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diff --git a/37806.txt b/37806.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c070703 --- /dev/null +++ b/37806.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18017 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language", by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 20, 2011 [EBook #37806] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + AUTHOR LIST: "W. L. F. Walter Lynwood Fleming, M.A., Ph.D." 'M.A.' + amended from 'A.M.'. + + ARTICLE FRANCS-TIREURS: "... and prevented him from gaining + information, and that their soldierly qualities improved with + experience." 'improved' amended from 'inproved'. + + ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "... (which, as Franklin discovered, + was erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the + north) ..." 'degrees' amended from 'degress'. + + ARTICLE FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN: "The alternative course permitted + Franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not pursued, + and in the autumn of 1846 he had followed that route which was + specially commended to him." 'instructions' amended from + 'intructions'. + + ARTICLE FRAUENBURG: "Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received + the rights of a town in 1310." 'Frauenburg' amended from + 'Frauenberg'. + + ARTICLE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS: "Historical and religious + sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was tyrannical + to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy with the + smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe." 'detestation' + amended from 'destestation'. + + ARTICLE FREEMASONRY: "Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was + "made a Free Mason of Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," + seven brethern being named as in attendance at the lodge ..." + 'brethern' amended from 'brethen'. + + ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "... perd (perdit) and perde (perdat) + being generally distinguished as per and perd, and before a vowel + as pert and perd." 'distinguished' amended from 'ditinguished'. + + ARTICLE FRENCH LANGUAGE: "In Early Old French (as in Provencal) + there are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; + with a few exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and + accusative in both numbers, the latter in neither." 'distinguishes' + amended from 'ditinguishes'. + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + + + FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. + SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. + THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. + FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. + FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. + SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. + SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. + EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. + NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. + TENTH " ninth edition and eleven + supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. + ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. + + + COPYRIGHT + + in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention + + by + + THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS + of the + UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE + + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF + ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XI + FRANCISCANS to GIBSON + + New York + + Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. + 342 Madison Avenue + + + Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, + by + The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. + + + VOLUME XI, SLICE I + + Franciscans to French Language + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FRANCISCANS FREDERICK I. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK FREDERICK II. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK, CESAR FREDERICK III. (king of Prussia) + FRANCK, SEBASTIAN FREDERICK III. (king of Sicily) + FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN FREDERICK I. (elector of Brandenburg) + FRANCKEN FREDERICK I. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCO-GERMAN WAR FREDERICK II. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, LOUIS FREDERICK III. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCONIA FREDERICK IV. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCS-ARCHERS FREDERICK V. (elector of the Rhine) + FRANCS-TIREURS FREDERICK I. (duke of Saxony) + FRANEKER FREDERICK II. (duke of Saxony) + FRANK, JAKOB FREDERICK III. (elector of Saxony) + FRANK-ALMOIGN FREDERICK (Maryland, U.S.A.) + FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. + FRANKENBERG FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. + FRANKENHAUSEN FREDERICK CHARLES (KARL NIKOLAUS) + FRANKENSTEIN FREDERICK HENRY + FRANKENTHAL FREDERICK LOUIS + FRANKENWALD FREDERICK WILLIAM I. + FRANKFORT (Indiana, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM II. + FRANKFORT (Kentucky, U.S.A.) FREDERICK WILLIAM III. + FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. + FRANKFORT-ON-ODER FREDERICK WILLIAM (of Brandenburg) + FRANKINCENSE FREDERICK-LEMAITRE, ANTOINE PROSPER + FRANKING FREDERICKSBURG + FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST FREDERICTON + FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD FREDONIA + FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN FREDRIKSHALD + FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN FREDRIKSTAD + FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL FREE BAPTISTS + FRANKLIN (district of Canada) FREEBENCH + FRANKLIN (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH FEDERATION + FRANKLIN (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND + FRANKLIN (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND + FRANKLIN (Tennessee, U.S.A.) FREEDMEN'S BUREAU + FRANKLIN (freeman) FREEHOLD (New Jersey, U.S.A.) + FRANKLINITE FREEHOLD (law) + FRANK-MARRIAGE FREELAND + FRANKPLEDGE FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS + FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON FREEMAN + FRANKS FREEMASONRY + FRANZ, ROBERT FREEPORT + FRANZEN, FRANS MIKAEL FREE PORTS + FRANZENSBAD FREE REED VIBRATOR + FRANZ JOSEF LAND FREESIA + FRANZOS, KARL EMIL FREE SOIL PARTY + FRASCATI FREE-STONE + FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FREETOWN + FRASER, JAMES FREE TRADE + FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE FREGELLAE + FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS FREIBERG + FRASER (river) FREIBURG + FRASERBURGH FREIBURG IM BREISGAU + FRASERVILLE FREIDANK + FRATER FREIENWALDE + FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE FREIESLEBENITE + FRATICELLI FREIGHT + FRAUD FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND + FRAUENBURG FREIND, JOHN + FRAUENFELD FREINSHEIM, JOHANN + FRAUENLOB FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSE + FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM FREISCHUeTZ + FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON FREISING + FRAUSTADT FREJUS + FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE + FRECHETTE, LOUIS HONORE FREMANTLE + FREDEGOND FREMIET, EMMANUEL + FREDERIC, HAROLD FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES + FREDERICIA FREMONT (Nebraska, U.S.A.) + FREDERICK (name) FREMONT (Ohio, U.S.A.) + FREDERICK I. (Roman emperor) FREMY, EDMOND + FREDERICK II. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER + FREDERICK III. (Roman emperor) FRENCH, NICHOLAS + FREDERICK III. (German king) FRENCH CONGO + FREDERICK II. (king of Denmark) FRENCH GUINEA + FREDERICK III. (king of Denmark) FRENCH LANGUAGE + FREDERICK VIII. (king of Denmark) + + + + +INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH +THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. + + + A. B. R. + ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.L.S. + + Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book + on Classification of Flowering Plants_; &c. + + Fruit. + + A. B. W. K. + SIR ALEXANDER BLACKIE WILLIAM KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S. + + Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University College, London. + Consulting Engineer to Board of Ordnance. + + Friction. + + A. Ca. + ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR. + + Gauss. + + A. E. H. L. + AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of + Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College; formerly Fellow of St + John's College, Cambridge. Secretary to the London Mathematical + Society. + + Function: _Functions of Real Variables_. + + A. E. S. + ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, + Cambridge University. Joint-editor of the _Cambridge Natural + History_. + + Gastrotricha. + + A. Ge. + SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, GEIKIE, SIR A. + + Geology. + + A. Go.* + REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, MA. + + Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. + + Franck, Sebastian; + Gallars. + + A. G. B.* + HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.C.E. + + Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member + of Executive and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E. + + Georgetown, British Guiana. + + A. G. D. + ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R., HIST.S. + + Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of + Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor + of _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. + + Frontenac et Palluau. + + A. H. Sm. + ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. + + Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the + British Museum. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. Author of _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British + Museum_; &c. + + Gem: II. (_in part_). + + A. M.* + REV. ALLEN MENZIES, D.D. + + Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St + Andrews. Author of _History of Religion_; &c. Editor of _Review + of Theology and Philosophy_. + + Free Church of Scotland (_in part_). + + A. M. C. + AGNES MARY CLERKE. + + See the biographical article, CLERKE, AGNES M. + + Galileo. + + A. N. + ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. + + Frigate-Bird; + Gadwall; + Gannet; + Gare Fowl. + + A. N. B. + ALFRED NEAVE BRAYSHAW, LL.B. + + Author of _Bible Notes on the Hebrew Prophets_. + + Friends, Society of. + + A. N. W. + ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. + Author of _A Treatise on Universal Algebra_; &c. + + Geometry: VI. (_in part_) and VII. + + A. R. C. + ALEXANDER ROSS CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. + + Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In + charge of the trigonometrical operations of the Ordnance Survey, + 1854-1881. + + Geodesy (_in part_). + + A. S. M. + ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. + + Gem: II. (_in part_). + + A. W. H.* + ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. + + Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of + Gray's Inn, 1900. + + Frederick II., _Roman Emperor_; + French Revolution: _Republican Calendar_; + Germany: _History (in part) and Bibliography_. + + A. W. W. + ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. + + See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. + + Garrick, David (_in part_). + + B. A. W. R. + HON. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S. + + Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of + _Foundations of Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c._ + + Geometry: VI. (_in part_). + + B. S. P. + BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). + + Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. + + Germany: _Archaeology_. + + C. B.* + CHARLES BEMONT, LITT.D. (Oxon.). + + See the biographical article, Bemont, C. + + Fustel De Coulanges; + Gascony. + + C. D. W. + HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. + + See the biographical article, WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. + + Friendly Societies: _United States_. + + C. E.* + CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. + + Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. + + Geometry: _History_. + + C. F. A. + CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of + London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold + Harbour_. + + Franco-German War (_in part_); + French Revolutionary Wars: _Military Operations_; + Germany: _Army_; + Gibraltar: _History_. + + C. H. Ha. + CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, M.A., PH.D. + + Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York + City. Member of the American Historical Association. + + Gelasius II. + + C. K. S. + CLEMENT KING SHORTER. + + Editor of _The Sphere_. Author of _Sixty Years of Victorian + Literature_; _Immortal Memories_; _The Brontes, Life and Letters_; + &c. + + Gaskell, Elizabeth. + + C. Mi. + CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. + + Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, + 1895-1900 and 1902-1903. + + Garashanin. + + C. M. K. + SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908). + + Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer + on International Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in + the Levant, 1870-1871, at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, + Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor of Kennedy's _Ethnological and + Linguistic Essays_; _Diplomacy and International Law_. + + Free Ports. + + C. Pf. + CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES.-L. + + Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_; _Le + Duche merovingien d'Alsace et la legende de Sainte-Odile_. + + Franks; + Fredegond; + Germanic Laws, Early. + + C. R. B. + CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. + + Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. + Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer + in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. + Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; + _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c. + + Gerard of Cremona. + + C. R. C. + CLAUDE REGNIER CONDER, LL.D. + + Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of + Palestine. Author of _The City of Jerusalem_; _The Bible and the + East_; _The Hittites and their Language_; &c. + + Galilee (_in part_); + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_). + + C. T.* + REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908). + + Formerly Master of St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor, + Cambridge University, 1887-1888. Author of _Geometrical Conies_; + &c. + + Geometrical Continuity. + + C. We. + CECIL WEATHERLY. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. + + Gate. + + C. W. W. + SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). + + Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American + Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the + Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance + Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, + 1895-1898. Author of _From Korti to Khartoum_; _Life of Lord + Clive_; &c. + + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_). + + D. C. + DUGALD CLERK, M.INST.C.E., F.R.S. + + Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the + Clerk Cycle Gas Engine. + + Gas Engine. + + D. F. T. + DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. + + Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_, + comprising _The Classical Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, + and analyses of many other classical works. + + Fugue. + + D. H. + DAVID HANNAY. + + Formerly British Vice-consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short + History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; + &c. + + French Revolutionary Wars: _Naval Operations_. + + E. Br. + ERNEST BARKER, M.A. + + Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, + Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven + Scholar, 1895. + + Fulk, King of Jerusalem. + + E. B. El. + EDWIN BAILEY ELLIOTT, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. + + Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics, and Fellow of Magdalen + College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. + President of London Mathematical Society, 1896-1898. Author of + _Algebra of Quantics_; &c. + + Geometry, IV. + + E. C. B. + RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER; O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin). + + Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of + Palladius" in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_. + + Franciscans; + Friar. + + E. E. + LADY EASTLAKE. + + See the biographical article, EASTLAKE, SIR C. L. + + Gibson, John. + + E. G. + EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND. + + Fryxell; + Garland, John. + + E. J. D. + EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. + + Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. + + Galuppi. + + E. O.* + EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. + + Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the + Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery + at the Universities of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A + Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students_. + + Gastric Ulcer. + + E. Pr. + EDGAR PRESTAGE. + + Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of + Manchester. Commendador Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. + Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and + Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. + + Garcao; + Garrett, + + E. W. B. + SIR EDWARD WILLIAM BRABROOK, C.B., F.S.A. + + Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly + Societies, 1891-1904. Author of _Building Societies_; _Provident + Societies and Industrial Welfare_; _Institutions of Thrift_; &c. + + Friendly Societies. + + F. C. C. + FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Geissen). + + Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University + College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of + Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c. + + Funeral Rites. + + F. C. M. + FRANCIS CHARLES MONTAGUE, M.A. + + Astor Professor of European History, University College, London. + Formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Author of _Limits of + Individual Liberty_; chapters in _Cambridge Modern History_; &c. + + French Revolution. + + F. F.* + SIR JAMES FORTESCUE-FLANNERY, BART., M.P., M.INST.C.E. + + Ex-President of the Institute of Marine Engineers. M.P. for the + Maldon Division of Essex, 1910. M.P. for the Shipley Division of + Yorkshire, 1895-1906. + + Fuel: _Liquid_. + + F. G. M. B. + FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. + + Germany: _Ethnography and Early History_. + + F. H. B. + FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. + + Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of Royal School of Mines. + + Frankincense; + Galls. + + F. J. H. + FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. + + Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. + Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. + Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, + Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman + History, especially Roman Britain; &c. + + Gaul. + + F. N. M. + COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. + + Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of + _War and the World's Policy_; _The Leipzig Campaign_; _The Jena + Campaign_. + + Franco-German War (_in part_). + + F. R. C. + FRANK R. CANA. + + Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_. + + French Congo; + German East Africa; + German South-West Africa. + + F. R. H. + FRIEDRICH ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. + + Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. + + Geodesy (_in part_). + + F. S. + FRANCIS STORR. + + Editor of the _Journal of Education_, London. Officer d'Academie + (Paris). + + Games, Classical. + + F. W. R.* + FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, + 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. + + Garnet; + Gem: I. + + G. E. + REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S. + + Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's + Lecturer, 1909. + + Gelderland (_Duchy_). + + G. L. + GEORG LUNGE. + + See the biographical article. LUNGE, G. + + Fuel: _Gaseous_; + Gas: _Manufacture_, II. + + G. Sa. + GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D. + + See the biographical article, SAINTSBURY, G. + + French Literature; + Gautier. + + G. W. T. + REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. + + Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew + and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. + + Ghazali. + + H. B. + HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909). + + Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. + Author of _A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron_. + + Fuel: _Solid_. + + H. B. W. + HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. + + Late Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. + Wollaston Medallist, Geological Society. Author of _The History of + the Geological Society of London_; &c. + + Gaudry. + + H. Ch. + HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. + + Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the + 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the + 10th edition. + + Gambetta; + Garnett, Richard; + George IV. (_in part_). + + H. C. L. + HON. HENRY CABOT LODGE. + + See the biographical article, LODGE, HENRY CABOT. + + Gallatin. + + H. F. Ba. + HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley + Lecturer in Mathematics in the University. Author of _Abel's + Theorem and the Allied Theory_; &c. + + Function: _Functions of Complex Variables_. + + H. L. C. + HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. + + Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly + Professor of Physics in MacGill College, Montreal, and in + University College, London. + + Fusion. + + H. M.* + HUGH MITCHELL. + + Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. + + Gibraltar (_in part_). + + H. M. W. + H. MARSHALL WARD, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. (d. 1905). + + Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British + Mycological Society. Author of _Timber and Some of its Diseases_; + _The Oak_; _Sach's Lectures on the Physiology of Plants_; + _Diseases in Plants_; &c. + + Fungi (_in part_). + + H. N. + HENRY NICOL. + + French Language (_in part_). + + H. R. M. + HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.SC., LL.D. + + Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of _British + Rainfall_. Formerly President of the Royal Meteorological Society. + Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. Corresponding + Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St + Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of _The Realm of Nature_; _The + International Geography_; &c. + + Geography. + + H. W. C. D. + HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls + College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans + and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_. + + Geoffrey, _Archbishop of York_; + Geoffrey of Monmouth; + Gerard; + Gervase of Canterbury; + Gervase of Tilbury. + + H. W. S. + H. WICKHAM STEED. + + Correspondent of _The Times_ at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. + + Garibaldi. + + I. A. + ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. + + Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of + Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of + England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish + Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c. + + Frank, Jakob; + Frankel, Zecharias; + Frankl, Ludwig A.; + Friedmann, Meir; + Gaon; + Geiger (_in part_); + Gersonides. + + J. A. F. + JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of + London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of + St John's College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in + the University. Author of _Magnets and Electric Currents_. + + Galvanometer. + + J. A. H. + JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. + Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_. + + Fuller's Earth. + + J. B. B. + JOHN BAGNALL BURY, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, BURY, J. B. + + Gibbon, Edward. + + J. B. McM. + JOHN BACH MCMASTER, LL.D. + + Professor of American History in the University of Pennsylvania. + Author of _A History of the People of the United States_; &c. + + Garfield, James Abram. + + J. Ga. + JAMES GAIRDNER, LL.D., C.B. + + See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J. + + Gardiner, Stephen. + + J. G. C. A. + JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. + + Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of + Lincoln College; Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, + 1893. + + Galatia. + + J. G. R. + JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of German, University of London. Author of _History of + German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c. + + Freiligrath; + German Literature. + + J. Hn. + JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. + + Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. + Author of _Das Rheinland und die franzoesische Herrschaft_. + + Frederick Augustus I. and II.; + Frederick William I. + + J. H. Gr. + JOHN HILTON GRACE, M.A., F.R.S. + + Lecturer in Mathematics at Peterhouse and Pembroke College, + Cambridge. Fellow of Peterhouse. + + Geometry, V. + + J. H. H. + JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A. + + Author of _Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation_. + + Fust. + + J. H. R. + JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). + + Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family + History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_; &c. + + Geoffrey De Montbray. + + J. Hl. R. + JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. + + Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the + Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of + Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic Studies_; _The Development of the + European Nations_; _The Life of Pitt_; &c. + + Gardane. + + J. Mt. + JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. + + Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of _Historical New + Testament_; &c. + + Galatians, Epistle to the. + + J. P.-B. + JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. + + Editor of the _Guardian_ (London). + + Furniture. + + J. Si. + JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895). + + Author of _A History of Germany_; &c. + + Frederick the Great (_in part_). + + J. S. Bl. + JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. + + Assistant Editor 9th edition _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. + Joint-editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. + + Free Church of Scotland (_in part_). + + J. S. F. + JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S. + + Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on + Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal + Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society + of London. + + Fulgurite; + Gabbro. + + J. T. Be. + JOHN T. BEALBY. + + Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the + _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's + _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. + + Georgia (Russia), (_in part_). + + J. T. C. + JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. + + Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. + Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor + of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to + the Marine Biological Association. + + Gastropoda. + + J. V. B. + JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St. Andrews). + + Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of + _The Apostolic Age_; &c. + + Frommel. + + J. Ws. + JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. + + Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex County Council. Author + of _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_; _French Market Gardening_; + &c. + + Fruit and Flower Farming (_in part_). + + J. W. He. + JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. + + Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. + Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek + and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of + _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c. + + Frederick III. of Prussia; + Germany: _History (in part)_. + + K. S. + KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. + + Author of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c. Editor of the + _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. + + Free Reed Vibrator; + Geige. + + L. D. + LOUIS DUCHESNE. + + See the biographical article, DUCHESNE, L. M. O. + + Gelasius I. + + L. H.* + LOUIS HALPHEN, D.-ES.-L. + + Principal of the course of the Faculty of Letters in the + University of Bordeaux. Author of _Le Comte d'Anjou au XI^e + siecle; Recueil des actes angevines_; &c. + + Fulk Nerra; + Geoffrey, Count of Anjou; + Geoffrey Plantaganet. + + L. J. S. + LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. + + Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly + Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. + Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. + + Galena. + + L. V. + LINDA MARY VILLARI. + + See the biographical article, VILLARI, PASQUALE. + + Frederick III. King of Sicily. + + M. G. + MOSES GASTER, PH.D. + + Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. + Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester + Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and + 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, + Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of _History of Rumanian Popular + Literature_; _A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira_; _The Hebrew + Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle_. + + Ghica. + + M. N. T. + MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in + Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. + + Gerousia. + + O. Ba. + OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. + + Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing + Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage. + + Genealogy: _Modern_. + + O. H. + OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. + + Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical + College of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of + _Vectors and Rotors_; _Congruent Figures_; &c. + + Geometry, I., II., and III. + + P. A. + PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. + + Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes + etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les + heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_. + + Fraticelli. + + P. A. A. + PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC.JURIS. + + New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von + Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_. + + Germany: _Geography_. + + P. Gi. + PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. + + Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and + University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of + the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of + Comparative Philology_; &c. + + G. + + P. La. + PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. + + Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge + University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. _Author of + Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and editor + of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_. + + Germany: _Geology_. + + P. M. + PAUL MEYER. + + See the biographical article, MEYER, M. P. H. + + French Language (_in part_). + + R. Ad. + ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. + + See the biographical article. ADAMSON, ROBERT. + + Gassendi (_in part_). + + R. A. S. M. + ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. + + St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the + Palestine Exploration Fund. + + Gadara; + Galilee (_in part_); + Galilee, Sea of (_in part_); + Gerasa; + Gerizim; + Gezer; + Gibeon. + + R. Ca. + ROBERT CARRUTHERS, LL.D. (1799-1878). + + Editor of the _Inverness Courier_, 1828-1878. Part-editor of + Chambers's _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_; Lecturer at the + Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh. Author of _History of + Huntingdon_; _Life of Pope_. + + Garrick, David (_in part_). + + R. H. Q. + REV. ROBERT HEBERT QUICK, M.A., (1831-1891). + + Formerly Lecturer on Education, University of Cambridge. Author of + _Essays on Educational Reformers_. + + Froebel. + + R. L.* + RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. + + Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. + Author of Catalogues of _Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in + British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; &c. + + Galago; + Galeopithecus; + Ganodonta; + Gelada; + Gibbon. + + R. N. B. + ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). + + Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of + _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, + 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725_; _Slavonic Europe, + the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; + &c. + + Frederick II. and III. of Denmark and Norway; + Gedymin. + + R. Pr. + ROBERT PRIEBSCH, PH.D. + + Professor of German Philology, University of London. Author of + _Deutsche Handschriften in England_; &c. + + German Language. + + R. P. S. + R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. + + Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, + London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and + Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the + Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of + Architecture_. _Author of Architecture: East and West_; &c. + + Garnier, J. + + R. We. + RICHARD WEBSTER, M.A. (Princeton). + + Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The + Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. + + Franklin, Benjamin. + + S. A. C. + STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. + + Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and + Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, + Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, + 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. Author of + _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses and the + Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament History_; + _Religion of Ancient Palestine, &c._ + + Genealogy: _Biblical_; + Genesis. + + St. C. + VISCOUNT ST CYRES. + + See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF. + + Gallicanism. + + S. R. G. + SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, GARDINER, S. R. + + George I., II., III.; + George IV. (_in part_). + + T. As. + THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.). + + Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly + Scholar at Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897, Conington + Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. + + Frascati Fregellae; + Frascati; + Fregellae; + Fucino,Lago Di; + Fulginiae; + Fusaro, Lago; + Gabii; + Gaeta; + Gallipoli (Italy); + Gela; + Genoa. + + T. Ba. + SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. + + Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the + Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and + Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. + + Geneva Convention. + + T. C. H. + THOMAS CALLAN HODSON. + + Registrar, East London College, University of London. Late Indian + Civil Service. Author of _The Metheis_; &c. + + Genna. + + T. E. H. + THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. + + Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of International + Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Fellow + of the British Academy. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of + _Studies in International Law_; _The Elements of Jurisprudence_; + _Alberici Gentilis de jure belli_; _The Laws of War on Land_; + _Neutral Duties in a Maritime War_; &c. + + Gentili. + + T. G. S. + THOMAS GASKELL SHEARMAN (d. 1900). + + Author of _The Single Tax_; _Natural Taxation_; _Distribution of + Wealth_; &c. + + George, Henry. + + T. H. H.* + COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC. + + Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, + R.G.S. (London), 1887. Author of _The Indian Borderland_; _The + Countries of the King's Award_; _India_; _Tibet_; &c. + + Ganges. + + T. M. L. + REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, D.D. + + Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church + College, Glasgow. Author of _Life of Luther_; &c. + + Gerson (_in part_). + + V. B. L. + VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. + + Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Chief + Superintending Gas Examiner to City of London. + + Gas: _Manufacture_, I. + + V. H. B. + VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC. + + Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of + St John's College, Cambridge. + + Fungi (_in part_). + + W. A. B. C. + REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. + (Bern). + + Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, + St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide du Haut + Dauphine_; _The Range of the Toedi_; _Guide to Grindelwald_; _Guide + to Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor + of _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1881; &c. + + Frauenfeld; + Frejus; + Fribourg; + Gap; + Garda, Lake of; + Gemmi Pass; + Geneva; + Geneva, Lake of. + + W. A. P. + WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. + + Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St + John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. + + Frederick II. of Prussia (_in part_); + Gentleman; + Gentz, Friedrich; + Germany: _History_ (_in part_) + + W. Ba. + WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D. + + Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, + Budapest. + + Gamaliel. + + W. Be. + SIR WALTER BESANT. + + See the biographical article, BESANT, SIR W. + + Froissart. + + W. C. + SIR WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM. + + Gem, Artificial. + + W. Cu. + THE VEN. WILLIAM CUNNINGHAM, M.A., D.D. + + Archdeacon of Ely. Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, + Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow + of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _Growth of English + Industry and Commerce_; &c. + + Free Trade. + + W. E. D. + WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. + + Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and + Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South + Kensington. Formerly University Demonstrator in the Engineering + Department of Cambridge University. Author of _The Balancing of + Engines_; _Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism_; &c. + + Friction (_in part_). + + W. Fr. + WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). + + Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of + Edinburgh, and Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. + + Fruit and Flower Farming (_in part_). + + W. F. C. + WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. + + Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's + College, London. Editor of Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd + edition). + + Game Laws; + Gaming and Wagering. + + W. Hu. + REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., LITT.D. + + President of the Royal Historical Society 1905-1909. Author of + _History of English Church_, 597-1066; _The Church of England in + the Middle Ages_; _Political History of England, 1760-1801_; &c. + + Freeman, Edward A.; + Froude; + Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. + + W. J. H.* + WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN. + + Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England. Author of _Origin of + the English Rite of Freemasonry_. + + Freemasonry. + + W. L. F. + WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of + _Documentary History of Reconstruction_; &c. + + Freedmen's Bureau. + + W. L. G. + WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. + + Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, + Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford + University. Editor of _Acts of the Privy Council_ (Canadian + Series). + + Gait, Sir Alexander T. + + W. M. R. + WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. + + See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE G. + + Fuseli; + Gaddi; + Gainsborough; + Ghirlandajo, Domenico; + Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo. + + W. R. B.* + WILLIAM RAIMOND BAIRD, LL.D. + + Author of _Manual of American College Fraternities_; &c. Editor + of _The Beta Theta Pi_. + + Fraternities, College. + + W. S. P. + WALTER SUTHERLAND PARKER. + + Deputy Chairman, Fur Section, London Chamber of Commerce. + + Fur. + + + + +PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES + + Franz Josef Land. Galicia. Geraniaceae. + Free Church Federation. Galway. Geranium. + French Guinea. Gambia. German Baptist Brethren. + French West Africa. Gawain. German Catholics. + Friedland. Gelatin. Gettysburg. + Frisian Islands. Genius. Geyser. + Frisians. Gentian. Ghazni. + Fronde, The. Gentianaceae. Ghent. + Fuero. George, Saint. Ghor. + Furnace. George Junior Republic. Giant. + Galapagos Islands. Georgia (U.S.A.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in + the final volume. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XI + + + + +FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the +Seraphic Order; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the +habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey), a religious order +founded by St Francis of Assisi (q.v.). It was in 1206 that St Francis +left his father's house and devoted himself to a life of poverty and to +the service of the poor, the sick and the lepers; and in 1209 that he +felt the call to add preaching to his other ministrations, and to lead a +life in the closest imitation of Christ's life. Within a few weeks +disciples began to join themselves to him; the condition was that they +should dispose of all their possessions. When their number was twelve +Francis led the little flock to Rome to obtain the pope's sanction for +their undertaking. Innocent III. received them kindly, but with some +misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of life; these +difficulties were overcome, and the pope accorded a provisional approval +by word of mouth: they were to become clerics and to elect a superior. +Francis was elected and made a promise of obedience to the pope, and the +others promised obedience to Francis. + +This formal inauguration of the institute was in 1209 or (as seems more +probable) 1210. Francis and his associates were first known as +"Penitents of Assisi," and then Francis chose the title of "Minors." On +their return to Assisi they obtained from the Benedictine abbey on Mount +Subasio the use of the little chapel of St Mary of the Angels, called +the Portiuncula, in the plain below Assisi, which became the cradle and +headquarters of the order. Around the Portiuncula they built themselves +huts of branches and twigs, but they had no fixed abode; they wandered +in pairs over the country, dressed in the ordinary clothes of the +peasants, working in the fields to earn their daily bread, sleeping in +barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of the churches, mixing with +the labourers and the poor, with the lepers and the outcasts, ever +joyous--the "joculatores" or "jongleurs" of God--ever carrying out their +mission of preaching to the lowly and to the wretched religion and +repentance and the kingdom of God. The key-note of the movement was the +imitation of the public life of Christ, especially the poverty of +Christ. Francis and his disciples were to aim at possessing nothing, +absolutely nothing, so far as was compatible with life; they were to +earn their bread from day to day by the work of their hands, and only +when they could not do so were they to beg; they were to make no +provision for the morrow, lay by no store, accumulate no capital, +possess no land; their clothes should be the poorest and their dwellings +the meanest; they were forbidden to receive or to handle money. On the +other hand they were bound only to the fast observed in those days by +pious Christians, and were allowed to eat meat--the rule said they +should eat whatever was set before them; no austerities were imposed, +beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived. + +Thus the institute in its original conception was quite different from +the monastic institute, Benedictine or Canon Regular. It was a +confraternity rather than an order, and there was no formal novitiate, +no organization. But the number of brothers increased with extraordinary +rapidity, and the field of work soon extended itself beyond the +neighbourhood of Assisi and even beyond Umbria--within three or four +years there were settlements in Perugia, Cortona, Pisa, Florence and +elsewhere, and missions to the Saracens and Moors were attempted by +Francis himself. About 1217 Franciscan missions set out for Germany, +France, Spain, Hungary and the Holy Land; and in 1219 a number of +provinces were formed, each governed by a provincial minister. These +developments, whereby the little band of Umbrian apostles had grown into +an institute spread all over Europe and even penetrating to the East, +and numbering thousands of members, rendered impossible the continuance +of the original free organization whereby Francis's word and example +were the sufficient practical rule of life for all: it was necessary as +a condition of efficiency and even of existence and permanence that some +kind of organization should be provided. From an early date yearly +meetings or chapters had been held at the Portiuncula, at first attended +by the whole body of friars; but as the institute extended this became +unworkable, and after 1219 the chapter consisted only of the officials, +provincial ministers and others. During Francis's absence in the East +(1219-1220) a deliberate movement was initiated by the two vicars whom +he had left in charge of the order, towards assimilating it to the +monastic orders. Francis hurried back, bringing with him Elias of +Cortona, the provincial minister of Syria, and immediately summoned an +extraordinary general chapter (September 1220). Before it met he had an +interview on the situation with Cardinal Hugolino of Ostia (afterwards +Gregory IX.), the great friend and supporter of both Francis and +Dominic, and he went to Honorius III. at Orvieto and begged that +Hugolino should be appointed the official protector of the order. The +request was granted, and a bull was issued formally approving the order +of Friars Minor, and decreeing that before admission every one must pass +a year's novitiate, and that after profession it was not lawful to leave +the order. By this bull the Friars Minor were constituted an order in +the technical sense of the word. When the chapter assembled, Francis, no +doubt from a genuine feeling that he was not able to govern a great +world-wide order, practically abdicated the post of minister-general by +appointing a vicar, and the policy of turning the Friars Minor into a +great religious order was consistently pursued, especially by Elias, who +a year later became Francis's vicar. + + St Francis's attitude towards this change is of primary importance for + the interpretation of Franciscan history. There can be little doubt + that his affections never altered from his first love, and that he + looked back regretfully on the "Umbrian idyll" that had passed away; + on the other hand, there seems to be no reason for doubting that he + saw that the methods of the early days were now no longer possible, + and that he acquiesced in the inevitable. This seems to be Professor + Goetz's view, who holds that Sabatier's picture of Francis's agonized + sadness at witnessing the destruction of his great creation going on + under his eyes, has no counterpart in fact, and who rejects the view + that the changes were forced on Francis against his better judgment by + Hugolino and Elias (see "Note on Sources" at end of article FRANCIS OF + ASSISI; also ELIAS OF CORTONA); Goetz holds that the only conflict was + the inevitable one between an unrealizable ideal and its practical + working among average men. But there does seem to be evidence that + Francis deplored tendencies towards a departure from the severe + simplicity of life and from the strict observance of poverty which he + considered the ground-idea of his institute. In the final redaction of + his Rule made in 1223 and in his Testament, made after it, he again + clearly asserts his mind on these subjects, especially on poverty; and + in the Testament he forbids any glosses in the interpretation of the + Rule, declaring that it is to be taken simply as it stands. Sabatier's + view as to the difference between the "First Rule" and that of 1223 is + part of his general theory, and is, to say the least, a grave + exaggeration. No doubt the First Rule, which is fully four times as + long, gives a better picture of St Francis's mind and character; the + later Rule has been formed from the earlier by the elimination of the + frequent scripture texts and the edificatory element; but the greater + portion of it stood almost verbally in the earlier. + +On Francis's death in 1226 the government of the order rested in the +hands of Elias until the chapter of 1227. At this chapter Elias was not +elected minister-general; the building of the great basilica and +monastery at Assisi was so manifest a violation of St Francis's ideas +and precepts that it produced a reaction, and John Parenti became St +Francis's first successor. He held fast to St Francis's ideas, but was +not a strong man. At the chapter of 1230 a discussion arose concerning +the binding force of St Francis's Testament, and the interpretation of +certain portions of the Rule, especially concerning poverty, and it was +determined to submit the questions to Pope Gregory IX., who had been St +Francis's friend and had helped in the final redaction of the Rule. He +issued a bull, _Quo elongati_, which declared that as the Testament had +not received the sanction of the general chapter it was not binding on +the order, and also allowed trustees to hold and administer money for +the order. John Parenti and those who wished to maintain St Francis's +institute intact were greatly disturbed by these relaxations; but a +majority of the chapter of 1232, by a sort of _coup d'etat_, proclaimed +Elias minister-general, and John retired, though in those days the +office was for life. Under Elias the order entered on a period of +extraordinary extension and prosperity: the number of friars in all +parts of the world increased wonderfully, new provinces were formed, new +missions to the heathen organized, the Franciscans entered the +universities and vied with the Dominicans as teachers of theology and +canon law, and as a body they became influential in church and state. +With all this side of Elias's policy the great bulk of the order +sympathized; but his rule was despotic and tyrannical and his private +life was lax--at least according to any Franciscan standard, for no +charge of grave irregularity was ever brought against him. And so a +widespread movement against his government arose, the backbone of which +was the university element at Paris and Oxford, and at a dramatic scene +in a chapter held in the presence of Gregory IX. Elias was deposed +(1239). + + The story of these first years after St Francis's death is best told + by Ed. Lempp, _Frere Elie de Cortone_ (1901) (but see the warning at + the end of the article ELIAS OF CORTONA). + +At this time the Franciscans were divided into three parties: there were +the Zealots, or Spirituals, who called for a literal observance of St +Francis's Rule and Testament; they deplored all the developments since +1219, and protested against turning the institute into an order, the +frequentation of the universities and the pursuit of learning; in a +word, they wished to restore the life to what it had been during the +first few years--the hermitages and the huts of twigs, and the care of +the lepers and the nomadic preaching. The Zealots were few in number but +of great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of the +first disciples and the most intimate companions of St Francis. They had +been grievously persecuted under Elias--Br. Leo and others had been +scourged, several had been imprisoned, one while trying to escape was +accidentally killed, and Br. Bernard, the "first disciple," passed a +year in hiding in the forests and mountains hunted like a wild beast. At +the other extreme was a party of relaxation, that abandoned any serious +effort to practise Franciscan poverty and simplicity of life. Between +these two stood the great middle party of moderates, who desired indeed +that the Franciscans should be really poor and simple in their manner of +life, and really pious, but on the other hand approved of the +development of the Order on the lines of other orders, of the +acquisition of influence, of the cultivation of theology and other +sciences, and of the frequenting of the universities. + + The questions of principle at issue in these controversies is + reasonably and clearly stated, from the modern Capuchin standpoint, in + the "Introductory Essay" to _The Friars and how they came to England_, + by Fr. Cuthbert (1903). + +The moderate party was by far the largest, and embraced nearly all the +friars of France, England and Germany. It was the Moderates and not the +Zealots that brought about Elias's deposition, and the next general +ministers belonged to this party. Further relaxations of the law of +poverty, however, caused a reaction, and John of Parma, one of the +Zealots, became minister-general, 1247-1257. Under him the more extreme +of the Zealots took up and exaggerated the theories of the Eternal +Gospel of the Calabrian Cistercian abbot Joachim of Fiore (Floris); some +of their writings were condemned as heretical, and John of Parma, who +was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies, had to resign. He was +succeeded by St Bonaventura (1257-1274), one of the best type of the +middle party. He was a man of high character, a theologian, a mystic, a +holy man and a strong ruler. He set himself with determination to effect +a working compromise, and proceeded with firmness against the extremists +on both sides. But controversy and recrimination and persecution had +stiffened the more ardent among the Zealots into obstinate +fanatics--some of them threw themselves into a movement that may best be +briefly described as a recrudescence of Montanism (see Emile Gebhart's +_Italie mystique_, 1899, cc. v. and vi.), and developed into a number of +sects, some on the fringe of Catholic Christianity and others beyond its +pale. But the majority of the Zealot party, or Spirituals, did not go so +far, and adopted as the principle of Franciscan poverty the formula "a +poor and scanty use" (_usus pauper et tenuis_) of earthly goods, as +opposed to the "moderate use" advocated by the less strict party. The +question thus posed came before the Council of Vienne, 1312, and was +determined, on the whole, decidedly in favour of the stricter view. Some +of the French Zealots were not satisfied and formed a semi-schismatical +body in Provence; twenty-five of them were tried before the Inquisition, +and four were burned alive at Marseilles as obstinate heretics, 1318. +After this the schism in the Order subsided. But the disintegrating +forces produced by the Great Schism and by the other disorders of the +14th century caused among the Franciscans the same relaxations and +corruptions, and also the same reactions and reform movements, as among +the other orders. + +The chief of these reforms was that of the Observants, which began at +Foligno about 1370. The Observant reform was on the basis of the "poor +and scanty use" of worldly goods, but it was organized as an order and +its members freely pursued theological studies; thus it did not +represent the position of the original Zealot party, nor was it the +continuation of it. The Observant reform spread widely throughout Italy +and into France, Spain and Germany. The great promoters of the movement +were St Bernardine of Siena and St John Capistran. The council of +Constance, 1415, allowed the French Observant friaries to be ruled by a +vicar of their own, under the minister-general, and the same privilege +was soon accorded to other countries. By the end of the middle ages the +Observants had some 1400 houses divided into 50 provinces. This movement +produced a "half-reform" among the Conventuals or friars of the +mitigated observance; it also called forth a number of lesser imitations +or congregations of strict observance. + +After many attempts had been made to bring about a working union among +the many observances, in 1517 Leo X. divided the Franciscan order into +two distinct and independent bodies, each with its own minister-general, +its own provinces and provincials and its own general chapter: (1) The +Conventuals, who were authorized to use the various papal dispensations +in regard to the observance of poverty, and were allowed to possess +property and fixed income, corporately, like the monastic orders; (2) +The Observants, who were bound to as close an observance of St Francis's +Rule in regard to poverty and all else as was practically possible. + +At this time a great number of the Conventuals went over to the +Observants, who have ever since been by far the more numerous and +influential branch of the order. Among the Observants in the course of +the sixteenth century arose various reforms, each striving to approach +more and more nearly to St Francis's ideal; the chief of these reforms +were the Alcantarines in Spain (St Peter of Alcantara, St Teresa's +friend, d. 1562), the Riformati in Italy and the Recollects in France: +all of these were semi-independent congregations. The Capuchins (q.v.), +established c. 1525, who claim to be the reform which approaches nearest +in its conception to the original type, became a distinct order of +Franciscans in 1619. Finally Leo XIII. grouped the Franciscans into +three bodies or orders--the Conventuals; the Observants, embracing all +branches of the strict observance, except the Capuchins; and the +Capuchins--which together constitute the "First Order." For the "Second +Order," or the nuns, see CLARA, ST, and CLARES, POOR; and for the "Third +Order" see TERTIARIES. Many of the Tertiaries live a fully monastic life +in community under the usual vows, and are formed into Congregations of +Regular Tertiaries, both men and women. They have been and are still +very numerous, and give themselves up to education, to the care of the +sick and of orphans and to good works of all kinds. + +No order has had so stormy an internal history as the Franciscans; yet +in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings that have +marred Franciscan history, the Friars Minor of every kind have in each +age faithfully and zealously carried on St Francis's great work of +ministering to the spiritual needs of the poor. Always recruited in +large measure from among the poor, they have ever been the order of the +poor, and in their preaching and missions and ministrations they have +ever laid themselves out to meet the needs of the poor. Another great +work of the Franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has +been their missions to the Mahommedans, both in western Asia and in +North Africa, and to the heathens in China, Japan and India, and North +and South America; a great number of the friars were martyred. The news +of the martyrdom of five of his friars in Morocco was one of the joys of +St Francis's closing years. Many of these missions exist to this day. In +the Universities, too, the Franciscans made themselves felt alongside of +the Dominicans, and created a rival school of theology, wherein, as +contrasted with the Aristotelianism of the Dominican school, the +Platonism of the early Christian doctors has been perpetuated. + +The Franciscans came to England in 1224 and immediately made foundations +in Canterbury, London and Oxford; by the middle of the century there +were fifty friaries and over 1200 friars in England; at the Dissolution +there were some 66 Franciscan friaries, whereof some six belonged to the +Observants (for list see _Catholic Dictionary_ and F. A. Gasquet's +_English Monastic Life_, 1904). Though nearly all the English houses +belonged to what has been called the "middle party," as a matter of fact +they practised great poverty, and the commissioners of Henry VIII. often +remark that the Franciscan Friary was the poorest of the religious +houses of a town. The English province was one of the most remarkable in +the order, especially in intellectual achievement; it produced Friar +Roger Bacon, and, with the single exception of St Bonaventure, all the +greatest doctors of the Franciscan theological school--Alexander Hales, +Duns Scotus and Occam. + +The Franciscans have always been the most numerous by far of the +religious orders; it is estimated that about the period of the +Reformation the Friars Minor must have numbered nearly 100,000. At the +present day the statistics are roughly (including lay-brothers): +Observants, 15,000, Conventuals, 1500; to these should be added 9500 +Capuchins, making the total number of Franciscan friars about 26,000. +There are various houses of Observants and Capuchins in England and +Ireland; and the old Irish Conventuals survived the penal times and +still exist. + +There have been four Franciscan popes: Nicholas IV. (1288-1292), Sixtus +IV. (1471-1484), Sixtus V. (1585-1590), Clement XIV. (1769-1774); the +three last were Conventuals. + + The great source for Franciscan history is Wadding's _Annales_; it has + been many times continued, and now extends in 25 vols. fol. to the + year 1622. The story is also told by Helyot, _Hist. des ordres + religieux_ (1714), vol. vii. Abridgments, with references to recent + literature, will be found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden und + Kongregationen_ (1896), i. Sec.Sec. 37-51; in Wetzer und Welte, + _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), articles "Armut (III.)," "Franciscaner + orden" (this article contains the best account of the inner history + and the polity of the order up to 1886); in Herzog, _Realencyklopaedie_ + (3rd ed.), articles "Franz von Assisi" (fullest references to + literature up to 1899), "Fraticellen." Of modern critical studies on + Franciscan origins, K. Mueller's _Anfaenge des Minoritenordens und der + Bussbruderschaften_ (1885), and various articles by F. Ehrle in + _Archiv fuer Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ and + _Zeitschrift fuer Katholische Theologie_, deserve special mention. + Eccleston's charming chronicle of "The Coming of the Friars Minor into + England" has been translated into English by the Capuchin Fr. + Cuthbert, who has prefixed an Introductory Essay giving by far the + best account in English of "the Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan + Friars" (_The Friars and how they came to England_, 1903). Fuller + information on the English Franciscans will be found in A. G. Little's + _Grey Friars in Oxford_ (Oxford Hist. Soc., 1892). (E. C. B.) + + + + +FRANCK. The name of Franck has been given indiscriminately but +improperly to painters of the school of Antwerp who belong to the +families of Francken (q.v.) and Vrancx (q.v.). One artist truly entitled +to be called Franck is Gabriel, who entered the gild of Antwerp in 1605, +became its president in 1636 and died in 1639. But his works cannot now +be traced. + + + + +FRANCK, CESAR (1822-1890), French musical composer, a Belgian by birth, +who came of German stock, was born at Liege on the 10th of December +1822. Though one of the most remarkable of modern composers, Cesar +Franck laboured for many years in comparative obscurity. After some +preliminary studies at Liege he came to Paris in 1837 and entered the +conservatoire. He at once obtained the first prize for piano, +transposing a fugue at sight to the astonishment of the professors, for +he was only fifteen. He won the prize for the organ in 1841, after which +he settled down in the French capital as teacher of the piano. His +earliest compositions date from this period, and include four trios for +piano and strings, besides several piano pieces. _Ruth_, a biblical +cantata was produced with success at the Conservatoire in 1846. An opera +entitled _Le Valet de ferme_ was written about this time, but has never +been performed. For many years Franck led a retired life, devoting +himself to teaching and to his duties as organist, first at +Saint-Jean-Saint-Francois, then at Ste Clotilde, where he acquired a +great reputation as an improviser. He also wrote a mass, heard in 1861, +and a quantity of motets, organ pieces and other works of a religious +character. + +Franck was appointed professor of the organ at the Paris conservatoire, +in succession to Benoist, his old master, in 1872, and the following +year he was naturalized a Frenchman. Until then he was esteemed as a +clever and conscientious musician, but he was now about to prove his +title to something more. A revival of his early oratorio, _Ruth_, had +brought his name again before the public, and this was followed by the +production of _Redemption_, a work for solo, chorus and orchestra, given +under the direction of M. Colonne on the 10th of April 1873. The +unconventionality of the music rather disconcerted the general public, +but the work nevertheless made its mark, and Franck became the central +figure of an enthusiastic circle of pupils and adherents whose devotion +atoned for the comparative indifference of the masses. His creative +power now manifested itself in a series of works of varied kinds, and +the name of Franck began gradually to emerge from its obscurity. The +following is an enumeration of his subsequent compositions: _Rebecca_ +(1881), a biblical idyll for solo, chorus and orchestra; Les Beatitudes, +an oratorio composed between 1870 and 1880, perhaps his greatest work; +the symphonic poems, _Les Eolides_ (1876), _Le Chasseur maudit_ (1883), +_Les Djinns_ (1884), for piano and orchestra; _Psyche_ (1888), for +orchestra and chorus; symphonic variations for piano and orchestra +(1885); symphony in D (1889); quintet for piano and strings (1880); +sonata for piano and violin (1886); string quartet (1889); prelude, +choral and fugue for piano (1884); prelude, aria and finale for piano +(1889); various songs, notably "La Procession" and "Les Cloches du +Soir." Franck also composed two four-act operas, _Hulda_ and _Ghiselle_, +both of which were produced at Monte Carlo after his death, which took +place in Paris on the 8th of November 1890. The second of these was left +by the master in an unfinished state, and the instrumentation was +completed by several of his pupils. + +Cesar Franck's influence on younger French composers has been very +great. Yet his music is German in character rather than French. A more +sincere, modest, self-respecting composer probably never existed. In the +centre of the brilliant French capital he was able to lead a laborious +existence consecrated to his threefold career of organist, teacher and +composer. He never sought to gain the suffrages of the public by +unworthy concessions, but kept straight on his path, ever mindful of an +ideal to be reached and never swerving therefrom. A statue was erected +to the memory of Cesar Franck in Paris on the 22nd of October 1904, the +occasion producing a panegyric from Alfred Bruneau, in which he speaks +of the composer's works as "cathedrals in sound." + + + + +FRANCK, or FRANK [latinized FRANCUS], SEBASTIAN (c. 1499-c. 1543), +German freethinker, was born about 1499 at Donauwoerth, whence he +constantly styled himself Franck von Woerd. He entered the university of +Ingoldstadt (March 26, 1515), and proceeded thence to the Dominican +College, incorporated with the university, at Heidelberg. Here he met +his subsequent antagonists, Bucer and Frecht, with whom he seems to have +attended the Augsburg conference (October 1518) at which Luther declared +himself a true son of the Church. He afterwards reckoned the Leipzig +disputation (June-July 1519) and the burning of the papal bull (December +1520) as the beginning of the Reformation. Having taken priest's orders, +he held in 1524 a cure in the neighbourhood of Augsburg, but soon (1525) +went over to the Reformed party at Nuremberg and became preacher at +Gustenfelden. His first work (finished September 1527) was a German +translation with additions (1528) of the first part of the _Diallage_, +or _Conciliatio locorum Scripturae_, directed against Sacramentarians +and Anabaptists by Andrew Althamer, then deacon of St Sebald's at +Nuremberg. On the 17th of March 1528 he married Ottilie Beham, a gifted +lady, whose brothers, pupils of Albrecht Duerer, had got into trouble +through Anabaptist leanings. In the same year he wrote a very popular +treatise against drunkenness. In 1529 he produced a free version +(_Klagbrief der armen Duerftigen in England_) of the famous _Supplycacyon +of the Beggers_, written abroad (1528?) by Simon Fish. Franck, in his +preface, says the original was in English; elsewhere he says it was in +Latin; the theory that his German was really the original is +unwarrantable. Advance in his religious ideas led him to seek the freer +atmosphere of Strassburg in the autumn of 1529. To his translation +(1530) of a Latin _Chronicle and Description_ of Turkey, by a +Transylvanian captive, which had been prefaced by Luther, he added an +appendix holding up the Turks as in many respects an example to +Christians, and presenting, in lieu of the restrictions of Lutheran, +Zwinglian and Anabaptist sects, the vision of an invisible spiritual +church, universal in its scope. To this ideal he remained faithful. At +Strassburg began his intimacy with Caspar Schwenkfeld, a congenial +spirit. Here, too, he published, in 1531, his most important work, the +_Chronica, Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibel_, largely a compilation on the +basis of the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493), and in its treatment of social +and religious questions connected with the Reformation, exhibiting a +strong sympathy with heretics, and an unexampled fairness to all kinds +of freedom in opinion. It is too much to call him "the first of German +historians"; he is a forerunner of Gottfried Arnold, with more vigour +and directness of purpose. Driven from Strassburg by the authorities, +after a short imprisonment in December 1531, he tried to make a living +in 1532 as a soapboiler at Esslingen, removing in 1533 for a better +market to Ulm, where (October 28, 1534) he was admitted as a burgess. + +His _Weltbuch_, a supplement to his _Chronica_, was printed at Tuebingen +in 1534; the publication, in the same year, of his _Paradoxa_ at Ulm +brought him into trouble with the authorities. An order for his +banishment was withdrawn on his promise to submit future works for +censure. Not interpreting this as applying to works printed outside Ulm, +he published in 1538 at Augsburg his _Guldin Arch_ (with pagan parallels +to Christian sentiments) and at Frankfort his _Germaniae chronicon_, +with the result that he had to leave Ulm in January 1539. He seems +henceforth to have had no settled abode. At Basel he found work as a +printer, and here, probably, it was that he died in the winter of +1542-1543. He had published in 1539 his _Kriegbuechlein des Friedens_ +(pseudonymous), his _Schrifftliche und ganz gruendliche Auslegung des 64 +Psalms_, and his _Das verbuetschierte mit sieben Siegeln verschlossene +Buch_ (a biblical index, exhibiting the dissonance of Scripture); in +1541 his _Spruchwoerter_ (a collection of proverbs, several times +reprinted with variations); in 1542 a new edition of his _Paradoxa_; and +some smaller works. + +Franck combined the humanist's passion for freedom with the mystic's +devotion to the religion of the spirit. His breadth of human sympathy +led him to positions which the comparative study of religions has made +familiar, but for which his age was unprepared. Luther contemptuously +dismissed him as a "devil's mouth." Pastor Frecht of Nuremberg pursued +him with bitter zeal. But his courage did not fail him, and in his last +year, in a public Latin letter, he exhorted his friend John Campanus to +maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge of heresy. + + See Hegler, in Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_ (1899); C. A. Hase, + _Sebastian Franck von Woerd_ (1869); J. F. Smith, in _Theological + Review_ (April 1874); E. Tausch, _Sebastian Franck von Donauwoerth und + seine Lehrer_ (1893). (A. Go.