trenton. +Pop. (1890) 2932; (1900) 2934, of whom 215 were foreign-born and 126 +were negroes; (1905) 3064; (1910) 3233. Freehold is served by the +Pennsylvania and the Central of New Jersey railways. It is the trade +centre of one of the most productive agricultural districts of the state +and has various manufactures, including carriages, carpets and rugs, +files, shirts, underwear, and canned beans and peas. The town is the +seat of two boarding schools for boys: the Freehold Military School and +the New Jersey Military Academy (chartered, 1900; founded in 1844 as the +Freehold Institute). One of the residences in the town dates from 1755. +A settlement was made in the township about 1650, and the township was +incorporated in 1693. In 1715 the town was founded and was made the +county-seat; it was long commonly known (from the county) as Monmouth +Court-House, but afterwards took (from the township) the name Freehold, +and in 1869 it was incorporated as the Town of Freehold. An important +battle of the War of Independence, known as the battle of Monmouth, was +fought near the court-house on the 28th of June 1778. A short distance +N.W. of the court-house is a park in which there is a monument, unveiled +on the 13th of November 1884 in commemoration of the battle; the base is +of Quincy granite and the shaft is of Concord granite. Surmounting the +shaft is a statue representing "Liberty Triumphant" (the height to the +top of which is about 100 ft.). The monument is adorned with five bronze +reliefs, designed and modelled by James E. Kelly (b. 1855); one of these +reliefs represents "Molly Pitcher" (d. 1832), a national heroine, who, +when her husband (John C. Hays), an artillerist, was rendered insensible +during the battle, served the gun in his place and prevented its capture +by the British.[1] Joel Parker (1816-1888), governor of New Jersey in +1863-1866 and 1872-1875, was long a resident of Freehold, and the +erection of the monument was largely due to his efforts. A bronze tablet +on a boulder in front of the present court-house, commemorating the old +court-house, used as a hospital in the battle of Monmouth, was unveiled +in 1907. Freehold was the birthplace and home of Dr Thomas Henderson +(1743-1824), a Whig or Patriot leader in New Jersey, an officer in the +War of Independence, and a member of the Continental Congress in +1779-1780 and of the national House of Representatives in 1795-1797. + +The name Freehold was first used of a Presbyterian church established +about 1692 by Scottish exiles who came to East Jersey in 1682-1685 and +built what was called the "Old Scots' Church" near the present railway +station of Wickatunk in Marlboro' township, Monmouth county. In this +church, in December 1706, John Boyd (d. 1709) was ordained--the first +recorded Presbyterian ordination in America. The church was the first +regularly constituted Presbyterian church. No trace of the building now +remains in the burying-ground where Boyd was interred, and where the +Presbyterian Synod of New Jersey in 1900 raised a granite monument to +his memory; his tombstone is preserved by the Presbyterian Historical +Society in Philadelphia. John Tennent (1706-1732) became pastor of the +Freehold church in 1730, when a new church was built by the Old Scots +congregation on White Hill in the present township of Manalapan (then a +part of Freehold township), near the railway station and village called +Tennent; his brother William (1705-1777), whose trance, in which he +thought he saw the glories of heaven, was a matter of much discussion in +his time, was pastor in 1733-1777. In 1751-1753 the present "Old Tennent +Church," then called the Freehold Church, was erected on (or near) the +same site as the building of 1730; in it Whitefield preached and in the +older building David Brainerd and his Indian converts met. In 1859 this +church (whose corporate name is "The First Presbyterian Church of the +County of Monmouth") adopted the name of Tennent, partly to distinguish +it from the Presbyterian church organized at Monmouth Court-House (now +Freehold) in 1838. + + See Frank R. Symmes, _History of the Old Tennent Church_ (2nd ed., + Cranbury, New Jersey, 1904). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Her maiden name was Mary Ludwig. "Molly Pitcher" was a nickname + given to her by the soldiers in reference to her carrying water to + soldiers overcome by heat in the battle of Monmouth. She married Hays + in 1769; Hays died soon after the war, and later she married one + George McCauley. She lived for more than forty years at Carlisle, + Penn., where a monument was erected to her memory in 1876. + + + + +FREEHOLD, in the English law of real property, an estate in land, not +being less than an estate for life. An estate for a term of years, no +matter how long, was considered inferior in dignity to an estate for +life, and unworthy of a freeman (see ESTATE). "Some time before the +reign of Henry II., but apparently not so early as Domesday, the +expression _liberum tenementum_ was introduced to designate land held by +a freeman by a free tenure. Thus freehold tenure is the sum of the +rights and duties which constitute the relation of a free tenant to his +lord."[1] In this sense freehold is distinguished from copyhold, which +is a tenure having its origin in the relation of lord and villein (see +COPYHOLD). Freehold is also distinguished from leasehold, which is an +estate for a fixed number of years only. By analogy the interest of a +person who holds an office for life is sometimes said to be a freehold +interest. The term _customary freeholds_ is applied to a kind of +copyhold tenure in the north of England, viz. tenure by copy of +court-roll, but not, as in other cases, expressed to be at the will of +the lord. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Digby's _History of the Law of Real Property_. + + + + +FREELAND, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 20 m. +S. of Wilkes-Barre, in the E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 1730; +(1900) 5254 (1339 foreign-born, many being Slavs); (1910) 6197. Freeland +is served by the Lehigh Valley railway and by electric railway to Upper +Lehigh (1 m. distant, served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey) and +to other neighbouring places. The borough is built on Broad Mountain, +nearly 2000 ft. above sea-level, and the chief industry is the mining of +coal at the numerous surrounding collieries. Freeland is the seat of the +Mining and Mechanical Institute of the Anthracite Region, chartered in +1894, modelled after the German _Steigerschulen_, with elementary and +secondary departments and a night school for workmen. The borough has +foundries and machine shops of considerable importance, and manufactures +silk, overalls, beer and hames. Freeland was first settled about 1842, +was laid out in 1870, and was incorporated in 1876. + + + + +FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892), English historian, was born at +Harborne, Staffordshire, on the 2nd of August 1823. He lost both his +parents in infancy, was brought up by a grandmother, and was educated at +private schools and by a private tutor. He was a studious and precocious +boy, more interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics +than in boyish things. He obtained a scholarship at Trinity College, +Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was elected +fellow of his college (1845). While at Oxford he was much influenced by +the High Church movement, and thought seriously of taking orders, but +abandoned the idea. He married a daughter of his former tutor, the Rev. +R. Gutch, in 1847, and entered on a life of study. Ecclesiastical +architecture attracted him strongly. He visited many churches and began +a practice, which he pursued throughout his life, of making drawings of +buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink. His first +book, save for his share in a volume of English verse, was a _History of +Architecture_ (1849). Though he had not then seen any buildings outside +England, it contains a good sketch of the development of the art. It is +full of youthful enthusiasm and is written in florid language. After +some changes of residence he bought a house called Somerleaze, near +Wells, Somerset, and settled there in 1860. + +Freeman's life was one of strenuous literary work. He wrote many books, +and countless articles for reviews, newspapers and other publications, +and was a constant contributor to the _Saturday Review_ until 1878, when +he ceased to write for it for political reasons. His _Saturday Review_ +articles corrected many errors and raised the level of historical +knowledge among the educated classes, but as a reviewer he was apt to +forget that a book may have blemishes and yet be praiseworthy. For some +years he was an active county magistrate. He was deeply interested in +politics, was a follower of Mr Gladstone, and approved the Home Rule +Bill of 1886, but objected to the later proposal to retain the Irish +members at Westminster. To be returned to Parliament was one of his few +ambitions, and in 1868 he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign +rather than domestic politics had the first place with him. Historical +and religious sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was +tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy with the +smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe. He took a prominent +part in the agitation which followed "the Bulgarian atrocities"; his +speeches were intemperate, and he was accused of uttering the words +"Perish India!" at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, was a +misrepresentation of his words. He was made a knight commander of the +order of the Saviour by the king of Greece, and also received an order +from the prince of Montenegro. + +Freeman advanced the study of history in England in two special +directions, by insistence on the unity of history, and by teaching the +importance and right use of original authorities. History is not, he +urges, to be divided "by a middle wall of partition" into ancient and +modern, nor broken into fragments as though the history of each nation +stood apart. It is more than a collection of narratives; it is a +science, "the science of man in his political character." The historical +student, then, cannot afford to be indifferent to any part of the record +of man's political being; but as his abilities for study are limited, he +will, while reckoning all history to be within his range, have his own +special range within which he will master every detail (_Rede Lecture_). +Freeman's range included Greek, Roman and the earlier part of English +history, together with some portions of foreign medieval history, and he +had a scholarly though general knowledge of the rest of the history of +the European world. He regarded the abiding life of Rome as "the central +truth of European history," the bond of its unity, and he undertook his +_History of Sicily_ (1891-1894) partly because it illustrated this +unity. Further, he urges that all historical study is valueless which +does not take in a knowledge of original authorities, and he teaches +both by example and precept what authorities should be thus described, +and how they are to be weighed and used. He did not use manuscript +authorities, and for most of his work he had no need to do so. The +authorities which he needed were already in print, and his books would +not have been better if he had disinterred a few more facts from +unprinted sources. + +His reputation as a historian will chiefly rest on his _History of the +Norman Conquest_ (1867-1876), his longest completed book. In common with +his works generally, it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment +and research, critical ability, a remarkable degree of accuracy, and a +certain insight into the past which he gained from his practical +experience of men and institutions. He is almost exclusively a political +historian. His saying that "history is past politics and politics are +present history" is significant of this limitation of his work, which +left on one side subjects of the deepest interest in a nation's life. In +dealing with constitutional matters he sometimes attaches too much +weight to words and formal aspects. This gives certain of his arguments +an air of pedantry, and seems to lead him to find evidences of +continuity in institutions which in reality and spirit were different +from what they once had been. As a rule his estimates of character are +remarkably able. It is true that he is sometimes swayed by prejudice, +but this is the common lot of great historians; they cannot altogether +avoid sharing in the feelings of the past, for they live in it, and +Freeman did so to an extraordinary degree. Yet if he judges too +favourably the leaders of the national party in England on the eve of +the Norman Conquest, that is a small matter to set against the insight +which he exhibits in writing of Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William the +Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick the Second and many more. In +width of view, thoroughness of investigation and honesty of purpose he +is unsurpassed by any historian. He never conceals nor wilfully +misrepresents anything, and he reckoned no labour too great which might +help him to draw a truthful picture of the past. When a place had any +important connexion with his work he invariably visited it. He travelled +much, always to gain knowledge, and generally to complete his historical +equipment. His collected articles and essays on places of historical +interest are perhaps the most pleasing of his writings, but they deal +exclusively with historical associations and architectural features. The +quantity of work which he turned out is enormous, for the fifteen large +volumes which contain his _Norman Conquest_, his unfinished _History of +Sicily_, his _William Rufus_ (1882), and his _Essays_ (1872-1879), and +the crowd of his smaller books, are matched in amount by his uncollected +contributions to periodicals. In respect of matter his historical work +is uniformly excellent. In respect of form and style the case is +different. Though his sentences themselves are not wordy, he is +extremely diffuse in treatment, habitually repeating an idea in +successive sentences of much the same import. While this habit was +doubtless aggravated by the amount of his journalistic work, it seems +originally to have sprung from what may be called a professorial spirit, +which occasionally appears in the tone of his remarks. He was anxious to +make sure that his readers would understand his exact meaning, and to +guard them against all possible misconceptions. His lengthy explanations +are the more grievous because he insists on the same points in several +of his books. His prolixity was increased by his unwillingness, when +writing without prescribed limits, to leave out any detail, however +unimportant. His passion for details not only swelled his volumes to a +portentous size, but was fatal to artistic construction. The length of +his books has hindered their usefulness. They were written for the +public at large, but few save professed students, who can admire and +value his exhaustiveness, will read the many hundreds of pages which he +devotes to a short period of history. In some of his smaller books, +however, he shows great powers of condensation and arrangement, and +writes tersely enough. His style is correct, lucid and virile, but +generally nothing more, and his endeavour to use as far as possible only +words of Teutonic origin limited his vocabulary and makes his sentences +somewhat monotonous. While Froude often strayed away from his +authorities, Freeman kept his authorities always before his eyes, and +his narrative is here and there little more than a translation of their +words. Accordingly, while it has nothing of Froude's carelessness and +inaccuracy, it has nothing of his charm of style. Yet now and again he +rises to the level of some heroic event, and parts of his chapter on the +"Campaign of Hastings" and of his record of the wars of Syracuse and +Athens, his reflections on the visit of Basil the Second to the church +of the Virgin on the Acropolis, and some other passages in his books, +are fine pieces of eloquent writing. + +The high quality of Freeman's work was acknowledged by all competent +judges. He was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Cambridge _honoris +causa_, and when he visited the United States on a lecturing tour was +warmly received at various places of learning. He served on the royal +commission on ecclesiastical courts appointed in 1881. In 1884 he was +appointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford. His lectures +were thinly attended, for he did not care to adapt them to the +requirements of the university examinations, and he was not perhaps well +fitted to teach young men. But he exercised a wholesome influence over +the more earnest students of history among the resident graduates. From +1886 he was forced by ill-health to spend much of his time abroad, and +he died of smallpox at Alicante on the 16th of March 1892, while on a +tour in Spain. Freeman had a strongly marked personality. Though +impatient in temper and occasionally rude, he was tender-hearted and +generous. His rudeness to strangers was partly caused by shyness and +partly by a childlike inability to conceal his feelings. Eminently +truthful, he could not understand that some verbal insincerities are +necessary to social life. He had a peculiar faculty for friendship, and +his friends always found him sympathetic and affectionate. In their +society he would talk well and showed a keen sense of humour. He +considered it his duty to expose careless and ignorant writers, and +certainly enjoyed doing so. He worked hard and methodically, often had +several pieces of work in hand, and kept a daily record of the time +which he devoted to each of them. His tastes were curiously limited. No +art interested him except architecture, which he studied throughout his +life; and he cared little for literature which was not either historical +or political. In later life he ceased to hold the theological opinions +of his youth, but remained a devout churchman. + + See W. R. W. Stephens, _Life and Letters of E. A. Freeman_ (London, + 1895); Frederic Harrison, _Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill and other Literary + Estimates_ (London, 1899); James Bryce, "E. A. Freeman," _Eng. Hist. + Rev._, July 1892. (W. Hu.) + + + + +FREEMAN, primarily one who is free, as opposed to a slave or serf (see +FEUDALISM; SLAVERY). The term is more specifically applied to one who +possesses the freedom of a city, borough or company. Before the passing +of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, each English borough admitted +freemen according to its own peculiar custom and by-laws. The rights and +privileges of a freeman, though varying in different boroughs, generally +included the right to vote at a parliamentary election of the borough, +and exemption from all tolls and dues. The act of 1835 respected +existing usages, and every person who was then an admitted freeman +remained one, retaining at the same time all his former rights and +privileges. The admission of freemen is now regulated by the Municipal +Corporations Act 1882. By section 201 of that act the term "freeman" +includes any person of the class whose rights and interests were +reserved by the act of 1835 under the name either of freemen or of +burgesses. By section 202 no person can be admitted a freeman by gift or +by purchase; that is, only birth, servitude or marriage are +qualifications. The Honorary Freedom of Boroughs Act 1885, however, +makes an exception, as by that act the council of every borough may from +time to time admit persons of distinction to be honorary freemen of the +borough. The town clerk of every borough keeps a list, which is called +"the freeman's roll," and when any person claims to be admitted a +freeman in respect of birth, servitude or marriage, the mayor examines +the claim, and if it is established the claimant's name is enrolled by +the town clerk. + +A person may become a freeman or freewoman of one of the London livery +companies by (1) apprenticeship or servitude; (2) patrimony; (3) +redemption; (4) gift. This last is purely honorary. The most usual form +of acquiring freedom was by serving apprenticeship to a freeman, free +both of a company and of the city of London. By an act of common council +of 1836 apprenticeship was permitted to freemen of the city who had not +taken up the freedom of a company. By an act of common council of 1889 +the term of service was reduced from seven years to four years. Freedom +by patrimony is always granted to children of a person who has been duly +admitted to the freedom. Freedom by redemption or purchase requires the +payment of certain entrance fees, which vary with the standing of the +company. In the Grocers' Company freedom by redemption does not exist, +and in such companies as still have a trade, e.g. the Apothecaries and +Stationers, it is limited to members of the trade. + + See W. C. Hazlitt, _The Livery Companies of the City of London_ + (1892). + + + + +FREEMASONRY. According to an old "Charge" delivered to initiates, +Freemasonry is declared to be an "ancient and honourable institution: +ancient no doubt it is, as having subsisted from time immemorial; and +honourable it must be acknowledged to be, as by a natural tendency it +conduces to make those so who are obedient to its precepts ... to so +high an eminence has its credit been advanced that in every age Monarchs +themselves have been promoters of the art, have not thought it +derogatory from their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the trowel, +have patronised our mysteries and joined in our Assemblies." For many +years the craft has been conducted without respect to clime, colour, +caste or creed. + +_History._--The precise origin of the society has yet to be ascertained, +but is not likely to be, as the early records are lost; there is, +however, ample evidence remaining to justify the claim for its antiquity +and its honourable character. Much has been written as to its eventful +past, based upon actual records, but still more which has served only to +amuse or repel inquirers, and led not a few to believe that the +fraternity has no trustworthy history. An unfavourable opinion of the +historians of the craft generally may fairly have been held during the +18th and early in the 19th centuries, but happily since the middle of +the latter century quite a different principle has animated those +brethren who have sought to make the facts of masonic history known to +the brotherhood, as well as worth the study of students in general. The +idea that it would require an investigator to be a member of the "mystic +tie" in order to qualify as a reader of masonic history has been +exploded. The evidences collected concerning the institution during the +last five hundred years, or more, may now be examined and tested in the +most severe manner by literary and critical experts (whether opposed or +favourable to the body), who cannot fail to accept the claims made as +to its great antiquity and continuity, as the lineal descendant of those +craftsmen who raised the cathedrals and other great English buildings +during the middle ages. + + It is only needful to refer to the old works on freemasonry, and to + compare them with the accepted histories of the present time, to be + assured that such strictures as above are more than justified. The + premier work on the subject was published in London in 1723, the Rev. + James Anderson being the author of the historical portion, + introductory to the first "Book of Constitutions" of the original + Grand Lodge of England. Dr Anderson gravely states that "Grand Master + Moses often marshalled the Israelites into a regular and general + lodge, whilst in the wilderness.... King Solomon was Grand Master of + the lodge at Jerusalem.[1]... Nebuchadnezzar became the Grand Master + Mason," &c., devoting many more pages to similar absurdities, but + dismisses the important modern innovation (1716-1717) of a Grand Lodge + with a few lines noteworthy for their brief and indefinite character. + + In 1738 a second edition was issued, dedicated to the prince of Wales + ("a Master Mason and master of a lodge"), and was the work of the same + brother (as respects the historical part), the additions being mainly + on the same lines as the former volume, only, if possible, still more + ridiculous and extravagant; e.g. Cyrus constituted Jerubbabel + "provincial grand master in Judah"; Charles Martel was "the Right + Worshipful Grand Master of France, and Edward I. being deeply engaged + in wars left the craft to the care of several successive grand + masters" (duly enumerated). Such loose statements may now pass + unheeded, but unfortunately they do not exhaust the objections to Dr + Anderson's method of writing history. The excerpt concerning St Alban + (apparently made from Coles's _Ancient Constitutions_, 1728-1729) has + the unwarranted additional title of Grand Master conferred on that + saint, and the extract concerning King AEthelstan and Prince Edwin from + the "Old MS. Charges" (given in the first edition) contains still more + unauthorized modern terms, with the year added of 926; thus misleading + most seriously those who accept the volume as trustworthy, because + written by the accredited historian of the Grand Lodge, Junior Grand + Warden in 1723. These examples hardly increase our confidence in the + author's accuracy when Dr Anderson comes to treat of the origin of the + premier Grand Lodge; but he is our only informant as to that important + event, and if his version of the occurrence is declined, we are + absolutely without any information. + +In considering the early history of Freemasonry, from a purely +matter-of-fact standpoint, it will be well to settle as a necessary +preliminary what the term did and does now include or mean, and how far +back the inquiry should be conducted, as well as on what lines. If the +view of the subject herein taken be correct, it will be useless to load +the investigation by devoting considerable space to a consideration of +the laws and customs of still older societies which may have been +utilized and imitated by the fraternity, but which in no sense can be +accepted as the actual forbears of the present society of Free and +Accepted Masons. They were predecessors, or possibly prototypes, but not +near relatives or progenitors of the Freemasons.[2] + +The Mother Grand Lodge of the world is that of England, which was +inaugurated in the metropolis on St John Baptist's day 1717 by four or +more old lodges, three of which still flourish. There were other lodges +also in London and the country at the time, but whether they were +invited to the meeting is not now known. Probably not, as existing +records of the period preserve a sphinx-like silence thereon. Likewise +there were many scores of lodges at work in Scotland, and undoubtedly in +Ireland the craft was widely patronized. Whatever the ceremonies may +have been which were then known as Freemasonry in Great Britain and +Ireland, they were practically alike, and the venerable _Old Charges_ or +MS. constitutions, dating back several centuries, were rightly held by +them as the title-deeds of their masonic inheritance. + +It was a bold thing to do, thus to start a governing body for the +fraternity quite different in many respects to all preceding +organizations, and to brand as irregular all lodges which declined to +accept such authority; but the very originality and audacity of its +promoters appears to have led to its success, and it was not long before +most of the lodges of the pre-Grand-Lodge era joined and accepted +"constitution" by warrant of the Grand Master. Not only so, but Ireland +quickly followed the lead, so early as 1725 there being a Grand Lodge +for that country which must have been formed even still earlier, and +probably by lodges started before any were authorized in the English +counties. In Scotland the change was not made until 1736, many lodges +even then holding aloof from such an organization. Indeed, out of some +hundred lodges known to have been active then, only thirty-three +responded and agreed to fall into line, though several joined later; +some, however, kept separate down to the end of the 19th century, while +others never united. Many of these lodges have records of the 17th +century though not then newly formed; one in particular, the oldest (the +Lodge of Edinburgh, No. 1), possesses minutes so far back as the year +1599. + +It is important to bear in mind that all the regular lodges throughout +the world, and likewise all the Grand Lodges, directly or indirectly, +have sprung from one or other of the three governing bodies named; +Ireland and Scotland following the example set by their masonic mother +of England in having Grand Lodges of their own. It is not proved how the +latter two became acquainted with Freemasonry as a secret society, +guided more or less by the operative MS. _Constitutions_ or _Charges_ +common to the three bodies, not met with elsewhere; but the credit of a +Grand Lodge being established to control the lodges belongs to England. + +It may be a startling declaration, but it is well authenticated, that +there is no other Freemasonry, as the term is now understood, than what +which has been so derived. In other words, the lodges and Grand Lodges +in both hemispheres trace their origin and authority back to England for +working what are known as the Three Degrees, controlled by regular Grand +Lodges. That being so, a history of modern Freemasonry, the direct +offspring of the British parents aforesaid, should first of all +establish the descent of the three Grand Lodges from the Freemasonry of +earlier days; such continuity, of five centuries or more, being a _sine +qua non_ of antiquity and regularity. + +It will be found that from the early part of the 18th century back to +the 16th century existing records testify to the assemblies of lodges, +mainly operative, but partly speculative, in Great Britain, whose +guiding stars and common heritage were the _Old Charges_, and that when +their actual minutes and transactions cease to be traced by reason of +their loss, these same MS. _Constitutions_ furnish testimony of the +still older working of such combinations of freemasons or masons, +without the assistance, countenance or authority of any other masonic +body; consequently such documents still preserved, of the 14th and later +centuries (numbering about seventy, mostly in form of rolls), with the +existing lodge minutes referred to of the 16th century, down to the +establishment of the premier Grand Lodge in 1717, prove the continuity +of the society. Indeed so universally has this claim been admitted, that +in popular usage the term Freemason is only now applied to those who +belong to this particular fraternity, that of _mason_ being applicable +to one who follows that trade, or honourable calling, as a builder. + +There is no evidence that during this long period any other organization +of any kind, religious, philosophical, mystical or otherwise, materially +or even slightly influenced the customs of the fraternity, though they +may have done so; but so far as is known the lodges were of much the +same character throughout, and consisted really of operatives (who +enjoyed practically a monopoly for some time of the trade as masons or +freemasons), and, in part, of "speculatives," i.e. noblemen, gentlemen +and men of other trades, who were admitted as honorary members. + +Assuming then that the freemasons of the present day are the sole +inheritors of the system arranged at the so-called "Revival of 1717," +which was a development from an operative body to one partly +speculative, and that, so far back as the MS. Records extend and furnish +any light, they must have worked in Lodges in secret throughout the +period noted, a history of Freemasonry should be mainly devoted to +giving particulars, as far as possible, of the lodges, their traditions, +customs and laws, based upon actual documents which can be tested and +verified by members and non-members alike. + +It has been the rule to treat, more or less fully, of the influence +exerted on the fraternity by the Ancient Mysteries, the Essenes, Roman +Colleges, Culdees, Hermeticism, Fehm-Gerichte _et hoc genus omne_, +especially the _Steinmetzen_, the Craft Gilds and the Companionage of +France, &c.; but in view of the separate and independent character of +the freemasons, it appears to be quite unnecessary, and the time so +employed would be better devoted to a more thorough search after +additional evidences of the activity of the craft, especially during the +crucial period overlapping the second decade of the 18th century, so as +to discover information as to the transmitted secrets of the medieval +masons, which, after all, may simply have been what Gaspard Monge +felicitously entitles "Descriptive Geometry, or the Art and Science of +Masonic Symbolism." + +The rules and regulations of the masons were embodied in what are known +as the _Old Charges_; the senior known copy being the _Regius MS._ +(British Museum Bibl. Reg. 17 A, i.), which, however, is not so +exclusively devoted to masonry as the later copies. David Casley, in his +catalogue of the MSS. in the King's Library (1734), unfortunately styled +the little gem _A Poem of Moral Duties_; and owing to this +misdescription its true character was not recognized until the year +1839, and then by a non-mason (Mr Halliwell-Phillipps), who had it +reproduced in 1840 and brought out an improved edition in 1844. Its date +has been approximately fixed at 1390 by Casley and other authorities. + +The curious legend of the craft, therein made known, deals first of all +with the number of unemployed in early days and the necessity of finding +work, "that they myght gete here lyvynge therby." Euclid was consulted, +and recommended the "onest craft of good masonry," and the genesis of +the society is found "yn Egypte lande." By a rapid transition, but "mony +erys afterwarde," we are told that the "Craft com ynto England yn tyme +of good kynge Adelstonus (AEthelstan) day," who called an assembly of the +masons, when fifteen articles and as many more points were agreed to for +the government of the craft, each being duly described. Each brother was +instructed that-- + + "He must love wel God, and holy Churche algate + And hys mayster also, that he ys wythe." + + "The thrydde poynt must be severle. + With the prentes knowe hyt wele, + Hys mayster cownsel he kepe and close, + And hys felows by hys goode purpose; + The prevetyse of the chamber telle he no mon, + Ny yn the logge whatsever they done, + Whatsever thou heryst, or syste hem do, + Telle hyt no mon, whersever thou go." + +The rules generally, besides referring to trade regulations, are as a +whole suggestive of the Ten Commandments in an extended form, winding up +with the legend of the _Ars quatuor coronatorum_, as an incentive to a +faithful discharge of the numerous obligations. A second part introduces +a more lengthy account of the origin of masonry, in which Noah's flood +and the Tower of Babylon are mentioned as well as the great skill of +Euclid, who-- + + "Through hye grace of Crist yn heven, + He commensed yn the syens seven"; + +The "seven sciences" are duly named and explained. The compiler +apparently was a priest, line 629 reading "And, when ye gospel _me rede +schal_," thus also accounting for the many religious injunctions in the +MS.; the last hundred lines are evidently based upon _Urbanitatis_ +(Cott. MS. Caligula A 11, fol. 88) and _Instructions for a Parish +Priest_ (Cott. MS. Claudius A 11, fol. 27), instructions such as lads +and even men would need who were ignorant of the customs of polite +society, correct deportment at church and in the presence of their +social superiors. + +The recital of the legend of the _Quatuor Coronati_ has been held by +Herr Findel in his _History of Freemasonry_ (_Allgemeine Geschichte der +Freimaurerei_, 1862; English editions, 1866-1869) to prove that British +Freemasonry was derived from Germany, but without any justification, +the legend being met with in England centuries prior to the date of the +_Regius MS._, and long prior to its incorporation in masonic legends on +the Continent. + +The next MS., in order, is known as the "Cooke" (Ad. MS. 23,198, British +Museum), because Matthew Cooke published a fair reproduction of the +document in 1861; and it is deemed by competent paleographers to date +from the first part of the 15th century. There are two versions of the +_Old Charges_ in this little book, purchased for the British Museum in +1859. The compiler was probably a mason and familiar with several copies +of these MS. _Constitutions_, two of which he utilizes and comments +upon; he quotes from a MS. copy of the _Policronicon_ the manner in +which a written account of the sciences was preserved in the two +historic stones at the time of the Flood, and generally makes known the +traditions of the society as well as the laws which were to govern the +members. + +Its introduction into England through Egypt is noted (where the Children +of Israel "lernyd ye craft of Masonry"), also the "lande of behest" +(Jerusalem) and the Temple of Solomon (who "confirmed ye chargys yt +David his Fadir" had made). Then masonry in France is interestingly +described; and St Alban and "AEthelstane with his yongest sone" (the +Edwin of the later MSS.) became the chosen mediums subsequently, as with +the other _Charges_, portions of the Old Testament are often cited in +order to convey a correct idea to the neophyte, who is to hear the +document read, as to these sciences which are declared to be free in +themselves (_fre in hem selfe_). Of all crafts followed by man in this +world "Masonry hathe the moste notabilite," as confirmed by "Elders that +were bi for us of masons [who] had these chargys wryten," and "as is +write and taught in ye boke of our charges." + +Until quite recently no representative or survival of this particular +version had been traced, but in 1890 one was discovered of 1687 (since +known as the _William Watson MS._). Of some seventy copies of these old +scrolls which have been unearthed, by far the greater proportion have +been made public since 1860. They have all much in common, though often +curious differences are to be detected; are of English origin, no matter +where used; and when complete, as they mostly are, whether of the 16th +or subsequent centuries, are noteworthy for an invocation or prayer +which begins the recital:-- + + "The mighte of the ffather of heaven + And the wysedome of the glorious Sonne + through the grace and the goodnes of the holly + ghoste yt been three p'sons and one God + be with us at or beginning and give us grace + so to gou'ne us here in or lyving that wee maye + come to his blisse that nevr shall have ending.--Amen." + + (_Grand Lodge MS. No. 1_, A.D. 1583.) + +They are chiefly of the 17th century and nearly all located in England; +particulars may be found in Hughan's _Old Charges of the British +Freemasons_ (1872, 1895 and supplement 1906).[3] The chief scrolls, with +some others, have been reproduced in facsimile in six volumes of the +_Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha_; and the collection in Yorkshire has +been published separately, either in the _West Yorkshire Reprints_ or +the _Ancient York Masonic Rolls_. Several have been transcribed and +issued in other works. + +These scrolls give considerable information as to the traditions and +customs of the craft, together with the regulations for its government, +and were required to be read to apprentices long after the peculiar +rules ceased to be acted upon, each lodge apparently having one or more +copies kept for the purpose. The old Lodge of Aberdeen ordered in 1670 +that the Charge was to be "read at ye entering of everie entered +prenteise"; another at Alnwick in 1701 provided-- + + "Noe Mason shall take any apprentice [but he must] + Enter him and give him his Charge, within one whole year after"; + +and still another at Swallwell (now No. 48 Gateshead) demanded that +"the Apprentices shall have their Charge given at the time of +Registering, or within thirty days after"; the minutes inserting such +entries accordingly even so late as 1754, nearly twenty years after the +lodge had cast in its lot with the Grand Lodge of England. + +Their Christian character is further emphasized by the "First Charge +that you shall be true men to God and the holy Church"; the _York MS. +No. 6_ beseeches the brethren "at every meeting and assembly they pray +heartily for all Christians"; the _Melrose MS. No. 2_ (1674) mentions +"Merchants and all other Christian men," and the _Aberdeen MS._ (1670) +terms the invocation "A Prayer before the Meeting." Until the Grand +Lodge era, Freemasonry was thus wholly Christian. The _York MS. No. 4_ +of 1693 contains a singular error in the admonitory lines:-- + + "The [n] one of the elders takeing the Booke and that + hee or shee that is to be made mason, shall lay their + hands thereon and the charge shall be given." + +This particular reading was cited by Hughan in 1871, but was considered +doubtful; Findel,[4] however, confirmed it, on his visit to York under +the guidance of the celebrated masonic student the late Rev. A. F. A. +Woodford. The mistake was due possibly to the transcriber, who had an +older roll before him, confusing "they," sometimes written "the," with +"she," or reading that portion, which is often in Latin, as _ille vel +illa_, instead of _ille vel illi_. + +In some of the _Codices_, about the middle of the 17th century and +later, New Articles are inserted, such as would be suitable for an +organization similar to the Masons' Company of London, which had one, at +least, of the _Old Charges_ in its possession according to inventories +of 1665 and 1676; and likewise in 1722, termed _The Book of the +Constitutions of the Accepted Masons_. Save its mention ("Book wrote on +parchment") by Sir Francis Palgrave in the _Edinburgh Review_ (April +1839) as being in existence "not long since," this valuable document has +been lost sight of for many years. + +That there were signs and other secrets preserved and used by the +brethren throughout this mainly operative period may be gathered from +discreet references in these old MSS. The _Institutions in parchment_ +(22nd of November 1696) of the Dumfries Kilwinning Lodge (No. 53, +Scotland) contain a copy of the oath taken "when any man should be +made":-- + + "These Charges which we now reherse to you and all others ye secrets + and misterys belonging to free masons you shall faithfully and truly + keep, together with ye Counsell of ye assembly or lodge, or any other + lodge, or brother, or fellow." + +"Then after ye oath taken and the book kissed" (i.e. the Bible) the +"precepts" are read, the first being:-- + + "You shall be true men to God and his holy Church, and that you do not + countenance or maintaine any eror, faction, schism or herisey, in ye + church to ye best of your understanding." (_History of No. 53_, by + James Smith.) + +The _Grand Lodge MS. No. 2_ provides that "You shall keepe secret ye +obscure and intricate pts. of ye science, not disclosinge them to any +but such as study and use ye same." + +The _Harleian MS. No. 2054_ (Brit. Mus.) is still more explicit, termed +_The ffree Masons Orders and Constitutions_, and is in the handwriting +of Randle Holme (author of the _Academie of Armory_, 1688), who was a +member of a lodge in Cheshire. Following the MS. _Constitutions_, in the +same handwriting, about 1650, is a scrap of paper with the obligation:-- + + "There is sevrall words and signes of a free Mason to be revailed to + yu wch as yu will answr. before God at the Great and terrible day of + judgmt. yu keep secret and not to revaile the same to any in the + heares of any p'son, but to the Mrs and fellows of the Society of Free + Masons, so helpe me God, &c." (W. H. Rylands, _Mas. Mag._, 1882.) + +It is not yet settled who were the actual designers or architects of the +grand old English cathedrals. Credit has been claimed for church +dignitaries, to the exclusion more or less of the master masons, to whom +presumably of right the distinction belonged. In early days the title +"architect" is not met with, unless the term "Ingenator" had that +meaning, which is doubtful. As to this interesting question, and as to +the subject of building generally, an historical account of Master and +Free Masons (_Discourses upon Architecture in England_, by the Rev. +James Dallaway, 1833), and _Notes on the Superintendents of English +Buildings in the Middle Ages_ (by Wyatt Papworth, 1887), should be +consulted. Both writers were non-masons. The former observes: "The +honour due to the original founders of these edifices is almost +invariably transferred to the ecclesiastics under whose patronage they +rose, rather than to the skill and design of the master mason, or +professional architect, because the only historians were monks.... They +were probably not so well versed in geometrical science as the master +masons, for mathematics formed a part of monastic learning in a very +limited degree." In the _Journal of Proceedings R.I.B.A._ vol. iv. +(1887), a skilful critic (W. H. White) declares that Papworth, in that +valuable collection of facts, has contrived to annihilate all the +professional idols of the century, setting up in their place nothing +except the master mason. The brotherhood of Bridge-builders,[5] that +travelled far and wide to build bridges, and the travelling bodies of +Freemasons,[6] he believes never existed; nor was William of Wykeham the +designer of the colleges attributed to him. It seems well-nigh +impossible to disprove the statements made by Papworth, because they are +all so well grounded on attested facts; and the attempt to connect the +Abbey of Cluny, or men trained at Cluny, with the original or +preliminary designs of the great buildings erected during the middle +ages, at least during the 12th and 13th centuries, is also a failure. +The whole question is ably and fully treated in the _History of +Freemasonry_ by Robert Freke Gould (1886-1887), particularly in chapter +vi. on "Medieval Operative Masonry," and in his _Concise History_ +(1903). + +The lodge is often met with, either as the _tabulatum domicialem_ (1200, +at St Alban's Abbey) or actually so named in the _Fabric Rolls_ of York +Minster (1370), _ye loge_ being situated close to the fane in course of +erection; it was used as a place in which the stones were prepared in +private for the structure, as well as occupied at meal-time, &c. Each +mason was required to "swere upon ye boke yt he sall trewly ande bysyli +at his power hold and kepe holy all ye poyntes of yis forsayde +ordinance" (_Ordinacio Cementanorum_). + +As to the term _free_-mason, from the 14th century, it is held by some +authorities that it described simply those men who worked "freestone," +but there is abundant evidence to prove that, whatever may have been +intended at first, _free_-mason soon had a much wider signification, the +prefix _free_ being also employed by carpenters (1666), sewers (15th +century, tailors at Exeter) and others, presumably to indicate they were +free to follow their trades in certain localities. On this point Mr +Gould well observes: "The class of persons from whom the Freemasons of +Warrington (1646), Staffordshire (1686), Chester, York, London and their +congeners in the 17th century derived the descriptive title, which +became the inheritance of the Grand Lodge of England, were _free men_, +and masons of Gilds or Companies" (_History_, vol. ii. p. 160). Dr +Brentano may also be cited: "Wherever the Craft Guilds were legally +acknowledged, we find foremost, that the right to exercise their craft, +and sell their manufactures, depended upon the freedom of their city" +(_Development of Guilds_, &c., p. 65). In like manner, the privilege of +working as a mason was not conferred before candidates had been "made +free." The regular free-masons would not work with men, even if they had +a knowledge of their trade, "if _un_free," but styled them "Cowans," a +course justified by the king's "Maister of Work," William Schaw, whose +_Statutis and Ordinanceis_ (28th December 1598) required that "Na +maister or fellow of craft ressaue any _cowanis_ to wirk in his societie +or companye, nor send nane of his servants to wirk wt. cowanis, under +the pane of twentie pounds." Gradually, however, the rule was relaxed, +in time such monopoly practically ceased, and the word "cowan" is only +known in connexion with speculative Freemasonry. Sir Walter Scott, as a +member of Lodge St David (No. 36), was familiar with the word and used +it in _Rob Roy_. In 1707 a cowan was described in the minutes of Mother +Lodge Kilwinning, as a mason "without the word," thus one who was not a +_free_ mason (_History of the Lodge of Edinburgh No. 1_, by D. Murray +Lyon, 1900). + +In the _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford, vol. iv., 1897) under +"Freemason" it is noted that three views have been propounded:--(1) "The +suggestion that _free-mason_ stands for free-stone-mason would appear +unworthy of attention, but for the curious fact that the earliest known +instances of any similar appellation are _mestre mason de franche peer_ +(Act 25 Edw. III., 1350), and _sculptores lapidum liberorum_, alleged to +occur in a document of 1217; the coincidence, however, seems to be +merely accidental. (2) The view most generally held is that freemasons +were those who were free of the masons' guild. Against this explanation +many forcible objections have been brought by Mr G. W. Speth, who +suggests (3) that the itinerant masons were called free because they +claimed exemption from the control of the local guilds of the towns in +which they temporarily settled. (4) Perhaps the best hypothesis is that +the term refers to the medieval practice of emancipating skilled +artisans, in order that they might be able to travel and render their +services wherever any great building was in process of construction." +The late secretary of the Quatuor Coronati Lodge (No. 2076, London) has +thus had his view sanctioned by "the highest tribunal in the Republic of +Letters so far as Philology is concerned" (Dr W. J. Chetwode Crawley in +_Ars Quatuor Coronatorum_, 1898). Still it cannot be denied that members +of lodges in the 16th and following centuries exercised the privilege of +making _free_ masons and denied the freedom of working to cowans (also +called _un_-freemen) who had not been so made free; "the Masownys of the +luge" being the only ones recognized as _free_masons. As to the prefix +being derived from the word _frere_, a sufficient answer is the fact +that frequent reference is made to "Brother _free_masons," so that no +ground for that supposition exists (cf. articles by Mr Gould in the +_Freemason_ for September 1898 on "Free and Freemasonry"). + +There are numerous indications of masonic activity in the British lodges +of the 17th century, especially in Scotland; the existing records, +however, of the southern part of the United Kingdom, though few, are of +importance, some only having been made known in recent years. These +concern the Masons' Company of London, whose valuable minutes and other +documents are ably described and commented upon by Edward Conder, jr., +in his _Hole Crafte and Fellowship of Masons_ (1894), the author then +being the Master of that ancient company. It was incorporated in 1677 by +Charles II., who graciously met the wishes of the members, but as a +company the information "that is to be found in the Corporation Records +at Guildhall proves very clearly that in 1376 the Masons' Company +existed and was represented in the court of common council." The title +then favoured was "Masons," the entry of the term "Freemasons" being +crossed out. Herbert erroneously overlooked the correction, and stated +in his _History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies_ (vol. i.) that the +Freemasons returned two, and the Masons four members, but subsequently +amalgamated; whereas the revised entry was for the "Masons" only. The +Company obtained a grant of arms in 1472 (12th year Hen. VIII.), one of +the first of the kind, being thus described:--"A feld of Sablys A +Cheveron silver grailed thre Castellis of the same garnysshed wt. dores +and wyndows of the feld in the Cheveron or Cumpas of Black of Blak"; it +is the authority (if any) for all later armorial bearings having a +chevron and castles, assumed by other masonic organizations. This +precious document was only discovered in 1871, having been missing for a +long time, thus doubtless accounting for the erroneous representations +met with, not having the correct blazon to follow. The oldest masonic +motto known is "God is our Guide" on Kerwin's tomb in St Helen's church, +Bishopgate, of 1594; that of "In the Lord is all our trust" not being +traced until the next century. Supporters consisting of two doric +columns are mentioned in 1688 by Randle Holme, but the Grand Lodge of +England in the following century used Beavers as operative builders. Its +first motto was "In the beginning was the Word" (in Greek), exchanged a +few years onward for "Relief and Truth," the rival Grand Lodge (Atholl +Masons) selecting "Holiness to the Lord" (in Hebrew), and the final +selection at the "Union of December 1813" being _Audi Vide Tace_. + +Mr Conder's discovery of a lodge of "Accepted Masons" being held under +the wing of the Company was a great surprise, dating as the records do +from 1620 to 1621 (the earliest of the kind yet traced in England), when +seven were made masons, all of whom were free of the Company _before_, +three being of the Livery; the entry commencing "Att the making masons." +The meetings were entitled the "Acception," and the members of the lodge +were called _Accepted_ Masons, being those so _accepted_ and initiated, +the term never otherwise being met with in the Records. An additional +fee had to be paid by a member of the Company to join the "Acception," +and any not belonging thereto were mulct in twice the sum; though even +then such "acceptance" did not qualify for membership of the superior +body; the fees for the "Acception" being L1 and L2 respectively. In +1638-1639, when Nicholas Stone entered the lodge (he was Master of the +Company 1632-1633) the banquet cost a considerable sum, showing that the +number of brethren present must have been large. + +Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was "made a Free Mason of +Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," seven brethern being named as +in attendance at the lodge, 16th of October 1646) states that he +"received a summons to appear at a Lodge to be held next day at Masons' +Hall, London." Accordingly on the 11th of March 1682 he attended and saw +six gentlemen "admitted into the Fellowship of Free Masons," of whom +three only belonged to the Company; the Master, however, Mr Thomas Wise, +the two wardens and six others being present on the occasion as members +in their _dual_ capacity. Ashmole adds: "We all dyned at the Halfe Moone +Tavern in Cheapside at a noble dinner prepaired at the charge of the +new-accepted Masons." + +It is almost certain that there was not an operative mason present at +the Lodge held in 1646, and at the one which met in 1682 there was a +strong representation of the speculative branch. Before the year 1654 +the Company was known as that of the Freemasons for some time, but after +then the old title of Masons was reverted to, the terms "Acception" and +"Accepted" belonging to the speculative Lodge, which, however, in all +probability either became independent or ceased to work soon after 1682. +It is very interesting to note that subsequently (but never before) the +longer designation is met with of "Free and Accepted Masons," and is +thus a combination of operative and speculative usage. + +Mr Conder is of opinion that in the Records "there is no evidence of any +particular ceremony attending the position of Master Mason, possibly it +consisted of administering a different oath from the one taken by the +apprentices on being entered." There is much to favour this supposition, +and it may provide the key to the _vexata quaestio_ as to the plurality +of degrees prior to the Grand Lodge era. The fellow-crafts were +recruited from those apprentices who had served their time and had their +essay (or sufficient trial of their skill) duly passed; they and the +Masters, by the _Schaw Statutes_ of 1598, being only admitted in the +presence of "sex Maisteris and _twa enterit prenteissis_." As a rule a +master mason meant one who was master of his trade, i.e. duly qualified; +but it sometimes described employers as distinct from journeymen +Freemasons; being also a compliment conferred on honorary members +during the 17th century in particular. + +In Dr Plot's _History of Staffordshire_ (1686) is a remarkable account +of the "Society of Freemasons," which, being by an unfriendly critic, is +all the more valuable. He states that the custom had spread "more or +less all over the nation"; persons of the most eminent quality did not +disdain to enter the Fellowship; they had "a large _parchment volum_ +containing the History and Rules of the Craft of Masonry"; St Amphibal, +St Alban, King Athelstan and Edwin are mentioned, and these "charges and +manners" were "after perusal approved by King Hen. 6 and his council, +both as to Masters and Fellows of this right Worshipfull craft." It is +but fair to add that notwithstanding the service he rendered the Society +by his lengthy description, that credulous historian remarks of its +history that there is nothing he ever "met with more false or +incoherent." + +The author of the _Academie of Armory_, previously noted, knew better +what he was writing about in that work of 1688 in which he declares: "I +cannot but Honor the Fellowship of the Masons because of its Antiquity; +and the more, _as being a member of that Society, called Free Masons_" +Mr Rylands states that in _Harl. MS. 5955_ is a collection of the +engraved plates for a second volume of this important work, one being +devoted to the Arms of the Society, the columns, as supporters, having +globes thereon, from which possibly are derived the two pillars, with +such ornaments or additions seen in lodge rooms at a later period. + +In the same year "A Tripos or Speech delivered at a commencement in the +University of Dublin held there July 11, 1688, by John Jones, then A.B., +afterwards D.D.," contained "notable evidence concerning Freemasonry in +Dublin." The Tripos was included in Sir Walter Scott's edition of Dean +Swift's works (1814), but as Dr Chetwode Crawley points out, though +noticed by the Rev. Dr George Oliver (the voluminous Masonic author), he +failed to realize its historical importance. The satirical and withal +amusing speech was partly translated from the Latin by Dr Crawley for +his scholarly introduction to the _Masonic Reprints_, &c., by Henry +Sadler. "The point seems to be that Ridley (reputed to have been an +informer against priests under the barbarous penal laws) was, or ought +to have been, hanged; that his carcase, anatomized and stuffed, stood in +the library; and that _frath scoundrellus_ discovered on his remains the +Freemasons' Mark." The importance of the references to the craft in +Ireland is simply owing to the year in which they were made, as +illustrative of the influence of the Society at that time, of which +records are lacking. + +It is primarily to Scotland, however, that we have to look for such +numerous particulars of the activity of the fraternity from 1599 to the +establishment of its Grand Lodge in 1736, for an excellent account of +which we are indebted to Lyon, the Scottish masonic historian. As early +as 1600 (8th of June) the attendance of John Boswell, Esq., the laird of +Auchinleck, is entered in the minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh; he +attested the record and added his mark, as did the other members; so it +was not his first appearance. Many noblemen and other gentlemen joined +this ancient _atelier_, notably Lord Alexander, Sir Anthony Alexander +and Sir Alexander Strachan in 1634, the king's Master of Work (Herrie +Alexander) in 1638, General Alexander Hamilton in 1640, Dr Hamilton in +1647, and many other prominent and distinguished men later; "James +Neilsone, Master Sklaitter to His Majestie," who was "entered and past +in the Lodge of Linlithgow, being elected a joining member," 2nd March +1654. Quarter-Master General Robert Moray (or Murray) was initiated by +members of the Lodge of Edinburgh, at Newcastle on the 20th of May 1641, +while the Scottish army was in occupation. On due report to their Alma +Mater such reception was allowed, the occurrence having been considered +the first of its kind in England until the ancient Records of the +Masons' Company were published. + +The minute-books of a number of Scottish Lodges, which are still on the +register, go back to the 17th century, and abundantly confirm the +frequent admission of speculatives as members and officers, especially +those of the venerable "Mother Lodge Kilwinning," of which the earl of +Cassillis was the deacon in 1672, who was succeeded by Sir Alexander +Cunningham, and the earl of Eglinton, who like the first of the trio was +but an apprentice. There were three Head Lodges according to the +Scottish Code of 1599, Edinburgh being "the first and principall," +Kilwinning "the secund," and Stirling "the third ludge." + +The Aberdeen Lodge (No. 1 _tris_) has records preserved from 1670, in +which year what is known as the _Mark Book_ begins, containing the +oldest existing roll of members, numbering 49, all of whom have their +marks registered, save two, though only ten were operatives. The names +of the earls of Finlater, Erroll and Dunfermline, Lord Forbes, several +ministers and professional men are on the list, which was written by a +glazier, all of whom had been enlightened as to the "benefit of the +measson word," and inserted in order as they "were made fellow craft." +The Charter (_Old Charges_) had to be read at the "entering of everie +prenteise," and the officers included a master and two wardens. + +The lodge at Melrose (No. 1 _bis_) with records back to 1674 did not +join the Grand Lodge until 1891, and was the last of those working +(possibly centuries before that body was formed) to accept the modern +system of government. Of the many noteworthy lodges mention should be +made of that of "Canongate Kilwinning No. 2," Edinburgh, the first of +the numerous pendicles of "Mother Lodge Kilwinning, No. 0," Ayrshire, +started in 1677; and of the Journeymen No 8, formed in 1707, which was a +secession from the Lodge of Edinburgh; the Fellow Crafts or Journeymen +not being satisfied with their treatment by the Freemen Masters of the +Incorporation of Masons, &c. This action led to a trial before the Lords +of Council and Session, when finally a "Decreet Arbitral" was subscribed +to by both parties, and the junior organization was permitted "to give +the mason word as it is called" in a separate lodge. The presbytery of +Kelso[7] in 1652 sustained the action of the Rev. James Ainslie in +becoming a Freemason, declaring that "there is neither sinne nor +scandale in that word" (i.e. the "Mason Word"), which is often alluded +to but never revealed in the old records already referred to.[8] One +Scottish family may be cited in illustration of the continuous working +of Freemasonry, whose membership is enshrined in the records of the +ancient Lodge of "Scoon and Perth No. 3" and others. A venerable +document, lovingly cared for by No. 3, bears date 1658, and recites how +John Mylne came to Perth from the "North Countrie," and was the king's +Master Mason and W.M. of the Lodge, his successor being his son, who +entered "King James the sixt as ffreman measone and fellow craft"; his +third son John was a member of Lodge No. 1 and Master Mason to Charles +I., 1631-1636, and his eldest son was a deacon of No. 1 eleven times +during thirty years. To him was apprenticed his nephew, who was warden +in 1663-1664 and deacon several times. William Mylne was a warden in +1695, Thomas (eldest son) was Master in 1735, and took part in the +formation of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. Others of the family continued +to join the Lodge No. 1, until Robert, the last of the Mylnes as +Freemasons, was initiated in 1754, died in 1811, and "was buried in St +Paul's cathedral, having been Surveyor to that Edifice for fifty years," +and the last of the masonic Mylnes for five generations. The "St John's +Lodge," Glasgow (No. 3 _bis_), has some valuable old records and a +"Charter Chest" with the words carved thereon "God save the King and +Masons Craft, 1684." _Loyalty and Charity_ are the watchwords of the +Society. + +The Craft Gilds (_Corps d'Etat_) of France, and their progeny the +_Companionage_, have been fully described by Mr Gould, and the +_Steinmetzen_ of Germany would require too detailed notice if we were to +particularize its rules, customs and general character, from about the +12th century onward. Much as there was in common between the Stonemasons +of Germany and the Freemasons of Great Britain and Ireland, it must be +conceded that the two societies never united and were all through this +long period wholly separate and independent; a knowledge of Freemasonry +and authority to hold lodges in Germany being derived from the Grand +Lodge of England during the first half of the 18th century. The theory +of the derivation of the Freemasons from the _Steinmetzen_ was first +propounded in 1779 by the abbe Grandidier, and has been maintained by +more modern writers, such as Fallou, Heideloff and Schneider, but a +thorough examination of their statements has resulted in such an origin +being generally discredited. Whether the _Steinmetzen_ had secret signs +of recognition or not, is not quite clear, but that the Freemasons had, +for centuries, cannot be doubted, though precisely what they were may be +open to question, and also what portions of the existing ceremonies are +reminiscent of the craft anterior to the Revival of 1717. Messrs Speth +and Gould favour the notion that there were two distinct and separate +degrees prior to the third decade of the 18th century (_Ars_ Q.C., 1898 +and 1903), while other authorities have either supported the _One +degree_ theory, or consider there is not sufficient evidence to warrant +a decision. Recent discoveries, however, tend in favour of the first +view noted, such as the _Trinity College MS._, Dublin ("Free Masonry, +Feb. 1711"), and the invaluable[9] _Chetwode Crawley MS._ (Grand Lodge +Library, Dublin); the second being read in connexion with the Haughfoot +Lodge Records, beginning 1702 (_Hist, of Freemasonry_, by W. F. Vernon, +1893). + +Two of the most remarkable lodges at work during the period of +transition (1717-1723), out of the many then existing in England, +assembled at Alnwick and at York. The origin of the first noted is not +known, but there are minutes of the meetings from 1703, the Rules are of +1701, signed by quite a number of members, and a transcript of the _Old +Charges_ begins the volume. In 1708-1709 a minute provided for a masonic +procession, at which the brethren were to walk "with their aprons on and +Comon Square." The Lodge consisted mainly of operative "free Brothers," +and continued for many years, a code of by-laws being published in 1763, +but it never united with the Grand Lodge, giving up the struggle for +existence a few years further on. + +The other lodge, the most noteworthy of all the English predecessors of +the Grand Lodge of England, was long held at York, the Mecca of English +Freemasons.[10] Its origin is unknown, but there are traces of its +existence at an early date, and possibly it was a survival of the +Minster Lodge of the 14th century. Assuming that the _York MS. No. 4_ of +1693 was the property of the lodge in that year (which Roll was +presented by George Walker of Wetherby in 1777), the entry which +concludes that Scroll is most suggestive, as it gives "The names of the +Lodge" (members) and the "Lodge Ward(en)." Its influence most probably +may be also noted at Scarborough, where "A private Lodge" was held on +the 10th of July 1705, at which the president "William Thompson, Esq., +and severall others brethren ffree Masons" were present, and six +gentlemen (named) "were then admitted into the said ffraternity." These +particulars are endorsed on the _Scarborough MS._ of the Old Charges, +now owned by the Grand Lodge of Canada at Toronto. "A narrow folio +manuscript Book beginning 7th March 1705-1706," which was quoted from in +1778, has long been missing, which is much to be regretted, as possibly +it gave particulars of the lodge which assembled at Bradford, Yorkshire, +"when 18 Gentlemen of the first families in that neighbourhood were made +Masons." There is, however, another roll of records from 1712 to 1730 +happily preserved of this "Ancient Honble. Society and Fraternity of +Free Masons," sometimes styled "Company" or "Society of Free and +Accepted Masons." + +Not to be behind the London fratres, the York brethren formed a Grand +Lodge on the 27th of December 1725 (the "Grand Lodge of _all_ England" +was its modest title), and was flourishing for years, receiving into +their company many county men of great influence. Some twenty years +later there was a brief period of somnolence, but in 1761 a revival took +place, with Francis Drake, the historian, as Grand Master, ten lodges +being chartered in Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire, 1762-1790, and a +Grand Lodge of England, south of the Trent, in 1779, at London, which +warranted two lodges. Before the century ended all these collapsed or +joined the Grand Lodge of England, so there was not a single +representative of "York Masonry" left on the advent of the next century. + +The premier Grand Lodge of England soon began to constitute new Lodges +in the metropolis, and to reconstitute old ones that applied for +recognition, one of the earliest of 1720-1721 being still on the Roll as +No. 6, thus having kept company ever since with the three "time +immemorial Lodges," Nos. 2, 4 and 12. Applications for constitution kept +coming in, the provinces being represented from 1723 to 1724, before +which time it is likely the Grand Lodge of Ireland[11] had been started, +about which the most valuable _Caementaria Hibernica_ by Dr Chetwode +Crawley may be consulted with absolute confidence. Provincial Grand +Lodges were formed to ease the authorities at headquarters, and, as the +society spread, also for the Continent, and gradually throughout the +civilized globe. Owing to the custom prevailing before the 18th century, +a few brethren were competent to form lodges on their own initiative +anywhere, and hence the registers of the British Grand Lodges are not +always indicative of the first appearance of the craft abroad. In North +America[12] lodges were held before what is known as the first "regular" +lodge was formed at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and probably in Canada[13] +likewise. The same remark applies to Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, +Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden and other countries. Of the many +scores of military lodges, the first warrant was granted by Ireland in +1732. To no other body of Freemasons has the craft been so indebted for +its prosperity in early days as to their military brethren. There were +rivals to the Grand Lodge of England during the 18th century, one of +considerable magnitude being known as the Ancients or Atholl Masons, +formed in 1751, but in December 1813 a junction was effected, and from +that time the prosperity of the United Grand Lodge of England, with few +exceptions, has been extraordinary. + +Nothing but a volume to itself could possibly describe the main features +of the English Craft from 1717, when Anthony Sayer was elected the first +Grand Master of a brilliant galaxy of rulers. The first nobleman to +undertake that office was the duke of Montagu in 1721, the natural +philosopher J. T. Desaguliers being his immediate predecessor, who has +been credited (and also the Rev. James Anderson) with the honour of +starting the premier Grand Lodge; but like the fable of Sir Christopher +Wren having been Grand Master, evidence is entirely lacking. Irish and +Scottish peers share with those of England the distinction of presiding +over the Grand Lodge, and from 1782 to 1813 their Royal Highnesses the +duke of Cumberland, the prince of Wales, or the duke of Sussex occupied +the masonic throne. From 1753 to 1813 the rival Grand Lodge had been +busy, but ultimately a desire for a _united_ body prevailed, and under +the "ancient" Grand Master, H.R.H. the duke of Kent, it was decided to +amalgamate with the original ruling organization, H.R.H. the duke of +Sussex becoming the Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge. On the +decease of the prince in 1843 the earl of Zetland succeeded, followed by +the marquess of Ripon in 1874, on whose resignation H.R.H. the prince of +Wales became the Grand Master. Soon after succeeding to the throne, +King Edward VII. ceased to govern the English craft, and was succeeded +by H.R.H. the duke of Connaught. From 1737 to 1907 some sixteen English +princes of the royal blood joined the brotherhood. + +From 1723 to 1813 the number of lodges enrolled in England amounted to +1626, and from 1814 to the end of December 1909 as many as 3352 were +warranted, making a grand total of 4978, of which the last then granted +was numbered 3185. There were in 1909 still 2876 on the register, +notwithstanding the many vacancies created by the foundation of new +Grand Lodges in the colonies and elsewhere.[14] + +_Distribution and Organization._--The advantage of the cosmopolitan +basis of the fraternity generally (though some Grand Lodges still +preserve the original Christian foundation) has been conspicuously +manifested and appreciated in India and other countries where the +votaries of numerous religious systems congregate; but the unalterable +basis of a belief in the Great Architect of the Universe remains, for +without such a recognition there can be no Freemasonry, and it is now, +as it always has been, entirely free from party politics. The charities +of the Society in England, Ireland and Scotland are extensive and well +organized, their united cost per day not being less than L500, and with +those of other Grand Lodges throughout the world must amount to a very +large sum, there being over two millions of Freemasons. The vast +increase of late years, both of lodges and members, however, calls for +renewed vigilance and extra care in selecting candidates, that numbers +may not be a source of weakness instead of strength. + +In its internal organization, the working of Freemasonry involves an +elaborate system of symbolic ritual,[15] as carried out at meetings of +the various lodges, uniformity as to essentials being the rule. The +members are classified in numerous degrees, of which the first three are +"Entered Apprentice," "Fellow Craft" and "Master Mason," each class of +which, after initiation, can only be attained after passing a prescribed +ordeal or examination, as a test of proficiency, corresponding to the +"essays" of the operative period. + +The lodges have their own by-laws for guidance, subject to the _Book of +Constitutions_ of their Grand Lodge, and the regulations of the +provincial or district Grand Lodge if located in counties or held +abroad. + +It is to be regretted that on the continent of Europe Freemasonry has +sometimes developed on different lines from that of the "Mother Grand +Lodge" and Anglo-Saxon Grand Lodges generally, and through its political +and anti-religious tendencies has come into contact or conflict with the +state authorities[16] or the Roman Catholic church. The "Grand Orient of +France" (but not the Supreme Council 33^o, and its Grand Lodge) is an +example of this retrograde movement, by its elimination of the paragraph +referring to a belief in the "Great Architect of the Universe" from its +_Statuts et reglements generaux_. This deplorable action has led to the +withdrawal of all regular Grand Lodges from association with that body, +and such separation must continue until a return is made to the ancient +and inviolable landmark of the society, which makes it impossible for an +atheist either to join or continue a member of the fraternity. + +The Grand Lodge of England constituted its first lodge in Paris in the +year 1732, but one was formed still earlier on the continent at +Gibraltar 1728-1729. Others were also opened in Germany 1733, Portugal +1735, Holland 1735, Switzerland 1740, Denmark 1745, Italy 1763, Belgium +1765, Russia 1771, and Sweden 1773. In most of these countries Grand +Lodges were subsequently created and continue to this date, save that in +Austria (not Hungary) and Russia no masonic lodges have for some time +been permitted to assemble. There is a union of Grand Lodges of Germany, +and an annual Diet is held for the transaction of business affecting the +several masonic organizations in that country, which works well. H.R.H. +Prince Frederick Leopold was in 1909 Protector, or the "Wisest Master" +(Vicarius Salomonis). King Gustav V. was the Grand Master [cross] of the +freemasons in Sweden, and the sovereign of the "Order of Charles XIII.," +the only one of the kind confined to members of the fraternity. + +Lodges were constituted in India from 1730 (Calcutta), 1752 (Madras), +and 1758 (Bombay); in Jamaica 1742, Antigua 1738, and St Christopher +1739; soon after which period the Grand Lodges of England, Ireland and +Scotland had representatives at work throughout the civilized world. + +In no part, however, outside Great Britain has the craft flourished so +much as in the United States of America, where the first "regular" lodge +(i.e. according to the _new_ regime) was opened in 1733 at Boston, Mass. +Undoubtedly lodges had been meeting still earlier, one of which was held +at Philadelphia, Penna., with records from 1731, which blossomed into a +Grand Lodge, but no authority has yet been traced for its proceedings, +save that which may be termed "time immemorial right," which was enjoyed +by all lodges and brethren who were at work prior to the Grand Lodge era +(1716-1717) or who declined to recognize the autocratic proceedings of +the premier Grand Lodge of England, just as the brethren did in the city +of York. A "deputation" was granted to Daniel Coxe, Esq. of New Jersey, +by the duke of Norfolk, Grand Master, 5th of June 1730, as Prov. Grand +Master of the "Provinces of New York, New Jersey and Pensilvania," but +there is no evidence that he ever constituted any lodges or exercised +any masonic authority in virtue thereof. Henry Price as Prov. Grand +Master of New England, and his lodge, which was opened on the 31st of +August 1733, in the city of Boston, so far as is known, began "regular" +Freemasonry in the United States, and the older and independent +organization was soon afterwards "regularized." Benjamin Franklin (an +Initiate of the lodge of Philadelphia) printed and published the _Book +of Constitutions_, 1723 (of London, England), in the "City of Brotherly +Love" in 1734, being the oldest masonic work in America. English and +Scottish Grand Lodges were soon after petitioned to grant warrants to +hold lodges, and by the end of the 18th century several Grand Lodges +were formed, the Craft becoming very popular, partly no doubt by reason +of so many prominent men joining the fraternity, of whom the chief was +George Washington, initiated in a Scottish lodge at Fredericksburg, +Virginia, in 1752-1753. In 1907 there were fifty Grand Lodges assembling +in the United States, with considerably over a million members. + +In Canada in 1909 there were eight Grand Lodges, having about 64,000 +members. Freemasonry in the Dominion is believed to date from 1740. The +Grand Lodges are all of comparatively recent organization, the oldest +and largest, with 40,000 members, being for Ontario; those of Manitoba, +Nova Scotia and Quebec numbering about 5000 each. There are some seven +Grand Lodges in Australia; South Australia coming first as a "sovereign +body," followed closely by New South Wales and Victoria (of 1884-1889 +constitution), the whole of the lodges in the Commonwealth probably +having fully 50,000 members on the registers. + +There are many additional degrees which may be taken or not (being quite +optional), and dependent on a favourable ballot; the difficulty, +however, of obtaining admission increases as progress is made, the +numbers accepted decreasing rapidly with each advancement. The chief of +these are arranged in separate classes and are governed either by the +"Grand Chapter of the Royal Arch," the "Mark Grand Lodge," the "Great +Priory of Knights Templars" or the "Ancient and Accepted Rite," these +being mutually complementary and intimately connected as respects +England, and more or less so in Ireland, Scotland, North America and +wherever worked on a similar basis; the countries of the continent of +Europe have also their own _Hautes Grades_. (W. J. H.*). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] + + If history be no ancient Fable + Free Masons came from Tower of Babel. + + ("The Freemasons; an Hudibrastic poem," London, 1723.) + + [2] _The Early History and Antiquities of Freemasonry and Medieval + Builders_, by Mr G. F. Fort (U.S.A.), and the _Cathedral Builders: + The Magestri Comacini_, by "Leader Scott" (the late Mrs Baxter), take + rather a different view on this point and ably present their + arguments. The Rev. C. Kingsley in _Roman and Teuton_ writes of the + _Comacini_, "Perhaps the original germ of the great society of + Freemasons." + + [3] The service rendered by Dr W. Begemann (Germany) in his "Attempt + to Classify the Old Charges of the British Masons" (vol. 1 Trans. of + the _Quatuor Coronati_ Lodge, London) has been very great, and the + researches of the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford and G. W. Speth have also + been of the utmost consequence. + + [4] Findel claims that his _Treatise_ on the society was the cause + which "first impelled England to the study of masonic history and + ushered in the intellectual movement which resulted in the writings + of Bros. Hughan, Lyon, Gould and others." Great credit was due to the + late German author for his important work, but before its advent the + Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, D. Murray Lyon and others in Great Britain + were diligent masonic students on similar lines. + + [5] It is not considered necessary to refer at length to the _Fratres + Pontis_, or other imaginary bodies of freemasons, as such questions + may well be left to the curious and interested student. + + [6] "No distinct trace of the general employment of large migratory + bands of masons, going from place to place as a guild, or company, or + brotherhood" (Prof. T. Hayter-Lewis, Brit. Arch. Assoc., 1889). + + [7] The Associate Synod which met at Edinburgh, March 1755, just a + century later, took quite an opposite view, deciding to depose from + office any of their brethren who would not give up their masonic + membership (_Scots Mag._, 1755, p. 158). Papal Bulls have also been + issued against the craft, the first being in 1738; but neither + interdicts nor anathemata have any influence with the fraternity, and + fall quite harmless. + + [8] + + "We have the _Mason Word_ and second sight, + Things for to come we can fortell aright." + + (_The Muses Threnodie_, by H. Adamson, Edin., 1638.) + + [9] The _Chetwode Crawley MS._, by W. J. Hughan (_Ars._ Q.C., 1904). + + [10] The _York Grand Lodge_, by Messrs. Hughan and Whytehead (Ars + Q.C., 1900), and _Masonic Sketches and Reprints_ (1871), by the + former. + + [11] The celebrated "Lady Freemason," the Hon. Mrs Aldworth (_nee_ + Miss St Leger, daughter of Lord Doneraile), was initiated in Ireland, + but at a much earlier date than popularly supposed; certainly not + later than 1713, when the venturesome lady was twenty. All early + accounts of the occurrence must be received with caution, as there + are no contemporary records of the event. + + [12] _History of Freemasonry_, by Dr A. G. Mackey (New York, 1898), + and the _History_ of the Fraternity Publishing Company, Boston, + Mass., give very full particulars as to the United States. + + [13] See _History of Freemasonry in Canada_ (Toronto, 1899), by J. + Ross Robertson. + + [14] _The Masonic Records 1717-1894_, by John Lane, and the excellent + _Masonic Yearbook_, published annually by the Grand Lodge of England, + are the two standard works on Lodge enumeration, localization and + nomenclature. For particulars of the Grand Lodges, and especially + that of England, Gould's History is most useful and trustworthy; and + for an original contribution to the history of the rival Grand Lodge + or Atholl Masons, Sadler's _Masonic Facts and Fictions_. + + [15] "A peculiar system of Morality, veiled in Allegory and + illustrated by Symbols" (old definition of Freemasonry). + + [16] The British House of Commons in 1799 and 1817, in acts of + parliament, specifically recognized the laudable character of the + society and provided for its continuance on definite lines. + + + + +FREEPORT, a city and the county-seat of Stephenson county, Illinois, in +the N.W. part of the state, on the Pecatonica river, 30 m. from its +mouth and about 100 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,189; (1900) +13,258, of whom 2264 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,567. The city +is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St +Paul, and the Illinois Central railways, and by the Rockford & +Interurban electric railway. The Illinois Central connects at South +Freeport, about 3 m. S. of Freeport, with the Chicago Great Western +railway. Among Freeport's manufactures are foundry and machine shop +products, carriages, hardware specialties, patent medicines, windmills, +engines, incubators, organs, beer and shoes. The Illinois Central has +large railway repair shops here. The total value of the city's factory +product in 1905 was $3,109,302, an increase of 14.8% since 1900. In the +surrounding country cereals are grown, and swine and poultry are raised. +Dairying is an important industry also. The city has a Carnegie library +(1901). In the Court House Square is a monument, 80 ft. high, in memory +of the soldiers who died in the Civil War. At the corner of Douglas +Avenue and Mechanic Street a granite boulder commemorates the famous +debate between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, held in Freeport +on the 27th of August 1858. In that debate Lincoln emphasized the +differences between himself and the radical anti-slavery men, and in +answer to one of Lincoln's questions Douglas declared that the people of +a territory, through "unfriendly" laws or denial of legislative +protection, could exclude slavery, and that "it matters not what way the +Supreme Court may hereafter decide on the abstract question whether +slavery may or may not go into a territory under the Constitution." +This, the so-called "Freeport doctrine," greatly weakened Douglas in the +presidential election of 1860. Freeport was settled in 1835, was laid +out and named Winneshiek in 1836, and in 1837 under its present name was +made the county-seat of Stephenson county. It was incorporated as a town +in 1850 and chartered as a city in 1855. + + + + +FREE PORTS, a term, strictly speaking, given to localities where no +customs duties are levied, and where no customs supervision exists. In +these ports (subject to payment for specific services rendered, +wharfage, storage, &c., and to the observance of local police and +sanitary regulations) ships load and unload, cargoes are deposited and +handled, industries are exercised, manufactures are carried on, goods +are bought and sold, without any action on the part of fiscal +authorities. Ports are likewise designated "free" where a space or zone +exists within which commercial operations are conducted without payment +of import or export duty, and without active interference on the part of +customs authorities. The French and German designations for these two +descriptions of ports are--for the former _La Ville franche, Freihafen_; +for the latter _Le Port franc, Freibezirk_ or _Freilager_. The English +phrase free port applies to both.[1] The leading conditions under which +free ports in Europe derived their origin were as follows:--(1) When +public order became re-established during the middle ages, trading +centres were gradually formed. Marts for the exchange and purchase of +goods arose in different localities. Many Italian settlements, +constituting free zones, were established in the Levant. The Hanseatic +towns arose in the 12th century. Great fairs became recognized--the +Leipzig charter was granted in 1268. These localities were free as +regards customs duties, although dues of the nature of octroi charges +were often levied. (2) Until the 19th century European states were +numerous, and often of small size. Accordingly uniform customs tariffs +of wide application did not exist. Uniform rates of duty were fixed In +England by the Subsidy Act of 1660. In France, before the Revolution +(besides the free ports), Alsace and the Lorraine Bishoprics were in +trade matters treated as foreign countries. The unification of the +German customs tariff began in 1834 with the Steuerverein and the +Zollverein. The Spanish fiscal system did not include the Basque +provinces until about 1850. The uniform Italian tariff dates from 1861. +Thus until very recent times on the Continent free ports were compatible +with the fiscal policy and practice of different countries. (3) Along +the Mediterranean coast, up to the 19th century, convenient shelter was +needed from corsairs. In other continental countries the prevalent +colonial and mercantile policy sought to create trans-oceanic trade. +Free ports were advantageous from all these points of view. + + In following the history of these harbours in Europe, it is to be + observed that in Great Britain free ports have never existed. In 1552 + it was contemplated to place Hull and Southampton on this footing, but + the design was abandoned. Subsequently the bonding and not the free + port system was adopted in the United Kingdom. + + _Austria-Hungary._--Fiume and Trieste were respectively free ports + during the periods 1722-1893 and 1719-1893. + + _Belgium._--The emperor Joseph II. during his visit to the Austrian + Netherlands in June 1781 endeavoured to create a direct trade between + that country and India. Ostend was made a free port, and large bonding + facilities were afforded at Bruges, Brussels, Ghent and Louvain. In + 1796, however, the revolutionary government abolished the Ostend + privileges. + + _Denmark._--In November 1894 an area of about 150 acres at Copenhagen + was opened as a free port, and great facilities are afforded for + shipping and commercial operations in order that the Baltic trade may + centre there. + + _France._--Marseilles was a free port in the middle ages, and so was + Dunkirk when it formed part of Flanders. In 1669 these privileges were + confirmed, and extended to Bayonne. In 1784 there was a fresh + confirmation, and Lorient and St Jean de Luz were included in the + _ordonnance_. The National Assembly in 1790 maintained this policy, + and created free ports in the French West Indies. In 1795, however, + all such privileges were abolished, but large bonding facilities were + allowed at Marseilles to favour the Levant trade. The government of + Louis XVIII. in 1814 restored, and in 1871 again revoked, the free + port privileges of Marseilles. There are now no free ports in France + or in French possessions; the bonding system is in force. + + _Germany._--Bremen, Hamburg and Luebeck were reconstituted free towns + and ports under the treaties of 1814-1815. Certain minor ports, and + several landing-stages on the Rhine and the Neckar, were also + designated free. As the Zollverein policy became accepted throughout + Germany, previous privileges were gradually lessened, and since 1888 + only Hamburg remains a free port. There an area of about 2500 acres is + exempt from customs duties and control, and is largely used for + shipping and commercial purposes. Bremerhaven has a similar area of + nearly 700 acres. Brake, Bremen, Cuxhaven, Emden, Geestemuende, + Neufahrwasser and Stettin possess Freibezirke areas, portions of the + larger port. Heligoland is outside the Zollverein--practically a + foreign country. + + In _Italy_ free ports were numerous and important, and possessed + privileges which varied at different dates. They were--Ancona, during + the period 1696-1868; Brindisi, 1845-1862; Leghorn (in the 17th and + 18th centuries a very important Mediterranean harbour), 1675-1867; + Messina, 1695-1879; Senigallia, 1821-1868, during the month of the + local fair. Venice possessed warehouses, equivalent to bonded stores, + for German and Turkish trade during the Republic, and was a free port + 1851-1873. Genoa was a free port in the time of the Republic and under + the French Empire, and was continued as such by the treaties of + 1814-1815. The free port was, however, changed into a "deposito + franco" by a law passed in 1865, and only storing privileges now + remain. + + _Rumania._--Braila, Galatz and Kustenji were free ports (for a period + of about forty years) up to 1883, when bonded warehouses were + established by the Rumanian government. Sulina remains free. + + _Russia._--Archangel was a free port, at least for English goods, from + 1553 to 1648. During this period English products were admitted into + Russia via Archangel without any customs payment for internal + consumption, and also in transit to Persia. The tsar Alexis revoked + this grant on the execution of Charles I. Free ports were opened in + 1895 at Kola, in Russian Lapland. Dalny, adjoining Port Arthur, was a + free port during the Russian occupation; and Japan after the war + decided to renew this privilege as soon as practicable. + + The number of free ports outside Europe has also lessened. The + administrative policy of European countries has been gradually adopted + in other parts of the world, and customs duties have become almost + universal, conjoined with bonding and transhipment facilities. In + British colonies and possessions, under an act of parliament passed in + 1766, and repealed in 1867, two ports in Dominica and four in Jamaica + were free, Malacca, Penang and Singapore have been free ports since + 1824, Hong-Kong since 1842, and Weihaiwei since it was leased to Great + Britain in 1898. Zanzibar was a free port during 1892-1899. Aden, + Gibraltar, St Helena and St Thomas (West Indies) are sometimes + designated free ports. A few duties are, however, levied, which are + really octroi rather than customs charges. These places are mainly + stations for coaling and awaiting orders. + + Some harbours in the Netherlands East Indies were free ports between + 1829 and 1899; but these privileges were withdrawn by laws passed in + 1898-1899, in order to establish uniformity of customs administration. + Harbours where custom houses are not maintained will be practically + closed to foreign trade, though the governor-general may in special + circumstances vary the application of the new regulations. + + Macao has been a free port since 1845. Portugal has no other harbour + of this character. + + The American Republics have adopted the bonding system. In 1896 a free + wharf was opened at New Orleans in imitation of the recent European + plan. Livingstone (Guatemala) was a free port during the period + 1882-1888. + +The privileges enjoyed under the old free port system benefited the +towns and districts where they existed; and their abolition has been, +locally, injurious. These places were, however, "foreign" to their own +country, and their inland intercourse was restricted by the duties +levied on their products, and by the precautions adopted to prevent +evasion of these charges. With fiscal usages involving preferential and +deferential treatment of goods and places, the drawbacks thus arising +did not attract serious attention. Under the limited means of +communication within and beyond the country, in former times, these +conveniences were not much felt. But when finance departments became +more completely organized, the free port system fell out of favour with +fiscal authorities: it afforded opportunities for smuggling, and impeded +uniformity of action and practice. It became, in fact, out of harmony +with the administrative and financial policy of later times. Bonding and +entrepot facilities, on a scale commensurate with local needs, now +satisfy trade requirements. In countries where high customs duties are +levied, and where fiscal regulations are minute and rigid, if an +extension of foreign trade is desired, and the competition which it +involves is a national aim, special facilities must be granted for this +purpose. In these circumstances a free zone sufficiently large to admit +of commercial operations and transhipments on a scale which will fulfil +these conditions (watched but not interfered with by the customs) +becomes indispensable. The German government have, as we have seen, +maintained a free zone of this nature at Hamburg. And when the free port +at Copenhagen was opened, counter measures were adopted at Danzig and +Stettin. An agitation has arisen in France to provide at certain ports +free zones similar to those at Copenhagen and Hamburg, and to open free +ports in French possessions. A bill to this effect was submitted to the +chamber of deputies on the 12th of April 1905. Colonial free ports, such +as Hong-Kong and Singapore, do not interfere with the uniformity of the +home customs and excise policy. These two harbours in particular have +become great shipping resorts and distributing centres. The policy which +led to their establishment as free ports has certainly promoted British +commercial interests. + + See the Parliamentary Paper on "Continental Free Ports," 1904. + (C. M. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In China at the present time (1902) certain ports are designated + "free and open." This phrase means that the ports in question are (1) + open to foreign trade, and (2) that vessels engaged in oversea + voyages may freely resort there. Exemption from payment of customs + duties is not implied, which is a matter distinct from the permission + granted under treaty engagements to foreign vessels to carry cargoes + to and from the "treaty ports." + + + + +FREE REED VIBRATOR (Fr. _anche libre_, Ger. _durchschlagende Zunge_, +Ital. _ancia_ or _lingua libera_), in musical instruments, a thin metal +tongue fixed at one end and vibrating freely either in surrounding +space, as in the accordion and concertina, or enclosed in a pipe or +channel, as in certain reed stops of the organ or in the harmonium. The +enclosed reed, in its typical and theoretical form, is fixed over an +aperture of the same shape but just large enough to allow it to swing +freely backwards and forwards, alternately opening and closing the +aperture, when driven by a current of compressed air. We have to deal +with air under three different conditions in considering the phenomenon +of the sound produced by free reeds. (1) The stationary column or +stratum in pipe or channel containing the reed, which is normally at +rest. (2) The wind or current of air fed from the bellows with a +variable velocity and pressure, which is broken up into periodic air +puffs as its entrance into pipe or channel is alternately checked or +allowed by the vibrator. (3) The disturbed condition of No. 1 when acted +upon by the metal vibrator and by No 2, whereby the air within the pipe +is forced into alternate pulses of condensation and rarefaction. The +free reed is therefore not the tone-producer but only the exciting +agent, that is to say, the sound is not produced by the communication of +the free reed's vibrations to the surrounding air,[1] as in the case of +a vibrating string, but by the series of air puffs punctuated by +infinitesimal pauses, which it produces by alternately opening and +almost closing the aperture.[2] A musical sound is thus produced the +pitch of which depends on the length and thickness of the metal tongue; +the greater the length, the slower the vibrations and the lower the +pitch, while on the contrary, the thicker the reed near the shoulder at +the fixed end, the higher the pitch. It must be borne in mind that the +periodic vibrations of the reed determine the pitch of the sound solely +by the frequency per second they impose upon the pulses of rarefaction +and condensation within the pipe. + +[Illustration: From J. B. Biot, _Traite de physique experimentale_. + +FIG. 1.--Grenie's organ pipe fitted with free-reed vibrator. + + A, Tuning wire. + D, Free reed. + R, Reed-box. + B, C, Feed pipe with conical foot. + T, Part of resonating pipe, the upper end with cap and vent hole being shown + separately at the side.] + +The most valuable characteristic of the free reed is its power of +producing all the delicate gradations of tone between forte and piano by +virtue of a law of acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds, +whereby increased pressure of wind produces a proportional increase in +the volume of tone. The pitch of any sound depends upon the frequency of +the sound-waves, that is, the number per second which reach the ear; the +fullness of sound depends upon the amplitude of the waves, or, more +strictly speaking, of the swing of the transmitting particles of the +medium--greater pressure in the air current (No. 2 above) which sets the +vibrator in motion producing amplitude of vibration in the air within +the receptacle (No. 3 above) serving as resonating medium. The sound +produced by the free reed itself is weak and requires to be reinforced +by means of an additional stationary column or stratum of air. Free reed +instruments are therefore classified according to the nature of the +resonant medium provided:--(1) Free reeds vibrating in pipes, such as +the reed stops of church organs on the continent of Europe (in England +the reed pipes are generally provided with beating reeds, see REED +INSTRUMENTS and CLARINET). (2) Free reeds vibrating in reed compartments +and reinforced by air chambers of various shapes and sizes as in the +harmonium (q.v.). (3) Instruments like the accordion and concertina +having the free reed set in vibration through a valve, but having no +reinforcing medium. + +The arrangement of the free reed in an organ pipe is simple, and does +not differ greatly from that of the beating reed shown in fig. 2 for the +purpose of comparison. The reed-box, a rectangular wooden pipe, is +closed at the bottom and covered on one face with a thin plate of copper +having a rectangular slit over which is fixed the thin metal vibrating +tongue or reed as described above. The reed-box, itself open at the top, +is enclosed in a feed pipe having a conical foot pierced with a small +hole through which the air current is forced by the action of the +bellows. The impact of the incoming compressed air against the reed +tongue sets it swinging through the slit, thus causing a disturbance or +series of pulsations within the reed-box. The air then finds an escape +through the resonating medium of a pipe fitting over the reed-box and +terminating in an inverted cone covered with a cap in the top of which +is pierced a small hole or vent. The quality of tone of free reeds is +due to the tendency of air set in periodic pulsations to divide into +aliquot vibrations or loops, producing the phenomenon known as harmonic +overtones or upper partials, which may, in the highly composite clang of +free reeds, be discerned as far as the 16th or 20th of the series. The +more intermittent and interrupted the air current becomes, the greater +the number of the upper partials produced.[3] The power of the overtones +and their relation to the fundamental note depend greatly upon the form +of the tongue, its position and the amount of the clearance left as it +swings through the aperture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Organ pipe fitted with beating reed. + + AL, Beating reed. + R, Reed box. + Ff, Tuning wire. + TV, Feed pipe. + VV, Conical foot. + S, Hole through which compressed air is fed.] + +Free reeds not associated with resonating media as in the concertina are +peculiarly rich in harmonics, but as the higher harmonics lie very close +together, disagreeable dissonances and a harsh tone result. The +resonating pipe or chamber when suitably accommodated to the reed +greatly modifies the tone by reinforcing the harmonics proper to itself, +the others sinking into comparative insignificance. In order to produce +a full rich tone, a resonator should be chosen whose deepest note +coincides with the fundamental tone of the reed. The other upper +partials will also be reinforced thereby, but to a less degree the +higher the harmonics.[4] + + For the history of the application of the free reed to keyboard + instruments see HARMONIUM. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See H. Helmholtz, _Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen_ (Brunswick, + 1877), p. 166. + + [2] See also Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, _Wellenlehre_ + (Leipzig, 1825), where a particularly lucid explanation of the + phenomenon is given, pp. 526-530. + + [3] See Helmholtz, _op. cit._ p. 167. + + [4] These phenomena are clearly explained at greater length by Sedley + Taylor in _Sound and Music_ (London, 1896), pp. 134-153 and pp. + 74-86. See also Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und die musikalischen + Instrumente_, &c. (Giessen, 1855), p. 261. + + + + +FREESIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Iris family +(Iridaceae), and containing a single species, _F. refracta_, native at +the Cape of Good Hope. The plants grow from a corm (a solid bulb, as in +_Gladiolus_) which sends up a tuft of long narrow leaves and a slightly +branched stem bearing a few leaves and loose one-sided spikes of +fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped flowers. Several varieties are known in +cultivation, differing in the colour of the flower, which is white, +cream or yellow. They form pretty greenhouse plants which are readily +increased from seed. They are extensively grown for the market in +Guernsey, England and America. By potting successively throughout the +autumn a supply of flowers is obtained through winter and spring. Some +very fine large-flowered varieties, including rose-coloured ones, are +now being raised by various growers in England, and are a great +improvement on the older forms. + + + + +FREE SOIL PARTY, a political party in the United States, which was +organized in 1847-1848 to oppose the extension of slavery into the +Territories. It was a combination of the political abolitionists--many +of whom had formerly been identified with the more radical Liberty +party--the anti-slavery Whigs, and the faction of the Democratic party +in the state of New York, called "Barnburners," who favoured the +prohibition of slavery, in accordance with the "Wilmot Proviso" (see +WILMOT, DAVID), in the territory acquired from Mexico. The party was +prominent in the presidential campaigns of 1848 and 1852. At the +national convention held in Buffalo, N.Y., on the 9th and 10th of August +1848, they secured the nomination to the presidency of ex-President +Martin Van Buren, who had failed to secure nomination by the Democrats +in 1844 because of his opposition to the annexation of Texas, and of +Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts, for the vice-presidency, taking +as their "platform" a Declaration that Congress, having "no more power +to make a slave than to make a king," was bound to restrict slavery to +the slave states, and concluding, "we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, +Free Speech, Free Labor and Free Man,' and under it we will fight on and +fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions." The +Liberty party had previously, in November 1847, nominated John P. Hale +and Leicester King as president and vice-president respectively, but in +the spring of 1848 it withdrew its candidates and joined the "free soil" +movement. Representatives of eighteen states, including Delaware, +Maryland and Virginia, attended the Buffalo convention. In the ensuing +presidential election Van Buren and Adams received a popular vote of +291,263, of which 120,510 were cast in New York. They received no +electoral votes, all these being divided between the Whig candidate, +Zachary Taylor, who was elected, and the Democratic candidate, Lewis +Cass. The "free soilers," however, succeeded in sending to the +thirty-first Congress two senators and fourteen representatives, who by +their ability exercised an influence out of proportion to their number. + +Between 1848 and 1852 the "Barnburners" and the "Hunkers," their +opponents, became partially reunited, the former returning to the +Democratic ranks, and thus greatly weakening the Free Soilers. The party +held its national convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 11th of +August 1852, delegates being present from all the free states, and from +Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and Kentucky; and John P. Hale, of New +Hampshire, and George W. Julian of Indiana, were nominated for the +presidency and the vice-presidency respectively, on a platform which +declared slavery "a sin against God and a crime against man," denounced +the Compromise Measures of 1850, the fugitive slave law in particular, +and again opposed the extension of slavery in the Territories. These +candidates, however, received no electoral votes and a popular vote of +only 156,149, of which but 25,329 were polled in New York. By 1856 they +abandoned their separate organization and joined the movement which +resulted in the formation of the powerful Republican party (q.v.), of +which the Free Soil party was the legitimate precursor. + + + + +FREE-STONE (a translation of the O. Fr. _franche pere_ or _pierre_, i.e. +stone of good quality; the modern French equivalent is _pierre de +taille_, and Ital. _pietra molle_), stone used in architecture for +mouldings, tracery and other work required to be worked with the chisel. +The oolitic stones are generally so called, although in some countries +soft sandstones are used; in some churches an indurated chalk called +"clunch" is employed for internal lining and for carving. + + + + +FREETOWN, capital of the British colony of Sierra Leone, West Africa, on +the south side of the Sierra Leone estuary, about 5 m. from the cape of +that name, in 8 deg. 29' N., 13 deg. 10' W. Pop. (1901) 34,463. About 500 of the +inhabitants are Europeans. Freetown is picturesquely situated on a +plain, closed in behind by a succession of wooded hills, the Sierra +Leone, rising to a height of 1700 ft. As nearly every house is +surrounded by a courtyard or garden, the town covers an unusually large +area for the number of its inhabitants. It possesses few buildings of +architectural merit. The principal are the governor's residence and +government offices, the barracks, the cathedral, the missionary +institutions, the fruit market, Wilberforce Hall, courts of justice, the +railway station and the grammar school. Several of these institutions +are built on the slopes of the hills, and on the highest point, Sugar +Loaf Mountain, is a sanatorium. The botanic gardens form a pleasant and +favourite place of resort. The roads are wide but badly kept. Horses do +not live, and all wheeled traffic is done by manual labour--hammocks and +sedan-chairs are the customary means of locomotion. Notwithstanding that +Freetown possesses an abundant and pure water-supply, drawn from the +adjacent hills, it is enervating and unhealthy, and it was particularly +to the capital, often spoken of as Sierra Leone, that the designation +"White Man's Grave" applied. Since the beginning of the 20th century +strenuous efforts have been made to improve the sanitary condition by a +new system of drainage, a better water service, the filling up of +marshes wherein the malarial mosquito breeds, and in other directions. A +light railway 6 m. long, opened in 1904, has been built to Hill Station +(900 ft. high), where, on a healthy site, are the residences of the +government officials and of other Europeans. As a consequence the public +health has improved, the highest death-rate in the years 1901-1907 being +29.6 per 1000. The town is governed by a municipality (created in 1893) +with a mayor and councillors, the large majority being elective. +Freetown was the first place in British West Africa granted local +self-government. + +Both commercially and strategically Freetown is a place of importance. +Its harbour affords ample accommodation for the largest fleets, it is a +coaling station for the British navy, the headquarters of the British +military forces in West Africa, the sea terminus of the railway to the +rich oil-palm regions of Mendiland, and a port of call for all steamers +serving West Africa. Its inhabitants are noted for their skill as +traders; the town itself produces nothing in the way of exports. + +In consequence of the character of the original settlement (see SIERRA +LEONE), 75% of the inhabitants are descended from non-indigenous Negro +races. As many as 150 different tribes are represented in the Sierra +Leonis of to-day. Their semi-Europeanization is largely the result of +missionary endeavour. The only language of the lower class is +pidgin-English--quite incomprehensible to the newcomer from Great +Britain,--but a large proportion of the inhabitants are highly educated +men who excel as lawyers, clergymen, clerks and traders. Many members of +the upper, that is, the best-educated, class have filled official +positions of great responsibility. The most noted citizens are Bishop +Crowther and Sir Samuel Lewis, chief justice of Sierra Leone 1882-1894. +Both were full-blooded Africans. The Kru-men form a distinct section of +the community, living in a separate quarter and preserving their tribal +customs. + +Since 1861-1862 there has been an independent Episcopal Native Church; +but the Church Missionary Society, which in 1804 sent out the first +missionaries to Sierra Leone, still maintains various agencies. Furah +Bay College, built by the society on the site of General Charles +Turner's estate (11/2 m. E. of Freetown), and opened in 1828 with six +pupils, one of whom was Bishop Crowther, was affiliated in 1876 to +Durham University and has a high-class curriculum. The Wesleyans have a +high school, a theological college, and other educative agencies. The +Moslems, who are among the most law-abiding and intelligent citizens of +Freetown, have several state-aided primary schools. + + + + +FREE TRADE, an expression which has now come to be appropriated to the +economic policy of encouraging the greatest possible commercial +intercourse, unrestricted by "protective" duties (see PROTECTION), +between any one country and its neighbours. This policy was originally +advocated in France, and it has had its adherents in many countries, but +Great Britain stands alone among the great commercial nations of the +world in having adopted it systematically from 1846 onwards as the +fundamental principle of her economic policy. + +In the economic literature of earlier periods, it may be noted that the +term "free trade" is employed in senses which have no relation to modern +usage. The term conveyed no suggestion of unrestricted trade or national +liberty when it first appeared in controversial pamphlets;[1] it stood +for a freedom conferred and maintained by authority--like that of a free +town. The merchants desired to have good regulations for trade so that +they might be free from the disabilities imposed upon them by foreign +princes or unscrupulous fellow-subjects. After 1640 the term seems to +have been commonly current in a different sense. When the practice which +had been handed down from the middle ages--of organizing the trade with +particular countries by means of privileged companies, which professed +to regulate the trade according to the state of the market so as to +secure its steady development in the interest of producers and +traders--was seriously called in question under the Stuarts and at the +Revolution, the interlopers and opponents of the companies insisted on +the advantages of a "Free Trade"; they meant by this that the various +branches of commerce should not be confined to particular persons or +limited in amount, but should be thrown open to be pursued by any +Englishman in the way he thought most profitable himself.[2] Again, in +the latter half of the 18th century, till Pitt's financial reforms[3] +were brought into operation, the English customs duties on wine and +brandy were excessive; and those who carried on a remunerative business +by evading these duties were known as Fair Traders or Free Traders.[4] +Since 1846 the term free trade has been popularly used, in England, to +designate the policy of Cobden (q.v.) and others who advocated the +abolition of the tax on imported corn (see CORN LAWS); this is the only +one of the specialized senses of the term which is at all likely to be +confused with the economic doctrine. The Anti-Corn Law movement was, as +a matter of fact, a special application of the economic principle; but +serious mistakes have arisen from the blunder of confusing the part with +the whole, and treating the remission of one particular duty as if it +were the essential element of a policy in which it was only an incident. +W. E. Gladstone, in discussing the effect of improvements in locomotion +on British trade, showed what a large proportion of the stimulus to +commerce during the 19th century was to be credited to what he called +the "liberalizing legislation" of the free-trade movement in the wide +sense in which he used the term. "I rank the introduction of cheap +postage for letters, documents, patterns and printed matter, and the +abolition of all taxes on printed matter, in the category of Free Trade +Legislation. Not only thought in general, but every communication, and +every publication, relating to matters of business, was thus set free. +These great measures, then, may well take their place beside the +abolition of prohibitions and protective duties, the simplifying of +revenue laws, and the repeal of the Navigation Act, as forming together +the great code of industrial emancipation. Under this code, our race, +restored to freedom in mind and hand, and braced by the powerful +stimulus of open competition with the world, has upon the whole +surpassed itself and every other, and has won for itself a commercial +primacy more evident, more comprehensive, and more solid than it had at +any previous time possessed."[5] In this large sense free trade may be +almost interpreted as the combination of the doctrines of the division +of labour and of _laissez-faire_ in regard to the world as a whole. The +division of labour between different countries of the world--so that +each concentrates its energies in supplying that for the production of +which it is best fitted--appears to offer the greatest possibility of +production; but this result cannot be secured unless trade and industry +are treated as the primary elements in the welfare of each community, +and political considerations are not allowed to hamper them. + +Stated in its simplest form, the principle which underlies the doctrine +of free trade is almost a truism; it is directly deducible from the very +notion of exchange (q.v.). Adam Smith and his successors have +demonstrated that in every case of voluntary exchange each party gains +something that is of greater value-in-use to him than that with which he +parts, and that consequently in every exchange, either between +individuals or between nations, both parties are the gainers. Hence it +necessarily follows that, since both parties gain through exchanging, +the more facilities there are for exchange the greater will be the +advantage to every individual all round.[6] There is no difficulty in +translating this principle into the terms of actual life, and stating +the conditions in which it holds good absolutely. If, at any given +moment, the mass of goods in the world were distributed among the +consumers with the minimum of restriction on interchange, each +competitor would obtain the largest possible share of the things he +procures in the world's market. But the argument is less conclusive when +the element of time is taken into account; what is true of each moment +separately is not necessarily true of any period in which the conditions +of production, or the requirements of communities, may possibly change. +Each individual is likely to act with reference to his own future, but +it may often be wise for the statesman to look far ahead, beyond the +existing generation.[7] Owing to the neglect of this element of time, +and the allowance which must be made for it, the reasoning as to the +advantages of free trade, which is perfectly sound in regard to the +distribution of goods already in existence, may become sophistical,[8] +if it is put forward as affording a complete demonstration of the +benefits of free trade as a regular policy. After all, human society is +very complex, and any attempt to deal with its problems off-hand by +appealing to a simple principle raises the suspicion that some important +factor may have been left out of account. When there is such mistaken +simplification, the reasoning may seem to have complete certainty, and +yet it fails to produce conviction, because it does not profess to deal +with the problem in all its aspects. When we concentrate attention on +the phenomena of exchange, we are viewing society as a mechanism in +which each acts under known laws and is impelled by one particular +force--that of self-interest; now, society is, no doubt, in this sense a +mechanism, but it is also an organism,[9] and it is only for very short +periods, and in a very limited way, that we can venture to neglect its +organic character without running the risk of falling into serious +mistakes. + +The doctrine of free trade maintains that in order to secure the +greatest possible mass of goods in the world as a whole, and the +greatest possibility of immediate comfort for the consumer, it is +expedient that there should be no restriction on the exchange of goods +and services either between individuals or communities. The +controversies in regard to this doctrine have not turned on its +certainty as a hypothetical principle, but on the legitimacy of the +arguments based upon it. It certainly supplies a principle in the light +of which all proposed trade regulations should be criticized. It gives +us a basis for examining and estimating the expense at which any +particular piece of trade restriction is carried out; but thus used, the +principle does not necessarily condemn the expenditure; the game may be +worth the candle or it may not, but at least it is well that we should +know how fast the candle is being burnt. It was in this critical spirit +that Adam Smith examined the various restrictions and encouragements to +trade which were in vogue in his day; he proved of each in turn that it +was expensive, but he showed that he was conscious that the final +decision could not be taken from this standpoint, since he recognized in +regard to the Navigation Acts that "defence is more than opulence."[10] +In more recent times, the same sort of attitude was taken by Henry +Sidgwick,[11] who criticizes various protective expedients in turn, in +the light of free trade, but does not treat it as conveying an +authoritative decision on their merits. + +But other exponents of the doctrine have not been content to employ it +in this fashion. They urge it in a more positive manner, and insist that +free trade pure and simple is _the_ foundation on which the economic +life of the community ought to be based. By men who advocate it in this +way, free trade is set forward as an ideal which it is a duty to +realize, and those who hold aloof from it or oppose it have been held up +to scorn as if they were almost guilty of a crime.