*) + + + + +FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN (1663-1727), German Protestant divine, was born +on the 22nd of March 1663 at Luebeck. He was educated at the gymnasium in +Gotha, and afterwards at the universities of Erfurt, Kiel, where he came +under the influence of the pietist Christian Kortholt (1633-1694), and +Leipzig. During his student career he made a special study of Hebrew and +Greek; and in order to learn Hebrew more thoroughly, he for some time +put himself under the instructions of Rabbi Ezra Edzardi at Hamburg. He +graduated at Leipzig, where in 1685 he became a _Privatdozent_. A year +later, by the help of his friend P. Anton, and with the approval and +encouragement of P. J. Spener, he founded the Collegium Philobiblicum, +at which a number of graduates were accustomed to meet for the +systematic study of the Bible, philologically and practically. He next +passed some months at Lueneburg as assistant or curate to the learned +superintendent, C. H. Sandhagen (1639-1697), and there his religious +life was remarkably quickened and deepened. On leaving Lueneburg he spent +some time in Hamburg, where he became a teacher in a private school, and +made the acquaintance of Nikolaus Lange (1659-1720). After a long visit +to Spener, who was at that time a court preacher in Dresden, he +returned to Leipzig in the spring of 1689, and began to give Bible +lectures of an exegetical and practical kind, at the same time resuming +the Collegium Philobiblicum of earlier days. He soon became popular as a +lecturer; but the peculiarities of his teaching almost immediately +aroused a violent opposition on the part of the university authorities; +and before the end of the year he was interdicted from lecturing on the +ground of his alleged pietism. Thus it was that Francke's name first +came to be publicly associated with that of Spener, and with pietism. +Prohibited from lecturing in Leipzig, Francke in 1690 found work at +Erfurt as "deacon" of one of the city churches. Here his evangelistic +fervour attracted multitudes to his preaching, including Roman +Catholics, but at the same time excited the anger of his opponents; and +the result of their opposition was that after a ministry of fifteen +months he was commanded by the civil authorities (27th of September +1691) to leave Erfurt within forty-eight hours. The same year witnessed +the expulsion of Spener from Dresden. + +In December, through Spener's influence, Francke accepted an invitation +to fill the chair of Greek and oriental languages in the new university +of Halle, which was at that time being organized by the elector +Frederick III. of Brandenburg; and at the same time, the chair having no +salary attached to it, he was appointed pastor of Glaucha in the +immediate neighbourhood of the town. He afterwards became professor of +theology. Here, for the next thirty-six years, until his death on the +8th of June 1727, he continued to discharge the twofold office of pastor +and professor with rare energy and success. At the very outset of his +labours he had been profoundly impressed with a sense of his +responsibility towards the numerous outcast children who were growing up +around him in ignorance and crime. After a number of tentative plans, he +resolved in 1695 to institute what is often called a "ragged school," +supported by public charity. A single room was at first sufficient, but +within a year it was found necessary to purchase a house, to which +another was added in 1697. In 1698 there were 100 orphans under his +charge to be clothed and fed, besides 500 children who were taught as +day scholars. The schools grew in importance and are still known as the +_Francke'sche Stiftungen_. The education given was strictly religious. +Hebrew was included, while the Greek and Latin classics were neglected; +the _Homilies_ of Macarius took the place of Thucydides. The same +principle was consistently applied in his university teaching. Even as +professor of Greek he had given great prominence in his lectures to the +study of the Scriptures; but he found a much more congenial sphere when, +in 1698, he was appointed to the chair of theology. Yet his first +courses of lectures in that department were readings and expositions of +the Old and New Testament; and to this, as also to hermeneutics, he +always attached special importance, believing that for theology a sound +exegesis was the one indispensable requisite. "Theologus nascitur in +scripturis," he used to say; but during his occupancy of the theological +chair he lectured at various times upon other branches of theology also. +Amongst his colleagues were Paul Anton (1661-1730), Joachim J. +Breithaupt (1658-1732) and Joachim Lange (1670-1744),--men like-minded +with himself. Through their influence upon the students, Halle became a +centre from which pietism (q.v.) became very widely diffused over +Germany. + + His principal contributions to theological literature were: + _Manuductio ad lectionem Scripturae Sacrae_ (1693); _Praelectiones + hermeneuticae_ (1717); _Commentatio de scopo librorum Veteris et Novi + Testamenti_ (1724); and _Lectiones paraeneticae_ (1726-1736). The + _Manuductio_ was translated into English in 1813, under the title _A + Guide to the Reading and Study of the Holy Scriptures_. An account of + his orphanage, entitled _Segensvolle Fussstapfen_, &c. (1709), which + subsequently passed through several editions, has also been partially + translated, under the title _The Footsteps of Divine Providence: or, + The bountiful Hand of Heaven defraying the Expenses of Faith_. See H. + E. F. Guericke's _A. H. Francke_ (1827), which has been translated + into English (_The Life of A. H. Francke_, 1837); Gustave Kramer's + _Beitraege zur Geschichte A. H. Francke's_ (1861), and _Neue Beitraege_ + (1875); A. Stein, _A. H. Francke_ (3rd ed., 1894); article in + Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_ (ed. 1899); Knuth, _Die + Francke'schen Stiftungen_ (2nd ed., 1903). + + + + + +FRANCKEN. Eleven painters of this family cultivated their art in Antwerp +during the 16th and 17th centuries. Several of these were related to +each other, whilst many bore the same Christian name in succession. +Hence unavoidable confusion in the subsequent classification of +paintings not widely differing in style or execution. When Franz +Francken the first found a rival in Franz Francken the second, he +described himself as the "elder," in contradistinction to his son, who +signed himself the "younger." But when Franz the second was threatened +with competition from Franz the third, he took the name of "the elder," +whilst Franz the third adopted that of Franz "the younger." + +It is possible, though not by any means easy, to sift the works of these +artists. The eldest of the Franckens, Nicholas of Herenthals, died at +Antwerp in 1596, with nothing but the reputation of having been a +painter. None of his works remain. He bequeathed his art to three +children. Jerom Francken, the eldest son, after leaving his father's +house, studied under Franz Floris, whom he afterwards served as an +assistant, and wandered, about 1560, to Paris. In 1566 he was one of the +masters employed to decorate the palace of Fontainebleau, and in 1574 he +obtained the appointment of court painter from Henry III., who had just +returned from Poland and visited Titian at Venice. In 1603, when Van +Mander wrote his biography of Flemish artists, Jerom Francken was still +in Paris living in the then aristocratic Faubourg St Germain. Among his +earliest works we should distinguish a "Nativity" in the Dresden museum, +executed in co-operation with Franz Floris. Another of his important +pieces is the "Abdication of Charles V." in the Amsterdam museum. +Equally interesting is a "Portrait of a Falconer," dated 1558, in the +Brunswick gallery. In style these pieces all recall Franz Floris. Franz, +the second son of Nicholas of Herenthals, is to be kept in memory as +Franz Francken the first. He was born about 1544, matriculated at +Antwerp in 1567, and died there in 1616. He, too, studied under Floris, +and never settled abroad, or lost the hard and gaudy style which he +inherited from his master. Several of his pictures are in the museum of +Antwerp; one dated 1597 in the Dresden museum represents "Christ on the +Road to Golgotha," and is signed by him as D. o (Den ouden) F. Franck. +Ambrose, the third son of Nicholas of Herenthals, has bequeathed to us +more specimens of his skill than Jerom or Franz the first. He first +started as a partner with Jerom at Fontainebleau, then he returned to +Antwerp, where he passed for his gild in 1573, and he lived at Antwerp +till 1618. His best works are the "Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes" and +the "Martyrdom of St Crispin," both large and ambitious compositions in +the Antwerp museum. In both these pieces a fair amount of power is +displayed, but marred by want of atmosphere and shadow or by hardness of +line and gaudiness of tone. There is not a trace in the three painters +named of the influence of the revival which took place under the lead of +Rubens. Franz Francken the first trained three sons to his profession, +the eldest of whom, though he practised as a master of gild at Antwerp +from 1600 to 1610, left no visible trace of his labours behind. Jerom +the second took service with his uncle Ambrose. He was born in 1578, +passed for his gild in 1607, and in 1620 produced that curious picture +of "Horatius Cocles defending the Sublician Bridge" which still hangs in +the Antwerp museum. The third son of Franz Francken the first is Franz +Francken the second, who signed himself in pictures till 1616 "the +younger," from 1630 till his death "the elder" F. Francken. These +pictures are usually of a small size, and are found in considerable +numbers in continental collections. Franz Francken the second was born +in 1581. In 1605 he entered the gild, of which he subsequently became +the president, and in 1642 he died. His earliest composition is the +"Crucifixion" in the Belvedere at Vienna, dated 1606. His latest +compositions as "the younger" F. Francken are the "Adoration of the +Virgin" (1616) in the gallery of Amsterdam, and the "Woman taken in +Adultery" (1628) in Dresden. From 1616 to 1630 many of his pieces are +signed F. Francken; then come the "Seven Works of Charity" (1630) at +Munich, signed "the elder F. F.," the "Prodigal Son" (1633) at the +Louvre, and other almost countless examples. It is in F. Francken the +second's style that we first have evidence of the struggle which +necessarily arose when the old customs, hardened by Van Orley and +Floris, or Breughel and De Vos, were swept away by Rubens. But F. +Francken the second, as before observed, always clung to small surfaces; +and though he gained some of the freedom of the moderns, he lost but +little of the dryness or gaudiness of the earlier Italo-Flemish +revivalists. F. Francken the third, the last of his name who deserves to +be recorded, passed in the Antwerp gild in 1639 and died at Antwerp in +1667. His practice was chiefly confined to adding figures to the +architectural or landscape pieces of other artists. As Franz Pourbus +sometimes put in the portrait figures for Franz Francken the second, so +Franz Francken the third often introduced the necessary personages into +the works of Pieter Neefs the younger (museums of St Petersburg, Dresden +and the Hague). In a "Moses striking the Rock," dated 1654, of the +Augsburg gallery, this last of the Franckens signs D. o (Den ouden) F. +Franck. In the pictures of this artist we most clearly discern the +effects of Rubens's example. + + + + +FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). The victories of Prussia in 1866 over the +Austrians and their German allies (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) rendered it +evident to the statesmen and soldiers of France that a struggle between +the two nations could only be a question of time. Army reforms were at +once undertaken, and measures were initiated in France to place the +armament and equipment of the troops on a level with the requirements of +the times. The chassepot, a new breech-loading rifle, immensely superior +to the Prussian needle-gun, was issued; the artillery trains were +thoroughly overhauled, and a new machine-gun, the _mitrailleuse_, from +which much was expected, introduced. Wide schemes of reorganization (due +mainly to Marshal Niel) were set in motion, and, since these required +time to mature, recourse was had to foreign alliances in the hope of +delaying the impending rupture. In the first week of June 1870, General +Lebrun, as a confidential agent of the emperor Napoleon III., was sent +to Vienna to concert a plan of joint operations with Austria against +Prussia. Italy was also to be included in the alliance, and it was +agreed that in case of hostilities the French armies should concentrate +in northern Bavaria, where the Austrians and Italians were to join them, +and the whole immense army thus formed should march via Jena on Berlin. +To what extent Austria and Italy committed themselves to this scheme +remains uncertain, but that the emperor Napoleon believed in their _bona +fides_ is beyond doubt. + +Whether the plan was betrayed to Prussia is also uncertain, and almost +immaterial, for Moltke's plans were based on an accurate estimate of the +time it would take Austria to mobilize and on the effect of a series of +victories on French soil. At any rate Moltke was not taken into +Bismarck's confidence in the affair of Ems in July 1870, and it is to be +presumed that the chancellor had already satisfied himself that the +schemes of operations prepared by the chief of the General Staff fully +provided against all eventualities. These schemes were founded on +Clausewitz's view of the objects to be pursued in a war against +France--in the first place the defeat of the French field armies and in +the second the occupation of Paris. On these lines plans for the +strategic deployment of the Prussian army were prepared by the General +Staff and kept up to date year by year as fresh circumstances (e.g. the +co-operation of the minor German armies) arose and new means of +communication came into existence. The campaign was actually opened on a +revise of 1868-1869, to which was added, on the 6th of May 1870, a +secret memorandum for the General Staff. + + + Strategic deployment of the German armies. + +Under the German organization then existing the preliminary to all +active operations was of necessity full and complete mobilization. Then +followed transport by road and rail to the line selected for the +"strategic deployment," and it was essential that no part of these +operations should be disturbed by action on the part of the enemy. But +no such delay imposed itself of necessity upon the French, and a +vigorous offensive was so much in harmony with their traditions that +the German plan had to be framed so as to meet such emergencies. On the +whole, Moltke concluded that the enemy could not undertake this +offensive before the eighth day after mobilization. At that date about +five French army corps (150,000 men) could be collected near Metz, and +two corps (70,000) near Strassburg; and as it was six days' march from +Metz to the Rhine, no serious attack could be delivered before the +fourteenth day, by which day it could be met by superior forces near +Kirchheimbolanden. Since, however, the transport of the bulk of the +Prussian forces could not begin till the ninth day, their ultimate line +of detrainment need not be fixed until the French plans were disclosed, +and, as it was important to strike at the earliest moment possible, the +deployment was provisionally fixed to be beyond the Rhine on the line +Wittlich-Neunkirchen-Landau. Of the thirteen North German corps three +had to be left behind to guard the eastern frontier and the coast, one +other, the VIII., was practically on the ground already and could +concentrate by road, and the remaining nine were distributed to the nine +through railway lines available. These ten corps were grouped in three +armies, and as the French might violate Belgian neutrality or endeavour +to break into southern Germany, two corps (Prussian Guard and Saxon XII. +corps) were temporarily held back at a central position around Mainz, +whence they could move rapidly up or down the Rhine valley. If Belgian +neutrality remained unmolested, the reserve would join the III. army on +the left wing, giving it a two to one superiority over its adversary; +all three armies would then wheel to the right and combine in an effort +to force the French army into a decisive battle on the Saar on or about +the twenty-third day. As in this wheel the army on the right formed the +pivot and was required only to stand fast, two corps only were allotted +to it; two corps for the present formed the III. army, and the remaining +five were assigned to the II. army in the centre. + +When (16th-17th July) the South German states decided to throw in their +lot with the rest, their three corps were allotted to the III. army, the +Guards and Saxons to the II. army, whilst the three corps originally +left behind were finally distributed one to each army, so that up to the +investment of Metz the order of battle was as follows: + + Headquarters: + The king of Prussia (General v. Moltke, chief of staff). + + I. Army: / (I. corps, v. Manteuffel) + General v. Steinmetz < VII. " v. Zastrow + (C. of S., v. Sperling) | VIII. " v. Goeben + \ (1st) and 3rd cavalry divisions + + Total 85,000 + + / Guard Pr. August of Wuerttemberg + | (II. corps, v. Fransecky) + | III. " v. Alvensleben II. + II. Army: | IV. " v. Alvensleben I. + Prince Frederick Charles < IX. " v. Manstein + (C. of S., v. Stiehle) | X. " v. Voigts-Rhetz + | XII. " (Saxons) crown prince + | of Saxony + \ 5th and 6th cavalry divisions + + Total 210,000 + + / V. corps, v. Kirchbach + | (VI.) " v. Tuempling + | XI. " v. Bose + III. Army: | I. Bavarian, v. der Tann + crown prince of Prussia < II. " v. Hartmann + (C. of S., v. Blumenthal) | Wuerttemberg div. \ v. Werder + | Baden div. / + \ (2nd) and 4th cavalry divisions + + Total 180,000 + ------- + Grand Total 475,000 + + (The units within brackets were those at first retained in Germany.) + + + Positions of the French forces. + +On the French side no such plan of operations was in existence when on +the night of the 15th of July _Krieg mobil_ was telegraphed all over +Prussia. An outline scheme had indeed been prepared as a basis for +agreement with Austria and Italy, but practically no details were fixed, +and the troops were without transport and supplies. Nevertheless, since +speed was the essence of the contract, the troops were hurried up +without waiting for their reserves, and delivered, as Moltke had +foreseen, just where the lie of the railways and convenience of +temporary supply dictated, and the Prussian Intelligence Department was +able to inform Moltke on the 22nd of July (seventh day of mobilization) +that the French stood from right to left in the following order, on or +near the frontier: + + 1st corps Marshal MacMahon, duke of Magenta, Strassburg + 5th corps General de Failly, Saargemuend and Bitche + 2nd corps General Frossard, St Avold + 4th corps General de Ladmirault, Thionville + With, behind them: + 3rd corps Marshal Bazaine, Metz + Guard General Bourbaki, Nancy + 6th corps Marshal Canrobert, Chalons + 7th corps General Felix Douay, Belfort + +If therefore they began a forward movement on the 23rd (eighth day) the +case foreseen by Moltke had arisen, and it became necessary to detrain +the II. army upon the Rhine. Without waiting for further confirmation of +this intelligence, Moltke, with the consent of the king, altered the +arrangements accordingly, a decision which, though foreseen, exercised +the gravest influence on the course of events. As it happened this +decision was premature, for the French could not yet move. Supply trains +had to be organized by requisition from the inhabitants, and even arms +and ammunition procured for such reserves as had succeeded in joining. +Nevertheless, by almost superhuman exertions on the part of the railways +and administrative services, all essential deficiencies were made good, +and by the 28th of July (13th day) the troops had received all that was +absolutely indispensable and might well have been led against the enemy, +who, thanks to Moltke's premature action, were for the moment at a very +serious disadvantage. But the French generals were unequal to their +responsibilities. It is now clear that, had the great Napoleon and his +marshals been in command, they would have made light of the want of +cooking pots, cholera belts, &c., and, by a series of rapid marches, +would have concentrated odds of at least three to one upon the heads of +the Prussian columns as they struggled through the defiles of the Hardt, +and won a victory whose political results might well have proved +decisive. + +To meet this pressing danger, which came to his knowledge during the +course of the 29th, Moltke sent a confidential staff officer, Colonel v. +Verdy du Vernois, to the III. army to impress upon the crown prince the +necessity of an immediate advance to distract the enemy's attention from +the I. and II. armies; but, like the French generals, the crown prince +pleaded that he could not move until his trains were complete. +Fortunately for the Germans, the French intelligence service not only +failed to inform the staff of this extraordinary opportunity, but it +allowed itself to be hypnotized by the most amazing rumours. In +imagination they saw armies of 100,000 men behind every forest, and, to +guard against these dangers, the French troops were marched and +counter-marched along the frontiers in the vain hope of discovering an +ideal defensive position which should afford full scope to the power of +their new weapons. + +As these delays were exerting a most unfavourable effect on public +opinion not only in France but throughout Europe, the emperor decided on +the 1st of August to initiate a movement towards the Saar, chiefly as a +guarantee of good faith to the Austrians and Italians. + +On this day the French corps held the following positions from right to +left: + + 1st corps Hagenau + 2nd corps Forbach + 3rd corps St Avold + 4th corps Bouzonville + 5th corps Bitche + 6th corps Chalons + 7th corps Belfort and Colmar + Guard near Metz + + + Action of Saarbruecken. + +The French 2nd corps was directed to advance on the following morning +direct on Saarbruecken, supported on the flanks by two divisions from the +5th and 3rd corps. The order was duly carried out, and the Prussians +(one battalion, two squadrons and a battery), seeing the overwhelming +numbers opposed to them, fell back fighting and vanished to the +northward, having given a very excellent example of steadiness and +discipline to their enemy.[1] The latter contented themselves by +occupying Saarbruecken and its suburb St Johann, and here, as far as the +troops were concerned, the incident closed. Its effect, however, proved +far-reaching. The Prussian staff could not conceive that nothing lay +behind this display of five whole divisions, and immediately took steps +to meet the expected danger. In their excitement, although they had +announced the beginning of the action to the king's headquarters at +Mainz, they forgot to notify the close and its results, so that Moltke +was not in possession of the facts till noon on the 3rd of August. +Meanwhile, Steinmetz, left without instructions and fearing for the +safety of the II. army, the heads of whose columns were still in the +defiles of the Hardt, moved the I. army from the neighbourhood of Merzig +obliquely to his left front, so as to strike the flank of the French +army if it continued its march towards Kaiserslautern, in which +direction it appeared to be heading. + + + Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles and Steinmetz. + +Whilst this order was in process of execution, Moltke, aware that the +II. army was behind time in its march, issued instructions to Steinmetz +for the 4th of August which entailed a withdrawal to the rear, the idea +being that both armies should, if the French advanced, fight a defensive +battle in a selected position farther back. Steinmetz obeyed, though +bitterly resenting the idea of retreat. This movement, further, drew his +left across the roads reserved for the right column of the II. army, and +on receipt of a peremptory order from Prince Frederick Charles to +evacuate the road, Steinmetz telegraphed for instructions direct to the +king, over Moltke's head. In reply he received a telegram from Moltke, +ordering him to clear the road at once, and couched in terms which he +considered as a severe reprimand. An explanatory letter, meant to soften +the rebuke, was delayed in transmission and did not reach him till too +late to modify the orders he had already issued. It must be remembered +that Steinmetz at the front was in a better position to judge the +apparent situation than was Moltke at Mainz, and that all through the +day of the 5th of August he had received intelligence indicating a +change of attitude in the French army. + + + Battle of Spicheren. + +The news of the German victory at Weissenburg on the 4th (see below) had +in fact completely paralysed the French headquarters, and orders were +issued by them during the course of the 5th to concentrate the whole +army of the Rhine on the selected position of Cadenbronn. As a +preliminary, Frossard's corps withdrew from Saarbruecken and began to +entrench a position on the Spicheren heights, 3000 yds. to the +southward. Steinmetz, therefore, being quite unaware of the scheme for a +great battle on the Saar about the 12th of August, felt that the +situation would best be met, and the letter of his instructions strictly +obeyed, by moving his whole command forward to the line of the Saar, and +orders to this effect were issued on the evening of the 5th. In +pursuance of these orders, the advance guard of the 14th division +(Lieutenant General von Kameke) reached Saarbruecken about 9 A.M. on the +6th, where the Germans found to their amazement that the bridges were +intact. To secure this advantage was the obvious duty of the commander +on the spot, and he at once ordered his troops to occupy a line of low +heights beyond the town to serve as a bridge-head. As the leading troops +deployed on the heights Frossard's guns on the Spicheren Plateau opened +fire, and the advanced guard battery replied. The sound of these guns +unchained the whole fighting instinct carefully developed by a long +course of Prussian manoeuvre training. Everywhere, generals and troops +hurried towards the cannon thunder. Kameke, even more in the dark than +Steinmetz as to Moltke's intentions and the strength of his adversaries, +attacked at once, precisely as he would have done at manoeuvres, and in +half an hour his men were committed beyond recall. As each fresh unit +reached the field it was hurried into action where its services were +most needed, and each fresh general as he arrived took a new view of the +combat and issued new orders. On the other side, Frossard, knowing the +strength of his position, called on his neighbours for support, and +determined to hold his ground. Victory seemed certain. There were +sufficient troops within easy reach to have ensured a crushing numerical +superiority. But the other generals had not been trained to mutual +support, and thought only of their own immediate security, and their +staffs were too inexperienced to act upon even good intentions; and, +finding himself in the course of the afternoon left to his own devices, +Frossard began gradually to withdraw, even before the pressure of the +13th German division on his left flank (about 8 P.M.) compelled his +retirement. When darkness ended the battle the Prussians were scarcely +aware of their victory. Steinmetz, who had reached the field about 6 +P.M., rode back to his headquarters without issuing any orders, while +the troops bivouacked where they stood, the units of three army corps +being mixed up in almost inextricable confusion. But whereas out of +42,900 Prussians with 120 guns, who in the morning lay within striking +distance of the enemy, no fewer than 27,000, with 78 guns were actually +engaged; of the French, out of 64,000 with 210 guns only 24,000 with 90 +guns took part in the action. + + + Action of Weissenburg. + +Meanwhile on the German left wing the III. army had begun its advance. +Early on the 4th of August it crossed the frontier and fell upon a +French detachment under Abel Douay, which had been placed near +Weissenburg, partly to cover the Pigeonnier pass, but principally to +consume the supplies accumulated in the little dismantled fortress, as +these could not easily be moved. Against this force of under 4000 men of +all arms, the Germans brought into action successively portions of three +corps, in all over 25,000 men with 90 guns. After six hours' fighting, +in which the Germans lost some 1500 men, the gallant remnant of the +French withdrew deliberately and in good order, notwithstanding the +death of their leader at the critical moment. The Germans were so elated +by their victory over the enemy, whose strength they naturally +overestimated, that they forgot to send cavalry in pursuit, and thus +entirely lost touch with the enemy. + +Next day the advance was resumed, the two Bavarian corps moving via +Mattstall through the foothills of the Vosges, the V. corps on their +left towards Preuschdorf, and the XI. farther to the left again, through +the wooded plain of the Rhine valley. The 4th cavalry division scouted +in advance, and army headquarters moved to Sulz. About noon the advanced +patrols discovered MacMahon's corps in position on the left bank of the +Sauer (see WOeRTH: _Battle of_). As his army was dispersed over a wide +area, the crown prince determined to devote the 6th to concentrating the +troops, and, probably to avoid alarming the enemy, ordered the cavalry +to stand fast. + +At night the outposts of the I. Bavarians and V. corps on the Sauer saw +the fires of the French encampment and heard the noise of railway +traffic, and rightly conjectured the approach of reinforcements. +MacMahon had in fact determined to stand in the very formidable position +he had selected, and he counted on receiving support both from the 7th +corps (two divisions of which were being railed up from Colmar) and from +the 5th corps, which lay around Bitche. It was also quite possible, and +the soundest strategy, to withdraw the bulk of the troops then facing +the German I. and II. armies to his support, and these would reach him +by the 8th. He was therefore justified in accepting battle, though it +was to his interest to delay it as long as possible. + + + Battle of Woerth. + +At dawn on the 6th of August the commander of the V. corps outposts +noticed certain movements in the French lines, and to clear up the +situation brought his guns into action. As at Spicheren, the sound of +the guns set the whole machinery of battle in motion. The French +artillery immediately accepted the Prussian challenge. The I. Bavarians, +having been ordered to be ready to move if they heard artillery fire, +immediately advanced against the French left, encountering presently +such a stubborn resistance that parts of their line began to give way. +The Prussians of the V. corps felt that they could not abandon their +allies, and von Kirchbach, calling on the XI. corps for support, +attacked with the troops at hand. When the crown prince tried to break +off the fight it was too late. Both sides were feeding troops into the +firing line, as and where they could lay hands on them. Up to 2 P.M. the +French fairly held their own, but shortly afterwards their right yielded +to the overwhelming pressure of the XI. corps, and by 3.30 it was in +full retreat. The centre held on for another hour, but in its turn was +compelled to yield, and by 4.30 all organized resistance was at an end. +The debris of the French army was hotly pursued by the German divisional +squadrons towards Reichshofen, where serious panic showed itself. When +at this stage the supports sent by de Failly from Bitche came on the +ground they saw the hopelessness of intervention, and retired whence +they had come. Fortunately for the French, the German 4th cavalry +division, on which the pursuit should have devolved, had been forgotten +by the German staff, and did not reach the front before darkness fell. +Out of a total of 82,000 within reach of the battlefield, the Germans +succeeded in bringing into action 77,500. The French, who might have had +50,000 on the field, deployed only 37,000, and these suffered a +collective loss of no less than 20,100; some regiments losing up to 90% +and still retaining some semblance of discipline and order. + +Under cover of darkness the remnants of the French army escaped. When at +length the 4th cavalry division had succeeded in forcing a way through +the confusion of the battlefield, all touch with the enemy had been +lost, and being without firearms the troopers were checked by the French +stragglers in the woods and the villages, and thus failed to establish +the true line of retreat of the French. Ultimately the latter, having +gained the railway near Luneville, disappeared from the German front +altogether, and all trace of them was lost until they were discovered, +about the 26th of August, forming part of the army of Chalons, whither +they had been conveyed by rail via Paris. This is a remarkable example +of the strategical value of railways to an army operating in its own +country. + +In the absence of all resistance, the III. army now proceeded to carry +out the original programme of marches laid down in Moltke's memorandum +of the 6th of May, and marching on a broad front through a fertile +district it reached the line of the Moselle in excellent order about the +17th of August, where it halted to await the result of the great battle +of Gravelotte-St Privat. + + + Movements on the Saar. + +We return now to the I. army at Saarbruecken. Its position on the morning +of the 7th of August gave cause for the gravest anxiety. At daylight a +dense fog lay over the country, and through the mist sounds of heavy +firing came from the direction of Forbach, where French stragglers had +rallied during the night. The confusion on the battlefield was +appalling, and the troops in no condition to go forward. Except the 3rd, +5th and 6th cavalry divisions no closed troops were within a day's +march; hence Steinmetz decided to spend the day in reorganizing his +infantry, under cover of his available cavalry. But the German cavalry +and staff were quite new to their task. The 6th cavalry division, which +had bivouacked on the battlefield, sent on only one brigade towards +Forbach, retaining the remainder in reserve. The 5th, thinking that the +6th had already undertaken all that was necessary, withdrew behind the +Saar, and the 3rd, also behind the Saar, reported that the country in +its front was unsuited to cavalry movements, and only sent out a few +officers' patrols. These were well led, but were too few in number, and +their reports were consequently unconvincing. + +In the course of the day Steinmetz became very uneasy, and ultimately he +decided to concentrate his army by retiring the VII. and VIII. corps +behind the river on to the I. (which had arrived near Saarlouis), thus +clearing the Saarbruecken-Metz road for the use of the II. army. But at +this moment Prince Frederick Charles suddenly modified his views. During +the 6th of August his scouts had reported considerable French forces +near Bitche (these were the 5th, de Failly's corps), and early in the +morning of the 7th he received a telegram from Moltke informing him +that MacMahon's beaten army was retreating on the same place (the troops +observed were in fact those which had marched to MacMahon's assistance). +The prince forthwith deflected the march of the Guards, IV. and X. +corps, towards Rohrbach, whilst the IX. and XII. closed up to supporting +distance behind them. Thus, as Steinmetz moved away to the west and +north, Frederick Charles was diverging to the south and east, and a +great gap was opening in the very centre of the German front. This was +closed only by the III. corps, still on the battle-field, and by +portions of the X. near Saargemuend,[2] whilst within striking distance +lay 130,000 French troops, prevented only by the incapacity of their +chiefs from delivering a decisive counter-stroke. + +Fortunately for the Prussians, Moltke at Mainz took a different view. +Receiving absolutely no intelligence from the front during the 7th, he +telegraphed orders to the I. and II. armies (10.25 P.M.) to halt on the +8th, and impressed on Steinmetz the necessity of employing his cavalry +to clear up the situation. The I. army had already begun the marches +ordered by Steinmetz. It was now led back practically to its old +bivouacs amongst the unburied dead. Prince Frederick Charles only +conformed to Moltke's order with the III. and X. corps; the remainder +executed their concentration towards the south and east. + +During the night of the 7th of August Moltke decided that the French +army must be in retreat towards the Moselle and forthwith busied himself +with the preparation of fresh tables of march for the two armies, his +object being to swing up the left wing to outflank the enemy from the +south. This work, and the transfer of headquarters to Homburg, needed +time, hence no fresh orders were issued to either army, and neither +commander would incur the responsibility of moving without any. The I. +army therefore spent a fourth night in bivouac on the battlefield. But +Constantin von Alvensleben, commanding the III. corps, a man of very +different stamp from his colleagues, hearing at first hand that the +French had evacuated St Avold, set his corps in motion early in the +morning of the 10th August down the St Avold-Metz road, reached St Avold +and obtained conclusive evidence that the French were retreating. + + + Advance to the Moselle. + +During the 9th the orders for the advance to the Moselle were issued. +These were based, not on an exact knowledge of where the French army +actually stood, but on the opinion Moltke had formed as to where it +ought to have been on military grounds solely, overlooking the fact that +the French staff were not free to form military decisions but were +compelled to bow to political expediency. + +Actually on the 7th of August the emperor had decided to attack the +Germans on the 8th with the whole Rhine Army, but this decision was +upset by alarmist reports from the beaten army of MacMahon. He then +decided to retreat to the Moselle, as Moltke had foreseen, and there to +draw to himself the remnants of MacMahon's army (now near Luneville). At +the same time he assigned the executive command over the whole Rhine +Army to Marshal Bazaine. This retreat was begun during the course of the +8th and 9th of August; but on the night of the 9th urgent telegrams from +Paris induced the emperor to suspend the movement, and during the 10th +the whole army took up a strong position on the French Nied. + +Meanwhile the II. German army had received its orders to march in a line +of army corps on a broad front in the general direction of +Pont-a-Mousson, well to the south of Metz. The I. army was to follow by +short marches in echelon on the right; only the III. corps was directed +on Falkenberg, a day's march farther towards Metz along the St +Avold-Metz road. The movement was begun on the 10th, and towards evening +the French army was located on the right front of the III. corps. This +entirely upset Moltke's hypothesis, and called for a complete +modification of his plans, as the III. corps alone could not be expected +to resist the impact of Bazaine's five corps. The III. corps therefore +received orders to stand fast for the moment, and the remainder of the +II. army was instructed to wheel to the right and concentrate for a +great battle to the east of Metz on the 16th or 17th. + +Before, however, these orders had been received the sudden retreat of +the French completely changed the situation. The Germans therefore +continued their movement towards the Moselle. On the 13th the French +took up a fresh position 5 m. to the east of Metz, where they were +located by the cavalry and the advanced guards of the I. army. + + + Battle of Colombey-Borny. + +Again Moltke ordered the I. army to observe and hold the enemy, whilst +the II. was to swing round to the north. The cavalry was to scout beyond +the Moselle and intercept all communication with the heart of France +(see Metz). By this time the whole German army had imbibed the idea that +the French were in full retreat and endeavouring to evade a decisive +struggle. When therefore during the morning of the 14th their outposts +observed signs of retreat in the French position, their impatience could +no longer be restrained; as at Woerth and Spicheren, an outpost commander +brought up his guns, and at the sound of their fire, every unit within +reach spontaneously got under arms (battle of Colombey-Borny). In a +short time, with or without orders, the I., VII., VIII. and IX. corps +were in full march to the battle-field. But the French too turned back +to fight, and an obstinate engagement ensued, at the close of which the +Germans barely held the ground and the French withdrew under cover of +the Metz forts. + +Still, though the fighting had been indecisive, the conviction of +victory remained with the Germans, and the idea of a French retreat +became an obsession. To this idea Moltke gave expression in his orders +issued early on the 15th, in which he laid down that the "fruits of the +victory" of the previous evening could only be reaped by a vigorous +pursuit towards the passages of the Meuse, where it was hoped the French +might yet be overtaken. This order, however, did not allow for the +hopeless inability of the French staff to regulate the movement of +congested masses of men, horses and vehicles, such as were now +accumulated in the streets and environs of Metz. Whilst Bazaine had come +to no definite decision whether to stand and fight or continue to +retreat, and was merely drifting under the impressions of the moment, +the Prussian leaders, in particular Prince Frederick Charles, saw in +imagination the French columns in rapid orderly movement towards the +west, and calculated that at best they could not be overtaken short of +Verdun. + +In this order of ideas the whole of the II. army, followed on its right +rear by two-thirds of the I. army (the I. corps being detached to +observe the eastern side of the fortress), were pushed on towards the +Moselle, the cavalry far in advance towards the Meuse, whilst only the +5th cavalry division was ordered to scout towards the Metz-Verdun road, +and even that was disseminated over far too wide an area. + +Later in the day (15th) Frederick Charles sent orders to the III. corps, +which was on the right flank of his long line of columns and approaching +the Moselle at Corny and Noveant, to march via Gorze to Mars-la-Tour on +the Metz-Verdun road; to the X. corps, strung out along the road from +Thiaucourt to Pont-a-Mousson, to move to Jarny; and for the remainder to +push on westward to seize the Meuse crossings. No definite information +as to the French army reached him in time to modify these instructions. + +Meanwhile the 5th (Rheinbaben's) cavalry division, at about 3 P.M. in +the afternoon, had come into contact with the French cavalry in the +vicinity of Mars-la-Tour, and gleaned intelligence enough to show that +no French infantry had as yet reached Rezonville. The commander of the +X. corps at Thiaucourt, informed of this, became anxious for the +security of his flank during the next day's march and decided to push +out a strong flanking detachment under von Caprivi, to support von +Rheinbaben and maintain touch with the III. corps marching on his right +rear. + + + Battle of Vionville-Mars-la-Tour. + +Von Alvensleben, to whom the 6th cavalry division had meanwhile been +assigned, seems to have received no local intelligence whatsoever; and +at daybreak on the 16th he began his march in two columns, the 6th +division on Mars-la-Tour, the 5th towards the Rezonville-Vionville +plateau. And shortly after 9.15 A.M. he suddenly discovered the truth. +The entire French army lay on his right flank, and his nearest supports +were almost a day's march distant. In this crisis he made up his mind at +once to attack with every available man, and to continue to attack, in +the conviction that his audacity would serve to conceal his weakness. +All day long, therefore, the Brandenburgers of the III. corps, supported +ultimately by the X. corps and part of the IX., attacked again and +again. The enemy was thrice their strength, but very differently led, +and made no adequate use of his superiority (battle of Vionville-Mars-la +Tour). + + + The 17th of August. + +Meanwhile Prince Frederick Charles, at Pont-a-Mousson, was still +confident in the French retreat to the Meuse, and had even issued orders +for the 17th on that assumption. Firing had been heard since 9.15 A.M., +and about noon Alvensleben's first report had reached him, but it was +not till after 2 that he realized the situation. Then, mounting his +horse, he covered the 15 m. to Flavigny over crowded and difficult roads +within the hour, and on his arrival abundantly atoned for his strategic +errors by his unconquerable determination and tactical skill. When +darkness put a stop to the fighting, he considered the position. +Cancelling all previous orders, he called all troops within reach to the +battle-field and resigned himself to wait for them. The situation was +indeed critical. The whole French army of five corps, only half of which +had been engaged, lay in front of him. His own army lay scattered over +an area of 30 m. by 20, and only some 20,000 fresh troops--of the IX. +corps--could reach the field during the forenoon of the 17th. He did not +then know that Moltke had already intervened and had ordered the VII., +VIII. and II. corps[3] to his assistance. Daylight revealed the extreme +exhaustion of both men and horses. The men lay around in hopeless +confusion amongst the killed and wounded, each where sleep had overtaken +him, and thus the extent of the actual losses, heavy enough, could not +be estimated. Across the valley, bugle sounds revealed the French +already alert, and presently a long line of skirmishers approached the +Prussian position. But they halted just beyond rifle range, and it was +soon evident that they were only intended to cover a further withdrawal. +Presently came the welcome intelligence that the reinforcements were +well on their way. + +About noon the king and Moltke drove up to the ground, and there was an +animated discussion as to what the French would do next. Aware of their +withdrawal from his immediate front, Prince Frederick Charles reverted +to his previous idea and insisted that they were in full retreat towards +the north, and that their entrenchments near Point du Jour and St Hubert +(see map in article METZ) were at most a rearguard position. Moltke was +inclined to the same view, but considered the alternative possibility of +a withdrawal towards Metz, and about 2 P.M. orders were issued to meet +these divergent opinions. The whole army was to be drawn up at 6 A.M. on +the 18th in an echelon facing north, so as to be ready for action in +either direction. The king and Moltke then drove to Pont-a-Mousson, and +the troops bivouacked in a state of readiness. The rest of the 17th was +spent in restoring order in the shattered III. and X. corps, and by +nightfall both corps were reported fit for action. Strangely enough, +there were no organized cavalry reconnaissances, and no intelligence of +importance was collected during the night of the 17th-18th. + +Early on the 18th the troops began to move into position in the +following order from left to right: XII. (Saxons), Guards, IX., VIII. +and VII. The X. and III. were retained in reserve. + + + Battle of Gravelotte-Saint Privat. + +The idea of the French retreat was still uppermost in the prince's mind, +and the whole army therefore moved north. But between 10 and 11 A.M. +part of the truth--viz. that the French had their backs to Metz and +stood in battle order from St Hubert northwards--became evident, and +the II. army, pivoting on the I., wheeled to the right and moved +eastward. Suddenly the IX. corps fell right on the centre of the French +line (Amanvillers), and a most desperate encounter began, superior +control, as before, ceasing after the guns had opened fire. Prince +Frederick Charles, however, a little farther north, again asserted his +tactical ability, and about 7 P.M. he brought into position no less than +five army corps for the final attack. The sudden collapse of French +resistance, due to the frontal attack of the Guards (St Privat) and the +turning movement of the Saxons (Roncourt), rendered the use of this mass +unnecessary, but the resolution to use it was there. On the German right +(I. army), about Gravelotte, all superior leading ceased quite early in +the afternoon, and at night the French still showed an unbroken front. +Until midnight, when the prince's victory was reported, the suspense at +headquarters was terrible. The I. army was exhausted, no steps had been +taken to ensure support from the III. army, and the IV. corps (II. army) +lay inactive 30 m. away. + + + Bazaine in Metz. + +This seems a fitting place to discuss the much-disputed point of +Bazaine's conduct in allowing himself to be driven back into Metz when +fortune had thrown into his hands the great opportunity of the 16th and +17th of August. He had been appointed to command on the 10th, but the +presence of the emperor, who only left the front early on the 16th, and +their dislike of Bazaine, exercised a disturbing influence on the +headquarters staff officers. During the retreat to Metz the marshal had +satisfied himself as to the inability of his corps commanders to handle +their troops, and also as to the ill-will of the staff. In the +circumstances he felt that a battle in the open field could only end in +disaster; and, since it was proved that the Germans could outmarch him, +his army was sure to be overtaken and annihilated if he ventured beyond +the shelter of the fortress. But near Metz he could at least inflict +very severe punishment on his assailants, and in any case his presence +in Metz would neutralize a far superior force of the enemy for weeks or +months. What use the French government might choose to make of the +breathing space thus secured was their business, not his; and subsequent +events showed that, had they not forced MacMahon's hand, the existence +of the latter's nucleus army of trained troops might have prevented the +investment of Paris. Bazaine was condemned by court-martial after the +war, but if the case were reheard to-day it is certain that no charge of +treachery could be sustained. + +On the German side the victory at St Privat was at once followed up by +the headquarters. Early on the 19th the investment of Bazaine's army in +Metz was commenced. A new army, the Army of the Meuse (often called the +IV.), was as soon as possible formed of all troops not required for the +maintenance of the investment, and marched off under the command of the +crown prince of Saxony to discover and destroy the remainder of the +French field army, which at this moment was known to be at Chalons. + + + Campaign of Sedan. + +The operations which led to the capture of MacMahon's army in Sedan call +for little explanation. Given seven corps, each capable of averaging 15 +m. a day for a week in succession, opposed to four corps only, shaken by +defeat and unable as a whole to cover more than 5 m. a day, the result +could hardly be doubtful. But Moltke's method of conducting operations +left his opponent many openings which could only be closed by excessive +demands on the marching power of the men. Trusting only to his cavalry +screen to secure information, he was always without any definite fixed +point about which to manoeuvre, for whilst the reports of the screen and +orders based thereon were being transmitted, the enemy was free to move, +and generally their movements were dictated by political expediency, not +by calculable military motives. + +Thus whilst the German army, on a front of nearly 50 m., was marching +due west on Paris, MacMahon, under political pressure, was moving +parallel to them, but on a northerly route, to attempt the relief of +Metz. + +So unexpected was this move and so uncertain the information which +called attention to it, that Moltke did not venture to change at once +the direction of march of the whole army, but he directed the Army of +the Meuse northward on Damvillers and ordered Prince Frederick Charles +to detach two corps from the forces investing Metz to reinforce it. For +the moment, therefore, MacMahon's move had succeeded, and the +opportunity existed for Bazaine to break out. But at the critical moment +the hopeless want of real efficiency in MacMahon's army compelled the +latter so to delay his advance that it became evident to the Germans +that there was no longer any necessity for the III. army to maintain the +direction towards Paris, and that the probable point of contact between +the Meuse army and the French lay nearer to the right wing of the III. +army than to Prince Frederick Charles's investing force before Metz. + +The detachment from the II. army was therefore countermanded, and the +whole III. army changed front to the north, while the Meuse army headed +the French off from the east. The latter came into contact with the head +of the French columns, during the 29th, about Nouart, and on the 30th at +Buzancy (battle of Beaumont); and the French, yielding to the force of +numbers combined with superior moral, were driven north-westward upon +Sedan (q.v.), right across the front of the III. army, which was now +rapidly coming up from the south. + +During the 31st the retreat practically became a rout, and the morning +of the 1st of September found the French crowded around the little +fortress of Sedan, with only one line of retreat to the north-west still +open. By 11 A.M. the XI. corps (III. army) had already closed that line, +and about noon the Saxons (Army of the Meuse) moving round between the +town and the Belgian frontier joined hands with the XI., and the circle +of investment was complete. The battle of Sedan was closed about 4.15 +P.M. by the hoisting of the white flag. Terms were agreed upon during +the night, and the whole French army, with the emperor, passed into +captivity. (F. N. M.) + + + Later operations. + +Thus in five weeks one of the French field armies was imprisoned in +Metz, the other destroyed, and the Germans were free to march upon +Paris. This seemed easy. There could be no organized opposition to their +progress,[4] and Paris, if not so defenceless as in 1814, was more +populous. Starvation was the best method of attacking an overcrowded +fortress, and the Parisians were not thought to be proof against the +deprivation of their accustomed luxuries. Even Moltke hoped that by the +end of October he would be "shooting hares at Creisau," and with this +confidence the German III. and IV. armies left the vicinity of Sedan on +the 4th of September. The march called for no more than good staff +arrangements, and the two armies arrived before Paris a fortnight later +and gradually encircled the place--the III. army on the south, the IV. +on the north side--in the last days of September. Headquarters were +established at Versailles. Meanwhile the Third Empire had fallen, giving +place on the 4th of September to a republican Government of National +Defence, which made its appeal to, and evoked, the spirit of 1792. +Henceforward the French nation, which had left the conduct of the war to +the regular army and had been little more than an excited spectator, +took the burden upon itself. + +The regular army, indeed, still contained more than 500,000 men (chiefly +recruits and reservists), and 50,000 sailors, marines, douaniers, &c., +were also available. But the Garde Mobile, framed by Marshal Niel in +1868, doubled this figure, and the addition of the Garde Nationale, +called into existence on the 15th of September, and including all +able-bodied men of from 31 to 60 years of age, more than trebled it. The +German staff had of course to reckon on the Garde Mobile, and did so +beforehand, but they wholly underestimated both its effective members +and its willingness, while, possessing themselves a system in which all +the military elements of the German nation stood close behind the +troops of the active army, they ignored the potentialities of the Garde +Nationale. + +Meanwhile, both as a contrast to the events that centred on Paris and +because in point of time they were decided for the most part in the +weeks immediately following Sedan, we must briefly allude to the sieges +conducted by the Germans--Paris (q.v.), Metz (q.v.) and Belfort (q.v.) +excepted. Old and ruined as many of them were, the French fortresses +possessed considerable importance in the eyes of the Germans. +Strassburg, in particular, the key of Alsace, the standing menace to +South Germany and the most conspicuous of the spoils of Louis XIV.'s +_Raubkriege_, was an obvious target. Operations were begun on the 9th of +August, three days after Woerth, General v. Werder's corps (Baden troops +and Prussian Landwehr) making the siege. The French commandant, General +Uhrich, surrendered after a stubborn resistance on the 28th of +September. Of the smaller fortresses many, being practically unarmed and +without garrisons, capitulated at once. Toul, defended by Major Huck +with 2000 mobiles, resisted for forty days, and drew upon itself the +efforts of 13,000 men and 100 guns. Verdun, commanded by General Guerin +de Waldersbach, held out till after the fall of Metz. Some of the +fortresses lying to the north of the Prussian line of advance on Paris, +e.g. Mezieres, resisted up to January 1871, though of course this was +very largely due to the diminution of pressure caused by the appearance +of new French field armies in October. On the 9th of September a strange +incident took place at the surrender of Laon. A powder magazine was +blown up by the soldiers in charge and 300 French and a few German +soldiers were killed by the explosion. But as the Germans advanced, +their lines of communication were thoroughly organized, and the belt of +country between Paris and the Prussian frontier subdued and garrisoned. +Most of these fortresses were small town enceintes, dating from Vauban's +time, and open, under the new conditions of warfare, to concentric +bombardment from positions formerly out of range, upon which the +besieger could place as many guns as he chose to employ. In addition +they were usually deficient in armament and stores and garrisoned by +newly-raised troops. Belfort, where the defenders strained every nerve +to keep the besiegers out of bombarding range, and Paris formed the only +exceptions to this general rule. + + + The "Defense Nationale." + +The policy of the new French government was defined by Jules Favre on +the 6th of September. "It is for the king of Prussia, who has declared +that he is making war on the Empire and not on France, to stay his hand; +we shall not cede an inch of our territory or a stone of our +fortresses." These proud words, so often ridiculed as empty bombast, +were the prelude of a national effort which re-established France in the +eyes of Europe as a great power, even though provinces and fortresses +were ceded in the peace that that effort proved unable to avert. They +were translated into action by Leon Gambetta, who escaped from Paris in +a balloon on the 7th of October, and established the headquarters of the +defence at Tours, where already the "Delegation" of the central +government--which had decided to remain in Paris--had concentrated the +machinery of government. Thenceforward Gambetta and his principal +assistant de Freycinet directed the whole war in the open country, +co-ordinating it, as best they could with the precarious means of +communication at their disposal, with Trochu's military operations in +and round the capital. His critics--Gambetta's personality was such as +to ensure him numerous enemies among the higher civil and military +officials, over whom, in the interests of _La Patrie_, he rode +rough-shod--have acknowledged the fact, which is patent enough in any +case, that nothing but Gambetta's driving energy enabled France in a few +weeks to create and to equip twelve army corps, representing thirty-six +divisions (600,000 rifles and 1400 guns), after all her organized +regular field troops had been destroyed or neutralized. But it is +claimed that by undue interference with the generals at the front, by +presuming to dictate their plans of campaign, and by forcing them to act +when the troops were unready, Gambetta and de Freycinet nullified the +efforts of themselves and the rest of the nation and subjected France +to a humiliating treaty of peace. We cannot here discuss the justice or +injustice of such a general condemnation, or even whether in individual +instances Gambetta trespassed too far into the special domain of the +soldier. But even the brief narrative given below must at least suggest +to the reader the existence amongst the generals and higher officials of +a dead weight of passive resistance to the Delegation's orders, of +unnecessary distrust of the qualities of the improvised troops, and +above all of the utter fear of responsibility that twenty years of +literal obedience had bred. The closest study of the war cannot lead to +any other conclusion than this, that whether or not Gambetta as a +strategist took the right course in general or in particular cases, no +one else would have taken any course whatever. + +On the approach of the enemy Paris hastened its preparations for defence +to the utmost, while in the provinces, out of reach of the German +cavalry, new army corps were rapidly organized out of the few +constituted regular units not involved in the previous catastrophes, the +depot troops and the mobile national guard. The first-fruits of these +efforts were seen in Beauce, where early in October important masses of +French troops prepared not only to bar the further progress of the +invader but actually to relieve Paris. The so-called "fog of war"--the +armed inhabitants, francs-tireurs, sedentary national guard and +volunteers--prevented the German cavalry from venturing far out from the +infantry camps around Paris, and behind this screen the new 15th army +corps assembled on the Loire. But an untimely demonstration of force +alarmed the Germans, all of whom, from Moltke downwards, had hitherto +disbelieved in the existence of the French new formations, and the still +unready 15th corps found itself the target of an expedition of the I. +Bavarian corps, which drove the defenders out of Orleans after a sharp +struggle, while at the same time another expedition swept the western +part of Beauce, sacked Chateaudun as a punishment for its brave defence, +and returned via Chartres, which was occupied. + +After these events the French forces disappeared from German eyes for +some weeks. D'Aurelle de Paladines, the commander of the "Army of the +Loire" (15th and 16th corps), improvised a camp of instruction at +Salbris in Sologne, several marches out of reach, and subjected his raw +troops to a stern regime of drill and discipline. At the same time an +"Army of the West" began to gather on the side of Le Mans. This army was +almost imaginary, yet rumours of its existence and numbers led the +German commanders into the gravest errors, for they soon came to suspect +that the main army lay on that side and not on the Loire, and this +mistaken impression governed the German dispositions up to the very eve +of the decisive events around Orleans in December. Thus when at last +D'Aurelle took the offensive from Tours (whither he had transported his +forces, now 100,000 strong) against the position of the I. Bavarian +corps near Orleans, he found his task easy. The Bavarians, outnumbered +and unsupported, were defeated with heavy losses in the battle of +Coulmiers (November 9), and, had it not been for the inexperience, want +of combination, and other technical weaknesses of the French, they would +have been annihilated. What the results of such a victory as Coulmiers +might have been, had it been won by a fully organized, smoothly working +army of the same strength, it is difficult to overestimate. As it was, +the retirement of the Bavarians rang the alarm bell all along the line +of the German positions, and that was all. + +Then once again, instead of following up its success, the French army +disappeared from view. The victory had emboldened the "fog of war" to +make renewed efforts, and resistance to the pressure of the German +cavalry grew day by day. The Bavarians were reinforced by two Prussian +divisions and by all available cavalry commands, and constituted as an +"army detachment" under the grand-duke Friedrich Franz of +Mecklenburg-Schwerin to deal with the Army of the Loire, the strength of +which was far from being accurately known. Meantime the capitulation of +Metz on the 28th of October had set free the veterans of Prince +Frederick Charles, the best troops in the German army, for field +operations. The latter were at first misdirected to the upper Seine, and +yet another opportunity arose for the French to raise the siege of +Paris. But D'Aurelle utilized the time he had gained in strengthening +the army and in imparting drill and discipline to the new units which +gathered round the original nucleus of the 15th and 16th corps. All this +was, however, unknown and even unsuspected at the German headquarters, +and the invaders, feeling the approaching crisis, became more than +uneasy as to their prospects of maintaining the siege of Paris. + + + The Orleans campaign. + +At this moment, in the middle of November, the general situation was as +follows: the German III. and Meuse armies, investing Paris, had had to +throw off important detachments to protect the enterprise, which they +had undertaken on the assumption that no further field armies of the +enemy were to be encountered. The maintenance of their communications +with Germany, relatively unimportant when the struggle took place in the +circumstances of field warfare, had become supremely necessary, now that +the army had come to a standstill and undertaken a great siege, which +required heavy guns and constant replenishment of ammunition and stores. +The rapidity of the German invasion had left no time for the proper +organization and full garrisoning of these communications, which were +now threatened, not merely by the Army of the Loire, but by other forces +assembling on the area protected by Langres and Belfort. The latter, +under General Cambriels, were held in check and no more by the Baden +troops and reserve units (XIV. German corps) under General Werder, and +eventually without arousing attention they were able to send 40,000 men +to the Army of the Loire. This army, still around Orleans, thus came to +number perhaps 150,000 men, and opposed to it, about the 14th of +November, the Germans had only the Army Detachment of about 40,000, the +II. army being still distant. It was under these conditions that the +famous Orleans campaign took place. After many vicissitudes of fortune, +and with many misunderstandings between Prince Frederick Charles, Moltke +and the grand-duke, the Germans were ultimately victorious, thanks +principally to the brilliant fighting of the X. corps at +Beaune-la-Rolande (28th of November), which was followed by the battle +of Loigny-Poupry on the 2nd of December and the second capture of +Orleans after heavy fighting on the 4th of December. + +The result of the capture of Orleans was the severance of the two wings +of the French army, henceforward commanded respectively by Chanzy and +Bourbaki. The latter fell back at once and hastily, though not closely +pursued, to Bourges. But Chanzy, opposing the Detachment between +Beaugency and the Forest of Marchenoir, was of sterner metal, and in the +five days' general engagement around Beaugency (December 7-11) the +Germans gained little or no real advantage. Indeed their solitary +material success, the capture of Beaugency, was due chiefly to the fact +that the French there were subjected to conflicting orders from the +military and the governmental authorities. Chanzy then abandoned little +but the field of battle, and on the grand-duke's representations Prince +Frederick Charles, leaving a mere screen to impose upon Bourbaki (who +allowed himself to be deceived and remained inactive), hurried thither +with the II. army. After that Chanzy was rapidly driven north-westward, +though always presenting a stubborn front. The Delegation left Tours and +betook itself to Bordeaux, whence it directed the government for the +rest of the war. But all this continuous marching and fighting, and the +growing severity of the weather, compelled Prince Frederick Charles to +call a halt for a few days. About the 19th of December, therefore, the +Germans (II. army and Detachment) were closed up in the region of +Chartres, Orleans, Auxerre and Fontainebleau, Chanzy along the river +Sarthe about Le Mans and Bourbaki still passive towards Bourges. + +During this, as during other halts, the French government and its +generals occupied themselves with fresh plans of campaign, the former +with an eager desire for results, the latter (Chanzy excepted) with many +misgivings. Ultimately, and fatally, it was decided that Bourbaki, whom +nothing could move towards Orleans, should depart for the south-east, +with a view to relieving Belfort and striking perpendicularly against +the long line of the Germans' communications. This movement, bold to the +point of extreme rashness judged by any theoretical rules of strategy, +seems to have been suggested by de Freycinet. As the execution of it +fell actually into incapable hands, it is difficult to judge what would +have been the result had a Chanzy or a Faidherbe been in command of the +French. At any rate it was vicious in so far as immediate advantages +were sacrificed to hopes of ultimate success which Gambetta and de +Freycinet did wrong to base on Bourbaki's powers of generalship. Late in +December, for good or evil, Bourbaki marched off into Franche-Comte and +ceased to be a factor in the Loire campaign. A mere calculation of time +and space sufficed to show the German headquarters that the moment had +arrived to demolish the stubborn Chanzy. + + + Le Mans. + +Prince Frederick Charles resumed the interrupted offensive, pushing +westward with four corps and four cavalry divisions which converged on +Le Mans. There on the 10th, 11th and 12th of January 1871 a stubbornly +contested battle ended with the retreat of the French, who owed their +defeat solely to the misbehaviour of the Breton mobiles. These, after +deserting their post on the battlefield at a mere threat of the enemy's +infantry, fled in disorder and infected with their terrors the men in +the reserve camps of instruction, which broke up in turn. But Chanzy, +resolute as ever, drew off his field army intact towards Laval, where a +freshly raised corps joined him. The prince's army was far too exhausted +to deliver another effective blow, and the main body of it gradually +drew back into better quarters, while the grand duke departed for the +north to aid in opposing Faidherbe. Some idea of the strain to which the +invaders had been subjected may be gathered from the fact that army +corps, originally 30,000 strong, were in some cases reduced to 10,000 +and even fewer bayonets. And at this moment Bourbaki was at the head of +120,000 men! Indeed, so threatening seemed the situation on the Loire, +though the French south of that river between Gien and Blois were mere +isolated brigades, that the prince hurried back from Le Mans to Orleans +to take personal command. A fresh French corps, bearing the number 25, +and being the twenty-first actually raised during the war, appeared in +the field towards Blois. Chanzy was again at the head of 156,000 men. He +was about to take the offensive against the 40,000 Germans left near Le +Mans when to his bitter disappointment he received the news of the +armistice. "We have still France," he had said to his staff, undeterred +by the news of the capitulation of Paris, but now he had to submit, for +even if his improvised army was still cheerful, there were many +significant tokens that the people at large had sunk into apathy and +hoped to avoid worse terms of peace by discontinuing the contest at +once. + +So ended the critical period of the "Defense nationale." It may be taken +to have lasted from the day of Coulmiers to the last day of Le Mans, and +its central point was the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande. Its +characteristics were, on the German side, inadequacy of the system of +strategy practised, which became palpable as soon as the organs of +reconnaissance met with serious resistance, misjudgment of and indeed +contempt for the fighting powers of "new formations," and the rise of a +spirit of ferocity in the man in the ranks, born of his resentment at +the continuance of the war and the ceaseless sniping of the +franc-tireur's rifle and the peasant's shot-gun. On the French side the +continual efforts of the statesmen to stimulate the generals to decisive +efforts, coupled with actual suggestions as to the plans of the campaign +to be followed (in default, be it said, of the generals themselves +producing such plans), and the professional soldiers' distrust of +half-trained troops, acted and reacted upon one another in such a way as +to neutralize the powerful, if disconnected and erratic, forces that the +war and the Republic had unchained. As for the soldiers themselves, +their most conspicuous qualities were their uncomplaining endurance of +fatigues and wet bivouacs, and in action their capacity for a single +great effort and no more. But they were unreliable in the hands of the +veteran regular general, because they were heterogeneous in recruiting, +and unequal in experience and military qualities, and the French staff +in those days was wholly incapable of moving masses of troops with the +rapidity demanded by the enemy's methods of war, so that on the whole it +is difficult to know whether to wonder more at their missing success or +at their so nearly achieving it. + +The decision, as we have said, was fought out on the Loire and the +Sarthe. Nevertheless the glorious story of the "Defense nationale" +includes two other important campaigns--that of Faidherbe in the north +and that of Bourbaki in the east. + + + Faidherbe's campaign. + +In the north the organization of the new formations was begun by Dr +Testelin and General Farre. Bourbaki held the command for a short time +in November before proceeding to Tours, but the active command in field +operations came into the hands of Faidherbe, a general whose natural +powers, so far from being cramped by years of peace routine and court +repression, had been developed by a career of pioneer warfare and +colonial administration. General Farre was his capable chief of staff. +Troops were raised from fugitives from Metz and Sedan, as well as from +depot troops and the Garde Mobile, and several minor successes were won +by the national troops in the Seine valley, for here, as on the side of +the Loire, mere detachments of the investing army round Paris were +almost powerless. But the capitulation of Metz came too soon for the +full development of these sources of military strength, and the German +I. army under Manteuffel, released from duty at Metz, marched +north-eastward, capturing the minor fortresses on its way. Before +Faidherbe assumed command, Farre had fought several severe actions near +Amiens, but, greatly outnumbered, had been defeated and forced to retire +behind the Somme. Another French general, Briand, had also engaged the +enemy without success near Rouen. Faidherbe assumed the command on the +3rd of December, and promptly moved forward. A general engagement on the +little river Hallue (December 23), east-north-east of Amiens, was fought +with no decisive results, but Faidherbe, feeling that his troops were +only capable of winning victories in the first rush, drew them off on +the 24th. His next effort, at Bapaume (January 2-3, 1871), was more +successful, but its effects were counterbalanced by the surrender of the +fortress of Peronne (January 9) and the consequent establishment of the +Germans on the line of the Somme. Meanwhile the Rouen troops had been +contained by a strong German detachment, and there was no further chance +of succouring Paris from the north. But Faidherbe, like Chanzy, was far +from despair, and in spite of the deficiencies of his troops in +equipment (50,000 pairs of shoes, supplied by English contractors, +proved to have paper soles), he risked a third great battle at St +Quentin (January 19). This time he was severely defeated, though his +loss in killed and wounded was about equal to that of the Germans, who +were commanded by Goeben. Still the attempt of the Germans to surround +him failed and he drew off his forces with his artillery and trains +unharmed. The Germans, who had been greatly impressed by the solidity of +his army, did not pursue him far, and Faidherbe was preparing for a +fresh effort when he received orders to suspend hostilities. + +The last episode is Bourbaki's campaign in the east, with its mournful +close at Pontarlier. Before the crisis of the last week of November, the +French forces under General Cremer, Cambriels' successor, had been so +far successful in minor enterprises that, as mentioned above, the right +wing of the Loire army, severed from the left by the battle of Orleans +and subsequently held inactive at Bourges and Nevers, was ordered to +Franche Comte to take the offensive against the XIV. corps and other +German troops there, to relieve Belfort and to strike a blow across the +invaders' line of communications. But there were many delays in +execution. The staff work, which was at no time satisfactory in the +French armies of 1870, was complicated by the snow, the bad state of the +roads, and the mountainous nature of the country, and Bourbaki, a brave +general of division in action, but irresolute and pretentious as a +commander in chief, was not the man to cope with the situation. Only the +furious courage and patient endurance of hardships of the rank and file, +and the good qualities of some of the generals, such as Clinchant, +Cremer and Billot, and junior staff officers such as Major Brugere +(afterwards generalissimo of the French army), secured what success was +attained. + + + The campaign in the East. + +Werder, the German commander, warned of the imposing concentration of +the French, evacuated Dijon and Dole just in time to avoid the blow and +rapidly drew together his forces behind the Ognon above Vesoul. A +furious attack on one of his divisions at Villersexel (January 9) cost +him 2000 prisoners as well as his killed and wounded, and Bourbaki, +heading for Belfort, was actually nearer to the fortress than the +Germans. But at the crisis more time was wasted, Werder (who had almost +lost hope of maintaining himself and had received both encouragement and +stringent instructions to do so) slipped in front of the French, and +took up a long weak line of defence on the river Lisaine, almost within +cannon shot of Belfort. The cumbrous French army moved up and attacked +him there with 150,000 against 60,000 (January 15-17, 1871). It was at +last repulsed, thanks chiefly to Bourbaki's inability to handle his +forces, and, to the bitter disappointment of officers and men alike, he +ordered a retreat, leaving Belfort to its fate. + +Ere this, so urgent was the necessity of assisting Werder, Manteuffel +had been placed at the head of a new Army of the South. Bringing two +corps from the I. army opposing Faidherbe and calling up a third from +the armies around Paris, and a fourth from the II. army, Manteuffel +hurried southward by Langres to the Saone. Then, hearing of Werder's +victory on the Lisaine, he deflected the march so as to cut off +Bourbaki's retreat, drawing off the left flank guard of the latter +(commanded with much _eclat_ and little real effect by Garibaldi) by a +sharp feint attack on Dijon. The pressure of Werder in front and +Manteuffel in flank gradually forced the now thoroughly disheartened +French forces towards the Swiss frontier, and Bourbaki, realizing at +once the ruin of his army and his own incapacity to re-establish its +efficiency, shot himself, though not fatally, on the 26th of January. +Clinchant, his successor, acted promptly enough to remove the immediate +danger, but on the 29th he was informed of the armistice without at the +same time being told that Belfort and the eastern theatre of war had +been on Jules Favre's demand expressly excepted from its operation.[5] +Thus the French, the leaders distracted by doubts and the worn-out +soldiers fully aware that the war was practically over, stood still, +while Manteuffel completed his preparations for hemming them in. On the +1st of February General Clinchant led his troops into Switzerland, where +they were disarmed, interned and well cared for by the authorities of +the neutral state. The rearguard fought a last action with the advancing +Germans before passing the frontier. On the 16th, by order of the French +government, Belfort capitulated, but it was not until the 11th of March +that the Germans took possession of Bitche, the little fortress on the +Vosges, where in the early days of the war de Failly had illustrated so +signally the want of concerted action and the neglect of opportunities +which had throughout proved the bane of the French armies. + +The losses of the Germans during the whole war were 28,000 dead and +101,000 wounded and disabled, those of the French, 156,000 dead (17,000 +of whom died, of sickness and wounds, as prisoners in German hands) and +143,000 wounded and disabled. 720,000 men surrendered to the Germans or +to the authorities of neutral states, and at the close of the war there +were still 250,000 troops on foot, with further resources not +immediately available to the number of 280,000 more. In this connexion, +and as evidence of the respective numerical yields of the German system +working normally and of the French improvised for the emergency, we +quote from Berndt (_Zahl im Kriege_) the following comparative +figures:-- + + End of July French 250,000, Germans 384,000 under arms. + Middle of November " 600,000 " 425,000 " + After the surrender + of Paris and the + disarmament of + Bourbaki's army " 534,000 " 835,000 " + +The date of the armistice was the 28th of January, and that of the +ratification of the treaty of Frankfurt the 23rd of May 1871. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the war is ever increasing in volume, + and the following list only includes a very short selection made + amongst the most important works. + + _General._--German official history, _Der deutsch-franzoesische Krieg_ + (Berlin, 1872-1881; English and French translations); monographs of + the German general staff (_Kriegsgesch. Einzelschriften_); Moltke, + _Gesch. des deutsch-franzoes. Krieges_ (Berlin, 1891; English + translation) and _Gesammelte Schriften des G. F. M. Grafen v. Moltke_ + (Berlin, 1900- ); French official history, _La Guerre de 1870-1871_ + (Paris, 1902- ) (the fullest and most accurate account); P. + Lehautcourt (General Palat), _Hist. de la guerre de 1870-1871_ (Paris, + 1901-1907); v. Verdy du Vernois, _Studien ueber den Krieg ... auf + Grundlage_ 1870-1871 (Berlin, 1892-1896); G. Cardinal von Widdern, + _Kritische Tage 1870-1871_ (French translation, _Journees critiques_). + Events preceding the war are dealt with in v. Bernhardi, _Zwischen + zwei Kriegen_; Baron Stoffel, _Rapports militaires_ 1866-1870 (Paris, + 1871; English translation); G. Lehmann, _Die Mobilmachung_ 1870-1871 + (Berlin, 1905). + + For the war in Lorraine: Prince Kraft of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, + _Briefe ueber Strategie_ (English translation, _Letters on Strategy_); + F. Foch, _Conduite de la guerre_, pt. ii.; H. Bonnal, _Manoeuvre de + Saint Privat_ (Paris, 1904-1906); Maistre, _Spicheren_ (Paris, 1908); + v. Schell, _Die Operationen der I. Armee unter Gen. von Steinmetz_ + (Berlin, 1872; English translation); F. Hoenig, _Taktik der Zukunft_ + (English translation), and _24 Stunden Moltke'schen Strategie_ + (Berlin, 1892; English and French translations). + + For the war in Alsace and Champagne: H. Kunz, _Schlacht von Woerth_ + (Berlin, 1891), and later works by the same author; H. Bonnal, + _Froeschweiler_ (Paris, 1899); Hahnke, _Die Operationen des III. Armee + bis Sedan_ (Berlin, 1873; French translation). + + For the war in the Provinces: v. der Goltz, _Leon Gambetta und seine + Armeen_ (Berlin, 1877); _Die Operationen der II. Armee an die Loire_ + (Berlin, 1875); _Die sieben Tage von Le Mans_ (Berlin, 1873); Kunz, + _Die Zusammensetzung der franzoes. Provinzialheeren_; de Freycinet, _La + Guerre en province_ (Paris, 1871); L. A. Hale, _The People's War_ + (London, 1904); Hoenig, _Volkskrieg an die Loire_ (Berlin, 1892); + Blume, _Operationen v. Sedan bis zum Ende d. Kriegs_ (Berlin, 1872; + English translation); v. Schell, _Die Operationen der I. Armee unter + Gen. v. Goeben_ (Berlin, 1873; English translation); Count + Wartensleben, _Feldzug der Nordarmee unter Gen. v. Manteuffel_ + (Berlin, 1872), _Operationen der Sudarmee_ (Berlin, 1872; English + translation); Faidherbe, _Campagne de l'armee du nord_ (Paris, 1872). + + For the sieges: Frobenius, _Kriegsgesch. Beispiele d. Festungskriegs + aus d. deutsch.-franz. Kg._ (Berlin, 1899-1900); Goetze, _Taetigkeit + der deutschen Ingenieuren_ (Berlin, 1871; English translation). + + The most useful bibliography is that of General Palat ("P. + Lehautcourt"). (C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This was the celebrated "bapteme de feu" of the prince imperial. + + [2] The II. corps had not yet arrived from Germany. + + [3] Of the I. army the I. corps was retained on the east side of + Metz. The II. corps belonged to the II. army, but had not yet reached + the front. + + [4] The 13th corps (Vinoy), which had followed MacMahon's army at + some distance, was not involved in the catastrophe of Sedan, and by + good luck as well as good management evaded the German pursuit and + returned safely to Paris. + + [5] Jules Favre, it appears, neglected to inform Gambetta of the + exception. + + + + +FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, NICOLAS LOUIS, COUNT (1750-1828), French +statesman and poet, was born at Saffais near Rozieres in Lorraine on the +17th of April 1750, the son of a school-teacher. He studied at the +Jesuit college of Neufchateau in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen +published a volume of poetry which obtained the approbation of Rousseau +and of Voltaire. Neufchateau conferred on him its name, and he was +elected member of some of the principal academies of France. In 1783 he +was named _procureur-general_ to the council of Santo Domingo. He had +previously been engaged on a translation of Ariosto, which he finished +before his return to France five years afterwards, but it perished +during the shipwreck which occurred during his voyage home. After the +Revolution he was elected deputy _suppleant_ to the National Assembly, +was charged with the organization of the Department of the Vosges, and +was elected later to the Legislative Assembly, of which he first became +secretary and then president. In 1793 he was imprisoned on account of +the political sentiments, in reality very innocent, of his drama _Pamela +ou la vertu recompensee_ (Theatre de la Nation, 1st August 1793), but +was set free a few days afterwards at the revolution of the 9th +Thermidor. In 1797 he became minister of the interior, in which office +he distinguished himself by the thoroughness of his administration in +all departments. It is to him that France owes its system of inland +navigation. He inaugurated the museum of the Louvre, and was one of the +promoters of the first universal exhibition of industrial products. From +1804 to 1806 he was president of the Senate, and in that capacity the +duty devolved upon him of soliciting Napoleon to assume the title of +emperor. In 1808 he received the dignity of count. Retiring from public +life in 1814, he occupied himself chiefly in the study of agriculture, +until his death on the 10th of January 1828. + +Francois de Neufchateau had very multifarious accomplishments, and +interested himself in a great variety of subjects, but his fame rests +chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the encouragement and +development of the industries of France. His maturer poetical +productions did not fulfil the promise of those of his early years, for +though some of his verses have a superficial elegance, his poetry +generally lacks force and originality. He had considerable +qualifications as a grammarian and critic, as is witnessed by his +editions of the _Provinciales_ and _Pensees_ of Pascal (Paris, 1822 and +1826) and _Gil Blas_ (Paris, 1820). His principal poetical works are +_Poesies diverses_ (1765); _Ode sur les parlements_ (1771); _Nouveaux +Contes moraux_ (1781); _Les Vosges_ (1796); _Fables et contes_ (1814); +and _Les Tropes, ou les figures de mots_ (1817). He was also the author +of a large number of works on agriculture. + + See _Recueil des lettres, circulaires, discours et autres actes + publics emanes du Cte. Francois pendant ses deux exercices du + ministere de l'interieur_ (Paris, An. vii.-viii., 2 vols.); _Notice + biographique sur M. le comte Francois de Neufchateau_ (1828), by A. F. + de Sillery; H. Bonnelier, _Memoires sur Francois de Neufchateau_ + (Paris, 1829); J. Lamoureux, _Notice historique et litteraire sur la + vie et les ecrits de Francois de Neufchateau_ (Paris, 1843); E. + Meaume, _Etude historique et biographique sur les Lorrains + revolutionnaires: Palissot, Gregoire, Francois de Neufchateau_ (Nancy, + 1882); Ch. Simian, _Francois de Neufchateau et les expositions_ + (Paris, 1889). + + + + +FRANCONIA (Ger. _Franken_), the name of one of the stem-duchies of +medieval Germany. It stretched along the valley of the Main from the +Rhine to Bohemia, and was bounded on the north by Saxony and Thuringia, +and on the south by Swabia and Bavaria. It also included a district +around Mainz, Spires and Worms, on the left bank of the Rhine. The word +_Franconia_, first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the +words _France_, _Francia_ and _Franken_, to a portion of the land +occupied by the Franks. + +About the close of the 5th century this territory was conquered by +Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, was afterwards incorporated with the +kingdom of Austrasia, and at a later period came under the rule of +Charlemagne. After the treaty of Verdun in 843 it became the centre of +the East Frankish or German kingdom, and in theory remained so for a +long period, and was for a time the most important of the duchies which +arose on the ruins of the Carolingian empire. The land was divided into +counties, or _gauen_, which were ruled by counts, prominent among whom +were members of the families of Conradine and Babenberg, by whose feuds +it was frequently devastated. Conrad, a member of the former family, who +took the title of "duke in Franconia" about the year 900, was chosen +German king in 911 as the representative of the foremost of the German +races. Conrad handed over the chief authority in Franconia to his +brother Eberhard, who remained on good terms with Conrad's successor +Henry I. the Fowler, but rose against the succeeding king, Otto the +Great, and was killed in battle in 939, when his territories were +divided. The influence of Franconia began to decline under the kings of +the Saxon house. It lacked political unity, had no opportunities for +extension, and soon became divided into Rhenish Franconia (_Francia +rhenensis_, Ger. _Rheinfranken_) and Eastern Franconia (_Francia +orientalis_, Ger. _Ostfranken_). The most influential family in Rhenish +Franconia was that of the Salians, the head of which early in the 10th +century was Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine, and son-in-law of Otto the +Great. This Conrad, his son Otto and his grandson Conrad are sometimes +called dukes of Franconia, and in 1024 his great-grandson Conrad, also +duke of Franconia, was elected German king as Conrad II. and founded the +line of Franconian or Salian emperors. Rhenish Franconia gradually +became a land of free towns and lesser nobles, and under the earlier +Franconian emperors sections passed to the count palatine of the Rhine, +the archbishop of Mainz, the bishops of Worms and Spires and other +clerical and lay nobles; and the name Franconia, or _Francia orientalis_ +as it was then called, was confined to the eastern portion of the duchy. +Clerical authority was becoming predominant in this region. A series of +charters dating from 822 to 1025 had granted considerable powers to the +bishops of Wuerzburg, who, by the time of the emperor Henry II., +possessed judicial authority over the whole of eastern Franconia. The +duchy was nominally retained by the emperors in their own hands until +1115, when the emperor Henry V., wishing to curb the episcopal influence +in this neighbourhood, appointed his nephew Conrad of Hohenstaufen as +duke of Franconia. Conrad's son Frederick took the title of duke of +Rothenburg instead of duke of Franconia, but in 1196, on the death of +Conrad of Hohenstaufen, son of the emperor Frederick I., the title fell +into disuse. Meanwhile the bishop of Wuerzburg had regained his former +power in the duchy, and this was confirmed in 1168 by the emperor +Frederick I. + +The title remained in abeyance until the early years of the 15th +century, when it was assumed by John II., bishop of Wuerzburg, and +retained by his successors until the bishopric was secularized in 1802. +The greater part of the lands were united with Bavaria, and the name +Franconia again fell into abeyance. It was revived in 1837, when Louis +I., king of Bavaria, gave to three northern portions of his kingdom the +names of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia. In 1633 Bernhard, duke of +Saxe-Weimar, hoping to create a principality for himself out of the +ecclesiastical lands, had taken the title of duke of Franconia, but his +hopes were destroyed by his defeat at Noerdlingen in 1634. When Germany +was divided into circles by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1500, the name +Franconia was given to that circle which included the eastern part of +the old duchy. The lands formerly comprised in the duchy of Franconia +are now divided between the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wuerttemberg, the +grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau. + + See J. G. ab Eckhart, _Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis et + episcopatus Wirceburgensis_ (Wuerzburg, 1729); F. Stein, _Geschichte + Frankens_ (Schweinfurt, 1885-1886); T. Henner, _Die herzogliche Gewalt + der Bischoefe von Wuerzburg_ (Wuerzburg, 1874). + + + + +FRANCS-ARCHERS. The institution of the _francs-archers_ was the first +attempt at the formation of regular infantry in France. They were +created by the ordinance of Montils-les-Tours on the 28th of August +1448, which prescribed that in each parish an archer should be chosen +from among the most apt in the use of arms; this archer to be exempt +from the _taille_ and certain obligations, to practise shooting with the +bow on Sundays and feast-days, and to hold himself ready to march fully +equipped at the first signal. Under Charles VII. the _francs-archers_ +distinguished themselves in numerous battles with the English, and +assisted the king to drive them from France. During the succeeding +reigns the institution languished, and finally disappeared in the middle +of the 16th century. The _francs-archers_ were also called +_francs-taupins_. + + See Daniel, _Histoire de la milice francaise_ (1721); and E. Boutaric, + _Institutions militaires de la France avant les armees permanentes_ + (1863). + + + + +FRANCS-TIREURS ("Free-Shooters"), irregular troops, almost exclusively +infantry, employed by the French in the war of 1870-1871. They were +originally rifle clubs or unofficial military societies formed in the +east of France at the time of the Luxemburg crisis of 1867. The members +were chiefly concerned with the practice of rifle-shooting, and were +expected in war to act as light troops. As under the then system of +conscription the greater part of the nation's military energy was +allowed to run to waste, the francs-tireurs were not only popular, but +efficient workers in their sphere of action. As they wore no uniforms, +were armed with the best existing rifles and elected their own officers, +the government made repeated attempts to bring the societies, which were +at once a valuable asset to the armed strength of France and a possible +menace to internal order, under military discipline. This was +strenuously resisted by the societies, to their sorrow as it turned out, +for the Germans treated captured francs-tireurs as irresponsible +non-combatants found with arms in their hands and usually exacted the +death penalty. In July 1870, at the outbreak of the war, the societies +were brought under the control of the minister of war and organized for +field service, but it was not until the 4th of November--by which time +the _levee en masse_ was in force--that they were placed under the +orders of the generals in the field. After that they were sometimes +organized in large bodies and incorporated in the mass of the armies, +but more usually they continued to work in small bands, blowing up +culverts on the invaders' lines of communication, cutting off small +reconnoitring parties, surprising small posts, &c. It is now +acknowledged, even by the Germans, that though the francs-tireurs did +relatively little active mischief, they paralysed large detachments of +the enemy, contested every step of his advance (as in the Loire +campaign), and prevented him from gaining information, and that their +soldierly qualities improved with experience. Their most celebrated +feats were the blowing up of the Moselle railway bridge at Fontenoy on +the 22nd of January 1871 (see _Les Chasseurs des Vosges_ by +Lieut.