[12] The development +of the material resources of the world is undoubtedly an important +element in the welfare of mankind; it is an aim which is common to the +whole race, and may be looked upon as contributing to the greatest +happiness of the greatest number. Competition in the open market seems +to secure that each consumer shall obtain the best possible terms; and +again, since all men are consumers whether they produce or not, or +whatever they produce, the greatest measure of comforts for each seems +likely to be attainable on these lines. For those who are frankly +cosmopolitan, and who regard material prosperity as at all events the +prime object at which public policy should aim, the free-trade doctrine +is readily transformed, from a mere principle of criticism, till it +comes to be regarded as the harbinger of a possible Utopia. It was in +this fashion that it was put forward by French economists and proved +attractive to some leading American statesmen in the 18th century. +Turgot regarded the colonial systems of the European countries as at +once unfair to their dependencies and dangerous to the peace of the +world. "It will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which shall be +the first to modify its policy according to the new conditions, and be +content to regard its colonies as if they were allied provinces and not +subjects of the mother country." It will be a wise and happy thing for +the nation which is the first to be convinced that the secret of +"success, so far as commercial policy is concerned, consists in +employing all its land in the manner most profitable for the +proprietary, all the hands in the manner most advantageous to the +workman personally, that is to say, in the manner in which each would +employ them, if we could let him be simply directed by his own interest, +and that all the rest of the mercantile policy is vanity and vexation of +spirit. When the entire separation of America shall have forced the +whole world to recognize this truth and purged the European nations of +commercial jealousy there will be one great cause of war less in the +world."[13] Pitt, under the influence of Adam Smith, was prepared to +admit the United States to the benefit of trade with the West Indian +Colonies; and Jefferson, accepting the principles of his French +teachers, would (in contradistinction to Alexander Hamilton) have been +willing to see his country renounce the attempt to develop manufactures +of her own.[14] It seemed as if a long step might be taken towards +realizing the free-trade ideal for the Anglo-Saxon race; but British +shipowners insisted on the retention of their privileges, and the +propitious moment passed away with the failure of the negotiations of +1783.[15] Free trade ceased to be regarded as a gospel, even in France, +till the ideal was revived in the writings of Bastiat, and helped to +mould the enthusiasm of Richard Cobden.[16] Through his zealous +advocacy, the doctrine secured converts in almost every part of the +world; though it was only in Great Britain that a great majority of the +citizens became so far satisfied with it that they adopted it as the +foundation of the economic policy of the country. + +It is not difficult to account for the conversion of Great Britain to +this doctrine; in the special circumstances of the first half of the +19th century it was to the interest of the most vigorous factors in the +economic life of the country to secure the greatest possible freedom for +commercial intercourse. Great Britain had, through her shipping, access +to all the markets of the world; she had obtained such a lead in the +application of machinery to manufactures that she had a practical +monopoly in textile manufactures and in the hardware trades; by removing +every restriction, she could push her advantage to its farthest extent, +and not only undersell native manufactures in other lands, but secure +food, and the raw materials for her manufactures, on the cheapest +possible terms. Free trade thus seemed to offer the means of placing an +increasing distance between Britain and her rivals, and of rendering the +industrial monopoly which she had attained impregnable. The capitalist +employer had superseded the landowner as the mainstay of the resources +and revenue of the realm, and insisted that the prosperity of +manufactures was the primary interest of the community as a whole. The +expectation, that a thoroughgoing policy of free trade would not only +favour an increase of employment, but also the cheapening of food, could +only have been roused in a country which was obliged to import a +considerable amount of corn. The exceptional weakness, as well as the +exceptional strength, of Great Britain, among European countries, made +it seem desirable to adopt the principle of unrestricted commercial +intercourse, not merely in the tentative fashion in which it had been +put in operation by Huskisson, but in the thoroughgoing fashion in which +it at last commended itself to the minds of Peel and Gladstone. The +"Manchester men" saw clearly where their interest lay; and the +fashionable political economy was ready to demonstrate that in pursuing +their own interest they were conferring the benefit of cheap clothing on +all the most poverty-stricken races of mankind. It seemed probable, in +the 'forties and early 'fifties, that other countries would take a +similar view of their own interests and would follow the example which +Great Britain had set.[17] That they have not done so, is partly due to +the fact that none of them had such a direct, or such a widely diffused, +interest in increased commercial intercourse as existed in Great +Britain; but their reluctance has been partly the result of the +criticism to which the free-trade doctrine has been subjected. The +principles expressed in the writings of Friedrich List have taken such +firm hold, both in America and in Germany, that these countries have +preferred to follow on the lines by which Great Britain successfully +built up her industrial prosperity in the 17th and 18th century, rather +than on those by which they have seen her striving to maintain it since +1846. + +Free trade was attractive as an ideal, because it appeared to offer the +greatest production of goods to the world as a whole, and the largest +share of material goods to each consumer; it is cosmopolitan, and it +treats consumption, and the interest of the consumer, as such, as the +end to be considered. Hence it lies open to objections which are partly +political and partly economic. + +As cosmopolitan, free-trade doctrine is apt to be indifferent to +national tradition and aspiration. In so far indeed as patriotism is a +mere aesthetic sentiment, it may be tolerated, but in so far as it +implies a genuine wish and intention to preserve and defend the national +habits and character to the exclusion of alien elements, the +cosmopolitan mind will condemn it as narrow and mischievous. In the +first half of the 19th century there were many men who believed that +national ambitions and jealousies of every kind were essentially +dynastic, and that if monarchies were abolished there would be fewer +occasions of war, so that the expenses of the business of government +would be enormously curtailed. For Cobden and his contemporaries it was +natural to regard the national administrative institutions as maintained +for the benefit of the "classes" and without much advantage to the +"masses." But in point of fact, modern times have shown the existence in +democracies of a patriotic sentiment which is both exclusive and +aggressive; and the burden of armaments has steadily increased. It was +by means of a civil war that the United States attained to a +consciousness of national life; while such later symptoms as the recent +interpretations of the Monroe doctrine, or the war with Spain, have +proved that the citizens of that democratic country cannot be regarded +as destitute of self-aggrandizing national ambition. + +In Germany the growth of militarism and nationalism have gone on side by +side under constitutional government, and certainly in harmony with +predominant public opinion. Neither of these communities is willing to +sink its individual conception of progress in those of the world at +large; each is jealous of the intrusion of alien elements which cannot +be reconciled with its own political and social system. And a similar +recrudescence of patriotic feeling has been observable in other +countries, such as Norway and Hungary: the growth of national sentiment +is shown, not only in the attempts to revive and popularize the use of a +national language, but still more decidedly in the determination to have +a real control over the economic life of the country. It is here that +the new patriotism comes into direct conflict with the political +principles of free trade as advocated by Bastiat and Cobden; for them +the important point was that countries, by becoming dependent on one +another, would be prevented from engaging in hostilities. The new +nations are determined that they will not allow other countries to have +such control over their economic condition, as to be able to exercise a +powerful influence on their political life. Each is determined to be the +master in his own house, and each has rejected free trade because of the +cosmopolitanism which it involves. + +Economically, free trade lays stress on consumption as the chief +criterion of prosperity. It is, of course, true that goods are produced +with the object of being consumed, and it is plausible to insist on +taking this test; but it is also true that consumption and production +are mutually interdependent, and that in some ways production is the +more important of the two. Consumption looks to the present, and the +disposal of actual goods; production looks to the future, and the +conditions under which goods can continue to be regularly provided and +thus become available for consumption in the long run. As regards the +prosperity of the community in the future it is important that goods +should be consumed in such a fashion as to secure that they shall be +replaced or increased before they are used up; it is the amount of +production rather than the amount of consumption that demands +consideration, and gives indication of growth or of decadence. In these +circumstances there is much to be said for looking at the economic life +of a country from the point of view which free-traders have abandoned or +ignore. It is not on the possibilities of consumption in the present, +but on the prospects of production _in the future_, that the continued +wealth of the community depends; and this principle is the only one +which conforms to the modern conception of the essential requirements of +sociological science in its wider aspect (see SOCIOLOGY). This is most +obviously true in regard to countries of which the resources are very +imperfectly developed. If their policy is directed to securing the +greatest possible comfort for each consumer in the present, it is +certain that progress will be slow; the planting of industries for which +the country has an advantage may be a tedious process; and in order to +stimulate national efficiency temporary protection--involving what is +otherwise unnecessary immediate cost to the consumer--may seem to be +abundantly justified. Such a free trader as John Stuart Mill himself +admits that a case may be made out for treating "infant industries" as +exceptions;[18] and if this exception be admitted it is likely to +establish a precedent. After all, the various countries of the world are +all in different stages of development; some are old and some are new; +and even the old countries differ greatly in the progress they have made +in distinct arts. The introduction of machinery has everywhere changed +the conditions of production, so that some countries have lost and +others have gained a special advantage. Most of the countries of the +world are convinced that the wisest economy is to attend to the +husbanding of their resources of every kind, and to direct their policy +not merely with a view to consumption in the present, but rather with +regard to the possibilities of increased production in the future. + +This deliberate rejection of the doctrine of free trade between nations, +both in its political and economic aspects, has not interfered, however, +with the steady progress of free commercial intercourse within the +boundaries of a single though composite political community. "Internal +free trade," though the name was not then current in this sense, was one +of the burning questions in England in the 17th century; it was perhaps +as important a factor as puritanism in the fall of Charles I. Internal +free trade was secured in France in the 18th century; thanks to +Hamilton,[19] it was embodied in the constitution of the United States; +it was introduced into Germany by Bismarck; and was firmly established +in the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia. It became +in consequence, where practicable, a part of the modern federal idea as +usually interpreted. There are thus great areas, externally +self-protecting, where free trade, as between internal divisions, has +been introduced with little, if any, political difficulty, and with +considerable economic advantage. These cases are sometimes quoted as +justifying the expectation that the same principle is likely to be +adopted sooner or later in regard to external trading relations. There +is some reason, however, for raising the question whether free trade has +been equally successful, not only in its economic, but in its social +results, in all the large political communities where it has been +introduced. In a region like the United States of America, it is +probably seen at its best; there is an immense variety of different +products throughout that great zone of the continent, so that the mutual +co-operation of the various parts is most beneficial, while the standard +of habit and comfort is so far uniform[20] throughout the whole region, +and the facilities for the change of employment are so many, that there +is little injurious competition between different districts. In the +British empire the conditions are reversed; but though the great +self-governing colonies have withdrawn from the circle, in the hope of +building up their own economic life in their own way, free trade is +still maintained over a very large part of the British empire. +Throughout this area, there are very varied physical conditions; there +is also an extraordinary variety of races, each with its own habits, and +own standard of comfort; and in these circumstances it may be doubted +whether the free competition, involved in free trade, is really +altogether wholesome. Within this sphere the ideal of Bastiat and his +followers is being realized. England, as a great manufacturing country, +has more than held her own; India and Ireland are supplied with +manufactured goods by England, and in each case the population is forced +to look to the soil for its means of support, and for purchasing power. +In each case the preference for tillage, as an occupation, has rendered +it comparatively easy to keep the people on the land; but there is some +reason to believe that the law of diminishing returns is already making +itself felt, at all events in India, and is forcing the people into +deeper poverty.[21] It may be doubtful in the case of Ireland how far +the superiority of England in industrial pursuits has prevented the +development of manufactures; the progress in the last decades of the +18th century was too short-lived to be conclusive; but there is at least +a strong impression in many quarters that the industries of Ireland +might have flourished if they had had better opportunities allowed +them.[22] In the case of India we know that the hereditary artistic +skill, which had been built up in bygone generations, has been stamped +out. It seems possible that the modern unrest in India, and the +discontent in Ireland, may be connected with the economic conditions in +these countries, on which free trade has been imposed without their +consent. So far the population which subsists on the cheaper food, and +has the lower standard of life, has been the sufferer; but the mischief +might operate in another fashion. The self-governing colonies at all +events feel that competition in the same market between races with +different standards of comfort has infinite possibilities of mischief. +It is easy to conjure up conditions under which the standard of comfort +of wage-earners in England would be seriously threatened. + +Since the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ was published it +has become clear that the free-trade doctrines of Bastiat and Cobden +have not been gaining ground in the world at large, and at the opening +of the 20th century it could hardly be said with confidence that the +question was "finally settled" so far as England was concerned. As to +whether the interests of Great Britain still demanded that she should +continue on the line she adopted in the exceptional conditions of the +middle of the 19th century, expert opinion was conspicuously +divided;[23] but there remained no longer the old enthusiasm for free +trade as the harbinger of an Utopia. The old principles of the bourgeois +manufacturers had been taken up by the proletariat and shaped to suit +themselves. Socialism, like free trade, is cosmopolitan in its aims, and +is indifferent to patriotism and hostile to militarism. Socialism, like +free trade, insists on material welfare as the primary object to be +aimed at in any policy, and, like free trade, socialism tests welfare by +reference to possibilities of consumption. In one respect there is a +difference; throughout Cobden's attack on the governing classes there +are signs of his jealousy of the superior status of the landed gentry, +but socialism has a somewhat wider range of view and demands "equality +of opportunity" with the capitalist as well. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Reference has already been made to the principal works + which deal critically with the free-trade policy. Professor Fawcett's + _Free Trade_ is a good exposition of free-trade principles; so also is + Professor Bastable's _Commerce of Nations_. Among authors who have + restated the principles with special reference to the revived + controversy on the subject may be mentioned Professor W. Smart, _The + Return to Protection, being a Restatement of the Case for Free Trade_ + (2nd ed., 1906), and A. C. Pigou, _Protective and Preferential Import + Duties_ (1906). (W. Cu.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] E. Misselden, _Free Trade or the Meanes to make Trade Flourish_ + (1622), p. 68; G. Malynes, _The Maintenance of Free Trade_ (1622), p. + 105. + + [2] H. Parker, _Of a Free Trade_ (1648), p. 8. + + [3] (1787), 27 Geo. III. c. 13. + + [4] Sir Walter Scott, _Guy Mannering_, chapter v. + + [5] Gladstone, "Free Trade, Railways and Commerce," in _Nineteenth + Century_ (Feb. 1880), vol. vii. p. 370. + + [6] Parker states a similar argument in the form in which it suited + the special problem of his day. "If merchandise be good for the + commonweal, then the more common it is made, the more open it is + laid, the more good it will convey to us." _Op. cit._ 20. + + [7] Schmoller, _Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre_ + (1904), ii. 607. + + [8] Byles, _Sophisms of Free Trade_; L. S. Amery, _Fundamental + Fallacies of Free Trade_, 13. + + [9] W. Cunningham, _Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement_, PP. + 5-11. + + [10] _Wealth of Nations_, book iv. chap. ii. + + [11] _Principles of Political Economy_, 485. + + [12] J. Morley, _Life of Cobden_, i. 230. + + [13] "Memoire," 6 April 1776, in _Oeuvres_, viii. 460. + + [14] Jefferson, _Notes on Virginia_, 275. See also the articles on + JEFFERSON and HAMILTON, ALEXANDER. + + [15] One incidental effect of the failure to secure free trade was + that the African slave trade, with West Indies as a depot for + supplying the American market, ceased to be remunerative, and the + opposition to the abolition of the trade was very much weaker than it + would otherwise have been; see Hochstetter, "Die wirtschaftlichen und + politischen Motive fuer die Abschaffung des britischen + Sklavenhandels," in Schmoller, _Staats und Sozialwissenschaftliche + Forschungen_, xxv. i. 37. + + [16] J. Welsford, "Cobden's Foreign Teacher," in _National Review_ + (December 1905). + + [17] _Compatriot Club Lectures_ (1905), p. 306. + + [18] J. S. Mill, _Principles of Political Economy_, book v. chapter + x. Sec. 1. + + [19] F. S. Oliver, _Alexander Hamilton_, 142. + + [20] The standard is, of course, lower among the negroes and mean + whites in the South than in the North and West. + + [21] F. Beauclerk, "Free Trade in India," in _Economic Review_ (July + 1907), xvii. 284. + + [22] A. E. Murray, _History of the Commercial and Financial Relations + between England and Ireland_, 294. + + [23] For the tariff reform movement in English politics see the + article on CHAMBERLAIN, J. Among continental writers G. Schmoller + (_Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre_, ii. 641) and A. + Wagner (Preface to M. Schwab's _Chamberlains Handelspolitik_) + pronounce in favour of a change, as Fuchs did by anticipation. + Schulze-Gaevernitz (_Britischer Imperialismus und englischer + Freihandel_), Aubry (_Etude critique de la politique commerciale de + l'Angleterre a l'egard de ses colonies_), and Blondel (_La politique + Protectionniste en Angleterre un nouveau danger pour la France_) are + against it. + + + + +FREGELLAE, an ancient town of Latium adiectum, situated on the Via +Latina, 11 m. W.N.W. of Aquinum, near the left branch of the Liris. It +is said to have belonged in early times to the Opici or Oscans, and +later to the Volscians. It was apparently destroyed by the Samnites a +little before 330 B.C., in which year the people of Fabrateria Vetus +(mod. Ceccano) besought the help of Rome against them, and in 328 B.C. a +Latin colony was established there. The place was taken in 320 B.C. by +the Samnites, but re-established by the Romans in 313 B.C. It continued +henceforward to be faithful to Rome; by breaking the bridges over the +Liris it interposed an obstacle to the advance of Hannibal on Rome in +212 B.C., and it was a native of Fregellae who headed the deputation of +the non-revolting colonies in 209 B.C. It appears to have been a very +important and flourishing place owing to its command of the crossing of +the Liris, and to its position in a fertile territory, and it was here +that, after the rejection of the proposals of M. Fulvius Flaccus for the +extension of Roman burgess-rights in 125 B.C., a revolt against Rome +broke out. It was captured by treachery in the same year and destroyed; +but its place was taken in the following year by the colony of +Fabrateria Nova, 3 m. to the S.E. on the opposite bank of the Liris, +while a post station Fregellanum (mod. Ceprano) is mentioned in the +itineraries; Fregellae itself, however, continued to exist as a village +even under the empire. The site is clearly traceable about 1/2 m. E. of +Ceprano, but the remains of the city are scanty. + + See G. Colasanti, _Fregellae, storia e topografia_ (1906). (T. As.) + + + + +FREIBERG, or FREYBERG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on +the Muenzbach, near its confluence with the Mulde, 19 m. S.W. of Dresden +on the railway to Chemnitz, with a branch to Nossen. Pop. (1905) 30,896. +Its situation, on the rugged northern slope of the Erzgebirge, is +somewhat bleak and uninviting, but the town is generally well built and +makes a prosperous impression. A part of its ancient walls still +remains; the other portions have been converted into public walks and +gardens. Freiberg is the seat of the general administration of the mines +throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated mining academy +(_Bergakademie_), founded in 1765, is frequented by students from all +parts of the world. Connected with it are extensive collections of +minerals and models, a library of 50,000 volumes, and laboratories for +chemistry, metallurgy and assaying. Among its distinguished scholars it +reckons Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817), who was also a professor +there, and Alexander von Humboldt. Freiberg has extensive manufactures +of gold and silver lace, woollen cloths, linen and cotton goods, iron, +copper and brass wares, gunpowder and white-lead. It has also several +large breweries. In the immediate vicinity are its famous silver and +lead mines, thirty in number, and of which the principal ones passed +into the property of the state in 1886. The castle of Freudenstein or +Freistein, as rebuilt by the elector Augustus in 1572, is situated in +one of the suburbs and is now used as a military magazine. In its +grounds a monument was erected to Werner in 1851. The cathedral, rebuilt +in late Gothic style after its destruction by fire in 1484 and restored +in 1893, was founded in the 12th century. Of the original church a +magnificent German Romanesque doorway, known as the Golden Gate +(_Goldene Pforte_), survives. The church contains numerous monuments, +among others one to Prince Maurice of Saxony. Adjoining the cathedral is +the mausoleum (_Begraebniskapelle_), built in 1594 in the Italian +Renaissance style, in which are buried the remains of Henry the Pious +and his successors down to John George IV., who died in 1694. Of the +other four Protestant churches the most noteworthy is the Peterskirche +which, with its three towers, is a conspicuous object on the highest +point of the town. Among the other public buildings are the old +town-hall, dating from the 15th century, the antiquarian museum, and the +natural history museum. There are a classical and modern, a commercial +and an agricultural school, and numerous charitable institutions. + +Freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines (c. 1163). +The town, with the castle of Freudenstein, was built by Otto the Rich, +margrave of Meissen, in 1175, and its name, which first appears in 1221, +is derived from the extensive mining franchises granted to it about that +time. In all the partitions of the territories of the Saxon house of +Wettin, from the latter part of the 13th century onward, Freiberg always +remained common property, and it was not till 1485 (the mines not till +1537) that it was definitively assigned to the Albertine line. The +Reformation was introduced into Freiberg in 1536 by Henry the Pious, who +resided here. The town suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War, +and again during the French occupation from 1806 to 1814, during which +time it had to support an army of 700,000 men and find forage for +200,000 horses. + + See H. Gerlach, _Kleine Chronik von Freiberg_ (2nd ed., Freiberg, + 1898); H. Ermisch, _Das Freiberger Stadtrecht_ (Leipzig, 1889); + Ermisch and O. Posse, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Freiberg_, in _Codex + diplom. Sax. reg._ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1883-1891); _Freibergs Berg- und + Huettenwesen_, published by the Bergmaennischer Verein (Freiberg, 1883); + Ledebur, _Ueber die Bedeutung der Freiberger Bergakademie_ (_ib._ + 1903); Steche, _Bau- und Kunstdenkmaeler der Amtshauptmannschaft + Freiberg_ (Dresden, 1884). + + + + +FREIBURG, a town of Germany in Prussian Silesia, on the Polsnitz, 35 m. +S.W. of Breslau, on the railway to Halbstadt. Pop. (1905) 9917. It has +an Evangelical and Roman Catholic church, and its industries include +watch-making, linen-weaving and distilling. In the neighbourhood are the +old and modern castles of the Fuerstenstein family, whence the town is +sometimes distinguished as Freiburg unter dem Fuerstenstein. At Freiburg, +on the 22nd of July 1762, the Prussians defended themselves successfully +against the superior forces of the Austrians. + + + + +FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, an archiepiscopal see and city of Germany in the +grand duchy of Baden, 12 m. E. of the Rhine, beautifully situated on the +Dreisam at the foot of the Schlossberg, one of the heights of the Black +Forest range, on the railway between Basel and Mannheim, 40 m. N. of the +former city. Pop. (1905) 76,285. The town is for the most part well +built, having several wide and handsome streets and a number of spacious +squares. It is kept clean and cool by the waters of the river, which +flow through the streets in open channels; and its old fortifications +have been replaced by public walks, and, what is more unusual, by +vineyards. It possesses a famous university, the Ludovica Albertina, +founded by Albert VI., archduke of Austria, in 1457, and attended by +about 2000 students. The library contains upwards of 250,000 volumes and +600 MSS., and among the other auxiliary establishments are an anatomical +hall and museum and botanical gardens. The Freiburg minster is +considered one of the finest of all the Gothic churches of Germany, +being remarkable alike for the symmetry of its proportions, for the +taste of its decorations, and for the fact that it may more correctly be +said to be finished than almost any other building of the kind. The +period of its erection probably lies for the most part between 1122 and +1252; but the choir was not built till 1513. The tower, which rises +above the western entrance, is 386 ft. in height, and it presents a +skilful transition from a square base into an octagonal superstructure, +which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most +exquisite open work in stone. In the interior of the church are some +beautiful stained glass windows, both ancient and modern, the tombstones +of several of the dukes of Zaehringen, statues of archbishops of +Freiburg, and paintings by Holbein and by Hans Baldung (c. 1470-1545), +commonly called Gruen. Among the other noteworthy buildings of Freiburg +are the palaces of the grand duke and the archbishop, the old town-hall, +the theatre, the _Kaufhaus_ or merchants' hall, a 16th-century building +with a handsome facade, the church of St Martin, with a graceful spire +restored 1880-1881, the new town-hall, completed 1901, in Renaissance +style, and the Protestant church, formerly the church of the abbey of +Thennenbach, removed hither in 1839. In the centre of the fish-market +square is a fountain surmounted by a statue of Duke Berthold III. of +Zaehringen; in the Franziskaner Platz there is a monument to Berthold +Schwarz, the traditional discoverer here, in 1259, of gunpowder; the +Rotteck Platz takes its name from the monument of Karl Wenzeslaus von +Rotteck (1775-1840), the historian, which formerly stood on the site of +the Schwarz statue; and in Kaiser Wilhelm Strasse a bronze statue was +erected in 1876 to the memory of Herder, who in the early part of the +19th century founded in Freiburg an institute for draughtsmen, engravers +and lithographers, and carried on a famous bookselling business. On the +Schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two castles +destroyed by the French in 1744; and about 2 m. to the N.E. stands the +castle of Zaehringen, the original seat of the famous family of the +counts of that name. Situated on the ancient road which runs by the +Hoellenpass between the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine, Freiburg +early acquired commercial importance, and it is still the principal +centre of the trade of the Black Forest. It manufactures buttons, +chemicals, starch, leather, tobacco, silk thread, paper, and hempen +goods, as well as beer and wine. + +Freiburg is of uncertain foundation. In 1120 it became a free town, with +privileges similar to those of Cologne; but in 1219 it fell into the +hands of a branch of the family of Urach. After it had vainly attempted +to throw off the yoke by force of arms, it purchased its freedom in +1366; but, unable to reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money, +it was, in 1368, obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of +Hapsburg. In the 17th and 18th centuries it played a considerable part +as a fortified town. It was captured by the Swedes in 1632, 1634 and +1638; and in 1644 it was seized by the Bavarians, who shortly after, +under General Mercy, defeated in the neighbourhood the French forces +under Enghien and Turenne. The French were in possession from 1677 to +1697, and again in 1713-1714 and 1744; and when they left the place in +1748, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, they dismantled the +fortifications. The Baden insurgents gained a victory at Freiburg in +1848, and the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in June +1849, but in the following July the Prussian forces took possession and +occupied it until 1851. Since 1821 Freiburg has been the seat of an +archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of Mainz, Rottenberg and +Limburg. + + See Schreiber, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Muensters zu Freiburg_ + (1820 and 1825); _Geschichte der Stadt und Universitaet Freiburgs_ + (1857-1859); _Der Schlossberg bei Freiburg_ (1860); and Albert, _Die + Geschichtsschreibung der Stadt Freiburg_ (1902). + +_Battles of Freiburg, 3rd, 5th and 10th of August 1644._--During the +Thirty Years' War the neighbourhood of Freiburg was the scene of a +series of engagements between the French under Louis de Bourbon, due +d'Enghien (afterwards called the great Conde), and Henri de la Tour +d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne, and the Bavarians and Austrians +commanded by Franz, Freiherr von Mercy. + +At the close of the campaign of 1643 the French "Army of Weimar," having +been defeated and driven into Alsace by the Bavarians, had there been +reorganized under the command of Turenne, then a young general of +thirty-two and newly promoted to the marshalate. In May 1644 he opened +the campaign by recrossing the Rhine and raiding the enemy's posts as +far as Ueberlingen on the lake of Constance and Donaueschingen on the +Danube. The French then fell back with their booty and prisoners to +Breisach, a strong garrison being left in Freiburg. The Bavarian +commander, however, revenged himself by besieging Freiburg (June 27th), +and Turenne's first attempt to relieve the place failed. During July, as +the siege progressed, the French government sent the duc d'Enghien, who +was ten years younger still than Turenne, but had just gained his great +victory of Rocroy, to take over the command. Enghien brought with him a +veteran army, called the "Army of France," Turenne remaining in command +of the Army of Weimar. The armies met at Breisach on the 2nd of August, +by which date Freiburg had surrendered. At this point most commanders of +the time would have decided not to fight, but to manoeuvre Mercy away +from Freiburg; Enghien, however, was a fighting general, and Mercy's +entrenched lines at Freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an +obstacle. A few hours after his arrival, therefore, without waiting for +the rearmost troops of his columns, he set the combining armies in +motion for Krozingen, a village on what was then the main road between +Breisach and Freiburg. The total force immediately available numbered +only 16,000 combatants. Enghien and Turenne had arranged that the Army +of France was to move direct upon Freiburg by Wolfenweiter, while the +Army of Weimar was to make its way by hillside tracks to Wittnau and +thence to attack the rear of Mercy's lines while Enghien assaulted them +in front. Turenne's march (August 3rd, 1644) was slow and painful, as +had been anticipated, and late in the afternoon, on passing Wittnau, he +encountered the enemy. The Weimarians carried the outer lines of defence +without much difficulty, but as they pressed on towards Merzhausen the +resistance became more and more serious. Turenne's force was little more +than 6000, and these were wearied with a long day of marching and +fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the Black Forest. Thus the +turning movement came to a standstill far short of Uffingen, the village +on Mercy's line of retreat that Turenne was to have seized, nor was a +flank attack possible against Mercy's main line, from which he was +separated by the crest of the Schoenberg. Meanwhile, Enghien's army had +at the prearranged hour (4 P.M.) attacked Mercy's position on the +Ebringen spur. A steep slope, vineyards, low stone walls and abatis had +all to be surmounted, under a galling fire from the Bavarian musketeers, +before the Army of France found itself, breathless and in disorder, in +front of the actual entrenchments of the crest. A first attack failed, +as did an attempt to find an unguarded path round the shoulder of the +Schoenberg. The situation was grave in the extreme, but Enghien resolved +on Turenne's account to renew the attack, although only a quarter of his +original force was still capable of making an effort. He himself and all +the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led the infantry forward +again, the prince threw his baton into the enemy's lines for the +soldiers to retrieve, and in the end, after a bitter struggle, the +Bavarians, whose reserves had been taken away to oppose Turenne in the +Merzhausen defile, abandoned the entrenchments and disappeared into the +woods of the adjoining spur. Enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops, +fearing at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counter-stroke; +but none came. The French bivouacked in the rain, Turenne making his way +across the mountain to confer with the prince, and meanwhile Mercy +quietly drew off his army in the dark to a new set of entrenchments on +the ridge on which stood the Loretto Chapel. On the 4th of August the +Army of France and the Army of Weimar met at Merzhausen, the rearmost +troops of the Army of France came in, and the whole was arranged by the +major-generals in the plain facing the Loretto ridge. This position was +attacked on the 5th. Enghien had designed his battle even more carefully +than before, but as the result of a series of accidents the two French +armies attacked prematurely and straight to their front, one brigade +after another, and though at one moment Enghien, sword in hand, broke +the line of defence with his last intact reserve, a brilliant +counterstroke, led by Mercy's brother Kaspar (who was killed), drove out +the assailants. It is said that Enghien lost half his men on this day +and Mercy one-third of his, so severe was the battle. But the result +could not be gainsaid; it was for the French a complete and costly +failure. + +For three days after this the armies lay in position without fighting, +the French well supplied with provisions and comforts from Breisach, the +Bavarians suffering somewhat severely from want of food, and especially +forage, as all their supplies had to be hauled from Villingen over the +rough roads of the Black Forest. Enghien then decided to make use of the +Glotter Tal to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of +supply, and thus to force the Bavarians either to attack him at a +serious disadvantage, or to retreat across the hills with the loss of +their artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by +famine and desertion. With this object, the Army of Weimar was drawn off +on the morning of the 9th of August and marched round by Betzenhausen +and Lehen to Langen Denzling. The infantry of the Army of France, then +the trains, followed, while Enghien with his own cavalry faced Freiburg +and the Loretto position. + +[Illustration: Map-Battle of Freiburg.] + +Before dawn on the 10th the advance guard of Turenne's army was +ascending the Glotter Tal. But Mercy had divined his adversary's plan, +and leaving a garrison to hold Freiburg, the Bavarian army had made a +night march on the 9/10th to the Abbey of St Peter, whence on the +morning of the 10th Mercy fell back to Graben, his nearest magazine in +the mountains. Turenne's advanced guard appeared from the Glotter Tal +only to find a stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey. A +sharp action began, but Mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the French +infantry in the Glotter Tal broke it off and continued his retreat in +good order. Enghien thus obtained little material result from his +manoeuvre. Only two guns and such of Mercy's wagons that were unable to +keep up fell into the hands of the French. Enghien and Turenne did not +continue the chase farther than Graben, and Mercy fell back unmolested +to Rothenburg on the Tauber. + +The moral results of this sanguinary fighting were, however, important +and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable soldiers. +Enghien's pertinacity had not achieved a decision with the sword, but +Mercy had been so severely punished that he was unable to interfere with +his opponent's new plan of campaign. This, which was carried out by the +united armies and by reinforcements from France, while Turenne's cavalry +screened them by bold demonstrations on the Tauber, led to nothing less +than the conquest of the Rhine Valley from Basel to Coblenz, a task +which was achieved so rapidly that the Army of France and its victorious +young leader were free to return to France in two months from the time +of their appearance in Turenne's quarters at Breisach. + + + + +FREIDANK (VRIDANC), the name by which a Middle High German didactic poet +of the early 13th century is known. It has been disputed whether the +word, which is equivalent to "free-thought," is to be regarded as the +poet's real name or only as a pseudonym; the latter is probably the +case. Little is known of Freidank's life. He accompanied Frederick II. +on his crusade to the Holy Land, where, in the years 1228-1229, a +portion at least of his work was composed; and it is said that on his +tomb (if indeed it was not the tomb of another Freidank) at Treviso +there was inscribed, with allusion to the character of his style, "he +always spoke and never sang." Wilhelm Grimm originated the hypothesis +that Freidank was to be identified with Walther von der Vogelweide; but +this is no longer tenable. Freidank's work bears the name of +_Bescheidenheit_, i.e. "practical wisdom," "correct judgment," and +consists of a collection of proverbs, pithy sayings, and moral and +satirical reflections, arranged under general heads. Its popularity till +the end of the 16th century is shown by the great number of MSS. extant. + + Sebastian Brant published the _Bescheidenheit_ in a modified form in + 1508. Wilhelm Grimm's edition appeared in 1834 (2nd ed. 1860), H. F. + Bezzenberger's in 1872. A later edition is by F. Sandvoss (1877). The + old Latin translation, _Fridangi Discretio_, was printed by C. Lemcke + in 1868; and there are two translations into modern German, A. + Bacmeister's (1861) and K. Simrock's (1867). See also F. Pfeiffer, + _Ueber Freidank_ (_Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_, 1855), and H. + Paul, _Ueber die urspruengliche Anordnung von Freidanks Bescheidenheit_ + (1870). + + + + +FREIENWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Oder, +28 m. N.E. of Berlin, on the Frankfort-Angermuende railway. Pop. (1905) +7995. It has a small palace, built by the Great Elector, an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, and manufactures of furniture, machinery, +&c. The neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a +favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of Berlin. A new tower +commands a fine view of the Oderbruch (see ODER). Freienwalde, which +must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same name in +Pomerania, first appears as a town in 1364. + + + + +FREIESLEBENITE, a rare mineral consisting of sulphantimonite of silver +and lead, (Pb, Ag2)5Sb4S11. The monoclinic crystals are prismatic in +habit, with deeply striated prism and dome faces. The colour is +steel-grey, and the lustre metallic; hardness 21/2, specific gravity 6.2. +It occurs with argentite, chalybite and galena in the silver veins of +the Himmelsfuerst mine at Freiberg, Saxony, where it has been known since +1720. The species was named after J. K. Freiesleben, who had earlier +called it _Schilf-Glaserz_. Other localities are Hiendelaencina near +Guadalajara in Spain, Kapnik-Banya in Hungary, and Guanajuato in Mexico. +A species separated from freieslebenite by V. von Zepharovich in 1871, +because of differences in crystalline form, is known as diaphorite (from +[Greek: diaphora], "difference"); it is very similar to freieslebenite +in appearance and has perhaps the same chemical composition (or possibly +Ag2PbSb2S5), but is orthorhombic in crystallization. A third mineral +also very similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic +andorite, AgPbSb3S6, which is mined as a silver ore at Oruro in Bolivia. + + + + +FREIGHT, (pronounced like "weight"; derived from the Dutch _vracht_ or +_vrecht_, in Fr. _fret_, the Eng. "fraught" being the same word, and +formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective = +"laden"), the lading or cargo of a ship, and the hire paid for their +transport (see AFFREIGHTMENT); from the original sense of +water-transport of goods the word has also come to be used for +land-transit (particularly in America, by railroad), and by analogy for +any load or burden. + + + + +FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND (1810-1876), German poet, was born at Detmold on +the 17th of June 1810. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native +town, and in his sixteenth year was sent to Soest, with a view to +preparing him for a commercial career. Here he had also time and +opportunity to acquire a taste for French and English literature. The +years from 1831 to 1836 he spent in a bank at Amsterdam, and 1837 to +1839 in a business house at Barmen. In 1838 his _Gedichte_ appeared and +met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the idea of a +commercial life and resolved to devote himself entirely to literature. +His repudiation of the political poetry of 1841 and its revolutionary +ideals attracted the attention of the king of Prussia, Frederick William +IV., who, in 1842, granted him a pension of 300 talers a year. He +married, and, to be near his friend Emanuel Geibel, settled at St Goar. +Before long, however, Freiligrath was himself carried away by the rising +tide of liberalism. In the poem _Ein Glaubensbekenntnis_ (1844) he +openly avowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old +adversary, Georg Herwegh; the day, he declared, of his own poetic +trifling with Romantic themes was over; Romanticism itself was dead. He +laid down his pension, and, to avoid the inevitable political +persecution, took refuge in Switzerland. As a sequel to the +_Glaubensbekenntnis_ he published _Ca ira!_ (1846), which strained still +further his relations with the German authorities. He fled to London, +where he resumed the commercial life he had broken off seven years +before. When the Revolution of 1848 broke out, it seemed to Freiligrath, +as to all the liberal thinkers of the time, the dawn of an era of +political freedom; and, as may be seen from the poems in his collection +of _Politische und soziale Gedichte_ (1849-1851), he welcomed it with +unbounded enthusiasm. He returned to Germany and settled in Duesseldorf; +but it was not long before he had again called down upon himself the +ill-will of the ruling powers by a poem, _Die Toten an die Lebenden_ +(1848). He was arrested on a charge of _lese-majeste_, but the +prosecution ended in his acquittal. New difficulties arose; his +association with the democratic movement rendered him an object of +constant suspicion, and in 1851 he judged it more prudent to go back to +London, where he remained until 1868. In that year he returned to +Germany, settling first in Stuttgart and in 1875 in the neighbouring +town of Cannstatt, where he died on the 18th of March 1876. + +As a poet, Freiligrath was the most gifted member of the German +revolutionary group. Coming at the very close of the Romantic age, his +own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most part the familiar +thoughts and imagery of his Romantic predecessors; but at an early age +he had been attracted by the work of French contemporary poets, and he +reinvigorated the German lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of +Victor Hugo. In this reconciliation of French and German romanticism lay +Freiligrath's significance for the development of the lyric in Germany. +His remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to be +seen in his translations of English and Scottish ballads, of the poetry +of Burns, Mrs Hemans, Longfellow and Tennyson (_Englische Gedichte aus +neuerer Zeit_, 1846; _The Rose, Thistle and Shamrock_, 1853, 6th ed. +1887); he also translated Shakespeare's _Cymbeline_, _Winter's Tale_ and +_Venus and Adonis_, as well as Longfellow's _Hiawatha_ (1857). +Freiligrath is most original in his revolutionary poetry. His poems of +this class suffer, it is true, under the disadvantage of all political +poetry--purely temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much +that has no claim to be called poetry at all--but the agitator +Freiligrath, when he is at his best, displays a vigour and strength, a +power of direct and cogent poetic expression, not to be found in any +other political singer of the age. + + Freiligrath's _Gedichte_ have passed through some fifty editions, and + his _Gesammelte Dichtungen_, first published in 1870, have reached a + sixth edition (1898). _Nachgelassenes_ (including a translation of + Byron's _Mazeppa_) was published in 1883. A selection of Freiligrath's + best-known poems in English translation was edited by his daughter, + Mrs Freiligrath-Kroeker, in 1869; also _Songs of a Revolutionary + Epoch_ were translated by J. L. Joynes in 1888. Cp. E. + Schmidt-Weissenfels, _F. Freiligrath, eine Biographie_ (1876); W. + Buchner, _F. Freiligrath, ein Dichterleben in Briefen_ (2 vols., + 1881); G. Freiligrath, _Erinnerungen an F. Freiligrath_ (1889); P. + Besson, _Freiligrath_ (Paris, 1899); K. Richter, _Freiligrath als + Uebersetzer_ (1899). (J. G. R.) + + + + +FREIND, JOHN (1675-1728), English physician, younger brother of Robert +Freind (1667-1751), headmaster of Westminster school, was born in 1675 +at Croton in Northamptonshire. He made great progress in classical +knowledge under Richard Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church, +Oxford, under Dean Aldrich, and while still very young, produced, along +with Peter Foulkes, an excellent edition of the speeches of Aeschines +and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon. After this he began the +study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attainments by +various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry at Oxford in +1704. In the following year he accompanied the English army, under the +earl of Peterborough, into Spain, and on returning home in 1707, wrote +an account of the expedition, which attained great popularity. Two years +later he published his _Prelectiones chimicae_, which he dedicated to +Sir Isaac Newton. Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders, +whither he had accompanied the British troops, he took up his residence +in London, where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician. In +1716 he became fellow of the college of physicians, of which he was +chosen one of the censors in 1718, and Harveian orator in 1720. In 1722 +he entered parliament as member for Launceston in Cornwall, but, being +suspected of favouring the cause of the exiled Stuarts, he spent half of +that year in the Tower. During his imprisonment he conceived the plan of +his most important work, _The History of Physic_, of which the first +part appeared in 1725, and the second in the following year. In the +latter year he was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office +which he held till his death on the 26th of July 1728. + + A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of the + _History of Physic_, edited by Dr John Wigan, was published in London + in 1732. + + + + +FREINSHEIM [FREINSHEMIUS], JOHANN (1608-1660), German classical scholar +and critic, was born at Ulm on the 16th of November 1608. After studying +at the universities of Marburg, Giessen and Strassburg, he visited +France, where he remained for three years. He returned to Strassburg in +1637, and in 1642 was appointed professor of eloquence at Upsala. In +1647 he was summoned by Queen Christina to Stockholm as court librarian +and historiographer. In 1650 he resumed his professorship at Upsala, but +early in the following year he was obliged to resign on account of +ill-health. In 1656 he became honorary professor at Heidelberg, and died +on the 31st of August 1660. Freinsheim's literary activity was chiefly +devoted to the Roman historians. He first introduced the division into +chapters and paragraphs, and by means of carefully compiled indexes +illustrated the lexical peculiarities of each author. He is best known +for his famous supplements to Quintus Curtius and Livy, containing the +missing books written by himself. He also published critical editions of +Curtius and Florus. + + + + +FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSE (1719-1773), Portuguese historian and +philologist, was born at Lisbon on the 3rd of January 1719. He belonged +to the monastic society of St Philip Neri, and was a zealous member of +the literary association known as the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion +with which he adopted the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed +much to the improvement of the style of Portuguese prose literature, but +his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry by a +translation of Horace's _Ars poetica_ was less successful. The work in +which he set forth his opinions regarding the vicious taste pervading +the current Portuguese prose literature is entitled _Maximas sobre a +Arte Oratoria_ (1745) and is preceded by a chronological table forming +almost a social and physical history of Portugal. His best known work, +however, is his _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (1758), which has given +him a place in the first rank of Portuguese historians, and has been +translated into French (Paris, 1781). He also wrote a poetical +dictionary (_Diccionario poetico_) and a translation of Racine's +_Athalie_ (1762), and his _Reflexions sur la langue portugaise_ was +published in 1842 by the Lisbon society for the promotion of useful +knowledge. He died at Mafra on the 5th of July 1773. + + + + +FREISCHUeTZ, in German folklore, a marksman who by a compact with the +devil has obtained a certain number of bullets destined to hit without +fail whatever object he wishes. As the legend is usually told, six of +the _Freikugeln_ or "free bullets" are thus subservient to the +marksman's will, but the seventh is at the absolute disposal of the +devil himself. Various methods were adopted in order to procure +possession of the marvellous missiles. According to one the marksman, +instead of swallowing the sacramental host, kept it and fixed it on a +tree, shot at it and caused it to bleed great drops of blood, gathered +the drops on a piece of cloth and reduced the whole to ashes, and then +with these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his +bullets were made. Various vegetable or animal substances had the +reputation of serving the same purpose. Stories about the Freischuetz +were especially common in Germany during the 14th, 15th and 16th +centuries; but the first time that the legend was turned to literary +profit is said to have been by Apel in the _Gespensterbuch_ or "Book of +Ghosts." It formed the subject of Weber's opera _Der Freischuetz_ (1821), +the libretto of which was written by Friedrich Kind, who had suggested +Apel's story as an excellent theme for the composer. The name by which +the Freischuetz is known in French is Robin des Bois. + + See Kind, _Freyschuetzbuch_ (Leipzig, 1843); _Revue des deux mondes_ + (February 1855); Graesse, _Die Quelle des Freischuetz_ (Dresden, 1875). + + + + +FREISING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Isar, 16 +m. by rail N.N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 13,538. Among its eight Roman +Catholic churches the most remarkable is the cathedral, which dates from +about 1160 and is famous for its curious crypt. Noteworthy also are the +old palace of the bishops, now a clerical seminary, the theological +lyceum and the town-hall. There are several schools in the town, and +there is a statue to the chronicler, Otto of Freising, who was bishop +here from 1138 to 1158. Freising has manufactures of agricultural +machinery and of porcelain, while printing and brewing are carried on. +Near the town is the site of the Benedictine abbey of Weihenstephan, +which existed from 725 to 1803. This is now a model farm and brewery. +Freising is a very ancient town and is said to have been founded by the +Romans. After being destroyed by the Hungarians in 955 it was fortified +by the emperor Otto II. in 976 and by Duke Welf of Bavaria in 1082. A +bishopric was established here in 724 by St Corbinianus, whose brother +Erimbert was consecrated second bishop by St Boniface in 739. Later on +the bishops acquired considerable territorial power and in the 17th +century became princes of the Empire. In 1802 the see was secularized, +the bulk of its territories being assigned to Bavaria and the rest to +Salzburg, of which Freising had been a suffragan bishopric. In 1817 an +archbishopric was established at Freising, but in the following year it +was transferred to Munich. The occupant of the see is now called +archbishop of Munich and Freising. + + See C. Meichelbeck, _Historiae Frisingensis_ (Augsburg, 1724-1729, new + and enlarged edition 1854). + + + + +FREJUS, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France. Pop. (1906) +3430. It is 281/2 m. S.E. of Draguignan (the chief town of the +department), and 221/2 m. S.W. of Cannes by rail. It is only important on +account of the fine Roman remains that it contains, for it is now a mile +from the sea, its harbour having been silted up by the deposits of the +Argens river. Since the 4th century it has been a bishop's see, which is +in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence. In modern times the +neighbouring fishing village at St Raphael (21/2 m. by rail S.E., and on +the seashore) has become a town of 4865 inhabitants (in 1901); in 1799 +Napoleon disembarked there, on his return from Egypt, and reembarked for +Elba in 1814, while nowadays it is much frequented as a health resort, +as is also Valescure (2 m. N.W. on the heights above). The cathedral +church in part dates from the 12th century, but only small portions of +the old medieval episcopal palace are now visible, as it was rebuilt +about 1823. The ramparts of the old town can still be traced for a long +distance, and there are fragments of two moles, of the theatre and of a +gate. The amphitheatre, which seated 12,000 spectators, is in a better +state of preservation. The ruins of the great aqueduct which brought the +waters of the Siagnole, an affluent of the Siagne, to the town, can +still be traced for a distance of nearly 19 m. The original hamlet was +the capital of the tribe of the Oxybii, while the town of Forum Julii +was founded on its site by Julius Caesar in order to secure to the +Romans a harbour independent of that of Marseilles. The buildings of +which ruins exist were mostly built by Caesar or by Augustus, and show +that it was an important naval station and arsenal. But the town +suffered much at the hands of the Arabs, of Barbary pirates, and of its +inhabitants, who constructed many of their dwellings out of the ruined +Roman buildings. The ancient harbour (really but a portion of the +lagoons, which had been deepened) is now completely silted up. Even in +early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual digging, while +about 1700 this was closed, and now a sandy and partly cultivated waste +extends between the town and the seashore. + + See J. A. Aubenas, _Histoire de Frejus_ (Frejus, 1881); Ch. Lentheric, + _La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1880), chap. vii. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE (1817-1885), American lawyer and +statesman, of Dutch descent, was born at Millstone, New Jersey, on the +4th of August 1817. His grandfather, Frederick Frelinghuysen +(1753-1804), was an eminent lawyer, one of the framers of the first New +Jersey constitution, a soldier in the War of Independence, and a member +(1778-1779 and 1782-1783) of the Continental Congress from New Jersey, +and in 1793-1796 of the United States senate; and his uncle, Theodore +(1787-1862), was attorney-general of New Jersey from 1817 to 1829, was a +United States senator from New Jersey in 1829-1835, was the Whig +candidate for vice-president on the Clay ticket in 1844, and was +chancellor of the university of New York in 1839-1850 and president of +Rutgers College in 1850-1862. Frederick Theodore, left an orphan at the +age of three, was adopted by his uncle, graduated at Rutgers in 1836, +and studied law in Newark with his uncle, to whose practice he succeeded +in 1839, soon after his admission to the bar. He became attorney for the +Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Morris Canal and Banking Company, +and other corporations, and from 1861 to 1867 was attorney-general of +New Jersey. In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace congress at +Washington, and in 1866 was appointed by the governor of New Jersey, as +a Republican, to fill a vacancy in the United States senate. In the +winter of 1867 he was elected to fill the unexpired term, but a +Democratic majority in the legislature prevented his re-election in +1869. In 1870 he was nominated by President Grant, and confirmed by the +senate, as United States minister to England to succeed John Lothrop +Motley, but declined the mission. From 1871 to 1877 he was again a +member of the United States senate, in which he was prominent in debate +and in committee work, and was chairman of the committee on foreign +affairs during the Alabama Claims negotiations. He was a strong opponent +of the reconstruction measures of President Johnson, for whose +conviction he voted (on most of the specific charges) in the impeachment +trial. He was a member of the joint committee which drew up and reported +(1877) the Electoral Commission Bill, and subsequently served as a +member of the commission. On the 12th of December 1881 he was appointed +secretary of state by President Arthur to succeed James G. Blaine, and +served until the inauguration of President Cleveland in 1885. Retiring, +with his health impaired by overwork, to his home in Newark, he died +there on the 20th of May, less than three months after relinquishing the +cares of office. + + + + +FREMANTLE, a seaport of Swan county, Western Australia, at the mouth of +the Swan river, 12 m. by rail S.W. of Perth. It is the terminus of the +Eastern railway, and is a town of some industrial activity, +shipbuilding, soap-boiling, saw-milling, smelting, iron-founding, +furniture-making, flour-milling, brewing and tanning being its chief +industries. The harbour, by the construction of two long moles and the +blasting away of the rocks at the bar, has been rendered secure. The +English, French and German mail steamers call at the port. Fremantle +became a municipality in 1871; but there are now three separate +municipalities--Fremantle, with a population in 1901 of 14,704; +Fremantle East (2494); and Fremantle North (3246). At Rottnest Island, +off the harbour, there are government salt-works and a residence of the +governor, also penal and reformatory establishments. + + + + +FREMIET, EMMANUEL (1824- ), French sculptor, born in Paris, was a +nephew and pupil of Rude; he chiefly devoted himself to animal sculpture +and to equestrian statues in armour. His earliest work was in scientific +lithography (osteology), and for a while he served in times of adversity +in the gruesome office of "painter to the Morgue." In 1843 he sent to +the Salon a study of a "Gazelle," and after that date was very prolific +in his works. His "Wounded Bear" and "Wounded Dog" were produced in +1850, and the Luxembourg Museum at once secured this striking example of +his work. From 1855 to 1859 Fremiet was engaged on a series of military +statuettes for Napoleon III. He produced his equestrian statue of +"Napoleon I." in 1868, and of "Louis d'Orleans" in 1869 (at the Chateau +de Pierrefonds) and in 1874 the first equestrian statue of "Joan of +Arc," erected in the Place des Pyramides, Paris; this he afterwards +(1889) replaced with another and still finer version. In the meanwhile +he had exhibited his masterly "Gorilla and Woman" which won him a medal +of honour at the Salon of 1887. Of the same character, and even more +remarkable, is his "Ourang-Outangs and Borneo Savage" of 1895, a +commission from the Paris Museum of Natural History. Fremiet also +executed the statue of "St Michael" for the summit of the spire of the +Eglise St Michel, and the equestrian statue of Velasquez for the Jardin +de l'Infante at the Louvre. He became a member of the Academie des +Beaux-Arts in 1892, and succeeded Barye as professor of animal drawing +at the Natural History Museum of Paris. + + + + +FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES (1813-1890), American explorer, soldier and +political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the 21st of January +1813. His father, a native of France, died when the boy was in his sixth +year, and his mother, a member of an aristocratic Virginia family, then +removed to Charleston, South Carolina. In 1828, after a year's special +preparation, young Fremont entered the junior class of the college of +Charleston, and here displayed marked ability, especially in +mathematics; but his irregular attendance and disregard of college +discipline led to his expulsion from the institution, which, however, +conferred upon him a degree in 1836. In 1833 he was appointed teacher of +mathematics on board the sloop of war "Natchez," and was so engaged +during a cruise along the South American coast which was continued for +about two and a half years. Soon after returning to Charleston he was +appointed professor of mathematics in the United States navy, but he +chose instead to serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken +chiefly for the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a +proposed railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. In July 1838 he was +appointed second lieutenant of Topographical Engineers in the United +States army, and for the next three years he was assistant to the French +explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollet (1786-1843), employed by the war +department to survey and map a large part of the country lying between +the upper waters of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In 1841 Fremont +surveyed, for the government, the lower course of the Des Moines river. +In the same year he married Jessie, the daughter of Senator Thomas H. +Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure through Benton's +influence with the government that Fremont was enabled to accomplish +within the next few years the exploration of much of the territory +between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Ocean. + +When the claim of the United States to the Oregon territory was being +strengthened by occupation, Fremont was sent, at his urgent request, to +explore the frontier beyond the Missouri river, and especially the Rocky +Mountains in the vicinity of the South Pass, through which the American +immigrants travelled. Within four months (1842) he surveyed the Pass and +ascended to the summit of the highest of the Wind River Mountains, since +known as Fremont's Peak, and the interest aroused by his descriptions +was such that in the next year he was sent on a second expedition to +complete the survey across the continent along the line of travel from +Missouri to the mouth of the Columbia river. This time he not only +carried out his instructions but, by further explorations together with +interesting descriptions, dispelled general ignorance with respect to +the main features of the country W. of the Rocky Mountains: the Great +Salt Lake, the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the fertile +river basins of the Mexican province of California. + +His report of this expedition upon his return to Washington, D.C., in +1844, aroused much solicitude for California, which, it was feared, +might, in the event of war then threatening between the United States +and Mexico, be seized by Great Britain. In the spring of 1845 Fremont +was despatched on a third expedition for the professed purposes of +further exploring the Great Basin and the Pacific Coast, and of +discovering the easiest lines of communication between them, as well as +for the secret purpose of assisting the United States, in case of war +with Mexico, to gain possession of California. He and his party of +sixty-two arrived there in January 1846. Owing to the number of American +immigrants who had settled in California, the Mexican authorities there +became suspicious and hostile, and ordered Fremont out of the province. +Instead of obeying he pitched his camp near the summit of a mountain +overlooking Monterey, fortified his position, and raised the United +States flag. A few days later he was proceeding toward the Oregon border +when new instructions from Washington caused him to retrace his steps +and, perhaps, to consider plans for provoking war. The extent of his +responsibility for the events that ensued is not wholly clear, and has +been the subject of much controversy; his defenders have asserted that +he was not responsible for the seizure of Sonoma or for the so-called +"Bear-Flag War"; and that he played a creditable part throughout. (For +an opposite view see CALIFORNIA.) Commodore John D. Sloat, after seizing +Monterey, transferred his command to Commodore Robert Field Stockton +(1795-1866), who made Fremont major of a battalion; and by January 1847 +Stockton and Fremont completed the conquest of California. In the +meantime General Stephen Watts Kearny (1794-1848) had been sent by the +Government to conquer it and to establish a government. This created a +conflict of authority between Stockton and Kearny, both of whom were +Fremont's superior officers. Stockton, ignoring Kearny, commissioned +Fremont military commandant and governor. But Kearny's authority being +confirmed about the 1st of April, Fremont, for repeated acts of +disobedience, was sent under arrest to Washington, where he was tried by +court-martial, found guilty (January 1847) of mutiny, disobedience and +conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced to dismissal +from the service. President Polk approved of the verdict except as to +mutiny, but remitted the penalty, whereupon Fremont resigned. + +With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring acquired by the +United States, Fremont was eager for a railway from the Atlantic to the +Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out at his own and Senator Benton's +expense to find passes for such a railway along a line westward from the +headwaters of the Rio Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led +astray by a guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several +of his men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger, +he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and then +westward through the valley of the Gila into southern California. Late +in the year 1853, however, he returned to the place where the guide had +led him astray, found passes through the mountains to the westward +between latitudes 37 deg. and 38 deg. N., and arrived in San Francisco early in +May 1854. From the conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855, +when he removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in +December 1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators +from the new state. But as he drew the short term, he served only from +the 10th of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851. Although a +candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the pro-slavery party. His +opposition to slavery, however, together with his popularity--won by the +successes, hardships and dangers of his exploring expeditions, and by +his part in the conquest of California--led to his nomination, largely +on the ground of "availability," for the presidency in 1856 by the +Republicans (this being their first presidential campaign), and by the +National Americans or "Know-Nothings." In the ensuing election he was +defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes. + +Soon after the Civil War began, Fremont was appointed major-general and +placed in command of the western department with headquarters at St +Louis, but his lack of judgment and of administrative ability soon became +apparent, the affairs of his department fell into disorder, and Fremont +seems to have been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted. +On the 30th of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which he declared +the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated and their slaves +emancipated. For this he was applauded by the radical Republicans, but +his action was contrary to an act of congress of the 6th of August and to +the policy of the Administration. On the 11th of September President +Lincoln, who regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might +alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he was trying +to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by serious charges +against Fremont, the president sent Montgomery Blair, the +postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs, the quartermaster-general, +to investigate the department; they reported that Fremont's management +was extravagant and inefficient; and in November he was removed. Out of +consideration for the "Radicals," however, Fremont was placed in command +of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. In the +spring and summer of 1862 he co-operated with General N. P. Banks against +"Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability +as a commander, was defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his +troops were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form the +Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed in command, +Fremont declined to serve under Pope, whom he outranked, and retired from +active service. On the 31st of May 1864 he was nominated for the +presidency by a radical faction of the Republican party, opposed to +President Lincoln, but his following was so small that on the 21st of +September he withdrew from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor +of the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was +appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the retired +list. He died in New York on the 13th of July 1890. + + See J. C. Fremont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky + Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844_ + (Washington, 1845); Fremont's _Memoirs of my Life_ (New York, 1887); + and J. Bigelow, _Memoirs of the Life and Public Services of John C. + Fremont_ (New York, 1856). + + + + +FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Dodge county, Nebraska, U.S.A., +about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank of the Platte river, which +here abounds in picturesque bluffs and wooded islands. Pop. (1890) 6747; +(1900) 7241 (1303 foreign-born); (1910) 8718. It is on the main line of +the Union Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago & +North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the formerly +independent Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley and the Sioux City & +Pacific) converge here. The city has an attractive situation and is +beautifully shaded. It has a public library and is the seat of the +Fremont College, Commercial Institute and School of Pharmacy (1875), a +private institution. There is considerable local trade with the rich +farming country of the Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale +grain interests are especially important. Among the manufactures are +flour, carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators and +beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and +water-works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became the county-seat in +1860. It was chartered as a city (second-class) in 1871, and became a +city of the first class in 1901. + + + + +FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Sandusky county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7141; (1900) 8439, +of whom 1074 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9939. Fremont is served by +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake +Erie & Western, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The river is +navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of +Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public library +(1873) and parks, in large measure the gifts of his uncle, Sardis +Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural region; oil and +natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the city has various +manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons, cutlery, bricks, +agricultural implements, stoves and ranges, safety razors, carriage +irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet sugar, canned vegetables, +malt extract, garters and suspenders. The total factory product was +valued at $2,833,385 in 1905, an increase of 23.4% over that of 1900. +Fremont is on the site of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a +trading post was at times maintained here; but the place is best known +in history as the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of +1812, and on the 2nd of August 1813 gallantly and successfully defended +by Major George Croghan (1791-1849), with 160 men, against about 1000 +British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry A. Proctor. In 1906 +Croghan's remains were re-interred on the site of the old fort. Until +1849, when the present name was adopted in honour of J. C. Fremont, the +place was known as Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in +1829 and was first chartered as a city in 1867. + + + + +FREMY, EDMOND (1814-1894), French chemist, was born at Versailles on the +29th of February 1814. Entering Gay-Lussac's laboratory in 1831, he +became _preparateur_ at the Ecole Polytechnique in 1834 and at the +College de France in 1837. His next post was that of _repetiteur_ at the +Ecole Polytechnique, where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in +1850 he succeeded Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Museum +d'Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession to M. E. +Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd of February +1894. His work included investigations of osmic acid, of the ferrates, +stannates, plumbates, &c., and of ozone, attempts to obtain free +fluorine by the electrolysis of fused fluorides, and the discovery of +anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and of a series of _acides sulphazotes_, the +precise nature of which long remained a matter of discussion. He also +studied the colouring matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of +bone, cerebral matter and other animal substances, and the processes of +fermentation, in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of +Pasteur's views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical +applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a teacher to +the training of industrial chemists. In this field he contributed to our +knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel, sulphuric acid, glass +and paper, and in particular worked at the saponification of fats with +sulphuric acid and the utilization of palmitic acid for candle-making. +In the later years of his life he applied himself to the problem of +obtaining alumina in the crystalline form, and succeeded in making +rubies identical with the natural gem not merely in chemical composition +but also in physical properties. + + + + +FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- ), American sculptor, was born at +Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 20th of April 1850, the son of Henry Flagg +French, a lawyer, who for a time was assistant-secretary of the United +States treasury. After a year at the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology, French spent a month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then +began to work on commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received +from the town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known +statue "The Minute Man," which was unveiled (April 19, 1875) on the +centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French had gone to +Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas Ball. French's +best-known work is "Death Staying the Hand of the Sculptor," a memorial +for the tomb of the sculptor Martin Milmore, in the Forest Hills +cemetery, Boston; this received a medal of honour at Paris, in 1900. +Among his other works are: a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly, Boston; +"Gen. Cass," National Hall of Statuary, Washington; "Dr Gallaudet and +his First Deaf-Mute Pupil," Washington; the colossal "Statue of the +Republic," for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago; statues of Rufus +Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge, Mass.), and Thomas Starr King +(San Francisco, California), a memorial to the architect Richard M. +Hunt, in Fifth Avenue, opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large +"Alma Mater," near the approach to Columbia University, New York. In +collaboration with Edward C. Potter he modelled the "Washington," +presented to France by the Daughters of the American Revolution; the +"General Grant" in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and the "General Joseph +Hooker" in Boston. French became a member of the National Academy of +Design (1901), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League, +and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome. + + + + +FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an Irish political +pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He was educated at Louvain, and +returning to Ireland became a priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was +appointed bishop of Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the +political disturbances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave +Ireland in 1651, and the remainder of his life was passed on the +continent of Europe. He acted as coadjutor to the archbishops of +Santiago de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop of Ghent, and died +at Ghent on the 23rd of August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack on +James Butler, marquess of Ormonde, entitled "The Unkinde Desertor of +Loyall Men and True Frinds," and shortly afterwards "The Bleeding +Iphigenia." The most important of his other pamphlets is the "Narrative +of the Earl of Clarendon's Settlement and Sale of Ireland" (Louvain, +1668). + + The _Historical Works_ of Bishop French, comprising the three + pamphlets already mentioned and some letters, were published by S. H. + Bindon at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, _Irish Writers of the 17th + Century_ (Dublin, 1846); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _Contemporary History of + Affairs in Ireland_, 1641-1652 (Dublin, 1879-1880); and T. Carte, + _Life of James, Duke of Ormond_ (new ed., Oxford, 1851). + + + + +FRENCH CONGO, the general name of the French possessions in equatorial +Africa. They have an area estimated at 700,000 sq. m., with a +population, also estimated, of 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. The whites +numbered (1906) 1278, of whom 502 were officials. French Congo, +officially renamed FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910, comprises--(1) the +Gabun Colony, (2) the Middle Congo Colony, (3) the Ubangi-Shari +Circumscription, (4) the Chad Circumscription. The two last-named +divisions form the Ubangi-Shari-Chad Colony. + +The present article treats of French Congo as a unit. It is of highly +irregular shape. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish) +Muni River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the Sahara, E. +by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian Congo and the Portuguese +territory of Kabinda. In the greater part of its length the southern +frontier is the middle course of the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the +chief northern affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the +frontier keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course is +partitioned between Belgium and Portugal. The coast line, some 600 m. +long, extends from 5 deg. S. to 1 deg. N. The northern frontier, starting inland +from the Muni estuary, after skirting the Spanish settlements follows a +line drawn a little north of 2 deg. N. and extending east to 16 deg. E. North of +this line the country is part of Cameroon, German territory extending so +far inland from the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the +Ubangi. From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French +Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east until +the Shari is reached in 10 deg. 40' N. The Shari then forms the frontier up +to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan regions of French +West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating the colony from the +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting between the Nile and the +Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the +northern part of French Congo (see WADAI and BAGIRMI). + + _Physical Features._--The coast line, beginning in the north at + Corisco Bay, is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by the + estuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly + straight line until the delta of the Ogowe is reached, where Cape + Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends uniformly S.E. + without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of Mayumba, + the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be mentioned. A + large proportion of the coast region is occupied by primeval forest, + with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft., but there is a + considerable variety of scenery--open lagoons, mangrove swamps, + scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of tangled + underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches of + cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from 3000 + to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with an + elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep + river-valleys, the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in + some places 760 ft. high. + + [Illustration: Map of French Congo.] + + The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces. On the + higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand; on the + second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide grassy + tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin forest, + and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m. broad. + The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally + unnavigable. The most important, the Ogowe (q.v.), is, however, + navigable from its mouth to N'Jole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to the + south of the Ogowe are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu. The + latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi and the Luete; it has + a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south, from east + to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-west. It is + encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only over 38 m., + and for five months in the year. The mouth is 1100 ft. wide. The Muni + river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed by cataracts in + its passage through the escarpment to the coast. + + Nearly all the upper basin of the Shari (q.v.) as well as the right + bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part of + the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo river. + In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi, 330 m. of + the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French protectorate as + well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some 100 m. however, the + right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these subsidiary + streams, is in German territory (see CONGO). + + _Geology._--Three main divisions are recognized in the French + Congo:--(1) the littoral zone, covered with alluvium and superficial + deposits and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the + mountain zone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite, + metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern + portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The core of + the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists. Infolded with + them, and on the flanks, are three rock systems ascribed to the + Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossiliferous, but + fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see CONGO FREE STATE). + Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal Mountains. The + plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist of a lower red + sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group. They have not + yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age, with + _Schloenbachia inflata_, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowe + basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene facies overlie + the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented sand, + erroneously termed laterite, covers large areas in the littoral zone, + on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau. + + _Climate._--The whole of the country being in the equatorial region, + the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans. On the + coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (15th of May to + 15th of September), the rainy season (15th of September to 15th of + January), then a second dry season (15th of January to 1st of March), + and a second rainy season (1st of March to 15th of May). The rainfall + at Libreville is about 96 in. a year. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile and + several kinds of apes--including the chimpanzee and the rare + gorilla--are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are various + and beautiful--grey parrots, shrikes, fly-catchers, rhinoceros birds, + weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-birds, + from the _Cecyle Sharpii_ to the dwarfish _Alcedo cristata_, butterfly + finches, and helmet-birds (_Turacus giganteus_), as well as more + familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious + climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the _Protopterus_ or + lung-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry + season, the strange and poisonous _Tetrodon guttifer_, and the + herring-like _Pellona africana_, often caught in great shoals--are the + more remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the + lagoons, and the huge _Cardisoma armatum_ or heart-crab is fattened + for table. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most + familiar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking + bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one + above the other. + + Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs, + silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms--especially _Hyphaene + guineensis_ (a fan-palm), _Raphia_ (the wine-palm), and _Elaeis + guineensis_ (the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably _Anona + senegalensis_), and the _pallabanda_, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are + common in the prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft. + along the rivers; the banks are fringed by the cottony _Hibiscus + tiliaceus_, ipomaeas and fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bound + together in one inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the + upper Shari region, and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, are + species of the coffee tree, one species attaining a height of over 60 + ft. Its bean resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality. + Among the fruit trees are the mango and the papaw, the orange and the + lemon. Negro-pepper (a variety of capsicum) and ginger grow wild. + + _Inhabitants and Chief Towns._--A census, necessarily imperfect, taken + in 1906 showed a total population, exclusive of Wadai, of 3,652,000, + divided in districts as follows:--Gabun, 376,000; Middle Congo, + 259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 885,000. The country is + peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions bordering Lake + Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-Arab tribes. Among + the best-known tribes living in French Congo are the Fang (Fans), the + Bakalai, the Batekes and the Zandeh or Niam-Niam. Several of the + tribes are cannibals and among many of them the fetish worship + characteristic of the West African negroes prevails. Their + civilization is of a low order. In the northern regions the majority + of the inhabitants are Mahommedans, and it is only in those districts + that organized and powerful states exist. Elsewhere the authority of a + chief or "king" extends, ordinarily, little beyond the village in + which he lives. (An account of the chief tribes is given under their + names.) The European inhabitants are chiefly of French nationality, + and are for the most part traders, officials and missionaries. + + The chief towns are Libreville (capital of the Gabun colony) with 3000 + inhabitants; Brazzaville, on the Congo on the north side of Stanley + Pool (opposite the Belgian capital of Leopoldville), the seat of the + governor-general; Franceville, on the upper Ogowe; Loango, an + important seaport in 4 deg. 39' S.; N'Jole, a busy trading centre on the + lower Ogowe; Chekna, capital of Bagirmi, which forms part of the Chad + territory; Abeshr, the capital of Wadai, Bangi on the Ubangi river, + the administrative capital of the Ubangi-Shari-Chad colony. Kunde, + Lame and Binder are native trading centres near the Cameroon frontier. + + _Communications._--The rivers are the chief means of internal + communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is obtained by + ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence round the + falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazzaville on + Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navigation N.E. + into the heart of Africa, 330 m. being on the Congo and 350 m. on the + Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo, where rapids block the + river, but beyond that port there are several navigable stretches of + the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to the Nile is possible by + means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries. The Sanga, which joins the + Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be navigated by steamers for 350 + m., i.e. up to and beyond the S.E. frontier of the German colony of + Cameroon. The Shari is also navigable for a considerable distance and + by means of its affluent, the Logone, connects with the Benue and + Niger, affording a waterway between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad. + Stores for government posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by + this route. There is, however, no connecting link between the coast + rivers--Gabun, Ogowe and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about + 500 m. long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys + for the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that + from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line, 75 m. long, from + Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November + 1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district + served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai a + caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengazi on the shores of the + Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Brazzaville and + Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe by + submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango and + Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg. + + _Trade and Agriculture._--The chief wealth of the colony consists in + the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to + manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and + tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and vanilla + are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold, iron and + copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from Mindule since + 1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next in importance + coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other woods, coffee, cocoa + and copal. The imports are mainly cotton and metal goods, spirits and + foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin of the Ogowe the French + customs tariff, with some modifications, prevails, but in the Congo + basin, that is, in the greater part of the country, by virtue of + international agreements, no discrimination can be made between French + and other merchandise, whilst customs duties must not exceed 10% _ad + valorem_.[1] In the Shari basin and in Wadai the Anglo-French + declaration of March 1899 accorded for thirty years equal treatment to + British and French goods. The value of the trade rose in the ten years + 1896-1905 from L360,000 to L850,000, imports and exports being nearly + equal. The bulk of the export trade is with Great Britain, which takes + most of the rubber, France coming second and Germany third. The + imports are in about equal proportions from France and foreign + countries. + + _Land Tenure. The Concessions Regime._--Land held by the natives is + governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native ownership + in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater part of the + country is considered a state domain. Land held by Europeans is + subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates as have been + registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of March 1899, + when, registration having been effected, the title to the land is + guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has been + divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability + companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the + land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered in + 1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over L2,000,000, whilst + the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. m. One + effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the + business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most important + were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent of + the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the European + powers were signatories, equality of treatment in commercial affairs + was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin, protests were raised + against the terms of the concessions. The reply was that the critics + confused the exercise of the right of proprietorship with the act of + commerce, and that in no country was the landowner who farmed his land + and sold the produce regarded as a merchant. Various decisions by the + judges of the colony during 1902 and 1903 and by the French _cour de + cassation_ in 1905 confirmed that contention. The action of the + companies was, however, in most cases, neither beneficial to the + country nor financially successful, whilst the native cultivators + resented the prohibition of their trading direct with their former + customers. The case of the Liverpool traders was taken up by the + British government and it was agreed that the dispute should be + settled by arbitration. In September 1908 the French government issued + a decree reorganizing and rendering more stringent the control + exercised by the local authorities over the concession companies, + especially in matters concerning the rights of natives and the liberty + of commerce. + + + De Brazza's treaties. + +_History._--The Gabun was visited in the 15th century by the Portuguese +explorers, and it became one of the chief seats of the slave trade. It +was not, however, till well on in the 19th century that Europeans made +any more permanent settlement than was absolutely necessary for the +maintenance of their commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral) +Bouet-Willaumez obtained for France the right of residence on the left +bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank. The +primary object of the French settlement was to secure a port wherein +men-of-war could revictual. The chief establishment, Libreville, was +founded in 1849, with negroes taken from a slave ship. The settlement in +time acquired importance as a trading port. In 1867 the troops numbered +about 1000, and the civil population about 5000, while the official +reports about the same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000 +sq. m. and a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to France +in 1862, and the colony's coast-line extended, nominally, to a length of +200 m. In consequence of the war with Germany the colony was practically +abandoned in 1871, the establishment at Libreville being maintained as a +coaling depot merely. In 1875, however, France again turned her +attention to the Gabun estuary, the hinterland of which had already been +partly explored. Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1855-1859 and 1863-1865) to +the south of the Ogowe; Walker, an English merchant, explored the +Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogowe, in 1866. In 1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a +French naturalist, and the marquis de Compiegne[2] explored a portion of +the Ogowe basin, but it was not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that +the country east of the Ogowe was reached. This expedition was led by +Savorgnan de Brazza (q.v.), who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugene +Ballay, and, for part of the time, by Marche. De Brazza's expedition, +which was compelled to remain for many months at several places, +ascended the Ogowe over 400 m., and beyond the basin of that stream +discovered the Alima, which was, though the explorers were ignorant of +the fact, a tributary of the Congo. From the Alima, de Brazza and Ballay +turned north and finally reached the Gabun in November 1878, the journey +being less fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate. +Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had revealed +the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey, begun December 1879, +the French traveller undertook to find a way to the Congo above the +rapids via the Ogowe. In this he was successful, and in September 1880 +reached Stanley Pool, on the north side of which Brazzaville was +subsequently founded. Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de +Brazza met Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the +International African Association (see CONGO FREE STATE), but de Brazza +in reality acted solely in the interests of France and concluded +treaties with Makoko, "king of the Batekes," and other chieftains, +placing very large areas under the protection of that country. The +conflicting claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free +State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in February +1885.[3] In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had more fully explored +the country behind the coast regions of Gabun and Loango, the last-named +seaport being occupied by France in 1883. The conclusion of agreements +with Germany (December 1885 and February-March 1894) and with Portugal +(May 1886) secured France in the possession of the western portion of +the colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo Free +State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the Ubangi +district. + + + The advance towards the Nile: Fashoda. + +The extension of French influence northward towards Lake Chad and +eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed, though not +without involving the country in serious disputes with the other +European powers possessing rights in those regions. By creating the +posts of Bangi (1890), Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her +hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same time the Congo Free +State passed the parallel of 4 deg. N.--which, after the compromise of 1887, +France had regarded as the southern boundary of her possessions--and, +occupying the sultanate of Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed +on as far as 9 deg. N. The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and +after the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the +Congo State of the 12th of May of that year, against which both the +German and the French governments protested, the last named because it +erected a barrier against the extension of French territory to the Nile +valley. By a compromise of the 14th of August the boundary was +definitely drawn and, in accordance with this pact, which put the +frontier back to about 4 deg. N., France from 1895 to 1897 took possession +of the upper Ubangi, with Bangasso, Rafai and Zemio. Then began the +French encroachment on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition, +despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-governor of +the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897 and Fashoda in July 1898. +A dispute with Great Britain arose, and it was decided that the +expedition should evacuate Fashoda. The declaration of the 21st of March +1899 finally terminated the dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the +French colony as already stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty +of June 1900 settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast, +the boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were determined +in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was precisely defined by +another Franco-German agreement in April 1908, following a detailed +survey made by joint commissioners in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive +description of these international rivalries see AFRICA, Sec. 5, and for +the conquest of the Chad regions see BAGIRMI and RABAH ZOBEIR. In the +other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the natives, +for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France with Wadai see +that article. + +Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient Gabun +colony was joined to the Congo territories. From 1886 to 1889 Gabun was, +however, separately administered. By decree of the 11th of December 1888 +the whole of the French possessions were created one "colony" under the +style of Congo francais, with various subdivisions; they were placed +under a commissioner-general (de Brazza) having his residence at +Brazzaville. This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic +development of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits of +the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see AFRICA, Sec. 5) enjoyed +a separate tariff. By decree of the 29th of December 1903 (which became +operative in July 1904) Congo francais was divided into four parts as +named in the opening paragraph. The first commissioner-general under the +new scheme was Emile Gentil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In 1905 +de Brazza was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and +maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several of +which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when on his way home. +The French government, after considering the report he had drawn up, +decided to retain Gentil as commissioner-general, making however (decree +of 15th of February 1906) various changes in administration with a view +to protect the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil, who +devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the finances of the +country and the development of its commerce, resigned his post in +February 1908. He was succeeded by M. Merlin, whose title was changed +(June 1908) to that of governor-general. + + _Administration and Revenue._--The governor-general has control over + the whole of French Congo, but does not directly administer any part + of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors. The + Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the + coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowe + river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the + hinterland not within the Congo free-trade zone (the Chad district + excepted). The Middle Congo has for its western frontier the Gabun + colony and Cameroon, and extends inland to the easterly bend of the + Ubangi river; the two circumscriptions extend east and north of the + Middle Congo. There is a general budget for the whole of French Congo; + each colony has also a separate budget and administrative autonomy. As + in other French colonies the legislative power is in the French + chambers only, but in the absence of specific legislation presidential + decrees have the force of law. A judicial service independent of the + executive exists, but the district administrators also exercise + judicial functions. Education is in the hands of the missionaries, + upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909. The military force + maintained consists of natives officered by Europeans. + + Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid by concession + companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and customs receipts, + supplemented by a subvention from France. In addition to defraying the + military expenses, about L100,000 a year, a grant of L28,000 yearly + was made up to 1906 by the French chambers towards the civil expenses. + In 1907 the budget of the Congo balanced at about L250,000 without the + aid of this subvention. In 1909 the chambers sanctioned a loan for the + colony of L840,000, guaranteed by France and to be applied to the + establishment of administrative stations and public works. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fernand Rouget, _L'Expansion coloniale au Congo + francais_ (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, with bibliography and + maps; A. Chevalier, _L'Afrique centrale francaise_ (Paris, 1907). For + special studies see Lacroix, _Resultats mineralogiques et zoologiques + des recentes explorations de l'Afrique occidentale francaise et de la + region du Tchad_ (Paris, 1905); M. Barrat, _Sur la geologie du Congo + francais_ (Paris, 1895), and _Ann. des mines_, ser. q. t. vii. (1895); + J. Cornet, "Les Formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo," _Ann. + soc, geol. belg._ vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris _Bulletin du Museum_ for + 1903 and 1904 contains papers on the zoology of the country. For flora + see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in _Comptes rendus de l'academie + des sciences_ (1902-1904), and the _Journal d'agriculture pratique des + pays chauds_ (1901, &c.). For history, besides Rouget's book, see J. + Ancel, "Etude historique. La formation de la colonie du Congo + francais, 1843-1882," containing an annotated bibliography, in _Bull. + Com. l'Afrique francaise_, vol. xii. (1902); the works cited under + BRAZZA; and E. Gentil, _La Chute de l'empire de Rabah_ (Paris, 1902). + Of earlier books of travels the most valuable are:--Paul du Chaillu, + _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1861); _A + Journey to Ashonga Land_ (London, 1867); and Sir R. Burton, _Two Trips + to Gorilla Land_ (London, 1876). Of later works see Mary H. Kingsley, + _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); A. B. de Mezieres, _Rapport + de mission sur le Haut Oubangui, le M'Bomou et le Bahr-el-Ghazal_ + (Paris, 1903); and C. Maistre, _A travers l'Afrique centrale du Congo + au Niger_, 1892-1893 (Paris, 1895). For the story of the concession + companies see E. D. Morel, _The British Case in French Congo_ (London, + 1903). (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Berlin Act of 1885; Brussels conference of 1890 (see AFRICA: + _History_). + + [2] Louis Eugene Henri Dupont, marquis de Compiegne (1846-1877), on + his return from the West coast replaced Georg Schweinfurth at Cairo + as president of the geographical commission. Arising out of this + circumstance de Compiegne was killed in a duel by a German named + Mayer. + + [3] A Franco-Belgian agreement of the 23rd of Dec. 1908 defined + precisely the frontier in the lower Congo. Bamu Island in Stanley + Pool was recognized as French. + + + + +FRENCH GUINEA, a French colony in West Africa, formerly known as +Rivieres du Sud. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by Portuguese +Guinea and Senegal, E. by Upper Senegal and the Ivory Coast, and S. by +Liberia and Sierra Leone. With a sea-board running N.N.W. and S.S.E. +from 10 deg. 50' N. to 9 deg. 2' N., a distance, without reckoning the +indentations, of 170 m., the colony extends eastward 450 m. in a +straight line and attains a maximum width N. to S. of nearly 300 m., +covering fully 100,000 sq. m., and containing a population estimated at +2,000,000 to 2,500,000. + + _Physical Features._--Though in one or two places rocky headlands jut + into the sea, the coast is in general sandy, low, and much broken by + rivers and deep estuaries, dotted with swampy islands, giving it the + appearance of a vast delta. In about 9 deg. 30' N., off the promontory of + Konakry, lie the Los Islands (q.v.), forming part of the colony. The + coast plain, formed of alluvial deposits, is succeeded about 30 m. + inland by a line of cliffs, the Susu Hills, which form the first step + in the terrace-like formation of the interior, culminating in the + massif of Futa Jallon, composed chiefly of Archean and granite rocks. + While the coast lands are either densely forested or covered with + savannas or park-like country, the Futa Jallon tableland is mainly + covered with short herbage. This tableland, the hydrographic centre of + West Africa, is most elevated in its southern parts, where heights of + 5000 ft. are found. Near the Sierra Leone frontier this high land is + continued westward to within 20 m. of the sea, where Mount Kakulima + rises over 3300 ft. East and south of Futa Jallon the country slopes + to the basin of the upper Niger, the greater part of which is included + in French Guinea. The southern frontier is formed by the escarpments + which separate the Niger basin from those of the coast rivers of + Liberia. Besides the Niger, Gambia and Senegal, all separately + noticed, a large number of streams running direct to the Atlantic rise + in Futa Jallon. Among them are the Great and Little Scarcies, whose + lower courses are in Sierra Leone, and the Rio Grande which enters the + sea in Portuguese Guinea. Those whose courses are entirely in French + Guinea include the Cogon (or Componi), the Rio Nunez, the Fatalla + (which reaches the sea through an estuary named Rio Pongo), the + Konkure, whose estuary is named Rio Bramaya, the Forekaria and the + Melakori. The Cogon, Fatallah and Konkure are all large rivers which + descend from the plateaus through deep, narrow valleys in rapids and + cataracts, and are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth. + + _Climate._--The climate of the coast district is hot, moist and + unhealthy, with a season of heavy rain lasting from May to November, + during which time variable winds, calms and tornadoes succeed one + another. The mean temperature in the dry season, when the "harmattan" + is frequent, is 62 deg. Fahr., in the wet season 86 deg.. Throughout the year + the humidity of the air is very great. There is much rain in the Futa + Jallon highlands, but the Niger basin is somewhat drier. In that + region and in the highlands the climate is fairly healthy for + Europeans and the heat somewhat less than on the coast. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The seashore and the river banks are lined with + mangroves, but the most important tree of the coast belt is the + oil-palm. The dense forests also contain many varieties of lianas or + rubber vines, huge bombax and bamboos. Gum-producing and kola trees + are abundant, and there are many fruit trees, the orange and citron + growing well in the Susu and Futa Jallon districts. The cotton and + coffee plants are indigenous; banana plantations surround the + villages. The baobab and the karite (shea butter tree) are found only + in the Niger districts. The fauna is not so varied as was formerly the + case, large game having been to a great extent driven out of the coast + regions. The elephant is rare save in the Niger regions. The lion is + now only found in the northern parts of Futa Jallon; panthers, + leopards, hyenas and wild cats are more common and the civet is found. + Hippopotamus, otter and the wild boar are numerous; a species of wild + ox of small size with black horns and very agile is also found. The + forests contain many kinds of monkeys, including huge chimpanzees; + antelope are widespread but rather rare. Serpents are very common, + both venomous and non-venomous; the pythons attain a great size. + Fights between these huge serpents and the crocodiles which infest all + the rivers are said to be not uncommon. Turtles are abundant along the + coasts and in the Los Islands. Oysters are found in large numbers in + the estuaries and fixed to the submerged parts of the mangroves. + Freshwater oysters, which attain a large size, are also found in the + rivers, particularly in the Niger. Fish are abundant, one large-headed + species, in the Susu tongue called _khokon_, is so numerous as to have + given its name to a province, Kokunia. Birds are very numerous; they + include various eagles, several kinds of heron, the egret, the + marabout, the crane and the pelican; turacos or plantain-eaters, are + common, as are other brilliantly plumaged birds. Green and grey + parrots, ravens, swallows and magpies are also common. + + _Inhabitants._--On the banks of the Cogon dwell the Tendas and Iolas, + primitive Negro tribes allied to those of Portuguese Guinea (q.v.). + All other inhabitants of French Guinea are regarded as comparatively + late arrivals from the interior who have displaced the aborigines.[1] + Among the earliest of the new comers are the Baga, the Nalu, the + Landuman and the Timni, regarded as typical Negroes (q.v.). This + migration southward appears to have taken place before the 17th + century. To-day the Baga occupy the coast land between the Cogon and + the Rio Pongo, and the Landuman the country immediately behind that of + the Baga. The other tribes named are but sparsely represented in + French Guinea, the coast region south of the Nunez and all the + interior up to Futa Jallon being occupied by the Susu, a tribe + belonging to the great Mandingan race, which forced its way seaward + about the beginning of the 18th century and pressed back the Timni + into Sierra Leone. Futa Jallon is peopled principally by Fula (q.v.), + and the rest of the country by Malinke and other tribes of Mandingo + (q.v.). The Mandingo, the Fula and the Susu are Mahommedans, though + the Susu retain many of their ancient rites and beliefs--those + associated with spirit worship and fetish, still the religion of the + Baga and other tribes. In the north-west part of Futa Jallon are found + remnants of the aborigines, such as the Tiapi, Koniagui and the + Bassari, all typical Negro tribes. The white inhabitants number a few + hundreds only and are mainly French. Many of the coast peoples show, + however, distinct traces of white blood, the result chiefly of the + former presence of European slave traders. Thus at the Rio Pongo there + are numerous mulattos. South of that river the coast tribes speak + largely pidgin English. + + _Towns._--The principal towns are Konakry the capital, Boke, on the + Rio Nunez, Dubreka, on the coast, a little north of Konakry, Benty, on + the Melakori, Timbo and Labe, the chief towns of Futa Jallon, + Heremakono and Kindia, on the main road to the Niger, Kurussa and + Siguiri, on a navigable stretch of that river, and Bissandugu, + formerly Samory's capital, an important military station east of the + Niger. Konakry, in 9 deg. 30' N., 13 deg. 46' W., population about 20,000, is + the one port of entry on the coast. It is built on the little island + of Tombo which lies off the promontory of Konakry, the town being + joined to the mainland by an iron bridge. During the administration of + Noel Ballay (1848-1902), governor of the colony 1890-1900, Konakry was + transformed from a place of small importance to one of the chief ports + on the west coast of Africa and a serious rival to Freetown, Sierra + Leone. It has since grown considerably, and is provided with wharves + and docks and a jetty 1066 ft. long. There is an ample supply of good + water, and a large public garden in the centre of the town. In front + of Government House is a statue of M. Ballay. Konakry is a port of + call for French, British and German steamship companies, and is in + telegraphic communication with Europe. It is the starting-point of a + railway to the Niger (see below). The retail trade is in the hands of + Syrians. The town is governed by a municipality. + + _Products and Industry._--French Guinea possesses a fertile soil, and + is rich in tropical produce. The chief products are rubber, brought + from the interior, and palm oil and palm kernels, obtained in the + coast regions. Cotton is cultivated in the Niger basin. Gum copal, + ground-nuts and sesame are largely cultivated, partly for export. + Among minor products are coffee, wax and ivory. Large herds of cattle + and flocks of sheep are raised in Futa Jallon; these are sent in + considerable numbers to Sierra Leone, Liberia and French Congo. The + trade in hides is also of considerable value. The chief grain raised + is millet, the staple food of the people. The rubber is mainly + exported to England, the palm products to Germany, and the ground-nuts + to France. + + The principal imports are cotton goods, of which 80% come from Great + Britain, rice, kola nuts, chiefly from Liberia, spirits, tobacco, + building material, and arms and ammunition, chiefly "trade guns." The + average annual value of the trade for the period 1900-1907 was about + L1,250,000, the annual export of rubber alone being worth L400,000 or + more. The great bulk of the trade of the colony is with France and + Great Britain, the last-named country taking about 45% of the total; + Germany comes third. Since April 1905 a surtax of 7% has been imposed + on all goods of other than French origin. + + _Communications._--The railway from Konakry to the Niger at Kurussa, + by the route chosen a distance of 342 m., was begun in 1900, and from + 1902 has been built directly by the colony. The first section to + Kindia, 93 m., was opened in 1904. The second section, to near Timbo + in Futa Jallon, was completed in 1907, and the rails reached Kurussa + in 1910. From Kurussa the Niger is navigable at high water all the way + to Bamako in Upper Senegal, whence there is communication by rail and + river with St Louis and Timbuktu. Besides the railway there is an + excellent road, about 390 m. long, from Konakry to Kurussa, the road + in its lower part being close to the Sierra Leone frontier, with the + object of diverting trade from that British colony. Several other main + roads have been built by the French, and there is a very complete + telegraphic system, the lines having been connected with those of + Senegal in 1899. + +_History._--This part of the Guinea coast was made known by the +Portuguese voyagers of the 15th century. In consequence, largely, of the +dangers attending its navigation, it was not visited by the European +traders of the 16th-18th centuries so frequently as other regions north +and east, but in the Rio Pongo, at Matakong (a diminutive island near +the mouth of the Forekaria), and elsewhere, slave traders established +themselves, and ruins of the strongholds they built, and defended with +cannon, still exist. When driven from other parts of Guinea the slavers +made this difficult and little known coast one of their last resorts, +and many barracoons were built in the late years of the 18th century. It +was not until after the restoration of Goree to her at the close of the +Napoleonic wars that France evinced any marked interest in this region. +At that time the British, from their bases at the Gambia and Sierra +Leone, were devoting considerable attention to these Rivieres du Sud +(i.e. south of Senegal) and also to Futa Jallon. Rene Caillie, who +started his journey to Timbuktu from Boke in 1827, did much to quicken +French interest in the district, and from 1838 onward French naval +officers, Bouet-Willaumez and his successors, made detailed studies of +the coast. About the time that the British government became wearied of +its efforts to open up the interior of West Africa, General Faidherbe +was appointed governor of Senegal (1854), and under his direction +vigorous efforts were made to consolidate French influence. Already in +1848 treaty relations had been entered into with the Nalu, and between +that date and 1865 treaties of protectorate were signed with several of +the coast tribes. During 1876-1880 new treaties were concluded with the +chief tribes, and in 1881 the almany (or emir) of Futa Jallon placed his +country under French protection, the French thus effectually preventing +the junction, behind the coast lands, of the British colonies of the +Gambia and Sierra Leone. The right of France to the littoral as far +south as the basin of the Melakori was recognized by Great Britain in +1882; Germany (which had made some attempt to acquire a protectorate at +Konakry) abandoned its claims in 1885, while in 1886 the northern +frontier was settled in agreement with Portugal, which had ancient +settlements in the same region (see PORTUGUESE GUINEA). In 1899 the +limits of the colony were extended, on the dismemberment of the French +Sudan, to include the upper Niger districts. In 1904 the Los Islands +were ceded by Great Britain to France, in part return for the +abandonment of French fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. (See also +SENEGAL: _History_.) + +French Guinea was made a colony independent of Senegal in 1891, but in +1895 came under the supreme authority of the newly constituted +governor-generalship of French West Africa. Guinea has a considerable +measure of autonomy and a separate budget. It is administered by a +lieutenant-governor, assisted by a nominated council. Revenue is raised +principally from customs and a capitation tax, which has replaced a hut +tax. The local budget for 1907 balanced at L205,000. Over the greater +part of the country the native princes retain their sovereignty under +the superintendence of French officials. The development of agriculture +and education are objects of special solicitude to the French +authorities. In general the natives are friendly towards their white +masters. + + See M. Famechon, _Notice sur la Guinee francaise_ (Paris, 1900); J. + Chautard, _Etude geophysique et geologique sur le Fouta-Djallon_ + (Paris, 1905); Andre Arcin, _La Guinee francaise_ (Paris, 1906), a + valuable monograph; J. Machat, _Les Rivieres du Sud et la + Fouta-Diallon_ (Paris, 1906), another valuable work, containing + exhaustive bibliographies. Consult also F. Rouget, _La Guinee_ (Paris, + 1908), an official publication, the annual _Reports_ on French West + Africa, published by the British Foreign Office, and the Carte de la + Guinee francaise by A. Meunier in 4 sheets on the scale 1:500,000 + (Paris, 1902). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Numerous remains of a stone age have been discovered, both on the + coast and in the hinterland. See L. Desplagnes, "L'Archeologie + prehistorique en Guinee francaise," in _Bull. Soc. Geog. Comm. de + Bordeaux_, March 1907, and the authorities there cited. + + + + +FRENCH LANGUAGE. I. _Geography._--French is the general name of the +north-north-western group of Romanic dialects, the modern Latin of +northern Gaul (carried by emigration to some places--as lower +Canada--out of France). In a restricted sense it is that variety of the +Parisian dialect which is spoken by the educated, and is the general +literary language of France. The region in which the native language is +termed French consists of the northern half of France (including +Lorraine) and parts of Belgium and Switzerland; its boundaries on the +west are the Atlantic Ocean and the Celtic dialects of Brittany; on the +north-west and north, the English Channel; on the north-east and east +the Teutonic dialects of Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. In the +south-east and south the boundary is to a great extent conventional and +ill-defined, there being originally no linguistic break between the +southern French dialects and the northern Provencal dialects of southern +France, north-western Italy and south-western Switzerland. It is formed +partly by spaces of intermediate dialects (some of whose features are +French, others Provencal), partly by spaces of mixed dialects resulting +from the invasion of the space by more northern and more southern +settlers, partly by lines where the intermediate dialects have been +suppressed by more northern (French) and more southern (Provencal) +dialects without these having mixed. Starting in the west at the mouth +of the Gironde, the boundary runs nearly north soon after passing +Bordeaux; a little north of Angouleme it turns to the east, and runs in +this direction into Switzerland to the north of Geneva. + +II. _External History._--(a) _Political._--By the Roman conquests the +language of Rome was spread over the greater part of southern and +western Europe, and gradually supplanted the native tongues. The +language introduced was at first nearly uniform over the whole empire, +Latin provincialisms and many more or less general features of the older +vulgar language being suppressed by the preponderating influence of the +educated speech of the capital. As legions became stationary, as +colonies were formed, and as the natives adopted the language of their +conquerors, this language split up into local dialects, the +distinguishing features of which are due, as far as can be ascertained +(except, to some extent, as to the vocabulary), not to speakers of +different nationalities misspeaking Latin, each with the peculiarities +of his native language, but to the fact that linguistic changes, which +are ever occurring, are not perfectly uniform over a large area, however +homogeneous the speakers. As Gaul was not conquered by Caesar till the +middle of the first century before our era, its Latin cannot have begun +to differ from that of Rome till after that date; but the artificial +retention of classical Latin as the literary and official language after +the popular spoken language had diverged from it, often renders the +chronology of the earlier periods of the Romanic languages obscure. It +is, however, certain that the popular Latin of Gaul had become +differentiated from that of central Italy before the Teutonic conquest +of Gaul, which was not completed till the latter half of the 5th +century; the invaders gradually adopted the language of their more +civilized subjects, which remained unaffected, except in its vocabulary. +Probably by this time it had diverged so widely from the artificially +preserved literary language that it could no longer be regarded merely +as mispronounced Latin; the Latin documents of the next following +centuries contain many clearly popular words and forms, and the literary +and popular languages are distinguished as _latina_ and _romana_. The +term _gallica_, at first denoting the native Celtic language of Gaul, is +found applied to its supplanter before the end of the 9th century, and +survives in the Breton _gallek_, the regular term for "French." After +the Franks in Gaul had abandoned their native Teutonic language, the +term _francisca_, by which this was denoted, came to be applied to the +Romanic one they adopted, and, under the form _francaise_, remains its +native name to this day; but this name was confined to the Romanic of +northern Gaul, which makes it probable that this, at the time of the +adoption of the name _francisca_, had become distinct from the Romanic +of southern Gaul. _Francisca_ is the Teutonic adjective _frankisk_, +which occurs in Old English in the form _frencise_; this word, with its +umlauted _e_ from _a_ with following _i_, survives under the form +_French_, which, though purely Teutonic in origin and form, has long +been exclusively applied to the Romanic language and inhabitants of +Gaul. The German name _franzose_, with its accent on, and _o_ in, the +second syllable, comes from _francois_, a native French form older than +_francais_, but later than the Early Old French _franceis_. The +Scandinavian settlers on the north-west coast of France early in the +10th century quickly lost their native speech, which left no trace +except in some contributions to the vocabulary of the language they +adopted. The main feature since is the growth of the political supremacy +of Paris, carrying with it that of its dialect; in 1539 Francis I. +ordered that all public documents should be in French (of Paris), which +then became the official language of the whole kingdom, though it is +still foreign to nearly half its population. + +The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of Normandy, introduced +into England, as the language of the rulers and (for a time) most of the +writers, the dialects spoken in Normandy (see also ANGLO-NORMAN +LITERATURE). Confined in their native country to definite areas, these +dialects, following their speakers, became mixed in England, so that +their forms were used to some extent indifferently; and the constant +communication with Normandy maintained during several reigns introduced +also later forms of continental Norman. As the conquerors learned the +language of the conquered, and as the more cultured of the latter +learned that of the former, the Norman of England (including that of the +English-speaking Lowlands of Scotland) became anglicized; instead of +following the changes of the Norman of France, it followed those of +English. The accession in 1154 of Henry II. of Anjou disturbed the +Norman character of Anglo-French, and the loss of Normandy under John in +1204 gave full play to the literary importance of the French of Paris, +many of whose forms afterwards penetrated to England. At the same time +English, with a large French addition to its vocabulary, was steadily +recovering its supremacy, and is officially employed (for the first time +since the Conquest) in the Proclamation of Henry III., 1258. The +semi-artificial result of this mixture of French of different dialects +and of different periods, more or less anglicized according to the date +or education of the speaker or writer, is generally termed "the +Anglo-Norman dialect"; but the term is misleading for a great part of +its existence, because while the French of Normandy was not a single +dialect, the later French of England came from other French provinces +besides Normandy, and being to a considerable extent in artificial +conditions, was checked in the natural development implied by the term +"dialect." The disuse of Anglo-French as a natural language is evidenced +by English being substituted for it in legal proceedings in 1362, and in +schools in 1387; but law reports were written in it up to about 1600, +and, converted into modern literary French, it remains in official use +for giving the royal assent to bills of parliament. + +(b) _Literary._--Doubtless because the popular Latin of northern Gaul +changed more rapidly than that of any other part of the empire, French +was, of all the Romanic dialects, the first to be recognized as a +distinct language, and the first to be used in literature; and though +the oldest specimen now extant is probably not the first, it is +considerably earlier than any existing documents of the allied +languages. In 813 the council of Tours ordered certain homilies to be +translated into Rustic Roman or into German; and in 842 Louis the +German, Charles the Bald, and their armies confirmed their engagements +by taking oaths in both languages at Strassburg. These have been +preserved to us by the historian Nithard (who died in 853); and though, +in consequence of the only existing manuscript (at Paris) being more +than a century later than the time of the author, certain alterations +have occurred in the text of the French oaths, they present more archaic +forms (probably of North-Eastern French) than any other document. The +next memorials are a short poem, probably North-Eastern, on St Eulalia, +preserved in a manuscript of the 10th century at Valenciennes, and some +autograph fragments (also at Valenciennes) of a homily on the prophet +Jonah, in mixed Latin and Eastern French, of the same period. To the +same century belong a poem on Christ's Passion, apparently in a mixed +(not intermediate) language of French and Provencal, and one, probably +in South-Eastern French, on St Leger; both are preserved, in different +handwritings, in a MS. at Clermont-Ferrand, whose scribes have +introduced many Provencal forms. After the middle of the 11th century +literary remains are comparatively numerous; the chief early +representative of the main dialects are the following, some of them +preserved in several MSS., the earliest of which, however (the only ones +here mentioned), are in several cases a generation or two later than the +works themselves. In Western French are a verse life of St Alexius +(Alexis), probably Norman, in an Anglo-Norman MS. at Hildesheim; the +epic poem of Roland, possibly also Norman, in an A.-N. MS. at Oxford; a +Norman verbal translation of the Psalms, in an A.-N. MS. also at Oxford; +another later one, from a different Latin version, in an A.-N. MS. at +Cambridge; a Norman translation of the Four Books of Kings, in a +probably A.-N. MS. at Paris. The earliest work in the Parisian dialect +is probably the Travels of Charlemagne, preserved in a late Anglo-Norman +MS. with much altered forms. In Eastern French, of rather later date, +there are translations of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory, in a MS. at +Paris, containing also fragments of Gregory's Moralities, and (still +later) of some Sermons of St Bernard, in a MS. also in Paris. From the +end of the 12th century literary and official documents, often including +local charters, abound in almost every dialect, until the growing +influence of Paris caused its language to supersede in writing the other +local ones. This influence, occasionally apparent about the end of the +12th century, was overpowering in the 15th, when authors, though often +displaying provincialisms, almost all wrote in the dialect of the +capital; the last dialect to lose its literary independence was the +North-Eastern, which, being the Romanic language of Flanders, had a +political life of its own, and (modified by Parisian) was used in +literature after 1400. + +III. _Internal History._--Though much has been done in recent years, in +the scientific investigation of the sounds, inflexions, and syntax of +the older stages and dialects of French, much still remains to be done, +and it must suffice here to give a sketch, mainly of the dialects which +were imported into England by the Normans--in which English readers will +probably take most interest, and especially of the features which +explain the forms of English words of French origin. Dates and places +are only approximations, and many statements are liable to be modified +by further researches. The primitive Latin forms given are often not +classical Latin words, but derivatives from these; and reference is +generally made to the Middle English (Chaucerian) pronunciation of +English words, not the modern. + +(a) _Vocabulary._--The fundamental part of the vocabulary of French is +the Latin imported into Gaul, the French words being simply the Latin +words themselves, with the natural changes undergone by all living +speech, or derivatives formed at various dates. Comparatively few words +were introduced from the Celtic language of the native inhabitants +(_bec_, _lieue_ from the Celtic words given by Latin writers as +_beccus_, _leuca_), but the number adopted from the language of the +Teutonic conquerors of Gaul is large (_guerre_ = _werra_; _laid_ = +_laidh_; _choisir_ = _kausjan_). The words were imported at different +periods of the Teutonic supremacy, and consequently show chronological +differences in their sounds (_hair_ = _hatan_; _francais_ = _frankisk_; +_ecrevisse_ = _krebiz_; _echine_ = _skina_). Small separate importations +of Teutonic words resulted from the Scandinavian settlement in France, +and the commercial intercourse with the Low German nations on the North +Sea (_friper_ = Norse _hripa_; _chaloupe_ = Dutch _sloop_; _est_ = Old +English _east_). In the meantime, as Latin (with considerable +alterations in pronunciation, vocabulary, &c.) continued in literary, +official and ecclesiastical use, the popular language borrowed from time +to time various more or less altered classical Latin words; and when the +popular language came to be used in literature, especially in that of +the church, these importations largely increased (_virginitet_ Eulalia = +_virginitatem_; _imagena_ Alexis = _imaginem_--the popular forms would +probably have been _vergedet_, _emain_). At the Renaissance they became +very abundant, and have continued since, stifling to some extent the +developmental power of the language. Imported words, whether Teutonic, +classical Latin or other, often receive some modification at their +importation, and always take part in all subsequent natural phonetic +changes in the language (Early Old French _adversarie_, Modern French +_adversaire_). Those French words which appear to contradict the +phonetic laws were mostly introduced into the language after the taking +place (in words already existing in the language) of the changes +formulated by the laws in question; compare the late imported _laique_ +with the inherited _lai_, both from Latin _laicum_. In this and many +other cases the language possesses two forms of the same Latin word, one +descended from it, the other borrowed (_meuble_ and _mobile_ from +_mobilem_). Some Oriental and other foreign words were brought in by the +crusaders (_amiral_ from _amir_); in the 16th century, wars, royal +marriages and literature caused a large number of Italian words +(_soldat_ = _soldato_; _brave_ = _bravo_; _caresser_ = _carezzare_) to +be introduced, and many Spanish ones (_alcove_ = _alcoba_; _habler_ = +_hablar_). A few words have been furnished by Provencal (_abeille_, +_cadenas_), and several have been adopted from other dialects into the +French of Paris (_esquiver_ Norman or Picard for the Paris-French +_eschiver_). German has contributed a few (_blocus_ = _blochus_; +_choucroute_ = _surkrut_); and recently a considerable number have been +imported from England (_drain_, _confortable_, _flirter_). In Old +French, new words are freely formed by derivation, and to a less extent +by composition; in Modern French, borrowing from Latin or other foreign +languages is the more usual course. Of the French words now obsolete +some have disappeared because the things they express are obsolete; +others have been replaced by words of native formation, and many have +been superseded by foreign words generally of literary origin; of those +which survive, many have undergone considerable alterations in meaning. +A large number of Old French words and meanings, now extinct in the +language of Paris, were introduced into English after the Norman +Conquest; and though some have perished, many have survived--_strife_ +from Old French _estrif_ (Teutonic _strit_); _quaint_ from _cointe_ +(_cognitum_); _remember_ from _remembrer_ (_rememorare_); _chaplet_ +(garland) from _chapelet_ (Modern French "chaplet of beads"); +_appointment_ (rendezvous) from _appointement_ (now "salary"). Many also +survive in other French dialects. + +(b) _Dialects._--The history of the French language from the period of +its earliest extant literary memorials is that of the dialects composing +it. But as the popular notion of a dialect as the speech of a definite +area, possessing certain peculiarities confined to and extending +throughout that area, is far from correct, it will be advisable to drop +the misleading divisions into "Norman dialect," "Picard dialect" and the +like, and take instead each important feature in the chronological order +(as far as can be ascertained) of its development, pointing out roughly +the area in which it exists, and its present state. The local terms used +are intentionally vague, and it does not, for instance, at all follow +that because "Eastern" and "Western" are used to denote the localities +of more than one dialectal feature, the boundary line between the two +divisions is the same in each case. It is, indeed, because dialectal +differences as they arise do not follow the same boundary lines (much +less the political divisions of provinces), but cross one another to any +extent, that to speak of the dialect of a large area as an individual +whole, unless that area is cut off by physical or alien linguistic +boundaries, creates only confusion. Thus the Central French of Paris, +the ancestor of classical Modern French, agrees with a more southern +form of Romanic (Limousin, Auvergne, Forez, Lyonnais, Dauphine) in +having _ts_, not _tsh_, for Latin _k_ (_c_) before _i_ and _e_; _tsh_, +not _k_, for _k_ (_c_) before _a_; and with the whole South in having +_gu_, not _w_, for Teutonic _w_; while it belongs to the East in having +_oi_ for earlier _ei_; and to the West in having _e_, not _ei_, for +Latin _a_; and _i_, not _ei_, from Latin _e_ + _i_. It may be well to +denote that Southern _French_ does not correspond to southern _France_, +whose native language is Provencal. "Modern French" means ordinary +educated Parisian French. + +(e) _Phonology._--The history of the sounds of a language is, to a +considerable extent, that of its inflections, which, no less than the +body of a word, are composed of sounds. This fact, and the fact that +unconscious changes are much more reducible to law than conscious ones, +render the phonology of a language by far the surest and widest +foundation for its dialectology, the importance of the sound-changes in +this respect depending, not on their prominence, but on the earliness of +their date. For several centuries after the divergence between spoken +and written Latin, the history of these changes has to be determined +mainly by reasoning, aided by a little direct evidence in the +misspellings of inscriptions the semi-popular forms in glossaries, and +the warnings of Latin grammarians against vulgarities. With the rise of +Romanic literature the materials for tracing the changes become +abundant, though as they do not give us the sounds themselves, but only +their written representations, much difficulty, and some uncertainty, +often attach to deciphering the evidence. Fortunately, early Romanic +orthography, that of Old French included (for which see next section), +was phonetic, as Italian orthography still is; the alphabet was +imperfect, as many new sounds had to be represented which were not +provided for in the Roman alphabet from which it arose, but writers +aimed at representing the sounds they uttered, not at using a fixed +combination of letters for each word, however they pronounced it. + +The characteristics of French as distinguished from the allied languages +and from Latin, and the relations of its sounds, inflections and syntax +to those of the last-named language, belong to the general subject of +the Romanic languages. It will be well, however, to mention here some of +the features in which it agrees with the closely related Provencal, and +some in which it differs. As to the latter, it has already been pointed +out that the two languages glide insensibly into one another, there +being a belt of dialects which possess some of the features of each. +French and Provencal of the 10th century--the earliest date at which +documents exist in both--agree to a great extent in the treatment of +Latin final consonants and the vowels preceding them, a matter of great +importance for inflections (numerous French examples occur in this +section), (1) They reject all vowels, except _a_, of Latin final +(unaccented) syllables, unless preceded by certain consonant +combinations or followed by _nt_ (here, as elsewhere, certain exceptions +cannot be noticed); (2) they do not reject _a_ similarly situated; (3) +they reject final (unaccented) _m_; (4) they retain final s. French and +Northern Provencal also agree in changing Latin _ue_ from a +labio-guttural to a labio-palatal vowel; the modern sound (German _ue_) +of the accented vowel of French _lune_, Provencal _luna_, contrasting +with that in Italian and Spanish _luna_, appears to have existed before +the earliest extant documents. The final vowel laws generally apply to +the unaccented vowel preceding the accented syllable, if it is preceded +by another syllable, and followed by a single consonant--_matin_ +(_matutinum_), _dortoir_ (_dormitorium_), with vowel dropped; _canevas_ +(_cannabaceum_), _armedure_, later _armeure_, now _armure_ +(_armaturam_), with _e_ = _[schwa]_, as explained below. + +On the other hand, French differs from Provencal: (1) in uniformly +preserving (in Early Old French) Latin final _t_, which is generally +rejected in Provencal--French _aimet_ (Latin _amat_), Provencal _ama_; +_aiment_ (_amant_), Prov. _aman_; (2) in always rejecting, absorbing or +consonantizing the vowel of the last syllable but one, if unaccented; in +such words as _angele_ (often spelt _angle_), the _e_ after the _g_ only +serves to show its soft sound--French _veintre_ (now _vaincre_, Latin +_vincere_), Prov. _vencer_, with accent on first syllable; French +_esclandre_ (_scandalum_), Prov. _escandol_; French _olie_ (dissyllabic, +_i_ = _y_ consonant, now _huile_), Prov. _oli_ (_oleum_); (3) in +changing accented _a_ not in position into _ai_ before nasals and +gutturals and not after a palatal, and elsewhere into _e_ (West French) +or _ei_ (East French), which develops an _i_ before it when preceded by +a palatal--French _main_ (Latin _manum_), Prov. _man_; _aigre_ +(_acrem_), _agre_; _ele_ (_alam_), East French _eile_, Prov. _ala_; +_meitie_ (_medietatem_), East French _moitieit_, Prov. _meitat_; (4) in +changing _a_ in unaccented final syllables into the vowel _[schwa]_, +intermediate to _a_ and _e_; this vowel is written _a_ in one or two of +the older documents, elsewhere _e_--French _aime_ (Latin _ama_), Prov. +_ama_; _aimes_ (_amas_), Prov. _amas_; _aimet_ (_amat_), Prov. _ama_; +(5) in changing original _au_ into _o_--French _or_ (_aurum_), Prov. +_aur_; _rober_ (Teutonic _raubon_), Prov. _raubar_; (6) in changing +general Romanic _e_, from accented _e_ and _i_ not in position, into +_ei_--French _veine_ (_venam_), Prov. _vena_; _peil_ (_pilum_), Prov. +_pel_. + +As some of the dialectal differences were in existence at the date of +the earliest extant documents, and as the existing materials, till the +latter half of the 11th century, are scanty and of uncertain locality, +the chronological order (here adopted) of the earlier sound-changes is +only tentative. + + (1) Northern French has _tsh_ (written _c_ or _ch_) for Latin _k_ + (_c_) and _t_ before palatal vowels, where Central and Southern French + have _ts_ (written _c_ or _z_)--North Norman and Picard _chire_ + (_ceram_), _brach_ (_brachium_), _plache_ (_plateam_); Parisian, South + Norman, &c., _cire_, _braz_, _place_. Before the close of the Early + Old French period (12th century) _ts_ loses its initial consonant, and + the same happened to _tsh_ a century or two later; with this change + the old distinction is maintained--Modern Guernsey and Picard _chire_, + Modern Picard _plache_ (in ordinary Modern French spelling); usual + French _cire_, _place_. English, having borrowed from North and South + Norman (and later Parisian), has instances of both _tsh_ and _s_, the + former in comparatively small number--_chisel_ (Modern French _ciseau_ + = (?) _caesellum_), _escutcheon_ (_ecusson_, _scutionem_); _city_ + (_cite_, _civitatem_), _place_. (2) Initial Teutonic _w_ is retained + in the north-east and along the north coast; elsewhere, as in the + other Romance languages, _g_ was prefixed--Picard, &c., _warde_ + (Teutonic _warda_), _werre_ (_werra_); Parisian, &c., _guarde_, + _guerre_. In the 12th century the _u_ or _w_ of _gu_ dropped, giving + the Modern French _garde_, _guerre_ (with _gu_ = _g_); _w_ remains in + Picard and Walloon, but in North Normandy it becomes _v_--Modern + Guernsey _vason_, Walloon _wazon_, Modern French _gazon_ (Teutonic + _wason_). English has both forms, sometimes in words originally the + same--_wage_ and _gage_ (Modern French _gage_, Teutonic _wadi_); + _warden_ and _guardian_ (_gardien_, _warding_). (3) Latin _b_ after + accented _a_ in the imperfect of the first conjugation, which becomes + _v_ in Eastern French, in Western French further changes to _w_, and + forms the diphthong _ou_ with the preceding vowel--Norman _amowe_ + (_amabam_), _portout_ (_portabat_); Burgundian _ameve_, _portevet_. + _-eve_ is still retained in some places, but generally the imperfect + of the first conjugation is assimilated to that of the others--amoit, + like _avoit_ (_habebat_). (4) The palatalization of every then + existing _k_ and _g_ (hard) when followed by _a_, _i_ or _e_, after + having caused the development of _i_ before the _e_ (East French _ei_) + derived from _a_ not in position, is abandoned in the north, the + consonants returning to ordinary _k_ or _g_, while in the centre and + south they are assibilated to _tsh_ or _dzh_--North Norman and Picard + _cachier_ (_captiare_), _kier_ (_carum_), _cose_ (_causam_), _eskiver_ + (Teutonic _skiuhan_), _wiket_ (Teutonic _wik_+_ittum_), _gal_ + (_gallum_), _gardin_ (from Teutonic _gard_); South Norman and Parisian + _chacier_, _chier_, _chose_, _eschiver_, _guichet_, _jal_, _jardin_. + Probably in the 14th century the initial consonant of _tsh_, _dzh_ + disappeared, giving the modern French _chasser_, _jardin_ with _ch_ = + _sh_ and _j_ = _zh_; but _tsh_ is retained in Walloon, and _dzh_ in + Lorraine. The Northern forms survive--Modern Guernsey _cachier_, + _gardin_; Picard _cacher_, _gardin_. English possesses numerous + examples of both forms, sometimes in related words--_catch_ and + _chase_; _wicket_, _eschew_; _garden_, _jaundice_ (_jaunisse_, from + _galbanum_). (5) For Latin accented _a_ not in position Western French + usually has _e_, Eastern French _ei_, both of which take an _i_ before + them when a palatal precedes--Norman and Parisian _per_ (_parem_), + _oiez_ (_audiatis_); Lorraine _peir_, _oieis_. In the 17th and 18th + centuries close _e_ changed to open _e_, except when final or before a + silent consonant--_amer_ (_amarum_) now having _e_, _aimer_ (_amare_) + retaining _e_. English shows the Western close _e_--_peer_ (Modern + French _pair_, Old French _per_), _chief_ (_chef_, _caput_); Middle + High German the Eastern _ei_--_lameir_ (Modern French _l'amer_, + _l'aimer_, _la mer_ = Latin _mare_). (6) Latin accented _e_ not in + position, when it came to be followed in Old French by _i_ unites with + this to form _i_ in the Western dialects, while the Eastern have the + diphthongs _ei_--Picard, Norman and Parisian _pire_ (_pejor_), _piz_ + (_pectus_); Burgundian _peire_, _peiz_. The distinction is still + preserved--Modern French _pire_, _pis_; Modern Burgundian _peire_, + _pei_. English words show always _i_--_price_ (_prix_, _pretium_) + _spite_ (_depit_, _despectum_). (7) The nasalization of vowels + followed by a nasal consonant did not take place simultaneously with + all the vowels. _A_ and _e_ before _n_ (guttural _n_, as in _sing_), + _n_ (palatal _n_), _n_ and _m_ were nasal in the 11th century, such + words as _tant_ (_tantum_) and _gent_ (_gentem_) forming in the Alexis + assonances to themselves, distinct from the assonances with _a_ and + _e_ before non-nasal consonants. In the Roland _umbre_ (_ombre_, + _umbram_) and _culchet_ (_couche_, _collocat_), _fier_ (_ferum_) and + _chiens_ (_canes_), _dit_ (_dictum_) and _vint_ (_venit_), _ceinte_ + (_cinctam_) and _veie_ (_voie_, _viam_), _brun_ (Teutonic _brun_) and + _fut_ (_fuit_) assonate freely, though _o_ (_u_) before nasals shows a + tendency to separation. The nasalization of _i_ and _u_ (= Modern + French _u_) did not take place till the 16th century; and in all cases + the loss of the following nasal consonant is quite modern, the older + pronunciation of _tant_, _ombre_ being _tant_, _ombr[schwa]_, not as + now _ta_, _obrh_. The nasalization took place whether the nasal + consonant was or was not followed by a vowel, _femme_ (_feminam_), + _honneur_ (_honorem_) being pronounced with nasal vowels m the first + syllable till after the 16th century, as indicated by the doubling of + the nasal consonant in the spelling and by the phonetic change (in + _femme_ and other words) next to be mentioned. English generally has + _au_ (now often reduced to _a_) for Old French _a_--_vaunt_ (_vanter_, + _vanitare_), _tawny_ (_tanne_ (?) Celtic). (8) The assimilation of + _[~e]_ (nasal _e_) to _a_ (nasal _a_) did not begin till the middle of + the 11th century, and is not yet universal, in France, though + generally a century later. In the Alexis nasal _a_ (as in _tant_) is + never confounded with nasal _e_ (as in _gent_) in the assonances, + though the copyist (a century later) often writes _a_ for nasal _e_ in + unaccented syllables, as in _amfant_ (_enfant_, _infantem_); in the + Roland there are several cases of mixture in the assonances, _gent_, + for instance, occurring in _ant_ stanzas, _tant_ in _ent_ ones. + English has several words with _a_ for _e_ before nasals--_rank_ + (_rang_, Old French _renc_, Teutonic _hringa_), _pansy_ (_pensee_, + _pensatam_); but the majority show _e_--_enter_ (_entrer_, _intrare_), + _fleam_ (_flamme_, Old French _fleme_, _phlebotomum_). The distinction + is still preserved in the Norman of Guernsey, where _an_ and _en_, + though both nasal, have different sounds--_lanchier_ (_lancer_, + _lanceare_), but _mentrie_ (Old French _menterie_, from _mentiri_). + (9) The loss of _s_, or rather _z_, before voiced consonants began + early, _s_ being often omitted or wrongly inserted in 12th century + MSS.--Earliest Old French _masle_ (_masculum_), _sisdre_ (_siceram_); + Modern French _male_, _cidre_. In English it has everywhere + disappeared--_male_, _cider_; except in two words, where it appears, + as occasionally in Old French, as _d_--_meddle_ (_meler_, + _misculare_), _medlar_ (_neflier_, Old French also _meslier_, + _mespilarium_). The loss of _s_ before voiceless consonants (except + _f_) is about two centuries later, and it is not universal even in + Parisian--Early Old French _feste_ (_festam_), _escuier_ + (_scutarium_); Modern French _fete_, _ecuyer_, but _esperer_ + (_sperare_). In the north-east _s_ before _t_ is still + retained--Walloon _chestai_ (_chateau_, _castellum_), _fiess_ + (_fete_). English shows _s_ regularly--_feast_, _esquire_. (10) Medial + _dh_ (soft _th_, as in _then_), and final _th_ from Latin _t_ or _d_ + between vowels, do not begin to disappear till the latter half of the + 11th century. In native French MSS. _dh_ is generally written _d_, and + _th_ written _t_; but the German scribe of the Oaths writes _adjudha_ + (_adjutam_), _cadhuna_ (Greek _kata_ and _unam_); and the English one + of the Alexis _cuntretha_ (_contratam_), _lothet_ (_laudatum_), and + that of the Cambridge Psalter _heriteth_ (_hereditatem_). Medial _dh_ + often drops even in the last-named MSS., and soon disappears; the same + is true for final _th_ in Western French--Modern French _contree_, + _loue_. But in Eastern French final _th_, to which Latin _t_ between + vowels had probably been reduced through _d_ and _dh_, appears in the + 12th century and later as _t_, rhyming on ordinary French final + _t_--Picard and Burgundian _pechiet_ (_peccatum_) _apeleit_ + (_appellatum_). In Western French some final _ths_ were saved by being + changed to _f_--Modern French _soif_ (_sitim_), _moeuf_ (obsolete, + _modum_). English has one or two instances of final _th_, none of + medial _dh_--_faith_ (_foi_, _fidem_); Middle English _cariteþ_ + (_charite_, _caritatem_), _druteth_ (Old French _dru_, Teutonic _drud_); + generally the consonant is lost--_country_, _charity_. Middle High + German shows the Eastern French final consonant--_moraliteit_ + (_moralite_, _moralitatem_). (11) _T_ from Latin final _t_, if in an + Old French unaccented syllable, begins to disappear in the Roland, + where sometimes _aimet_ (_amat_), sometimes _aime_, is required by the + metre, and soon drops in all dialects. The Modern French _t_ of + _aime-t-il_ and similar forms is an analogical insertion from such + forms as _dort-il_ (_dormit_), where the _t_ has always existed. (12) + The change of the diphthong _ai_ to _ei_ and afterwards to _ee_ (the + doubling indicates length) had not taken place in the earliest French + documents, words with _ai_ assonating only on words with _a_; in the + Roland such assonances occur, but those of _ai_ on _e_ are more + frequent--_faire_ (_facere_) assonating on _parastre_ (_patraster_) + and on _estes_ (_estis_); and the MS. (half a century later than the + poem) occasionally has _ei_ and _e_ for _ai_--_recleimet_ + (_reclamat_), _desfere_ (_disfacere_), the latter agreeing with the + Modern French sound. Before nasals (as in _laine_ = _lanam_) and _ie_ + (as in _paye_ = _pacatum_), _ai_ remained a diphthong up to the 16th + century, being apparently _ei_, whose fate in this situation it has + followed. English shows _ai_ regularly before nasals and when final, + and in a few other words--_vain_ (_vain_, _vanum_), _pay_ (_payer_, + _pacare_), _wait_ (_guetter_, Teutonic _wahten_); but before most + consonants it has usually _ee_--_peace_ (_pais_, _pacum_), _feat_ + (_fait_, _factum_). (13) The loss or transposition of _i_ + (= y-consonant) following the consonant ending an accented syllable + begins in the 12th century--Early Old French _glorie_ (_gloriam_), + _estudie_ (_studium_), _olie_ (_oleum_); Modern French _gloire_, + _etude_, _huile_. English sometimes shows the earlier form--_glory_, + _study_; sometimes the later--_dower_ (_douaire_, Early Old French + _doarie_, _dotarium_), _oil_ (_huile_). (14) The vocalization of _l_ + preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant becomes frequent at + the end of the 12th century; when preceded by open _e_, an _a_ + developed before the _l_ while this was a consonant--11th century + _salse_ (_salsa_), _beltet_ (_bellitatem_), _solder_ (_solidare_); + Modern French _sauce_, _beaute_, _souder_. In Parisian, final _el_ + followed the fate of _el_ before a consonant, becoming the triphthong + _eau_, but in Norman the vocalization did not take place, and the _l_ + was afterwards rejected--Modern French _ruisseau_, Modern Guernsey + _russe_ (_rivicellum_). English words of French origin sometimes show + _l_ before a consonant, but the general form is _u_--_scald_ + (_echauder_, _excalidare_), _Walter_ (_Gautier_, Teutonic _Waldhari_); + _sauce_, _beauty_, _soder_. Final _el_ is kept--_veal_ (_veau_, + _vitellum_), _seal_ (_sceau_, _sigillum_). (15) In the east and centre + _ei_ changes to _oi_, while the older sound is retained in the + north-west and west--Norman _estreit_ (_etroit_, _strictum_), _preie_ + (_proie_, _praedam_), 12th century Picard, Parisian, &c., _estroit_, + _proie_. But the earliest (10th century) specimens of the latter group + of dialects have _ei_--_pleier_ (_ployer_, _plicare_) Eulalia, + _mettreiet_ (_mettrait_, _mittere habebat_) Jonah. Parisian _oi_, + whether from _ei_ or from Old French _oi_, _oi_, became in the 15th + century _ue_ (spellings with _oue_ or _oe_ are not uncommon--_mirouer_ + for _miroir_, _miratorium_), and in the following, in certain words, + _e_, now written _ai_--_francais_, _connaitre_, from _francois_ + (_franceis_, _franciscum_), _conoistre_ (_conuistre_, _cognoscere_); + where it did not undergo the latter change it is now _ua_ or + _wa_--_roi_ (_rei_, _regem_), _croix_ (_cruis_, _crucem_). Before + nasals and palatal _l_, _ei_ (now = _e_) was kept--_veine_ (_vena_), + _veille_ (_vigila_), and it everywhere survives unlabialized in Modern + Norman--Guernsey _etelle_ (_etoile_, _stella_) with _e_, _ser_ + (_soir_, _serum_) with _e_. English shows generally _ei_ (or _ai_) for + original _ei_--_strait_ (_estreit_), _prey_ (_preie_); but in several + words the later Parisian _oi_--_coy_ (_coi_, _qvietum_), _loyal_ + (_loyal_, _legalem_). (16) The splitting of the vowel-sound from + accented Latin _o_ or _u_ not in position, represented in Old French + by _o_ and _u_ indifferently, into _u_, _o_ (before nasals), and _eu_ + (the latter at first a diphthong, now = German _oe_), is unknown to + Western French till the 12th century, and is not general in the east. + The sound in 11th century Norman was much nearer to _u_ (Modern French + _ou_) than to _o_ (Modern French _o_), as the words borrowed by + English show _uu_ (at first written _u_, afterwards _ou_ or _ow_), + never _oo_; but was probably not quite _u_, as Modern Norman shows the + same splitting of the sound as Parisian. Examples are--Early Old + French _espose_ or _espuse_ (_sponsam_), _nom_ or _num_ (_nomen_), + _flor_ or _flur_ (_florem_); Modern French _epouse_, _nom_, _fleur_; + Modern Guernsey _goule_ (_gueule_, _gulam_), _nom_, _flleur_. Modern + Picard also shows _u_, which is the regular sound before _r_--_flour_; + but Modern Burgundian often keeps the original Old French _o_--_vo_ + (_vous_, _vos_). English shows almost always _uu_--_spouse_, _noun_, + _flower_ (Early Middle English _spuse_, _nun_, _flur_); but _nephew_ + with _eu_ (_neveu_, _nepotem_). (17) The loss of the _u_ (or _w_) of + _qu_ dates from the end of the 12th century--Old French _quart_ + (_qvartum_), _quitier_ (_qvietare_) with _qu_ = _kw_, Modern French + _quart_, _quitter_ with _qu_ = _k_. In Walloon the _w_ is + preserved--_couar_ (_quart_), _cuitter_; as is the case in + English--_quart_, _quit_. The _w_ of _gw_ seems to have been lost + rather earlier, English having simple _g_--_gage_ (_gage_, older + _guage_, Teutonic _wadi_), _guise_ (_guise_, Teutonic _wisa_). (18) + The change of the diphthong _ou_ to _uu_ did not take place till after + the 12th century, such words as _Anjou_ (_Andegavum_) assonating in + the Roland on _fort_ (_fortem_); and did not occur in Picardy, where + _ou_ became _au caus_ from older _cous_, _cols_ (_cous_, _collos_) + coinciding with _caus_ from _calz_ (_chauds_, _calidos_). English + keeps _ou_ distinct from _uu_--_vault_ for _vaut_ (Modern French + _voute_, _volvitam_), _soder_ (_souder_, _solidare_). (19) The change + of the diphthong _ie_ to simple _e_ is specially Anglo-Norman, in Old + French of the Continent these sounds never rhyme, in that of England + they constantly do, and English words show, with rare exceptions, the + simple vowel--_fierce_ (Old French _fiers_, _ferus_), chief (_chief_, + _caput_), with _ie_ = _ee_; but _pannier_ (_panier_, _panarium_). At + the beginning of the modern period, Parisian dropped the _i_ of _ie_ + when preceded by _ch_ or _j_--_chef_, _abreger_ (Old French + _abregier_, _abbreviare_); elsewhere (except in verbs) _ie_ is + retained--_fier_ (_ferum_), _pitie_ (_pietatem_). Modern Guernsey + retains _ie_ after _ch_--_ap'rchier_ (_approcher_, _adpropeare_).