-Colonel St Etienne, Toul, 1906), and the heroic defence of +Chateaudun by Lipowski's Paris corps and the francs-tireurs of Cannes +and Nantes (October 18, 1870). It cannot be denied that the original +members of the rifle clubs were joined by many bad characters, but the +patriotism of the majority was unquestionable, for little mercy was +shown by the Germans to those francs-tireurs who fell into their hands. +The severity of the German reprisals is itself the best testimony to the +fear and anxiety inspired by the presence of active bands of +francs-tireurs on the flanks and in rear of the invaders. + + + + +FRANEKER, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, 5 m. E. of +Harlingen on the railway and canal to Leeuwarden. Pop. (1900) 7187. It +was at one time a favourite residence of the Frisian nobility, many of +whom had their castles here, and it possessed a celebrated university, +founded by the Frisian estates in 1585. This was suppressed by Napoleon +I. in 1811, and the endowments were diverted four years later to the +support of an athenaeum, and afterwards of a gymnasium, with which a +physiological cabinet and a botanical garden are connected. Franeker +also possesses a town hall (1591), which contains a _planetarium_, made +by one Eise Eisinga in 1774-1881. The fine observatory was founded about +1780. The church of St Martin (1420) contains several fine tombs of the +15th-17th centuries. The industries of the town include silk-weaving, +woollen-spinning, shipbuilding and pottery-making. It is also a +considerable market for agricultural produce. + + + + +FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791), a Jewish theologian, who founded in Poland, in +the middle of the 18th century, a sect which emanated from Judaism but +ended by merging with Christianity. The sect was the outcome of the +Messianic mysticism of Sabbetai Zebi. It was an antinomian movement in +which the authority of the Jewish law was held to be superseded by +personal freedom. The Jewish authorities, alarmed at the moral laxity +which resulted from the emotional rites of the Frankists, did their +utmost to suppress the sect. But the latter, posing as an anti-Talmudic +protest in behalf of a spiritual religion, won a certain amount of +public sympathy. There was, however, no deep sincerity in the tenets of +the Frankists, for though in 1759 they were baptized _en masse_, amid +much pomp, the Church soon became convinced that Frank was not a genuine +convert. He was imprisoned on a charge of heresy, but on his release in +1763 the empress Maria Theresa patronized him, regarding him as a +propagandist of Christianity among the Jews. He thenceforth lived in +state as baron of Offenbach, and on his death (1791) his daughter Eva +succeeded him as head of the sect. The Frankists gradually merged in the +general Christian body, the movement leaving no permanent trace in the +synagogue. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANK-ALMOIGN (_libera eleemosyna_, free alms), in the English law of +real property, a species of spiritual tenure, whereby a religious +corporation, aggregate or sole, holds lands of the donor to them and +their successors for ever. It was a tenure dating from Saxon times, held +not on the ordinary feudal conditions, but discharged of all services +except the _trinoda necessitas_. But "they which hold in frank-almoign +are bound of right before God to make orisons, prayers, masses and other +divine services for the souls of their grantor or feoffor, and for the +souls of their heirs which are dead, and for the prosperity and good +life and good health of their heirs which are alive. And therefore they +shall do no fealty to their lord, because that this divine service is +better for them before God than any doing of fealty" (Litt. s. 135). It +was the tenure by which the greater number of the monasteries and +religious houses held their lands; it was expressly exempted from the +statute 12 Car. II. c. 24 (1660), by which the other ancient tenures +were abolished, and it is the tenure by which the parochial clergy and +many ecclesiastical and eleemosynary foundations hold their lands at the +present day. As a form of donation, however, it came to an end by the +passing of the statute _Quia Emptores_, for by that statute no new +tenure of frank-almoign could be created, except by the crown. + + See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, where the history + of frank-almoign is given at length. + + + + +FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS (1801-1875), Jewish theologian, one of the founders +of the Breslau school of "historical Judaism." This school attempts to +harmonize critical treatment of the documents of religion with fidelity +to traditional beliefs and observances. For a time at least, the +compromise succeeded in staying the disintegrating effects of the +liberal movement in Judaism. Frankel was the author of several valuable +works, among them _Septuagint Studies_, an _Introduction to the Mishnah_ +(1859), and a similar work on the Palestinian Talmud (1870). He also +edited the _Monatsschrift_, devoted to Jewish learning on modern lines. +But his chief claim to fame rests on his headship of the Breslau +Seminary. This was founded in 1854 for the training of rabbis who should +combine their rabbinic studies with secular courses at the university. +The whole character of the rabbinate has been modified under the +influence of this, the first seminary of the kind. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANKENBERG, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, +on the Zschopau, 7 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway +Niederwiesa-Rosswein. Pop. (1905) 13,303. The principal buildings are +the large Evangelical parish church, restored in 1874-1875, and the +town-hall. Its industries include I extensive woollen, cotton and silk +weaving, dyeing, the manufacture of brushes, furniture and cigars, +iron-founding and machine building. It is well provided with schools, +including one of weaving. + + + + +FRANKENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the principality of +Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on an artificial arm of the Wipper, a tributary +of the Saale, 36 m. N.N.E. of Gotha. Pop. (1905) 6534. It consists of an +old and a new town, the latter mostly rebuilt since a destructive fire +in 1833, and has an old chateau of the princes of Schwarzburg, three +Protestant churches, a seminary for teachers, a hospital and a modern +town-hall. Its industries include the manufacture of sugar, cigars and +buttons, and there are brine springs, with baths, in the vicinity. At +Frankenhausen a battle was fought on the 15th of May 1525, in which the +insurgent peasants under Thomas Muenzer were defeated by the allied +princes of Saxony and Hesse. + + + + +FRANKENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on +the Pausebach, 35 m. S. by W. of Breslau. Pop. (1905) 7890. It is still +surrounded by its medieval walls, has two Evangelical and three Roman +Catholic churches, among the latter the parish church with a curious +overhanging tower, and a monastery. The industries include the +manufacture of artificial manures, bricks, beer and straw hats. There +are also mills for grinding the magnesite found in the neighbourhood. + + + + +FRANKENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the +Isenach, connected with the Rhine by a canal 3 m. in length, 6 m. N.W. +from Mannheim, and on the railways Neunkirchen-Worms and +Frankenthal-Grosskarlbach. Pop. (1905) 18,191. It has two Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, a fine medieval town-hall, two interesting +old gates, remains of its former environing walls, several public +monuments, including one to the veterans of the Napoleonic wars, and a +museum. Its industries include the manufacture of machinery, casks, +corks, soap, dolls and furniture, iron-founding and bell-founding--the +famous "Kaiserglocke" of the Cologne cathedral was cast here. +Frankenthal was formerly famous for its porcelain factory, established +here in 1755 by Paul Anton Hannong of Strassburg, who sold it in 1762 to +the elector palatine Charles Theodore. Its fame is mainly due to the +modellers Konrad Link (1732-1802) and Johann Peter Melchior (d. 1796) +(who worked at Frankenthal between 1779 and 1793). The best products of +this factory are figures and groups representing contemporary life, or +allegorical subjects in the rococo taste of the period, and they are +surpassed only by those of the more famous factory at Meissen. In 1795 +the factory was sold to Peter von Reccum, who removed it to Gruenstadt. + +Frankenthal (Franconodal) is mentioned as a village in the 8th century. +A house of Augustinian canons established here in 1119 by Erkenbert, +chamberlain of Worms, was suppressed in 1562 by the elector palatine +Frederick III., who gave its possessions to Protestant refugees from the +Netherlands. In 1577 this colony received town rights from the elector +John Casimir, whose successor fortified the place. From 1623 until 1652, +save for two years, it was occupied by the Spaniards, and in 1688-1689 +it was stormed and burned by the French, the fortifications being razed. +In 1697 it was reconstituted as a town, and under the elector Charles +Theodore it became the capital of the Palatinate. From 1798 to 1814 it +was incorporated in the French department of Mont Tonnerre. + + See Wille, _Stadt u. Festung Frankenthal waehrend des dreissigjaehrigen + Krieges_ (Heidelberg, 1877); Hildenbrand, Gesch. _der Stadt + Frankenthal_ (1893). For the porcelain see Heuser, _Frankenthaler + Gruppen und Figuren_ (Spires, 1899). + + + + +FRANKENWALD, a mountainous district of Germany, forming the geological +connexion between the Fichtelgebirge and the Thuringian Forest. It is a +broad well-wooded plateau, running for about 30 m. in a north-westerly +direction, descending gently on the north and eastern sides towards the +Saale, but more precipitously to the Bavarian plain in the west, and +attaining its highest elevation in the Kieferle near Steinheid (2900 +ft.). Along the centre lies the watershed between the basins of the Main +and the Saale, belonging to the systems of the Rhine and Elbe +respectively. The principal tributaries of the Main from the Frankenwald +are the Rodach and Hasslach, and of the Saale, the Selbitz. + + See H. Schmid, _Fuehrer durch den Frankenwald_ (Bamberg, 1894); Meyer, + _Thueringen und der Frankenwald_ (15th ed., Leipzig, 1900), and Guembel, + _Geognostische Beschreibung des Fichtelgebirges mit dem Frankenwald_ + (Gotha, 1879). + + + + +FRANKFORT, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Indiana, +U.S.A., 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 5919; (1900) 7100 (144 +foreign-born); (1910) 8634. Frankfort is served by the Chicago, +Indianapolis & Louisville, the Lake Erie & Western, the Vandalia, and +the Toledo, St Louis & Western railways, and by the Indianapolis & +North-Western Traction Interurban railway (electric). The city is a +division point on the Toledo, St Louis & Western railway, which has +large shops here. Frankfort is a trade centre for an agricultural and +lumbering region; among its manufactures are handles, agricultural +implements and foundry products. The first settlement in the +neighbourhood was made in 1826; in 1830 the town was founded, and in +1875 it was chartered as a city. The city limits were considerably +extended immediately after 1900. + + + + +FRANKFORT, the capital city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Franklin county, on the Kentucky river, about 55 m. E. of Louisville. +Pop. (1890) 7892; (1900) 9487, of whom 3316 were negroes; (1910 census) +10,465. The city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Louisville & +Nashville, and the Frankfort & Cincinnati railways, by the Central +Kentucky Traction Co. (electric), and by steamboat lines to Cincinnati, +Louisville and other river ports. It is built among picturesque hills on +both sides of the river, and is in the midst of the famous Kentucky +"blue grass region" and of a rich lumber-producing region. The most +prominent building is the Capitol, about 400 ft. long and 185 ft. wide, +built of granite and white limestone in the Italian Renaissance style, +with 70 large Ionic columns, and a dome 205 ft. above the terrace line, +supported by 24 other columns. The Capitol was built in 1905-1907 at a +cost of more than $2,000,000; in it are housed the state library and the +library of the Kentucky State Historical Society. At Frankfort, also, +are the state arsenal, the state penitentiary and the state home for +feeble-minded children, and just outside the city limits is the state +coloured normal school. The old capitol (first occupied in 1829) is +still standing. In Franklin cemetery rest the remains of Daniel Boone +and of Theodore O'Hara (1820-1867), a lawyer, soldier, journalist and +poet, who served in the U.S. army in 1846-1848 during the Mexican War, +took part in filibustering expeditions to Cuba, served in the +Confederate army, and is best known as the author of "The Bivouac of the +Dead," a poem written for the burial in Frankfort of some soldiers who +had lost their lives at Buena Vista. Here also are the graves of Richard +M. Johnson, vice-president of the United States in 1837-1841, and the +sculptor Joel T. Hart (1810-1877). The city has a considerable trade +with the surrounding country, in which large quantities of tobacco and +hemp are produced; its manufactures include lumber, brooms, chairs, +shoes, hemp twine, canned vegetables and glass bottles. The total value +of the city's factory product in 1905 was $1,747,338, being 31.6% more +than in 1900. Frankfort (said to have been named after Stephen Frank, +one of an early pioneer party ambushed here by Indians) was founded in +1786 by General James Wilkinson, then deeply interested in trade with +the Spanish at New Orleans, and in the midst of his Spanish intrigues. +In 1792 the city was made the capital of the state. In 1862, during the +famous campaign in Kentucky of General Braxton Bragg (Confederate) and +General D. C. Buell (Federal), Frankfort was occupied for a short time +by Bragg, who, just before being forced out by Buell, took part in the +inauguration of Richard J. Hawes, chosen governor by the Confederates of +the state. Hawes, however, never discharged the duties of his office. +During the bitter contest for the governorship in 1900 between William +Goebel (Democrat) and William S. Taylor (Republican), each of whom +claimed the election, Goebel was assassinated at Frankfort. (See also +KENTUCKY.) Frankfort received a city charter in 1839. + + + + +FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN (Ger. _Frankfurt am Main_), a city of Germany, in the +Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, principally on the right bank of the +Main, 24 m. above its confluence with the Rhine at Mainz, and 16 m. N. +from Darmstadt. Always a place of great trading importance, long the +place of election for the German kings, and until 1866, together with +Hamburg, Bremen and Luebeck, one of the four free cities of Germany, it +still retains its position as one of the leading commercial centres of +the German empire. Its situation in the broad and fertile valley of the +Main, the northern horizon formed by the soft outlines of the Taunus +range, is one of great natural beauty, the surrounding country being +richly clad with orchard and forest. + +Frankfort is one of the most interesting, as it is also one of the +wealthiest, of German cities. Apart from its commercial importance, its +position, close to the fashionable watering-places of Homburg, Nauheim +and Wiesbaden, has rendered it "cosmopolitan" in the best sense of the +term. The various stages in the development of the city are clearly +indicated in its general plan and the surviving names of many of its +streets. The line of the original 12th century walls and moat is marked +by the streets of which the names end in _-graben_, from the +Hirschgraben on the W. to the Wollgraben on the E. The space enclosed by +these and by the river on the S. is known as the "old town" +(_Altstadt_). The so-called "new town" (_Neustadt_), added in 1333, +extends to the _Anlagen_, the beautiful gardens and promenades laid out +(1806-1812) on the site of the 17th century fortifications, of which +they faithfully preserve the general ground plan. Of the medieval +fortifications the picturesque Eschenheimer Tor, a round tower 155 ft. +high, dating from 1400 to 1428, the Rententurm (1456) on the Main and +the Kuhhirtenturm (_c._ 1490) in Sachsenhausen, are the sole remains. +Since the demolition of the fortifications the city has greatly +expanded. Sachsenhausen on the south bank of the river, formerly the +seat of a commandery of the Teutonic Order (by treaty with Austria in +1842 all property and rights of the order in Frankfort territory were +sold to the city, except the church and house), is now a quarter of the +city. In other directions also the expansion has been rapid; the village +of Bornheim was incorporated in Frankfort in 1877, the former Hessian +town of Bockenheim in 1895, and the suburbs of Niederrad, Oberrad and +Seckbach in 1900. + +The main development of the city has been to the north of the river, +which is crossed by numerous bridges and flanked by fine quays and +promenades. The Altstadt, though several broad streets have been opened +through it, still preserves many of its narrow alleys and other medieval +features. The Judengasse (Ghetto), down to 1806 the sole Jews' quarter, +has been pulled down, with the exception of the ancestral house of the +Rothschild family--No. 148--which has been restored and retains its +ancient facade. As the Altstadt is mainly occupied by artisans and petty +tradesmen, so the Neustadt is the principal business quarter of the +city, containing the chief public buildings and the principal hotels. +The main arteries of the city are the Zeil, a broad street running from +the Friedberger Anlage to the Rossmarkt and thence continued, by the +Kaiserstrasse, through the fine new quarter built after 1872, to the +magnificent principal railway station; and the Steinweg and +Goethestrasse, which lead by the Bockenheimer Tor to the Bockenheimer +Landstrasse, a broad boulevard intersecting the fashionable residential +suburb to the N.W. + +_Churches._--The principal ecclesiastical building in Frankfort is the +cathedral (Dom). Built of red sandstone, with a massive tower +terminating in a richly ornamented cupola and 300 ft. in height, it is +the most conspicuous object in the city. This building, in which the +Roman emperors were formerly elected and, since 1562, crowned, was +founded in 852 by King Louis the German, and was later known as the +Salvator Kirche. After its reconstruction (1235-1239), it was dedicated +to St Bartholomew. From this period date the nave and the side aisles; +the choir was completed in 1315-1338 and the long transepts in +1346-1354. The cloisters were rebuilt in 1348-1447, and the electoral +chapel, on the south of the choir, was completed in 1355. The tower was +begun in 1415, but remained unfinished. On the 15th of August 1867 the +tower and roof were destroyed by fire and considerable damage was done +to the rest of the edifice. The restoration was immediately taken in +hand, and the whole work was finished in 1881, including the completion +of the tower, according to the plans of the 15th century architect, Hans +von Ingelheim. In the interior is the tomb of the German king Guenther of +Schwarzburg, who died in Frankfort in 1349, and that of Rudolph, the +last knight of Sachsenhausen, who died in 1371. Among the other Roman +Catholic churches are the Leonhardskirche, the Liebfrauenkirche (church +of Our Lady) and the Deutschordenskirche (14th century) in +Sachsenhausen. The Leonhardskirche (restored in 1882) was begun in 1219, +it is said on the site of the palace of Charlemagne. It was originally a +three-aisled basilica, but is now a five-aisled _Hallenkirche_; the +choir was added in 1314. It has two Romanesque towers. The +Liebfrauenkirche is first mentioned in 1314 as a collegiate church; the +nave was consecrated in 1340. The choir was added in 1506-1509 and the +whole church thoroughly restored in the second half of the 18th century, +when the tower was built (1770). Of the Protestant churches the oldest +is the Nikolaikirche, which dates from the 13th century; the fine +cast-iron spire erected in 1843 had to be taken down in 1901. The +Paulskirche, the principal Evangelical (Lutheran) church, built between +1786 and 1833, is a red sandstone edifice of no architectural +pretensions, but interesting as the seat of the national parliament of +1848-1849. The Katharinenkirche, built 1678-1681 on the site of an older +building, is famous in Frankfort history as the place where the first +Protestant sermon was preached in 1522. Among the more noteworthy of the +newer Protestant churches are the Peterskirche (1892-1895) in the North +German Renaissance style, with a tower 256 ft. high, standing north from +the Zeil, the Christuskirche (1883) and the Lutherkirche (1889-1893). An +English church, in Early English Gothic style, situated adjacent to the +Bockenheimer Landstrasse, was completed and consecrated in 1906. + +Of the five synagogues, the chief (or Hauptsynagoge), lying in the +Boernestrasse, is an attractive building of red sandstone in the +Moorish-Byzantine style. + +_Public Buildings._--Of the secular buildings in Frankfort, the Roemer, +for almost five hundred years the Rathaus (town hall) of the city, is of +prime historical interest. It lies on the Roemerberg, a square flanked by +curious medieval houses. It is first mentioned in 1322, was bought with +the adjacent hostelry in 1405 by the city and rearranged as a town hall, +and has since, from time to time, been enlarged by the purchase of +adjoining patrician houses, forming a complex of buildings of various +styles and dates surmounted by a clock tower. The facade was rebuilt +(1896-1898) in late Gothic style. It was here, in the Wahlzimmer (or +election-chamber) that the electors or their plenipotentiaries chose the +German kings, and here in the Kaisersaal (emperors' hall) that the +coronation festival was held, at which the new king or emperor dined +with the electors after having shown himself from the balcony to the +people. The Kaisersaal retained its antique appearance until 1843, when, +as also again in 1904, it was restored and redecorated; it is now +furnished with a series of modern paintings representing the German +kings and Roman emperors from Charlemagne to Francis II., in all +fifty-two, and a statue of the first German emperor, William I. New +municipal buildings adjoining the "Roemer" on the north side were erected +in 1900-1903 in German Renaissance style, with a handsome tower 220 ft. +high; beneath it is a public wine-cellar, and on the first storey a +grand municipal hall. The palace of the princes of Thurn and Taxis in +the Eschenheimer Gasse was built (1732-1741) from the designs of Robert +de Cotte, chief architect to Louis XIV. of France. From 1806 to 1810 it +was the residence of Karl von Dalberg, prince-primate of the +Confederation of the Rhine, with whose dominions Frankfort had been +incorporated by Napoleon. From 1816 to 1866 it was the seat of the +German federal diet. It is now annexed to the principal post office +(built 1892-1894), which lies close to it on the Zeil. The Saalhof, +built on the site of the palace erected by Louis the Pious in 822, +overlooking the Main, has a chapel of the 12th century, the substructure +dating from Carolingian times. This is the oldest building in Frankfort. +The facade of the Saalhof in the Saalgasse dates from 1604, the southern +wing with the two gables from 1715 to 1717. Of numerous other medieval +buildings may be mentioned the Leinwandhaus (linendrapers' hall), a 15th +century building reconstructed in 1892 as a municipal museum. In the +Grosser Hirschgraben is the Goethehaus, a 16th century building which +came into the possession of the Goethe family in 1733. Here Goethe lived +from his birth in 1749 until 1775. In 1863 the house was acquired by the +_Freies deutsche Hochstift_ and was opened to the public. It has been +restored, from Goethe's account of it in _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, as +nearly as possible to its condition in the poet's day, and is now +connected with a Goethemuseum (1897), with archives and a library of +25,000 volumes representative of the Goethe period of German literature. + +_Literary and Scientific Institutions._--Few cities of the same size as +Frankfort are so richly endowed with literary, scientific and artistic +institutions, or possess so many handsome buildings appropriated to +their service. The opera-house, erected near the Bockenheimer Tor in +1873-1880, is a magnificent edifice in the style of the Italian +Renaissance and ranks among the finest theatres in Europe. There are +also a theatre (_Schauspielhaus_) in modern Renaissance style +(1899-1902), devoted especially to drama, a splendid concert hall +(_Saalbau_), opened in 1861, and numerous minor places of theatrical +entertainment. The public picture gallery in the Saalhof possesses works +by Hans Holbein, Gruenewald, Van Dyck, Teniers, Van der Neer, Hans von +Kulmbach, Lucas Cranach and other masters. The Staedel Art Institute +(Staedel'sches Kunstinstitut) in Sachsenhausen, founded by the banker J. +F. Staedel in 1816, contains a picture gallery and a cabinet of +engravings extremely rich in works of German art. The municipal library, +with 300,000 volumes, boasts among its rarer treasures a Gutenberg +Bible printed at Mainz between 1450 and 1455, another on parchment dated +1462, the _Institutiones Justiniani_ (Mainz, 1468), the _Theuerdank_, +with woodcuts by Hans Schaeufelein, and numerous valuable autographs. It +also contains a fine collection of coins. The Bethmann Museum owes its +celebrity principally to Dannecker's "Ariadne," but it also possesses +the original plaster model of Thorwaldsen's "Entrance of Alexander the +Great into Babylon." There may also be mentioned the Industrial Art +Exhibition of the Polytechnic Association and two conservatories of +music. Among the scientific institutions the first place belongs to the +_Senckenberg'sches naturhistorische Museum_, containing valuable +collections of birds and shells. Next must be mentioned the Kunstgewerbe +(museum of arts and crafts) and the Musical Museum, with valuable MSS. +and portraits. Besides the municipal library (_Stadtbibliothek_) +mentioned above there are three others of importance, the Rothschild, +the Senckenberg and the Jewish library (with a well-appointed +reading-room). There are numerous high-grade schools, musical and other +learned societies and excellent hospitals. The last include the large +municipal infirmary and the Senckenberg'sches Stift, a hospital and +almshouses founded by a doctor, Johann C. Senckenberg (d. 1772). The +Royal Institute for experimental therapeutics (_Koenigl. Institut fuer +experimentelle Therapie_), moved to Frankfort in 1899, attracts numerous +foreign students, and is especially concerned with the study of +bacteriology and serums. + +_Bridges._--Seven bridges (of which two are railway) cross the Main. The +most interesting of these is the Alte Mainbruecke, a red sandstone +structure of fourteen arches, 815 ft. long, dating from the 14th +century. On it are a mill, a statue of Charlemagne and an iron crucifix +surmounted by a gilded cock. The latter commemorates, according to +tradition, the fowl which was the first living being to cross the bridge +and thus fell a prey to the devil, who in hope of a nobler victim had +sold his assistance to the architect. Antiquaries, however, assert that +it probably marks the spot where criminals were in olden times flung +into the river. Other bridges are the Obermainbruecke of five iron +arches, opened in 1878; an iron foot (suspension) bridge, the +Untermainbruecke; the Wilhelmsbruecke, a fine structure, which from 1849 +to 1890 served as a railway bridge and was then opened as a road bridge; +and two new iron bridges at Gutleuthof and Niederrad (below the city), +which carry the railway traffic from the south to the north bank of the +Main, where all lines converge in a central station of the Prussian +state railways. This station, which was built in 1883-1888 and has +replaced the three stations belonging to private companies, which +formerly stood in juxtaposition on the Anlagen (or promenades) near the +Mainzer Tor, lies some half-mile to the west. The intervening ground +upon which the railway lines and buildings stood was sold for building +sites, the sum obtained being more than sufficient to cover the cost of +the majestic central terminus (the third largest in the world), which, +in addition to spacious and handsome halls for passenger accommodation, +has three glass-covered spans of 180 ft. width each. Yet the exigencies +of traffic demand further extensions, and another large station was in +1909 in process of construction at the east end of the city, devised to +receive the local traffic of lines running eastward, while a through +station for the north to south traffic was projected on a site farther +west of the central terminus. + +Frankfort lies at the junction of lines of railway connecting it +directly with all the important cities of south and central Germany. +Here cross and unite the lines from Berlin to Basel, from Cologne to +Wuerzburg and Vienna, from Hamburg and Cassel, and from Dresden and +Leipzig to France and Switzerland. The river Main has been dredged so as +to afford heavy barge traffic with the towns of the upper Main and with +the Rhine, and cargo boats load and unload alongside its busy quays. A +well-devised system of electric tramways provides for local +communication within the city and with the outlying suburbs. + +_Trade, Commerce and Industries._--Frankfort has always been more of a +commercial than an industrial town, and though of late years it has +somewhat lost its pre-eminent position as a banking centre it has +counterbalanced the loss in increased industrial development. The +suburbs of Sachsenhausen and Bockenheim have particularly developed +considerable industrial activity, especially in publishing and printing, +brewing and the manufacture of quinine. Other sources of employment are +the cutting of hair for making hats, the production of fancy goods, +type, machinery, soap and perfumery, ready-made clothing, chemicals, +electro-technical apparatus, jewelry and metal wares. Market gardening +is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood and cider largely +manufactured. There are two great fairs held in the town,--the +Ostermesse, or spring fair, and the Herbstmesse, or autumn fair. The +former, which was the original nucleus of all the commercial prosperity +of the city, begins on the second Wednesday before Easter; and the +latter on the second Wednesday before the 8th of September. They last +three weeks, and the last day save one, called the _Nickelchestag_, is +distinguished by the influx of people from the neighbouring country. The +trade in leather is of great and growing importance. A horse fair has +been held twice a year since 1862 under the patronage of the +agricultural society; and the wool market was reinstituted in 1872 by +the German Trade Society (Deutscher Handelsverein). Frankfort has long +been famous as one of the principal banking centres of Europe, and is +now only second to Berlin, in this respect, among German cities, and it +is remarkable for the large business that is done in government stock. +In the 17th century the town was the seat of a great book-trade; but it +has long been distanced in this department by Leipzig. The _Frankfurter +Journal_ was founded in 1615, the _Postzeitung_ in 1616, the _Neue +Frankfurter Zeitung_ in 1859, and the _Frankfurter Presse_ in 1866. + +Of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in Frankfort is +that erected in 1858 in honour of the early German printers. It was +modelled by Ed. von der Launitz and executed by Herr von Kreis. The +statues of Gutenberg, Fust and Schoeffer form a group on the top; an +ornamented frieze presents medallions of a number of famous printers; +below these are figures representing the towns of Mainz, Strassburg, +Venice and Frankfort; and on the corners of the pedestal are allegorical +statues of theology, poetry, science and industry. The statue of Goethe +(1844) in the Goetheplatz is by Ludwig von Schwanthaler. The Schiller +statue, erected in 1863, is the work of a Frankfort artist, Johann +Dielmann. A monument in the Bockenheim Anlage, dated 1837, preserves the +memory of Guiollett, the burgomaster, to whom the town is mainly +indebted for the beautiful promenades which occupy the site of the old +fortifications; and similar monuments have been reared to Senckenberg +(1863), Schopenhauer, Klemens Brentano the poet and Samuel Thomas +Soemmerring (1755-1830), the anatomist and inventor of an electric +telegraph. In the Opernplatz is an equestrian statue of the emperor +Wilhelm I. by Buscher. + +_Cemeteries._--The new cemetery (opened in 1828) contains the graves of +Arthur Schopenhauer and Feuerbach, of Passavant the biographer of +Raphael, Ballenberger the artist, Hessemer the architect, Soemmerring, +and Johann Friedrich Boehmer the historian. The Bethmann vault attracts +attention by three bas-reliefs from the chisel of Thorwaldsen; and the +Reichenbach mausoleum is a vast pile designed by Hessemer at the command +of William II. of Hesse, and adorned with sculptures by Zwerger and von +der Lausitz. In the Jewish section, which is walled off from the rest of +the burying-ground, the most remarkable tombs are those of the +Rothschild family. + +_Parks._--In addition to the park in the south-western district, +Frankfort possesses two delightful pleasure grounds, which attract large +numbers of visitors, the Palmengarten in the west and the zoological +garden in the east of the city. The former is remarkable for the +collection of palms purchased in 1868 from the deposed duke Adolph of +Nassau. + +_Government._--The present municipal constitution of the city dates from +1867 and presents some points of difference from the ordinary Prussian +system. Bismarck was desirous of giving the city, in view of its former +freedom, a more liberal constitution than is usual in ordinary cases. +Formerly fifty-four representatives were elected, but provision was made +(in the constitution) for increasing the number, and they at present +number sixty-four, elected for six years. Every two years a third of the +number retire, but they are eligible for re-election. These sixty-four +representatives elect twenty town-councillors, ten of whom receive a +salary and ten do not. The chief burgomaster (Oberbuergermeister) is +nominated by the emperor for twelve years, and the second burgomaster +must receive the emperor's approval. + +Since 1885 the city has been supplied with water of excellent quality +from the Stadtwald, Goldstein and Hinkelstein, and the favourable +sanitary condition of the town is seen in the low death rate. + +_Population._--The population of Frankfort has steadily increased since +the beginning of the 19th century; it amounted in 1817 to 41,458; (1840) +55,269; (1864) 77,372; (1871) 59,265; (1875) 103,136; (1890) 179,985; +and (1905), including the incorporated suburban districts, 334,951, of +whom 175,909 were Protestants, 88,457 Roman Catholics and 21,974 Jews. + +_History._--Excavations around the cathedral have incontestably proved +that Frankfort-on-Main (_Trajectum ad Moenum_) was a settlement in Roman +times and was probably founded in the 1st century of the Christian era. +It may thus be accounted one of the earliest German--the so-called +"Roman"--towns. Numerous places in the valley of the Main are mentioned +in chronicles anterior to the time that Frankfort is first noticed. +Disregarding popular tradition, which connects the origin of the town +with a legend that Charlemagne, when retreating before the Saxons, was +safely conducted across the river by a doe, it may be asserted that the +first genuine historical notice of the town occurs in 793, when Einhard, +Charlemagne's biographer, tells us that he spent the winter in the villa +Frankonovurd. Next year there is mention more than once of a royal +palace here, and the early importance of the place is indicated by the +fact that in this year it was chosen as the seat of the ecclesiastical +council by which image-worship was condemned. The name Frankfort is also +found in several official documents of Charlemagne's reign; and from the +notices that occur in the early chronicles and charters it would appear +that the place was the most populous at least of the numerous villages +of the Main district. During the Carolingian period it was the seat of +no fewer than 16 imperial councils or colloquies. The town was probably +at first built on an island in the river. It was originally governed by +the royal officer or _actor dominicus_, and down even to the close of +the Empire it remained a purely imperial or royal town. It gradually +acquired various privileges, and by the close of the 14th century the +only mark of dependence was the payment of a yearly tax. Louis the Pious +dwelt more frequently at Frankfort than his father Charlemagne had done, +and about 823 he built himself a new palace, the basis of the later +Saalhof. In 822 and 823 two great diets were held in the palace, and at +the former there were present deputies from the eastern Slavs, the Avars +and the Normans. The place continued to be a favourite residence with +Louis the German, who died there in 876, and was the capital of the East +Frankish kingdom. By the rest of the Carolingian kings it was less +frequently visited, and this neglect was naturally greater during the +period of the Saxon and Salic emperors from 919 to 1137. Diets, however, +were held in the town in 951, 1015, 1069 and 1109, and councils in 1000 +and 1006. From a privilege of Henry IV., in 1074, granting the city of +Worms freedom from tax in their trade with several royal cities, it +appears that Frankfort was even then a place of some commercial +importance. + +Under the Hohenstaufens many brilliant diets were held within its walls. +That of 1147 saw, also, the first election of a German king at +Frankfort, in the person of Henry, son of Conrad III. But as the father +outlived the son, it was Frederick I., Barbarossa, who was actually the +first reigning king to be elected here (in 1152). With the beginning of +the 13th century the municipal constitution appears to have taken +definite shape. The chief official was the royal bailiff +(_Schultheiss_), who is first mentioned in 1193, and whose powers were +subsequently enlarged by the abolition, in 1219, of the office of the +royal _Vogt_ or _advocatus_. About this time a body of _Schoeffen_ +(_scabini_, jurats), fourteen in number, was formed to assist in the +control of municipal affairs, and with their appointment the first step +was taken towards civic representative government. Soon, however, the +activity of the _Schoeffen_ became specifically confined to the +determination of legal disputes, and in their place a new body +(_Collegium_) of counsellors--_Ratmannen_--also fourteen in number, was +appointed for the general administration of local matters. In 1311, the +two burgomasters, now chiefs of the municipality, take the place of the +royal _Schultheiss_. In the 13th century, the Frankfort Fair, which is +first mentioned in 1150, and the origin of which must have been long +anterior to that date, is referred to as being largely frequented. No +fewer than 10 new churches were erected in the years from 1220 to 1270. +It was about the same period, probably in 1240, that the Jews first +settled in the town. In the contest which Louis the Bavarian maintained +with the papacy Frankfort sided with the emperor, and it was +consequently placed under an interdict for 20 years from 1329 to 1349. +On Louis' death it refused to accept the papal conditions of pardon, and +only yielded to Charles IV., the papal nominee, when Guenther of +Schwarzburg thought it more prudent to abdicate in his favour. Charles +granted the city a full amnesty, and confirmed its liberties and +privileges. + +By the famous Golden Bull of 1356 Frankfort was declared the seat of the +imperial elections, and it still preserves an official contemporaneous +copy of the original document as the most precious of the eight imperial +bulls in its possession. From the date of the bull to the close of the +Empire Frankfort retained the position of "Wahlstadt," and only five of +the two-and-twenty monarchs who ruled during that period were elected +elsewhere. In 1388-1389 Frankfort assisted the South German towns in +their wars with the princes and nobles (the Staedtekrieg), and in a +consequent battle with the troops of the Palatinate, the town banner was +lost and carried to Kronberg, where it was long preserved as a trophy. +On peace being concluded in 1391, the town had to pay 12,562 florins, +and this brought it into great financial difficulties. In the course of +the next 50 years debt was contracted to the amount of 126,772 florins. +The diet at Worms in 1495 chose Frankfort as the seat of the newly +instituted imperial chamber, or "_Reichskammergericht_," and it was not +till 1527 that the chamber was removed to Spires. At the Reformation +Frankfort heartily joined the Protestant party, and in consequence it +was hardly treated both by the emperor Charles V. and by the archbishop +of Mainz. It refused to subscribe the Augsburg Recess, but at the same +time it was not till 1536 that it was persuaded to join the League of +Schmalkalden. On the failure of this confederation it opened its gates +to the imperial general Bueren on the 29th of December 1546, although he +had passed by the city, which he considered too strong for the forces +under his command. The emperor was merciful enough to leave it in +possession of its privileges, but he inflicted a fine of 80,000 gold +gulden, and until October 1547 the citizens had to endure the presence +of from 8000 to 10,000 soldiers. This resulted in a pestilence which not +only lessened the population, but threatened to give the death-blow to +the great annual fairs; and at the close of the war it was found that it +had cost the city no less than 228,931 gulden. In 1552 Frankfort was +invested for three weeks by Maurice of Saxony, who was still in arms +against the emperor Charles V., but it continued to hold out till peace +was concluded between the principal combatants. Between 1612 and 1616 +occurred the great Fettmilch insurrection, perhaps the most remarkable +episode in the internal history of Frankfort. The magistracy had been +acquiring more and more the character of an oligarchy; all power was +practically in the hands of a few closely-related families; and the +gravest peculation and malversation took place without hindrance. The +ordinary citizens were roused to assert their rights, and they found a +leader in Vincenz Fettmilch, who carried the contest to dangerous +excesses, but lacked ability to bring it to a successful issue. An +imperial commission was ultimately appointed, and the three principal +culprits and several of their associates were executed in 1616. It was +not till 1801 that the last mouldering head of the Fettmilch company +dropped unnoticed from the Rententurm, the old tower near the bridge. In +the words of Dr Kriegk, _Geschichte von Frankfurt_, (1871), the +insurrection completely destroyed the political power of the gilds, gave +new strength to the supremacy of the patriciate, and brought no further +advantage to the rest of the citizens than a few improvements in the +organization and administration of the magistracy. The Jews, who had +been attacked by the popular party, were solemnly reinstated by imperial +command in all their previous privileges, and received full compensation +for their losses. + +During the Thirty Years' War Frankfort did not escape. In 1631 Gustavus +Adolphus garrisoned it with 600 men, who remained in possession till +they were expelled four years later by the imperial general Lamboy. In +1792 the citizens had to pay 2,000,000 gulden to the French general +Custine; and in 1796 Kleber exacted 8,000,000 francs. The independence +of Frankfort was brought to an end in 1806, on the formation of the +Confederation of the Rhine; and in 1810 it was made the capital of the +grand-duchy of Frankfort, which had an area of 3215 sq. m. with 302,100 +inhabitants, and was divided into the four districts of Frankfort, +Aschaffenburg, Fulda and Hanau. On the reconstitution of Germany in 1815 +it again became a free city, and in the following year it was declared +the seat of the German Confederation. In April 1833 occurred what is +known as the Frankfort Insurrection (Frankfurter Attentat), in which a +number of insurgents led by Georg Bunsen attempted to break up the diet. +The city joined the German Zollverein in 1836. During the revolutionary +period of 1848 the people of Frankfort, where the united German +parliament held its sessions, took a chief part in political movements, +and the streets of the town were more than once the scene of conflict. +In the war of 1866 they were on the Austrian side. On the 16th of July +the Prussian troops, under General Vogel von Falkenstein, entered the +town, and on the 18th of October it was formally incorporated with the +Prussian state. A fine of 6,000,000 florins was exacted. In 1871 the +treaty which concluded the Franco-German War was signed in the Swan +Hotel by Prince Bismarck and Jules Favre, and it is consequently known +as the peace of Frankfort. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Rittweger, _Frankfurt im Jahre 1848_ (1898); R. Jung, + _Das historische Archiv der Stadt Frankfurt_ (1897); A. Horne, + _Geschichte von Frankfurt_ (4th ed., 1903); H. Grotefend, _Quellen zur + Frankfuerter Geschichte_ (Frankfort, 1884-1888); J. C. von Fichard, + _Die Entstehung der Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (Frankfort, 1819); G. L. + Kriegk, _Geschichte von Frankfurt_ (Frankfort, 1871); J. F. Boehmer, + _Urkundenbuch der Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (new ed., 1901); B. Weber, + _Zur Reformationsgeschichte der freien Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (1895); + O. Speyer, _Die Frankfurter Revolution 1612-1616_ (1883); and L. + Woerl, _Guide to Frankfort_ (Leipzig, 1898). + + + + +FRANKFORT-ON-ODER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Brandenburg, 50 m. S.E. from Berlin on the main line of railway to +Breslau and at the junction of lines to Cuestrin, Posen and Grossenhain. +Pop. (1905) 64,943. The town proper lies on the left bank of the river +Oder and is connected by a stone bridge (replacing the old historical +wooden structure) 900 ft. long, with the suburb of Damm. The town is +agreeably situated and has broad and handsome streets, among them the +"Linden," a spacious avenue. Above, on the western side, and partly +lying on the site of the old ramparts, is the residential quarter, +consisting mainly of villas and commanding a fine prospect of the Oder +valley. Between this suburb and the town lies the park, in which is a +monument to the poet Ewald Christian von Kleist, who died here of wounds +received in the battle of Kunersdorf. Among the more important public +buildings must be noticed the Evangelical Marienkirche (Oberkirche), a +handsome brick edifice of the 13th century with five aisles, the Roman +Catholic church, the Rathhaus dating from 1607, and bearing on its +southern gable the device of a member of the Hanseatic League, the +government offices and the theatre. The university of Frankfort, founded +in 1506 by Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was removed to Breslau in +1811, and the academical buildings are now occupied by a school. To +compensate it for the loss of its university, Frankfort-on-Oder was long +the seat of the court of appeal for the province, but of this it was +deprived in 1879. There are several handsome public monuments, notably +that to Duke Leopold of Brunswick, who was drowned in the Oder while +attempting to save life, on the 27th of April 1785. The town has a large +garrison, consisting of nearly all arms. Its industries are +considerable, including the manufacture of machinery, metal ware, +chemicals, paper, leather and sugar. Situated on the high road from +Berlin to Silesia, and having an extensive system of water communication +by means of the Oder and its canals to the Vistula and the Elbe, and +being an important railway centre, it has a lively export trade, which +is further fostered by its three annual fairs, held respectively at +_Reminiscere_ (the second Sunday in Lent), St Margaret's day and at +Martinmas. In the neighbourhood are extensive coal fields. + +Frankfort-on-the-Oder owes its origin and name to a settlement of +Franconian merchants here, in the 13th century, on land conquered by the +margrave of Brandenburg from the Wends. In 1253 it was raised to the +rank of a town by the margrave John I. and borrowed from Berlin the +Magdeburg civic constitution. In 1379 it received from King Sigismund, +then margrave of Brandenburg, the right to free navigation of the Oder; +and from 1368 to about 1450 it belonged to the Hanseatic League. The +university, which is referred to above, was opened by the elector +Joachim I. in 1506, was removed in 1516 to Kottbus and restored again to +Frankfort in 1539, at which date the Reformation was introduced. It was +dispersed during the Thirty Years' War and again restored by the Great +Elector, but finally transferred to Breslau in 1811. + +Frankfort has suffered much from the vicissitudes of war. In the 15th +century it successfully withstood sieges by the Hussites (1429 and +1432), by the Poles (1450) and by the duke of Sagan (1477). In the +Thirty Years' War it was successively taken by Gustavus Adolphus (1631), +by Wallenstein (1633), by the elector of Brandenburg (1634), and again +by the Swedes, who held it from 1640 to 1644. During the Seven Years' +War it was taken by the Russians (1759). In 1812 it was occupied by the +French, who remained till March 1813, when the Russians marched in. + + See K. R. Hausen, _Geschichte der Universitaet und Stadt Frankfurt_ + (1806), and Bieder und Gurnik, _Bilder aus der Geschichte der Stadt + Frankfurt-an-der-Oder_ (1898). + + + + +FRANKINCENSE,[1] or OLIBANUM[2] (Gr. [Greek: libanotos], later [Greek: +thyos]; Lat., _tus_ or _thus_; Heb., _lebonah_;[3] Ar., _luban_;[4] +Turk., _ghyunluk_; Hind., _ganda-birosa_[5]), a gum-resin obtained from +certain species of trees of the genus _Boswellia_, and natural order +_Burseraceae_. The members of the genus are possessed of the following +characters:--Bark often papyraceous; leaves deciduous, compound, +alternate and imparipinnate, with leaflets serrate or entire; flowers in +racemes or panicles, white, green, yellowish or pink, having a small +persistent, 5-dentate calyx, 5 petals, 10 stamens, a sessile 3 to +5-chambered ovary, a long style, and a 3-lobed stigma; fruit trigonal or +pentagonal; and seed compressed. Sir George Birdwood (_Trans. Lin. Soc._ +xxvii., 1871) distinguishes five species of _Boswellia_: (A) _B. +thurifera_, Colebr. (_B. glabra_ and _B. serrata_, Roxb.), indigenous to +the mountainous tracts of central India and the Coromandel coast, and +_B. papyrifera_ (_Ploesslea floribunda_, Endl.) of Abyssinia, which, +though both thuriferous, are not known to yield any of the olibanum of +commerce; and (B) _B. Frereana_ (see ELEMI, vol. x. p. 259), _B. +Bhua-Dajiana_, and _B. Carterii_, the "Yegaar," "Mohr Add," and "Mohr +Madow" of the Somali country, in East Africa, the last species including +a variety, the "Maghrayt d'Sheehaz" of Hadramaut, Arabia, all of which +are sources of true frankincense or olibanum. The trees on the Somali +coast are described by Captain G. B. Kempthorne as growing, without +soil, out of polished marble rocks, to which they are attached by a +thick oval mass of substance resembling a mixture of lime and mortar: +the purer the marble the finer appears to be the growth of the tree. The +young trees, he states, furnish the most valuable gum, the older +yielding merely a clear glutinous fluid resembling copal varnish.[6] To +obtain the frankincense a deep incision is made in the trunk of the +tree, and below it a narrow strip of bark 5 in. in length is peeled off. +When the milk-like juice ("spuma pinguis," Pliny) which exudes has +hardened by exposure to the atmosphere, the incision is deepened. In +about three months the resin has attained the required degree of +consistency. The season for gathering lasts from May until the first +rains in September. The large clear globules are scraped off into +baskets, and the inferior quality that has run down the tree is +collected separately. The coast of south Arabia is yearly visited by +parties of Somalis, who pay the Arabs for the privilege of collecting +frankincense.[7] In the interior of the country about the plain of +Dhofar,[8] during the south-west monsoon, frankincense and other gums +are gathered by the Beni Gurrah Bedouins, and might be obtained by them +in much larger quantities; their lawlessness, however, and the lack of a +safe place of exchange or sale are obstacles to the development of +trade. (See C. Y. Ward, _The Gulf of Aden Pilot_, p. 117, 1863.) Much as +formerly in the region of Sakhalites in Arabia (the tract between Ras +Makalla and Ras Agab),[9] described by Arrian, so now on the sea-coast +of the Somali country, the frankincense when collected is stored in +heaps at various stations. Thence, packed in sheep- and goat-skins, in +quantities of 20 to 40 lb., it is carried on camels to Berbera, for +shipment either to Aden, Makalla and other Arabian ports, or directly to +Bombay.[10] At Bombay, like gum-acacia, it is assorted, and is then +packed for re-exportation to Europe, China and elsewhere.[11] Arrian +relates that it was an import of Barbarike on the Sinthus (Indus). The +idea held by several writers, including Niebuhr, that frankincense was a +product of India, would seem to have originated in a confusion of that +drug with benzoin and other odoriferous substances, and also in the sale +of imported frankincense with the native products of India. The gum +resin of _Boswellia thurifera_ was described by Colebrooke (in _Asiatick +Researches_, ix. 381), and after him by Dr J. Fleming (Ib. xi. 158), as +true frankincense, or olibanum; from this, however, it differs in its +softness, and tendency to melt into a mass[12] (Birdwood, _loc. cit._, +p. 146). It is sold in the village bazaars of Khandeish in India under +the name of _Dup-Salai_, i.e. incense of the "Salai tree"; and according +to Mr F. Porter Smith, M.B. (_Contrib. towards the Mat. Med. and Nat. +Hist, of China_, p. 162, Shanghai, 1871), is used as incense in China. +The last authority also mentions olibanum as a reputed natural product +of China. Bernhard von Breydenbach,[13] Ausonius, Florus and others, +arguing, it would seem, from its Hebrew and Greek names, concluded that +olibanum came from Mount Lebanon; and Chardin (_Voyage en Perse_, &c., +1711) makes the statement that the frankincense tree grows in the +mountains of Persia, particularly Caramania. + +Frankincense, or olibanum, occurs in commerce in semi-opaque, round, +ovate or oblong tears or irregular lumps, which are covered externally +with a white dust, the result of their friction against one another. It +has an amorphous internal structure, a dull fracture; is of a yellow to +yellowish-brown hue, the purer varieties being almost colourless, or +possessing a greenish tinge, and has a somewhat bitter aromatic taste, +and a balsamic odour, which is developed by heating. Immersed in alcohol +it becomes opaque, and with water it yields an emulsion. It contains +about 72% of resin soluble in alcohol (Kurbatow); a large proportion of +gum soluble in water, and apparently identical with gum arabic; and a +small quantity of a colourless inflammable essential oil, one of the +constituents of which is the body oliben, C10H16. Frankincense burns +with a bright white flame, leaving an ash consisting mainly of calcium +carbonate, the remainder being calcium phosphate, and the sulphate, +chloride and carbonate of potassium (Braconnot).[14] Good frankincense, +Pliny tells us, is recognized by its whiteness, size, brittleness and +ready inflammability. That which occurs in globular drops is, he says, +termed "male frankincense"; the most esteemed, he further remarks, is in +breast-shaped drops, formed each by the union of two tears.[15] The best +frankincense, as we learn from Arrian,[16] was formerly exported from +the neighbourhood of Cape Elephant in Africa (the modern Ras Fiel); and +A. von Kremer, in his description of the commerce of the Red Sea +(_Aegypten_, &c., p. 185, ii. Theil, Leipzig, 1863), observes that the +African frankincense, called by the Arabs "asli," is of twice the value +of the Arabian "luban." Captain S. B. Miles (_loc. cit._, p. 64) states +that the best kind of frankincense, known to the Somali as "bedwi" or +"sheheri," comes from the trees "Mohr Add" and "Mohr Madow" (_vide +supra_), and from a taller species of _Boswellia_, the "Boido," and is +sent to Bombay for exportation to Europe; and that an inferior "mayeti," +the produce of the "Yegaar," is exported chiefly to Jeddah and Yemen +ports.[17] The latter may possibly be what Niebuhr alludes to as "Indian +frankincense."[18] Garcias da Horta, in asserting the Arabian origin of +the drug, remarks that the term "Indian" is often applied by the Arabs +to a dark-coloured variety.[19] + +According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xiv. 1; cf. Ovid, _Fasti_ i. 337 sq.), +frankincense was not sacrificially employed in Trojan times. It was used +by the ancient Egyptians in their religious rites, but, as Herodotus +tells us (ii. 86), not in embalming. It constituted a fourth part of the +Jewish incense of the sanctuary (Ex. xxx. 34), and is frequently +mentioned in the Pentateuch. With other spices it was stored in a great +chamber of the house of God at Jerusalem (1 Chron. ix. 29, Neh. xiii. +5-9). On the sacrificial use and import of frankincense and similar +substances see INCENSE. + +In the Red Sea regions frankincense is valued not only for its sweet +odour when burnt, but as a masticatory; and blazing lumps of it are not +infrequently used for illumination instead of oil lamps. Its fumes are +an excellent insectifuge. As a medicine it was in former times in high +repute. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxv. 82) mentions it as an antidote to +hemlock. Avicenna (ed. Plempii, lib. ii. p. 161, Lovanii, 1658, fol.) +recommends it for tumours, ulcers of the head and ears, affections of +the breast, vomiting, dysentery and fevers. In the East frankincense has +been found efficacious as an external application in carbuncles, blind +boils and gangrenous sores, and as an internal agent is given in +gonorrhoea. In China it was an old internal remedy for leprosy and +struma, and is accredited with stimulant, tonic, sedative, astringent +and vulnerary properties. It is not used in modern medicine, being +destitute of any special virtues. (See Waring, _Pharm. of India_, p. +443, &c.; and F. Porter Smith, _op. cit._, p. 162.) + +Common frankincense or thus, _Abietis resina_, is the term applied to a +resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the Norway spruce fir, +_Abies excelsa_, D.C.; when melted in hot water and strained it +constitutes "Burgundy pitch," _Pix abietina_. The concreted turpentine +obtained in the United States by making incisions in the trunk of a +species of pine, _Pinus australis_, is also so designated. It is +commercially known as "scrape," and is similar to the French "galipot" +or "barras." Common frankincense is an ingredient in some ointments and +plasters, and on account of its pleasant odour when burned has been used +in incense as a substitute for olibanum. (See Flueckiger and Hanbury, +_Pharmacographia_.) The "black frankincense oil" of the Turks is stated +by Hanbury (_Science Papers_, p. 142, 1876) to be liquid storax. + (F. H. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Stephen Skinner, M.D. (Etymologicon linguae Anglicanae, Lond., + 1671), gives the derivation: "Frankincense, Thus, q.d. Incensum (i.e. + Thus Libere) seu Liberaliter, ut in sacris officiis par est, + adolendum." + + [2] "Sic _olibanum_ dixere pro thure ex Graeco [Greek: o libanos]" + (Salmasius, C. S. _Plinianae exercitationes_, t. ii. p. 926, b. F., + Traj. ad Rhen., 1689 fol.). So also Fuchs (Op. didact. pars. ii. p. + 42, 1604 fol.), "Officinis non sine risu eruditorum, Graeco articulo + adjecto, _Olibanus_ vocatur." The term _olibano_ was used in + ecclesiastical Latin as early as the pontificate of Benedict IX., in + the 11th century. (See Ferd. Ughellus, _Italia sacra_, tom. i. 108, + D., Ven., 1717 fol.) + + [3] So designated from its whiteness (J. G. Stuckius, _Sacror. et + sacrific. gent. descrip._, p. 79, Lugd. Bat., 1695, fol.; Kitto, + _Cycl. Bibl. Lit._ ii. p. 806, 1870); cf. _Laben_, the Somali name + for cream (R. F. Burton, _First Footsteps in E. Africa_, p. 178, + 1856). + + [4] Written _Louan_ by Garcias da Horta (_Aromat. et simpl. + medicament. hist., C. Clusii Atrebatis Exoticorum lib. sept._, p. + 157, 1605, fol.), and stated to have been derived by the Arabs from + the Greek name, the term less commonly used by them being _Conder_: + cf. Sanskrit _Kunda_. According to Colebrooke (in _Asiatick Res._ ix. + p. 379, 1807), the Hindu writers on Materia Medica use for the resin + of _Boswellia thurifera_ the designation _Cunduru_. + + [5] A term applied also to the resinous exudation of _Pinus + longifolia_ (see Dr E. J. Waring, _Pharmacopoeia of India_, p. 52, + Lond., 1868). + + [6] See "Appendix," vol. i. p. 419 of Sir W. C. Harris's _Highland of + Aethiopia_ (2nd ed., Lond., 1844); and _Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc._ + xiii. (1857), p. 136. + + [7] Cruttenden, _Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc._ vii. (1846), p. 121; S. B. + Miles, J. Geog. Soc. (1872). + + [8] Or Dhafar. The incense of "Dofar" is alluded to by Camoens, _Os + Lusiadas_, x. 201. + + [9] H. J. Carter, "Comparative Geog. of the South-East Coast of + Arabia," in _J. Bombay Branch of R. Asiatic Soc._ iii. (Jan. 1851), + p. 296; and Mueller, _Geog. Graeci Minores_, i. p. 278 (Paris, 1855). + + [10] J. Vaughan, _Pharm. Journ._ xii. (1853) pp. 227-229; and Ward, + _op. cit._ p. 97. + + [11] Pereira, _Elem. of Mat. Med._ ii. pt. 2, p. 380 (4th ed., 1847). + + [12] "_Boswellia thurifera_," ... says Waring (_Pharm. of India_, p. + 52), "has been thought to yield East Indian olibanum, but there is no + reliable evidence of its so doing." + + [13] "Libanus igitur est mons redolentie & summe aromaticitatis. nam + ibi herbe odorifere crescunt. ibi etiam arbores thurifere coalescunt + quarum gummi electum olibanum a medicis nuncupatur."--_Perigrinatio_, + p. 53 (1502, fol.). + + [14] See, on the chemistry of frankincense, Braconnot, _Ann. de + chimie_, lxviii. (1808) pp. 60-69; Johnston, _Phil. Trans_. (1839), + pp. 301-305; J. Stenhouse, _Ann. der Chem. und Pharm_. xxxv. (1840) + p. 306; and A. Kurbatow, _Zeitsch. fuer Chem_. (1871), p. 201. + + [15] "Praecipua autem gratia est mammoso, cum haerente lacryma priore + consecuta alia miscuit se" (_Nat. Hist._ xii. 32). One of the Chinese + names for frankincense, _Ju-hiang_, "milk-perfume," is explained by + the _Pen Ts'au_ (xxxiv. 45), a Chinese work, as being derived from + the nipple-like form of its drops. (See E. Bretschneider, _On the + Knowledge possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs_, &c., p. 19, + Lond., 1871.) + + [16] _The Voyage of Nearchus, loc. cit._ + + [17] Vaughan (_Pharm. Journ._ xii. 1853) speaks of the Arabian Luban, + commonly called _Morbat_ or _Shaharree Luban_, as realizing higher + prices in the market than any of the qualities exported from Africa. + The incense of "Esher," i.e. Shihr or Shehr, is mentioned by Marco + Polo, as also by Barbosa. (See Yule, _op. cit._ ii. p. 377.) J. + Raymond Wellsted (_Travels to the City of the Caliphs_, p. 173, + Lond., 1840) distinguishes two kinds of frankincense--"_Meaty_," + selling at $4 per cwt., and an inferior article fetching 20% less. + + [18] "Es scheint, dass selber die Araber ihr eignes Raeuchwerk nicht + hoch schaetzen; denn die Vornehmen in Jemen brauchen gemeiniglich + indianisches Raeuchwerk, ja eine grosse Menge Mastix von der Insel + Scio" (_Beschreibung von Arabien_, p. 143, Kopenh., 1772). + + [19] "De Arabibus minus mirum, qui nigricantem colorem, quo Thus + Indicum praeditum esse vult Dioscorides [lib. i. c. 70], Indum + plerumque vocent, ut ex Myrobalano nigro quem Indum appellant, patet" + (_op. sup. cit._ p. 157). + + + + +FRANKING, a term used for the right of sending letters or postal +packages free (Fr. _franc_) of charge. The privilege was claimed by the +House of Commons in 1660 in "a Bill for erecting and establishing a Post +Office," their demand being that all letters addressed to or sent by +members during the session should be carried free. The clause embodying +this claim was struck out by the Lords, but with the proviso in the Act +as passed for the free carriage of all letters to and from the king and +the great officers of state, and also the single inland letters of the +members of that present parliament during that session only. It seems, +however, that the practice was tolerated until 1764, when by an act +dealing with postage it was legalized, every peer and each member of the +House of Commons being allowed to send free ten letters a day, not +exceeding an ounce in weight, to any part of the United Kingdom, and to +receive fifteen. The act did not restrict the privilege to letters +either actually written by or to the member, and thus the right was very +easily abused, members sending and receiving letters for friends, all +that was necessary being the signature of the peer or M.P. in the corner +of the envelope. Wholesale franking grew usual, and M.P.'s supplied +their friends with envelopes already signed to be used at any time. In +1837 the scandal had become so great that stricter regulations came into +force. The franker had to write the full address, to which he had to add +his name, the post-town and the day of the month; the letter had to be +posted on the day written or the following day at the latest, and in a +post-town not more than 20 m. from the place where the peer or M.P. was +then living. On the 10th of January 1840 parliamentary franking was +abolished on the introduction of the uniform penny rate. + +In the United States the franking privilege was first granted in January +1776 to the soldiers engaged in the American War of Independence. The +right was gradually extended till it included nearly all officials and +members of the public service. By special acts the privilege was +bestowed on presidents and their widows. By an act of the 3rd of March +1845, franking was limited to the president, vice-president, members and +delegates in Congress and postmasters, other officers being required to +keep quarterly accounts of postage and pay it from their contingent +funds. In 1851 free exchange of newspapers was re-established. By an act +of the 3rd of March 1863 the privilege was granted the president and his +private secretary, the vice-president, chiefs of executive departments, +such heads of bureaus and chief clerks as might be designated by the +postmaster-general for official letters only; senators and +representatives in Congress for all correspondence, senders of petitions +to either branch of the legislature, and to publishers of newspapers for +their exchanges. There was a limit as to weight. Members of Congress +could also frank, in matters concerning the federal department of +agriculture, "seeds, roots and cuttings," the weight to be fixed by the +postmaster-general. This act remained in force till the 31st of January +1873, when franking was abolished. Since 1875, by sundry acts, franking +for official correspondence, government publications, seeds, &c., has +been allowed to congressmen, ex-congressmen (for 9 months after the +close of their term), congressmen-elect and other government officials. +By special acts of 1881, 1886, 1902, 1909, respectively, the franking +privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents Garfield, Grant, +McKinley and Cleveland. + + + + +FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST (1810-1894), Austrian poet. He took part in the +revolution of 1848, and his poems on liberty had considerable vogue. His +lyrics are among his best work. He was secretary of the Jewish community +in Vienna, and did a lasting service to education by his visit to the +Orient in 1856. He founded the first modern Jewish school (the Von +Laemmel Schule) in Jerusalem. His brilliant volumes _Nach Jerusalem_ +describing his eastern tour have been translated into English, as is the +case with many of his poems. His collected poems appeared in three +volumes in 1880. (I. A.) + + + + +FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD (1825-1899), English chemist, was born at +Churchtown, near Lancaster, on the 18th of January 1825. After attending +the grammar school at Lancaster he spent six years as an apprentice to a +druggist in that town. In 1845 he went to London and entered Lyon +Playfair's laboratory, subsequently working under R. W. Bunsen at +Marburg. In 1847 he was appointed science-master at Queenwood school, +Hampshire, where he first met J. Tyndall, and in 1851 first professor of +chemistry at Owens College, Manchester. Returning to London six years +later he became lecturer in chemistry at St Bartholomew's hospital, and +in 1863 professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. From an early +age he engaged in original research with great success. + +Analytical problems, such as the isolation of certain organic radicals, +attracted his attention to begin with, but he soon turned to synthetical +studies, and he was only about twenty-five years of age when an +investigation, doubtless suggested by the work of his master, Bunsen, on +cacodyl, yielded the interesting discovery of the organo-metallic +compounds. The theoretical deductions which he drew from the +consideration of these bodies were even more interesting and important +than the bodies themselves. Perceiving a molecular isonomy between them +and the inorganic compounds of the metals from which they may be formed, +he saw their true molecular type in the oxygen, sulphur or chlorine +compounds of those metals, from which he held them to be derived by the +substitution of an organic group for the oxygen, sulphur, &c. In this +way they enabled him to overthrow the theory of conjugate compounds, and +they further led him in 1852 to publish the conception that the atoms of +each elementary substance have a definite saturation capacity, so that +they can only combine with a certain limited number of the atoms of +other elements. The theory of valency thus founded has dominated the +subsequent development of chemical doctrine, and forms the groundwork +upon which the fabric of modern structural chemistry reposes. + +In applied chemistry Frankland's great work was in connexion with +water-supply. Appointed a member of the second royal commission on the +pollution of rivers in 1868, he was provided by the government with a +completely-equipped laboratory, in which, for a period of six years, he +carried on the inquiries necessary for the purposes of that body, and +was thus the means of bringing to light an enormous amount of valuable +information respecting the contamination of rivers by sewage, +trade-refuse, &c., and the purification of water for domestic use. In +1865, when he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann at the School of Mines, he +undertook the duty of making monthly reports to the registrar-general on +the character of the water supplied to London, and these he continued +down to the end of his life. At one time he was an unsparing critic of +its quality, but in later years he became strongly convinced of its +general excellence and wholesomeness. His analyses were both chemical +and bacteriological, and his dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue +for the former at the time of his appointment caused him to spend two +years in devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 he passed a +night on the very top of Mont Blanc in company with John Tyndall. One of +the purposes of the expedition was to discover whether the rate of +combustion of a candle varies with the density of the atmosphere in +which it is burnt, a question which was answered in the negative. Other +observations made by Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of +a series of experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed +that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was thereby +led to investigate the effect produced on luminous flames by varying the +pressure of the atmosphere in which they are burning. He found that +pressure increases luminosity, so that hydrogen, for example, the flame +of which in normal circumstances gives no light, burns with a luminous +flame under a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference +he drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only factor +that determines the light-giving power of a flame. Further, he showed +that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas resembles that of an +incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a gradual change in the +spectrum of an incandescent gas under increasing pressure, the sharp +lines observable when it is extremely attenuated broadening out to +nebulous bands as the pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous +spectrum as the gas approaches a density comparable with that of the +liquid state. An application of these results to solar physics in +conjunction with Sir Norman Lockyer led to the view that at least the +external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the liquid or +solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours. Frankland and +Lockyer were also the discoverers of helium. In 1868 they noticed in the +solar spectrum a bright yellow line which did not correspond to any +substance then known, and which they therefore attributed to the then +hypothetical element, helium. + +Sir Edward Frankland, who was made a K.C.B. in 1897, died on the 9th of +August 1899 while on a holiday at Golaa, Gudbrandsdalen, Norway. + + A memorial lecture delivered by Professor H. E. Armstrong before the + London Chemical Society on the 31st of October 1901 contained many + personal details of Frankland's life, together with a full discussion + of his scientific work; and a volume of _Autobiographical Sketches_ + was printed for private circulation in 1902. His original papers, down + to 1877, were collected and published in that year as _Experimental + Researches in Pure, Applied and Physical Chemistry_. + + + + +FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790), American diplomat, statesman and +scientist, was born on the 17th of January 1706 in a house in Milk +Street, opposite the Old South church, Boston, Massachusetts. He was the +tenth son of Josiah Franklin, and the eighth child and youngest son of +ten children borne by Abiah Folger, his father's second wife. The elder +Franklin was born at Ecton in Northamptonshire, England, where the +strongly Protestant Franklin family may be traced back for nearly four +centuries. He had married young and had migrated from Banbury to Boston, +Massachusetts, in 1685. Benjamin could not remember when he did not know +how to read, and when eight years old he was sent to the Boston grammar +school, being destined by his father for the church as a tithe of his +sons. He spent a year there and a year in a school for writing and +arithmetic, and then at the age of ten he was taken from school to +assist his father in the business of a tallow-chandler and soapboiler. +In his thirteenth year he was apprenticed to his half-brother James, who +was establishing himself in the printing business, and who in 1721 +started the _New England Courant_, one of the earliest newspapers in +America. + +Benjamin's tastes had at first been for the sea rather than the pulpit; +now they inclined rather to intellectual than to other pleasures. At an +early age he had made himself familiar with _The Pilgrim's Progress_, +with Locke, _On the Human Understanding_, and with a volume of _The +Spectator_. Thanks to his father's excellent advice, he gave up writing +doggerel verse (much of which had been printed by his brother and sold +on the streets) and turned to prose composition. His success in +reproducing articles he had read in _The Spectator_ led him to write an +article for his brother's paper, which he slipped under the door of the +printing shop with no name attached, and which was printed and attracted +some attention. After repeated successes of the same sort Benjamin threw +off his disguise and contributed regularly to the _Courant_. When, after +various journalistic indiscretions, James Franklin in 1722 was forbidden +to publish the _Courant_, it appeared with Benjamin's name as that of +the publisher and was received with much favour, chiefly because of the +cleverness of his articles signed "Dr Janus," which, like those +previously signed "Mistress Silence Dogood," gave promise of "Poor +Richard." But Benjamin's management of the paper, and particularly his +free-thinking, displeased the authorities; the relations of the two +brothers gradually grew unfriendly, possibly, as Benjamin thought, +because of his brother's jealousy of his superior ability; and Benjamin +determined to quit his brother's employ and to leave New England. He +made his way first to New York City, and then (October 1723) to +Philadelphia, where he got employment with a printer named Samuel +Keimer.