(20) + Some of the Modern French changes have found their places under older + ones; those remaining to be noticed are so recent that English + examples of the older forms are superfluous. In the 16th century the + diphthong _au_ changed to _ao_ and then to _o_, its present sound, + rendering, for instance, _maux_ (Old French _mals_, _malos_) identical + with _mots_ (_muttos_). The _au_ of _eau_ underwent the same change, + but its _e_ was still sounded as _[schwa]_ (the _e_ of _que_); in the + next century this was dropped, making _veaux_ (Old French _veels_, + _vitellos_) identical with _vaux_ (_vals_, _valles_). (21) A more + general and very important change began much earlier than the last; + this is the loss of many final consonants. In Early Old French every + consonant was pronounced as written; by degrees many of them + disappeared when followed by another consonant, whether in the same + word (in which case they were generally omitted in writing) or in a + following one. This was the state of things in the 16th century; those + final consonants which are usually silent in Modern French were still + sounded, if before a vowel or at the end of a sentence or a line of + poetry, but generally not elsewhere. Thus a large number of French + words had two forms; the Old French _fort_ appeared as _for_ (though + still written _fort_) before a consonant, fort elsewhere. At a later + period final consonants were lost (with certain exceptions) when the + word stood at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry; but they + are generally kept when followed by a word beginning with a vowel. + (22) A still later change is the general loss of the vowel (written e) + of unaccented final syllables; this vowel preserved in the 16th + century the sound _[schwa]_, which it had in Early Old French. In + later Anglo-Norman final _[schwa]_ (like every other sound) was + treated exactly as the same sound in Middle English; that is, it came + to be omitted or retained at pleasure, and in the 15th century + disappeared. In Old French the loss of final _[schwa]_ is confined to + a few words and forms; the 10th century _saveiet_ (_sapebat_ for + _sapiebat_) became in the 11th _saveit_, and _ore_ (_ad horam_), _ele_ + (_illam_) develop the abbreviated _or, el_. In the 15th century + _[schwa]_ before a vowel generally disappears--_mur_, Old French + _meur_ (_maturum_); and in the 16th, though still written, _[schwa]_ + after an unaccented vowel, and in the syllable _ent_ after a vowel, + does the same--_vraiment_, Old French _vraiement_ (_veraca mente_); + _avoient_ two syllables, as now (_avaient_), in Old French three + syllables (as _habebant_). These phenomena occur much earlier in the + anglicized French of England--13th century _aveynt_ (Old French + _aveient_). But the universal loss of final _e_, which has clipped a + syllable from half the French vocabulary, did not take place till the + 18th century, after the general loss of final consonants; _fort_ and + _forte_, distinguished at the end of a sentence or line in the 16th + century as _fort_ and _fort[schwa]_, remain distinguished, but as + _for_ and _fort_. The metre of poetry is still constructed on the + obsolete pronunciation, which is even revived in singing; "dites, la + jeune belle," actually four syllables (_dit, la zhoen bel_), is + considered as seven, fitted with music accordingly, and sung to fit + the music (_dit[schwa], la zhoena bel[schwa]_). (23) In Old French, as + in the other Romanic languages, the stress (force, accent) is on the + syllable which was accented in Latin; compare the treatment of the + accented and unaccented vowels in _latro amas_, giving _lere, aime_, + and in _latronem, amatis_, giving _laron, amez_, the accented vowels + being those which rhyme or assonate. At present, stress in French is + much less marked than in English, German or Italian, and is to a + certain extent variable; which is partly the reason why most native + French scholars find no difficulty in maintaining that the stress in + living Modern French is on the same syllable as in Old French. The + fact that stress in the French of to-day is independent of length + (quantity) and pitch (tone) largely aids the confusion; for though the + final and originally accented syllable (not counting the silent e as a + syllable) is now generally pronounced with less force, it very often + has a long vowel with raised pitch. In actual pronunciation the chief + stress is usually on the first syllable (counting according to the + sounds, not the spelling), but in many polysyllables it is on the last + but one; thus in _caution_ the accented (strong) syllable cau, in + _occasion_ it is _ca_. Poetry is still written according to the + original place of the stress; the rhyme-syllables of _larron, aimez_ + are still _ron_ and _mez_, which when set to music receive an accented + (strong) note, and are sung accordingly, though in speech the la and + ai generally have the principal stress. In reading poetry, as + distinguished from singing, the modern pronunciation is used, both as + to the loss of the final _[schwa]_ and the displacement of the stress, + the result being that the theoretical metre in which the poetry is + written disappears. (24) In certain cases accented vowels were + lengthened in Old French, as before a lost s; this was indicated in + the 16th century by a circumflex--_bete_, Old French _beste_ + (_bestiam_), _ame_, Old French _anme_ (_anima_). The same occurred in + the plural of many nouns, where a consonant was lost before the _s_ of + the flection; thus singular _coc_ with short vowel, plural _cos_ with + long. The plural _cos_, though spelt _cogs_ instead of _co_ (= _koo_), + is still sometimes to be heard, but, like other similar ones, is + generally refashioned after the singular, becoming _kok_. In present + French, except where a difference of quality has resulted, as in + _cote_ (Old French _coste, costam_) with _o_ and _cotte_ (Old French + _cote_), with _o_, short and long vowels generally run together, + quantity being now variable and uncertain; but at the beginning of + this century the Early Modern distinctions appear to have been + generally preserved. + +(d) _Orthography._--The history of French spelling is based on that of +French sounds; as already stated, the former (apart from a few Latinisms +in the earliest documents) for several centuries faithfully followed the +latter. When the popular Latin of Gaul was first written, its sounds +were represented by the letters of the Roman alphabet; but these were +employed, not in the values they had in the time of Caesar, but in those +they had acquired in consequence of the phonetic changes that had +meantime taken place. Thus, as the Latin sound _u_ had become _o_ (close +_o_) and _u_ had become _y_ (French _u_, German _ue_), the letter _u_ was +used sometimes to denote the sound _o_, sometimes the sound _y_; as +Latin _k_ (written _c_) had become _tsh_ or _ts_, according to dialect, +before _e_ and _i_, _c_ was used to represent those sounds as well as +that of _k_. The chief features of early French orthography (apart from +the specialities of individual MSS., especially the earliest) are +therefore these:--_c_ stood for _k_ and _tsh_ or _ts_; _d_ for _d_ and +_dh_ (soft _th_); _e_ for _e_, _e_, and _[schwa]_; _g_ for _g_ and _dzh_; +_h_ was often written in words of Latin origin where not sounded; _i_ +(_j_) stood for _i_, _y_ consonant, and _dzh_; _o_ for _o_ (Anglo-Norman +_u_) and _o_; _s_ for _s_ and _z_; _t_ for _t_ and _th_; _u_ (_v_) for +_o_ (Anglo-Norman _u_), _y_ and _v_; _y_ (rare) for _i_; _z_ for _dz_ +and _ts_. Some new sounds had also to be provided for: where _tsh_ had +to be distinguished from non-final _ts_, _ch_--at first, as in Italian, +denoting _k_ before _i_ and _e_ (_chi_ = _ki_ from _qvi_)--was used for +it; palatal _l_ was represented by _ill_, which when final usually lost +one _l_, and after _i_ dropped its _i_; palatal _n_ by _gn_, _ng_ or +_ngn_, to which _i_ was often prefixed; and the new letter _w_, +originally _uu_ (_vv_), and sometimes representing merely _uv_ or _vu_, +was employed for the consonant-sound still denoted by it in English. All +combinations of vowel-letters represented diphthongs; thus _ai_ denoted +_a_ followed by _i_, _ou_ either _ou_ or _ou_, _ui_ either _oi_ +(Anglo-Norman _ui_) or _yi_, and similarly with the others--_ei_, _eu_, +_oi_, _iu_, _ie_, _ue_ (and _oe_), and the triphthong _ieu_. Silent +letters, except initial _h_ in Latin words, are very rare; though MSS. +copied from older ones often retain letters whose sounds, though +existing in the language of the author, had disappeared from that of the +more modern scribe. The subsequent changes in orthography are due mainly +to changes of sound, and find their explanation in the phonology. Thus, +as Old French progresses, _s_, having become silent before voiced +consonants, indicates only the length of the preceding vowel; _e_ before +nasals, from the change of _[~e]_ (nasal _e_) to _a_ (nasal _a_), +represents _a_; _c_, from the change of _ts_ to _s_, represents _s_; +_qu_ and _gu_, from the loss of the _w_ of _kw_ and _gw_, represent _k_ +and _g_ (hard); _ai_, from the change of _ai_ to _e_, represents _e_; +_ou_, from the change of _ou_ and _ou_ to _u_, represents _u_; _ch_ and +_g_, from the change of _tsh_ and _dzh_ to _sh_ and _zh_, represent _sh_ +and _zh_; _eu_ and ue, originally representing diphthongs, represent oe +(German _oe_); _z_, from the change of _ts_ and _dz_ to _s_ and _z_, +represents _s_ and _z_. The new values of some of these letters were +applied to words not originally spelt with them: Old French _k_ before +_i_ and _e_ was replaced by _qu_ (_evesque_, _eveske_, Latin +_episcopum_); Old French _u_ and _o_ for _o_, after this sound had split +into _eu_ and _u_, were replaced in the latter case by _ou_ (_rous_, for +_ros_ or _rus_, Latin _russum_); _s_ was accidentally inserted to mark a +long vowel (_pasle_, _pale_, Latin _pallidum_); _eu_ replaced _ue_ and +_oe_ (_neuf_, _nuef_, Latin _novum_ and _novem_); _z_ replaced _s_ after +_e_ (_nez_, _nes_, _nasum_). The use of _x_ for final _s_ is due to an +orthographical mistake; the MS. contraction of _us_ being something like +_x_ was at last confused with it (_iex_ for _ieus_, _oculos_), and, its +meaning being forgotten, _u_ was inserted before the _x_ (_yeux_) which +thus meant no more than _s_, and was used for it after other vowels +(_voix_ for _vois_, _vocem_). As literature came to be extensively +cultivated, traditional as distinct from phonetic spelling began to be +influential; and in the 14th century, the close of the Old French +period, this influence, though not overpowering, was strong--stronger +than in England at that time. About the same period there arose +etymological as distinct from traditional spelling. This practice, the +alteration of traditional spelling by the insertion or substitution of +letters which occurred (or were supposed to occur) in the Latin (or +supposed Latin) originals of the French words, became very prevalent in +the three following centuries, when such forms as _debvoir_ (_debere_) +for _devoir_, _faulx_ (_falsum_) for _faus_, _autheur_ (_auctorem_, +supposed to be _authorem_) for _auteur_, _poids_ (supposed to be from +_pondus_, really from _pensum_) for _pois_, were the rule. But besides +the etymological, there was a phonetic school of spelling (Ramus, in +1562, for instance, writes _eime_, _eimates_--with _e_ = _e_, _e_ = _e_, +and _e_ = _[schwa]_--for _aimai_, _aimastes_), which, though +unsuccessful on the whole, had some effect in correcting the excesses of +the other, so that in the 17th century most of these inserted letters +began to drop; of those which remain, some (_flegme_ for _flemme_ or +_fleume_, Latin _phlegma_) have corrupted the pronunciation. Some +important reforms--as the dropping of silent _s_, and its replacement by +a circumflex over the vowel when this was long; the frequent distinction +of close and open _e_ by acute and grave accents; the restriction of _i_ +and _u_ to the vowel sound, of _j_ and _v_ to the consonant; and the +introduction from Spain of the cedilla to distinguish _c_ = _s_ from _c_ += _k_ before _a_, _u_ and _o_--are due to the 16th century. The +replacement of _oi_, where it had assumed the value _e_, by _ai_, did +not begin till the last century, and was not the rule till the present +one. Indeed, since the 16th century the changes in French spelling have +been small, compared with the changes of the sounds; final consonants +and final _e_ (unaccented) are still written, though the sounds they +represent have disappeared. + +Still, a marked effort towards the simplification of French orthography +was made in the third edition of the _Dictionary_ of the French Academy +(1740), practically the work of the Abbe d'Olivet. While in the first +(1694) and second (1718) editions of this dictionary words were +overburdened with silent letters, supposed to represent better the +etymology, in the third edition the spelling of about 5000 words (out of +about 18,000) was altered and made more in conformity with the +pronunciation. So, for instance, _c_ was dropped in _beinfaicteur_ and +_object_, _c_ in _scavoir_, _d_ in _advocat_, _s_ in _accroistre_, +_albastre_, _aspre_ and _bastard_, _e_ in the past part. _creu_, _deu_, +_veu_, and in such words as _alleure_, _souilleure_; _y_ was replaced by +_i_ in _cecy, celuy, gay, joye_, &c. But those changes were not made +systematically, and many pedantic spellings were left untouched, while +many inconsistencies still remain in the present orthography (_siffler_ +and _persifler_, _souffler_ and _boursoufler_, &c). The consequence of +those efforts in contrary directions is that French orthography is now +quite as traditional and unphonetic as English, and gives an even falser +notion than this of the actual state of the language it is supposed to +represent. Many of the features of Old French orthography, early and +late, are preserved in English orthography; to it we owe the use of _c_ +for _s_ (Old English _c_ = _k_ only), of _j_ (_i_) for _dzh_, of _v_ +(_u_) for _v_ (in Old English written _f_), and probably of _ch_ for +_tsh_. The English _w_ is purely French, the Old English letter being +the runic _Þ_. When French was introduced into England, _kw_ had not +lost its _w_, and the French _qu_, with that value, replaced the Old +English _cÞ_ (_queen_ for _cÞ_en). In Norman, Old French _o_ had become +very like _u_, and in England went entirely into it; _o_, which was one +of its French signs, thus came to be often used for _u_ in English +(_come_ for _cume_). _U_, having often in Old French its Modern French +value, was so used in England, and replaced the Old English _y_ (_busy_ +for _bysi_, Middle English _brud_ for _bryd_), and _y_ was often used +for _i_ (_day_ for _dai_). In the 13th century, when _ou_ had come to +represent _u_ in France, it was borrowed by English, and used for the +long sound of that vowel (_sour_ for _sur_); and _gu_, which had come to +mean simply _g_ (hard), was occasionally used to represent the sound _g_ +before _i_ and _e_ (_guess_ for _gesse_). Some of the Early Modern +etymological spellings were imitated in England; _fleam_ and _autour_ +were replaced by _phlegm_ and _authour_, the latter spelling having +corrupted the pronunciation. + +(e) _Inflections._--In the earliest Old French extant, the influence +of analogy, especially in verbal forms, is very marked when these are +compared with Latin (thus the present participles of all conjugations +take _ant_, the ending of the first, Latin _antem_), and becomes +stronger as the language progresses. Such isolated inflectional changes +as _saveit_ into _savoit_, which are cases of regular phonetic changes, +are not noticed here. + + (i.) _Verbs._--(1) In the oldest French texts the Latin pluperfect + (with the sense of the perfect) occasionally occurs--_avret_ + (_habuerat_), _roveret_ (_rogaverat_); it disappears before the 12th + century. (2) The _u_ of the ending of the 1st pers. plur. _mus_ drops + in Old French, except in the perfect, where its presence (as + _[schwa]_) is not yet satisfactorily explained--_amoms_ (_amamus_, + influenced by _sumus_), but _amames_ (_amavimus_). In Picard the + atonic ending _mes_ is extended to all tenses, giving _amomes_, &c. + (3) In the present indicative, 2nd person plur., the ending _ez_ of + the first conjugation (Latin _atis_) extends, even in the earliest + documents, to all verbs--_avez, recevez, oez_ (_habetis_, _recipitis, + auditis_) like _amez_ (_amatis_); such forms as _dites_, _faites_ + (_dicitis_, _facitis_) being exceptional archaisms. This levelling of + the conjugation does not appear at such an early time in the future + (formed from the infinitive and from _habetis_ reduced to _etis_); in + the Roland both forms occur, _portereiz_ (_portare habetis_) + assonating on _rei_ (_roi, regem_), and the younger _porterez_ on + _citet_ (_cite_, _civitatem_), but about the end of the 13th century + the older form _-eiz_, _-oiz_, is dropped, and _-ez_ becomes gradually + the uniform ending for this 2nd person of the plural in the future + tense. (4) In Eastern French the 1st plur., when preceded by _i_, has + _e_, not _o_, before the nasal, while Western French has _u_ (or _o_), + as in the present; _posciomes_ (_posseamus_) in the Jonah homily makes + it probable that the latter is the older form--Picard _aviemes_, + Burgundian _aviens_, Norman _aviums_ (_habebamus_). (5) The + subjunctive of the first conjugation has at first in the singular no + final _e_, in accordance with the final vowel laws--_plur_, _plurs_, + _plurt_ (_plorem_, _plores_, _ploret_). The forms are gradually + assimilated to those of the other conjugations, which, deriving from + Latin _am_, _as_, _at_, have _e_, _es_, _e_(_t_); Modern French + _pleure_, _pleures_, _pleure_, like _perde_, _perdes_, _perde_ + (_perdam_, _perdas_, _perdat_). (6) In Old French the present + subjunctive and the 1st sing. pres. ind. generally show the influence + of the _i_ or _e_ of the Latin _iam_, _eam_, _io_, _eo_--Old French + _muire_ or _moerge_ (_moriat_ for _moriatur_), _tiegne_ or _tienge_ + (_teneat_), _muir_ or _moerc_ (_morio_ for _morior_), _tieng_ or + _tienc_ (_teneo_). By degrees these forms are levelled under the other + present forms--Modern French _meure_ and _meurs_ following _meurt_ + (_morit_ for _moritur_), _tienne_ and _tiens_ following _tient_ + (_tenet_). A few of the older forms remain--the vowel of _aie_ + (_habeam_) and _ai_ (_habeo_) contrasting with that of _a_ (_habet_). + (7) A levelling of which instances occur in the 11th century, but + which is not yet complete, is that of the accented and unaccented + stem-syllables of verbs. In Old French many verb-stems with shifting + accent vary in accordance with phonetic laws--_parler_ (_parabolare_), + _amer_ (_amare_) have in the present indicative _parol_ (_parabolo_), + _paroles_ (_parabolas_), _parolet_ (_parabolat_), _parlums_ + (_parabolamus_), _parlez_ (_parabolatis_), _parolent_ (_parabolant_); + _aim_ (_amo_), _aimes_ (_amas_), _aimet_ (_amat_), _amums_ (_amamus_), + _amez_ (_amatis_), _aiment_ (_amant_). In the first case the + unaccented, in the second the accented form has prevailed--Modern + French _parle_, _parler_; _aime_, _aimer_. In several verbs, as + _tenir_ (_tenere_), the distinction is retained--_tiens_, _tiens_, + _tient_, _tenons_, _tenez_, _tiennent_. (8) In Old French, as stated + above, _ie_ instead of _e_ from _a_ occurs after a palatal (which, if + a consonant, often split into _i_ with a dental); the diphthong thus + appears in several forms of many verbs of the 1st + conjugation--_preier_ (= _prei-ier_, _precare_), _vengier_ + (_vindicare_), _laissier_ (_laxare_), _aidier_ (_adjutare_). At the + close of the Old French period, those verbs in which the stem ends in + a dental replace _ie_ by the _e_ of other verbs--Old French + _laissier_, _aidier_, _laissiez_ (_laxatis_), _aidiez_ (adjutatis); + Modern French _laisser_, _aider_, _laissez_, _aidez_, by analogy of + _aimer_, _aimez_. The older forms generally remain in + Picard--_laissier_, _aidier_. (9) The addition of _e_ to the 1st sing. + pres. ind. of all verbs of the first conjugation is rare before the + 13th century, but is usual in the 15th; it is probably due to the + analogy of the third person--Old French _chant_ (_canto_), _aim_ + (_amo_); Modern French _chante_, _aime_. (10) In the 13th century _s_ + is occasionally added to the 1st pers. sing., except those ending in + _e_ (= _[schwa]_) and _ai_, and to the 2nd sing. of imperatives; at the + close of the 16th century this becomes the rule, and extends to + imperfects and conditionals in _oie_ after the loss of their _e_. It + appears to be due to the influence of the 2nd pers. sing.--Old French + _vend_ (_vendo_ and _vende_), _vendoie_ (_vendebam_), _parti_ + (_partivi_), _ting_ (_tenui_); Modern French _vends_, _vendais_, + _partis_, _tins_; and _donne_ (_dona_) in certain cases becomes + _donnes_. (11) The 1st and 2nd plur. of the pres. subj., which in Old + French were generally similar to those of the indicative, gradually + take an _i_ before them, which is the rule after the 16th century--Old + French _perdons_ (_perdamus_), _perdez_ (_perdatis_); Modern French + _perdions_, _perdiez_, apparently by analogy of the imp. ind. (12) The + loss in Late Old French of final _s_, _t_, &c., when preceding another + consonant, caused many words to have in reality (though often + concealed by orthography) double forms of inflection--one without + termination, the other with. Thus in the 16th century the 2nd sing. + pres. ind. _dors_ (_dormis_) and the 3rd _dort_ (_dormit_) were + distinguished as _dorz_ and _dort_ when before a vowel, as _dors_ and + _dort_ at the end of a sentence or line of poetry, but ran together as + _dor_ when followed by a consonant. Still later, the loss of the final + consonant when not followed by a vowel further reduced the cases in + which the forms were distinguished, so that the actual French + conjugation is considerably simpler than is shown by the customary + spellings, except when, in consequence of an immediately following + vowel, the old terminations occasionally appear. Even here the + antiquity is to a considerable extent artificial or delusive, some of + the insertions being due to analogy, and the popular language often + omitting the traditional consonant or inserting a different one. (13) + The subsequent general loss of _e_ = _[schwa]_ in unaccented final + syllables has still further reduced the inflections, but not the + distinctive forms--_perd_ (_perdit_) and _perde_ (_perdat_) being + generally distinguished as _per_ and _perd_, and before a vowel as + _pert_ and _perd_. + + (ii.) _Substantives._--(1) In Early Old French (as in Provencal) there + are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; with a few + exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and accusative in both + numbers, the latter in neither. The nom. and acc. sing, and acc. plur. + mas. correspond to those of the Latin 2nd or 3rd declension, the nom. + plur. to that of the 2nd declension. The sing, fem. corresponds to the + nom. and acc. of the Latin 1st declension, or to the acc. of the 3rd; + the plur. fem. to the acc. of the 1st declension, or to the nom. and + acc. of the 3rd. Thus masc. _tors_ (_taurus_), _lere_ (_latro_); _tor_ + (_taurum_), _laron_ (_latronem_); _tor_ (_tauri_), _laron_ (_latroni_ + for _-nes_); _tors_ (_tauros_), _larons_ (_latrones_); but fem. only + _ele_ (_ala_ and _alam_), _flor_ (_florem_); _eles_ (_alas_), _flors_ + (_flores_ nom. and acc.). About the end of the 11th century feminines + not ending in _e_ = _[schwa]_ take, by analogy of the masculines, _s_ + in the nom. sing., thus distinguishing nom. _flors_ from acc. _flor_. + A century later, masculines without _s_ in the nom. sing. take this + consonant by analogy of the other masculines, giving _leres_ as nom. + similar to _tors_. In Anglo-Norman the accusative forms very early + begin to replace the nominative, and soon supersede them, the language + following the tendency of contemporaneous English. In continental + French the declension-system was preserved much longer, and did not + break up till the 14th century, though acc. forms are occasionally + substituted for nom. (rarely nom. for acc.) before that date. It must + be noticed, however, that in the current language the reduction of the + declension to one case (generally the accusative) per number appears + much earlier than in the language of literature proper and poetry; + Froissart, for instance, _c._ 1400, in his poetical works is much more + careful of the declension than in his Chronicles. In the 15th century + the modern system of one case is fully established; the form kept is + almost always the accusative (sing. without _s_, plural with _s_), but + in a few words, such as _fils_ (_filius_), _soeur_ (_soror_), _pastre_ + (_pastor_), and in proper names such as _Georges_, _Gilles_, &c., + often used as vocative (therefore with the form of nom.); the nom. + survives in the sing. Occasionally both forms exist, in different + senses--_sire_ (_senior_) and _seigneur_ (_seniorem_), _on_ (_homo_) + and _homme_ (_hominem_). (2) Latin neuters are generally masculine in + Old French, and inflected according to their analogy, as _ciels_ + (_caelus_ for _caelum_ nom.), _ciel_ (_caelum_ acc.), _ciel_ (_caeli_ + for _caela_ nom.), _ciels_ (_caelos_ for _caela_ acc.); but in some + cases the form of the Latin neuter is preserved, as in _cors_, now + _corps_, Lat. _corpus_; _tens_, now _temps_, Lat. _tempus_. Many + neuters lose their singular form and treat the plural as a feminine + singular, as in the related languages--_merveille_ (_mirabilia_), + _feuille_ (_folia_). But in a few words the neuter plural termination + is used, as in Italian, in its primitive sense--_carre_ (_carra_, + which exists as well as _carri_), _paire_ (_Lat. paria_); Modern + French _chars_, _paires_. (3) In Old French the inflectional _s_ often + causes phonetic changes in the stem; thus palatal _l_ before _s_ takes + _t_ after it, and becomes dental _l_, which afterwards changes to _u_ + or drops--_fil_ (_filium_ and _filii_) with palatal _l_, _filz_ + (_filius_ and _filios_), afterwards _fiz_, with _z_ = _ts_ (preserved + in English _Fitz_), and then _fis_, as now (spelt _fils_). Many + consonants before _s_, as the _t_ of _fiz_, disappear, and _l_ is + vocalized--_vif_ (_vivum_), _mal_ (_malum_), nominative sing. and acc. + plur. _vis_, _maus_ (earlier _mals_). These forms of the plural are + retained in the 16th century, though often etymologically spelt with + the consonant of the singular, as in _vifs_, pronounced _vis_; but in + Late Modern French many of them disappear, _vifs_, with _f_ sounded as + in the singular, being the plural of _vif_, _bals_ (formerly _baux_) + that of _bal_. In many words, as _chant_ (_cantus_) and _champs_ + (_campos_) with silent _t_ and _p_ (Old French _chans_ in both cases), + _maux_ (Old French _mals_, sing. _mal_), _yeux_ (_oculos_, Old French + _oelz_, sing. _oeil_) the old change in the stem is kept. Sometimes, + as in _cieux_ (_caelos_) and _ciels_, the old traditional and the + modern analogical forms coexist, with different meanings. (4) The + modern loss of final _s_ (except when kept as _z_ before a vowel) has + seriously modified the French declension, the singulars _fort_ (_for_) + and _forte_ (_fort_) being generally undistinguishable from their + plurals _forts_ and _fortes_. The subsequent loss of _[schwa]_ in + finals has not affected the relation between sing. and plur. forms; + but with the frequent recoining of the plural forms on the singular + present Modern French has very often no distinction between sing. and + plur., except before a vowel. Such plurals as _maux_ have always been + distinct from their singular _mal_; in those whose singular ends in + _s_ there never was any distinction, Old French _laz_ (now spelt + _lacs_) corresponding to _laqveus_, _laqveum_, _laqvei_ and _laqveos_. + + (iii.) _Adjectives._--(1) The terminations of the cases and numbers of + adjectives are the same as those of substantives, and are treated in + the preceding paragraph. The feminine generally takes no _e_ if the + masc. has none, and if there is no distinction in Latin--fem. sing. + _fort_ (_fortem_), _grant_ (_grandem_), fem. plur. _forz_ (_fortes_), + _granz_ (_grandes_), like the acc. masc. Certain adjectives of this + class, and among them all the adjectives formed with the Latin suffix + _-ensis_, take regularly, even in the oldest French, the feminine + ending _e_, in _Provencal_ a (_courtois_, fem. _courtoise_; _commun_, + fem. _commune_). To these must not be added _dous_ (Mod. Fr. _dolz_, + _dous_), fem. _douce_, which probably comes from a Low Latin + _dulcius_, _dulcia_. In the 11th century some other feminines, + originally without _e_, begin in Norman to take this + termination--_grande_ (in a feminine assonance in the Alexis), plur. + _grandes_; but other dialects generally preserve the original form + till the 14th century. In the 16th century the _e_ is general in the + feminine, and is now universal, except in a few + expressions--_grand'mere_ (with erroneous apostrophe, _grandem_, + _matrem_), _lettres royaux_ (_literas regales_), and most adverbs from + adjectives in _-ant_, _-ent_--_couramment_ (_currante_ for _-ente + mente_), _sciemment_ (_sciente mente_). (2) Several adjectives have in + Modern French replaced the masc. by the feminine--Old French masc. + _roit_ (_rigidum_), fem. _roide_ (_rigidam_); Modern French _roide_ + for both genders. (3) In Old French several Latin simple comparatives + are preserved--_maiur_ (_majorem_), nom. _maire_ (_major_); _graignur_ + (_grandiorem_), nom. _graindre_ (_grandior_); only a few of these now + survive--_pire_ (_pejor_), _meilleur_ (_meliorem_), with their + adverbial neuters _pis_ (_pejus_), _mieux_ (_melius_). The few simple + superlatives found in Old French, as _merme_ (_minimum_), _pesme_ + (_pessimus_), _proisme_ (_proximum_), _haltisme_ (_altissimum_), this + last one being clearly a literary word, are now extinct, and, when + they existed, had hardly the meaning of a superlative. (4) The modern + loss of many final consonants when not before vowels, and the + subsequent loss of final _[schwa]_, have greatly affected the + distinction between the masc. and fem. of adjectives--_fort_ and + _forte_ are still distinguished as _for_ and _fort_, but _amer_ + (_amarum_) and _amere_ (_amaram_), with their plurals _amers_ and + _ameres_, have run together. + +(f) _Derivation._--Most of the Old French prefixes and suffixes are +descendants of Latin ones, but a few are Teutonic (_ard = hard_), and +some are later borrowings from Latin (_arie_, afterwards _aire_, from +_arium_). In Modern French many old affixes are hardly used for forming +new words; the inherited _ier_ (_arium_) is yielding to the borrowed +_aire_, the popular _contre_ (_contra_) to the learned anti (Greek), and +the native _ee_ (_atam_) to the Italian _ade_. The suffixes of many +words have been assimilated to more common ones; thus _sengler_ +(_singularem_) is now _sanglier_. + +(g) _Syntax._--Old French syntax, gradually changing from the 10th to +the 14th century, has a character of its own, distinct from that of +Modern French; though when compared with Latin syntax it appears +decidedly modern. + + (1) The general formal distinction between nominative and accusative + is the chief feature which causes French syntax to resemble that of + Latin and differ from that of the modern language; and as the + distinction had to be replaced by a comparatively fixed word-order, a + serious loss of freedom ensued. If the forms are modernized while the + word-order is kept, the Old French _l'archevesque ne puet flechir li + reis Henris_ (Latin _archiepiscopum non potest flectere rex Henricus_) + assumes a totally different meaning--_l'archeveque ne peut flechir le + roi Henri_. (2) The replacement of the nominative form of nouns by the + accusative is itself a syntactical feature, though treated above under + inflection. A more modern instance is exhibited by the personal + pronouns, which, when not immediately the subject of a verb, + occasionally take even in Old French, and regularly in the 16th + century, the accusative form; the Old French _je qui sui_ (_ego qvi + sum_) becomes _moi qui suis_, though the older usage survives in the + legal phrase _je soussigne_.... (3) The definite article is now + required in many cases where Old French dispenses with it--_jo cunquis + Engleterre, suffrir mort_ (as Modern French _avoir faim_); Modern + French _l'Angleterre, la mort_. (4) Old French had distinct pronouns + for "this" and "that"--_cest_ (_ecce istum_) and _cel_ (_ecce + illium_), with their cases. Both exist in the 16th century, but the + present language employs _cet_ as adjective, _cel_ as substantive, in + both meanings, marking the old distinction by affixing the adverbs + _ci_ and _la_--_cet homme-ci, cet homme-la_; _celui-ci, celui-la_. (5) + In Old French, the verbal terminations being clear, the subject + pronoun is usually not expressed--_si ferai_ (_sic facere habeo_), + _est durs_ (_durus est_), _que feras_ (_quid facere habes_)? In the + 16th century the use of the pronoun is general, and is now universal, + except in one or two impersonal phrases, as _n'importe, peu s'en + faut_. (6) The present participle in Old French in its uninflected + form coincided with the gerund (_amant = amantem_ and _amando_), and + in the modern language has been replaced by the latter, except where + it has become adjectival; the Old French _complaingnans leur dolours_ + (Latin _plangentes_) is now _plaignant leurs douleurs_ (Latin + _plangendo_). The now extinct use of _estre_ with the participle + present for the simple verb is not uncommon in Old French down to the + 16th century--_sont disanz_ (_sunt dicentes_) = Modern French _ils + disent_ (as English _they are saying_). (7) In present Modern French + the preterite participle when used with _avoir_ to form verb-tenses is + invariable, except when the object precedes (an exception now + vanishing in the conversational language)--_j'ai ecrit les lettres, + les lettres que j'ai ecrites_. In Old French down to the 16th century, + formal concord was more common (though by no means necessary), partly + because the object preceded the participle much oftener than now--_ad + la culur muee_ (_habet colorem mutatam_), _ad faite sa venjance, les + turs ad rendues_. (8) The sentences just quoted will serve as + specimens of the freedom of Old French word-order--the object standing + either before verb and participle, between them, or after both. The + predicative adjective can stand before or after the verb--_halt sunt + li pui_ (Latin _podia_), _e tenebrus e grant_. (9) In Old French _ne_ + (Early Old French _nen_, Latin _non_) suffices for the negation + without _pas_ (_passum_), _point_ (_punctum_) or _mie_ (_micam_, now + obsolete), though these are frequently used--_jo ne sui lis sire_ (_je + ne suis pas ton seigneur_), _autre feme nen ara_ (_il n'aura pas autre + femme_). In principal sentences Modern French uses _ne_ by itself only + in certain cases--_je ne puis marcher, je n'ai rien_. The slight + weight as a negation usually attached to ne has caused several + originally positive words to take a negative meaning--_rien_ (Latin + _rem_) now meaning "nothing" as well as "something." (10) In Old + French interrogation was expressed with substantives as with pronouns + by putting them after the verb--_est Saul entre les prophetes?_ In + Modern French the pronominal inversion (the substantive being + prefixed) or a verbal periphrasis must be used--_Saul est-il?_ or + _est-ce que Saul est?_ + + (h) _Summary._--Looking at the internal history of the French language + as a whole, there is no such strongly marked division as exists + between Old and Middle English, or even between Middle and Modern + English. Some of the most important changes are quite modern, and are + concealed by the traditional orthography; but, even making allowance + for this, the difference between French of the 11th century and that + of the 20th is less than that between English of the same dates. The + most important change in itself and for its effects is probably that + which is usually made the division between Old and Modern French, the + loss of the formal distinction between nominative and accusative; next + to this are perhaps the gradual loss of many final consonants, the + still recent loss of the vowel of unaccented final syllables, and the + extension of analogy in conjugation and declension. In its + construction Old French is distinguished by a freedom strongly + contrasting with the strictness of the modern language, and bears, as + might be expected, a much stronger resemblance than the latter to the + other Romanic dialects. In many features, indeed, both positive and + negative, Modern French forms a class by itself, distinct in character + from the other modern representatives of Latin. + + IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The few works which treat of French philology as a + whole are now in many respects antiquated, and the important + discoveries of recent years, which have revolutionized our ideas of + Old French phonology and dialectology, are scattered in various + editions, periodicals, and separate treatises. For many things Diez's + _Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen_ (4th edition--a reprint of the + 3rd--Bonn, 1876-1877; French translation, Paris, 1872-1875) is still + very valuable; Burguy's _Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil_ (2nd edition--a + reprint of the 1st--Berlin, 1869-1870) is useful only as a collection + of examples. Schwan's _Grammatik des Altfranzoesischen_, as revised by + Behrens in the 3rd edition (Leipzig, 1898; French translation, Leipzig + and Paris, 1900), is by far the best old French grammar we possess. + For the history of French language in general see F. Brunot, _Histoire + de la langue francaise des origines a 1900_ (Paris, 1905, 1906, &c.). + For the history of spelling, A. F. Didot, _Observations sur + l'orthographe ou ortografie francaise suivies d'une histoire de la + reforme orthographique depuis le XV^e siecle jusqu'a nos jours_ (2nd + ed., Paris, 1868). For the history of French sounds: Ch. Thurot, _De + la prononciation francaise depuis le commencement du XVI^e siecle, + d'apres les temoignages des grammairiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1883). + For the history of syntax, apart from various grammatical works of a + general character, much is to be gathered from Ad. Tobler's + _Vermischte Beitraege zur franzoesischen Grammatik_ (3 parts, 1886, + 1894, 1899, parts i. and ii. in second editions, 1902, 1906). G. + Paris's edition of _La Vie de S. Alexis_ (Paris, 1872) was the pioneer + of, and retains an important place among, the recent original works on + Old French. Darmesteter and Hatzfeld's _Le Seizieme Siecle_ (Paris, + 1878) contains the first good account of Early Modern French. Littre's + _Dictionnaire de la langue francaise_ (4 vols., Paris, 1863-1869, and + a Supplement, 1877); and Hatzfeld, Darmesteter and Thomas, _Dict. + general de la langue francaise_, more condensed (2 vols., Paris, + 1888-1900), contain much useful and often original information about + the etymology and history of French words. For the etymology of many + French (and also Provencal) words, reference must be made to Ant. + Thomas's _Essais de philologie francaise_ (Paris, 1897) and _Nouveaux + essais de philologie francaise_ (Paris, 1904). But there is no French + dictionary properly historical. A _Dictionnaire historique de la + langue francaise_ was begun by the Academie francaise (4 vols., + 1859-1894), but it was, from the first, antiquated. It contains only + one letter (A) and has not been continued. The leading periodicals now + in existence are the _Romania_ (Paris), founded (in 1872) and edited + by P. Meyer and G. Paris (with Ant. Thomas since the death of G. Paris + in 1903), and the _Zeitschrift fuer romanische Philologie_ (Halle), + founded (in 1877) and edited by G. Groeber. To these reference should + be made for information as to the very numerous articles, treatises + and editions by the many and often distinguished scholars who, + especially in France and Germany, now prosecute the scientific study + of the language. It may be well to mention that, Old French phonology + especially being complicated, and as yet incompletely investigated, + these publications, the views in which are of various degrees of + value, require not mere acquiescent reading, but critical study. The + dialects of France in their present state (_patois_) are now being + scientifically investigated. The special works on the subject + (dictionaries, grammars, &c.) cannot be fully indicated here; we must + limit ourselves to the mention of Behren's _Bibliographie des patois + gallo-romans_ (2nd ed., revised Berlin, 1893), and of Gillieron and + Edmont's _Atlas linguistique de la France_ (1902 et seq.), a huge + publication planned to contain about 1800 maps. (H. N.; P. M.) + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language", by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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