[1] + +A rapid composer and a workman full of resource, Franklin was soon +recognized as the master spirit of the shop. Sir William Keith +(1680-1749), governor of the province, urged him to start in business +for himself, and when Franklin had unsuccessfully appealed to his father +for the means to do so, Keith promised to furnish him with what he +needed for the equipment of a new printing office and sent him to +England to buy the materials. Keith had repeatedly promised to send a +letter of credit by the ship on which Franklin sailed, but when the +Channel was reached and the ship's mails were examined no such letter +was found. Franklin reached London in December 1724, and found +employment first at Palmer's, a famous printing house in Bartholomew +Close, and afterwards at Watts's Printing House. At Palmer's he had set +up a second edition of Wollaston's _Religion of Nature Delineated_. To +refute this book and to prove that there could be no such thing as +religion, he wrote and printed a small pamphlet, _A Dissertation on +Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain_, which brought him some +curious acquaintances, and of which he soon became thoroughly ashamed. +After a year and a half in London, Franklin was persuaded by a friend +named Denham, a Quaker merchant, to return with him to America and +engage in mercantile business; he accordingly gave up printing, but a +few days before sailing he received a tempting offer to remain and give +lessons in swimming--his feats as a swimmer having given him +considerable reputation--and he says that he might have consented "had +the overtures been sooner made." He reached Philadelphia in October +1726, but a few months later Denham died, and Franklin was induced by +large wages to return to his old employer Keimer; with Keimer he +quarrelled repeatedly, thinking himself ill used and kept only to train +apprentices until they could in some degree take his place. In 1728 +Franklin and Hugh Meredith, a fellow-worker at Keimer's, set up in +business for themselves; the capital being furnished by Meredith's +father. In 1730 the partnership was dissolved, and Franklin, through the +financial assistance of two friends, secured the sole management of the +printing house. In September 1729 he bought at a merely nominal price +_The Pennsylvania Gazette_, a weekly newspaper which Keimer had started +nine months before to defeat a similar project of Franklin's, and which +Franklin conducted until 1765. Franklin's superior management of the +paper, his new type, "some spirited remarks" on the controversy between +the Massachusetts assembly and Governor Burnet, brought his paper into +immediate notice, and his success both as a printer and as a journalist +was assured and complete. In 1731 he established in Philadelphia one of +the earliest circulating libraries in America (often said to have been +the earliest), and in 1732 he published the first of his Almanacks, +under the pseudonym of Richard Saunders. These "Poor Richard's +Almanacks" were issued for the next twenty-five years with remarkable +success, the annual sale averaging 10,000 copies, and far exceeding the +sale of any other publication in the colonies. + +Beginning in 1733 Franklin taught himself enough French, Italian, +Spanish and Latin to read these languages with some ease. In 1736 he was +chosen clerk of the General Assembly, and served in this capacity until +1751. In 1737 he had been appointed postmaster at Philadelphia, and +about the same time he organized the first police force and fire company +in the colonies; in 1749, after he had written _Proposals Relating to +the Education of Youth in Pensilvania_, he and twenty-three other +citizens of Philadelphia formed themselves into an association for the +purpose of establishing an academy, which was opened in 1751, was +chartered in 1753, and eventually became the University of Pennsylvania; +in 1727 he organized a debating club, the "Junto," in Philadelphia, and +later he was one of the founders of the American Philosophical Society +(1743; incorporated 1780); he took the lead in the organization of a +militia force, and in the paving of the city streets, improved the +method of street lighting, and assisted in the founding of a city +hospital (1751); in brief, he gave the impulse to nearly every measure +or project for the welfare and prosperity of Philadelphia undertaken in +his day. In 1751 he became a member of the General Assembly of +Pennsylvania, in which he served for thirteen years. In 1753 he and +William Hunter were put in charge of the post service of the colonies, +which he brought in the next ten years to a high state of efficiency and +made a financial success; this position he held until 1774. He visited +nearly every post office in the colonies and increased the mail service +between New York and Philadelphia from once to three times a week in +summer, and from twice a month to once a week in winter. When war with +France appeared imminent in 1754, Franklin was sent to the Albany +Convention, where he submitted his plan for colonial union (see ALBANY, +N.Y.). When the home government sent over General Edward Braddock[2] +with two regiments of British troops, Franklin undertook to secure the +requisite number of horses and waggons for the march against Ft. +Duquesne, and became personally responsible for payment to the +Pennsylvanians who furnished them. Notwithstanding the alarm occasioned +by Braddock's defeat, the old quarrel between the proprietors of +Pennsylvania and the assembly prevented any adequate preparations for +defence; "with incredible meanness" the proprietors had instructed their +governors to approve no act for levying the necessary taxes, unless the +vast estates of the proprietors were by the same act exempted. So great +was the confidence in Franklin in this emergency that early in 1756 the +governor of Pennsylvania placed him in charge of the north-western +frontier of the province, with power to raise troops, issue commissions +and erect blockhouses; and Franklin remained in the wilderness for over +a month, superintending the building of forts and watching the Indians. +In February 1757 the assembly, "finding the proprietary obstinately +persisted in manacling their deputies with instructions inconsistent not +only with the privileges of the people, but with the service of the +crown, resolv'd to petition the king against them," and appointed +Franklin as their agent to present the petition. He arrived in London on +the 27th of July 1757, and shortly afterwards, when, at a conference +with Earl Granville, president of the council, the latter declared that +"the King is the legislator of the colonies," Franklin in reply declared +that the laws of the colonies were to be made by their assemblies, to be +passed upon by the king, and when once approved were no longer subject +to repeal or amendment by the crown. As the assemblies, said he, could +not make permanent laws without the king's consent, "neither could he +make a law for them without theirs." This opposition of views distinctly +raised the issue between the home government and the colonies. As to the +proprietors Franklin succeeded in 1760 in securing an understanding that +the assembly should pass an act exempting from taxation the _unsurveyed_ +waste lands of the Penn estate, the surveyed waste lands being assessed +at the usual rate for other property of that description. Thus the +proprietors finally acknowledged the right of the assembly to tax their +estates. + +The success of Franklin's first foreign mission was, therefore, +substantial and satisfactory. During this sojourn of five years in +England he had made many valuable friends outside of court and political +circles, among whom Hume, Robertson and Adam Smith were conspicuous. In +1759, for his literary and more particularly his scientific attainments, +he received the freedom of the city of Edinburgh and the degree of +doctor of laws from the university of St Andrews. He had been made a +Master of Arts at Harvard and at Yale in 1753, and at the college of +William and Mary in 1756; and in 1762 he received the degree of D.C.L. +at Oxford. While in England he had made active use of his remarkable +talent for pamphleteering. In the clamour for peace following the death +of George II. (25th of October 1760), he was for a vigorous prosecution +of the war with France; he had written what purported to be a chapter +from an old book written by a Spanish Jesuit, _On the Meanes of +Disposing the Enemie to Peace_, which had a great effect; and in the +spring of 1760 there had been published a more elaborate paper written +by Franklin with the assistance of Richard Jackson, agent of +Massachusetts and Connecticut in London, entitled _The Interest of Great +Britain Considered with Regard to Her Colonies, and the Acquisitions of +Canada and Guadeloupe_ (1760). This pamphlet answered the argument that +it would be unsafe to keep Canada because of the added strength that +would thus be given to any possible movement for independence in the +English colonies, by urging that so long as Canada remained French there +could be no safety for the English colonies in North America, nor any +permanent peace in Europe. Tradition reports that this pamphlet had +considerable weight in determining the ministry to retain Canada. + +Franklin sailed again for America in August 1762, hoping to be able to +settle down in quiet and devote the remainder of his life to experiments +in physics. This quiet was interrupted, however, by the "Paxton +Massacre" (Dec. 14, 1763)--the slaughter of a score of Indians +(children, women and old men) at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, by some young +rowdies from the town of Paxton, who then marched upon Philadelphia to +kill a few Christian Indians there. Franklin, appealed to by the +governor, raised a troop sufficient to frighten away the "Paxton boys," +and for the moment there seemed a possibility of an understanding +between Franklin and the proprietors. But the question of taxing the +estates of the proprietors came up in a new form, and a petition from +the assembly was drawn by Franklin, requesting the king "to resume the +government" of Pennsylvania. In the autumn election of 1764 the +influence of the proprietors was exerted against Franklin, and by an +adverse majority of 25 votes in 4000 he failed to be re-elected to the +assembly. The new assembly sent Franklin again to England as its special +agent to take charge of another petition for a change of government, +which, however, came to nothing. Matters of much greater consequence +soon demanded Franklin's attention. + +Early in 1764 Lord Grenville had informed the London agents of the +American colonies that he proposed to lay a portion of the burden left +by the war with France upon the shoulders of the colonists by means of a +stamp duty, unless some other tax equally productive and less +inconvenient were proposed. The natural objection of the colonies, as +voiced, for example, by the assembly of Pennsylvania, was that it was a +cruel thing to tax colonies already taxed beyond their strength, and +surrounded by enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defence, +and that it was an indignity that they should be taxed by a parliament +in which they were not represented; at the same time the Pennsylvania +assembly recognized it as "their duty to grant aid to the crown, +according to their abilities, whenever required of them in the usual +manner." To prevent the introduction of the Stamp Act, which he +characterized as "the mother of mischief," Franklin used every effort, +but the bill was easily passed, and it was thought that the colonists +would soon be reconciled to it. Because he, too, thought so, and because +he recommended John Hughes, a merchant of Philadelphia, for the office +of distributor of stamps, Franklin himself was denounced--he was even +accused of having planned the Stamp Act--and his family in Philadelphia +was in danger of being mobbed. Of Franklin's examination, in February +1766, by the House in Committee of the Whole, as to the effects of the +Stamp Act, Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined +by a parcel of schoolboys, and George Whitefield said: "Dr Franklin has +gained immortal honour by his behaviour at the bar of the House. His +answer was always found equal to the questioner. He stood unappalled, +gave pleasure to his friends and did honour to his country."[3] Franklin +compared the position of the colonies to that of Scotland in the days +before the union, and in the same year (1766) audaciously urged a +similar union with the colonies before it was too late. The knowledge of +colonial affairs gained from Franklin's testimony, probably more than +all other causes combined, determined the immediate repeal of the Stamp +Act. For Franklin this was a great triumph, and the news of it filled +the colonists with delight and restored him to their confidence and +affection. Another bill (the Declaratory Act), however, was almost +immediately passed by the king's party, asserting absolute supremacy of +parliament over the colonies, and in the succeeding parliament, by the +Townshend Acts of 1767, duties were imposed on paper, paints and glass +imported by the colonists; a tax was imposed on tea also. The imposition +of these taxes was bitterly resented in the colonies, where it quickly +crystallized public opinion round the principle of "No taxation without +representation." In spite of the opposition in the colonies to the +Declaratory Act, the Townshend Acts and the tea tax, Franklin continued +to assure the British ministry and the British public of the loyalty of +the colonists. He tried to find some middle ground of reconciliation, +and kept up his quiet work of informing England as to the opinions and +conditions of the colonies, and of moderating the attitude of the +colonies toward the home government; so that, as he said, he was accused +in America of being too much an Englishman, and in England of being too +much an American. He was agent now, not only of Pennsylvania, but also +of New Jersey, of Georgia and of Massachusetts. Hillsborough, who became +secretary of state for the colonies in 1768, refused to recognize +Franklin as agent of Massachusetts, because the governor of +Massachusetts had not approved the appointment, which was by resolution +of the assembly. Franklin contended that the governor, as a mere agent +of the king, could have nothing to do with the assembly's appointment of +its agent to the king; that "the King, and not the King, Lords, and +Commons collectively, is their sovereign; and that the King, with +_their_ respective Parliaments, is their only legislator." Franklin's +influence helped to oust Hillsborough, and Dartmouth, whose name +Franklin suggested, was made secretary In 1772 and promptly recognized +Franklin as the agent of Massachusetts. + +In 1773 there appeared in the _Public Advertiser_ one of Franklin's +cleverest hoaxes, "An Edict of the King of Prussia," proclaiming that +the island of Britain was a colony of Prussia, having been settled by +Angles and Saxons, having been protected by Prussia, having been +defended by Prussia against France in the war just past, and never +having been definitely freed from Prussia's rule; and that, therefore, +Great Britain should now submit to certain taxes laid by Prussia--the +taxes being identical with those laid upon the American colonies by +Great Britain. In the same year occurred the famous episode of the +Hutchinson Letters. These were written by Thomas Hutchinson, Governor of +Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver (1706-1774), his lieutenant-governor, and +others to William Whately, a member of Parliament, and private secretary +to George Grenville, suggesting an increase of the power of the governor +at the expense of the assembly, "an abridgement of what are called +English liberties," and other measures more extreme than those +undertaken by the government. The correspondence was shown to Franklin +by a mysterious "member of parliament" to back up the contention that +the quartering of troops in Boston was suggested, not by the British +ministry, but by Americans and Bostonians. Upon his promise not to +publish the letters Franklin received permission to send them to +Massachusetts, where they were much passed about and were printed, and +they were soon republished in English newspapers. The Massachusetts +assembly on receiving the letters resolved to petition the crown for the +removal of both Hutchinson and Oliver. The petition was refused and was +condemned as scandalous, and Franklin, who took upon himself the +responsibility for the publication of the letters, in the hearing before +the privy council at the Cockpit on the 29th of January 1774 was +insulted and was called a thief by Alexander Wedderburn (the +solicitor-general, who appeared for Hutchinson and Oliver), and was +removed from his position as head of the post office in the American +colonies. + +Satisfied that his usefulness in England was at an end, Franklin +entrusted his agencies to the care of Arthur Lee, and on the 21st of +March 1775 again set sail for Philadelphia. During the last years of his +stay in England there had been repeated attempts to win him (probably +with an under-secretaryship) to the British service, and in these same +years he had done a great work for the colonies by gaining friends for +them among the opposition, and by impressing France with his ability and +the excellence of his case. Upon reaching America, he heard of the +fighting at Lexington and Concord, and with the news of an actual +outbreak of hostilities his feeling toward England seems to have changed +completely. He was no longer a peacemaker, but an ardent war-maker. On +the 6th of May, the day after his arrival in Philadelphia, he was +elected by the assembly of Pennsylvania a delegate to the Continental +Congress in Philadelphia. In October he was elected a member of the +Pennsylvania assembly, but, as members of this body were still required +to take an oath of allegiance to the crown, he refused to serve. In the +Congress he served on as many as ten committees, and upon the +organization of a continental postal system, he was made +postmaster-general, a position he held for one year, when (in 1776) he +was succeeded by his son-in-law, Richard Bache, who had been his deputy. +With Benjamin Harrison, John Dickinson, Thomas Johnson and John Jay he +was appointed in November 1775 to a committee to carry on a secret +correspondence with the friends of America "in Great Britain, Ireland +and other parts of the world." He planned an appeal to the king of +France for aid, and wrote the instructions of Silas Deane who was to +convey it. In April 1776 he went to Montreal with Charles Carroll, +Samuel Chase and John Carroll, as a member of the commission which +conferred with General Arnold, and attempted without success to gain the +co-operation of Canada. Immediately after his return from Montreal he +was a member of the committee of five appointed to draw up the +Declaration of Independence, but he took no actual part himself in +drafting that instrument, aside from suggesting the change or insertion +of a few words in Jefferson's draft. From July 16 to September 28 he +acted as president of the Constitutional Convention of Pennsylvania. + +With John Adams and Edward Rutledge he was selected by Congress to +discuss with Admiral Howe (September 1776, at Staten Island) the terms +of peace proposed by Howe, who had arrived in New York harbour in July +1776, and who had been an intimate friend of Franklin; but the +discussion was fruitless, as the American commissioners refused to treat +"_back_ of this step of independency." On the 26th of September in the +same year Franklin was chosen as commissioner to France to join Arthur +Lee, who was in London, and Silas Deane, who had arrived in France in +June 1776. He collected all the money he could command, between L3000 +and L4000, lent it to Congress before he set sail, and arrived at Paris +on the 22nd of December. He found quarters at Passy,[4] then a suburb of +Paris, in a house belonging to Le Ray de Chaumont, an active friend of +the American cause, who had influential relations with the court, and +through whom he was enabled to be in the fullest communication with the +French government without compromising it in the eyes of Great Britain. + +At the time of Franklin's arrival in Paris he was already one of the +most talked about men in the world. He was a member of every important +learned society in Europe; he was a member, and one of the managers, of +the Royal Society, and was one of eight foreign members of the Royal +Academy of Sciences in Paris. Three editions of his scientific works had +already appeared in Paris, and a new edition had recently appeared in +London. To all these advantages he added a political purpose--the +dismemberment of the British empire--which was entirely congenial to +every citizen of France. "Franklin's reputation," wrote John Adams with +characteristic extravagance, "was more universal than that of Leibnitz +or Newton, Frederick or Voltaire; and his character more esteemed and +beloved than all of them.... If a collection could be made of all the +gazettes of Europe, for the latter half of the 18th century, a greater +number of panegyrical paragraphs upon _le grand Franklin_ would appear, +it is believed, than upon any other man that ever lived." "Franklin's +appearance in the French salons, even before he began to negotiate," +says Friedrich Christoph Schlosser, "was an event of great importance to +the whole of Europe.... His dress, the simplicity of his external +appearance, the friendly meekness of the old man, and the apparent +humility of the Quaker, procured for Freedom a mass of votaries among +the court circles who used to be alarmed at its coarseness and +unsophisticated truths. Such was the number of portraits,[5] busts and +medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris that he would have +been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the +civilized world." + +Franklin's position in France was a difficult one from the start, +because of the delicacy of the task of getting French aid at a time when +France was unready openly to take sides against Great Britain. But on +the 6th of February 1778, after the news of the defeat and surrender of +Burgoyne had reached Europe, a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity +and commerce between France and the United States were signed at Paris +by Franklin, Deane and Lee. On the 28th of October this commission was +discharged and Franklin was appointed sole plenipotentiary to the French +court. Lee, from the beginning of the mission to Paris, seems to have +been possessed of a mania of jealousy toward Franklin, or of +misunderstanding of his acts, and he tried to undermine his influence +with the Continental Congress. John Adams, when he succeeded Deane +(recalled from Paris through Lee's machinations) joined in the chorus of +fault-finding against Franklin, dilated upon his social habits, his +personal slothfulness and his complete lack of business-like system; but +Adams soon came to see that, although careless of details, Franklin was +doing what no other man could have done, and he ceased his harsher +criticism. Even greater than his diplomatic difficulties were Franklin's +financial straits. Drafts were being drawn on him by all the American +agents in Europe, and by the Continental Congress at home. Acting as +American naval agent for the many successful privateers who harried the +English Channel, and for whom he skilfully got every bit of assistance +possible, open and covert, from the French government, he was +continually called upon for funds in these ventures. Of the vessels to +be sent to Paris with American cargoes which were to be sold for the +liquidation of French loans to the colonies made through Beaumarchais, +few arrived; those that did come did not cover Beaumarchais's advances, +and hardly a vessel came from America without word of fresh drafts on +Franklin. After bold and repeated overtures for an exchange of +prisoners--an important matter, both because the American frigates had +no place in which to stow away their prisoners, and because of the +maltreatment of American captives in such prisons as Dartmoor--exchanges +began at the end of March 1779, although there were annoying delays, and +immediately after November 1781 there was a long break in the agreement; +and the Americans discharged from English prisons were constantly in +need of money. Franklin, besides, was constantly called upon to meet the +indebtedness of Lee and of Ralph Izard (1742-1804), and of John Jay, who +in Madrid was being drawn on by the American Congress. In spite of the +poor condition in Europe of the credit of the struggling colonies, and +of the fact that France was almost bankrupt (and in the later years was +at war), and although Necker strenuously resisted the making of any +loans to the colonies, France, largely because of Franklin's appeals, +expended, by loan or gift to the colonies, or in sustenance of the +French arms in America, a sum estimated at $60,000,000. + +In 1781 Franklin, with John Adams, John Jay, Jefferson, who remained in +America, and Henry Laurens, then a prisoner in England, was appointed on +a commission to make peace with Great Britain. In the spring of 1782 +Franklin had been informally negotiating with Shelburne, secretary of +state for the home department, through the medium of Richard Oswald, a +Scotch merchant, and had suggested that England should cede Canada to +the United States in return for the recognition of loyalist claims by +the states. When the formal negotiations began Franklin held closely to +the instructions of Congress to its commissioners, that they should +maintain confidential relations with the French ministers and that they +were "to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce +without their knowledge and concurrence," and were ultimately to be +governed by "their advice and opinion." Jay and Adams disagreed with him +on this point, believing that France intended to curtail the territorial +aspirations of the Americans for her own benefit and for that of her +ally, Spain. At last, after the British government had authorized its +agents to treat with the commissioners as representatives of an +independent power, thus recognizing American independence before the +treaty was made, Franklin acquiesced in the policy of Jay. The +preliminary treaty was signed by the commissioners on the 30th of +November 1782, the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783. Franklin +had repeatedly petitioned Congress for his recall, but his letters were +unanswered or his appeals refused until the 7th of March 1785, when +Congress resolved that he be allowed to return to America; on the 10th +of March Thomas Jefferson, who had joined him in August of the year +before, was appointed to his place. Jefferson, when asked if he replaced +Franklin, replied, "No one can replace him, sir; I am only his +successor." Before Franklin left Paris on the 12th of July 1785 he had +made commercial treaties with Sweden (1783) and Prussia (1785; signed +after Franklin's departure by Jefferson and John Adams). Franklin +arrived in Philadelphia on the 13th of September, disembarking at the +same wharf as when he had first entered the city. He was immediately +elected a member of the municipal council of Philadelphia, becoming its +chairman; and was chosen president of the Supreme Executive Council (the +chief executive officer) of Pennsylvania, and was re-elected in 1786 and +1787, serving from October 1785 to October 1788. In May 1787 he was +elected a delegate to the Convention which drew up the Federal +Constitution, this body thus having a member upon whom all could agree +as chairman, should Washington be absent. He opposed over-centralization +of government and favoured the Connecticut Compromise, and after the +work of the Convention was done used his influence to secure the +adoption of the Constitution.[6] As president of the Pennsylvania +Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Franklin signed a +petition to Congress (12th February 1790) for immediate abolition of +slavery, and six weeks later in his most brilliant manner parodied the +attack on the petition made by James Jackson (1757-1806) of Georgia, +taking off Jackson's quotations of Scripture with pretended texts from +the Koran cited by a member of the Divan of Algiers in opposition to a +petition asking for the prohibition of holding Christians in slavery. +These were his last public acts. His last days were marked by a fine +serenity and calm; he died in his own house in Philadelphia on the 17th +of April 1790, the immediate cause being an abscess in the lungs. He was +buried with his wife in the graveyard (Fifth and Arch Streets) of Christ +Church, Philadelphia. + +Physically Franklin was large, about 5 ft. 10 in. tall, with a +well-rounded, powerful figure; he inherited an excellent constitution +from his parents--"I never knew," says he, "either my father or mother +to have any sickness but that of which they dy'd, he at 89, and she at +85 years of age"--but injured it somewhat by excesses; in early life he +had severe attacks of pleurisy, from one of which, in 1727, it was not +expected that he would recover, and in his later years he was the victim +of stone and gout. When he was sixteen he became a vegetarian for a +time, rather to save money for books than for any other reason, and he +always preached moderation in eating, though he was less consistent in +his practice in this particular than as regards moderate drinking. He +was always enthusiastically fond of swimming, and was a great believer +in fresh air, taking a cold air bath regularly in the morning, when he +sat naked in his bedroom beguiling himself with a book or with writing +for a half-hour or more. He insisted that fresh, cold air was not the +cause of colds, and preached zealously the "gospel of ventilation." He +was a charming talker, with a gay humour and a quiet sarcasm and a +telling use of anecdote for argument. Henri Martin, the French +historian, speaks of him as "of a mind altogether French in its grace +and elasticity." In 1730 he married Deborah Read, in whose father's +house he had lived when he had first come to Philadelphia, to whom he +had been engaged before his first departure from Philadelphia for +London, and who in his absence had married a ne'er-do-well, one Rogers, +who had deserted her. The marriage to Franklin is presumed to have been +a common law marriage, for there was no proof that Miss Read's former +husband was dead, nor that, as was suspected, a former wife, alive when +Rogers married Miss Read, was still alive, and that therefore his +marriage to Deborah was void. His "Debby," or his "dear child," as +Franklin usually addressed her in his letters, received into the family, +soon after her marriage, Franklin's illegitimate son, William Franklin +(1729-1813),[7] with whom she afterwards quarrelled, and whose mother, +tradition says, was Barbara, a servant in the Franklin household. +Another illegitimate child became the wife of John Foxcroft of +Philadelphia. Deborah, who was "as much dispos'd to industry and +frugality as" her husband, was illiterate and shared none of her +husband's tastes for literature and science; her dread of an ocean +voyage kept her in Philadelphia during Franklin's missions to England, +and she died in 1774, while Franklin was in London. She bore him two +children, one a son, Francis Folger, "whom I have seldom since seen +equal'd in everything, and whom to this day [thirty-six years after the +child's death] I cannot think of without a sigh," who died (1736) when +four years old of small-pox, not having been inoculated; the other was +Sarah (1744-1808), who married Richard Bache (1737-1811), Franklin's +successor in 1776-1782 as postmaster-general. Franklin's gallant +relations with women after his wife's death were probably innocent +enough. Best known of his French _amies_ were Mme Helvetius, widow of +the philosopher, and the young Mme Brillon, who corrected her "Papa's" +French and tried to bring him safely into the Roman Catholic Church. +With him in France were his grandsons, William Temple Franklin, William +Franklin's natural son, who acted as private secretary to his +grandfather, and Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798), Sarah's son, whom +he sent to Geneva to be educated, for whom he later asked public office +of Washington, and who became editor of the _Aurora_, one of the leading +journals in the Republican attacks on Washington. + +Franklin early rebelled against New England Puritanism and spent his +Sundays in reading and in study instead of attending church. His +free-thinking ran its extreme course at the time of his publication in +London of _A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain_ +(1725), which he recognized as one of the great _errata_ of his life. He +later called himself a deist, or theist, not discriminating between the +terms. To his favourite sister he wrote: "There are some things in your +New England doctrine and worship which I do not agree with; but I do not +therefore condemn them, or desire to shake your belief or practice of +them." Such was his general attitude. He did not believe in the divinity +of Christ, but thought "his system of morals and his religion, as he +left them to us, the best the world ever saw, or is like to see." His +intense practical-mindedness drew him away from religion, but drove him +to a morality of his own (the "art of virtue," he called it), based on +thirteen virtues each accompanied by a short precept; the virtues were +Temperance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity, +Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility, Chastity and Humility, +the precept accompanying the last-named virtue being "Imitate Jesus and +Socrates." He made a business-like little notebook, ruled off spaces for +the thirteen virtues and the seven days of the week, "determined to give +a week's strict attention to each of the virtues successively ... +[going] thro' a course compleate in thirteen weeks and four courses in a +year," marking for each day a record of his adherence to each of the +precepts. "And conceiving God to be the fountain of wisdom," he "thought +it right and necessary to solicit His assistance for obtaining it," and +drew up the following prayer for daily use: "O powerful Goodness! +bountiful Father! merciful Guide! Increase in me that wisdom which +discovers my truest interest. Strengthen my resolution to perform what +that wisdom dictates. Accept my kind offices to Thy other children, as +the only return in my power for Thy continual favours to me." He was by +no means prone to overmuch introspection, his great interest in the +conduct of others being shown in the wise maxims of Poor Richard, which +were possibly too utilitarian but were wonderfully successful in +instructing American morals. His _Art of Virtue_ on which he worked for +years was never completed or published in any form. + +"Benjamin Franklin, Printer," was Franklin's own favourite description +of himself. He was an excellent compositor and pressman; his +workmanship, clear impressions, black ink and comparative freedom from +errata did much to get him the public printing in Pennsylvania and New +Jersey, and the printing of the paper money[8] and other public matters +in Delaware. The first book with his imprint is _The Psalms of David +Imitated in the Language of the New Testament and apply'd to the +Christian State and Worship. By I. Watts ..., Philadelphia: Printed by +B. F. and H. M. for Thomas Godfrey, and Sold at his Shop, 1729._ The +first novel printed in America was Franklin's reprint in 1744 of +_Pamela_; and the first American translation from the classics which was +printed in America was a version by James Logan (1674-1751) of Cato's +_Moral Distichs_ (1735). In 1744 he published another translation of +Logan's, Cicero _On Old Age_, which Franklin thought typographically the +finest book he had ever printed. In 1733 he had established a press in +Charleston, South Carolina, and soon after did the same in Lancaster, +Pa., in New Haven, Conn., in New York, in Antigua, in Kingston, Jamaica, +and in other places. Personally he had little connexion with the +Philadelphia printing office after 1748, when David Hall became his +partner and took charge of it. But in 1753 he was eagerly engaged in +having several of his improvements incorporated in a new press, and more +than twenty years after was actively interested in John Walter's scheme +of "logography." In France he had a private press in his house in Passy, +on which he printed "bagatelles." Franklin's work as a publisher is for +the most part closely connected with his work in issuing the _Gazette_ +and _Poor Richard's Almanack_ (a summary of the proverbs from which +appeared in the number for 1758, and has often been reprinted--under +such titles as _Father Abraham's Speech_, and _The Way to Wealth_).[9] + +Of much of Franklin's work as an author something has already been said. +Judged as literature, the first place belongs to his _Autobiography_, +which unquestionably ranks among the few great autobiographies ever +written. His style in its simplicity, facility and clearness owed +something to De Foe, something to Cotton Mather, something to Plutarch, +more to Bunyan and to his early attempts to reproduce the manner of the +third volume of the _Spectator_; and not the least to his own careful +study of word usage. From Xenophon's _Memorabilia_ he learned when a boy +the Socratic method of argument. Swift he resembled in the occasional +broadness of his humour, in his brilliantly successful use of sarcasm +and irony,[10] and in his mastery of the hoax. Balzac said of him that +he "invented the lightning-rod, the hoax ('le canard') and the +republic." Among his more famous hoaxes were the "Edict of the King of +Prussia" (1773), already described; the fictitious supplement to the +Boston _Chronicle_, printed on his private press at Passy in 1782, and +containing a letter with an invoice of eight packs of 954 cured, dried, +hooped and painted scalps of rebels, men, women and children, taken by +Indians in the British employ; and another fictitious _Letter from the +Count de Schaumberg to the Baron Hohendorf commanding the Hessian Troops +in America_ (1777)--the count's only anxiety is that not enough men will +be killed to bring him in moneys he needs, and he urges his officer in +command in America "to prolong the war ... for I have made arrangements +for a grand Italian opera, and I do not wish to be obliged to give it +up."[11] + +Closely related to Franklin's political pamphlets are his writings on +economics, which, though undertaken with a political or practical +purpose and not in a purely scientific spirit, rank him as the first +American economist. He wrote in 1729 _A Modest Enquiry into the Nature +and Necessity of a Paper Currency_, which argued that a plentiful +currency will make rates of interest low and will promote immigration +and home manufactures, and which did much to secure the further issue of +paper money in Pennsylvania. After the British Act of 1750 forbidding +the erection or the operating of iron or steel mills in the colonies, +Franklin wrote _Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind and the +Peopling of Countries_ (1751); its thesis was that manufactures come to +be common only with a high degree of social development and with great +density of population, and that Great Britain need not, therefore, fear +the industrial competition of the colonies, but it is better known for +the estimate (adopted by Adam Smith) that the population of the colonies +would double every quarter-century; and for the likeness to +Malthus's[12] "preventive check" of its statement: "The greater the +common fashionable expense of any rank of people the more cautious they +are of marriage." His _Positions to be examined concerning National +Wealth_ (1769) shows that he was greatly influenced by the French +physiocrats after his visit to France in 1767. His _Wail of a Protected +Manufacturer_ voices a protest against protection as raising the cost of +living; and he held that free trade was based on a natural right. He +knew Kames, Hume and Adam Smith, and corresponded with Mirabeau, "the +friend of Man." Some of the more important of his economic theses, as +summarized by W. A. Wetzel, are: that money as coin may have more than +its bullion value; that natural interest is determined by the rent of +land valued at the sum of money loaned--an anticipation of Turgot; that +high wages are not inconsistent with a large foreign trade; that the +value of an article is determined by the amount of labour necessary to +produce the food consumed in making the article; that manufactures are +advantageous but agriculture only is truly productive; and that when +practicable (as he did not think it practicable at the end of the War of +Independence) state revenue should be raised by direct tax. + +Franklin as a scientist[13] and as an inventor has been decried by +experts as an amateur and a dabbler; but it should be remembered that it +was always his hope to retire from public life and devote himself to +science. In the American Philosophical Society (founded 1743) scientific +subjects were much discussed. Franklin wrote a paper on the causes of +earthquakes for his _Gazette_ of the 15th of December 1737; and he +eagerly collected material to uphold his theory that waterspouts and +whirlwinds resulted from the same causes. In 1743, from the circumstance +that an eclipse not visible in Philadelphia because of a storm had been +observed in Boston, where the storm although north-easterly did not +occur until an hour after the eclipse, he surmised that storms move +_against_ the wind along the Atlantic coast. In the year before (1742) +he had planned the "Pennsylvania fire-place," better known as the +"Franklin stove," which saved fuel, heated all the room, and had the +same principle as the hot-air furnace; the stove was never patented by +Franklin, but was described in his pamphlet dated 1744. He was much +engaged at the same time in remedying smoking chimneys, and as late as +1785 wrote to Jan Ingenhousz, physician to the emperor of Austria, on +chimneys and draughts; smoking street lamps he remedied by a simple +contrivance. The study of electricity he took up in 1746 when he first +saw a Leyden jar, in the manipulation of which he became expert and +which he improved by the use of granulated lead in the place of water +for the interior armatures; he recognized that condensation is due to +the dielectric and not to the metal coatings. A note in his diary, dated +the 7th of November 1749, shows that he had then conjectured that +thunder and lightning were electrical manifestations; in the same year +he planned the lightning-rod (long known as "Franklin's rod"), which he +described and recommended to the public in 1753, when the Copley medal +of the Royal Society was awarded him for his discoveries. The famous +experiment with the kite, proving lightning an electrical phenomenon, +was performed by Franklin in June 1752. He overthrew entirely the +"friction" theory of electricity and conceived the idea of plus and +minus charges (1753); he thought the sea the source of electricity. On +light Franklin wrote to David Rittenhouse in June 1784; the sum of his +own conjectures was that the corpuscular theory of Newton was wrong, and +that light was due to the vibration of an elastic aether. He studied +with some care the temperature of the Gulf Stream. In navigation he +suggested many new contrivances, such as water-tight compartments, +floating anchors to lay a ship to in a storm, and dishes that would not +upset during a gale; and beginning in 1757 made repeated experiments +with oil on stormy waters. As a mathematician he devised various +elaborate magic squares and novel magic circles, of which he speaks +apologetically, because they are of no practical use. Always much +interested in agriculture, he made an especial effort (like Robert R. +Livingston) to promote the use of plaster of Paris as a fertiliser. He +took a prominent part in aeronautic experiments during his stay in +France. He made an excellent clock, which because of a slight +improvement introduced by James Ferguson in 1757 was long known as +Ferguson's clock. In medicine Franklin was considered important enough +to be elected to the Royal Medical Society of Paris in 1777, and an +honorary member of the Medical Society of London in 1787. In 1784 he was +on the committee which investigated Mesmer, and the report is a document +of lasting scientific value. Franklin's advocacy of vegetarianism, of +sparing and simple diet, and of temperance in the use of liquors, and of +proper ventilation has already been referred to. His most direct +contribution to medicine was the invention for his own use of bifocal +eyeglasses. + +A summary of so versatile a genius is impossible. His services to +America in England and France rank him as one of the heroes of the +American War of Independence and as the greatest of American diplomats. +Almost the only American scientist of his day, he displayed remarkably +deep as well as remarkably varied abilities in science and deserved the +honours enthusiastically given him by the _savants_ of Europe. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Franklin's works were not collected in his own + lifetime, and he made no effort to publish his writings. _Experiments + and Observations on Electricity_ (London, 1769) was translated into + French by Barbeu Dubourg (Paris, 1773); Vaughan attempted a more + complete edition, _Political, Miscellaneous and Philosophical Pieces_ + (London, 1779); an edition in three volumes appeared after Franklin's + death (London, 1806); what seemed the authentic _Works_, as it was + under the care of Temple Franklin, was published at London (6 vols., + 1817-1819; 3 vols., 1818) and with some additional matter at + Philadelphia (6 vols., 1818). Sparks's edition (10 vols., Boston, + 1836-1842; revised, Philadelphia, 1858) also contained fresh matter; + and there are further additions in the edition of John Bigelow + (Philadelphia, 1887-1888; 5th ed., 1905) and in that by Albert Henry + Smyth (10 vols., New York, 1905-1907). There are important + Frankliniana, about 13,000 papers, in the possession of the American + Philosophical Society, to which they were conveyed by the son of + Temple Franklin's executor, George Fox. Other papers which had been + left to Fox lay for years in barrels in a stable garret; they were + finally cleared out, their owner, Mary Fox, intending to send them to + a paper mill. One barrel went to the mill. The others, it was found, + contained papers belonging to Franklin, and this important collection + was bought and presented to the university of Pennsylvania. The + valuable Frankliniana collected by Henry Stevens were purchased by + Congress in 1885. These MS. collections were first carefully gone over + for the edition of the _Works_ by A. H. Smyth. Franklin's + _Autobiography_ was begun in 1771 as a private chronicle for his son, + Governor William Franklin; the papers, bringing the story of his + father's life down to 1730, were lost by the governor during the War + of Independence, and in 1783 came into the possession of Abel James, + who restored them to Franklin and urged him to complete the sketch. He + wrote a little in 1784, more in 1788, when he furnished a copy to his + friend le Veillard, and a little more in 1790. The original manuscript + was long in the possession of Temple Franklin, who spent years + rearranging the matter in it and making over into politer English his + grandfather's plain-spokenness. So long was the publication delayed + that it was generally believed that Temple Franklin had sold all the + papers to the British government; a French version, _Memoires de la + vie privee_ (Paris, 1791), was retranslated into English twice in 1793 + (London), and from one of these versions (by Robinson) still another + French version was made (Paris, 1798). Temple Franklin, deciding to + print, got from le Veillard the copy sent to him in 1788 (sending in + return the original with autograph alterations and the final + addition), and from the copy published (London, 1817) an edition + supposed to be authentic and complete. The complete autograph of the + biography, acquired by John Bigelow in 1867 from its French owners, + upon collation with Temple Franklin's edition showed that the latter + contained 1200 emasculations and that it omitted entirely what had + been written in 1790. Bigelow published the complete _Autobiography_ + with additions from Franklin's correspondence and other writings in + 1868; a second edition (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1888) was published + under the title, _The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Written by Himself_. + + In addition to the _Autobiography_ see James Parton, _Life and Times + of Benjamin Franklin_ (2 vols., New York, 1864); John T. Morse, Jr., + _Benjamin Franklin_ (Boston, 1889, in the American Statesmen series); + J. B. McMaster, _Benjamin Franklin as a Man of Letters_ (Boston, 1887, + in American Men of Letters series); Paul L. Ford, _The Many-Sided + Franklin_ (New York, 1899) and _Franklin Bibliography_ (Brooklyn, + 1889); E. E. Hale and E. E. Hale, Jr., _Franklin in France_ (2 vols., + Boston, 1888); J. H. A. Doniol, _Histoire de la participation de la + France a l'etablissement des Etats-Unis d'Amerique_ (Paris, 6 vols., + 1886-1900); S. G. Fisher, _The True Benjamin Franklin_ (Philadelphia, + 1899); E. Robins, _Benjamin Franklin_ (New York, 1898, in the American + Men of Energy series); W. A. Wetzel, "Benjamin Franklin as an + Economist," No. 9, in series 13 of _Johns Hopkins Studies in + Historical and Political Science_; and the prefaces and biographical + matter in A. H. Smyth's edition of the _Works_ (New York, 10 vols., + 1905-1907). (R. We.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Keimer and his sister had come the year before from London, where + he had learned his trade; both were ardent members of the fanatic + band of "French prophets." He proposed founding a new sect with the + help of Franklin, who after leaving his shop ridiculed him for his + long square beard and for keeping the seventh day. Keimer settled in + the Barbadoes about 1730; and in 1731 began to publish at Bridgetown + the semi-weekly _Barbadoes Gazette_. Selections from it called + _Caribbeana_ (1741) and _A Brand Plucked from the Burning, + Exemplified in the Unparalleled Case of Samuel Keimer_ (1718) are + from his pen. He died about 1738. + + [2] The meeting between Franklin, the type of the shrewd, cool + provincial, and Braddock, a blustering, blundering, drinking British + soldier, is dramatically portrayed by Thackeray in the 9th chapter of + _The Virginians_. + + [3] Many questions (about 20 of the first 25) were put by his friends + to draw out what he wished to be known. + + [4] The house is familiar from the drawing of it by Victor Hugo. + + [5] Many of these portraits bore inscriptions, the most famous of + which was Turgot's line, "Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis." + + [6] Notably in a pamphlet comparing the Jews and the + Anti-Federalists. + + [7] William Franklin served on the Canadian frontier with + Pennsylvania troops, becoming captain in 1750; was in the post-office + in 1754-1756; went to England with his father in 1758; was admitted + to legal practice in 1758; in 1763, recommended by Lord Fairfax, + became governor of New Jersey; he left the Whig for the Tory party; + and in the War of Independence was a faithful loyalist, much to the + pain and regret of his father, who, however, was reconciled to him in + part in 1784. He was held as a prisoner from 1776 until exchanged in + 1778; and lived four years in New York, and during the remainder of + his life in England with an annual pension of L800 from the crown. + + [8] For the prevention of counterfeiting continental paper money + Franklin long afterwards suggested the use on the different + denominations of different leaves, having noted the infinite variety + of leaf venation. + + [9] "Seventy-five editions of it have been printed in English, + fifty-six in French, eleven in German and nine in Italian. It has + been translated into Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Welsh, Polish, Gaelic, + Russian, Bohemian, Dutch, Catalan, Chinese, modern Greek and phonetic + writing. It has been printed at least four hundred times, and is + to-day as popular as ever."--P. L. Ford, in _The Many-Sided Franklin_ + (1899). + + [10] Both Swift and Franklin made sport of the typical astrologer + almanack-maker. + + [11] Another hoax was Franklin's parable against religious + persecution thrown into Scriptural form and quoted by him as the + fifty-first chapter of Genesis. In a paper on a "Proposed New Version + of the Bible" he paraphrased a few verses of the first chapter of + Job, making them a satiric attack on royal government; but the + version may well rank with these hoaxes, and even modern writers have + been taken in by it, regarding it as a serious proposal for a + "modernized" version and decrying it as poor taste. Matthew Arnold, + for example, declared this an instance in which Franklin was lacking + in his "imperturbable common sense"; and J. B. McMaster, though + devoting several pages to its discussion, very ingenuously declares + it "beneath criticism." + + [12] Malthus quoted Franklin in his first edition, but it was not + until the second that he introduced the theory of the "preventive + check." Franklin noted the phenomenon with disapproval in his + advocacy of increased population; Malthus with approval in his search + for means to decrease population. + + [13] The title of philosopher as used in Franklin's lifetime referred + neither in England nor in France to him as author of moral maxims, + but to him as a scientist--a "natural philosopher." + + + + +FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786-1847), English rear-admiral and explorer, was +born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire, on the 16th of April 1786. His family was +descended from a line of free-holders or "franklins" from whom some +centuries earlier they had derived their surname; but the small family +estate was sold by his father, who went into business. John, who was the +fifth and youngest son and ninth child, was destined for the church. At +the age of ten he was sent to school at St Ives, and soon afterwards was +transferred to Louth grammar school, which he attended for two years. +About this time his imagination was deeply impressed by a holiday walk +of 12 m. which he made with a companion to look at the sea, and he +determined to be a sailor. In the hope of dispelling this fancy his +father sent him on a trial voyage to Lisbon in a merchantman; but it +being found on his return that his wishes were unchanged he was entered +as a midshipman on board the "Polyphemus," and shortly afterwards took +part in her in the hard-fought battle of Copenhagen (2nd of April 1801). +Two months later he joined the "Investigator," a discovery-ship +commanded by his cousin Captain Matthew Flinders, and under the training +of that able scientific officer was employed in the exploration and +mapping of the coasts of Australia, where he acquired a correctness of +astronomical observation and a skill in surveying which proved of +eminent utility in his future career. He was on board the "Porpoise" +when that ship and the "Cato" were wrecked (18th of August 1803) on a +coral reef off the coast of Australia, and after this misfortune +proceeded to China. Thence he obtained a passage to England in the "Earl +Camden," East Indiaman, commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) Nathaniel +Dance, and performed the duty of signal midshipman in the famous action +of the 15th of February 1804 when Captain Dance repulsed a strong French +squadron led by the redoubtable Admiral Linois. On reaching England he +joined the "Bellerophon," 74, and was in charge of the signals on board +that ship during the battle of Trafalgar. Two years later he joined the +"Bedford," attaining the rank of lieutenant the year after, and served +in her on the Brazil station (whither the "Bedford" went as part of the +convoy which escorted the royal family of Portugal to Rio de Janeiro in +1808), in the blockade of Flushing, and finally in the disastrous +expedition against New Orleans (1814), in which campaign he displayed +such zeal and intelligence as to merit special mention in despatches. + +On peace being established, Franklin turned his attention once more to +the scientific branch of his profession, and sedulously extended his +knowledge of surveying. In 1818 the discovery of a North-West Passage to +the Pacific became again, after a long interval, an object of national +interest, and Lieutenant Franklin was given the command of the "Trent" +in the Arctic expedition, under the orders of Captain Buchan in the +"Dorothea". During a heavy storm the "Dorothea" was so much damaged by +the pack-ice that her reaching England became doubtful, and, much to the +chagrin of young Franklin, the "Trent" was compelled to convoy her home +instead of being allowed to prosecute the voyage alone. This voyage, +however, had brought Franklin into personal intercourse with the leading +scientific men of London, and they were not slow in ascertaining his +peculiar fitness for the command of such an enterprise. To calmness in +danger, promptness and fertility of resource, and excellent seamanship, +he added an ardent desire to promote science for its own sake, together +with a love of truth that led him to do full justice to the merits of +his subordinate officers, without wishing to claim their discoveries as +a captain's right. Furthermore, he possessed a cheerful buoyancy of +mind, sustained by deep religious principle, which was not depressed in +the most gloomy times. It was therefore with full confidence in his +ability and exertions that, in 1819, he was placed in command of an +expedition appointed to proceed overland from the Hudson Bay to the +shores of the Arctic Sea, and to determine the trendings of that coast +eastward of the Coppermine river. At this period the northern coast of +the American continent was known at two isolated points only,--this, the +mouth of the Coppermine river (which, as Franklin discovered, was +erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the north), and +the mouth of the Mackenzie far to the west of it. Lieutenant Franklin +and his party, consisting of Dr Richardson, Midshipmen George Back and +Richard Hood, and a few ordinary boatmen, arrived at the depot of the +Hudson's Bay Company at the end of August 1819, and making an autumnal +journey of 700 m. spent the first winter on the Saskatchewan. Owing to +the supplies which had been promised by the North-West and Hudson's Bay +Companies not being forthcoming the following year, it was not until the +summer of 1821 that the Coppermine was ascended to its mouth, and a +considerable extent of sea-coast to the eastward surveyed. The return +journey led over the region known as the Barren Ground, and was marked +by the most terrible sufferings and privations and the tragic death of +Lieutenant Hood. The survivors of the expedition reached York Factory in +the month of June 1822, having accomplished altogether 5550 m. of +travel. While engaged on this service Franklin was promoted to the rank +of commander (1st of January 1821), and upon his return to England at +the end of 1822 he obtained the post rank of captain and was elected a +fellow of the Royal Society. The narrative of this expedition was +published in the following year and became at once a classic of travel, +and soon after he married Eleanor, the youngest daughter of William +Porden, an eminent architect. + +Early in 1825 he was entrusted with the command of a second overland +expedition, and upon the earnest entreaty of his dying wife, who +encouraged him to place his duty to his country before his love for her, +he set sail without waiting to witness her end. Accompanied as before by +Dr (afterwards Sir) John Richardson and Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) +George Back, he descended the Mackenzie river in the season of 1826 and +traced the North American coast as far as 149 deg. 37' W. long., whilst +Richardson at the head of a separate party connected the mouths of the +Coppermine and Mackenzie rivers. Thus between the years 1819 and 1827 he +had added 1200 m. of coast-line to the American continent, or one-third +of the whole distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific. These exertions +were fully appreciated at home and abroad. He was knighted in 1829, +received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, +was awarded the gold medal of the Geographical Society of Paris, and was +elected corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. The +results of these expeditions are described by Franklin and Dr Richardson +in two magnificent works published in 1824-1829. In 1828 he married his +second wife, Jane, second daughter of John Griffin. His next official +employment was on the Mediterranean station, in command of the +"Rainbow," and his ship soon became proverbial in the squadron for the +happiness and comfort of her officers and crew. As an acknowledgment of +the essential service which he rendered off Patras in the Greek War of +Independence, he received the cross of the Redeemer of Greece from King +Otto, and after his return to England he was created knight commander of +the Guelphic order of Hanover. + +In 1836 he accepted the lieutenant-governorship of Van Diemen's Land (now +Tasmania), and held that post till the end of 1843. His government was +marked by several events of much interest, one of his most popular +measures being the opening of the doors of the legislative council to the +public. He also founded a college, endowing it largely from his private +funds, and in 1838 established a scientific society at Hobart Town (now +called the Royal Society of Tasmania), the meetings of which were held in +Government House and its papers printed at his expense. In his time also +the colony of Victoria was founded by settlers from Tasmania; and towards +its close, transportation to New South Wales having been abolished, the +convicts from every part of the British empire were sent to Tasmania. On +an increase of the lieutenant-governor's salary being voted by the +colonial legislature, Sir John declined to derive any advantage from it +personally, while he secured the augmentation to his successors. He +welcomed eagerly the various expeditions for exploration and surveying +which visited Hobart Town, conspicuous among these, and of especial +interest to himself, being the French and English Antarctic expeditions +of Dumont d'Urville and Sir James C. Ross--the latter commanding the +"Erebus" and "Terror," with which Franklin's own name was afterwards to +be so pathetically connected. A magnetic observatory fixed at Hobart +Town, as a dependency of the central establishment under Colonel Sabine, +was also an object of deep interest up to the moment of his leaving the +colony. That his unflinching efforts for the social and political +advancement of the colony were appreciated was abundantly proved by the +affection and respect shown him by every section of the community on his +departure; and several years afterwards the colonists showed their +remembrance of his virtues and services by sending Lady Franklin a +subscription of L1700 in aid of her efforts for the search and relief of +her husband, and later still by a unanimous vote of the legislature for +the erection of a statue in honour of him at Hobart Town. + +Sir John found on reaching England that there was about to be a renewal +of polar research, and that the confidence of the admiralty in him was +undiminished, as was shown by his being offered the command of an +expedition for the discovery of a North-West Passage to the Pacific. +This offer he accepted. The prestige of Arctic service and of his former +experiences attracted a crowd of volunteers of all classes, from whom +were selected a body of officers conspicuous for talent and energy. +Captain Crozier, who was second in command, had been three voyages with +Sir Edward Parry, and had commanded the "Terror" in Ross's Antarctic +expedition. Captain Fitzjames, who was commander on board the "Erebus," +had been five times gazetted for brilliant conduct in the operations of +the first China war, and in a letter which he wrote from Greenland has +bequeathed some good-natured but masterly sketches of his brother +officers and messmates on this expedition. Thus supported, with crews +carefully chosen (some of whom had been engaged in the whaling service), +victualled for three years, and furnished with every appliance then +known, Franklin's expedition, consisting of the "Erebus" and "Terror" +(129 officers and men), with a transport ship to convey additional +stores as far as Disco in Greenland, sailed from Greenhithe on the 19th +of May 1845. The letters which Franklin despatched from Greenland were +couched in language of cheerful anticipation of success, while those +received from his officers expressed their glowing hope, their +admiration of the seamanlike qualities of their commander, and the +happiness they had in serving under him. The ships were last seen by a +whaler near the entrance of Lancaster Sound, on the 26th of July, and +the deep gloom which settled down upon their subsequent movements was +not finally raised till fourteen years later. + +Franklin's instructions were framed in conjunction with Sir John Barrow +and upon his own suggestions. The experience of Parry had established +the navigability of Lancaster Sound (leading westwards out of Baffin +Bay), whilst Franklin's own surveys had long before satisfied him that a +navigable passage existed along the north coast of America from the Fish +river to Bering Strait. He was therefore directed to push through +Lancaster Sound and its continuation, Barrow Strait, without loss of +time, until he reached the portion of land on which Cape Walker is +situated, or about long. 98 deg. W., and from that point to pursue a course +southward towards the American coast. An explicit prohibition was given +against a westerly course beyond the longitude of 98 deg. W., but he was +allowed the single alternative of previously examining Wellington +Channel (which leads out of Barrow Strait) for a northward route, if the +navigation here were open. + +In 1847, though there was no real public anxiety as to the fate of the +expedition, preparations began to be made for the possible necessity of +sending relief. As time passed, however, and no tidings reached England, +the search began in earnest, and from 1848 onwards expedition after +expedition was despatched in quest of the missing explorers. The work of +these expeditions forms a story of achievement which has no parallel in +maritime annals, and resulted in the discovery and exploration of +thousands of miles of new land within the grim Arctic regions, the +development of the system of sledge travelling, and the discovery of a +second North-West Passage in 1850 (see Polar Regions). Here it is only +necessary to mention the results so far as the search for Franklin was +concerned. In this great national undertaking Lady Franklin's exertions +were unwearied, and she exhausted her private funds in sending out +auxiliary vessels to quarters not comprised in the public search, and by +her pathetic appeals roused the sympathy of the whole civilized world. + +The first traces of the missing ships, consisting of a few scattered +articles, besides three graves, were discovered at Franklin's winter +quarters (1845-1846) on Beechey Island, by Captain (afterwards Sir) +Erasmus Ommanney of the "Assistance," in August 1851, and were brought +home by the "Prince Albert," which had been fitted out by Lady Franklin. +No further tidings were obtained until the spring of 1854, when Dr John +Rae, then conducting a sledging expedition of the Hudson's Bay Company +from Repulse Bay, was told by the Eskimo that (as was inferred) in 1850 +white men, to the number of about forty, had been seen dragging a boat +southward along the west shore of King William's Island, and that later +in the same season the bodies of the whole party were found by the +natives at a point a short distance to the north-west of Back's Great +Fish river, where they had perished from the united effects of cold and +famine. The latter statement was afterwards disproved by the discovery +of skeletons upon the presumed line of route; but indisputable proof was +given that the Eskimo had communicated with members of the missing +expedition, by the various articles obtained from them and brought home +by Dr Rae. In consequence of the information obtained by Dr Rae, a party +in canoes, under Messrs Anderson and Stewart, was sent by government +down the Great Fish river in 1855, and succeeded in obtaining from the +Eskimo at the mouth of the river a considerable number of articles which +had evidently belonged to the Franklin expedition; while others were +picked up on Montreal Island a day's march to the northward. It was +clear, therefore, that a party from the "Erebus" and "Terror" had +endeavoured to reach the settlements of the Hudson's Bay Company by the +Fish river route, and that in making a southerly course it had been +arrested within the channel into which the Great Fish river empties +itself. The admiralty now decided to take no further steps to determine +the exact fate of the expedition, and granted to Dr Rae the reward of +L10,000 which had been offered in 1849 to whosoever should first succeed +in obtaining authentic news of the missing men. It was therefore +reserved for the latest effort of Lady Franklin to develop, not only the +fate of her husband's expedition but also the steps of its progress up +to the very verge of success, mingled indeed with almost unprecedented +disaster. With all her available means, and aided, as she had been +before, by the subscriptions of sympathizing friends, she purchased and +fitted out the little yacht "Fox," which sailed from Aberdeen in July +1857. The command was accepted by Captain (afterwards Sir) Leopold +M'Clintock, whose high reputation had been won in three of the +government expeditions sent out in search of Franklin. Having been +compelled to pass the first winter in Baffin Bay, it was not till the +autumn of 1858 that the "Fox" passed down Prince Regent's Inlet, and put +into winter quarters at Port Kennedy at the eastern end of Bellot +Strait, between North Somerset and Boothia Felix. In the spring of 1859 +three sledging parties went out, Captain (afterwards Sir) Allen Young to +examine Prince of Wales Island, Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Hobson +the north and west coasts of King William's Island, and M'Clintock the +east and south coasts of the latter, the west coast of Boothia, and the +region about the mouth of Great Fish river. This splendid and exhaustive +search added 800 m. of new coast-line to the knowledge of the Arctic +regions, and brought to light the course and fate of the expedition. +From the Eskimo in Boothia many relics were obtained, and reports as to +the fate of the ships and men; and on the west and south coast of King +William's Island were discovered skeletons and remains of articles that +told a terrible tale of disaster. Above all, in a cairn at Point Victory +a precious record was discovered by Lieutenant Hobson that briefly told +the history of the expedition up to April 25, 1848, three years after it +set out full of hope. In 1845-1846 the "Erebus" and "Terror" wintered at +Beechey Island on the S.W. coast of North Devon, in lat. 74 deg. 43' 28" +N., long. 91 deg. 39' 15" W., after having ascended Wellington Channel to +lat. 77 deg. and returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island. This +statement was signed by Graham Gore, lieutenant, and Charles F. des +Voeux, mate, and bore date May 28, 1847. These two officers and six men, +it was further told, left the ships on May 24, 1847 (no doubt for an +exploring journey), at which time all was well. + +Such an amount of successful work has seldom been accomplished by an +Arctic expedition within any one season. The alternative course +permitted Franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not +pursued, and in the autumn of 1846 he had followed that route which was +specially commended to him. But after successfully navigating Peel and +Franklin Straits on his way southward, his progress had been suddenly +and finally arrested by the obstruction of heavy ("palaeocrystic") ice, +which presses down from the north-west through M'Clintock Channel (not +then known to exist) upon King William's Island. It must be remembered +that in the chart which Franklin carried King William's Island was laid +down as a part of the mainland of Boothia, and he therefore could pursue +his way _only_ down its western coast. Upon the margin of the printed +admiralty form on which this brief record was written was an addendum +dated the 25th of April 1848, which extinguished all further hopes of a +successful termination of this grand enterprise. The facts are best +conveyed in the terse and expressive words in which they were written, +and are therefore given _verbatim_: "April 25th, 1848. H.M. Ships +'Terror' and 'Erebus' were deserted on 22nd April, five leagues N.N.W. +of this, having been beset since 12th September 1846. The officers and +crews, consisting of 105 souls under the command of Captain F. R. M. +Crozier, landed in lat. 69 deg. 37' 42" N., long. 98 deg. 41' W. This paper was +found by Lieut. Irving ... where it had been deposited by the late +Commander Gore in June 1847. Sir John Franklin died on the 11th June +1847; and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this +date 9 officers and 15 men." The handwriting is that of Captain +Fitzjames, to whose signature is appended that of Captain Crozier, who +also adds the words of chief importance, namely, that they would "start +on to-morrow 26th April 1848 for Back's Fish river." A briefer record +has never been told of so tragic a story. + +All the party had without doubt been greatly reduced through want of +sufficient food, and the injurious effects of three winters in these +regions. They had attempted to drag with them two boats, besides heavily +laden sledges, and doubtless had soon been compelled to abandon much of +their burden, and leave one boat on the shore of King William's Island, +where it was found by M'Clintock, near the middle of the west coast, +containing two skeletons. The route adopted was the shortest possible, +but their strength and supplies had failed, and at that season of the +year the snow-covered land afforded no subsistence. An old Eskimo woman +stated that these heroic men "fell down and died as they walked," and, +as Sir John Richardson has well said, they "forged the last link of the +North-West Passage with their lives." From all that can be gathered, one +of the ships must have been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water, +and the other, stranded on the shore of King William's Island, lay there +for years, forming a mine of wealth for the neighbouring Eskimo. + +This is all we know of the fate of Franklin and his brave men. His +memory is cherished as one of the most conspicuous of the naval heroes +of Britain, and as one of the most successful and daring of her +explorers. He is certainly entitled to the honour of being the first +discoverer of the North-West Passage; the point reached by the ships +having brought him to within a few miles of the known waters of America, +and on the monument erected to him by his country, in Waterloo Place, +London, this honour is justly awarded to him and his companions,--a fact +which was also affirmed by the president of the Royal Geographical +Society, when presenting their gold medal to Lady Franklin in 1860. On +the 26th of October 1852 Franklin had been promoted to the rank of +rear-admiral. He left an only daughter by his first marriage. Lady +Franklin died in 1875 at the age of eighty-three, and a fortnight after +her death a fine monument was unveiled in Westminster Abbey, +commemorating the heroic deeds and fate of Sir John Franklin, and the +inseparable connexion of Lady Franklin's name with the fame of her +husband. Most of the relics brought home by M'Clintock were presented by +Lady Franklin to the United Service Museum, while those given by Dr Rae +to the admiralty are deposited in Greenwich hospital. In 1864-1869 the +American explorer Captain Hall made two journeys in endeavouring to +trace the remnant of Franklin's party, bringing back a number of +additional relics and some information confirmatory of that given by +M'Clintock, and in 1878 Lieutenant F. Schwatka of the United States army +and a companion made a final land search, but although accomplishing a +remarkable record of travel discovered nothing which threw any fresh +light on the history of the expedition. + + See H. D. Traill, _Life of Sir John Franklin_ (1896). + + + + +FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1903), Federal general in the American +Civil War, was born at York, Pennsylvania, on the 27th of February 1823. +He graduated at West Point, at the head of his class, in 1843, was +commissioned in the Engineer Corps, U.S.A., and served with distinction +in the Mexican War, receiving the brevet of first lieutenant for his +good conduct at Buena Vista, in which action he was on the staff of +General Taylor. After the war he was engaged in miscellaneous +engineering work, becoming a first lieutenant in 1853 and a captain in +1857. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he was made +colonel of a regular infantry regiment, and a few days later +brigadier-general of volunteers. He led a brigade in the first battle of +Bull Run, and on the organization by McClellan of the Army of the +Potomac he received a divisional command. He commanded first a division +and then the VI. Corps in the operations before Richmond in 1862, +earning the brevet of brigadier-general in the U.S. Army; was promoted +major-general, U.S.V., in July 1862; commanded the VI. corps at South +Mountain and Antietam; and at Fredericksburg commanded the "Left Grand +Division" of two corps (I. and VI.). His part in the last battle led to +charges of disobedience and negligence being preferred against him by +the commanding general, General A. E. Burnside, on which the +congressional committee on the conduct of the war reported unfavourably +to Franklin, largely, it seems, because Burnside's orders to Franklin +were not put in evidence. Burnside had issued on the 23rd of January +1863 an order relieving Franklin from duty, and Franklin's only other +service in the war was as commander of the XIX. corps in the abortive +Red River Expedition of 1864. In this expedition he received a severe +wound at the action of Sabine Cross Roads (April 8, 1864), in +consequence of which he took no further active part in the war. He +served for a time on the retiring board, and was captured by the +Confederates on the 11th of July 1864, but escaped the same night. In +1865 he was brevetted major-general in the regular army, and in 1866 he +was retired. After the war General Franklin was vice-president of the +Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, was president of the +commission to lay out Long Island City, N.Y. (1871-1872), of the +commission on the building of the Connecticut state house (1872-1873), +and, from 1880 to 1899, of the board of managers of the national home +for disabled volunteer soldiers; as a commissioner of the United States +to the Paris Exposition of 1889 he was made a grand officer of the +Legion of Honour; and he was for a time a director of the Panama +railway. He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 8th of March 1903. He +wrote a pamphlet, _The Gatling Gun for Service Ashore and Afloat_ +(1874). + + See _A Reply of Major-General William B. Franklin to the Report of the + Joint Committee of Congress on the Conduct of the War_ (New York, + 1863; 2nd ed., 1867), and Jacob L. Greene, _Gen. W. B. Franklin and + the Operations of the Left Wing at the Battle of Fredericksburg_ + (Hartford, 1900). + + + + +FRANKLIN, an organized district of Canada, extending from the Arctic +Circle to the North Pole. It was formed by order-in-council on the 2nd +of October 1895, and includes numerous islands and peninsulas, such as +Banks, Prince Albert, Victoria, Wollaston, King Edward and Baffin Land, +Melville, Bathurst, Prince of Wales and Cockburn Islands. Of these, +Baffin Land alone extends south of the Arctic Circle. The area is +estimated at 500,000 sq. m., but the inhabitants consist of a few +Indians, Eskimo and fur-traders. Musk-oxen, polar bears, foxes and other +valuable fur-bearing animals are found in large numbers. The district is +named after Sir John Franklin. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., with an +area of 29 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1900) 5017, of whom 1250 +were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 5244; (1910 census) 5641. The +principal village, also named Franklin, is about 27 m. S.W. of Boston, +and is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. Franklin +has a public library (housed in the Ray memorial building and containing +7700 volumes in 1910) and is the seat of Dean Academy (Universalist; +founded in 1865), a secondary school for boys and girls. Straw goods, +felt, cotton and woollen goods, pianos and printing presses are +manufactured here. The township was incorporated in 1778, previous to +which it was a part of Wrentham (1673). It was the first of the many +places in the United States named in honour of Benjamin Franklin (who +later contributed books for the public library). Horace Mann was born +here. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a city of Merrimack county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., at the +confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnepesaukee rivers to form the +Merrimac; about 95 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 4085; (1900) 5846 +(1323 foreign-born); (1910) 6132; area, about 14.4 sq. m. Franklin is +served by the Concord Division of the Boston & Maine railway, with a +branch to Bristol (13 m. N.W.) and another connecting at Tilton (about 5 +m. E.) with the White Mountains Division. It contains the villages of +Franklin, Franklin Falls, Webster Place and Lake City, the last a summer +resort. The rivers furnish good water power, which is used in the +manufacture of a variety of commodities, including foundry products, +paper and pulp, woollen goods, hosiery, saws, needles and knitting +machines. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality. +Here, in what was then a part of the town of Salisbury, Daniel Webster +was born, and on the Webster farm is the New Hampshire orphans' home, +established in 1871. The town of Franklin was formed in 1828 by the +union of portions of Salisbury, Sanbornton, Andover and Northfield. The +earliest settlement within its limits was made in 1748 in the portion +taken from Salisbury. Franklin was incorporated as a city in 1895. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a city and the county-seat of Venango county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., at the confluence of French Creek and Allegheny river, about 55 +m. S. by E. of Erie, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 6221; +(1900) 7317 (489 being foreign-born); (1910) 9767. Franklin is served by +the Erie, the Pennsylvania, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the +Franklin & Clearfield railways. Its streets are broad and well paved and +shaded, and there are two public parks, a public library and many +handsome residences. Franklin is the centre of the chief oil region of +the state, and from it great quantities of refined oil are shipped. +Natural gas also abounds. The city's manufacture include oil-well +supplies, boilers, engines, steel castings, iron goods, lumber, bricks, +asbestos goods, manifolding paper and flour. On the site of the present +city the French built in 1754 a fortification, Fort Machault, which +after the capture of Fort Duquesne by the English was a rallying place +for Indians allied with the French. In 1759 the French abandoned and +completely destroyed the fort; and in the following year the English +built in the vicinity Fort Venango, which was captured by the Indians in +1763 during the Conspiracy of Pontiac, the whole garrison being +massacred. In 1787 the United States built Fort Franklin (about 1 m. +above the mouth of French Creek) as a protection against the Indians; in +1796 the troops were removed to a strongly built and well-fortified +wooden building, known as "Old Garrison," at the mouth of French Creek, +and in 1803 they were permanently withdrawn from the neighbourhood. +Franklin was laid out as a town in 1795, was incorporated as a borough +in 1828, and was chartered as a city in 1868. Most of its growth dates +from the discovery of oil in 1860. + + + + +FRANKLIN, a town and the county-seat of Williamson county, Tennessee, +U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on the Harpeth river, and +about 20 m. S.W. of Nashville. Pop. (1900) 2180; (1910) 2924. Franklin +is served by the Louisville & Nashville railway. It is the seat of the +Tennessee Female College and the Battle Ground Academy, and its chief +objects of interest are the battle-ground, the Confederate cemetery and +the Confederate monument. During the Civil War Franklin was the scene of +a minor engagement on the 10th of April 1863, and of a battle, +celebrated as one of the most desperately fought of the war, which took +place on the 30th of November 1864. The Union general Schofield, who was +slowly withdrawing to Nashville before the advance of General J. B. +Hood's army, which he was ordered to hold in check in order to give +Thomas time to prepare for battle (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, Sec. 32), was +unable immediately to cross the Harpeth river and was compelled to +entrench his forces south of the town until his wagon trains and +artillery could be sent over the stream by means of two small bridges. +In the afternoon Schofield's outposts and advanced lines were attacked +by the Confederates in full strength, and instead of withdrawing as +ordered they made a determined stand. Thus the assailants, carrying the +advanced works by storm, rushed upon the main defences on the heels of +the broken advanced guard, and a general engagement was brought on which +lasted from 3.30 until nine o'clock in the evening. Against, it is said, +thirteen separate assaults, all delivered with exceptional fury, +Schofield managed to hold his position, and shortly before midnight he +withdrew across the river in good order. The engagement was indecisive +in its results, but the Union commander's purpose, to hold Hood +momentarily in check, was gained, and Hood's effort to crush Schofield +was unavailing. The losses were very heavy; Hood's effective forces in +the engagement numbered about 27,000, Schofield's about 28,000; the +Confederate losses (excluding cavalry) were about 6500, excluding the +slightly wounded; six general officers were killed (including +Major-General P. R. Cleburne, a brave Irishman who had been a corporal +in the British army), six wounded, and one captured; the Union losses +(excluding cavalry) were 2326. In two of the Confederate brigades all +the general and field officers were killed or wounded. + + See J. D. Cox, _The Battle of Franklin_ (New York, 1897). + + + + +FRANKLIN, a word derived from the Late Lat. _francus_, free, and meaning +primarily a freeman. Subsequently it was used in England to denote a +land-holder who was of free but not of noble birth. Some of the older +English writers occasionally use it to mean a liberal host. The Latin +form of the word is _franchilanus_. + + + + +FRANKLINITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals, consisting of +oxides of iron, manganese and zinc in varying proportions, (Fe, Zn, +Mn)"(Fe, Mn)2"'O4. It occurs as large octahedral crystals often with +rounded edges, and as granular masses. The colour is iron-black and the +lustre metallic; hardness 6, specific gravity 5.2. It thus resembles +magnetite in external characters, but is readily distinguished from this +by the fact that it is only slightly magnetic. It is found in +considerable amount, associated with zinc minerals (zincite and +willemite) in crystalline limestone, at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, +where it is mined as an ore of zinc (containing 5 to 20% of the metal); +after the extraction of the zinc, the residue is used in the manufacture +of spiegeleisen (the mineral containing 15 to 20% of manganese oxides). +Associated with franklinite at Franklin Furnace, and found also at some +other localities, is another member of the spinel group, namely, gahnite +or zinc-spinel, which is a zinc aluminate, ZnAl2O4, with a little of the +zinc replaced by iron and manganese. + + + + +FRANK-MARRIAGE (_liberum maritagium_), in real property law, a species +of estate tail, now obsolete. When a man was seized of land in fee +simple, and gave it to a daughter on marriage, the daughter and her +husband were termed the donees in frank-marriage, because they held the +land granted to them and the heirs of their two bodies free from all +manner of service, except fealty, to the donor or his heirs until the +fourth degree of consanguinity from the donor was passed. This right of +a freeholder so to give away his land at will was first recognized in +the reign of Henry II., and became up to the reign of Elizabeth the most +usual kind of settlement. + + + + +FRANKPLEDGE (Lat. _francum plegium_), an early English institution, +consisting (as defined by Stubbs) of an association for mutual security +whose members, according to Hallam, "were perpetual bail for each +other." The custom whereby the Inhabitants of a district were +responsible for any crime or injury committed by one of their number is +old and widespread; it prevailed in England before the Norman Conquest, +and is an outcome of the earlier principle whereby this responsibility +rested on kinship. Thus a law of Edgar (d. 975) says "and let every man +so order that he have a _borh_ (or surety), and let the borh then bring +and hold him to every justice; and if any one then do wrong and run +away, let the borh bear that which he ought to bear"; and a law of +Canute about 1030 says "and that every one be brought into a hundred and +in borh, and let the borh hold and lead him to every plea." About this +time these societies, each having its headman, were called _frithborhs_, +or peace-borhs, and the Normans translated the Anglo-Saxon word by +frankpledge. But the history of the frankpledge proper begins not +earlier than the time of the Norman Conquest. The laws, which although +called the laws of Edward the Confessor were not drawn up until about +1130, contain a clause about frithborhs which decrees that in every +place societies of ten men shall be formed for mutual security and +reparation. And before this date William the Conqueror had ordered that +"every one who wishes to be regarded as free must be in a pledge, and +that the pledge must hold and bring him to justice if he commits any +offence"; and the laws of Henry I. ordered every person of substance +over twelve years of age to be enrolled in a frankpledge. This +association of ten, or as it often was at a later date of twelve men, +was also called a _tithing_, or _decima_, and in the north of England +was known as _tenmanne_ tale. + +The view of frankpledge (_visus franciplegii_), or the duty of +ascertaining that the law with regard to frankpledges was complied with, +was in the hands of the sheriffs, who held an itinerant court called the +"sheriff's tourn" for this and other purposes. This court was held twice +a year, but in 1217 it was ordered that the view of frankpledge should +only be taken once--at Michaelmas. Introduced at or before the time of +Henry I., the view was regulated by the Assize of Clarendon of 1166 and +by Magna Carta as reissued in 1217. Although the former of these lays +stress upon the fact that the sheriff's supervisory powers are universal +many men did not attend his tourn. Some lords of manors and of hundreds +held a court of their own for view of frankpledge, and in the 13th +century it may be fairly said "of all the franchises, the royal rights +in private hands, view of frankpledge is perhaps the commonest." At the +end of the same century the court for the view of frankpledge was +generally known as the court leet, and was usually a manorial court in +private hands. However, the principle of the frankpledge was still +enforced. Thus Bracton says "every male of the age of twelve years, be +he free be he serf, ought to be in frankpledge," but he allows for +certain exceptions. + +As the word frankpledge denotes, these societies were originally +concerned only with freemen; but the unfree were afterwards admitted, +and during the 13th century the frankpledges were composed chiefly of +villains. From petitions presented to parliament in 1376 it seems that +the view of frankpledge was in active operation at this time, but it +soon began to fall into disuse, and its complete decay coincides with +the new ideas of government introduced by the Tudors. In a formal +fashion courts leet for the view of frankpledge were held in the time of +the jurist Selden, and a few of these have survived until the present +day. Sir F. Palgrave has asserted that the view of frankpledge was +unknown in that part of the country which had been included in the +kingdom of Northumbria. This statement is open to question, but it is +highly probable that the system was not so deeply rooted in this part of +England as elsewhere. The machinery of the frankpledge was probably used +by Henry II. when he introduced the jury of presentment; and commenting +on this connexion F. W. Maitland says "the duty of producing one's +neighbour to answer accusations (the duty of the frankpledges) could +well be converted into the duty of telling tales against him." The +system of frankpledge prevailed in some English boroughs. Sometimes a +court for view of frankpledge, called in some places a _mickleton_, +whereat the mayor or the bailiffs presided, was held for the whole +borough; in other cases the borough was divided into wards, or into +_leets_, each of which had its separate court. + + See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1895); G. Waitz, + _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, Band i. (1880); and W. Stubbs, + _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (1897). + + + + +FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897), English antiquary, was born +on the 20th of March 1826, and was educated at Eton and at Trinity +College, Cambridge. He early showed inclination for antiquarian +pursuits, and in 1851 was appointed assistant in the Antiquities +Department of the British Museum. Here, and as director of the Society +of Antiquaries, an appointment he received in 1858, he made himself the +first authority in England upon medieval antiquities of all +descriptions, upon porcelain, glass, the manufactures of savage nations, +and in general upon all Oriental curiosities and works of art later than +the Classical period. In 1866 the British and medieval antiquities, with +the ethnographical collections, were formed into a distinct department +under his superintendence; and the Christy collection of ethnography in +Victoria Street, London, prior to its amalgamation with the British +Museum collections, was also under his care. He became vice-president +and ultimately president of the Society of Antiquaries, and in 1878 +declined the principal librarianship of the museum. He retired on his +seventieth birthday, 1896, and died on the 21st of May 1897. His ample +fortune was largely devoted to the collection of ceramics and precious +objects of medieval art, most of which became the property of the +nation, either by donation in his lifetime or by bequest at his death. +Although chiefly a medieval antiquary, Franks was also an authority on +classical art, especially Roman remains in Britain: he was also greatly +interested in book-marks and playing-cards, of both of which he formed +important collections. He edited Kemble's _Horae Ferales_, and wrote +numerous memoirs on archaeological subjects. Perhaps his most important +work of this class is the catalogue of his own collection of porcelain. + + + + + +FRANKS. The name Franks seems to have been given in the 4th century to a +group of Germanic peoples dwelling north of the Main and reaching as far +as the shores of the North Sea; south of the Main was the home of the +Alamanni. The names of some of these tribes have come down to us. On the +_Tabula Peutingeriana_ appear the "Chamavi qui et _Pranci_," which +should doubtless read "qui et _Franci_"; these Chamavi apparently dwelt +between the Yssel and the Ems. Later, we find them a little farther +south, on the banks of the Rhine, in the district called Hamalant, and +it is their customs which were brought together in the 9th century in +the document known as the _Lex Francorum Chamavorum_. After the Chamavi +we may mention the Attuarii or Chattuarii, who are referred to by +Ammianus Marcellinus (xx. 10, 2): "Rheno exinde transmisso, regionem +pervasit (Julianus) Francorum quos Atthuarios vocant." Later, the _pagus +Attuariorum_ corresponds to the district of Emmerich and Xanten. It +should be noted that this name occurs again in the middle ages in +Burgundy, not far from Dijon; in all probability a detachment of this +people had settled in that spot in the 5th or 6th century. The Bructeri, +Ampsivarii and Chatti may also be classed among the Frankish tribes. +They are mentioned in a celebrated passage of Sulpicius Alexander, which +is cited by Gregory of Tours (_Historia Francorum_, ii. 9). Sulpicius +shows the general Arbogast, a barbarian in the service of Rome, seeking +to take vengeance on the Franks (392): "Collecto exercitu, transgressus +Rhenum, Bricteros ripae proximos, pagum etiam quem Chamavi incolunt +depopulatus est, nullo unquam occursante, nisi quod pauci ex Ampsivariis +et Catthis Marcomere duce in ulterioribus collium jugis apparuere." It +is evidently this Marcomeres, the chief of these tribes, who is regarded +by later historians as the father of the legendary Faramund (Pharamund) +although in fact Marcomeres has nothing to do with the Salian Franks. + +The earliest mention in history of the name Franks is the entry on the +_Tabula Peutingeriana_, at least if we assume that the term "et Franci" +is not a later emendation. The earliest occurrence of the name in any +author is in the _Vita Aureliani_ of Vopiscus (ch. vii.). When, in 241, +Aurelian, who was then only a tribune, had just defeated some Franks in +the neighbourhood of Mainz and was marching against the Persians, his +troops sang the following refrain: + + Mille Sarmatas, mille _Francos_, semel et semel occidimus; + Mille Persas, quaerimus. + +All these Germanic tribes, which were known from the 3rd century onwards +by the generic name of Franks, doubtless spoke a similar dialect and +were governed by customs which must scarcely have differed from one +another; but this was all they had in common. Each tribe was politically +independent; they formed no confederations. Sometimes two or three +tribes joined forces to wage a war; but, the struggle over, the bond was +broken, and each tribe resumed its isolated life. Waitz holds with some +show of probability that the Franks represent the ancient Istaevones of +Tacitus, the Alamanni and the Saxons representing the Herminones and the +Ingaevones. + +Of all these Frankish tribes one especially was to become prominent, the +tribe of the Salians. They are mentioned for the first time in 358, by +Ammianus Marcellinus (xvii. 8, 3), who says that the Caesar Julian +"petit primos omnium Francos, videlicet eos quos consuetudo Salios +appellavit." As to the origin of the name, it was long held to be +derived from the river Yssel or Saal. It is more probable, however, that +it arose from the fact that the Salians for a long period occupied the +shores of the salt sea.[1] The Salians inhabited the sea-coast, whereas +the Ripuarians dwelt on the banks of the river Rhine. + +The Salians, at the time when they are mentioned by Ammianus, occupied +Toxandria, i.e. the region south of the Meuse, between that river and +the Scheldt. Julian defeated them completely, but allowed them to remain +in Toxandria, not, as of old, as conquerors, but as _foederati_ of the +Romans. They perhaps paid tribute, and they certainly furnished Rome +with soldiers; _Salii seniores_ and _Salii juniores_ are mentioned in +the _Notitia dignitatum_, and Salii appear among the _auxilia palatina_. + +At the end of the 4th century and at the beginning of the 5th, when the +Roman legions withdrew from the banks of the Rhine, the Salians +installed themselves in the district as an independent people. The +place-names became entirely Germanic; the Latin language disappeared; +and the Christian religion suffered a check, for the Franks were to a +man pagans. The Salians were subdivided into a certain number of tribes, +each tribe placing at its head a king, distinguished by his long hair +and chosen from the most noble family (_Historia Francorum_, ii. 9). + +The most ancient of these kings, reigning over the principal tribe, who +is known to us is Chlodio.[2] According to Gregory of Tours Chlodio +dwelt at a place called Dispargum, which it is impossible to identify. +Towards 431 he crossed the great Roman road from Bavay to Cologne, which +was protected by numerous forts and had long arrested the invasions of +the barbarians. He then invaded the territory of Arras, but was severely +defeated at Hesdin-le-Vieux by Aetius, the commander of the Roman army +in Gaul. Chlodio, however, soon took his revenge. He explored the region +of Cambrai, seized that town, and occupied all the country as far as the +Somme. At this time Tournai became the capital of the Salian Franks. + +After Chlodio a certain Meroveus (Merowech) was king of the Salian +Franks. We do not know if he was the son of Chlodio; Gregory of Tours +simply says that he belonged to Chlodio's stock--"de hujus stirpe quidam +Merovechum regem fuisse adserunt,"--and then only gives the fact at +second hand. Perhaps the remarks of the Byzantine historian Priscus may +refer to Meroveus. A king of the Franks having died, his two sons +disputed the power. The elder journeyed into Pannonia to obtain support +from Attila; the younger betook himself to the imperial court at Rome. +"I have seen him," writes Priscus; "he was still very young, and we all +remarked his fair hair which fell upon his shoulders." Aetius welcomed +him warmly and sent him back a friend and _foederatus_. In any case, +eventually, Franks fought (451) in the Roman ranks at the great battle +of Mauriac (the Catalaunian Fields), which arrested the progress of +Attila into Gaul; and in the _Vita Lupi_, which, though undoubtedly of +later date, is a recension of an earlier document, the name of Meroveus +appears among the combatants. Towards 457 Meroveus was succeeded by his +son Childeric. At first Childeric was a faithful _foederatus_ of the +Romans, fighting for them against the Visigoths and the Saxons south of +the Loire; but he soon sought to make himself independent and to extend +his conquests. He died in 481 and was succeeded by his son Clovis, who +conquered the whole of Gaul with the exception of the kingdom of +Burgundy and Provence. Clovis made his authority recognized over the +other Salian tribes (whose kings dwelt at Cambrai and other cities), and +put an end to the domination of the Ripuarian Franks. + +These Ripuarians must have comprised a certain number of Frankish +tribes, such as the Ampsivarii and the Bructeri. They settled in the 5th +century in compact masses on the left bank of the Rhine, but their +progress was slow. It was not until the Christian writer Salvian (who +was born about 400) had already reached a fairly advanced age that they +were able to seize Cologne. The town, however, was recaptured and was +not definitely in their possession until 463. The Ripuarians +subsequently occupied all the country from Cologne to Trier. +Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn and Zuelpich were their principal centres, and they +even advanced southward as far as Metz, which appears to have resisted +their attacks. The Roman civilization and the Latin language disappeared +from the countries which they occupied; indeed it seems that the actual +boundaries of the German and French languages nearly coincide with those +of their dominion. In their southward progress the Ripuarians +encountered the Alamanni, who, already masters of Alsace, were +endeavouring to extend their conquests in all directions. There were +numerous battles between the Ripuarians and the Alamanni; and the memory +of one fought at Zuelpich has come down to us. In this battle Sigebert, +the king of the Ripuarians, was wounded in the knee and limped during +the remainder of his life--hence his surname Claudus (the Lame). The +Ripuarians long remained allies of Clovis, Sigebert's son Chloderic +fighting under the king of the Salian Franks at Vouille in 507. Clovis, +however, persuaded Chloderic to assassinate his father, and then posed +as Sigebert's avenger, with the result that Chloderic was himself +assassinated and the Ripuarians raised Clovis on the shield and chose +him as king. Thus the Salian Franks united under their rule all the +Franks on the left bank of the Rhine. During the reigns of Clovis's sons +they again turned their eyes on Germany, and imposed their suzerainty +upon the Franks on the right bank. This country, north of the Main and +the first residence of the Franks, then received the name of _Francia +Orientalis_, and became the origin of one of the duchies into which +Germany was divided in the 10th century--the duchy of Franconia +(Franken). + +The Franks were redoubtable warriors, and were generally of great +stature. Their fair or red hair was brought forward from the crown of +the head towards the forehead, leaving the nape of the neck uncovered; +they shaved the face except the upper lip. They wore fairly close +breeches reaching to the knee and a tunic fastened by brooches. Round +the waist over the tunic was worn a leathern girdle having a broad iron +buckle damascened with silver. From the girdle hung the single-edged +missile axe or _francisca_, the _scramasax_ or short knife, a poniard +and such articles of toilet as scissors, a comb (of wood or bone), &c. +The Franks also used a weapon called the _framea_ (an iron lance set +firmly in a wooden shaft), and bows and arrows. They protected +themselves in battle with a large wooden or wicker shield, the centre of +which was ornamented with an iron boss (_umbo_). Frankish arms and +armour have been found in the cemeteries which abound throughout +northern France, the warriors being buried fully armed. + + See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthuemer_ (Goettingen, 1828); K. + Muellenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_ (Berlin, 1883-1900); E. von + Wietersheim, _Geschichte der Voelkerwanderung_, 2nd ed., ed. by F. Dahn + (Leipzig, 1880-1881); G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, vol. + i. (4th ed. revised by Zeumer); R. Schroeder, "Die Ausbreitung der + salischen Franken," in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, vol. + xix.; K. Lamprecht, _Fraenkische Wanderungen und Ansiedelungen_ + (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1882); W. Schultz, _Deutsche Geschichte von der + Urzeit bis zu den Karolingern_, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896); Fustel de + Coulanges, _Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne + France--l'invasion germanique_ (Paris, 1891). Also the articles SALIC + LAW and GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY. (C. Pf.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Their legends are connected with the sea, the name Meroveus + signifying "sea-born." + + [2] The chronicler Fredegarius and the author of the _Liber historiae + Francorum_ make Sunno and Marcomeres his predecessors, but in reality + they were chiefs of other Frankish tribes. The author of the _Liber_ + also claims that Chlodio was the son of Pharamund, but this personage + is quite legendary. In the _Chronicon_ of Fredegarius it is already + affirmed that the Franks are descended from the Trojans. + + + + +FRANZ, ROBERT (1815-1892), German composer, was born at Halle on the +28th of June 1815. One of the most gifted of German song writers, he +suffered in early life, as many musicians have suffered, from the +hostility of his parents to a musical career. He was twenty years old +when, his father's animosity conquered, he was allowed to live in Dessau +to study organ-playing under Schneider. The two years of dry study under +that famous teacher were advantageous chiefly in making him uncommonly +intimate with the works of Bach and Handel, his knowledge of which he +showed in his editions of the _Matthaeus Passion_, _Magnificat_, ten +cantatas, and of the _Messiah_ and _L'Allegro_, though some of these +editions have long been a subject of controversy among musicians. In +1843 he published his first book of songs, which ultimately was followed +by some fifty more books, containing in all about 250 songs. At Halle, +Franz filled various public offices, including those of organist to the +city, conductor of the Sing-akademie and of the Symphony concerts, and +he was also a royal music-director and master of the music at the +university. The first book of songs was warmly praised by Schumann and +Liszt, the latter of whom wrote a lengthy review of it in Schumann's +paper, _Die neue Zeitschrift_, which later was published separately. +Deafness had begun to make itself apparent as early as 1841, and Franz +suffered also from a nervous disorder, which in 1868 compelled him to +resign his offices. His future was then provided for by Liszt, Dr +Joachim, Frau Magnus and others, who gave him the receipts of a concert +tour, amounting to some 100,000 marks. Franz died on the 24th of October +1892. On his seventieth birthday he published his first and only +pianoforte piece. It is easy to find here and there among his songs gems +that are hardly less brilliant than the best of Schumann's. Certainly no +musician was ever more thoughtful and more painstaking. In addition to +songs he wrote a setting for double choir of the 117th Psalm, and a +four-part Kyrie; he also edited Astorga's _Stabat Mater_ and Durante's +_Magnificat_. + + + + +FRANZEN, FRANS MIKAEL (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was born at Uleaborg in +Finland on the 9th of February 1772. At thirteen he entered the +university of Abo, where he attended the lectures of H. G. Porthan +(1739-1804), a pioneer in the study of Finnish history and legend. He +graduated in 1789, and became "_eloquentiae docens_" in 1792. Three +years later he started on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France and +England, returning in 1796 to accept the office of university librarian +at Abo. In 1801 he became professor of history and ethics, and in 1808 +was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. On the cession of Finland +to Russia, Franzen removed to Sweden, where he was successively +appointed parish priest of Kumla in the diocese of Strengnaes (1810), +minister of the Clara Church in Stockholm (1824) and bishop of Hernoesand +(1831). He died at Saebra parsonage on the 14th of August 1847. From the +autumn of 1793, when his _Till en ung Flicka_ and _Menniskans anlete_ +were inserted by Kellgren in the _Stockholmspost_, Franzen grew in +popular favour by means of many minor poems of singular simplicity and +truth, as _Till Selma_, _Den gamle knekten_, _Riddar St Goeran_, _De Sma +blommorna_, _Modren vid vaggan_, _Nyarsmorgonen_ and _Stjernhimmelen_. +His songs _Goda gosse glaset toem_, _Soerj ej den gryende dagen foerut_, +_Champagnevinet_ and _Bevaeringssang_ were widely sung, and in 1797 he +won the prize of the Swedish Academy by his _Sang oefver grefve Filip +Creutz_. Henceforth his muse, touched with the academic spirit, grew +more reflective and didactic. His longer works, as _Emili eller en afton +i Lappland_, and the epics _Svante Sture eller moetet vid Alvastra_, +_Kolumbus eller Amerikas upptaeckt_ and _Gustaf Adolf i Tyskland_ (the +last two incomplete), though rich in beauties of detail, are far +inferior to his shorter pieces. + + The poetical works of Franzen are collected under the title + _Skaldestycken_ (7 vols., 1824-1861); new ed., _Samlade dikter_, with + a biography by A. A. Grafstroem (1867-1869); also a selection (_Valda + dikter_) in 2 vols. (1871). His prose writings, _Om svenska + drottningar_ (Abo, 1798; Oerebro, 1823), _Skrifter i obunden stil_, + vol. i. (1835), _Predikningar_ (5 vols., 1841-1845) and + _Minnesteckningar_, prepared for the Academy (3 vols., 1848-1860), are + marked by faithful portraiture and purity of style. See B. E. + Malmstroem, in the _Handlingar_ of the Swedish Academy (1852, new + series 1887), vol. ii.; S. A. Hollander, _Minne af F. M. Franzen_ + (Oerebro, 1868); F. Cygnaeus, _Teckningar ur F. M. Franzens lefnad_ + (Helsingfors, 1872); and Gustaf Ljunggren, _Svenska vitterhetens + haefder efter Gustaf III.'s doed_, vol. ii. (1876). + + + + +FRANZENSBAD, or KAISER-FRANZENSBAD, a town and watering-place of +Bohemia, Austria, 152 m. W.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 2330. It +is situated at an altitude of about 1500 ft. between the spurs of the +Fichtelgebirge, the Boehmerwald and the Erzgebirge, and lies 4 m. N.W. of +Eger. It possesses a large kursaal, several bathing establishments, a +hospital for poor patients and several parks. There are altogether 12 +mineral springs with saline, alkaline and ferruginous waters, of which +the oldest and most important is the Franzensquelle. One of the springs +gives off carbonic acid gas and another contains a considerable +proportion of lithia salts. The waters, which have an average +temperature between 50.2 deg. F. and 54.5 deg. F., are used both internally and +externally, and are efficacious in cases of anaemia, nervous disorders, +sexual diseases, specially for women, and heart diseases. Franzensbad is +frequently resorted to as an after-cure by patients from Carlsbad and +Marienbad. Another important part of the cure is the so-called _moor_ or +mud-baths, prepared from the peat of the Franzensbad marsh, which is +very rich in mineral substances, like sulphates of iron, of soda and of +potash, organic acids, salt, &c. + +The first information about the springs dates from the 16th century, and +an analysis of the waters was made in 1565. They were first used for +bathing purposes in 1707. But the foundation of Franzensbad as a +watering-place really dates from 1793, when Dr Adler built here the +first _Kurhaus_, and the place received its name after the emperor +Francis I. + + See Dr Loimann, _Franzensbad_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1900). + + + + +FRANZ JOSEF LAND, an arctic archipelago lying E. of Spitsbergen and N. +of Novaya Zemlya, extending northward from about 80 deg. to 82 deg. N., and +between 42 deg. and 64 deg. E. It is described as a lofty glacier-covered land, +reaching an extreme elevation of about 2400 ft. The glaciers front, with +a perpendicular ice-wall, a shore of debris on which a few low plants +are found to grow--poppies, mosses and the like. The islands are +volcanic, the main geological formation being Tertiary or Jurassic +basalt, which occasionally protrudes through the ice-cap in high +isolated blocks near the shore. A connecting island-chain between Franz +Josef Land and Spitzbergen is probable. The bear and fox are the only +land mammals; insects are rare; but the avifauna is of interest, and the +Jackson expedition distinguished several new species. + +August Petermann expressed the opinion that Baffin may have sighted the +west of Franz Josef Land in 1614, but the first actual discovery is due +to Julius Payer, a lieutenant in the Austrian army, who was associated +with Weyprecht in the second polar expedition fitted out by Count +Wilczek on the ship "Tegetthof" in 1872. On the 13th of August 1873, the +"Tegetthof" being then beset, high land was seen to the north-west. +Later in the season Payer led expeditions to Hochstetter and Wilczek +islands, and after a second winter in the ice-bound ship, a difficult +journey was made northward through Austria Sound, which was reported to +separate two large masses of land, Wilczek Land on the east from Zichy +Land on the west, to Cape Fligely, in 82 deg. 5' N., where Rawlinson Sound +branched away to the north-east. Cape Fligely was the highest latitude +attained by Payer, and remained the highest attained in the Old World +till 1895. Payer reported that from Cape Fligely land (Rudolf Land) +stretched north-east to a cape (Cape Sherard Osborn), and mountain +ranges were visible to the north, indicating lands beyond the 83rd +parallel, to which the names King Oscar Land and Petermann Land were +given. In 1879 De Bruyne sighted high land in the Franz Josef Land +region, but otherwise it remained untouched until Leigh Smith, in the +yacht "Eira," explored the whole southern coast from 42 deg. to 54 deg. E. in +1881 and 1882, discovering many islands and sounds, and ascertaining +that the coast of Alexandra Land, in the extreme west, trended to +north-west and north. + +After Leigh Smith came another pause, and no further mention is made of +Franz Josef Land till 1894. In that year Mr Alfred Harmsworth +(afterwards Lord Northcliffe) fitted out an expedition in the ship +"Windward" under the leadership of Mr F. G. Jackson, with the object of +establishing a permanent base from which systematic exploration should +be carried on for successive years and, if practicable, a journey should +be made to the Pole. Mr Jackson and his party landed at "Elmwood" (which +was named from Lord Northcliffe's seat in the Isle of Thanet), near Cape +Flora, at the western extremity of Northbrook Island, on the 7th of +September. After a preliminary reconnaissance to the north, which +afterwards turned out to be vitally important, the summer of 1895 was +spent in exploring the coast to the north-west by a boating expedition. +This expedition visited many of the points seen by Leigh Smith, and +discovered land, which it has been suggested may be the Gillies Land +reported by the Dutch captain Gillies in 1707. In 1896 the +Jackson-Harmsworth expedition worked northwards through an archipelago +for about 70 m. and reached Cape Richthofen, a promontory 700 ft. high, +whence an expanse of open water was seen to the northward, which +received the name of Queen Victoria Sea. To the west, on the opposite +side of a wide opening which was called the British Channel, appeared +glacier-covered land, and an island lay to the northward. The island was +probably the King Oscar Land of Payer. To north and north-east was the +land which had been visited in the reconnaissance of the previous year, +but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the supposed position of +Petermann Land. Thus Zichy Land itself was resolved into a group of +islands, and the outlying land sighted by Payer was found to be islands +also. Meanwhile Nansen, on his southward journey, had approached Franz +Josef Land from the north-east, finding only sea at the north end of +Wilczek Land, and seeing nothing of Payer's Rawlinson Sound, or of the +north end of Austria Sound. Nansen wintered near Cape Norway, only a few +miles from the spot reached by Jackson in 1895. He had finally proved +that a deep oceanic basin lies to the north. On the 17th of June 1896 +the dramatic meeting of Jackson and Nansen took place, and in the same +year the "Windward" revisited "Elmwood" and brought Nansen home, the +work of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition being continued for another +year. As the non-existence of land to the north had been proved, the +attempt to penetrate northwards was abandoned, and the last season was +devoted to a survey and scientific examination of the archipelago, +especially to the west; this was carried out by Messrs Jackson, +Armitage, R. Koettlitz, H. Fisher and W. S. Bruce. + +Further light was thrown on the relations of Franz Josef Land and +Spitsbergen during 1897 by the discoveries of Captain Robertson of +Dundee, and Wyche's Land was circumnavigated by Mr Arnold Pike and Sir +Savile Crossley. The latter voyage was repeated in the following year by +a German expedition under Dr Th. Lerner and Captain Ruediger. In August +1898 an expedition under Mr Walter Wellman, an American, landed at Cape +Tegetthof. Beginning a northward journey with sledges at the end of the +winter, Wellman met with an accident which compelled him to return, but +not before some exploration had been accomplished, and the eastern +extension of the archipelago fairly well defined. In June 1899 H.R.H. +the duke of Abruzzi started from Christiania in his yacht, the "Stella +Polare," to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly +discovered ocean north of Franz Josef Land. The "Stella Polare" +succeeded in making her way through the British Channel to Crown Prince +Rudolf Land, and wintered in Teplitz Bay, in 81 deg. 33' N. lat. The ship +was nearly wrecked in the autumn, and the party had to spend most of the +winter on shore, the duke of Abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite. +In March 1900 a sledge party of thirteen, under Captain Cagni, started +northwards. They found no trace of Petermann Land, but with great +difficulty crossed the ice to 86 deg. 33' N. lat., 20 m. beyond Nansen's +farthest, and 240 m. from the Pole. The party, with the exception of +three, returned to the ship after an absence of 104 days, and the +"Stella Polare" returned to Tromsoe in September 1900. In 1901-1902 the +Baldwin-Ziegler expedition also attempted a northward journey from Franz +Josef Land. + + See _Geographical Journal_, vol. xi., February 1898; F. G. Jackson, _A + Thousand Days in the Arctic_ (1899). + + + + +FRANZOS, KARL EMIL (1848-1904), German novelist, was born of Jewish +parentage on the 25th of October 1848 in Russian Podolia, and spent his +early years at Czortkow in Galicia. His father, a district physician, +died early, and the boy, after attending the gymnasium of Czernowitz, +was obliged to teach in order to support himself and prepare for +academic study. He studied law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, +but after passing the examination for employment in the state judicial +service abandoned this career and, becoming a journalist, travelled +extensively in south-east Europe, and visited Asia Minor and Egypt. In +1877 he returned to Vienna, where from 1884 to 1886 he edited the _Neue +illustrierte Zeitung_. In 1887 he removed to Berlin and founded the +fortnightly review _Deutsche Dichtung_. Franzos died on the 28th of +January 1904. His earliest collections of stories and sketches, _Aus +Halb-Asien_, _Land und Leute des oestlichen Europas_ (1876) and _Die +Juden von Barnow_ (1877) depict graphically the life and manners of the +races of south-eastern Europe. Among other of his works may be mentioned +the short stories, _Junge Liebe_ (1878), _Stille Geschichten_ (1880), +and the novels _Moschko von Parma_ (1880), _Ein Kampf ums Recht_ (1882), +_Der Praesident_ (1884), _Judith Trachtenberg_ (1890), _Der +Wahrheitsucher_ (1894). + + + + +FRASCATI, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15 +m. S.E. of Rome by rail, and also reached by electric tramway via +Grottaferrata. Pop. (1901) 8453. The town is situated 1056 ft. above the +sea-level, on the N. slopes of the outer crater ring of the Alban Hills, +and commands a very fine view of the Campagna of Rome. The cathedral +contains a memorial tablet to Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, whose +body for some while rested here; his brother, Henry, Cardinal York, +owned a villa at Frascati. The villas of the Roman nobility, with their +beautiful gardens and fountains, are the chief attraction of Frascati. +The earliest in date is the Villa Falconieri, planned by Cardinal +Ruffini before 1550; the most important of the rest are the Villa +Torlonia (formerly Conti), Lancelotti (formerly Piccolomini), Ruffinella +(now belonging to Prince Lancellotti), Aldobrandini, Borghese and +Mondragone (now a Jesuit school). The surrounding country, covered with +remains of ancient villas, is fertile and noted for its wine. Frascati +seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancient villa, which, +under Domitian at any rate, belonged to the imperial house about the 9th +century in which period we find in the _Liber Pontificalis_ the names of +four churches _in Frascata_. The medieval stronghold of the counts of +Tusculum (q.v.), which occupied the site of the ancient city, was +dismantled by the Romans in 1191, and the inhabitants put to the sword +or mutilated. Many of the fugitives naturally took refuge in Frascati. +The see of Tusculum had, however, always had its cathedral church in +Frascati. For the greater part of the middle ages Frascati belonged to +the papacy. + + See G. Tomassetti, _La Via Latina nel medio evo_ (Rome, 1886), 170 + seq.; T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iv. (London, + 1907). (T. As.) + + + + +FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819- ), Scottish philosopher, was born at +Ardchattan, Argyllshire, on the 3rd of September 1819. He was educated +at Glasgow and Edinburgh, where, from 1846 to 1856, he was professor of +Logic at New College. He edited the _North British Review_ from 1850 to +1857, and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church minister, he +succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logic and Metaphysics at +Edinburgh University. In 1859 he became dean of the faculty of arts. He +devoted himself to the study of English philosophers, especially +Berkeley, and published a _Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop +Berkeley with Annotations, &c._ (1871; enlarged 1901), a _Biography of +Berkeley_ (1881), an _Annotated Edition of Locke's Essay_ (1894), the +_Philosophy of Theism_ (1896) and the _Biography of Thomas Reid_ (1898). +He contributed the article on John Locke to the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_. In 1904 he published an autobiography entitled _Biographia +philosophica_, in which he sketched the progress of his intellectual +development. From this work and from his Gifford lectures we learn +objectively what had previously been inferred from his critical works. +After a childhood spent in an austerity which stigmatized as unholy even +the novels of Sir Walter Scott, he began his college career at the age +of fourteen at a time when Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were +lecturing on Moral Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical advance +was stimulated by Thomas Brown's _Cause and Effect_, which introduced +him to the problems which were to occupy his thought. From this point he +fell into the scepticism of Hume. In 1836 Sir William Hamilton was +appointed to the chair of Logic and Metaphysics, and Fraser became his +pupil. He himself says, "I owe more to Hamilton than to any other +influence." It was about this time also that he began his study of +Berkeley and Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for the +conception of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In the +_Biographia_ this "Theistic faith" appears in its full development (see +the concluding chapter), and is especially important as perhaps the +nearest approach to Kantian ethics made by original English philosophy. +Apart from the philosophical interest of the Biographia, the work +contains valuable pictures of the Land of Lorne and Argyllshire society +in the early 19th century, of university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh, +and a history of the _North British Review_. + + + + +FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885), English bishop, was born at Prestbury, in +Gloucestershire, on the 18th of August 1818, and was educated at +Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, and Lincoln College, Oxford. In 1839 he was +Ireland scholar, and took a first class. In 1840 he gained an Oriel +fellowship, and was for some time tutor of the college, but did not take +orders until 1846. He was successively vicar of Cholderton, in +Wiltshire, and rector of Ufton Nervet, in Berkshire; but his subsequent +importance was largely due to W. K. Hamilton, bishop of Salisbury, who +recommended him as an assistant commissioner of education. His report on +the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions, made in May 1859, +was described by Thomas Hughes as "a superb, almost a unique piece of +work." In 1865 he was commissioned to report on the state of education +in the United States and Canada, and his able performance of this task +brought him an offer of the bishopric of Calcutta, which he declined, +but in January 1870 he accepted the see of Manchester. The task before +him was an arduous one, for although his predecessor, James Prince Lee, +had consecrated no fewer than 130 churches, the enormous population was +still greatly in advance of the ecclesiastical machinery. Fraser worked +with the utmost energy, and did even more for the church by the +liberality and geniality which earned him the title of "the bishop of +all denominations." He was prominent in secular as well as religious +works, interesting himself in every movement that promoted health, +morality, or education; and especially serviceable as the friendly, +unofficious counsellor of all classes. His theology was that of a +liberal high-churchman, and his sympathies were broad. In convocation he +seconded a motion for the disuse of the Athanasian Creed, and in the +House of Lords he voted for the abolition of university tests. He died +suddenly on the 22nd of October 1885. + + A biography by Thomas Hughes was published in 1887, and an account of + his Lancashire life by J. W. Diggle (1889), who also edited 2 vols. of + _University and Parochial Sermons_ (1887). + + + + +FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783-1856), Scottish traveller and author, was +born at Reelick in the county of Inverness on the 11th of June 1783. He +was the eldest of the four sons of Edward Satchell Fraser of Reelick, +all of whom found their way to the East, and gave proof of their +ability. In early life he went to the West Indies and thence to India. +In 1815 he made a tour of exploration in the Himalayas, accompanied by +his brother William (d. 1835). When Reza Kuli Mirza and Nejeff Kuli +Mirza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was appointed to +look after them during their stay, and on their return he accompanied +them as far as Constantinople. He was afterwards sent to Persia on a +diplomatic mission by Lord Glenelg, and effected a most remarkable +journey on horseback through Asia Minor to Teheran. His health, however, +was impaired by the exposure. In 1823 he married a daughter of Alexander +Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee, a sister of the historian Patrick +Fraser Tytler. He died at Reelick in January 1856. Fraser is said to +have displayed great skill in water-colours, and several of his drawings +have been engraved; and the astronomical observations which he took +during some of his journeys did considerable service to the cartography +of Asia. The works by which he attained his literary reputation were +accounts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of Eastern +life. In both he employed a vigorous and impassioned style, which was on +the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor faults in taste and +flaws in structure. + + Fraser's earliest writings are: _Journal of a Tour through Part of the + Himala Mountains and to the Sources of the Jumna and the Ganges_ + (1820); _A Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 and + 1822, including some Account of the Countries to the North-East of + Persia_ (1825); and _Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces + on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea_ (1826). His romances include + _The Kuzzilbash, a Tale of Khorasan_ (1828), and its sequel, _The + Persian Adventurer_ (1830); _Allee Neemroo_ (1842); and _The Dark + Falcon_ (1844). He also wrote _An Historical and Descriptive Account + of Persia_ (1834); _A Winter's Journey (Tatar) from Constantinople to + Teheran_ (1838); _Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, &c._ (1840); + _Mesopotamia and Assyria_ (1842); and _Military Memoirs of Col. James + Skinner_ (1851). + + + + +FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, Bart. (1826-1898), English politician, +author and collector, was born on the 10th of February 1826, the son of +Sir James John Fraser, 3rd baronet, a colonel of the 7th Hussars, who +had served on Wellington's staff at Waterloo. He was educated at Eton +and at Christ Church, Oxford, entered the 1st Life Guards in 1847, but +retired with a captain's rank in 1852. He then set about entering +parliament, and the ups and downs of his political career were rather +remarkable. He was returned for Barnstaple in 1852, but the election was +declared void on account of bribery, and the constituency was +disfranchised for two years. At the election of 1857 Sir William, who +had meantime been defeated at Harwich, was again returned at Barnstaple. +He was, however, defeated in 1859, but was elected in 1863 at Ludlow. +This seat he held for only two years, when he was again defeated and did +not re-enter parliament until 1874, when be was returned for +Kidderminster, a constituency he represented for six years, when he +retired. He was a familiar figure at the Carlton Club, always ready with +a copious collection of anecdotes of Wellington, Disraeli and Napoleon +III. He died on the 17th of August 1898. He was an assiduous collector +of relics; and his library was sold for some L20,000. His own books +comprise _Words on Wellington_ (1889), _Disraeli and his Day_ (1891), +_Hic et Ubique_ (1893), _Napoleon III._ (1896) and the _Waterloo Ball_ +(1897). + + + + +FRASER, the chief river of British Columbia, Canada, rising in two +branches among the Rocky Mountains near 52 deg. 45' N., 118 deg. 30' W. Length +740 m. It first flows N.W. for about 160 m., then rounds the head of the +Cariboo Mountains, and flows directly S. for over 400 m. to Hope, where +it again turns abruptly and flows W. for 80 m., falling into the Gulf of +Georgia at New Westminster. After the junction of the two forks near its +northern extremity, the first important tributary on its southern course +is the Stuart, draining Lakes Stuart, Fraser and Francois. One hundred +miles lower down the Quesnel, draining a large lake of the same name, +flows in from the east at a town also so named. Farther on the Fraser +receives from the west the Chilcotin, and at Lytton, about 180 m. from +the sea, the Thompson, its largest tributary, flows in from the east, +draining a series of mountain lakes, and receiving at Kamloops the North +Thompson, which flows through deep and impassable canyons. Below Hope +the Lillooet flows in from the north. The Fraser is a typical mountain +stream, rapid and impetuous through all its length, and like most of its +tributaries is in many parts not navigable even by canoes. On its +southern course between Lytton and Yale, while bursting its way through +the Coast Range, it flows through majestic canyons, which, like those of +the Thompson, were the scene of many tragedies during the days of the +gold-rush to the Cariboo district. At Yale, about 80 m. from its mouth, +it becomes navigable, though its course is still very rapid. In the +Cariboo district, comprised within the great bend of the river, near +Tete Jaune Cache, are many valuable gold deposits. With its tributaries +the Fraser drains the whole province from 54 deg. to 49 deg. N., except the +extreme south-eastern corner, which is within the basin of the Columbia +and its tributary the Kootenay. + + + + +FRASERBURGH, a police burgh and seaport, on the N. coast of +Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 7466; (1901), 9105. It is situated +471/4 m. by rail N. of Aberdeen, from which there is a branch line, of +which it is the terminus, of the Great North of Scotland railway. It +takes its name from Sir Alexander Fraser, the ancestor of Lord Saltoun, +whose seat, Philorth House, lies 2 m. to the south. Sir Alexander +obtained for it in 1613 a charter as a burgh of royalty, and also in +1592 a charter for the founding of a university. This latter project, +however, was not carried out, and all that remains of the building +intended for the college is a three-storeyed tower. The old castle of +the Frasers on Kinnaird Head now contains a lighthouse, and close by is +the Wine Tower, with a cave below. The town cross is a fine structure +standing upon a huge hexagon, surmounted by a stone pillar 12 ft. high, +ornamented by the royal and Fraser arms. The port is one of the leading +stations of the herring fishery in the north of Scotland and the head +of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to September) +the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 persons. The fleet +numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual value of the catch exceeds +L200,000. The harbour, originally constructed as a refuge for British +ships of war, is one of the best on the east coast, and has been +improved by the widening of the piers and the extension of the +breakwaters. It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of +access, and affords anchorage for vessels of every size. + + + + +FRASERVILLE (formerly Riviere du Loup en Bas), a town and watering-place +in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada, 107 m. (by water) north-east of +Quebec, on the south shore of the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of +the Riviere du Loup, at the junction of the Intercolonial and +Temiscouata railways. It contains a convent, boys' college, hospital, +several mills, and is a favourite summer resort on account of the +angling and shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1901) 4569. + + + + +FRATER, FRATER HOUSE or FRATERY, a term in architecture for the hall +where the members of a monastery or friary met for meals or refreshment. +The word is by origin the same as "refectory." The older forms, such as +_freitur_, _fraytor_ and the like, show the word to be an adaptation of +the O. Fr. _fraitour_, a shortened form of _refraitour_, from the Med. +Lat. _rejectorium_. The word has been confused with _frater_, a brother +or friar, and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall of +a friary, while "refectory" is used of a monastery. + + + + +FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE, a class of student societies peculiar to the +colleges and universities of the United States and Canada, with certain +common characteristics, and mostly named from two or three letters of +the Greek alphabet; hence they are frequently called "Greek Letter +Societies." They are organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity +comprises a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one +fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges, called +"chapters," in memory of the convocations of monks of medieval times, +are usually designated by Greek letters also. They are nominally secret, +with one exception (_Delta Upsilon_). Each chapter admits members from +the lowest or freshman class, and of course loses its members as the +students depart from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the +same time members of all the four college classes and frequently those +pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a college is +large the material from which fraternity members may be drawn is +correspondingly abundant, and in some of the large colleges (e.g. at +Cornell University and the University of Michigan) there are chapters of +over twenty fraternities. All the fraternities aim to be select and to +pick their members from the mass of incoming students. Where, however, +the material to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities +are numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any +one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men. Many of +the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent selection of +men of about the same tastes at different colleges, acquired a distinct +character and individuality; for instance, _Alpha Delta Phi_ is +literary. + +The first of these fraternities was the _Phi Beta Kappa_, founded at the +College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1776. It was a +little social club of five students: John Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas +Smith, Armistead Smith and John Jones. Its badge was a square silver +medal displaying the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In +1779 it authorized Elisha Parmelee, one of its members, to establish +"meetings" or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being +authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective states. +In 1781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its buildings being +occupied in turn by the British, French and American troops, and the +society ceased to exist. The two branches, however, were +established--that at Yale in 1780 and that at Harvard in 1781. Chapters +were established at Dartmouth in 1787, at Union in 1817, at Bowdoin in +1824 and at Brown in 1830. This society changed its character in 1826 +and became non-secret and purely honorary in character, admitting to +membership a certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in +each class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions +only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies of similar +character among schools of science and engineering are _Sigma Xi_ and +_Tau Beta Pi_. + +In 1825, at Union College, _Kappa Alpha_ was organized, copying in style +of badge, membership restrictions and the like, its predecessor. In 1827 +two other similar societies, _Sigma Phi_ and _Delta Phi_, were founded +at the same place. In 1831 _Sigma Phi_ placed a branch at Hamilton +College and in 1832 _Alpha Delta Phi_ originated there. In 1833 _Psi +Upsilon_, a fourth society, was organized at Union. In 1835 _Alpha Delta +Phi_ placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 _Beta Theta Pi_ +originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities, it will +be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the male students. +In 1910 the total number of men's general fraternities was 32, with 1068 +living chapters, and owning property worth many millions of dollars. In +1864 _Theta Xi_, the first professional fraternity restricting its +membership to students intending to engage in the same profession, was +organized. There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations with some +400 chapters. In addition there are about 100 local societies or +chapters acting as independent units. Some of the older of these, such +as _Kappa Kappa Kappa_ at Dartmouth, _IKA_ at Trinity, _Phi Nu Theta_ at +Wesleyan and _Delta Psi_ at Vermont, are permanent in character, but the +majority of them are purely temporary, designed to maintain an +organization until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general +fraternities. In 1870 the first women's society or "sorority," the +_Kappa Alpha Theta_, was organized at De Pauw University. There were in +1910, 17 general sororities with some 300 active chapters. + +It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant +organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college life +of America and have had a wide influence. Members join in the +impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their organizations +a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contribute with money and +influence to their advancement. + +Almost universally the members of any particular chapter (or part of +them) live together in a lodge or chapter house. The men's fraternities +own hundreds of houses and rent as many more. The fraternities form a +little aristocracy within the college community. Sometimes the line of +separation is invisible, sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this +condition militates against the college discipline and sometimes it +assists it. Conflicts not infrequently occur between the fraternity and +non-fraternity element in a college. + +It can readily be understood how young men living together in the +intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house, having much +the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form among themselves +enduring friendships. In addition each fraternity has a reputation to +maintain, and this engenders an esprit du corps which at times places +loyalty to fraternity interests above loyalty to college interest or the +real advantage of the individual. At commencements and upon other +occasions the former members of the chapters return to their chapter +houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the undergraduates. +The chapter houses are commonly owned by corporations made up of the +alumni. This brings the undergraduates into contact with men of mature +age and often of national fame, who treat their membership as a serious +privilege. + +The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to jealousy and +bitter animosity among those not selected for membership. Some of the +states, notably South Carolina and Arkansas, have by legislation, either +abolished the fraternities at state-controlled institutions or seriously +limited the privileges of their members. The constitutionality of such +legislation has never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen +out of attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the +fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held, may +lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endowment but not at +an institution supported by public funds. In the latter case all +classes of the public are equally entitled to the same educational +privileges and members of the fraternities may not be discriminated +against. + +The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system comprises a +legislative body made up of delegates from the different chapters and an +executive or administrative body elected by the delegates. Few of the +fraternities have any judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems +are sound, and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the +United States, several hundred in number, spend thousands of dollars in +travel and entertainment, and attract much public attention. Most of the +fraternities have an inspection system by which chapters are +periodically visited and kept up to a certain level of excellence. + +The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to eight +times during the college year. The earliest of these was the _Beta Theta +Pi_, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues of their members and +the most prosperous have issued histories. They also publish song books, +music and many ephemeral and local publications. + +The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associations +having headquarters at centres of population. These organizations are +somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable of much exertion and +influence should occasion arise. + +The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students of +colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about it, +however, is that while it is practically uniform throughout the United +States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard, Yale and +Princeton it differs in many respects from its character elsewhere. At +Harvard, although there are chapters of a few of the fraternities, their +influence is insignificant, their place being taken by a group of local +societies, some of them class organizations. At Yale, the regular system +of fraternities obtains in the engineering or technical department (the +Sheffield Scientific School), but in the classical department the +fraternity chapters are called "junior" societies, because they limit +their membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors each +year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain senior +societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones, which are +inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of the fraternities, +are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities themselves. Princeton +has two (secret) literary and fraternal societies, the American Whig and +the Cliosophic, and various local social clubs, with no relationship to +organizations in other colleges and not having Greek letter names. + +At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Virginia), +senior societies or other inter-fraternity societies exert great +influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system. + +Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and imitating the +externals of the college fraternities have sprung up in the high schools +and academies of the country, but have excited the earnest and +apparently united opposition of the authorities of such schools. + + See William Raimond Baird, _American College Fraternities_ (6th ed., + New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, _Cyclopedia of Fraternities_ + (Paterson, N. J., 1899); Henry D. Sheldon, _Student Life and Customs_ + (New York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, _Patterson's College and School + Directory_ (Chicago, 1904); H. K. Kellogg, _College Secret Societies_ + (Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, _Greek Letter Societies_ (Detroit, + 1879). (W. R. B.*) + + + + +FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. _frate_, brother), the name given +during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries to a number of religious groups +in Italy, differing widely from each other, but all derived more or less +directly from the Franciscan movement. Fra Salimbene says in his +_Chronicle_ (Parma ed., p. 108): "All who wished to found a new rule +borrowed something from the Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit." +As early as 1238 Gregory IX., in his bull _Quoniam abundavit iniquitas_, +condemned and denounced as forgers (_tanquam falsarios_) all who begged +or preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders, and this +condemnation was repeated by him or his successors. The term Fraticelli +was used contemptuously to denote, not any particular sect, but the +members of orders formed on the fringe of the church. Thus Giovanni +Villani, speaking of the heretic Dolcino, says in his _Chronicle_ (bk. +viii. ch. 84): "He is not a brother of an ordered rule, but a +_fraticello_ without an order." Similarly, John XXII., in his bull +_Sancta Romana et Universalis Ecclesia_ (28th of December 1317), +condemns vaguely those "_profanae multitudinis viri_ commonly called +Fraticelli, or Brethren of the Poor Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguines, or +by all manner of other names." + +Some historians, in their zeal for rigid classification, have regarded +the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted to discover its +dogmas and its founder. Some of the contemporaries of these religious +groups fell into the same error, and in this way the vague term +Fraticelli has sometimes been applied to the disciples of Armanno +Pongilupo of Ferrara (d. 1269), who was undoubtedly a Cathar, and to the +followers of Gerard Segarelli and Dolcino, who were always known among +themselves as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems +absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans as +Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrle (_Arch. f. Lit. u. +Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, ii. 107, &c.), Angelo of Clarino, in +his _De septem tribulationibus_, written to the glory of the Spirituals, +does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as "disciples of the +devil." It is equally absurd to include in the same category the +ignorant Bizocchi and Segarellists and such learned disciples of Michael +of Cesena and Louis of Bavaria as William of Occam and Bonagratia of +Bergamo, who have often been placed under this comprehensive rubric. + +The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most exalted +fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners declared to the +inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the Franciscan order was divided +into three sections--the Conventuals, who were allowed to retain their +real and personal property; the Spirituals or Beguines, who were at that +time the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose +leader was Henry of Ceva (see Gui's _Practica Inquisitionis_, v.). It is +this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned in his bull +_Gloriosam Ecclesiam_ (23rd of January 1318), but without calling them +Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge in Sicily at the time of Pope +Boniface VIII.'s persecution of the Spirituals, and thanks to the good +offices of Frederick of Sicily, a little colony of Franciscans who +rejected all property had soon established itself in the island. Under +Pope Clement V., and more especially under Pope John XXII., fresh +Spirituals joined them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics +soon began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the +Minorites and then as the sole Catholic Church. After being +excommunicated as "schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious +sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines," they +proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cesena had disavowed them) +and then a pope called Celestine (L. Wadding, _Annales_, at date 1313). +The rebels continued to carry on an active propaganda. In Tuscany +particularly the Inquisition made persistent efforts to suppress them; +Florence afflicted them with severe laws, but failed to rouse the +populace against them. The papacy dreaded their social even more than +their dogmatic influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout +Italy the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and the +malcontents who had either left the church or were on the point of +leaving it, were attracted by these communities of needy rebels; and the +tribune Rienzi was at one time disposed to join them. To overcome these +ascetics it was necessary to have recourse to other ascetics, and from +the outset the reformed Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict +Observance, under the direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da +Trinci (d. 1390), Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bernardine of +Siena, had been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy. +These early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the number +of the sectaries and the extent of their influence, Pope Martin V., who +had encouraged the Observants, and particularly Bernardine of Siena, +fulminated two bulls (1418 and 1421) against the heretics, and entrusted +different legates with the task of hunting them down. These measures +failing, he decided, in 1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors +without territorial limitation to make a special crusade against the +heresy of the Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their +duties under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.) were +Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The latter's valuable +_Dialogus contra Fraticellos_ (Baluze and Mansi, _Miscellanea_, iv. +595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of these heretics and of the +activity of the two inquisitors, and shows that the Fraticelli not only +constituted a distinct church but a distinct society. They had a pope +called Rinaldo, who was elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother +named Gabriel. This supreme head of their church they styled "bishop of +Philadelphia," Philadelphia being the mystic name of their community; +under him were bishops, e.g. the bishops of Florence, Venice, &c.; and, +furthermore, a member of the community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore +the title of "Emperor of the Christians." This organization, at least in +so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed among +the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council of Siena +affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an heretical pope +surrounded with a college of cardinals who made no attempt at +concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli were unremittingly +pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect gradually died out after losing +the protection of the common people, whose sympathy was now transferred +to the austere Observants and their miracle-worker Capistrano. From 1466 +to 1471 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471 Tommaso +di Scarlino was sent to Piombino and the littoral of Tuscany to track +out some Fraticelli who had been discovered in those parts. After that +date the name disappears from history. + + See F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhaeltnis zum Franziskanerorden + und zu den Fraticellen" and "Zur Vorgeschichte des Concils von + Vienne," in _Archiv fuer Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte des + Mittelalters_, vols. i., ii., iii.; Wetzer and Welte, + _Kirchenlexikon_, s.v. "Fraticellen"; H. C. Lea, _History of the + Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888). + (P. A.) + + + + +FRAUD (Lat. _fraus_, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which has +never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law, and for +legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But as denoting a +cause of action for which damages can be recovered in civil proceedings +it now has a clear and settled meaning. In actions in which damages are +claimed for fraud, the difficulties and obscurities which commonly arise +are due rather to the complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of +modern swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern +law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must first prove +a representation of fact, made either by words, by writing or by +conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere concealment is not actionable +unless it amounts not only to _suppressio veri_, but to _suggestio +falsi_. An expression of opinion or of intention is not enough, unless +it can be shown that the opinion was not really held, or that the +intention was not really entertained, in which case it must be borne in +mind, to use the phrase of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man's mind is +as much a matter of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, it must be +proved that the representation was made without any honest belief in its +truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with a +reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally +established, after much controversy, in the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ in +1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable. Further, +the person aggrieved must prove that the offender made the +representation with the intention that he should act on it, though not +necessarily directly to him, and that he did in fact act in reliance on +it. Lastly, the complainant must prove that, as the direct consequence, +he has suffered actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement. + +As soon as the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ had established, as the general +rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable, a +statutory exception was made to the rule in the case of directors and +promoters of companies who publish prospectuses and similar documents. +By the Directors' Liability Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage +caused by untrue statements in such documents, unless they can prove +that they had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be +true. It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be recovered +in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest belief in its +truth, still any person induced to enter into a contract by a +misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is entitled to avoid +the contract and to obtain a declaration that it is not binding upon +him. This is in accordance with the rule of equity, which since the +Judicature Act prevails in all the courts. Whether the representation is +fraudulent or innocent, the contract is not void, but voidable. The +party misled must exercise his option to avoid the contract without +delay, and before it has become impossible to restore the other party to +the position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he is +too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in order to +assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the misrepresentation +was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of dishonest dealing, though +not a distinct cause of action, is often material as preventing the +acquisition of a right, for which good faith is a necessary condition. +Also a combination or conspiracy by two or more persons to defraud gives +rise to liabilities not very clearly or completely defined. + + + + +FRAUENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Frische +Haff, at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m. S.W. from Koenigsberg on the +railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500. The cathedral (founded 1329), with six +towers, stands on a commanding eminence adjoining the town and +surrounded by castellated walls and bastions. This is known as +Dom-Frauenburg, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of +Ermeland. Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer +Copernicus bearing the inscription _Astronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen +et gloria utrumque implevit orbem_. There is a small port with +inconsiderable trade. Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received the +rights of a town in 1310. + + + + +FRAUENFELD, the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau, 27 m. by rail +N.E. of Zuerich or 141/2 m. W. of Romanshorn. It is built on the Murg +stream a little above its junction with the Thur. It is a prosperous +commercial town, being situated at the meeting point of several routes, +while it possesses several industrial establishments, chiefly concerned +with different branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population +(including the neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking, +while there were 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauenfeld is the +artillery depot for North-East Switzerland. The upper town is the older +part, and centres round the castle, of which the tower dates from the +10th century, though the rest is of a later period. Both stood on land +belonging to the abbot of Reichenau, who, with the count of Kyburg, +founded the town, which is first mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained +all manorial rights till 1803, while the political powers of the +Kyburgers (who were the "protectors" of Reichenau) passed to the +Habsburgs in 1273, and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of +the Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the +meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital of +the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1799 it was +successively occupied by the Austrians and the French. The old Capuchin +convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a vicarage by the Romanist +priest. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +FRAUENLOB, the name by which HEINRICH VON MEISSEN, a German poet of the +13th century, is generally known. He seems to have acquired the +sobriquet because in a famous _Liederstreit_ with his rival Regenbogen +he defended the use of the word _Frau_ (i.e. _frouwe_, = lady) instead +of _Weib_ (_wip_ = woman). Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble +burgher family. His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he +gradually acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of the +German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph I. in the Marchfeld, in +1286 he was at Prague at the knighting of Wenceslaus (Wenzel) II., and +in 1311 he was present at a knightly festival celebrated by Waldemar of +Brandenburg before Rostock. After this he settled in Mainz, and there +according to the popular account, founded the first school of +Meistersingers (q.v.). He died in 1318, and was buried in the cloisters +of the cathedral at Mainz. His grave is still marked by a copy made in +1783 of the original tombstone of 1318; and in 1842 a monument by +Schwanthaler was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob's poems make a +great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors, and his +versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme. + + Frauenlob's poetry was edited by L. Ettmueller in 1843; a selection + will be found in K. Bartsch, _Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. + Jahrhunderts_ (3rd ed., 1893). An English translation of Frauenlob's + _Cantica canticorum_, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877 + at St Louis, U.S.A. See A. Boerkel, _Frauenlob_ (2nd ed., 1881). + + + + +FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM (c. 1558-1633), English poet, a native of Shropshire, +was born between 1558 and 1560. His name was registered as a pupil of +Shrewsbury School in January 1571/2, and he joined St John's College, +Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of +_Victoria_, dedicated to Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge, +where he remained until he had taken his M.A. degree in 1583. He was +called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised +as a barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of his +patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney's sister Mary, +countess of Pembroke. His last work was published in 1592, and we have +no further knowledge of him until 1633, when he is said to have written +an _Epithalamium_ in honour of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egerton, +7th daughter of the earl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly +have entered. + +His works are: _The Lamentations of Amintas for the death of Phyllis_ +(1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend's, Thomas +Watson's, Latin _Amyntas; The Lawiers Logike, exemplifying the praecepts +of Logike by the practise of the common Lawe_ (1588); _Arcadian +Rhetorike_ (1588); _Abrahami Fransi Insignium, Armorum ... explicatio_ +(1588); _The Countess of Pembroke's Yvychurch_ (1591/2), containing a +translation of Tasso's _Aminta_, a reprint of his earlier version of +Watson, "The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis" (Virgil, +eclogue ii.), a short translation from Heliodorus, and, in the third +part (1592) "Aminta's Dale," a collection of "conceited" tales supposed +to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch; _The Countess of Pembroke's +Emanuell_ (1591); _The Third Part of the Countess of Pembroke's +Ivychurch, entituled Aminta's Dale_ (1592). His _Arcadian Rhetorike_ +owes much to earlier critical treatises, but has a special interest from +its references to Spenser, and Fraunce quotes from the _Faerie Queene_ a +year before the publication of the first books. In "Colin Clout's come +home again," Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his +translations of Virgil's second eclogue. His poems are written in +classical metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries as the best +exponent of Gabriel Harvey's theory. Even Thomas Nashe had a good word +for "sweete Master France." + + _The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell_, hexameters on the nativity and + passion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted by Dr + A. B. Grosart in the third volume of his _Miscellanies of the Fuller + Worthies Library_ (1872). Joseph Hunter in his _Chorus Vatum_ stated + that five of Fraunce's songs were included in Sidney's _Astrophel and + Stella_, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to + Fraunce, but to Thomas Campion. See a life prefixed to the + transcription of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, _Victoria_, by + Professor G. C. Moore Smith, published in Bang's _Materialien zur + Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas_, vol. xiv., 1906. + + + + +FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON (1787-1826), German optician and physicist, was +born at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th of March 1787, the son of a +glazier who died in 1798. He was apprenticed in 1799 to Weichselberger, +a glass-polisher and looking-glass maker. On the 21st of July 1801 he +nearly lost his life by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and +the elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his +extrication from the ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this +sum he obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship, +and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He now +employed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving on metal, +devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on mathematics and +optics. In 1806 he obtained the place of optician in the mathematical +institute which in 1804 had been founded at Munich by Joseph von +Utzschneider, G. Reichenbach and J. Liebherr; and in 1807 arrangements +were made by Utzschneider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand, +a skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, in +which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Wissensch. in +Deutschl._ bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utzschneider, +Fraunhofer established in 1809 an optical institute at Benedictbeuern, +near Munich, of which he in 1818 became sole manager. The institute was +in 1819 removed to Munich, and on Fraunhofer's death came under the +direction of G. Merz. + +Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer was a machine +for polishing mathematically uniform spherical surfaces. He was the +inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of a form of heliometer; and in +1816 he succeeded in constructing for the microscope achromatic glasses +of long focus, consisting of a single lens, the constituent glasses of +which were in juxtaposition, but not cemented together. The great +reflecting telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was +the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic telescopes +that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed his willingness to +furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter. Fraunhofer is especially +known for the researches, published in the _Denkschriften der Muenchener +Akademie_ for 1814-1815, by which he laid the foundation of solar and +stellar chemistry. The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest +noted by Dr W. H. Wollaston (_Phil. Trans._, 1802, p. 378), were +independently discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a +theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the light a prism +was interposed, were for the first time carefully observed by +Fraunhofer, and have on that account been designated "Fraunhofer's +lines." He constructed a map of as many as 576 of these lines, the +principal of which he denoted by the letters of the alphabet from A to +G; and by ascertaining their refractive indices he determined that their +relative positions are constant, whether in spectra produced by the +direct rays of the sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and +planets. The spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the +object-glass of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light +passed to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed +that in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were +different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other well-known +solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was not by any action +of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light passing through it that the +lines were produced. He further expressed the belief that the dark lines +D of the solar spectrum coincide with the bright lines of the sodium +flame. He was also the inventor of the diffraction grating. + +In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet at Munich, +and in the following year he received from the king of Bavaria the civil +order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th of June 1826, and was +buried near Reichenbach, whose decease had taken place eight years +previously. On his tomb is the inscription "Approximavit sidera." + + See J. von Utzschneider, _Kurzer Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des Herrn + Dr J. von Fraunhofer_ (Munich, 1826); and G. Merz, _Das Leben und + Wirken Fraunhofers_ (Landshut, 1865). + + + + +FRAUSTADT (Polish, _Wszowa_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with windmills, 50 m. +S.S.W. of Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan. Pop. (including a garrison) +7500. It has three Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a +classical school and a teachers' seminary; the manufactures include +woollen and cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is +a considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was founded by +Silesians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the principality of +Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles XII. defeated the Saxons +on the 13th of February 1706. + + + + +FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC, COMTE DE (1765-1841), French prelate and +statesman, distinguished as an orator and as a controversial writer, was +born of humble parentage at Curieres, in the department of Aveyron, on +the 9th of May 1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on +dogmatic theology, known as the "conferences" of Saint Sulpice, +delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, from 1803 to 1809, to +which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid exposition and by his +graceful oratory. The freedom of his language in 1809, when Napoleon had +arrested the pope and declared the annexation of Rome to France, led to +a prohibition of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of +Saint Sulpice in 1811 was followed by his temporary retirement from the +capital. He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his lectures in +1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again compelled him to withdraw +into private life, from which he did not emerge until February 1816. As +court preacher and almoner to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the +period of his greatest public activity and influence. In connexion with +the controversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of +1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled _Vrais Principes de +l'eglise Gallicane sur la puissance ecclesiastique_, which though +unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received with favour by the +civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of Frayssinous as +bishop of Hermopolis "in partibus," his election to the French Academy, +and his appointment to the grand-mastership of the university, followed +in rapid succession. In 1824, on the accession of Charles X., he became +minister of public instruction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the +administration of Villele; and about the same time he was created a peer +of France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly marked +by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his lectures under +the title _Defense du christianisme_. The work passed through 15 +editions within 18 years, and was translated into several European +languages. In 1828 he, along with his colleagues in the Villele +ministry, was compelled to resign office, and the subsequent revolution +of July 1830 led to his retirement to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became +tutor to the duke of Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord) at Prague, where he +continued to live until 1838. He died at St Geniez on the 12th of +December 1841. + + See Bertrand, _Bibl. Sulpicienne_ (t. ii. 135 sq.; iii. 253) for + bibliography, and G. A. Henrion (Paris, 2 vols., 1844) for biography. + + + + +FRECHETTE, LOUIS HONORE (1839-1908), French-Canadian poet, was born at +Levis, Quebec, on the 16th of November 1839, the son of a contractor. He +was educated in his native province, and called to the Canadian bar in +1864. He started the _Journal de Levis_, and his revolutionary doctrines +compelled him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years +spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the Liberal +candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament. At the +elections of 1878 and 1882 he was defeated, and thereafter confined +himself to literature. He edited _La Patrie_ and other French papers in +the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed clerk of the Quebec legislative +council. He was long a warm advocate of the political union of Canada +and the United States, but in later life became less ardent, and in 1897 +accepted the honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of +the Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts, and +received numerous honorary degrees. His works include: _Mes Loisirs_ +(1863); _La Voix d'un exile_ (1867), a satire against the Canadian +government; _Pele-mele_ (1877); _Les Fleurs boreales_, and _Les Oiseaux +de neige_ (1880), crowned by the French academy; _La Legende d'un +peuple_ (1887); two historical dramas, _Papineau_ (1880) and _Felix +Poutre_ (1880); _La Noel au Canada_ (1900), and several prose works and +translations. An exponent of local French sentiment, he won the title of +the "Canadian Laureate." He died on the 1st of June 1908. + + + + +FREDEGOND (_Fredigundis_) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Originally a +serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic I., with a +violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his first wife +Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha, Queen Brunhilda's +sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic married Fredegond (567). +This woman exercised a most pernicious influence over him. She forced +him into war against Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the +assassination of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a +malignant struggle against Chilperic's sons by his first wife, +Theodebert, Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she +persistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children. Her +first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of Paris stood +godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond tortured a number of +women whom she accused of having bewitched the child. Her second son +also died in infancy. Finally, she gave birth to a child who afterwards +became king as Clotaire II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, +Chilperic himself perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond +has been accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of +probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter. + +Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the kingdom for her +child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame at Paris, she appealed +to King Guntram of Burgundy, who took Clotaire under his protection and +defended him against his other nephew, Childebert II., king of +Austrasia. From that time until her death Fredegond governed the western +kingdom. She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram +and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot; and made +several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending against him hired +bravoes armed with poisoned _scramasaxes_ (heavy single-edged knives). +After the death of Childebert in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom +of Neustria at the expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some +cities near Paris and defeated Theudebert at the battle of Laffaux, near +Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died quietly in +her bed in 597 soon after her victory. + + See V. N. Augustin Thierry, _Recits des temps merovingiens_ (Brussels, + 1840); Ulysse Chevalier, _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed.), s.v. + "Fredegonde." (C. Pf.) + + + + +FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist, was born on the +19th of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was educated there, and took to +journalism. He went to live in England as London correspondent of the +_New York Times_ in 1884, and was soon recognized for his ability both +as a writer and as a talker. He wrote several clever early stories, but +it was not till he published _Illumination_ (1896), followed by _Gloria +Mundi_ (1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully +realized. He died in England on the 19th of October 1898. + + + + +FREDERICIA (FRIEDERICIA), a seaport of Denmark, near the S.E. corner of +Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt opposite the island of +Fuenen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has railway communication with both south +and north, and a steam ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort +and railway station on Fuenen. There is a considerable shipping trade, +and the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and +chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected on the +site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his successor, +Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a powerful fortress. +Free exercise of religion was offered to all who should settle in the +new town, which at first bore the name of Frederiksodde, and only +received its present designation in 1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm +by the Swedish general Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been +dismantled, it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was +not till 1709-1710 that the works were again put in a state of defence. +In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to oppose the Prussians, who +entered on the 2nd of May, and maintained their position against the +Danish gunboats. During the armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was +strengthened, and soon afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which +was brought to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of +July 1849. In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected +in the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the +bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of Thorvaldsen's +pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in the cemetery of the Holy +Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by the same sculptor. On the outbreak +of the war of 1864, the fortress was again strengthened by new works and +an entrenched camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of +April after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly +destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town till the +conclusion of peace. + + + + +FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. _Friedrich_; Ital. _Federigo_; Fr. _Frederic_ and +_Federic_; M.H.G. _Friderich_; O.H.G. _Fridurih_, "king or lord of +peace," from O.H.G. _fridu_, A.S. _frith_, "peace," and _rih_ "rich," "a +ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY), a Christian name borne by +many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of whom are +given below in the following order:--(1) Roman emperors and German +kings; (2) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (3) +other reigning princes in the same order. + + + + +FREDERICK I. (c. 1123-1190), Roman emperor, surnamed "Barbarossa" by the +Italians, was the son of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, +and Judith, daughter of Henry IX. the Black, duke of Bavaria. The +precise date and place of his birth, together with details of his early +life, are wanting; but in 1143 he assisted his maternal uncle, Count +Welf VI., in his attempts to conquer Bavaria, and by his conduct in +several local feuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful +warrior. When his father died in 1147 Frederick became duke of Swabia, +and immediately afterwards accompanied his uncle, the German king Conrad +III., on his disastrous crusade, during which he greatly distinguished +himself and won the complete confidence of the king. Abandoning the +cause of the Welfs, he fought for Conrad against them, and in 1152 the +dying king advised the princes to choose Frederick as his successor to +the exclusion of his own young son. Energetically pressing his +candidature, he was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 4th or 5th of +March 1152, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 9th of the same month, +owing his election partly to his personal qualities, and partly to the +fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival families of Welf +and Waiblingen. + +The new king was anxious to restore the Empire to the position it had +occupied under Charlemagne and Otto the Great, and saw clearly that the +restoration of order in Germany was a necessary preliminary to the +enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy. Issuing a general order for +peace, he was prodigal in his concessions to the nobles. Count Welf was +made duke of Spoleto and margrave of Tuscany; Berthold VI., duke of +Zaehringen, was entrusted with extensive rights in Burgundy; and the +king's nephew, Frederick, received the duchy of Swabia. Abroad Frederick +decided a quarrel for the Danish throne in favour of Svend, or Peter as +he is sometimes called, who did homage for his kingdom, and negotiations +were begun with the East Roman emperor, Manuel Comnenus. It was probably +about this time that the king obtained a divorce from his wife Adela, +daughter of Dietpold, margrave of Vohburg and Cham, on the ground of +consanguinity, and made a vain effort to obtain a bride from the court +of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick had communicated the news +of his election to Pope Eugenius III., but neglected to ask for the +papal confirmation. In spite of this omission, however, and of some +trouble arising from a double election to the archbishopric of +Magdeburg, a treaty was concluded between king and pope at Constance in +March 1153, by which Frederick promised in return for his coronation to +make no peace with Roger I. king of Sicily, or with the rebellious +Romans, without the consent of Eugenius, and generally to help and +defend the papacy. + +The journey to Italy made by the king in 1154 was the precursor of five +other expeditions which engaged his main energies for thirty years, +during which the subjugation of the peninsula was the central and +abiding aim of his policy. Meeting the new pope, Adrian IV., near Nepi, +Frederick at first refused to hold his stirrup; but after some +negotiations he consented and received the kiss of peace, which was +followed by his coronation as emperor at Rome on the 18th of June 1155. +As his slender forces were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility +which he aroused, he left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a +new and more formidable campaign. Disorder was again rampant in Germany, +especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored by Frederick's +vigorous measures. Bavaria was transferred from Henry II. Jasomirgott, +margrave of Austria, to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; and the former +was pacified by the erection of his margraviate into a duchy, while +Frederick's step-brother Conrad was invested with the Palatinate of the +Rhine. On the 9th of June 1156 the king was married at Wuerzburg to +Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the dead count of Upper Burgundy, +Renaud III., when Upper Burgundy or Franche Comte, as it is sometimes +called, was added to his possessions. An expedition into Poland reduced +Duke Boleslaus IV. to an abject submission, after which Frederick +received the homage of the Burgundian nobles at a diet held at Besancon +in October 1157, which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor. +A Swedish archbishop, returning from Rome, had been seized by robbers, +and as Frederick had not punished the offenders Adrian sent two legates +to remonstrate. The papal letter when translated referred to the +imperial crown as a benefice conferred by the pope, and its reading +aroused great indignation. The emperor had to protect the legates from +the fury of the nobles; and afterwards issued a manifesto to his +subjects declaring that he held the Empire from God alone, to which +Adrian replied that he had used the ambiguous word _beneficia_ as +meaning benefits, and not in its feudal sense. + +In June 1158 Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, which +was signalized by the establishment of imperial officers called +_podestas_ in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt and capture of +Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with pope Alexander III., +who excommunicated the emperor on the 2nd of March 1160. During this +visit Frederick summoned the doctors of Bologna to the diet held near +Roncaglia in November 1158, and as a result of their inquiries into the +rights belonging to the kingdom of Italy he obtained a large amount of +wealth. Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick +prevented a conflict between Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and a +number of neighbouring princes, and severely punished the citizens of +Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold. A further visit to +Italy in 1163 saw his plans for the conquest of Sicily checked by the +formation of a powerful league against him, brought together mainly by +the exactions of the _podestas_ and the enforcement of the rights +declared by the doctors of Bologna. Frederick had supported an anti-pope +Victor IV. against Alexander, and on Victor's death in 1163 a new +anti-pope called Paschal III. was chosen to succeed him. Having tried in +vain to secure the general recognition of Victor and Paschal in Europe, +the emperor held a diet at Wuerzburg in May 1165; and by taking an oath, +followed by many of the clergy and nobles, to remain true to Paschal and +his successors, brought about a schism in the German church. A temporary +alliance with Henry II., king of England, the magnificent celebration of +the canonization of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the restoration +of peace in the Rhineland, occupied Frederick's attention until October +1166, when he made his fourth journey to Italy. Having captured Ancona, +he marched to Rome, stormed the Leonine city, and procured the +enthronement of Paschal, and the coronation of his wife Beatrix; but his +victorious career was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence +which destroyed the German army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to +Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years. Henry the Lion was +again saved from a threatening combination; conflicting claims to +various bishoprics were decided; and the imperial authority was asserted +over Bohemia, Poland and Hungary. Friendly relations were entered into +with the emperor Manuel, and attempts made to come to a better +understanding with Henry II., king of England, and Louis VII., king of +France. + +In 1174, when Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy, the Lombard +league had been formed, and the fortress of Alessandria raised to check +his progress. The campaign was a complete failure. The refusal of Henry +the Lion to bring help into Italy was followed by the defeat of the +emperor at Legnano on the 29th of May 1176, when he was wounded and +believed to be dead. Reaching Pavia, he began negotiations for peace +with Alexander, which ripened into the treaty of Venice in August 1177, +and at the same time a truce with the Lombard league was arranged for +six years. Frederick, loosed from the papal ban, recognized Alexander as +the rightful pope, and in July 1177 knelt before him and kissed his +feet. The possession of the vast estates left by Matilda, marchioness +of Tuscany, and claimed by both pope and emperor, was to be decided by +arbitration, and in October 1178 the emperor was again in Germany. +Various small feuds were suppressed; Henry the Lion was deprived of his +duchy, which was dismembered, and sent into exile; a treaty was made +with the Lombard league at Constance in June 1183; and most important of +all, Frederick's son Henry was betrothed in 1184 to Constance, daughter +of Roger I., king of Sicily, and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, +William II. This betrothal, which threatened to unite Sicily with the +Empire, made it difficult for Frederick, when during his last Italian +expedition in 1184 he met Pope Lucius III. at Verona, to establish +friendly relations with the papacy. Further causes of trouble arose, +moreover, and when the potentates separated the question of Matilda's +estates was undecided; and Lucius had refused to crown Henry or to +recognize the German clergy who had been ordained during the schism. +Frederick then formed an alliance with Milan, where the citizens +witnessed a great festival on the 27th of January 1186. The emperor, who +had been crowned king of Burgundy, or Arles, at Arles on the 30th of +July 1178, had this ceremony repeated; while his son Henry was crowned +king of Italy and married to Constance, who was crowned queen of +Germany. + +The quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new pope Urban III., +and open warfare was begun. But Frederick was soon recalled to Germany +by the news of a revolt raised by Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of +Cologne, in alliance with the pope. The German clergy remained loyal to +the emperor, and hostilities were checked by the death of Urban and the +election of a new pope as Gregory VIII., who adopted a more friendly +policy towards the emperor. In 1188 Philip submitted, and immediately +afterwards Frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious +career of Saladin, who had just taken Jerusalem. After extensive +preparations he left Regensburg in May 1189 at the head of a splendid +army, and having overcome the hostility of the East Roman emperor Isaac +Angelus, marched into Asia Minor. On the 10th of June 1190 Frederick was +either bathing or crossing the river Calycadnus (Geuksu), near Seleucia +(Selefke) in Cilicia, when he was carried away by the stream and +drowned. The place of his burial is unknown, and the legend which says +he still sits in a cavern in the Kyffhaeuser mountain in Thuringia +waiting until the need of his country shall call him, is now thought to +refer, at least in its earlier form, to his grandson, the emperor +Frederick II. He left by his wife, Beatrix, five sons, of whom the +eldest afterwards became emperor as Henry VI. + +Frederick's reign, on the whole, was a happy and prosperous time for +Germany. He encouraged the growth of towns, easily suppressed the few +risings against his authority, and took strong and successful measures +to establish order. Even after the severe reverses which he experienced +in Italy, his position in Germany was never seriously weakened; and in +1181, when, almost without striking a blow, he deprived Henry the Lion +of his duchy, he seemed stronger than ever. This power rested upon his +earnest and commanding personality, and also upon the support which he +received from the German church, the possession of a valuable private +domain, and the care with which he exacted feudal dues from his +dependents. + +Frederick I. is said to have taken Charlemagne as his model; but the +contest in which he engaged was entirely different both in character and +results from that in which his great predecessor achieved such a +wonderful temporary success. Though Frederick failed to subdue the +republics, the failure can scarcely be said to reflect either on his +prudence as a statesman or his skill as a general, for his ascendancy +was finally overthrown rather by the ravages of pestilence than by the +might of human arms. In Germany his resolute will and sagacious +administration subdued or disarmed all discontent, and he not only +succeeded in welding the various rival interests into a unity of +devotion to himself against which papal intrigues were comparatively +powerless, but won for the empire a prestige such as it had not +possessed since the time of Otto the Great. The wide contrast between +his German and Italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that, +while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in Italy, he held in +check the power of the nobles in Germany, by conferring municipal +franchises and independent rights on the principal cities. Even in +Italy, though his general course of action was warped by wrong +prepossessions, he in many instances manifested exceptional practical +sagacity in dealing with immediate difficulties and emergencies. +Possessing frank and open manners, untiring and unresting energy, and a +prowess which found its native element in difficulty and danger, he +seemed the embodiment of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age, +and was the model of all the qualities which then won highest +admiration. Stern and ambitious he certainly was, but his aims can +scarcely be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor; and +though he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients almost +diabolically ingenious in their cruelty, yet his general conduct was +marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional. His quarrel with +the papacy was an inherited conflict, not reflecting at all on his +religious faith, but the inevitable consequence of inconsistent theories +of government, which had been created and could be dissipated only by a +long series of events. His interference in the quarrels of the republics +was not only quite justifiable from the relation in which he stood to +them, but seemed absolutely necessary. From the beginning, however, he +treated the Italians, as indeed was only natural, less as rebellious +subjects than as conquered aliens; and it must be admitted that in +regard to them the only effective portion of his procedure was, not his +energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories, but, after +the battle of Legnano, his quiet and cheerful acceptance of the +inevitable, and the consequent complete change in his policy, by which +if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition, he at least did +much to render innoxious for the Empire his previous mistakes. + +In appearance Frederick was a man of well-proportioned, medium stature, +with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard. He delighted in hunting +and the reading of history, was zealous in his attention to public +business, and his private life was unimpeachable. Carlyle's tribute to +him is interesting: "No king so furnished out with apparatus and arena, +with personal faculty to rule and scene to do it in, has appeared +elsewhere. A magnificent, magnanimous man; holding the reins of the +world, not quite in the imaginary sense; scourging anarchy down, and +urging noble effort up, really on a grand scale. A terror to evil-doers +and a praise to well-doers in this world, probably beyond what was ever +seen since." + + The principal contemporary authority for the earlier part of the reign + of Frederick is the _Gesta Friderici imperatoris_, mainly the work of + Otto, bishop of Freising. This is continued from 1156 to 1160 by + Rahewin, a canon of Freising, and from 1160 to 1170 by an anonymous + author. The various annals and chronicles of the period, among which + may be mentioned the _Chronica regia Coloniensis_ and the _Annales + Magdeburgenses_, are also important. Other authorities for the + different periods in Frederick's reign are Tageno of Passau, + _Descriptio expeditionis asiaticae Friderici I._; Burchard, _Historia + Friderici imperatoris magni_; Godfrey of Viterbo, _Carmen de gestis + Friderici I._, which are all found in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica. Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); Otto Morena of + Lodi, _Historia rerum Laudensium_, continued by his son, Acerbus, also + in the _Monumenta_; Ansbert, _Historia de expeditione Friderici, + 1187-1196_, published in the _Fontes rerum Austriacarum. Scriptores_ + (Vienna, 1855 fol.). Many valuable documents are found in the + _Monumenta Germaniae selecta_, Band iv., edited by M. Doeberl (Munich, + 1889-1890). + + The best modern authorities are J. Jastrow, _Deutsche Geschichte im + Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); W. von Giesebrecht, + _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); H. + von Buenau, _Leben und Thaten Friedrichs I._ (Leipzig, 1872); H. Prutz, + _Kaiser Friedrich I._ (Dantzig, 1871-1874); C. Peters, _Die Wahl + Kaiser Friedrichs I._ in the _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, + Band xx. (Goettingen, 1862-1886); W. Gundlach, _Barbarossalieder_ + (Innsbruck, 1899). For a complete bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz, + _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Goettingen, 1894), and U. + Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age_, tome + iii. (Paris, 1904). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1194-1250), Roman emperor, king of Sicily and Jerusalem, +was the son of the emperor Henry VI. and Constance, daughter of Roger +I., king of Sicily, and therefore grandson of the emperor Frederick I. +and a member of the Hohenstaufen family. Born at Jesi near Ancona on +the 26th of December 1194, he was baptized by the name of Frederick +Roger, chosen German king at Frankfort in 1196, and after his father's +death crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 17th of May 1198. His +mother, who assumed the government, died in November 1198, leaving Pope +Innocent III. as regent of Sicily and guardian of her son. The young +king passed his early years amid the terrible anarchy in his island +kingdom, which Innocent was powerless to check; but his education was +not neglected, and his character and habits were formed by contact with +men of varied nationalities and interests, while the darker traits of +his nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which he +lived. In 1208 he was declared of age, and soon afterwards Innocent +arranged a marriage, which was celebrated the following year, between +him and Constance, daughter of Alphonso II. king of Aragon, and widow of +Emerich or Imre, king of Hungary. + +The dissatisfaction felt in Germany with the emperor Otto IV. came to a +climax in September 1211, when a number of influential princes met at +Nuremberg, declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to come and +occupy the vacant throne. In spite of the reluctance of his wife, and +the opposition of the Sicilian nobles, he accepted the invitation; and +having recognized the papal supremacy over Sicily, and procured the +coronation of his son Henry as its king, reached Germany after an +adventurous journey in the autumn of 1212. This step was taken with the +approval of the pope, who was anxious to strike a blow at Otto IV. + +Frederick was welcomed in Swabia, and the renown of the Hohenstaufen +name and a liberal distribution of promises made his progress easy. +Having arranged a treaty against Otto with Louis, son of Philip +Augustus, king of France, whom he met at Vaucouleurs, he was chosen +German king a second time at Frankfort on the 5th of December 1212, and +crowned four days later at Mainz. Anxious to retain the support of the +pope, Frederick promulgated a bull at Eger on the 12th of July 1213, by +which he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the +emperor Henry VI. in 1197, gave up the right of spoils and all +interference in episcopal elections, and acknowledged the right of +appeal to Rome. He again affirmed the papal supremacy over Sicily, and +promised to root out heresy in Germany. The victory of his French allies +at Bouvines on the 27th of July 1214 greatly strengthened his position, +and a large part of the Rhineland having fallen into his power, he was +crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1215. His +cause continued to prosper, fresh supporters gathered round his +standard, and in May 1218 the death of Otto freed him from his rival and +left him undisputed ruler of Germany. A further attempt to allay the +pope's apprehension lest Sicily should be united with the Empire had +been made early in 1216, when Frederick, in a letter to Innocent, +promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize his son Henry +as king of Sicily, and to place him under the suzerainty of Rome. Henry +nevertheless was brought to Germany and chosen German king at Frankfort +in April 1220, though Frederick assured the new pope, Honorius III., +that this step had been taken without his consent. The truth, however, +seems to be that he had taken great trouble to secure this election, and +for the purpose had won the support of the spiritual princes by +extensive concessions. In August 1220 Frederick set out for Italy, and +was crowned emperor at Rome on the 22nd of November 1220; after which he +repeated the undertaking he had entered into at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215 +to go on crusade, and made lavish promises to the Church. The clergy +were freed from taxation and from lay jurisdiction, the ban of the +Empire was to follow the ban of the Church, and heretics were to be +severely punished. + +Neglecting his promise to lead a crusade, Frederick was occupied until +1225 in restoring order in Sicily. The island was seething with +disorder, but by stern and sometimes cruel measures the emperor +suppressed the anarchy of the barons, curbed the power of the cities, +and subdued the rebellious Saracens, many of whom, transferred to the +mainland and settled at Nocera, afterwards rendered him valuable +military service. Meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and again; +until under a threat of excommunication, after the fall of Damietta in +1221, Frederick definitely undertook by a treaty made at San Germano in +1225 to set out in August 1227 or to submit to this penalty. His own +interests turned more strongly to the East, when on the 9th of November +1225, after having been a widower since 1222, he married Iolande +(Yolande or Isabella), daughter of John, count of Brienne, titular king +of Jerusalem. John appears to have expected that this alliance would +restore him to his kingdom, but his hopes were dashed to the ground when +Frederick himself assumed the title of king of Jerusalem. The emperor's +next step was an attempt to restore the imperial authority in northern +Italy, and for the purpose a diet was called at Cremona. But the cities, +watchful and suspicious, renewed the Lombard league and took up a +hostile attitude. Frederick's reply was to annul the treaty of Constance +and place the cities under the imperial ban; but he was forced by lack +of military strength to accept the mediation of Pope Honorius and the +maintenance of the _status quo_. + +After these events, which occurred early in 1227, preparations for the +crusade were pressed on, and the emperor sailed from Brindisi on the 8th +of September. A pestilence, however, which attacked his forces compelled +him to land in Italy three days later, and on the 29th of the same month +he was excommunicated by the new pope, Gregory IX. The greater part of +the succeeding year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarrel. +Alarmed at the increase in his opponent's power, Gregory denounced him +in a public letter, to which Frederick replied in a clever document +addressed to the princes of Europe. The reading of this manifesto, +drawing attention to the absolute power claimed by the popes, was +received in Rome with such evidences of approval that Gregory was +compelled to fly to Viterbo. Having lost his wife Isabella on the 8th of +May 1228, Frederick again set sail for Palestine, where he met with +considerable success, the result of diplomatic rather than of military +skill. By a treaty made in February 1229 he secured possession of +Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood. +Entering Jerusalem, he crowned himself king of that city on the 18th of +March 1229. These successes had been won in spite of the hostility of +Gregory, which deprived Frederick of the assistance of many members of +the military orders and of the clergy of Palestine. But although the +emperor's possessions on the Italian mainland had been attacked in his +absence by the papal troops and their allies, Gregory's efforts had +failed to arouse serious opposition in Germany and Sicily; so that when +Frederick returned unexpectedly to Italy in June 1229 he had no +difficulty in driving back his enemies, and compelling the pope to sue +for peace. The result was the treaty of San Germano, arranged in July +1230, by which the emperor, loosed from the ban, promised to respect the +papal territory, and to allow freedom of election and other privileges +to the Sicilian clergy. Frederick was next engaged in completing the +pacification of Sicily. In 1231 a series of laws were published at Melfi +which destroyed the ascendancy of the feudal nobles. Royal officials +were appointed for administrative purposes, large estates were recovered +for the crown, and fortresses were destroyed, while the church was +placed under the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were prohibited. +At the same time certain privileges of self-government were granted to +the towns, representatives from which were summoned to sit in the diet. +In short, by means of a centralized system of government, the king +established an almost absolute monarchical power. + +In Germany, on the other hand, an entirely different policy was pursued. +The concessions granted by Frederick in 1220, together with the +Privilege of Worms, dated the 1st of May 1231, made the German princes +virtually independent. All jurisdiction over their lands was vested in +them, no new mints or toll-centres were to be erected on their domains, +and the imperial authority was restricted to a small and dwindling area. +A fierce attack was also made on the rights of the cities. Compelled to +restore all their lands, their jurisdiction was bounded by their +city-walls; they were forbidden to receive the dependents of the +princes; all trade gilds were declared abolished; and all official +appointments made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were +annulled. A further attack on the Lombard cities at the diet of Ravenna +in 1231 was answered by a renewal of their league, and was soon +connected with unrest in Germany. About 1231 a breach took place between +Frederick and his elder son Henry, who appears to have opposed the +Privilege of Worms and to have favoured the towns against the princes. +After refusing to travel to Italy, Henry changed his mind and submitted +to his father at Aquileia in 1232; and a temporary peace was made with +the Lombard cities in June 1233. But on his return to Germany Henry +again raised the standard of revolt, and made a league with the Lombards +in December 1234. Frederick, meanwhile, having helped Pope Gregory +against the rebellious Romans and having secured the friendship of +France and England, appeared in Germany early in 1235 and put down this +rising without difficulty. Henry was imprisoned, but his associates were +treated leniently. In August 1235 a splendid diet was held at Mainz, +during which the marriage of the emperor with Isabella (1214-1241), +daughter of John, king of England, was celebrated. A general peace +(_Landfrieden_), which became the basis of all such peaces in the +future, was sworn to; a new office, that of imperial justiciar, was +created, and a permanent judicial record was first instituted. Otto of +Brunswick, grandson of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, was made duke of +Brunswick-Lueneburg; and war was declared against the Lombards. + +Frederick was now at the height of his power. His second son, Conrad, +was invested with the duchy of Swabia, and the claim of Wenceslaus, king +of Bohemia, to some lands which had belonged to the German king Philip +was bought off. The attitude of Frederick II. (the Quarrelsome), duke of +Austria, had been considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a +visit paid by Frederick to Italy a war against him was begun. Compelled +to return by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign, the emperor +took command of his troops, seized Austria, Styria and Carinthia, and +declared these territories to be immediately dependent on the Empire. In +January 1237 he secured the election of his son Conrad as German king at +Vienna; and in September went to Italy to prosecute the war which had +broken out with the Lombards in the preceding year. Pope Gregory +attempted to mediate, but the cities refused to accept the insulting +terms offered by Frederick. The emperor gained a great victory over +their forces at Cortenuova in November 1237; but though he met with some +further successes, his failure to take Brescia in October 1238, together +with the changed attitude of Gregory, turned the fortune of war. The +pope had become alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage +between the heiress of Sardinia, Adelasia, and his natural son Enzio, +who afterwards assumed the title of king of Sardinia. But as his +warnings had been disregarded, he issued a document after the emperor's +retreat from Brescia, teeming with complaints against Frederick, and +followed it up by an open alliance with the Lombards, and by the +excommunication of the emperor on the 20th of March 1239. A violent war +of words ensued. Frederick, accused of heresy, blasphemy and other +crimes, called upon all kings and princes to unite against the pope, who +on his side made vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where +his emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching +rebellion. It was, however, impossible to find an anti-king. In Italy, +Spoleto and Ancona were declared part of the imperial dominions, and +Rome itself, faithful on this occasion to the pope, was threatened. A +number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a council called by Gregory were +captured by Enzio at the sea-fight of Meloria, and the emperor was about +to undertake the siege of Rome, when the pope died (August 1241). +Germany was at this time menaced by the Mongols; but Frederick contented +himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them, until in +1242 he was able to pay a short visit to Germany, where he gained some +support from the towns by grants of extensive privileges. + +The successor of Gregory was Pope Celestine IX. But this pontiff died +soon after his election; and after a delay of eighteen months, during +which Frederick marched against Rome on two occasions and devastated the +lands of his opponents, one of his partisans, Sinibaldo Fiesco, was +chosen pope, and took the name of Innocent IV. Negotiations for peace +were begun, but the relations of the Lombard cities to the Empire could +not be adjusted, and when the emperor began again to ravage the papal +territories Innocent fled to Lyons. Hither he summoned a general +council, which met in June 1245; but although Frederick sent his +justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, to represent him, and expressed his +willingness to treat, sentence of excommunication and deposition was +pronounced against him. Once more an interchange of recriminations +began, charged with all the violent hyperbole characteristic of the +controversial style of the age. Accused of violating treaties, breaking +oaths, persecuting the church and abetting heresy, Frederick replied by +an open letter rebutting these charges, and in equally unmeasured terms +denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from the pope +downwards. The source of all the evil was, he declared, the excessive +wealth of the church, which, in retaliation for the sentence of +excommunication, he threatened to confiscate. In vain the mediation of +the saintly king of France, Louis IX., was invoked. Innocent surpassed +his predecessors in the ferocity and unscrupulousness of his attacks on +the emperor (see INNOCENT IV.). War soon became general in Germany and +Italy. Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was chosen German king in +opposition to Frederick in May 1246, but neither he nor his successor, +William II., count of Holland, was successful in driving the +Hohenstaufen from Germany. In Italy, during the emperor's absence, his +cause had been upheld by Enzio and by the ferocious Eccelino da Romano. +In 1246 a formidable conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons +against the emperor's power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was +discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty. The emperor's power seemed +more firmly established than ever, when suddenly the news reached him +that Parma, a stronghold of the imperial authority in the north, had +been surprised, while the garrison was off its guard, by the Guelphs. To +recover the city was a matter of prime importance, and in 1247 Frederick +concentrated his forces round it, building over against it a wooden town +which, in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted, he +named Vittoria. The siege, however, was protracted, and finally, in +February 1248, during the absence of the emperor on a hunting +expedition, was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of the men of +Parma, who stormed the imperial camp. The disaster was complete. The +emperor's forces were destroyed or scattered; the treasury, with the +imperial insignia, together with Frederick's harem and some of the most +trusted of his ministers, fell into the hands of the victors. Thaddeus +of Suessa was hacked to pieces by the mob; the imperial crown was placed +in mockery on the head of a hunch-backed beggar, who was carried back in +triumph into the city. + +Frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes, and for a while with +success. But his old confidence had left him; he had grown moody and +suspicious, and his temper gave a ready handle to his enemies. Pier +della Vigna, accused of treasonable designs, was disgraced; and the once +all-powerful favourite and minister, blinded now and in rags, was +dragged in the emperor's train, as a warning to traitors, till in +despair he dashed out his brains. Then, in May 1248, came the tidings of +Enzio's capture by the Bolognese, and of his hopeless imprisonment, the +captors refusing all offers of ransom. This disaster to his favourite +son broke the emperor's spirit. He retired to southern Italy, and after +a short illness died at Fiorentino on the 13th of December 1250, after +having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of Palermo. He was +buried in the cathedral of that city, where his splendid tomb may still +be seen. By his will he appointed his son Conrad to succeed him in +Germany and Sicily, and Henry, his son by Isabella of England, to be +king of Jerusalem or Arles, neither of which kingdoms, however, he +obtained. Frederick left several illegitimate children: Enzio has +already been referred to; Frederick, who was made the imperial vicar in +Tuscany; and Manfred, his son by the beloved Bianca Lancia or Lanzia, +who was legitimatized just before his father's death, and was appointed +by his will prince of Tarento and regent of Sicily. + +The character of Frederick is one of extraordinary interest and +versatility, and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words _stupor +mundi et immutator mirabilis_. Licentious and luxurious in his manners, +cultured and catholic in his tastes, he united in his person the most +diverse qualities. His Sicilian court was a centre of intellectual +activity. Michael Scott, the translator of some treatises of Aristotle +and of the commentaries of Averroes, Leonard of Pisa, who introduced +Arabic numerals and algebra to the West, and other scholars, Jewish and +Mahommedan as well as Christian, were welcome at his court. Frederick +himself had a knowledge of six languages, was acquainted with +mathematics, philosophy and natural history, and took an interest in +medicine and architecture. In 1224 he founded the university of Naples, +and he was a liberal patron of the medical school at Salerno. He formed +a menagerie of strange animals, and wrote a treatise on falconry (_De +arte venandi cum avibus_) which is remarkable for its accurate +observation of the habits of birds.[1] It was at his court, too, +that--as Dante points out--Italian poetry had its birth. Pier della +Vigna there wrote the first sonnet, and Italian lyrics by Frederick +himself are preserved to us. His wives were kept secluded in oriental +fashion; a harem was maintained at Lucera, and eunuchs were a prominent +feature of his household. His religious ideas have been the subject of +much controversy. The theory of M. Huillard-Breholles that he wished to +unite to the functions of emperor those of a spiritual pontiff, and +aspired to be the founder of a new religion, is insufficiently supported +by evidence to be credible. Although at times he persecuted heretics +with great cruelty, he tolerated Mahommedans and Jews, and both acts +appear rather to have been the outcome of political considerations than +of religious belief. His jests, which were used by his enemies as a +charge against him, seem to have originated in religious indifference, +or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which anticipated the ideas of a later +age. Frederick's rule in Germany and Italy was a failure, but this fact +may be accounted for by the conditions of the time and the inevitable +conflict with the papacy. In Germany the enactments of 1220 and 1231 +contributed to the disintegration of the Empire and the fall of the +Hohenstaufen, while conflicting interests made the government of Italy a +problem of exceptional difficulty. In Sicily Frederick was more +successful. He quelled disorder, and under his rule the island was +prosperous and contented. His ideas of government were those of an +absolute monarch, and he probably wished to surround himself with some +of the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of Rome. His chief +claim to fame, perhaps, is as a lawgiver. The code of laws which he gave +to Sicily in 1231 bears the impress of his personality, and has been +described as "the fullest and most adequate body of legislation +promulgated by any western ruler since Charlemagne." Without being a +great soldier, Frederick was not unskilful in warfare, but was better +acquainted with the arts of diplomacy. In person he is said to have been +"red, bald and short-sighted," but with good features and a pleasing +countenance. It was seriously believed in Germany for about a century +after his death that Frederick was still alive, and many impostors +attempted to personate him. A legend, afterwards transferred to +Frederick Barbarossa, told how he sat in a cavern in the Kyffhaeusser +before a stone table through which his beard had grown, waiting for the +time for him to awake and restore to the Empire the golden age of peace. + + The contemporary documents relating to the reign of Frederick II. are + very numerous. Among the most important are: Richard of San Germano, + _Chronica regni Siciliae_; _Annales Placentini, Gibellini_; Albert of + Stade, _Annales_; Matthew Paris, _Historia major Angliae_; Burchard, + _Chronicon Urspergense_. All these are in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica_. _Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The _Rerum + Italicarum scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), + contains _Annales Mediolanenses_; Nicholas of Jamsilla, _Historia de + rebus gestis Friderici II._, and _Vita Gregorii IX. pontificis_. There + are also the _Epistolarum libri_ of Peter della Vigna, edited by J. R. + Iselin (Basel, 1740); and Salimbene of Parma's _Chronik_, published at + Parma (1857). Many of the documents concerning the history of the time + are found in the _Historia diplomatica Friderici II._, edited by M. + Huillard-Breholles (Paris, 1852-1861); _Acta imperii selecta. + Urkunden deutscher Koenige und Kaiser_, edited by J. F. Boehmer and J. + Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); _Acta imperii inedita seculi XIII. Urkunden + und Briefe zur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs und des Koenigreichs + Sicilien_, edited by E. Winkelmann (Innsbruck, 1880); _Epistolae + saeculi XIII. selecta e regestis pontificum Romanorum_, edited by C. + Rodenberg, tome i. (Berlin, 1883); P. Pressutti, _Regesta Honorii + papae III_. (Rome, 1888); L. Auvray, _Les Registres de Gregoire IX_. + (Paris, 1890). + + The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der + deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); J. Jastrow, _Deutsche + Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); F. W. + Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite_ (Goettingen, 1859-1865); + "Beitraege zur Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II." in the _Forschungen + zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Goettingen, 1862-1886), and _Die + letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Goettingen, 1871); E. Winkelmann, _Geschichte + Kaiser Friedrichs II und seiner Reiche_ (Berlin, 1865) and _Kaiser + Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889); G. Blondel, _Etude sur la politique de + l'empereur Frederic II. en Allemagne_ (Paris, 1892); M. Halbe, + _Friedrich II. und der paepstliche Stuhl_ (Berlin, 1888); R. Roehricht, + _Die Kreuzfahrt des Kaisers Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1874); C. Koehler, + _Das Verhaeltnis Kaiser Friedrichs II. zu den Paepsten seiner Zeit_ + (Breslau, 1888); J. Feiten, _Papst Gregor IX_. (Freiburg, 1886); C. + Rodenberg, _Innocenz IV. und das Koenigreich Sicilien_ (Halle, 1892); + K. Lamprecht, _Deutsche Geschichte_, Band iii. (Berlin, 1891); M. + Huillard-Breholles, _Vie et correspondance de Pierre de la Vigne_ + (Paris, 1865); A. del Vecchio, _La legislazione de Federico II_ + (Turin, 1874); and K. Hampe, _Kaiser Friedrich II_. (Munich, 1899). + (A. W. H.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] First printed at Augsburg in 1596; a German edition was published + at Berlin in 1896. + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1415-1493), Roman emperor,--as Frederick IV., German +king, and as Frederick V., archduke of Austria,--son of Ernest of +Habsburg, duke of Styria and Carinthia, was born at Innsbruck on the +21st of September 1415. After his father's death in 1424 he passed his +time at the court of his uncle and guardian, Frederick IV., count of +Tirol. In 1435, together with his brother, Albert the Prodigal, he +undertook the government of Styria and Carinthia, but the peace of these +lands was disturbed by constant feuds between the brothers, which lasted +until Albert's death in 1463. In 1439 the deaths of the German king +Albert II. and of Frederick of Tirol left Frederick the senior member of +the Habsburg family, and guardian of Sigismund, count of Tirol. In the +following year he also became guardian of Ladislaus, the posthumous son +of Albert II., and heir to Bohemia, Hungary and Austria, but these +responsibilities brought only trouble and humiliation in their train. On +the 2nd of February 1440 Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort, +but, owing to his absence from Germany, the coronation was delayed until +the 17th of June 1442, when it took place at Aix-la-Chapelle. + +Disregarding the neutral attitude of the German electors towards the +papal schism, and acting under the influence of Aeneas Sylvius +Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., Frederick in 1445 made a secret +treaty with Pope Eugenius IV. This developed into the Concordat of +Vienna, signed in 1448 with the succeeding pope, Nicholas V., by which +the king, in return for a sum of money and a promise of the imperial +crown, pledged the obedience of the German people to Rome, and so +checked for a time the rising tide of liberty in the German church. +Taking up the quarrel between the Habsburgs and the Swiss cantons, +Frederick invited the Armagnacs to attack his enemies, but after meeting +with a stubborn resistance at St Jacob on the 26th of August 1444, these +allies proved faithless, and the king soon lost every vestige of +authority in Switzerland. In 1451 Frederick, disregarding the revolts in +Austria and Hungary, travelled to Rome, where, on the 16th of March +1452, his marriage with Leonora, daughter of Edward, king of Portugal, +was celebrated, and three days later he was crowned emperor by pope +Nicholas. On his return he found Germany seething with indignation. His +capitulation to the pope was not forgotten; his refusal to attend the +diets, and his apathy in the face of Turkish aggressions, constituted a +serious danger; and plans for his deposition failed only because the +electors could not unite upon a rival king. In 1457 Ladislaus, king of +Hungary and Bohemia, and archduke of Austria, died; Frederick failed to +secure either kingdom, but obtained lower Austria, from which, however, +he was soon driven by his brother Albert, who occupied Vienna. On +Albert's death in 1463 the emperor united upper and lower Austria under +his rule, but these possessions were constantly ravaged by George +Podebrad, king of Bohemia, and by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary. A +visit to Rome in 1468 to discuss measures against the Turks with Pope +Paul II. had no result, and in 1470 Frederick began negotiations for a +marriage between his son Maximilian and Mary, daughter and heiress of +Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The emperor met the duke at Treves +in 1473, when Frederick, disliking to bestow the title of king upon +Charles, left the city secretly, but brought about the marriage after +the duke's death in 1477. Again attacked by Matthias, the emperor was +driven from Vienna, and soon handed over the government of his lands to +Maximilian, whose election as king of the Romans he vainly opposed in +1486. Frederick then retired to Linz, where he passed his time in the +study of botany, alchemy and astronomy, until his death on the 19th of +August 1493. + +Frederick was a listless and incapable ruler, lacking alike the +qualities of the soldier and of the diplomatist, but possessing a +certain cleverness in evading difficulties. With a fine presence, he had +many excellent personal qualities, is spoken of as mild and just, and +had a real love of learning. He had a great belief in the future +greatness of his family, to which he contributed largely by arranging +the marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy, and delighted to +inscribe his books and other articles of value with the letters +A.E.I.O.U. (_Austriae est imperare orbi universo_; or in German, _Alles +Erdreich ist Oesterreich unterthan_). His personality counts for very +little in German history. One chronicler says: "He was a useless +emperor, and the nation during his long reign forgot that she had a +king." His tomb, a magnificent work in red and white marble, is in the +cathedral of St Stephen at Vienna. + + See Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, _De rebus et gestis Friderici III_. + (trans. Th. Ilgen, Leipzig, 1889); J. Chmel, _Geschichte Kaiser + Friedrichs IV. und seines Sohnes Maximilians I_. (Hamburg, 1840); A. + Bachmann, _Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III. und + Maximilians I_. (Leipzig, 1884); A. Huber, _Geschichte Oesterreichs_ + (Gotha, 1885-1892); and E. M. Fuerst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des + Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (c. 1286-1330), surnamed "the Fair," German king and duke +of Austria, was the second son of the German king, Albert I., and +consequently a member of the Habsburg family. In 1298, when his father +was chosen German king, Frederick was invested with some of the family +lands, and in 1306, when his elder brother Rudolph became king of +Bohemia, he succeeded to the duchy of Austria. In 1307 Rudolph died, and +Frederick sought to obtain the Bohemian throne; but an expedition into +that country was a failure, and his father's murder in May 1308 deprived +him of considerable support. He was equally unsuccessful in his efforts +to procure the German crown at this time, and the relations between the +new king, Henry VII., and the Habsburgs were far from friendly. +Frederick asked not only to be confirmed in the possession of Austria, +but to be invested with Moravia, a demand to which Henry refused to +accede; but an arrangement was subsequently made by which the duke +agreed to renounce Moravia in return for a payment of 50,000 marks. +Frederick then became involved in a quarrel with his cousin Louis IV., +duke of Upper Bavaria (afterwards the emperor Louis IV.), over the +guardianship of Henry II., duke of Lower Bavaria. Hostilities broke out, +and on the 9th of November 1313 he was defeated by Louis at the battle +of Gammelsdorf and compelled to renounce his claim. + +Meanwhile the emperor Henry VII. had died in Italy, and a stubborn +contest ensued for the vacant throne. After a long delay Frederick was +chosen German king at Frankfort by a minority of the electors on the +19th of October 1314, while a majority elected Louis of Bavaria. Six +days later Frederick was crowned at Bonn by the archbishop of Cologne, +and war broke out at once between the rivals. During this contest, which +was carried on in a desultory fashion, Frederick drew his chief strength +from southern and eastern Germany, and was supported by the full power +of the Habsburgs. The defeat of his brother Leopold by the Swiss at +Morgarten in November 1315 was a heavy blow to him, but he prolonged the +struggle for seven years. On the 28th of September 1322 a decisive +battle was fought at Muehldorf; Frederick was defeated and sent as a +prisoner to Trausnitz. Here he was retained until three years later a +series of events induced Louis to come to terms. By the treaty of +Trausnitz, signed on the 13th of March 1325, Frederick acknowledged the +kingship of Louis in return for freedom, and promised to return to +captivity unless he could induce his brother Leopold to make a similar +acknowledgment. As Leopold refused to take this step, Frederick, +although released from his oath by Pope John XXII., travelled back to +Bavaria, where he was treated by Louis rather as a friend than as a +prisoner. A suggestion was then made that the kings should rule jointly, +but as this plan aroused some opposition it was agreed that Frederick +should govern Germany while Louis went to Italy for the imperial crown. +But this arrangement did not prove generally acceptable, and the death +of Leopold in 1326 deprived Frederick of a powerful supporter. In these +circumstances he returned to Austria broken down in mind and body, and +on the 13th of January 1330 he died at Gutenstein, and was buried at +Mauerbach, whence his remains were removed in 1783 to the cathedral of +St Stephen at Vienna. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James I., king +of Aragon, and left two daughters. His voluntary return into captivity +is used by Schiller in his poem _Deutsche Treue_, and by J. L. Uhland in +the drama _Ludwig der Bayer_. + + The authorities for the life of Frederick are found in the _Fontes + rerum Germanicarum_, Band i., edited by J. F. Boehmer (Stuttgart, + 1843-1868), and in the _Fontes rerum Austriacarum_, part i. (Vienna, + 1855). Modern works which may be consulted are: E. M. Fuerst von + Lichnowsky, G_eschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); Th. + Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ + (Stuttgart, 1888-1893). R. Doebner, _Die Auseinandersetzung zwischen + Ludwig IV. dem Bayer und Friedrich dem Schoenen von Oesterreich_ + (Goettingen, 1875); F. Kurz, _Oesterreich unter Koenig Friedrich dem + Schoenen_ (Linz, 1818); F. Krones, _Handbuch der Geschichte + Oesterreichs_ (Berlin, 1876-1879); H. Schrohe, _Der Kampf der + Gegenkoenige Ludwig und Friedrich_ (Berlin, 1902); W. Friedensburg, + _Ludwig IV. der Bayer und Friedrich von Oesterreich_ (Goettingen, 1877); + B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_ (Berlin, 1901). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1534-1588), king of Denmark and Norway, son of Christian +III., was born at Hadersleben on the 1st of July 1534. His mother, +Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg, was the elder sister of Catherine, the first +wife of Gustavus Vasa and the mother of Eric XIV. The two little +cousins, born the same year, were destined to be lifelong rivals. At the +age of two Frederick was proclaimed successor to the throne at the +_Rigsdag_ of Copenhagen (October 30th, 1536), and homage was done to him +at Oslo for Norway in 1548. The choice of his governor, the patriotic +historiographer Hans Svaning, was so far fortunate that it ensured the +devotion of the future king of Denmark to everything Danish; but Svaning +was a poor pedagogue, and the wild and wayward lad suffered all his life +from the defects of his early training. Frederick's youthful, innocent +attachment to the daughter of his former tutor, Anna Hardenberg, +indisposed him towards matrimony at the beginning of his reign (1558). +After the hands of Elizabeth of England, Mary of Scotland and Renata of +Lorraine had successively been sought for him, the council of state grew +anxious about the succession, but he finally married his cousin, Sophia +of Mecklenburg, on the 20th of July 1572. + +The reign of Frederick II. falls into two well-defined divisions: (1) a +period of war, 1559-1570; and (2) a period of peace, 1570-1588. The +period of war began with the Ditmarsh expedition, when the independent +peasant-republic of the Ditmarshers of West Holstein, which had stoutly +maintained its independence for centuries against the counts of Holstein +and the Danish kings, was subdued by a Dano-Holstein army of 20,000 men +in 1559, Frederick and his uncles John and Adolphus, dukes of Holstein, +dividing the land between them. Equally triumphant was Frederick in his +war with Sweden, though here the contest was much more severe, lasting +as it did for seven years; whence it is generally described in northern +history as the Scandinavian Seven Years' War. The tension which had +prevailed between the two kingdoms during the last years of Gustavus +Vasa reached breaking point on the accession of Gustavus's eldest son +Eric XIV. There were many causes of quarrel between the two ambitious +young monarchs, but the detention at Copenhagen in 1563 of a splendid +matrimonial embassy on its way to Germany, to negotiate a match between +Eric and Christina of Hesse, which King Frederick for political reasons +was determined to prevent, precipitated hostilities. During the war, +which was marked by extraordinary ferocity throughout, the Danes were +generally victorious on land owing to the genius of Daniel Rantzau, but +at sea the Swedes were almost uniformly triumphant. By 1570 the strife +had degenerated into a barbarous devastation of border provinces; and in +July of the same year both countries accepted the mediation of the +Emperor, and peace was finally concluded at Stettin on Dec. 13, 1570. +During the course of this Seven Years' War Frederick II. had narrowly +escaped the fate of his deposed cousin Eric XIV. The war was very +unpopular in Denmark, and the closing of the Sound against foreign +shipping, in order to starve out Sweden, had exasperated the maritime +powers and all the Baltic states. On New Year's Day 1570 Frederick's +difficulties seemed so overwhelming that he threatened to abdicate; but +the peace of Stettin came in time to reconcile all parties, and though +Frederick had now to relinquish his ambitious dream of re-establishing +the Union of Kalmar, he had at least succeeded in maintaining the +supremacy of Denmark in the north. After the peace Frederick's policy +became still more imperial. He aspired to the dominion of all the seas +which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died he succeeded in +suppressing the pirates who so long had haunted the Baltic and the +German Ocean. He also erected the stately fortress of Kronborg, to guard +the narrow channel of the Sound. Frederick possessed the truly royal +gift of discovering and employing great men, irrespective of personal +preferences and even of personal injuries. With infinite tact and +admirable self-denial he gave free scope to ministers whose superiority +in their various departments he frankly recognized, rarely interfering +personally unless absolutely called upon to do so. His influence, always +great, was increased by his genial and unaffected manners as a host. He +is also remarkable as one of the few kings of the house of Oldenburg who +had no illicit _liaison_. He died at Antvorskov on the 4th of April +1588. No other Danish king was ever so beloved by his people. + + See _Lund_ (_Troels_), _Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af + det XVI. Aarh._ (Copenhagen, 1879); _Danmarks Riges Historie_ + (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. 3; Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, + cap. 4 (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.) + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1609-1670), king of Denmark and Norway, son of Christian +IV. and Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, was born on the 18th of March +1609 at Hadersleben. His position as a younger son profoundly influenced +his future career. In his youth and early manhood there was no prospect +of his ascending the Danish throne, and he consequently became the +instrument of his father's schemes of aggrandizement in Germany. While +still a lad he became successively bishop of Bremen, bishop of Verden +and coadjutor of Halberstadt, while at the age of eighteen he was the +chief commandant of the fortress of Stade. Thus from an early age he had +considerable experience as an administrator, while his general education +was very careful and thorough. He had always a pronounced liking for +literary and scientific studies. On the 1st of October 1643 Frederick +wedded Sophia Amelia of Brunswick Lueneburg, whose energetic, passionate +and ambitious character was profoundly to affect not only Frederick's +destiny but the destiny of Denmark. During the disastrous Swedish War of +1643-1645 Frederick was appointed generalissimo of the duchies by his +father, but the laurels he won were scanty, chiefly owing to his +quarrels with the Earl-Marshal Anders Bille, who commanded the Danish +forces. This was Frederick's first collision with the Danish nobility, +who ever afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust. The death of his +elder brother Christian in June 1647 first opened to him the prospect of +succeeding to the Danish throne, but the question was still unsettled +when Christian IV. died on the 28th of February 1648. Not till the 6th +of July in the same year did Frederick III. receive the homage of his +subjects, and only after he had signed a _Haandfaestning_ or charter, by +which the already diminished royal prerogative was still further +curtailed. It had been doubtful at first whether he would be allowed to +inherit his ancestral throne at all; but Frederick removed the last +scruples of the _Rigsraad_ by unhesitatingly accepting the conditions +imposed upon him. + +The new monarch was a reserved, enigmatical prince, who seldom laughed, +spoke little and wrote less--a striking contrast to Christian IV. But if +he lacked the brilliant qualities of his impulsive, jovial father, he +possessed in a high degree the compensating virtues of moderation, +sobriety and self-control. But with all his good qualities Frederick was +not the man to take a clear view of the political horizon, or even to +recognize his own and his country's limitations. He rightly regarded the +accession of Charles X. of Sweden (June 6th, 1654) as a source of danger +to Denmark. He felt that temperament and policy would combine to make +Charles an aggressive warrior-king: the only uncertainty was in which +direction he would turn his arms first. Charles's invasion of Poland +(July 1654) came as a distinct relief to the Danes, though even the +Polish War was full of latent peril to Denmark. Frederick was resolved +upon a rupture with Sweden at the first convenient opportunity. The +_Rigsdag_ which assembled on the 23rd of February 1657 willingly granted +considerable subsidies for mobilization and other military expenses; on +the 15th of April Frederick III. desired, and on the 23rd of April he +received, the assent of the majority of the _Rigsraad_ to attack +Sweden's German provinces; in the beginning of May the still pending +negotiations with that power were broken off, and on the 1st of June +Frederick signed the manifesto justifying a war which was never formally +declared. The Swedish king traversed all the plans of his enemies by his +passage of the frozen Belts, in January and February 1658 (see CHARLES +X. of Sweden). The effect of this unheard-of achievement on the Danish +government was crushing. Frederick III. at once sued for peace; and, +yielding to the persuasions of the English and French ministers, Charles +finally agreed to be content with mutilating instead of annihilating the +Danish monarchy (treaties of Taastrup, February 18th, and of Roskilde, +February 26th, 1658). The conclusion of peace was followed by a +remarkable episode. Frederick expressed the desire to make the personal +acquaintance of his conqueror; and Charles X. consented to be his guest +for three days (March 3-5) at the castle of Fredriksborg. Splendid +banquets lasting far into the night, private and intimate conversations +between the princes who had only just emerged from a mortal struggle, +seemed to point to nothing but peace and friendship in the future. But +Charles's insatiable lust for conquest, and his ineradicable suspicion +of Denmark, induced him, on the 17th of July, without any reasonable +cause, without a declaration of war, in defiance of all international +equity, to endeavour to despatch an inconvenient neighbour. + +Terror was the first feeling produced at Copenhagen by the landing of +the main Swedish army at Korsoer in Zealand. None had anticipated the +possibility of such a sudden and brutal attack, and every one knew that +the Danish capital was very inadequately fortified and garrisoned. +Fortunately Frederick had never been deficient in courage. "I will die +in my nest" were the memorable words with which he rebuked those +counsellors who advised him to seek safety in flight. On the 8th of +August representatives from every class in the capital urged the +necessity of a vigorous resistance; and the citizens of Copenhagen, +headed by the great burgomaster Hans Nansen (q.v.), protested their +unshakable loyalty to the king, and their determination to defend +Copenhagen to the uttermost. The Danes had only three days' warning of +the approaching danger; and the vast and dilapidated line of defence had +at first but 2000 regular defenders. But the government and the people +displayed a memorable and exemplary energy, under the constant +supervision of the king, the queen, and burgomaster Nansen. By the +beginning of September all the breaches were repaired, the walls +bristled with cannon, and 7000 men were under arms. So strong was the +city by this time that Charles X., abandoning his original intention of +carrying the place by assault, began a regular siege; but this also he +was forced to abandon when, on the 29th of October, an auxiliary Dutch +fleet, after reinforcing and reprovisioning the garrison, defeated, in +conjunction with the Danish fleet, the Swedish navy of 44 liners in the +Sound. Thus the Danish capital had saved the Danish monarchy. But it was +Frederick III. who profited most by his spirited defence of the common +interests of the country and the dynasty. The traditional loyalty of the +Danish middle classes was transformed into a boundless enthusiasm for +the king personally, and for a brief period Frederick found himself the +most popular man in his kingdom. He made use of his popularity by +realizing the dream of a lifetime and converting an elective into an +absolute monarchy by the Revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: _History_). +Frederick III. died on the 6th of February 1670 at the castle of +Copenhagen. + + See R. Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, caps. ix. and x. (Cambridge, 1905). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +FREDERICK VIII. (1843- ), king of Denmark, eldest son of King +Christian IX., was born at Copenhagen on the 3rd of June 1843. As crown +prince of Denmark he took part in the war of 1864 against Austria and +Prussia, and subsequently assisted his father in the duties of +government, becoming king on Christian's death in January 1906. In 1869 +Frederick married Louise (b. 1851), daughter of Charles XV., king of +Sweden, by whom he had a family of four sons and four daughters. His +eldest son Christian, crown prince of Denmark (b. 1870), was married in +1898 to Alexandrina (b. 1879), daughter of Frederick Francis III., +grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; and his second son, Charles (b. +1872), who married his cousin Maud, daughter of Edward VII. of Great +Britain, became king of Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905. + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1657-1713), king of Prussia, and (as Frederick III.) +elector of Brandenburg, was the second son of the great elector, +Frederick William, by his first marriage with Louise Henriette, daughter +of Frederick Henry of Orange. Born at Koenigsberg on the 11th of July +1657, he was educated and greatly influenced by Eberhard Danckelmann, +and became heir to the throne of Brandenburg through the death of his +elder brother, Charles Emil, in 1674. He appears to have taken some part +in public business before the death of his father; and the court at +Berlin was soon disturbed by quarrels between the young prince and his +stepmother, Dorothea of Holstein-Gluecksburg. In 1686 Dorothea persuaded +her husband to bequeath outlying portions of his lands to her four sons; +and Frederick, fearing he would be poisoned, left Brandenburg determined +to prevent any diminution of his inheritance. By promising to restore +Schwiebus to Silesia after his accession he won the support of the +emperor Leopold I.; but eventually he gained his end in a peaceable +fashion. Having become elector of Brandenburg in May 1688, he came to +terms with his half-brothers and their mother. In return for a sum of +money these princes renounced their rights under their father's will, +and the new elector thus secured the whole of Frederick William's +territories. After much delay and grumbling he fulfilled his bargain +with Leopold and gave up Schwiebus in 1695. At home and abroad Frederick +continued the policy of the great elector. He helped William of Orange +to make his descent on England; added various places, including the +principality of Neuchatel, to his lands; and exercised some influence on +the course of European politics by placing his large and efficient army +at the disposal of the emperor and his allies (see BRANDENBURG). He was +present in person at the siege of Bonn in 1689, but was not often in +command of his troops. The elector was very fond of pomp, and, striving +to model his court upon that of Louis XIV., he directed his main +energies towards obtaining for himself the title of king. In spite of +the assistance he had given to the emperor his efforts met with no +success for some years; but towards 1700 Leopold, faced with the +prospect of a new struggle with France, was inclined to view the idea +more favourably. Having insisted upon various conditions, prominent +among them being military aid for the approaching war, he gave the +imperial sanction to Frederick's request in November 1700; whereupon the +elector, hurrying at once to Koenigsberg, crowned himself with great +ceremony king of Prussia on the 18th of January 1701. According to his +promise the king sent help to the emperor; and during the War of the +Spanish Succession the troops of Brandenburg-Prussia rendered great +assistance to the allies, fighting with distinction at Blenheim and +elsewhere. Frederick, who was deformed through an injury to his spine, +died on the 25th of February 1713. By his extravagance the king +exhausted the treasure amassed by his father, burdened his country with +heavy taxes, and reduced its finances to chaos. His constant obligations +to the emperor drained Brandenburg of money which might have been +employed more profitably at home, and prevented her sovereign from +interfering in the politics of northern Europe. Frederick, however, was +not an unpopular ruler, and by making Prussia into a kingdom he +undoubtedly advanced it several stages towards its future greatness. He +founded the university of Halle, and the Academy of Sciences at Berlin; +welcomed and protected Protestant refugees from France and elsewhere; +and lavished money on the erection of public buildings. + +The king was married three times. His second wife, Sophie Charlotte +(1668-1705), sister of the English king George I., was the friend of +Leibnitz and one of the most cultured princesses of the age; she bore +him his only son, his successor, King Frederick William I. + + See W. Hahn, _Friedrich I., Koenig in Preussen_ (Berlin, 1876); J. G. + Droysen, _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_, Band iv. (Leipzig, + 1872); E. Heyck, _Friedrich I. und die Begruendung des preussischen + Koenigtums_ (Bielefeld, 1901): C. Graf von Dohna, _Memoires originaux + sur le regne et la cour de Frederic I^er_ (Berlin, 1883); _Aus dem + Briefwechsel Koenig Friedrichs I. von Preussen und seiner Familie_ + (Berlin, 1901); and T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. + i. (London, 1872). + + + + +FREDERICK II., known as "the Great" (1712-1786), king of Prussia, born +on the 24th of January 1712, was the eldest son of Frederick William I. +He was brought up with extreme rigour, his father devising a scheme of +education which was intended to make him a hardy soldier, and +prescribing for him every detail of his conduct. So great was Frederick +William's horror of everything which did not seem to him practical, that +he strictly excluded Latin from the list of his son's studies. +Frederick, however, had free and generous impulses which could not be +restrained by the sternest system. Encouraged by his mother, and under +the influence of his governess Madame de Roucoulle, and of his first +tutor Duhan, a French refugee, he acquired an excellent knowledge of +French and a taste for literature and music. He even received secret +lessons in Latin, which his father invested with all the charms of +forbidden fruit. As he grew up he became extremely dissatisfied with the +dull and monotonous life he was compelled to lead; and his discontent +was heartily shared by his sister, Wilhelmina, a bright and intelligent +young princess for whom Frederick had a warm affection. + +Frederick William, seeing his son apparently absorbed in frivolous and +effeminate amusements, gradually conceived for him an intense dislike, +which had its share in causing him to break off the negotiations for a +double marriage between the prince of Wales and Wilhelmina, and the +princess Amelia, daughter of George II., and Frederick; for Frederick +had been so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the +English court and to vow that he would marry Amelia or no one. Frederick +William's hatred of his son, openly avowed, displayed itself in violent +outbursts and public insults, and so harsh was his treatment that +Frederick frequently thought of running away and taking refuge at the +English court. He at last resolved to do so during a journey which he +made with the king to south Germany in 1730, when he was eighteen years +of age. He was helped by his two friends, Lieutenant Katte and +Lieutenant Keith; but by the imprudence of the former the secret was +found out. Frederick was placed under arrest, deprived of his rank as +crown prince, tried by court-martial, and imprisoned in the fortress of +Cuestrin. Warned by Frederick, Keith escaped; but Katte delayed his +flight too long, and a court-martial decided that he should be punished +with two years' fortress arrest. But the king was determined by a +terrible example to wake Frederick once for all to a consciousness of +the heavy responsibility of his position. He changed the sentence on +Katte to one of death and ordered the execution to take place in +Frederick's presence, himself arranging its every detail; Frederick's +own fate would depend upon the effect of this terrible object-lesson and +the response he should make to the exhortations of the chaplain sent to +reason with him. On the morning of the 7th of November Katte was +beheaded before Frederick's window, after the crown prince had asked his +pardon and received the answer that there was nothing to forgive. On +Frederick himself lay the terror of death, and the chaplain was able to +send to the king a favourable report of his orthodoxy and his changed +disposition. Frederick William, whose temper was by no means so +ruthlessly Spartan as tradition has painted it,was overjoyed, and +commissioned the clergyman to receive from the prince an oath of filial +obedience, and in exchange for this proof of "his intention to improve +in real earnest" his arrest was to be lightened, pending the earning of +a full pardon. "The whole town shall be his prison," wrote the king; "I +will give him employment, from morning to night, in the departments of +war, and agriculture, and of the government. He shall work at financial +matters, receive accounts, read minutes and make extracts.... But if he +kicks or rears again, he shall forfeit the succession to the crown, and +even, according to circumstances, life itself." + +For about fifteen months Frederick lived in Custrin, busy according to +the royal programme with the details of the Prussian administrative +system. He was very careful not to "kick or rear," and his good conduct +earned him a further stage in the restoration to favour. During this +period of probation he had been deprived of his status as a soldier and +refused the right to wear uniform, while officers and soldiers were +forbidden to give him the military salute; in 1732 he was made colonel +in command of the regiment at Neuruppin. In the following year he +married, in obedience to the king's orders, the princess Elizabeth +Christina, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Bevern. He was given the +estate of Rheinsberg in the neighbourhood of Neuruppin, and there he +lived until he succeeded to the throne. These years were perhaps the +happiest of his life. He discharged his duties with so much spirit and +so conscientiously that he ultimately gained the esteem of Frederick +William, who no longer feared that he would leave the crown to one +unworthy of wearing it. At the same time the crown prince was able to +indulge to the full his personal tastes. He carried on a lively +correspondence with Voltaire and other French men of letters, and was a +diligent student of philosophy, history and poetry. Two of his +best-known works were written at this time--_Considerations sur l'etat +present du corps politique de l'Europe_ and his _Anti-Macchiavel_. In +the former he calls attention to the growing strength of Austria and +France, and insists on the necessity of some third power, by which he +clearly means Prussia, counterbalancing their excessive influence. The +second treatise, which was issued by Voltaire in Hague in 1740, contains +a generous exposition of some of the favourite ideas of the 18th-century +philosophers respecting the duties of sovereigns, which may be summed up +in the famous sentence: "the prince is not the absolute master, but only +the first servant of his people." + +On the 31st of May 1740 he became king. He maintained all the forms of +government established by his father, but ruled in a far more +enlightened spirit; he tolerated every form of religious opinion, +abolished the use of torture, was most careful to secure an exact and +impartial administration of justice, and, while keeping the reins of +government strictly in his own hands, allowed every one with a genuine +grievance free access to his presence. The Potsdam regiment of giants +was disbanded, but the real interests of the army were carefully +studied, for Frederick realized that the two pillars of the Prussian +state were sound finances and a strong army. On the 20th of October 1740 +the emperor Charles VI. died. Frederick at once began to make extensive +military preparations, and it was soon clear to all the world that he +intended to enter upon some serious enterprise. He had made up his mind +to assert the ancient claim of the house of Brandenburg to the three +Silesian duchies, which the Austrian rulers of Bohemia had ever denied, +but the Hohenzollerns had never abandoned. Projects for the assertion of +this claim by force of arms had been formed by more than one of +Frederick's predecessors, and the extinction of the male line of the +house of Habsburg may well have seemed to him a unique opportunity for +realizing an ambition traditional in his family. For this resolution he +is often abused still by historians, and at the time he had the approval +of hardly any one out of Prussia. He himself, writing of the scheme in +his _Memoires_, laid no claim to lofty motives, but candidly confessed +that "it was a means of acquiring reputation and of increasing the power +of the state." He firmly believed, however, in the lawfulness of his +claims; and although his father had recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, +whereby the hereditary dominions of Charles VI. were to descend to his +daughter, Maria Theresa, Frederick insisted that this sanction could +refer only to lands which rightfully belonged to the house of Austria. +He could also urge that, as Charles VI. had not fulfilled the +engagements by which Frederick William's recognition of the Pragmatic +Sanction had been secured, Prussia was freed from her obligation. + +Frederick sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering, in the event of his +rights in Silesia being conceded, to aid Maria Theresa against her +enemies. The queen of Hungary, who regarded the proposal as that of a +mere robber, haughtily declined; whereupon Frederick immediately invaded +Silesia with an army of 30,000 men. His first victory was gained at +Mollwitz on the 10th of April 1741. Under the impression, in consequence +of a furious charge of Austrian cavalry, that the battle was lost, he +rode rapidly away at an early stage of the struggle--a mistake which +gave rise for a time to the groundless idea that he lacked personal +courage. A second Prussian victory was gained at Chotusitz, near Caslau, +on the 17th May 1742; by this time Frederick was master of all the +fortified places of Silesia. Maria Theresa, in the heat of her struggle +with France and the elector of Bavaria, now Charles VII., and pressed by +England to rid herself of Frederick, concluded with him, on the 11th of +June 1742, the peace of Breslau, conceding to Prussia, Upper and Lower +Silesia as far as the Oppa, together with the county of Glatz. Frederick +made good use of the next two years, fortifying his new territory, and +repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war. By the death of the +prince of East Friesland without heirs, he also gained possession of +that country (1744). He knew well that Maria Theresa would not, if she +could help it, allow him to remain in Silesia; accordingly, in 1744, +alarmed by her victories, he arrived at a secret understanding with +France, and pledged himself, with Hesse-Cassel and the palatinate, to +maintain the imperial rights of Charles VII., and to defend his +hereditary Bavarian lands. Frederick began the second Silesian War by +entering Bohemia in August 1744 and taking Prague. By this brilliant but +rash venture he put himself in great danger, and soon had to retreat; +but in 1745 he gained the battles of Hohenfriedberg, Soor and +Hennersdorf; and Leopold of Dessau ("Der alte Dessauer") won for him the +victory of Kesselsdorf in Saxony. The latter victory was decisive, and +the peace of Dresden (December 25, 1745) assured to Frederick a second +time the possession of Silesia. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.) + +Frederick had thus, at the age of thirty-three, raised himself to a +great position in Europe, and henceforth he was the most conspicuous +sovereign of his time. He was a thoroughly absolute ruler, his so-called +ministers being mere clerks whose business was to give effect to his +will. To use his own famous phrase, however, he regarded himself as but +"the first servant of the state"; and during the next eleven years he +proved that the words expressed his inmost conviction and feeling. All +kinds of questions were submitted to him, important and unimportant; and +he is frequently censured for having troubled himself so much with mere +details. But in so far as these details related to expenditure he was +fully justified, for it was absolutely essential for him to have a large +army, and with a small state this was impossible unless he carefully +prevented unnecessary outlay. Being a keen judge of character, he filled +the public offices with faithful, capable, energetic men, who were kept +up to a high standard of duty by the consciousness that their work might +at any time come under his strict supervision. The Academy of Sciences, +which had fallen into contempt during his father's reign, he restored, +infusing into it vigorous life; and he did more to promote elementary +education than any of his predecessors. He did much too for the economic +development of Prussia, especially for agriculture; he established +colonies, peopling them with immigrants, extended the canal system, +drained and diked the great marshes of the Oderbruch, turning them into +rich pasturage, encouraged the planting of fruit trees and of root +crops; and, though in accordance with his ideas of discipline he +maintained serfdom, he did much to lighten the burdens of the peasants. +All kinds of manufacture, too, particularly that of silk, owed much to +his encouragement. To the army he gave unremitting attention, reviewing +it at regular intervals, and sternly punishing negligence on the part of +the officers. Its numbers were raised to 160,000 men, while fortresses +and magazines were always kept in a state of readiness for war. The +influence of the king's example was felt far beyond the limits of his +immediate circle. The nation was proud of his genius, and displayed +something of his energy in all departments of life. Lessing, who as a +youth of twenty came to Berlin in 1749, composed enthusiastic odes in +his honour, and Gleim, the Halberstadt poet, wrote of him as of a kind +of demi-god. These may be taken as fair illustrations of the popular +feeling long before the Seven Years' War. + +He despised German as the language of boors, although it is remarkable +that at a later period, in a French essay on German literature, he +predicted for it a great future. He habitually wrote and spoke French, +and had a strong ambition to rank as a distinguished French author. +Nobody can now read his verses, but his prose writings have a certain +calm simplicity and dignity, without, however, giving evidence of the +splendid mental qualities which he revealed in practical life. To this +period belong his _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de Brandebourg_ and +his poem _L'Art de la guerre_. The latter, judged as literature, is +intolerably dull; but the former is valuable, throwing as it does +considerable light on his personal sympathies as well as on the motives +of important epochs in his career. He continued to correspond with +French writers, and induced a number of them to settle in Berlin, +Maupertuis being president of the Academy. In 1752 Voltaire, who had +repeatedly visited him, came at Frederick's urgent entreaty, and +received a truly royal welcome. The famous Hirsch trial, and Voltaire's +vanity and caprice, greatly lowered him in the esteem of the king, who, +on his side, irritated his guest by often requiring him to correct bad +verses, and by making him the object of rude banter. The publication of +_Doctor Akakia_, which brought down upon the president of the Academy a +storm of ridicule, finally alienated Frederick; while Voltaire's wrongs +culminated in the famous arrest at Frankfort, the most disagreeable +elements of which were due to the misunderstanding of an order by a +subordinate official. + +The king lived as much as possible in a retired mansion, to which he +gave the name of Sanssouci--not the palace so called, which was built +after the Seven Years' War, and was never a favourite residence. He rose +regularly in summer at five, in winter at six, devoting himself to +public business till about eleven. During part of this time, after +coffee, he would aid his reflections by playing on the flute, of which +he was passionately fond, being a really skilful performer. At eleven +came parade, and an hour afterwards, punctually, dinner, which continued +till two, or later, if conversation happened to be particularly +attractive. After dinner he glanced through and signed cabinet orders +written in accordance with his morning instructions, often adding +marginal notes and postscripts, many of which were in a caustic tone. +These disposed of, he amused himself for a couple of hours with literary +work; between six and seven he would converse with his friends or listen +to his reader (a post held for some time by La Mettrie); at seven there +was a concert; and at half-past eight he sat down to supper, which might +go on till midnight. He liked good eating and drinking, although even +here the cost was sharply looked after, the expenses of his kitchen +mounting to no higher figure than L1800 a year. At supper he was always +surrounded by a number of his most intimate friends, mainly Frenchmen; +and he insisted on the conversation being perfectly free. His wit, +however, was often cruel, and any one who responded with too much spirit +was soon made to feel that the licence of talk was to be complete only +on one side. + +At Frederick's court ladies were seldom seen, a circumstance that gave +occasion to much scandal for which there seems to have been no +foundation. The queen he visited only on rare occasions. She had been +forced upon him by his father, and he had never loved her; but he always +treated her with marked respect, and provided her with a generous +income, half of which she gave away in charity. Although without charm, +she was a woman of many noble qualities; and, like her husband, she +wrote French books, some of which attracted a certain attention in their +day. She survived him by eleven years, dying in 1797. + +Maria Theresa had never given up hope that she would recover Silesia; +and as all the neighbouring sovereigns were bitterly jealous of +Frederick, and somewhat afraid of him, she had no difficulty in inducing +several of them to form a scheme for his ruin. Russia and Saxony entered +into it heartily, and France, laying aside her ancient enmity towards +Austria, joined the empress against the common object of dislike. +Frederick, meanwhile, had turned towards England, which saw in him a +possible ally of great importance against the French. A convention +between Prussia and Great Britain was signed in January 1756, and it +proved of incalculable value to both countries, leading as it did to a +close alliance during the administration of Pitt. Through the treachery +of a clerk in the Saxon foreign office Frederick was made aware of the +future which was being prepared for him. Seeing the importance of taking +the initiative, and if possible, of securing Saxony, he suddenly, on the +24th of August 1756, crossed the frontier of that country, and shut in +the Saxon army between Pirna and Koenigstein, ultimately compelling it, +after a victory gained over the Austrians at Lobositz, to surrender. +Thus began the Seven Years' War, in which, supported by England, +Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel, he had for a long time to oppose Austria, +France, Russia, Saxony and Sweden. Virtually the whole Continent was in +arms against a small state which, a few years before, had been regarded +by most men as beneath serious notice. But it happened that this small +state was led by a man of high military genius, capable of infusing into +others his own undaunted spirit, while his subjects had learned both +from him and his predecessors habits of patience, perseverance and +discipline. In 1757, after defeating the Austrians at Prague, he was +himself defeated by them at Kolin; and by the shameful convention of +Closter-Seven, he was freely exposed to the attack of the French. In +November 1757, however, when Europe looked upon him as ruined, he rid +himself of the French by his splendid victory over them at Rossbach, and +in about a month afterwards, by the still more splendid victory at +Leuthen, he drove the Austrians from Silesia. From this time the French +were kept well employed in the west by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, +who defeated them at Crefeld in 1758, and at Minden in 1759. In the +former year Frederick triumphed, at a heavy cost, over the Russians at +Zorndorf; and although, through lack of his usual foresight, he lost the +battle of Hochkirch, he prevented the Austrians from deriving any real +advantage from their triumph, Silesia still remaining in his hands at +the end of the year. The battle of Kunersdorf, fought on the 12th of +August 1759, was the most disastrous to him in the course of the war. He +had here to contend both with the Russians and the Austrians; and +although at first he had some success, his army was in the end +completely broken. "All is lost save the royal family," he wrote to his +minister Friesenstein; "the consequences of this battle will be worse +than the battle itself. I shall not survive the ruin of the Fatherland. +Adieu for ever!" But he soon recovered from his despair, and in 1760 +gained the important victories of Liegnitz and Torgau. He had now, +however, to act on the defensive, and fortunately for him, the Russians, +on the death of the empress Elizabeth, not only withdrew in 1762 from +the compact against him, but for a time became his allies. On the 29th +of October of that year he gained his last victory over the Austrians at +Freiberg. Europe was by that time sick of war, every power being more or +less exhausted. The result was that, on the 15th of February 1763, a +few days after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, the treaty of +Hubertusburg was signed, Austria confirming Prussia in the possession of +Silesia. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.) + +It would be difficult to overrate the importance of the contribution +thus made by Frederick to the politics of Europe. Prussia was now +universally recognized as one of the great powers of the Continent, and +she definitely took her place in Germany as the rival of Austria. From +this time it was inevitable that there should be a final struggle +between the two nations for predominance, and that the smaller German +states should group themselves around one or the other. Frederick +himself acquired both in Germany and Europe the indefinable influence +which springs from the recognition of great gifts that have been proved +by great deeds. + +His first care after the war was, as far as possible, to enable the +country to recover from the terrific blows by which it had been almost +destroyed; and he was never, either before or after, seen to better +advantage than in the measures he adopted for this end. Although his +resources had been so completely drained that he had been forced to melt +the silver in his palaces and to debase the coinage, his energy soon +brought back the national prosperity. Pomerania and Neumark were freed +from taxation for two years, Silesia for six months. Many nobles whose +lands had been wasted received corn for seed; his war horses were within +a few months to be found on farms all over Prussia; and money was freely +spent in the re-erection of houses which had been destroyed. The coinage +was gradually restored to its proper value, and trade received a +favourable impulse by the foundation of the Bank of Berlin. All these +matters were carefully looked into by Frederick himself, who, while +acting as generously as his circumstances would allow, insisted on +everything being done in the most efficient manner at the least possible +cost. Unfortunately, he adopted the French ideas of excise, and the +French methods of imposing and collecting taxes--a system known as the +Regie. This system secured for him a large revenue, but it led to a vast +amount of petty tyranny, which was all the more intolerable because it +was carried out by French officials. It was continued to the end of +Frederick's reign, and nothing did so much to injure his otherwise +immense popularity. He was quite aware of the discontent the system +excited, and the good-nature with which he tolerated the criticisms +directed against it and him is illustrated by a well-known incident. +Riding along the Jaeger Strasse one day, he saw a crowd of people. "See +what it is," he said to the groom who was attending him. "They have +something posted up about your Majesty," said the groom, returning. +Frederick, riding forward, saw a caricature of himself: "King in very +melancholy guise," says Preuss (as translated by Carlyle), "seated on a +stool, a coffee-mill between his knees, diligently grinding with the one +hand, and with the other picking up any bean that might have fallen. +'Hang it lower,' said the king, beckoning his groom with a wave of the +finger; 'lower, that they may not have to hurt their necks about it.' No +sooner were the words spoken, which spread instantly, than there rose +from the whole crowd one universal huzzah of joy. They tore the +caricature into a thousand pieces, and rolled after the king with loud +'_Lebe Hoch_, our Frederick for ever,' as he rode slowly away." There +are scores of anecdotes about Frederick, but not many so well +authenticated as this. + +There was nothing about which Frederick took so much trouble as the +proper administration of justice. He disliked the formalities of the +law, and in one instance, "the miller Arnold case," in connexion with +which he thought injustice had been done to a poor man, he dismissed the +judges, condemned them to a year's fortress arrest, and compelled them +to make good out of their own pockets the loss sustained by their +supposed victim--not a wise proceeding, but one springing from a +generous motive. He once defined himself as "l'avocat du pauvre," and +few things gave him more pleasure than the famous answer of the miller +whose windmill stood on ground which was wanted for the king's garden. +The miller sturdily refused to sell it. "Not at any price?" said the +king's agent; "could not the king take it from you for nothing, if he +chose?" "Have we not the Kammergericht at Berlin?" was the answer, which +became a popular saying in Germany. Soon after he came to the throne +Frederick began to make preparations for a new code. In 1747 appeared +the _Codex Fridericianus_, by which the Prussian judicial body was +established. But a greater monument of Frederick's interest in legal +reform was the _Allgemeines preussisches Landrecht_, completed by the +grand chancellor Count Johann H. C. von Carmer (1721-1801) on the basis +of the _Project des Corporis Juris Fridericiani_, completed in the year +1749-1751 by the eminent jurist Samuel von Cocceji (1679-1755). The +_Landrecht_, a work of vast labour and erudition, combines the two +systems of German and Roman law supplemented by the law of nature; it +was the first German code, but only came into force in 1794, after +Frederick's death. + +Looking ahead after the Seven Years' War, Frederick saw no means of +securing himself so effectually as by cultivating the goodwill of +Russia. In 1764 he accordingly concluded a treaty of alliance with the +empress Catherine for eight years. Six years afterwards, unfortunately +for his fame, he joined in the first partition of Poland, by which he +received Polish Prussia, without Danzig and Thorn, and Great Poland as +far as the river Netze. Prussia was then for the first time made +continuous with Brandenburg and Pomerania. + +The emperor Joseph II. greatly admired Frederick, and visited him at +Neisse, in Silesia, in 1769, a visit which Frederick returned, in +Moravia, in the following year. The young emperor was frank and cordial; +Frederick was more cautious, for he detected under the respectful manner +of Joseph a keen ambition that might one day become dangerous to +Prussia. Ever after these interviews a portrait of the emperor hung +conspicuously in the rooms in which Frederick lived, a circumstance on +which some one remarked. "Ah yes," said Frederick, "I am obliged to keep +that young gentleman in my eye." Nothing came of these suspicions till +1777, when, after the death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, +without children, the emperor took possession of the greater part of his +lands. The elector palatine, who lawfully inherited Bavaria, came to an +arrangement, which was not admitted by his heir, Charles, duke of +Zweibruecken. Under these circumstances the latter appealed to Frederick, +who, resolved that Austria should gain no unnecessary advantage, took +his part, and brought pressure to bear upon the emperor. Ultimately, +greatly against his will, Frederick felt compelled to draw the sword, +and in July 1778 crossed the Bohemian frontier at the head of a powerful +army. No general engagement was fought, and after a great many delays +the treaty of Teschen was signed on the 13th of May 1779. Austria +received the circle of Burgau, and consented that the king of Prussia +should take the Franconian principalities. Frederick never abandoned his +jealousy of Austria, whose ambition he regarded as the chief danger +against which Europe had to guard. He seems to have had no suspicion +that evil days were coming in France. It was Austria which had given +trouble in his time; and if her pride were curbed, he fancied that +Prussia at least would be safe. Hence one of the last important acts of +his life was to form, in 1785, a league of princes (the "Fuerstenbund") +for the defence of the imperial constitution, believed to be imperilled +by Joseph's restless activity. The league came to an end after +Frederick's death; but it is of considerable historical interest, as the +first open attempt of Prussia to take the lead in Germany. + +Frederick's chief trust was always in his treasury and his army. By +continual economy he left in the former the immense sum of 70 million +thalers; the latter, at the time of his death, numbered 200,000 men, +disciplined with all the strictness to which he had throughout life +accustomed his troops. He died at Sanssouci on the 17th of August 1786; +his death being hastened by exposure to a storm of rain, stoically +borne, during a military review. He passed away on the eve of tremendous +events, which for a time obscured his fame; but now that he can be +impartially estimated, he is seen to have been in many respects one of +the greatest figures in modern history. + +He was rather below the middle size, in youth inclined to stoutness, +lean in old age, but of vigorous and active habits. An expression of +keen intelligence lighted up his features, and his large, sparkling grey +eyes darted penetrating glances at every one who approached him. In his +later years an old blue uniform with red facings was his usual dress, +and on his breast was generally some Spanish snuff, of which he consumed +large quantities. He shared many of the chief intellectual tendencies of +his age, having no feeling for the highest aspirations of human nature, +but submitting all things to a searching critical analysis. Of +Christianity he always spoke in the mocking tone of the "enlightened" +philosophers, regarding it as the invention of priests; but it is +noteworthy that after the Seven Years' War, the trials of which steadied +his character, he sought to strengthen the church for the sake of its +elevating moral influence. In his judgments of mankind he often talked +as a misanthrope. He was once conversing with Sulzer, who was a school +inspector, about education. Sulzer expressed the opinion that education +had of late years greatly improved. "In former times, your Majesty," he +said, "the notion being that mankind were naturally inclined to evil, a +system of severity prevailed in schools; but now, when we recognize that +the inborn inclination of men is rather to good than to evil, +schoolmasters have adopted a more generous procedure." "Ah, my dear +Sulzer," replied the king, "you don't know this damned race" ("Ach, mein +lieber Sulzer, er kennt nicht diese verdammte Race"). This fearful +saying unquestionably expressed a frequent mood of Frederick's; and he +sometimes acted with great harshness, and seemed to take a malicious +pleasure in tormenting his acquaintances. Yet he was capable of genuine +attachments. He was beautifully loyal to his mother and his sister +Wilhelmina; his letters to the duchess of Gotha are full of a certain +tender reverence; the two Keiths found him a devoted friend. But the +true evidence that beneath his misanthropical moods there was an +enduring sentiment of humanity is afforded by the spirit in which he +exercised his kingly functions. Taking his reign as a whole, it must be +said that he looked upon his power rather as a trust than as a source of +personal advantage; and the trust was faithfully discharged according to +the best lights of his day. He has often been condemned for doing +nothing to encourage German literature; and it is true that he was +supremely indifferent to it. Before he died a tide of intellectual life +was rising all about him; yet he failed to recognize it, declined to +give Lessing even the small post of royal librarian, and thought _Goetz +von Berlichingen_ a vulgar imitation of vulgar English models. But when +his taste was formed, German literature did not exist; the choice was +between Racine and Voltaire on the one hand and Gottsched and Gellert on +the other. He survived into the era of Kant, Goethe and Schiller, but he +was not of it, and it would have been unreasonable to expect that he +should in old age pass beyond the limits of his own epoch. As Germans +now generally admit, it was better that he let their literature alone, +since, left to itself, it became a thoroughly independent product. +Indirectly he powerfully promoted it by deepening the national life from +which it sprang. At a time when there was no real bond of cohesion +between the different states, he stirred among them a common enthusiasm; +and in making Prussia great he laid the foundation of a genuinely united +empire. + + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--The main sources for the biography of Frederick + the Great are his own works, which, in the words of Leopold von Ranke, + "deal with the politics and wars of the period with the greatest + possible objectivity, i.e. truthfulness, and form an imperishable + monument of his life and opinions." A magnificent edition of + Frederick's complete works was issued (1846-1857), at the instance of + Frederick William IV., under the supervision of the historian Johann + D. E. Preuss (1785-1868). It is in thirty volumes, of which six + contain verse, seven are historical, two philosophical, and three + military, twelve being made up of correspondence. So long as the + various state archives remained largely inaccessible historians relied + upon this as their chief authority. Among works belonging to this + period may be mentioned Thomas Carlyle, _History of Frederick II. of + Prussia_ (6 vols., London, 1858-1865); J. G. Droysen, _Friedrich der + Grosse_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1876, forming part V. of his + _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_); Ranke, _Friedrich II., Koenig + von Preussen_ (_Werke_, vols. li. and lii.). A great stimulus to the + study of Frederick's history has since been given by the publication + of collections of documents preserved in various archives. Of these + the most important is the great official edition of Frederick's + political correspondence (Berlin, 1879), of which the thirty-first + vol. appeared in 1906. Of later works, based on modern research, may + be mentioned R. Koser, _Koenig Friedrich der Grosse_, Bd. 2 (Stuttgart, + 1893 and 1903; 3rd ed., 1905); Bourdeau, _Le Grand Frederic_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1900-1902); L. Paul-Dubois, _Frederic le Grand, d'apres sa + correspondance politique_ (Paris, 1903); W. F. Reddaway, _Frederick + the Great and the Rise of Prussia_ (London, 1904). Of the numerous + special studies may be noticed E. Zeller, _Friedrich der Grosse als + Philosoph_ (Berlin, 1886); H. Pigge, _Die Staatstheorie Friedrichs des + Grossen_ (Muenster, 1904); T. von Bernhardi, _Friedrich der Grosse als + Feldherr_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1881); Ernest Lavisse, _La Jeunesse du + Grand Frederic_ (Paris, 1891, 3rd ed., 1899; Eng. transl., London, + 1891); R. Brode, _Friedrich der Grosse und der Konflikt mit seinem + Vater_ (Leipzig, 1904); W. von Bremen, _Friedrich der Grosse_ (Bd. ii. + of _Erzieher des preussischen Heeres_, Berlin, 1905); G. Winter, + _Friedrich der Grosse_ (3 vols. in _Geisteshelden_ series, Berlin, + 1906); _Dreissig Jahre am Hofe Friedrichs des Grossen_. _Aus den + Tagebuechern des Reichsgrafen Ahasuerus Heinrich von Lehndorff, + Kammerherrn der Koenigin Elisabett Christine von Preussen_ (Gotha, + 1907). The great work on the wars of Frederick is that issued by the + Prussian General Staff: _Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen_ (12 vols. + in three parts, Berlin, 1890-1904). For a full list of other works see + Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde_ (Leipzig, 1906). (J. Si.; W. A. P.). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1831-1888), king of Prussia and German emperor, was born +at Potsdam on the 18th of October 1831, being the eldest son of Prince +William of Prussia, afterwards first German emperor, and the princess +Augusta. He was carefully educated, and in 1849-1850 studied at the +university of Bonn. The next years were spent in military duties and in +travels, in which he was accompanied by Moltke. In 1851 he visited +England on the occasion of the Great Exhibition, and in 1855 became +engaged to Victoria, princess royal of Great Britain, to whom he was +married in London on the 25th of January 1858. On the death of his uncle +in 1861 and the accession of his father, Prince Frederick William, as he +was then always called, became crown prince of Prussia. His education, +the influence of his mother, and perhaps still more that of his wife's +father, the Prince Consort, had made him a strong Liberal, and he was +much distressed at the course of events in Prussia after the appointment +of Bismarck as minister. He was urged by the Liberals to put himself +into open opposition to the government; this he refused to do, but he +remonstrated privately with the king. In June 1863, however, he publicly +dissociated himself from the press ordinances which had just been +published. He ceased to attend meetings of the council of state, and was +much away from Berlin. The opposition of the crown prince to the +ministers was increased during the following year, for he was a warm +friend of the prince of Augustenburg, whose claims to Schleswig-Holstein +Bismarck refused to support. During the war with Denmark he had his +first military experience, being attached to the staff of Marshal von +Wrangel; he performed valuable service in arranging the difficulties +caused by the disputes between the field marshal and the other officers, +and was eventually given a control over him. After the war he continued +to support the prince of Augustenburg and was strongly opposed to the +war with Austria. During the campaign of 1866 he received the command of +an army consisting of four army corps; he was assisted by General von +Blumenthal, as chief of the staff, but took a very active part in +directing the difficult operations by which his army fought its way +through the mountains from Silesia to Bohemia, fighting four engagements +in three days, and showed that he possessed genuine military capacity. +In the decisive battle of Koeniggraetz the arrival of his army on the +field of battle, after a march of nearly 20 m., secured the victory. +During the negotiations which ended the war he gave valuable assistance +by persuading the king to accept Bismarck's policy as regards peace with +Austria. From this time he was very anxious to see the king of Prussia +unite the whole of Germany, with the title of emperor, and was impatient +of the caution with which Bismarck proceeded. In 1869 he paid a visit to +Italy, and in the same year was present at the opening of the Suez +Canal; on his way he visited the Holy Land. + +He played a conspicuous part in the year 1870-1871, being appointed to +command the armies of the Southern States, General Blumenthal again +being his chief of the staff; his troops won the victory of Woerth, took +an important part in the battle of Sedan, and later in the siege of +Paris. The popularity he won was of political service in preparing the +way for the union of North and South Germany, and he was the foremost +advocate of the imperial idea at the Prussian court. During the years +that followed, little opportunity for political activity was open to +him. He and the crown princess took a great interest in art and +industry, especially in the royal museums; and the excavations conducted +at Olympia and Pergamon with such great results were chiefly due to him. +The crown princess was a keen advocate of the higher education of women, +and it was owing to her exertions that the Victoria Lyceum at Berlin +(which was named after her) was founded. In 1878, when the emperor was +incapacitated by the shot of an assassin, the prince acted for some +months as regent. His palace was the centre of all that was best in the +literary and learned society of the capital. He publicly expressed his +disapproval of the attacks on the Jews in 1878; and the coalition of +Liberal parties founded in 1884 was popularly known as the "crown +prince's party," but he scrupulously refrained from any act that might +embarrass his father's government. For many reasons the accession of the +prince was looked forward to with great hope by a large part of the +nation. Unfortunately he was attacked by cancer in the throat; he spent +the winter of 1887-1888 at San Remo; in January 1888 the operation of +tracheotomy had to be performed. On the death of his father, which took +place on the 9th of March, he at once journeyed to Berlin; but his days +were numbered, and he came to the throne only to die. In these +circumstances his accession could not have the political importance +which would otherwise have attached to it, though it was disfigured by a +vicious outburst of party passion in which the names of the emperor and +the empress were constantly misused. While the Liberals hoped the +emperor would use his power for some signal declaration of policy, the +adherents of Bismarck did not scruple to make bitter attacks on the +empress. The emperor's most important act was a severe reprimand +addressed to Herr von Puttkamer, the reactionary minister of the +interior, which caused his resignation; in the distribution of honours +he chose many who belonged to classes and parties hitherto excluded from +court favour. A serious difference of opinion with the chancellor +regarding the proposal for a marriage between Prince Alexander of +Battenberg and the princess Victoria of Prussia was arranged by the +intervention of Queen Victoria, who visited Berlin to see her dying +son-in-law. He expired at Potsdam on the 15th of June 1888, after a +reign of ninety-nine days. + +After the emperor's death Professor Geffcken, a personal friend, +published in the _Deutsche Rundschau_ extracts from the diary of the +crown prince containing passages which illustrated his differences with +Bismarck during the war of 1870. The object was to injure Bismarck's +reputation, and a very unseemly dispute ensued. Bismarck at first, in a +letter addressed to the new emperor, denied the authenticity of the +extracts on the ground that they were unworthy of the crown prince. +Geffcken was then arrested and imprisoned. He had undoubtedly shown that +he was an injudicious friend, for the diary proved that the prince, in +his enthusiasm for German unity, had allowed himself to consider +projects which would have seriously compromised the relations of Prussia +and Bavaria. The treatment of the crown prince's illness also gave rise +to an acrimonious controversy. It arose from the fact that as early as +May 1887 the German physicians recognized the presence of cancer in the +throat, but Sir Morell Mackenzie, the English specialist who was also +consulted, disputed the correctness of this diagnosis, and advised that +the operation for removal of the larynx, which they had recommended, +should not be undertaken. His advice was followed, and the differences +between the medical men were made the occasion for a considerable +display of national and political animosity. + +The empress VICTORIA, who, after the death of her husband, was known as +the empress Frederick, died on the 5th of August 1901 at the castle of +Friedrichskron, Cronberg, near Homburg v. d. H., where she spent her +last years. Of the emperor's children two, Prince Sigismund (1864-1866) +and Prince Waldemar (1869-1879), died in childhood. He left two sons, +William, his successor as emperor, and Henry, who adopted a naval +career. Of his daughters, the princess Charlotte was married to Bernard, +hereditary prince of Meiningen; the princess Victoria to Prince Adolf of +Schaumburg-Lippe; the princess Sophie to the duke of Sparta, crown +prince of Greece; and the princess Margaretha to Prince Friedrich Karl +of Hesse. + + AUTHORITIES.--M. von Poschinger, _Kaiser Friedrich_ (3 vols., Berlin, + 1898-1900). Adapted into English by Sidney Whitman, _Life of the + Emperor Frederick_ (1901). See also Bismarck, _Reflections and + Reminiscences_; Rennell Rodd, _Frederick, Crown Prince and Emperor_ + (1888); Gustav Freytag, _Der Kronprinz und die deutsche Kaiserkrone_ + (1889; English translation, 1890); Otto Richter, _Kaiser Friedrich + III._ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1903). For his illness, the official + publications, published both in English and German: _Die Krankheit + Kaiser Friedrichs III._ (Berlin, 1888), and Morell Mackenzie, _The + Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble_ (1888). Most of the copies of + the _Deutsche Rundschau_ containing the extracts from the crown + prince's diary were confiscated, but there is an English edition, + published in 1889. (J. W. He.) + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1272-1337), king of Sicily, third son of King Peter of +Aragon and Sicily, and of Constance, daughter of Manfred. Peter died in +1285, leaving Aragon to his eldest son Alphonso, and Sicily to his +second son James. When Alphonso died in 1291 James became king of +Aragon, and left his brother Frederick as regent of Sicily. The war +between the Angevins and the Aragonese for the possession of Sicily was +still in progress, and although the Aragonese were successful in Italy, +James's position in Spain became very insecure to internal troubles and +French attacks. Peace negotiations were begun with Charles II. of Anjou, +but were interrupted by the successive deaths of two popes; at last +under the auspices of Boniface VIII. James concluded a shameful treaty, +by which, in exchange for being left undisturbed in Aragon and promised +possession of Sardinia and Corsica, he gave up Sicily to the Church, for +whom it was to be held by the Angevins (1295). The Sicilians refused to +be made over once more to the hated French whom they had expelled in +1282, and found a national leader in the regent Frederick. In vain the +pope tried to bribe him with promises and dignities; he was determined +to stand by his subjects, and was crowned king by the nobles at Palermo +in 1296. Young, brave and handsome, he won the love and devotion of his +people, and guided them through the long years of storm and stress with +wisdom and ability. Although the second Frederick of Sicily, he called +himself third, being the third son of King Peter. He reformed the +administration and extended the powers of the Sicilian parliament, which +was composed of the barons, the prelates and the representatives of the +towns. + +His refusal to comply with the pope's injunctions led to a renewal of +the war. Frederick landed in Calabria, where he seized several towns, +encouraged revolt in Naples, negotiated with the Ghibellines of Tuscany +and Lombardy, and assisted the house of Colonna against Pope Boniface. +In the meanwhile James, who received many favours from the Church, +married his sister Yolanda to Robert, the third son of Charles II. +Unfortunately for Frederick, a part of the Aragonese nobles of Sicily +favoured King James, and both John of Procida and Ruggiero di Lauria, +the heroes of the war of the Vespers, went over to the Angevins, and the +latter completely defeated the Sicilian fleet off Cape Orlando. +Charles's sons Robert and Philip landed in Sicily, but after capturing +Catania were defeated by Frederick, Philip being taken prisoner (1299), +while several Calabrian towns were captured by the Sicilians. For two +years more the fighting continued with varying success, until Charles of +Valois, who had been sent by Boniface to invade Sicily, was forced to +sue for peace, his army being decimated by the plague, and in August +1302 the treaty of Caltabellotta was signed, by which Frederick was +recognized king of Trinacria (the name Sicily was not to be used) for +his lifetime, and was to marry Eleonora, the daughter of Charles II.; at +his death the kingdom was to revert to the Angevins (this clause was +inserted chiefly to save Charles's face), and his children would receive +compensation elsewhere. Boniface tried to induce King Charles to break +the treaty, but the latter was only too anxious for peace, and finally +in May 1303 the pope ratified it, Frederick agreeing to pay him a +tribute. + +For a few years Sicily enjoyed peace, and the kingdom was reorganized. +But on the descent of the emperor Henry VII., Frederick entered into an +alliance with him, and in violation of the pact of Caltabellotta made +war on the Angevins again (1313) and captured Reggio. He set sail for +Tuscany to cooperate with the emperor, but on the latter's death (1314) +he returned to Sicily. Robert, who had succeeded Charles II. in 1309, +made several raids into the island, which suffered much material injury. +A truce was concluded in 1317, but as the Sicilians helped the north +Italian Ghibellines in the attack on Genoa, and Frederick seized some +Church revenues for military purposes, the pope (John XXII.) +excommunicated him and placed the island under an interdict (1321) which +lasted until 1335. An Angevin fleet and army, under Robert's son +Charles, was defeated at Palermo by Giovanni da Chiaramonte in 1325, and +in 1326 and 1327 there were further Angevin raids on the island, until +the descent into Italy of the emperor Louis the Bavarian distracted +their attention. The election of Pope Benedict XII. (1334), who was +friendly to Frederick, promised a respite; but after fruitless +negotiations the war broke out once more, and Chiaramonte went over to +Robert, owing to a private feud. In 1337 Frederick died at Paternione, +and in spite of the peace of Caltabellotta his son Peter succeeded. +Frederick's great merit was that during his reign the Aragonese dynasty +became thoroughly national and helped to weld the Sicilians into a +united people. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. M. Mira, _Bibliografia Siciliana_ (Palermo, 1875); + of the contemporary authorities N. Speciale's "Historia Sicula" (in + Muratori's _Script. rer. ital._ x.) is the most important; for the + first years of Frederick's reign see M. Amari, _La Guerra del Vespro + Siciliano_ (Florence, 1876), and F. Lanzani, _Storia dei Comuni + italiani_ (Milan, 1882); for the latter years C. Cipolla, _Storia + delle signorie italiane_ (Milan, 1881); also Testa, _Vita di Federigo + di Sicilia_. (L. V.) + + + + +FREDERICK I. (c. 1371-1440), elector of Brandenburg, founder of the +greatness of the House of Hohenzollern, was a son of Frederick V., +burgrave of Nuremberg, and first came into prominence by saving the life +of Sigismund, king of Hungary, at the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. In +1397 he became burgrave of Nuremberg, and after his father's death in +1398 he shared Ansbach, Bayreuth, and the smaller possessions of the +family, with his only brother John, but became sole ruler after his +brother's death in 1420. Loyal at first to King Wenceslaus, the king's +neglect of Germany drove Frederick to take part in his deposition in +1400, and in the election of Rupert III., count palatine of the Rhine, +whom he accompanied to Italy in the following year. In 1401 he married +Elizabeth, or Elsa, daughter of Frederick, duke of Bavaria-Landshut (d. +1393), and after spending some time in family and other feuds, took +service again with King Sigismund in 1409, whom he assisted in his +struggle with the Hungarian rebels. The double election to the German +throne in 1410 first brought Frederick into relation with Brandenburg. +Sigismund, anxious to obtain another vote in the electoral college, +appointed Frederick to exercise the Brandenburg vote on his behalf, and +it was largely through his efforts that Sigismund was chosen German +king. Frederick then passed some time as administrator of Brandenburg, +where he restored a certain degree of order, and was formally invested +with the electorate and margraviate by Sigismund at Constance on the +18th of April 1417 (see BRANDENBURG). He took part in the war against +the Hussites, but became estranged from Sigismund when in 1423 the king +invested Frederick of Wettin, margrave of Meissen, with the vacant +electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg. In 1427 he sold his rights as +burgrave to the town of Nuremberg, and he was a prominent member of the +band of electors who sought to impose reforms upon Sigismund. After +having been an unsuccessful candidate for the German throne in 1438, +Frederick was chosen king of Bohemia in 1440, but declined the proffered +honour. He took part in the election of Frederick III. as German king +in 1440, and died at Radolzburg on the 21st of September in the same +year. In 1902 a bronze statue was erected to his memory at Friesack, and +there is also a marble one of the elector in the "Siegesallee" at +Berlin. + + See A. F. Riedel, _Zehn Jahre aus der Geschichte der Ahnherren des + preussischen Koenigshauses_ (Berlin, 1851); E. Brandenburg, _Koenig + Sigmund und Kurfuerst Friedrich I. von Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1891); and + O. Franklin, _Die deutsche Politik Friedrichs I. Kurfuersten von + Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1851). + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1425-1476), elector palatine of the Rhine, surnamed "the +Victorious," and called by his enemies "wicked Fritz," second son of the +elector palatine Louis III., was born on the 1st of August 1425. He +inherited a part of the Palatinate on his father's death in 1439, but +soon surrendered this inheritance to his elder brother, the elector +Louis IV. On his brother's death in 1449, however, he became guardian of +the young elector Philip, and ruler of the land. In 1451 he persuaded +the nobles to recognize him as elector, on condition that Philip should +be his successor, a scheme which was disliked by the emperor Frederick +III. The elector was successful in various wars with neighbouring +rulers, and was a leading member of the band of princes who formed plans +to secure a more efficient government for Germany, and even discussed +the deposition of Frederick III. Frederick himself was mentioned as a +candidate for the German throne, but the jealousies of the princes +prevented any decisive action, and soon became so acute that in 1459 +they began to fight among themselves. In alliance with Louis IX., duke +of Bavaria-Landshut, Frederick gained several victories during the +struggle, and in 1462 won a decisive battle at Seckenheim over Ulrich +V., count of Wuerttemberg. In 1472 the elector married Clara Tott, or +Dett, the daughter of an Augsburg citizen, and by her he had two sons, +Frederick, who died during his father's lifetime, and Louis (d. 1524), +who founded the line of the counts of Loewenstein. He died at Heidelberg +on the 12th of December 1476, and was succeeded, according to the +compact, by his nephew Philip. Frederick was a cultured prince, and, in +spite of his warlike career, a wise and intelligent ruler. He added +largely to the area of the Palatinate, and did not neglect to further +its internal prosperity. + + See N. Feeser, _Friedrich der Siegreiche, Kurfuerst von der Pfalz_ + (Neuburg, 1880); C. J. Kremer, _Geschichte des Kurfuersten Friedrichs + I. von der Pfalz_ (Leipzig, 1765); and K. Menzel, _Kurfuerst Friedrich + der Siegreiche von der Pfalz_ (Munich, 1861). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1482-1556), surnamed "the Wise," elector palatine of the +Rhine, fourth son of the elector Philip, was bom on the 9th of December +1482. Of an active and adventurous temperament, he fought under the +emperor Maximilian I. in 1508, and afterwards served the Habsburgs +loyally in other ways. He worked to secure the election of Charles, +afterwards the emperor Charles V., as the successor of Maximilian in +1519; fought in two campaigns against the Turks; and being disappointed +in his hope of obtaining the hand of one of the emperor's sisters, +married in 1535 Dorothea (d. 1580), daughter of Christian II., who had +been driven from the Danish throne. The Habsburgs promised their aid in +securing this crown for Frederick, but, like many previous promises made +to him, this came to nothing. Having spent his time in various parts of +Europe, and incurred heavy debts on account of his expensive tastes, +Frederick became elector palatine by the death of his brother, Louis V., +in March 1544. With regard to the religious troubles of Germany, he took +up at first the role of a mediator, but in 1545 he joined the league of +Schmalkalden, and in 1546 broke definitely with the older faith. He gave +a little assistance to the league in its war with Charles, but soon +submitted to the emperor, accepted the _Interim_ issued from Augsburg in +May 1548, and afterwards acted in harmony with Charles. The elector died +on the 26th of February 1556, and as he left no children was succeeded +by his nephew, Otto Henry (1502-1559). He was a great benefactor to the +university of Heidelberg. + + Frederick's life, _Annales de vita et rebus gestis Friderici II. + electoris palatini_ (Frankfort, 1624), was written by his secretary + Hubert Thomas Leodius; this has been translated into German by E. von + Buelow (Breslau, 1849). See also Rott, _Friedrich II. von der Pfalz und + die Reformation_ (Heidelberg, 1904). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1515-1576), called "the Pious," elector palatine of the +Rhine, eldest son of John II., count palatine of Simmern, was born at +Simmern on the 14th of February 1515. In 1537 he married Maria (d. +1567), daughter of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth, and in 1546, mainly as a +result of this union, adopted the reformed doctrines, which had already +made considerable progress in the Palatinate. He lived in comparative +obscurity and poverty until 1557, when he became count palatine of +Simmern by his father's death, succeeding his kinsman, Otto Henry +(1502-1559), as elector palatine two years later. Although inclined to +the views of Calvin rather than to those of Luther, the new elector +showed great anxiety to unite the Protestants; but when these efforts +failed, and the breach between the followers of the two reformers became +wider, he definitely adopted Calvinism. This form of faith was quickly +established in the Palatinate; in its interests the "Heidelberg +Catechism" was drawn up in 1563; and Catholics and Lutherans were +persecuted alike, while the churches were denuded of all their +ornaments. The Lutheran princes wished to root out Calvinism in the +Palatinate, but were not willing to exclude the elector from the +benefits of the religious peace of Augsburg, which were confined to the +adherents of the confession of Augsburg, and the matter came before the +diet in 1566. Boldly defending his position, Frederick refused to give +way an inch, and as the Lutherans were unwilling to proceed to +extremities the emperor Maximilian II. could only warn him to mend his +ways. The elector was an ardent supporter of the Protestants abroad, +whom, rather than the German Lutherans, he regarded as his +co-religionists. He aided the Huguenots in France and the insurgents in +the Netherlands with men and money; one of his sons, John Casimir +(1543-1592), took a prominent part in the French wars of religion, while +another, Christopher, was killed in 1574 fighting for the Dutch at +Mooker Heath. In his later years Frederick failed in his efforts to +prevent the election of a member of the Habsburg family as Roman king, +to secure the abrogation of the "ecclesiastical reservation" clause in +the peace of Augsburg, or to obtain security for Protestants in the +territories of the spiritual princes. He was assiduous in caring for the +material, moral and educational welfare of his electorate, and was a +benefactor to the university of Heidelberg. The elector died at +Heidelberg on the 26th of October 1576, and was succeeded by his elder +surviving son, Louis (1539-1583), who had offended his father by +adopting Lutheranism. + + See A. Kluckhohn, _Friedrich der Fromme_ (Noerdlingen, 1877-1879); and + _Briefe Friedrichs des Frommen_, edited by Kluckhohn (Brunswick, + 1868-1872). + + + + +FREDERICK IV. (1574-1610), elector palatine of the Rhine, only surviving +son of the elector Louis VI., was born at Amberg on the 5th of March +1574. His father died in October 1583, when the young elector came under +the guardianship of his uncle John Casimir, an ardent Calvinist, who, in +spite of the wishes of the late elector, a Lutheran, had his nephew +educated in his own form of faith. In January 1592, on the death of John +Casimir, Frederick undertook the government of the Palatinate, and +continued the policy of his uncle, hostility to the Catholic Church and +the Habsburgs, and co-operation with foreign Protestants. He was often +in communication with Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, +and like him was unremitting in his efforts to conclude a league among +the German Protestants, while he sought to weaken the Habsburgs by +refusing aid for the Turkish War. After many delays and disappointments +the Union of Evangelical Estates was actually formed in May 1608, under +the leadership of the elector, and he took a prominent part in directing +the operations of the union until his death, which occurred on the 19th +of September 1610. Frederick was very extravagant, and liked to surround +himself with pomp and luxury. He married in 1593 Louise, daughter of +William the Silent, prince of Orange, and was succeeded by Frederick, +the elder of his two sons. + + See M. Ritter, _Geschichte der deutschen Union_ (Schaffhausen, + 1867-1873); and L. Haeusser, _Geschichte der rheinischen Pfalz_ + (Heidelberg, 1856). + + + + + +FREDERICK V. (1596-1632), elector palatine of the Rhine and king of +Bohemia, son of the elector Frederick IV. by his wife, Louisa Juliana, +daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, was born at Amberg on +the 26th of August 1596. He became elector on his father's death in +September 1610, and was under the guardianship of his kinsman, John II., +count palatine of Zweibruecken (d. 1635), until he was declared of age in +July 1614. Having received a good education, Frederick had married +Elizabeth, daughter of the English king James I., in February 1613, and +was the recognized head of the Evangelical Union founded by his father +to protect the interests of the Protestants. In 1619 he stepped into a +larger arena. Before this date the estates of Bohemia, Protestant in +sympathy and dissatisfied with the rule of the Habsburgs, had been in +frequent communication with the elector palatine, and in August 1619, a +few months after the death of the emperor Matthias, they declared his +successor, Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II., deposed, and +chose Frederick as their king. After some hesitation the elector yielded +to the entreaties of Christian I., prince of Anhalt (1568-1630), and +other sanguine supporters, and was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague on +the 4th of November 1619. By this time the emperor Ferdinand was able to +take the aggressive, while Frederick, disappointed at receiving no +assistance either from England or from the Union, had few soldiers and +little money. Consequently on the 8th of November, four days after his +coronation, his forces were easily routed by the imperial army under +Tilly at the White Hill, near Prague, and his short reign in Bohemia +ended abruptly. Soon afterwards the Palatinate was overrun by the +Spaniards and Bavarians, and after a futile attempt to dislodge them, +Frederick, called in derision the "Winter King," sought refuge in the +Netherlands. Having been placed under the imperial ban his electorate +was given in 1623 to Maximilian I. of Bavaria, who also received the +electoral dignity. + +The remainder of Frederick's life was spent in comparative obscurity, +although his restoration was a constant subject of discussion among +European diplomatists. He died at Mainz on the 29th of November 1632, +having had a large family, among his children being Charles Louis +(1617-1680), who regained the Palatinate at the peace of Westphalia in +1648, and Sophia, who married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of +Hanover, and was the mother of George I., king of Great Britain. His +third son was Prince Rupert, the hero of the English civil war, and +another son was Prince Maurice (1620-1652), who also assisted his uncle +Charles I. during the civil war. Having sailed with Rupert to the West +Indies, Maurice was lost at sea in September 1652. + + In addition to the numerous works which treat of the outbreak of the + Thirty Years' War see A. Gindely, _Friedrich V. von der Pfalz_ + (Prague, 1884); J. Krebs, _Die Politik der evangelischen Union im + Jahre 1618_ (Breslau, 1890-1901); M. Ritter, "Friedrich V.," in the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band vii. (Leipzig, 1878); and + _Deutsche Lieder auf den Winterkoenig_, edited by R. Wolkan (Prague, + 1899). + + + + +FREDERICK I. (1369-1428), surnamed "the Warlike," elector and duke of +Saxony, was the eldest son of Frederick "the Stern," count of Osterland, +and Catherine, daughter and heiress of Henry VIII., count of Coburg. He +was born at Altenburg on the 29th of March 1369, and was a member of the +family of Wettin. When his father died in 1381 some trouble arose over +the family possessions, and in the following year an arrangement was +made by which Frederick and his brothers shared Meissen and Thuringia +with their uncles Balthasar and William. Frederick's brother George died +in 1402, and his uncle William in 1407. A further dispute then arose, +but in 1410 a treaty was made at Naumburg, when Frederick and his +brother William added the northern part of Meissen to their lands; and +in 1425 the death of William left Frederick sole ruler. In the German +town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of +Nuremberg, and in 1391 did the same for the Teutonic Order against +Ladislaus V., king of Poland and prince of Lithuania. He supported +Rupert III., elector palatine of the Rhine, in his struggle with King +Wenceslaus for the German throne, probably because Wenceslaus refused +to fulfil a promise to give him his sister Anna in marriage. The danger +to Germany from the Hussites induced Frederick to ally himself with the +German and Bohemian king Sigismund; and he took a leading part in the +war against them, during the earlier years of which he met with +considerable success. In the prosecution of this enterprise Frederick +spent large sums of money, for which he received various places in +Bohemia and elsewhere in pledge from Sigismund, who further rewarded him +in January 1423 with the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg; and +Frederick's formal investiture followed at Ofen on the 1st of August +1425. Thus spurred to renewed efforts against the Hussites, the elector +was endeavouring to rouse the German princes to aid him in prosecuting +this war when the Saxon army was almost annihilated at Aussig on the +16th of August 1426. Returning to Saxony, Frederick died at Altenburg on +the 4th of January 1428, and was buried in the cathedral at Meissen. In +1402 he married Catherine of Brunswick, by whom he left four sons and +two daughters. In 1409, in conjunction with his brother William, he +founded the university of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students +who had just left the university of Prague. Frederick's importance as an +historical figure arises from his having obtained the electorate of +Saxe-Wittenberg for the house of Wettin, and transformed the margraviate +of Meissen into the territory which afterwards became the kingdom of +Saxony. In addition to the king of Saxony, the sovereigns of England and +of the Belgians are his direct descendants. + + There is a life of Frederick by G. Spalatin in the _Scriptores rerum + Germanicarum praecipue Saxonicarum_, Band ii., edited by J. B. Mencke + (Leipzig, 1728-1730). See also C. W. Boettiger and Th. Flathe, + _Geschichte des Kurstaates und Koenigreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, + 1867-1873); and J. G. Horn, _Lebens- und Heldengeschichte Friedrichs + des Streitbaren_ (Leipzig, 1733). + + + + +FREDERICK II. (1411-1464), called "the Mild," elector and duke of +Saxony, eldest son of the elector Frederick I., was born on the 22nd of +August 1411. He succeeded his father as elector in 1428, but shared the +family lands with his three brothers, and was at once engaged in +defending Saxony against the attacks of the Hussites. Freed from these +enemies about 1432, and turning his attention to increasing his +possessions, he obtained the burgraviate of Meissen in 1439, and some +part of Lower Lusatia after a struggle with Brandenburg about the same +time. In 1438 it was decided that Frederick, and not his rival, Bernard +IV., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was entitled to exercise the Saxon +electoral vote at the elections for the German throne; and the elector +then aided Albert II. to secure this dignity, performing a similar +service for his own brother-in-law, Frederick, afterwards the emperor +Frederick III., two years later. Family affairs, meanwhile, occupied +Frederick's attention. One brother, Henry, having died in 1435, and +another, Sigismund (d. 1463), having entered the church and become +bishop of Wuerzburg, Frederick and his brother William (d. 1482) were the +heirs of their childless cousin, Frederick "the Peaceful," who ruled +Thuringia and other parts of the lands of the Wettins. On his death in +1440 the brothers divided Frederick's territory, but this arrangement +was not satisfactory, and war broke out between them in 1446. Both +combatants obtained extraneous aid, but after a desolating struggle +peace was made in January 1451, when William received Thuringia, and +Frederick Altenburg and other districts. The remainder of the elector's +reign was uneventful, and he died at Leipzig on the 7th of September +1464. By his wife, Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Ernest, duke of +Styria, he left two sons and four daughters. In July 1455 occurred the +celebrated _Prinzenraub_, the attempt of a knight named Kunz von +Kaufungen (d. 1455) to abduct Frederick's two sons, Ernest and Albert. +Having carried them off from Altenburg, Kunz was making his way to +Bohemia when the plot was accidentally discovered and the princes +restored. + + See W. Schaefer, _Der Montag vor Kiliani_ (1855); J. Gersdorf, _Einige + Aktenstuecke zur Geschichte des saechsischen Prinzenraubes_ (1855); and + T. Carlyle, _Critical and Miscellaneous Essays_, vol. iv. (London, + 1899). + + + + +FREDERICK III. (1463-1525), called "the Wise," elector of Saxony, eldest +son of Ernest, elector of Saxony, and Elizabeth, daughter of Albert, +duke of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1508), was born at Torgau, and succeeded his +father as elector in 1486. Retaining the government of Saxony in his own +hands, he shared the other possessions of his family with his brother +John, called "the Stedfast" (1468-1532). Frederick was among the princes +who pressed the need of reform upon the German king Maximilian I. in +1495, and in 1500 he became president of the newly-formed council of +regency (_Reichsregiment_). He took a genuine interest in learning; was +a friend of Georg Spalatin; and in 1502 founded the university of +Wittenberg, where he appointed Luther and Melanchthon to professorships. +In 1493 he had gone as a pilgrim to Jerusalem, and had been made a +knight of the Holy Sepulchre; but, although he remained throughout life +an adherent of the older faith, he seems to have been drawn into +sympathy with the reformers, probably through his connexion with the +university of Wittenberg. In 1520 he refused to put into execution the +papal bull which ordered Luther's writings to be burned and the reformer +to be put under restraint or sent to Rome; and in 1521, after Luther had +been placed under the imperial ban by the diet at Worms, the elector +caused him to be conveyed to his castle at the Wartburg, and afterwards +protected him while he attacked the enemies of the Reformation. In 1519, +Frederick, who alone among the electors refused to be bribed by the +rival candidates for the imperial throne, declined to be a candidate for +this high dignity himself, and assisted to secure the election of +Charles V. He died unmarried at Langau, near Annaberg, on the 5th of May +1525. + + See G. Spalatin, _Das Leben und die Zeitgeschichte Friedrichs des + Weisen_, edited by C. G. Neudecker and L. Preller (Jena, 1851); M. M. + Tutzschmann, _Friedrich der Weise, Kurfuerst von Sachsen_ (Grimma, + 1848); and T. Kolde, _Friedrich der Weise und die Anfaenge der + Reformation_ (Erlangen, 1881). + + + + +FREDERICK, a city and the county-seat of Frederick county, Maryland, +U.S.A., on Carroll's Creek, a tributary of the Monocacy, 61 m. by rail +W. by N. from Baltimore and 45 m. N.W. from Washington. Pop. (1890) +8193; (1900) 9296, of whom 1535 were negroes; (1910 census) 10,411. It +is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Northern Central railways, and +by two interurban electric lines. Immediately surrounding it is the rich +farming land of the Monocacy valley, but from a distance it appears to +be completely shut in by picturesque hills and mountains; to the E., the +Linga ore Hills; to the W., Catoctin Mountain; and to the S., Sugar Loaf +Mountain. It is built for the most part of brick and stone. Frederick is +the seat of the Maryland school for the deaf and dumb and of the Woman's +College of Frederick (1893; formerly the Frederick Female Seminary, +opened in 1843), which in 1907-1908 had 212 students, 121 of whom were +in the Conservatory of Music. Francis Scott Key and Roger Brooke Taney +were buried here, and a beautiful monument erected to the memory of Key +stands at the entrance to Mount Olivet cemetery. Frederick has a +considerable agricultural trade and is an important manufacturing +centre, its industries including the canning of fruits and vegetables, +and the manufacture of flour, bricks, brushes, leather goods and +hosiery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,937,921, +being 34.7% more than in 1900. The municipality owns and operates its +water-works and electric-lighting plant. Frederick, so named in honour +of Frederick Calvert, son and afterward successor of Charles, Lord +Baltimore, was settled by Germans in 1733, and was laid out as a town in +1745, but was not incorporated until 1817. Here in 1755 General Braddock +prepared for his disastrous expedition against the French at Fort +Duquesne (Pittsburg). During the Civil War the city was occupied on +different occasions by Unionists and Confederates, and was made famous +by Whittier's poem "Barbara Frietchie." + + + + +FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. (1750-1827), king of Saxony, son of the elector +Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden on the 23rd of December 1750. +He succeeded his father under the guardianship of Prince Xavier in 1763, +and was declared of age in 1768. In the following year (January 17, +1769) he married Princess Maria Amelia, daughter of Duke Frederick of +Zweibruecken, by whom he had only one child, Princess Augusta (born June +21, 1782). One of his chief aims was the reduction of taxes and imposts +and of the army. He was always extremely methodical and conscientious, +and a good example to all his officials, whence his surname "the Just." +On account of the claims of his mother on the inheritance of her +brother, the elector of Bavaria, he sided with Frederick the Great in +the short Bavarian succession war of 1778 against Austria. At the peace +of Teschen, which concluded the war, he received 6 million florins, +which he employed partly in regaining those parts of his kingdom which +had been lost, and partly in favour of his relatives. In 1785 he joined +the league of German princes (_Deutscher Fuerstenbund_) formed by +Prussia, but without prejudice to his neutrality. Thus he remained +neutral during the quarrel between Austria and Prussia in 1790. In the +following year he declined the crown of Poland. He refused to join the +league against France (February 7, 1792), but when war was declared his +duty to the Empire necessitated his taking part in it. Even after the +peace of Basel (April 5, 1795) he continued the war. But when the French +army, during the following year, advanced into the heart of Germany, he +was compelled by General Jourdan to retreat (August 13, 1796). He +maintained his neutrality during the war between France and Austria in +1805, but in the following year he joined Prussia against France. After +the disastrous battle of Jena he concluded a treaty of peace with +Napoleon at Posen (December 11, 1806), and, assuming the title of king, +he joined the Confederation of the Rhine. But he did not alter the +constitution and administration of his new kingdom. After the peace of +Tilsit (July 9, 1807) he was created by Napoleon grand-duke of Warsaw, +but his sovereignty of Poland was little more than nominal. There was a +kind of friendship between Frederick Augustus and Napoleon. In 1809 +Frederick Augustus fought with him against Austria. On several occasions +(1807, 1812, 1813) Napoleon was entertained at Dresden, and when, on his +return from his disastrous Russian campaign, he passed through Saxony by +Dresden (December 16, 1812), Frederick Augustus remained true to his +friend and ally. It was only during April 1813 that he made overtures to +Austria, but he soon afterwards returned to the side of the French. He +returned to Dresden on the 10th of May and was present at the terrible +battle of August 26 and 27, in which Napoleon's army and his own were +defeated. He fell into the hands of the Allies after their entry into +Leipzig on the 19th of October 1813; and, although he regained his +freedom after the congress of Vienna, he was compelled to give up the +northern part--three-fifths--of his kingdom to Prussia (May 21, 1814). +He entered Dresden on the 7th of July, and was enthusiastically welcomed +by his people. The remainder of his life was spent in repairing the +damages caused by the Napoleonic wars, in developing the agricultural, +commercial and industrial resources of his kingdom, reforming the +administration of justice, establishing hospitals and other charitable +institutions, encouraging art and science and promoting education. He +had a special interest in botany, and originated the beautiful park at +Pillnitz. His reign throughout was characterized by justice, probity, +moderation and prudence. He died on the 5th of May 1827. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The earlier lives, by C. E. Weisse (1811), A. L. + Herrmann (1827), Poelitz (1830), are mere panegyrics. On the other side + see Flathe in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, and Boettiger-Flathe, + _History of Saxony_ (2nd ed., 1867 ff.), vols. ii. and iii.; A. + Bonnefons, _Un Allie de Napoleon, Frederic Auguste, premier roi de + Saxe_ ... (Paris, 1902); Fritz Friedrich, _Politik Sachsens 1801-1803_ + (1898); P. Ruehlmann, _Oeffentliche Meinung ... 1806-1813_ (1902). There + are many pamphlets bearing on the Saxon question and on Frederick + Augustus during the years 1814 and 1815. (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. (1797-1854), king of Saxony, eldest son of Prince +Maximilian and of Caroline Maria Theresa of Parma, was born on the 18th +of May 1797. The unsettled times in which his youth was passed +necessitated his frequent change of residence, but care was nevertheless +taken that his education should not be interrupted, and he also +acquired, through his journeys in foreign states (Switzerland 1818, +Montenegro 1838, England and Scotland 1844) and his intercourse with men +of eminence, a special taste for art and for natural science. He was +himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine collection of +engravings on copper. He was twice married--in 1819 (October 7) to the +duchess Caroline, fourth daughter of the emperor Francis I. of Austria +(d. May 22, 1832), and in 1833 (April 4) to Maria, daughter of +Maximilian I. of Bavaria. There were no children of either marriage. +During the government of his uncles (Frederick Augustus I. and Anthony) +he took no part in the administration of the country, though he was the +sole heir to the crown. In 1830 a rising in Dresden led to his being +named joint regent of the kingdom along with King Anthony on the 13th of +September; and in this position his popularity and his wise and liberal +reforms (for instance, in arranging public audiences) speedily quelled +all discontent. On the 6th of June 1836 he succeeded his uncle. Though +he administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality +Saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon Germany in +1848. He elected Liberal ministers, and he was at first in favour of the +programme of German unity put forward at Frankfort, but he refused to +acknowledge the democratic constitution of the German parliament. This +attitude led to the insurrection at Dresden in May 1849, which was +suppressed by the help of Prussian troops. From that time onward his +reign was tranquil and prosperous. Later Count Beust, leader of the +Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal minister and +guided his policy on most occasions. His death occurred accidentally +through the upsetting of his carriage near Brennbuehel, between Imst and +Wenns in Tirol (August 9, 1854). Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure +hours chiefly to the study of botany. He made botanical excursions into +different countries, and _Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pflanzen und +Gebirgsarten, gesammelt und beschrieben_, written by him, was published +at Prague by Kedler, 1837. + + See Boettiger-Flathe, _History of Saxony_, vol. iii.; R. Freiherr von + Friesen, _Erinnerungen_ (2 vols., Dresden, 1881); F. F. Graf von + Beust, Aus _drei-viertel Jahrhunderten_ (2 vols., 1887); Flathe, in + _Allg. deutsche Biogr._ (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK CHARLES (FRIEDRICH KARL NIKOLAUS), PRINCE (1828-1885), +Prussian general field marshal, son of Prince Charles of Prussia and +grandson of King Frederick William III., was born in Berlin on the 20th +of March 1828. He was educated for the army, which he entered on his +tenth birthday as second lieutenant in the 14th Foot Guards. He became +first lieutenant in 1844, and in 1846 entered the university of Bonn, +where he stayed for two years, being accompanied throughout by Major von +Roon, afterwards the famous war minister. In 1848 he became a company +commander in his regiment, and soon afterwards served in the +Schleswig-Holstein War on the staff of Marshal von Wrangel, being +present at the battle of Schleswig (April 23, 1848). Later in 1848 he +became _Rittmeister_ in the _Garde du Corps_ cavalry regiment, and in +1849 major in the Guard Hussars. In this year the prince took part in +the campaign against the Baden insurgents, and was wounded at the action +of Wiesenthal while leading a desperate charge against entrenched +infantry. After this experience the wild courage of his youth gave place +to the unshakable resolution which afterwards characterized the prince's +generalship. In 1852 he became colonel, and in 1854 major-general and +commander of a cavalry brigade. In this capacity he was brought closely +in touch with General von Reyher, the chief of the general staff, and +with Moltke. He married, in the same year, Princess Marie Anne of +Anhalt. In 1857 he became commander of the 1st Guard Infantry division, +but very shortly afterwards, on account of disputes concerned with the +training methods then in force, he resigned the appointment. + +In 1858 he visited France, where he minutely investigated the state of +the French army, but it was not long before he was recalled, for in +1859, in consequence of the Franco-Austrian War, Prussia mobilized her +forces, and Frederick Charles was made a divisional commander in the II. +army corps. In this post he was given the liberty of action which had +previously been denied to him. About this time (1860) the prince gave a +lecture to the officers of his command on the French army and its +methods, the substance of which (_Eine militaerische Denkschrift von +P.F.K._, Frankfort on Main, 1860) was circulated more widely than the +author intended, and in the French translation gave rise to much +indignation in France. In 1861 Frederick Charles became general of +cavalry. He was then commander of the III. (Brandenburg) army corps. +This post he held from 1860 to 1870, except during the campaigns of 1864 +and 1866, and in it he displayed his real qualities as a troop leader. +His self-imposed task was to raise the military spirit of his troops to +the highest possible level, and ten years of his continuous and thorough +training brought the III. corps to a pitch of real efficiency which the +Guard corps alone, in virtue of its special recruiting powers, slightly +surpassed. Prince Frederick Charles' work was tested to the full when +von Alvensleben and the III. corps engaged the whole French army on the +16th of August 1870. In 1864 the prince once more fought against the +Danes under his old leader "Papa" Wrangel. The Prussian contingent under +Frederick Charles formed a corps of the allied army, and half of it was +drawn from the III. corps. After the storming of the Dueppel lines the +prince succeeded Wrangel in the supreme command, with Lieutenant-General +Freiherr von Moltke as his chief of staff. These two great soldiers then +planned and brilliantly carried out the capture of the island of Alsen, +after which the war came to an end. + +In 1860 came the Seven Weeks' War with Austria. Prince Frederick Charles +was appointed to command the I. Army, which he led through the mountains +into Bohemia, driving before him the Austrians and Saxons to the upper +Elbe, where on the 3rd of July took place the decisive battle of +Koeniggraetz or Sadowa. This was brought on by the initiative of the +leader of the I. Army, which had to bear the brunt of the fighting until +the advance of the II. Army turned the Austrian flank. After the peace +he returned to the III. army corps, which he finally left, in July 1870, +when appointed to command the II. German Army in the war with France. In +the early days of the advance the prince's ruthless energy led to much +friction between the I. and II. Armies (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR), while +his strategical mistakes seriously embarrassed the great headquarters +staff. The advance of the II. Army beyond the Saar to the Moselle and +from that river to the Meuse displayed more energy than careful +strategy, but herein at least the "Red Prince" (as he was called from +the colour of his favourite hussar uniform) was in thorough sympathy +with the king's headquarters on the one hand and the feelings of the +troops on the other. Then came the discovery that the French were not in +front, but to the right rear of the II. Army (August 16). Alvensleben +with the III. corps held the French to their ground at Vionville while +the prince hurried together his scattered forces. He himself directed +with superb tactical skill the last efforts of the Germans at Vionville, +and the victory of St Privat on the 18th was due to his leadership (see +METZ), which shone all the more by contrast with the failures of the I. +Army at Gravelotte. The prince was left in command of the forces which +blockaded Bazaine in Metz, and received the surrender of that place and +of the last remaining field army of the enemy. He was promoted at once +to the rank of general field marshal, and shortly afterwards the II. +Army was despatched to aid in crushing the newly organized army of the +French republic on the Loire. Here again he retrieved strategical errors +by energy and tactical skill, and his work was in the end crowned by the +victory of Le Mans on the 12th of January 1871. Of all the subordinate +leaders on the German side none enjoyed a greater and a better deserved +reputation than the Red Prince. + +He now became inspector-general of the 3rd "army inspection," and a +little later inspector of cavalry, and in the latter post he was largely +instrumental in bringing the German cavalry to the degree of perfection +in manoeuvre and general training which it gradually attained in the +years after the war. He never ceased to improve his own soldierly +qualities by further study and by the conduct of manoevres on a large +scale. His sternness of character kept him aloof from the court and from +his own family, and he spent his leisure months chiefly on his various +country estates. In 1872 and in 1882 he travelled in the Mediterranean +and the Near East. He died on the 15th of June 1885 at Klein-Glienicke +near Berlin, and was buried at the adjacent church of Nikolskoe. His +third daughter, Princess Louise Margareta, was married, in March 1879, +to the duke of Connaught. + + + + +FREDERICK HENRY (1584-1647), prince of Orange, the youngest child of +William the Silent, was born at Delft about six months before his +father's assassination on the 29th of January 1584. His mother, Louise +de Coligny, was daughter of the famous Huguenot leader, Admiral de +Coligny, and was the fourth wife of William the Silent. The boy was +trained to arms by his elder brother, Maurice of Nassau, one of the +first generals of his age. On the death of Maurice in 1625, Frederick +Henry succeeded him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in +the stadtholderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, +Overysel and Gelderland, and in the important posts of captain and +admiral-general of the Union. Frederick Henry proved himself scarcely +inferior to his brother as a general, and a far more capable statesman +and politician. During twenty-two years he remained at the head of +affairs in the United Provinces, and in his time the power of the +stadtholderate reached its highest point. The "Period of Frederick +Henry," as it is usually styled by Dutch writers, is generally accounted +the golden age of the republic. It was marked by great military and +naval triumphs, by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion, and by +a wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature. +The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges and +captures of Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632, of Breda in +1637, of Sas van Ghent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645. During the greater +part of his administration the alliance with France against Spain had +been the pivot of Frederick Henry's foreign policy, but in his last +years he sacrificed the French alliance for the sake of concluding a +separate peace with Spain, by which the United Provinces obtained from +that power all the advantages for which they had for eighty years been +contending. Frederick Henry died on the 14th of March 1647, and was +buried with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The +treaty of Muenster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch and the +Spaniards, was not actually signed until the 30th of January 1648, the +illness and death of the stadtholder having caused a delay in the +negotiations. Frederick Henry was married in 1625 to Amalia von Solms, +and left one son, William II. of Orange, and four daughters. + + Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his _Memoires de + Frederic Henri_ (Amsterdam, 1743). See _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ vol. iv. + chap. 24, and the bibliography on p. 931. + + + + +FREDERICK LOUIS (1707-1751), prince of Wales, eldest son of George II., +was born at Hanover on the 20th of January 1707. After his grandfather, +George I., became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714, Frederick +was known as duke of Gloucester[1] and made a knight of the Garter, +having previously been betrothed to Wilhelmina Sophia Dorothea +(1709-1758), daughter of Frederick William I., king of Prussia, and +sister of Frederick the Great. Although he was anxious to marry this +lady, the match was rendered impossible by the dislike of George II. and +Frederick William for each other. Soon after his father became king in +1727 Frederick took up his residence in England and in 1729 was created +prince of Wales; but the relations between George II. and his son were +very unfriendly, and there existed between them the jealousy which +Stubbs calls the "incurable bane of royalty." The faults were not all on +one side. The prince's character was not attractive, and the king +refused to make him an adequate allowance. In 1735 Frederick wrote, or +inspired the writing of, the _Histoire du prince Titi_, a book +containing offensive caricatures of both king and queen; and losing no +opportunity of irritating his father, "he made," says Lecky, "his court +the special centre of opposition to the government, and he exerted all +his influence for the ruin of Walpole." After a marriage between the +prince and Lady Diana Spencer, afterwards the wife of John, 4th duke of +Bedford, had been frustrated by Walpole, Frederick was married in April +1736 to Augusta (1719-1772), daughter of Frederick II., duke of +Saxe-Gotha, a union which was welcomed by his parents, but which led to +further trouble between father and son. George proposed to allow the +prince L50,000 a year; but this sum was regarded as insufficient by the +latter, whose appeal to parliament was unsuccessful. After the birth of +his first child, Augusta, in 1737, Frederick was ordered by the king to +quit St James' Palace, and the foreign ambassadors were requested to +refrain from visiting him. The relations between the two were now worse +than before. In 1745 George II. refused to allow his son to command the +British army against the Jacobites. On the 20th of March 1751 the prince +died in London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He left five sons +and two daughters. The sons were George (afterwards King George III.), +Edward Augustus, duke of York and Albany (1739-1767), William Henry, +duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh (1743-1805), Henry Frederick, duke of +Cumberland (1745-1790), and Frederick William (1750-1765); the daughters +were Augusta (1737-1813), wife of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of +Brunswick, and Caroline Matilda (1751-1775), wife of Christian VII., +king of Denmark. + + See Lord Hervey of Ickworth, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, + edited by J. W. Croker (London, 1884); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the + Reign of George II._ (London, 1847); and Sir N. W. Wraxall, _Memoirs_, + edited by H. B. Wheatley, vol. i. (London, 1884). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Frederick was never actually created duke of Gloucester, and when + he was raised to the peerage in 1736 it was as duke of Edinburgh + only. See G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, sub "Gloucester." + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM I. (1688-1740), king of Prussia, son of Frederick I. +by his second marriage was born on the 15th of August 1688. He spent a +considerable time in early youth at the court of his grandfather, the +elector Ernest Augustus of Hanover. On his return to Berlin he was +placed under General von Dohna and Count Finkenstein, who trained him to +the energetic and regular habits which ever afterwards characterized +him. He was soon imbued with a passion for military life, and this was +deepened by acquaintance with the duke of Marlborough (1709), Prince +Eugene, whom he visited during the siege of Tournai, and Prince Leopold +of Anhalt (the "Old Dessauer"). In nearly every respect he was the +opposite of his father, having frugal, simple tastes, a passionate +temper and a determined will. Throughout his life he was always the +protector of the church and of religion. But he detested religious +quarrels and was very tolerant towards his Catholic subjects, except the +Jesuits. His life was simple and puritanical, being founded on the +teaching of the Bible. He was, however, fond of hunting and somewhat +given to drinking. He intensely disliked the French, and highly +disapproved of the imitation of their manners by his father and his +court. When he came to the throne (February 25, 1713) his first act was +to dismiss from the palace every unnecessary official and to regulate +the royal household on principles of the strictest parsimony. The +greater part of the beautiful furniture was sold. His importance for +Prussia is twofold: in internal politics he laid down principles which +continued to be followed long after his death. This was a province +peculiarly suited to his genius; he was one of the greatest +administrators who have ever worn the Prussian crown. His foreign policy +was less successful, though under his rule the kingdom acquired some +extension of territory. + +Thus at the peace of Utrecht (April 11, 1713), after the War of the +Spanish Succession, he acquired the greater part of the duchy of +Gelderland. By the treaty of Schwedt, concluded with Russia on the 6th +of October, he was assured of an important influence in the solution of +the Baltic question, which during the long absence of Charles XII. had +become burning; and Swedish Pomerania, as far as the Peene, was occupied +by Prussia. But Charles XII. on his return turned against the king, +though without success, for the Pomeranian campaign of 1715 ended in +favour of Prussia (fall of Stralsund, December 22). This enabled +Frederick William I. to maintain a more independent attitude towards the +tsar; he refused, for example, to provide him with troops for a campaign +(in Schonen) against the Swedes. When on the 28th of May 1718, in view +of the disturbances in Mecklenburg, he signed at Havelberg the alliance +with Russia, he confined himself to taking up a defensive attitude, and, +on the other hand, on the 14th of August 1719 he also entered into +relations with his former enemies, England and Hanover. And so, by the +treaty of Stockholm (February 1, 1720), Frederick William succeeded in +obtaining the consent of Sweden to the cession of that part of Pomerania +which he had occupied (Usedom, Wollin, Stettin, Hither Pomerania, east +of the Peene) in return for a payment of 2,000,000 thalers. + +While Frederick William I. succeeded in carrying his wishes into effect +in this direction, he was unable to realize another project which he had +much at heart, namely, the Prussian succession to the Lower Rhine +duchies of Juelich and Berg. The treaty concluded in 1725 at Vienna +between the emperor and Spain brought the whole of this question up +again, for both sides had pledged themselves to support the +Palatinate-Sulzbach succession (in the event of the Palatinate-Neuberg +line becoming extinct). Frederick William turned for help to the western +powers, England and France, and secured it by the treaty of alliance +signed at Herrenhausen on the 3rd of September 1725 (League of Hanover). +But since the western powers soon sought to use the military strength of +Prussia for their own ends, Frederick again turned towards the east, +strengthened above all his relations with Russia, which had continued to +be good, and finally, by the treaty of Wuesterhausen (October 12, 1726; +ratified at Berlin, December 23, 1728), even allied himself with his +former adversary, the court of Vienna; though this treaty only +imperfectly safeguarded Prussian interests, inasmuch as Frederick +William consented to renounce his claims to Juelich. But as in the +following years the European situation became more and more favourable +to the house of Habsburg, the latter began to try to withdraw part of +the concessions which it had made to Frederick William. As early as 1728 +Duesseldorf, the capital, was excluded from the guarantee of Berg. +Nevertheless, in the War of the Polish Succession against France +(1734-1735), Frederick William remained faithful to the emperor's cause, +and sent an auxiliary force of 10,000 men. The peace of Vienna, which +terminated the war, led to a reconciliation between France and Austria, +and so to a further estrangement between Frederick William and the +emperor. Moreover, in 1738 the western powers, together with the +emperor, insisted in identical notes on the recognition of the emperor's +right to decide the question of the succession in the Lower Rhine +duchies. A breach with the emperor was now inevitable, and this explains +why in a last treaty (April 5, 1739) Frederick William obtained from +France a guarantee of a part, at least, of Berg (excluding Duesseldorf). + +But Frederick William's failures in foreign policy were more than +compensated for by his splendid services in the internal administration +of Prussia. He saw the necessity of rigid economy not only in his +private life but in the whole administration of the state. During his +reign Prussia obtained for the first time a centralized and uniform +financial administration. It was the king himself who composed and wrote +in the year 1722 the famous instruction for the general directory +(_Generaldirektorium_) of war, finance and domains. When he died the +income of the state was about seven million thalers (L1,050,000). The +consequence was that he paid off the debts incurred by his father, and +left to his successor a well filled treasury. In the administration of +the domains he made three innovations: (1) the private estates of the +king were turned into domains of the crown (August 13, 1713); (2) the +freeing of the serfs on the royal domains (March 22, 1719); (3) the +conversion of the hereditary lease into a short-term lease on the basis +of productiveness. His industrial policy was inspired by the mercantile +spirit. On this account he forbade the importation of foreign +manufactures and the export of raw materials from home, a policy which +had a very good effect on the growth of Prussian industries. + +The work of internal colonization he carried on with especial zeal. Most +notable of all was his _retablissement_ of East Prussia, to which he +devoted six million thalers (c. L900,000). His policy in respect of the +towns was motived largely by fiscal considerations, but at the same time +he tried also to improve their municipal administration; for example, in +the matter of buildings, of the letting of domain lands and of the +collection of the excise in towns. Frederick William had many opponents +among the nobles because he pressed on the abolition of the old feudal +rights, introduced in East Prussia and Lithuania a general land tax (the +_Generalhufenschoss_), and finally in 1739 attacked in a special edict +the _Legen_, i.e. the expropriation of the peasant proprietors. He did +nothing for the higher learning, and even banished the philosopher +Christian Wolff at forty-eight hours' notice "on pain of the halter," +for teaching, as he believed, fatalist doctrines. Afterwards he modified +his judgment in favour of Wolff, and even, in 1739, recommended the +study of his works. He established many village schools, which he often +visited in person; and after the year 1717 (October 23) all Prussian +parents were obliged to send their children to school (_Schulzwang_). He +was the especial friend of the _Franckische Stiftungen_ at Halle on the +Saale. Under him the people flourished; and although it stood in awe of +his vehement spirit it respected him for his firmness, his honesty of +purpose and his love of justice. He was devoted also to his army, the +number of which he raised from 38,000 to 83,500, so that under him +Prussia became the third military power in the world, coming next after +Russia and France. There was not a more thoroughly drilled or better +appointed force. The Potsdam guard, made up of giants collected from all +parts of Europe, sometimes kidnapped, was a sort of toy with which he +amused himself. The reviewing of his troops was his chief pleasure. But +he was also fond of meeting his friends in the evening in what he called +his Tobacco-College, where amid clouds of tobacco smoke he not only +discussed affairs of state but heard the newest "guard-room jokes." He +died on the 31st of May 1740, leaving behind him his widow, Sophia +Dorothea of Hanover, whom he had married on the 26th of November 1706. +His son was Frederick the Great, who was the opposite of Frederick +William. This opposition became so strong in 1730 that the crown prince +fled from the court, and was later arrested and brought before a +court-martial. A reconciliation was brought about, at first gradually. +In later years the relations between father and son came to be of the +best (see FREDERICK II., king of Prussia). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--D. Fassmann, _Leben und Thaten Friedrich Wilhelms_ (2 + vols., Hamburg and Breslau, 1735, 1741); F. Foerster, _Friedrich + Wilhelm I._ (3 vols., Potsdam, 1834 and 1835); C. v. Noorden, + _Historische Vortraege_ (Leipzig, 1884); O. Krauske, "Vom Hofe + Friedrich Wilhelms I.," _Hohenzollernjahrbuch_, v. (1902); R. Koser, + _Friedrich der Grosse als Kronprinz_ (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1901); W. + Oncken, "Sir Charles Hotham und Friedrich Wilhelm I. im Jahre 1730," + _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte_, vol. vii. et seq.; J. + G. Droysen in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vii. (1878), and + in _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_, section iv., vols. ii.-iv. + (2nd ed., 1868 et seq.); L. v. Ranke, _Zwoelf Buecher preussischer + Geschichte_ (1874 et seq.); Stenzel, _Geschichte des preussischen + Staates_, iii. (1841); F. Holke, "Strafrechtspflege unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Beitraege zur brandenburgischen Rechtsgeschichte_, iii. + (1894); V. Loewe, "Allodifikation der Leben unter Friedrich Wilhelm + I.," _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte_, xi.; G. + Schmoller, "Epochen der preuss. Finanzpolitik," _Umrisse und + Untersuchungen_ (Leipzig, 1898), "Innere Verwaltung unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Preuss. Jahrbuecher_, xxvi., "Staedtewesen unter Friedrich + Wilhelm I.," _Zeitschrift fuer preussische Geschichte_, x. et seq.; B. + Reuter, "Koenig Friedrich Wilhelm I. und das General-Direktorium," + _ibid._ xii.; V. Loewe, "Zur Grundungsgeschichte des + General-Direktoriums," _Forschungen_, &c., xiii.; R. Stadelmann, + _Preussens Koenige in ihrer Taetigkeit fuer die Landeskultur_, vol. i. + "Friedrich Wilhelm I." (1878); M. Beheim-Schwarzbach, + _Hohenzollern'sche Kolonizationen_ (Leipzig, 1874); W. Naude, "Die + merkantilistische Wirtschaftspolitik Friedrich Wilhelms I.," + _Historische Zeitschrift_, xc.; M. Lehmann, "Werbung, &c., im Heere + Friedrich Wilhelms I.," _ibid._ lxvii.; Isaacson, "Erbpachtsystem in + der preussischen Domaenenverwaltung," _Zeitschrift fuer preuss. Gesch._ + xi. Cf. also _Hohenzollernjahrbuch_, viii. (1905), for particulars of + his education and death; letters to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau in + the _Acta Borussica_ (1905). English readers will find a picturesque + account of him in Thomas Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_. (J. Hn.) + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM II. (1744-1797), king of Prussia, son of Augustus +William, second son of King Frederick William I. and of Louise Amalie of +Brunswick, sister of the wife of Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin +on the 25th of September 1744, and became heir to the throne on his +father's death in 1757. The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving +disposition, averse from sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by +nature. His marriage with Elisabeth Christine, daughter of Duke Charles +of Brunswick, contracted in 1765, was dissolved in 1769, and he soon +afterwards married Frederika Louisa, daughter of the landgrave Louis +IX. of Hesse-Darmstadt. Although he had a numerous family by his wife, +he was completely under the influence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, +afterwards created Countess Lichtenau, a woman of strong intellect and +much ambition. He was a man of singularly handsome presence, not without +mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the arts--Beethoven +and Mozart enjoyed his patronage and his private orchestra had a +European reputation. But an artistic temperament was hardly that +required of a king of Prussia on the eve of the Revolution; and +Frederick the Great, who had employed him in various services--notably +in an abortive confidential mission to the court of Russia in +1780--openly expressed his misgivings as to the character of the prince +and his surroundings. + +The misgivings were justified by the event. Frederick William's +accession to the throne (August 17, 1786) was, indeed, followed by a +series of measures for lightening the burdens of the people, reforming +the oppressive French system of tax-collecting introduced by Frederick, +and encouraging trade by the diminution of customs dues and the making +of roads and canals. This gave the new king much popularity with the +mass of the people; while the educated classes were pleased by his +removal of Frederick's ban on the German language by the admission of +German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active encouragement +given to schools and universities. But these reforms were vitiated in +their source. In 1781 Frederick William, then prince of Prussia, +inclined, like many sensual natures, to mysticism, had joined the +Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the influence of Johann Christof +Woellner (1732-1800), and by him the royal policy was inspired. Woellner, +whom Frederick the Great had described as a "treacherous and intriguing +priest," had started life as a poor tutor in the family of General von +Itzenplitz, a noble of the mark of Brandenburg, had, after the general's +death and to the scandal of king and nobility, married the general's +daughter, and with his mother-in-law's assistance settled down on a +small estate. By his practical experiments and by his writings he gained +a considerable reputation as an economist; but his ambition was not +content with this, and he sought to extend his influence by joining +first the Freemasons and afterwards (1779) the Rosicrucians. Woellner, +with his impressive personality and easy if superficial eloquence, was +just the man to lead a movement of this kind. Under his influence the +order spread rapidly, and he soon found himself the supreme director +(_Oberhauptdirektor_) of some 26 "circles," which included in their +membership princes, officers and high officials. As a Rosicrucian +Woellner dabbled in alchemy and other mystic arts, but he also affected +to be zealous for Christian orthodoxy, imperilled by Frederick II.'s +patronage of "enlightenment," and a few months before Frederick's death +wrote to his friend the Rosicrucian Johann Rudolph von Bischoffswerder +(1741-1803) that his highest ambition was to be placed at the head of +the religious department of the state "as an unworthy instrument in the +hand of Ormesus" (the prince of Prussia's Rosicrucian name) "for the +purpose of saving millions of souls from perdition and bringing back the +whole country to the faith of Jesus Christ." + +Such was the man whom Frederick William II., immediately after his +accession, called to his counsels. On the 26th of August 1786 he was +appointed privy councillor for finance (_Geheimer Oberfinanzrath_), and on +the 2nd of October was ennobled. Though not in name, in fact he was prime +minister; in all internal affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal +and economic reforms of the new reign were the application of his +theories. Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the +king's counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general. These were +the two men who enmeshed the king in a web of Rosicrucian mystery and +intrigue, which hampered whatever healthy development of his policy might +have been possible, and led ultimately to disaster. The opposition to +Woellner was, indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being +entrusted with the department of religion; but this too in time was +overcome, and on the 3rd of July 1788 he was appointed active privy +councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual department +for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. War was at once declared on what--to +use a later term--we may call the "modernists." The king, so long as +Woellner was content to condone his immorality (which Bischoffswerder, to +do him justice, condemned), was eager to help the orthodox crusade. On the +9th of July was issued the famous religious edict, which forbade +Evangelical ministers to teach anything not contained in the letter of +their official books, proclaimed the necessity of protecting the Christian +religion against the "enlighteners" (_Aufklaerer_), and placed educational +establishments under the supervision of the orthodox clergy. On the 18th +of December a new censorship law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of +all published books; and finally, in 1791, a sort of Protestant +Inquisition was established at Berlin (_Immediat-Examinations-commission_) +to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic appointments. In his zeal +for orthodoxy, indeed, Frederick William outstripped his minister; he even +blamed Woellner's "idleness and vanity" for the inevitable failure of the +attempt to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one of +his secular offices in order that he might have more time "to devote +himself to the things of God"; in edict after edict the king continued to +the end of his reign to make regulations "in order to maintain in his +states a true and active Christianity, as the path to genuine fear of +God." + +The effects of this policy of blind obscurantism far outweighed any good +that resulted from the king's well-meant efforts at economic and +financial reform; and even this reform was but spasmodic and partial, +and awoke ultimately more discontent than it allayed. But far more +fateful for Prussia was the king's attitude towards the army and foreign +policy. The army was the very foundation of the Prussian state, a truth +which both Frederick William I. and the great Frederick had fully +realized; the army had been their first care, and its efficiency had +been maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick +William, who had no taste for military matters, put his authority as +"War-Lord" into commission under a supreme college of war +(_Oberkriegs-Collegium_) under the duke of Brunswick and General von +Moellendorf. It was the beginning of the process that ended in 1806 at +Jena. + +In the circumstances Frederick William's intervention in European +affairs was not likely to prove of benefit to Prussia. The Dutch +campaign of 1787, entered on for purely family reasons, was indeed +successful; but Prussia received not even the cost of her intervention. +An attempt to intervene in the war of Russia and Austria against Turkey +failed of its object; Prussia did not succeed in obtaining any +concessions of territory from the alarms of the Allies, and the +dismissal of Hertzberg in 1791 marked the final abandonment of the +anti-Austrian tradition of Frederick the Great. For, meanwhile, the +French Revolution had entered upon alarming phases, and in August 1791 +Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz, arranged with the emperor +Leopold to join in supporting the cause of Louis XVI. But neither the +king's character, nor the confusion of the Prussian finances due to his +extravagance, gave promise of any effective action. A formal alliance +was indeed signed on the 7th of February 1792, and Frederick William +took part personally in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. He was hampered, +however, by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the +affairs of Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be +gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy treaty +with the sea powers (April 19, 1794) filled his coffers; but the +insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793, and the +threat of the isolated intervention of Russia, hurried him into the +separate treaty of Basel with the French Republic (April 5, 1795), which +was regarded by the great monarchies as a betrayal, and left Prussia +morally isolated in Europe on the eve of the titanic struggle between +the monarchical principle and the new political creed of the Revolution. +Prussia had paid a heavy price for the territories acquired at the +expense of Poland in 1793 and 1795, and when, on the 16th of November +1797, Frederick William died, he left the state in bankruptcy and +confusion, the army decayed and the monarchy discredited. + +Frederick William II. was twice married: (1) in 1765 to Elizabeth of +Brunswick (d. 1841), by whom he had a daughter, Frederika, afterwards +duchess of York, and from whom he was divorced in 1769; (2) in 1769 to +Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, by whom he had four sons, Frederick +William III., Louis (d. 1796), Henry and William, and two daughters, +Wilhelmina, wife of William of Orange, afterwards William I., king of +the Netherlands, and Augusta, wife of William II., elector of Hesse. +Besides his relations with his _maitresse en titre_, the countess +Lichtenau, the king--who was a frank polygamist--contracted two +"marriages of the left hand" with Fraeulein von Voss and the countess +Doenhoff. + + See article by von Hartmann in _Allgem. deutsche Biog._ (Leipzig, + 1878); Stadelmann, _Preussens Koenige in ihrer Taetigkeit fuer die + Landeskultur_, vol. iii. "Friedrich Wilhelm II." (Leipzig, 1885); + Paulig, _Friedrich Wilhelm II., sein Privatleben u. seine Regierung_ + (Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, 1896). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM III. (1770-1840), king of Prussia, eldest son of King +Frederick William II., was born at Potsdam on the 3rd of August 1770. +His father, then prince of Prussia, was out of favour with Frederick the +Great and entirely under the influence of his mistress; and the boy, +handed over to tutors appointed by the king, lived a solitary and +repressed life which tended to increase the innate weakness of his +character. But though his natural defects of intellect and will-power +were not improved by the pedantic tutoring to which he was submitted, he +grew up pious, honest and well-meaning; and had fate cast him in any but +the most stormy times of his country's history he might well have left +the reputation of a model king. As a soldier he received the usual +training of a Prussian prince, obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became +a colonel commanding in 1790, and took part in the campaigns of 1792-94. +In 1793 he married Louise, daughter of Prince Charles of +Mecklenburg-Strelitz, whom he had met and fallen in love with at +Frankfort (see LOUISE, queen of Prussia). He succeeded to the throne on +the 16th of November 1797 and at once gave earnest of his good +intentions by cutting down the expenses of the royal establishment, +dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most oppressive +abuses of the late reign. Unfortunately, however, he had all the +Hohenzollern tenacity of personal power without the Hohenzollern genius +for using it. Too distrustful to delegate his responsibility to his +ministers, he was too infirm of will to strike out and follow a +consistent course for himself. + +The results of this infirmity of purpose are written large on the +history of Prussia from the treaty of Luneville in 1801 to the downfall +that followed the campaign of Jena in 1806. By the treaty of Tilsit +(July 9th, 1807) Frederick William had to surrender half his dominions, +and what remained to him was exhausted by French exactions and liable at +any moment to be crushed out of existence by some new whim of Napoleon. +In the dark years that followed it was the indomitable courage of Queen +Louise that helped the weak king not to despair of the state. She +seconded the reforming efforts of Stein and the work of Scharnhorst and +Gneisenau in reorganizing the army, by which the resurrection of Prussia +became a possibility. When Stein was dismissed at the instance of +Napoleon, Hardenberg succeeded him as chancellor (June 1810). In the +following month Queen Louise died, and the king was left alone to deal +with circumstances of ever-increasing difficulty. He was forced to join +Napoleon in the war against Russia; and even when the disastrous +campaign of 1812 had for the time broken the French power, it was not +his own resolution, but the loyal disloyalty of General York in +concluding with Russia the convention of Tauroggen that forced him into +line with the patriotic fervour of his people. + +Once committed to the Russian alliance, however, he became the faithful +henchman of the emperor Alexander, whose fascinating personality +exercised over him to the last a singular power, and began that +influence of Russia at the court of Berlin which was to last till +Frederick William IV.'s supposed Liberalism was to shatter the +cordiality of the _entente_. That during and after the settlement of +1815 Frederick William played a very secondary part in European affairs +is explicable as well by his character as by the absorbing character of +the internal problems of Prussia. He was one of the original +co-signatories of the Holy Alliance, though, in common with most, he +signed it with reluctance; and in the counsels of the Grand Alliance he +allowed himself to be practically subordinated to Alexander and later to +Metternich. In a ruler of his character it is not surprising that the +Revolution and its developments had produced an unconquerable suspicion +of constitutional principles and methods, which the Liberal agitations +in Germany tended to increase. At the various congresses, from +Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) to Verona (1822), therefore, he showed himself +heartily in sympathy with the repressive policy formulated in the +Troppau Protocol. The promise of a constitution, which in the excitement +of the War of Liberation he had made to his people, remained unfulfilled +partly owing to this mental attitude, partly, however, to the all but +insuperable difficulties in the way of its execution. But though +reluctant to play the part of a constitutional king, Frederick William +maintained to the full the traditional character of "first servant of +the state." Though he chastised Liberal professors and turbulent +students, it was in the spirit of a benevolent _Landesvater_; and he +laboured assiduously at the enormous task of administrative +reconstruction necessitated by the problem of welding the heterogeneous +elements of the new Prussian kingdom into a united whole. He was +sincerely religious; but his well-meant efforts to unite the Lutheran +and Reformed Churches, in celebration of the tercentenary of the +Reformation (1817), revealed the limits of his paternal power; eleven +years passed in vain attempts to devise common formulae; a stubborn +Lutheran minority had to be coerced by military force, the confiscation +of their churches and the imprisonment or exile of their pastors; not +till 1834 was outward union secured on the basis of common worship but +separate symbols, the opponents of the measure being forbidden to form +communities of their own. With the Roman Church, too, the king came into +conflict on the vexed question of "mixed marriages," a conflict in which +the Vatican gained an easy victory (see BUNSEN, C. C. J., BARON VON). + +The revolutions of 1830 strengthened Frederick William in his +reactionary tendencies; the question of the constitution was +indefinitely shelved; and in 1831 Prussian troops concentrated on the +frontier helped the task of the Russians in reducing the military rising +in Poland. Yet, in spite of all, Frederick William was beloved by his +subjects, who valued him for the simplicity of his manners, the goodness +of his heart and the memories of the dark days after 1806. He died on +the 7th of June 1840. In 1824 he had contracted a morganatic marriage +with the countess Auguste von Harrach, whom he created Princess von +Liegnitz. He wrote _Luther in Bezug auf die Kirchenagenda von 1822 und +1823_ (Berlin, 1827), _Reminiszenzen aus der Kampagne 1792 in +Frankreich_, and _Journal meiner Brigade in der Kampagne am Rhein 1793_. + + The correspondence (_Briefwechsel_) of King Frederick William III. and + Queen Louise with the emperor Alexander I. has been published + (Leipzig, 1900) and also that between the king and queen (ib. 1903), + both edited by P. Bailleu. See W. Hahn, _Friedrich Wilhelm III. und + Luise_ (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1877); M. W. Duncker, _Aus der Zeit + Friedrichs des Grossen und Friedrich Wilhelms III._ (Leipzig, 1876); + Bishop R. F. Eylert, _Charakterzuege aus dem Leben des Koenigs von + Preussen Friedrich Wilhelm III._ (3 vols., Magdeburg, 1843-1846). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. (1795-1861), king of Prussia, eldest son of +Frederick William III., was born on the 15th of October 1795. From his +first tutor, Johann Delbrueck, he imbibed a love of culture and art, and +possibly also the dash of Liberalism which formed an element of his +complex habit of mind. But after a time Delbrueck, suspected of inspiring +his charge with a dislike of the Prussian military caste and even of +belonging to a political secret society, was dismissed, his place being +taken by the pastor and historian Friedrich Ancillon, while a military +governor was also appointed. By Ancillon he was grounded in religion, in +history and political science, his natural taste for the antique and the +picturesque making it easy for his tutor to impress upon him his own +hatred of the Revolution and its principles. This hatred was confirmed +by the sufferings of his country and family in the terrible years after +1806, and his first experience of active soldiering was in the campaigns +that ended in the occupation of Paris by the Allies in 1814. In action +his reckless bravery had earned him rebuke, and in Paris he was remarked +for the exact performance of his military duties, though he found time +to whet his appetite for art in the matchless collections gathered by +Napoleon as the spoil of all Europe. On his return to Berlin he studied +art under the sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and the painter and +architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), proving himself in the +end a good draughtsman, a born architect and an excellent landscape +gardener. At the same time he was being tutored in law by Savigny and in +finance by a series of distinguished masters. In 1823 he married the +princess Elizabeth of Bavaria, who adopted the Lutheran creed. The +union, though childless, was very happy. A long tour in Italy in 1828 +was the beginning of his intimacy with Bunsen and did much to develop +his knowledge of art and love of antiquity. + +On his accession to the throne in 1840 much was expected of a prince so +variously gifted and of so amiable a temper, and his first acts did not +belie popular hopes. He reversed the unfortunate ecclesiastical policy +of his father, allowing a wide liberty of dissent, and releasing the +imprisoned archbishop of Cologne; he modified the strictness of the +press censorship; above all he undertook, in the presence of the +deputations of the provincial diets assembled to greet him on his +accession, to carry out the long-deferred project of creating a central +constitution, which he admitted to be required alike by the royal +promises, the needs of the country and the temper of the times. The +story of the evolution of the Prussian parliament belongs to the history +of Prussia. Here it must suffice to notice Frederick William's personal +share in the question, which was determined by his general attitude of +mind. He was an idealist; but his idealism was of a type the exact +reverse of that which the Revolution in arms had sought to impose upon +Europe. The idea of the sovereignty of the people was to him utterly +abhorrent, and even any delegation of sovereign power on his own part +would have seemed a betrayal of a God-given trust. "I will never," he +declared, "allow to come between Almighty God and this country a blotted +parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to replace the ancient, +sacred bond of loyalty." His vision of the ideal state was that of a +patriarchial monarchy, surrounded and advised by the traditional estates +of the realm--nobles, peasants, burghers--and cemented by the bonds of +evangelical religion; but in which there should be no question of the +sovereign power being vested in any other hands than those of the king +by divine right. In Prussia, with its traditional loyalty and its +old-world caste divisions, he believed that such a conception could be +realized, and he took up an attitude half-way between those who would +have rejected the proposal for a central diet altogether as a dangerous +"thin end of the wedge," and those who would have approximated it more +to the modern conception of a parliament. With a charter, or a +representative system based on population, he would have nothing to do. +The united diet which was opened on the 3rd of February 1847 was no more +than a congregation of the diets instituted by Frederick William III. in +the eight provinces of Prussia. Unrepresentative though it was--for the +industrial working-classes had no share in it--it at once gave voice to +the demand for a constitutional system. + +This demand gained overwhelmingly in force with the revolutionary +outbreaks of 1848. To Frederick William these came as a complete +surprise, and, rudely awakened from his medieval dreamings, he even +allowed himself to be carried away for a while by the popular tide. The +loyalty of the Prussian army remained inviolate; but the king was too +tender-hearted to use military force against his "beloved Berliners," +and when the victory of the populace was thus assured his impressionable +temper yielded to the general enthusiasm. He paraded the streets of +Berlin wrapped in a scarf of the German black and gold, symbol of his +intention to be the leader of the united Germany; and he even wrote to +the indignant tsar in praise of "the glorious German revolution." The +change of sentiment was, however, apparent rather than real. The shadow +of venerable institutions, past or passing, still darkened his +counsels. The united Germany which he was prepared to champion was not +the democratic state which the theorists of the Frankfort national +parliament were evolving on paper with interminable debate, but the old +Holy Roman Empire, the heritage of the house of Habsburg, of which he +was prepared to constitute himself the guardian so long as its lawful +possessors should not have mastered the forces of disorder by which they +were held captive. Finally, when Austria had been excluded from the new +empire, he replied to the parliamentary deputation that came to offer +him the imperial crown that he might have accepted it had it been freely +offered to him by the German princes, but that he would never stoop "to +pick up a crown out of the gutter." + +Whatever may be thought of the manner of this refusal, or of its +immediate motives, it was in itself wise, for the German empire would +have lost immeasurably had it been the cause rather than the result of +the inevitable struggle with Austria, and Bismarck was probably right +when he said that, to weld the heterogeneous elements of Germany into a +united whole, what was needed was, not speeches and resolutions, but a +policy of "blood and iron." In any case Frederick William, uneasy enough +as a constitutional king, would have been impossible as a constitutional +emperor. As it was, his refusal to play this part gave the deathblow to +the parliament and to all hope of the immediate creation of a united +Germany. For Frederick William the position of leader of Germany now +meant the employment of the military force of Prussia to crush the +scattered elements of revolution that survived the collapse of the +national movement. His establishment of the northern confederacy was a +reversion to the traditional policy of Prussia in opposition to Austria, +which, after the emperor Nicholas had crushed the insurrection in +Hungary, was once more free to assert her claims to dominance in +Germany. But Prussia was not ripe for a struggle with Austria, even had +Frederick William found it in his conscience to turn his arms against +his ancient ally, and the result was the humiliating convention of +Olmuetz (November 29th, 1850), by which Prussia agreed to surrender her +separatist plans and to restore the old constitution of the +confederation. Yet Frederick William had so far profited by the lessons +of 1848 that he consented to establish (1850) a national parliament, +though with a restricted franchise and limited powers. The House of +Lords (_Herrenhaus_) justified the king's insistence in calling it into +being by its support of Bismarck against the more popular House during +the next reign. + +In religious matters Frederick William was also largely swayed by his +love for the ancient and picturesque. In concert with his friend Bunsen +he laboured to bring about a rapprochement between the Lutheran and +Anglican churches, the first-fruits of which was the establishment of +the Jerusalem bishopric under the joint patronage of Great Britain and +Prussia; but the only result of his efforts was to precipitate the +secession of J. H. Newman and his followers to the Church of Rome. In +general it may be said that Frederick William, in spite of his talents +and his wide knowledge, lived in a dream-land of his own, out of touch +with actuality. The style of his letters reveals a mind enthusiastic and +ill-balanced. In the summer of 1857 he had a stroke of paralysis, and a +second in October. From this time, with the exception of brief +intervals, his mind was completely clouded, and the duties of government +were undertaken by his brother William (afterwards emperor), who on the +7th of October 1858 was formally recognized as regent. Frederick William +died on the 2nd of January 1861. + + Selections from the correspondence (_Briefwechsel_) of Frederick + William IV. and Bunsen were edited by Ranke (Leipzig, 1873); his + proclamations, speeches, &c., from the 6th of March 1848 to the 31st + of May 1851 have been published (Berlin, 1851); also his + correspondence with Bettina von Arnim, _Bettina von Arnim und + Friedrich Wilhelm IV., ungedruckte Briefe und Aktenstuecke_, ed. L. + Geiger (Frankfort-on-Main, 1902). See L. von Ranke, _Friedrich Wilhelm + IV., Koenig von Preussen_ (works 51, 52 also in _Allgem. deutsche + Biog._ vol. vii.), especially for the king's education and the inner + history of the debates leading up to the united diet of 1847; H. von + Petersdorff, _Koenig Friedrich Wilhelm IV._ (Stuttgart, 1900); F. + Rachfahl, _Deutschland, Koenig Friedrich Wilhelm IV. und die Berliner + Maerzrevolution_ (Halle, 1901); H. von Poschinger (ed.), _Unter + Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Denkwuerdigkeiten des Ministers Otto Frhr. von + Manteuffel_, 1848-1858 (3 vols., Berlin, 1900-1901); and _Preussens + auswaertige Politik_, 1850-1858 (3 vols., ib., 1902), documents + selected from those left by Manteuffel; E. Friedberg, _Die Grundlagen + der preussischen Kirchenpolitik unter Friedrich Wilhelm IV._ (Leipzig, + 1882). + + + + +FREDERICK WILLIAM (1620-1688), elector of Brandenburg, usually called +the "Great Elector," was born in Berlin on the 16th of February 1620. +His father was the elector George William, and his mother was Elizabeth +Charlotte, daughter of Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine. +Owing to the disorders which were prevalent in Brandenburg he passed +part of his youth in the Netherlands, studying at the university of +Leiden and learning something of war and statecraft under Frederick +Henry, prince of Orange. During his boyhood a marriage had been +suggested between him and Christina, afterwards queen of Sweden; but +although the idea was revived during the peace negotiations between +Sweden and Brandenburg, it came to nothing, and in 1646 he married +Louise Henriette (d. 1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange, a +lady whose counsel was very helpful to him and who seconded his efforts +for the welfare of his country. + +Having become ruler of Brandenburg and Prussia by his father's death in +December 1640, Frederick William set to work at once to repair the +extensive damage wrought during the Thirty Years' War, still in +progress. After some difficulty he secured his investiture as duke of +Prussia from Wladislaus, king of Poland, in October 1641, but was not +equally successful in crushing the independent tendencies of the estates +of Cleves. It was in Brandenburg, however, that he showed his supreme +skill as a diplomatist and administrator. His disorderly troops were +replaced by an efficient and disciplined force; his patience and +perseverance freed his dominions from the Swedish soldiers; and the +restoration of law and order was followed by a revival of trade and an +increase of material prosperity. After a tedious struggle he succeeded +in centralizing the administration, and controlling and increasing the +revenue, while no department of public life escaped his sedulous care +(see BRANDENBURG). The area of his dominions was largely increased at +the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and this treaty and the treaty of Oliva +in 1660 alike added to his power and prestige. By a clever but +unscrupulous use of his intermediate position between Sweden and Poland +he procured his recognition as independent duke of Prussia from both +powers, and eventually succeeded in crushing the stubborn and lengthened +opposition which was offered to his authority by the estates of the +duchy (see PRUSSIA). After two checks he made his position respected in +Cleves, and in 1666 his title to Cleves, Juelich and Ravensberg was +definitely recognized. His efforts, however, to annex the western part +of the duchy of Pomerania, which he had conquered from the Swedes, +failed owing to the insistence of Louis XIV. at the treaty of St +Germain-en-Laye in 1679, and he was unable to obtain the Silesian +duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau from the emperor Leopold I. after +they had been left without a ruler in 1675. + +Frederick William played an important part in European politics. +Although found once or twice on the side of France, he was generally +loyal to the interests of the empire and the Habsburgs, probably because +his political acumen scented danger to Brandenburg from the aggressive +policy of Louis XIV. He was a Protestant in religion, but he supported +Protestant interests abroad on political rather than on religious +grounds, and sought, but without much success, to strengthen Brandenburg +by allaying the fierce hostility between Lutherans and Calvinists. His +success in founding and organizing the army of Brandenburg-Prussia was +amply demonstrated by the great victory which he gained over the Swedes +at Fehrbellin in June 1675, and by the eagerness with which foreign +powers sought his support. He was also the founder of the Prussian navy. +The elector assisted trade in every possible way. He made the canal +which still bears his name between the Oder and the Spree; established a +trading company; and founded colonies on the west coast of Africa. He +encouraged Flemings to settle in Brandenburg, and both before and after +the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 welcomed large numbers of +Huguenots, who added greatly to the welfare of the country. Education +was not neglected; and if in this direction some of his plans were +abortive, it was from lack of means and opportunity rather than effort +and inclination. It is difficult to overestimate the services of the +great elector to Brandenburg and Prussia. They can only be properly +appreciated by those who compare the condition of his country in 1640 +with its condition in 1688. Both actually and relatively its importance +had increased enormously; poverty had given place to comparative wealth, +and anarchy to a system of government which afterwards made Prussia the +most centralized state in Europe. He had scant sympathy with local +privileges, and in fighting them his conduct was doubtless despotic. His +aim was to make himself an absolute ruler, as he regarded this as the +best guarantee for the internal and external welfare of the state. + +The great elector died at Potsdam from dropsy on the 9th of May 1688, +and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Frederick. His personal +appearance was imposing, and although he was absolutely without scruples +when working for the interests of Brandenburg, he did not lack a sense +of justice and generosity. At all events he deserves the eulogy passed +upon him by Frederick the Great, "_Messieurs; celui-ci a fait de grandes +choses_." His second wife, whom he married in 1668, was Dorothea (d. +1689), daughter of Philip, duke of Holstein-Gluecksburg, and widow of +Christian Louis, duke of Brunswick-Lueneburg; she bore him four sons and +three daughters. His concluding years were troubled by differences +between his wife and her step-son, Frederick; and influenced by Dorothea +he bequeathed portions of Brandenburg to her four sons, a bequest which +was annulled under his successor. + + See S. de Pufendorf, _De rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni_ + (Leipzig and Berlin, 1733); L. von Orlich, _Friedrich Wilhelm der + grosse Kurfuerst_ (Berlin, 1836); K. H. S. Roedenbeck, _Zur Geschichte + Friedrich Wilhelms des grossen Kurfuersten_ (Berlin, 1851); B. + Erdmannsdoerffer, _Der grosse Kurfuerst_ (Leipzig, 1879); J. G. Droysen, + _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886); M. + Philippson, _Der grosse Kurfuerst_ (Berlin, 1897-1903); E. Heyck, _Der + grosse Kurfuerst_ (Bielefeld, 1902); Spahn, _Der grosse Kurfuerst_ + (Mainz, 1902); H. Landwehr, _Die Kirchenpolitik des grossen + Kurfuersten_ (Berlin, 1894); H. Prutz, _Aus des grossen Kurfuersten + letzten Jahren_ (Berlin, 1897). Also _Urkunden und Aktenstuecke zur + Geschichte des Kurfuersten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg_ (Berlin, + 1864-1902); T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. i. + (London, 1858); and A. Waddington, _Le Grand Electeur et Louis XIV_ + (Paris, 1905). + + + + +FREDERICK-LEMAITRE, ANTOINE LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1876) French actor, the +son of an architect, was born at Havre on the 28th of July 1800. He +spent two years at the Conservatoire, and made his first appearance at a +variety performance in one of the basement restaurants at the Palais +Royal. At the Ambigu on the 12th of July 1823 he played the part of +Robert Macaire in _L'Auberge des Adrets_. The melodrama was played +seriously on the first night and was received with little favour, but it +was changed on the second night to burlesque, and thanks to him had a +great success. All Paris came to see it, and from that day he was +famous. He created a number of parts that added to his popularity, +especially Cardillac, Cagliostro and Cartouche. His success in the last +led to an engagement at the Porte St Martin, where in 1827 he produced +_Trente ans, ou la vie d'un joueur_, in which his vivid acting made a +profound impression. Afterwards at the Odeon and other theatres he +passed from one success to another, until he put the final touch to his +reputation as an artist by creating the part of Ruy Blas in Victor +Hugo's play. On his return to the Porte St Martin he created the +title-role in Balzac's _Vautrin_, which was forbidden a second +presentation, on account, it is said, of the resemblance of the actor's +wig to the well-known _toupet_ worn by Louis Philippe. His last +appearance was at this theatre in 1873 as the old Jew in _Marie Tudor_, +and he died at Paris on the 26th of January 1876. + + + + +FREDERICKSBURG, a city of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the +Rappahannock river, at the head of tide-water navigation, about 60 m. +N. of Richmond and about 55 m. S.S.W. of Washington. Pop. (1890) 4528; +(1900) 5068 (1621 negroes); (1910) 5874. It is served by the Potomac, +Fredericksburg & Piedmont, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac +railways, and by several coasting steamship lines. The city is built on +a series of terraces between the river and hills of considerable height. +The river is here spanned by iron bridges, and just above the city is a +dam 900 ft. long and 18 ft. high. By means of this dam and a canal good +water-power is furnished, and the city's manufactures include flour, +leather, shoes, woollens, silks, wagons, agricultural implements and +excelsior (fine wood-shavings for packing or stuffing). The water-works, +gas and electric-lighting plants are owned and operated by the +municipality. At Fredericksburg are Fredericksburg College (founded in +1893; co-educational), which includes the Kenmore school for girls and +the Saunders memorial school for boys (both preparatory); a Confederate +and a National cemetery (the latter on Marye's Heights), a monument +(erected in 1906) to General Hugh Mercer (c. 1720-1777), whose home for +several years was here and who fell in the battle of Princeton; and a +monument to the memory of Washington's mother, who died here in 1789 and +whose home is still standing. Other buildings of interest are the old +Rising Sun Hotel, a popular resort during Washington's time, and +"Kenmore," the home of Colonel Fielding Lewis, who married a sister of +Washington. The city was named in honour of Frederick, father of George +III., and was incorporated in 1727, long after its first settlement; in +1871 it was re-chartered by act of the General Assembly of Virginia. + +The battle of Fredericksburg in the American Civil War was fought on the +13th of December 1862 between the Union forces (Army of the Potomac) +under Major-General A. E. Burnside and the Confederates (Army of +Northern Virginia) under General R. E. Lee. In the middle of November, +Burnside, newly appointed to command the Army of the Potomac, had +manoeuvred from the neighbourhood of Warrenton with a view to beginning +an offensive move from Fredericksburg and, as a preliminary, to seizing +a foothold beyond the Rappahannock at or near that place. On arriving +near Falmouth, however, he found that the means of crossing that he had +asked for had not been forwarded from Washington, and he sat down to +wait for them, while, on the other side, the Confederate army gradually +assembled south of the Rappahannock in a strong position with the left +on the river above Fredericksburg and the right near Hamilton's Crossing +on the Richmond railway. On the 10th of December Burnside, having by now +received his pontoons, prepared to cross the river and to attack the +Confederate entrenched position on the heights beyond the town. The +respective forces were Union 122,000, Confederate 79,000. Major-General +E. V. Sumner, commanding the Federal right wing (II. and IX. corps), was +to cross at Fredericksburg, Major-General W. B. Franklin with the left +(I. and VI. corps) some miles below, while the centre (III. and V. +corps) under Major-General Joseph Hooker was to connect the two attacks +and to reinforce either at need. The Union artillery took position along +the heights of the north bank to cover the crossing, and no opposition +was encountered opposite Franklin's command, which formed up on the +other side during the 11th and 12th. Opposite Sumner, however, the +Confederate riflemen, hidden in the gardens and houses of +Fredericksburg, caused much trouble and considerable losses to the Union +pioneers, and a forlorn hope of volunteers from the infantry had to be +rowed across under fire before the enemy's skirmishers could be +dislodged. Sumner's two corps crossed on the 12th. The battle took place +next morning. + +Controversy has raged round Burnside's plan of action and in particular +round his orders to Franklin, as to which it can only be said that +whatever chance of success there was in so formidable an undertaking as +attacking the well-posted enemy was thrown away through +misunderstandings, and that nothing but misunderstandings could be +expected from the vague and bewildering orders issued by the general in +command. The actual battle can be described in a few words. Jackson held +the right of Lee's line, Longstreet the left, both entrenched. Franklin, +tied by his instructions, attacked with one division only, which a +little later he supported by two more (I. corps, Major-General J. F. +Reynolds) out of eight or nine available. His left flank was harassed by +the Confederate horse artillery under the young and brilliant Captain +John Pelham, and after breaking the first line of Stonewall Jackson's +corps the assailants were in the end driven back with heavy losses. On +the other flank, where part of Longstreet's corps held the low ridge +opposite Fredericksburg called Marye's Heights, Burnside ordered in the +II. corps under Major-General D. N. Couch about 11 A.M., and +thenceforward division after division, on a front of little more than +800 yds., was sent forward to assault with the bayonet. The "Stone Wall" +along the foot of Marye's was lined with every rifle of Longstreet's +corps that could find room to fire, and above them the Confederate guns +fired heavily on the assailants, whose artillery, on the height beyond +the river, was too far off to assist them. Not a man of the Federals +reached the wall, though the bravest were killed a few paces from it, +and Sumner's and most of Hooker's brigades were broken one after the +other as often as they tried to assault. At night the wrecks of the +right wing were withdrawn. Burnside proposed next day to lead the IX. +corps, which he had formerly commanded, in one mass to the assault of +the Stone Wall, but his subordinates dissuaded him, and on the night of +the 15th the Army of the Potomac withdrew to its camps about Falmouth. +The losses of the Federals were 12,650 men, those of the Confederates +4200, little more than a third of which fell on Longstreet's corps. + + See F. W. Palfrey, _Antietam and Fredericksburg_ (New York, 1881); G. + W. Redway, _Fredericksburg_ (London, 1906); and G. F. R. Henderson, + _Fredericksburg_ (London, 1889). + + + + +FREDERICTON, a city and port of entry of New Brunswick, Canada, capital +of the province, situated on the St John river, 84 m. from its mouth, +and on the Canadian Pacific railway. It stands on a plain bounded on one +side by the river, which is here 3/4 m. broad, and on the other by a range +of hills which almost encircle the town. It is regularly built with long +and straight streets, and contains the parliament buildings, government +house, the Anglican cathedral, the provincial university and several +other educational establishments. Fredericton is the chief commercial +centre in the interior of the province, and has also a large trade in +lumber. Its industries include canneries, tanneries and wooden ware +factories. The river is navigable for large steamers up to the city, and +above it by vessels of lighter draught. Two bridges, passenger and +railway, unite the city with the towns of St Marye's and Gibson on the +east side of the river, at its junction with the Nashwaak. The city was +founded in 1785 by Sir Guy Carleton, and made the capital of the +province, in spite of the jealousy of St John, on account of its +superior strategical position. Pop. (1901) 7117. + + + + +FREDONIA, a village of Chautauqua county, New York, U.S.A., about 45 m. +S.W. of Buffalo, and 3 m. from Lake Erie. Pop. (1900) 4127; (1905, state +census) 5148; (1910 census) 5285. Fredonia is served by the Dunkirk, +Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railway, which connects at Dunkirk, 3 m. to +the N., with the Erie, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, +Chicago & St Louis, and the Pennsylvania railways; and by electric +railway to Erie, Buffalo and Dunkirk. It is the seat of a State Normal +School. The Darwin R. Barker public library contained 9700 volumes in +1908. Fredonia is situated in the grape-growing region of western New +York, is an important shipping point for grapes, and has large +grape-vine and general nurseries. The making of wine and of unfermented +grape-juice are important industries of the village. Among other +manufactures are canned goods, coal dealers' supplies, and patent +medicines. The first settlement here was made in 1804, and the place was +called Canandaway until 1817, when the present name was adopted. The +village was incorporated in 1829. Fredonia was one of the first places +in the United States, if not the first, to make use of natural gas for +public purposes. Within the village limits, near a creek, whose waters +showed the presence of gas, a well was sunk in 1821, and the supply of +gas thus tapped was sufficient to light the streets of the village. +Another well was sunk within the village limits in 1858. About 1905 +natural gas was again obtained by deep drilling near Fredonia and came +into general use for heat, light and power. In the Fredonia Baptist +church on the 14th of December 1873 a Woman's Temperance Union was +organized, and from this is sometimes dated the beginning of the Woman's +Christian Temperance Union movement. + + + + +FREDRIKSHALD (FREDERICKSHALD, FRIEDERICHSHALL), a seaport and garrison +town of Norway, in Smaalenene _amt_ (county), 85 m. by rail S. by E. of +Christiania. Pop. (1900) 11,948. It is picturesquely situated on both +banks of the Tistedal river at its outflow to the Ide fjord, surrounded +by several rocky eminences. The chief of these is occupied by the famous +fortress Fredriksten, protected on three sides by precipices, founded by +Frederick III. (1661), and mainly showing, in its present form, the +works of Frederick V. (1766) and Christian VII. (1808). Between it and +the smaller Gyldenloeve fort a monument marks the spot where Charles XII. +was shot in the trenches while besieging the town (1718). The siege, +which was then raised, is further commemorated by a monument to the +brave defence of the brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjoernsen. Fredrikshald +is close to the Swedish frontier, and had previously (1660) withstood +invasion, after which its name was changed from Halden to the present +form in 1665 in honour of Frederick III. The town was almost totally +destroyed by fire in 1759 and 1826. The castle surrendered to the +Swedish crown prince Bernadotte in 1814, and its capture was speedily +followed by the conquest of the kingdom and its union with Sweden. +Fredrikshald is one of the principal ports of the kingdom for the export +of timber. Marble of very fine quality and grain is extensively quarried +and exported for architectural ornamentation and for furniture-making. +Wood-pulp is also exported. The industries embrace granite quarries, +wood-pulp factories, and factories for sugar, tobacco, curtains, +travelling-bags, boots, &c. There are railway communications with +Gothenburg and all parts of Sweden and regular coastal and steamer +services. + + + + +FREDRIKSTAD (FREDERIKSTAD), a seaport and manufacturing town of Norway +in Smaalenene _amt_ (county), 58 m. S. by E. of Christiania by the +Christiania-Gothenburg railway. Pop. (1900) 14,553. It lies at the mouth +and on the eastern shore of Christiania fjord, occupying both banks of +the great river Glommen, which, descending from the richly-wooded +district of Oesterdal, floats down vast quantities of timber. The new +town on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade, +this place being the principal port in Norway for the export of +pit-props, planed boards, and other varieties of timber. There is also a +great industry in the making of red bricks, owing to the expansion of +Christiania, Gothenburg and other towns. Granite is quarried and +exported. Besides the large number of saw and planing mills, there are +shipbuilding yards, engine and boiler works, cotton and woollen mills, +and factories for acetic acid and naphtha. The harbour, which can be +entered by vessels drawing 14 ft., is kept open in winter by an +ice-breaker. In the vicinity is the island Hankoe, the most fashionable +Norwegian seaside resort. The old town on the left bank was founded by +Frederick II. in 1567. It was for a long time strongly fortified, and in +1716 Charles XII. of Sweden made a vain attempt to capture it. + + + + +FREE BAPTISTS, formerly called (but no longer officially) FREEWILL +BAPTISTS, an American denomination holding anti-paedobaptist and +anti-Calvinistic doctrines, and practically identical in creed with the +General Baptists of Great Britain. Many of the early Baptist churches in +Rhode Island and throughout the South were believers in "general +redemption" (hence called "general" Baptists); and there was a largely +attended conference of this Arminian branch of the church at Newport in +1729. But the denomination known as "Free-willers" had its rise in +1779-1780, when anti-Calvinists in Loudon, Barrington and Canterbury, +New Hampshire, seceded and were organized by Benjamin Randall +(1749-1808), a native of New Hampshire. Randall was an itinerant +missionary, who had been preaching for two years before his ordination +in 1780; in the same year he was censured for "heterodox" teaching. The +work of the church suffered a relapse after his death, and a movement to +join the Freewill Baptists with the "Christians," who were led by Elias +Smith (1769-1846) and had been bitterly opposed by Randall, was nearly +successful. Between 1820 and 1830 the denomination made considerable +progress, especially in New England and the Middle West. The Freewill +Baptists were joined in 1841 by many "open-communion Baptists"--those in +the Carolinas who did not join the larger body distinguishing themselves +by the name of Original Freewill Baptists--and soon afterwards by some +of the General Baptists of North Carolina and some of the Six Principle +Baptists of Rhode Island (who had added the "laying on of hands" to the +Five Principles hitherto held); and the abbreviation of the +denominational name to "Free Baptists" suggests their liberal +policy--indeed open communion is the main if not the only hindrance to +union with the "regular" Baptist Church. + +Colleges founded by the denomination, all co-educational, are: Hillsdale +College, opened at Spring Harbor as Michigan Central College in 1844, +and established at Hillsdale, Michigan, in 1855; Bates College, +Lewiston, Maine, 1863, now non-sectarian; Rio Grande College, Rio +Grande, Ohio, 1876; and Parker College, Winnebago City, Minnesota, +opened in 1888. At the close of 1909 there were 1294 ministers, 1303 +churches, and 73,536 members of the denomination in the United States. +_The Morning Star_ of Boston, established in 1826, is the most prominent +journal published by the church. In British North America, according to +a Canadian census bulletin of 1902, there were, in 1901, 24,229 Free +Baptists, of whom 15,502 were inhabitants of New Brunswick, 8355 of Nova +Scotia, 246 of Ontario, and 87 of Quebec. The United Societies of Free +Baptist Young People, an international organization founded in 1888, had +in 1907 about 15,000 members. At the close of 1907 the "Original +Freewill Baptists" had 120 ministers, 167 churches, and 12,000 members, +practically all in the Carolinas. + + See I. D. Stewart, _History of the Free Will Baptists_ (Dover, N. H., + 1862) for 1780-1830, and his edition of the _Minutes of the General + Conference of the Free Will Baptist Connection_ (Boston, 1887); James + B. Taylor, _The Centennial Record of the Free Will Baptists_ (Dover, + 1881); John Buzzell, _Memoir of Elder Benjamin Randall_ (Parsonfield, + Maine, 1827); and P. Richardson, "Randall and the Free Will Baptists," + in _The Christian Review_, vol. xxiii. (Baltimore, 1858). + + + + +FREEBENCH, in English law, the interest which a widow has in the +copyhold lands of her husband, corresponding to dower in the case of +freeholds. It depends upon the custom of the manor, but as a general +rule the widow takes a third for her life of the lands of which her +husband dies seised, but it may be an estate greater or less than a +third. If the husband surrenders his copyhold and the surrenderee is +admitted, or if he contracts for a sale, it will defeat the widow's +freebench. As freebench is regarded as a continuation of the husband's +estate, the widow does not (except by special custom) require to be +admitted. + + + + +FREE CHURCH FEDERATION, a voluntary association of British Nonconformist +churches for co-operation in religious, social and civil work. It was +the outcome of a unifying tendency displayed during the latter part of +the 19th century. About 1890 the proposal that there should be a +Nonconformist Church Congress analogous to the Anglican Church Congress +was seriously considered, and the first was held in Manchester on the +7th of November 1892. In the following year it was resolved that the +basis of representation should be neither personal (as in the Anglican +Church Congress) nor denominational, but territorial. England and Wales +have since been completely covered with a network of local councils, +each of which elects its due proportion of representatives to the +national gathering. This territorial arrangement eliminated all +sectarian distinctions, and also the possibility of committing the +different churches as such to any particular policy. The representatives +of the local councils attend not as denominationalists but as +Evangelical Free Churchmen. The name of the organization was changed +from Congress to National Council as soon as the assembly ceased to be a +fortuitous concourse of atoms, and consisted of duly appointed +representatives from the local councils of every part of England. The +local councils consist of representatives of the Congregational and +Baptist Churches, the Methodist Churches, the Presbyterian Church of +England, the Free Episcopal Churches, the Society of Friends, and such +other Evangelical Churches as the National Council may at any time +admit. The constitution states the following as the objects of the +National Council: (a) To facilitate fraternal intercourse and +co-operation among the Evangelical Free Churches; (b) to assist in the +organization of local councils; (c) to encourage devotional fellowship +and mutual counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious +activities of the Churches; (d) to advocate the New Testament doctrine +of the Church, and to defend the rights of the associated Churches; (e) +to promote the application of the law of Christ in every relation of +human life. Although the objects of the Free Church councils are thus in +their nature and spirit religious rather than political, there are +occasions on which action is taken on great national affairs. Thus a +thorough-going opposition was offered to the Education Act of 1902, and +whole-hearted support accorded to candidates at the general election of +1906 who pledged themselves to altering that measure. + +A striking feature of the movement is the adoption of the parochial +system for the purpose of local work. Each of the associated churches is +requested to look after a parish, not of course with any attempt to +exclude other churches, but as having a special responsibility for those +in that area who are not already connected with some existing church. +Throughout the United Kingdom local councils are formed into +federations, some fifty in number, which are intermediate between them +and the national council. The local councils do what is possible to +prevent overlapping and excessive competition between the churches. They +also combine the forces of the local churches for evangelistic and +general devotional work, open-air services, efforts on behalf of Sunday +observance, and the prevention of gambling. Services are arranged in +connexion with workhouses, hospitals and other public institutions. +Social work of a varied character forms a large part of the operations +of the local councils, and the Free Church Girls' Guild has a function +similar to that of the Anglican Girls' Friendly Society. The national +council engages in mission work on a large scale, and a considerable +number of periodicals, hymn-books for special occasions, and works of +different kinds explaining the history and ideals of the Evangelical +Free Churches have been published. The churches represented in the +National Council have 9966 ministers, 55,828 local preachers, 407,991 +Sunday-school teachers, 3,416,377 Sunday scholars, 2,178,221 +communicants, and sitting accommodation for 8,555,460. + +A remarkable manifestation of this unprecedented reunion was the fact +that a committee of the associated churches prepared and published a +catechism expressing the positive and fundamental agreement of all the +Evangelical Free Churches on the essential doctrines of Christianity +(see _The Contemporary Review_, January 1899). The catechism represents +substantially the creed of not less than 80,000,000 Protestants. It has +been widely circulated throughout Great Britain, the British Colonies +and the United States of America, and has also been translated into +Welsh, French and Italian. + +The movement has spread to all parts of Australia, New Zealand, South +Africa, Jamaica, the United States of America and India. It is perhaps +necessary to add that it differs essentially from the Evangelical +Alliance, inasmuch as its unit is not an individual, private Christian, +but a definitely organized and visible Church. The essential doctrine of +the movement is a particular doctrine of churchmanship which, as +explained in the catechism, regards the Lord Jesus Christ as the sole +and Divine Head of every branch of the Holy Catholic Church throughout +the world. For this reason those who do not accept the deity of Christ +are necessarily excluded from the national council and its local +constituent councils. + + + + +FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, a Protestant episcopal church "essentially one +with the established church of England, but free to go into any parish, +to use a revised edition of the Book of Common Prayer, to associate the +laity with the clergy in the government and work of the church, and to +hold communion with Christians of other denominations." It was founded +in 1844 in opposition to the Tractarian movement, and embodies the +distinctively evangelical elements of the Reformation. It preserves and +maintains to the letter all that is Protestant and evangelical in the +liturgy and services of the Anglican church, while its free constitution +and revised formularies meet the needs of members of that communion who +resent sacerdotal and ritualistic tendencies. There are two dioceses +(northern and southern) each with a bishop, about 30 churches and +ministers, and about 1300 members. + + + + +FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. In one sense the Free Church of Scotland dated +its existence from the Disruption of 1843, in another it claimed to be +the rightful representative of the National Church of Scotland (see +SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF) as it was reformed in 1560.[1] In the +ecclesiastical history of Scotland the Free Churchman sees three great +reforming periods. In his view these deserve to be called reforming on +many accounts, but most especially because in them the independence of +the church, her inherent scriptural right to exercise a spiritual +jurisdiction in which she is responsible to her Divine Head alone, was +both earnestly asserted and practically maintained. The first +reformation extended from 1560, when the church freely held her first +General Assembly, and of her own authority acted on the First Book of +Discipline, to 1592, when her Presbyterian order was finally and fully +ratified by the parliament. The second period began in 1638, when, after +20 years of suspended animation, the Assembly once more shook off +Episcopacy, and terminated in 1649, when the parliament of Scotland +confirmed the church in her liberties in a larger and ampler sense than +before. The third period began in 1834, when the Assembly made use of +what the church believed to be her rights in passing the Veto and Chapel +Acts. It culminated in the Disruption of 1843. + +The fact that the Church, as led first by John Knox and afterwards by +Andrew Melville, claimed an inherent right to exercise a spiritual +jurisdiction is notorious. More apt to be overlooked is the comparative +freedom with which that right was actually used by the church +irrespective of state recognition. That recognition was not given until +after the queen's resignation in 1567;[2] but, for several years before +it came, the church had been holding her Assemblies and settling all +questions of discipline, worship, and administration as they arose, in +accordance with the first book of polity or discipline which had been +drawn up in 1560. Further, in 1581 she, of her own motion, adopted a +second book of a similar character, in which she expressly claimed an +independent and exclusive jurisdiction or power in all matters +ecclesiastical, "which flows directly from God and the Mediator Jesus +Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth, but only +Christ, the only king and governor of his church"; and this claim, +though directly negatived in 1584 by the "Black Acts," which included an +Act of Supremacy over estates spiritual and temporal, continued to be +asserted by the Assemblies, until at last it also was practically +allowed in the act of 1592.[3] This legislation of 1592, however, did +not long remain in force. An act of parliament in 1606, which "reponed, +restored and reintegrated" the estate of bishops to their ancient +dignities, prerogatives and privileges, was followed by several acts of +various subservient assemblies, which, culminating in that of 1618, +practically amounted to a complete surrender of jurisdiction by the +church itself. For twenty years no Assemblies whatever were held. This +interval must necessarily be regarded from the Presbyterian point of +view as having been one of very deep depression. But a second +reformation, characterized by great energy and vigour, began in 1638. +The proceedings of the Assembly of that year, afterwards tardily and +reluctantly acquiesced in by the state, finally issued in the acts of +parliament of 1649, by which the Westminster standards were ratified, +lay-patronage was abolished, and the coronation oath itself framed in +accordance with the principles of Presbyterian church government. +Another period of intense reaction soon set in. No Assemblies were +permitted by Cromwell after 1653; and, soon after the Restoration, +Presbytery was temporarily overthrown by a series of rescissory acts. +Nor was the Revolution Settlement of 1690 so entirely favourable to the +freedom of the church as the legislation of 1649 had been. Prelacy was +abolished, and various obnoxious statutes were repealed, but the acts +rescissory were not cancelled; presbyterianism was re-established, but +the statutory recognition of the Confession of Faith took no notice of +certain qualifications under which that document had originally been +approved by the Assembly of 1647;[4] the old rights of patrons were +again discontinued, but the large powers which had been conferred on +congregations by the act of 1649 were not wholly restored. Nevertheless +the great principle of a distinct ecclesiastical jurisdiction, embodied +in the Confession of Faith, was accepted without reservation, and a +Presbyterian polity effectively confirmed both then and at the +ratification of the treaty of Union. This settlement, however, did not +long subsist unimpaired. In 1712 the act of Queen Anne, restoring +patronage to its ancient footing, was passed in spite of the earnest +remonstrances of the Scottish people. For many years afterwards (until +1784) the Assembly continued to instruct each succeeding commission to +make application to the king and the parliament for redress of the +grievance. But meanwhile a new phase of Scottish ecclesiastical politics +commonly known as Moderatism had been inaugurated, during the prevalence +of which the church became even more indifferent than the lay patrons +themselves to the rights of her congregations with regard to the +"calling" of ministers. From the Free Church point of view, the period +from which the secessions under Ebenezer Erskine and Thomas Gillespie +are dated was also characterized by numerous other abuses on the +Church's part which amounted to a practical surrender of the most +important and distinctive principles of her ancient Presbyterian +polity.[5] Towards the beginning of the present century there were many +circumstances, both within and without the church, which conspired to +bring about an evangelical and popular reaction against this reign of +"Moderatism." The result was a protracted struggle, which is commonly +referred to as the Ten Years' Conflict, and which has been aptly +described as the last battle in the long war which for nearly 300 years +had been waged within the church itself, between the friends and the +foes of the doctrine of an exclusive ecclesiastical jurisdiction. That +final struggle may be said to have begun with the passing in 1834 of the +"Veto" Act, by which it was declared to be a fundamental law of the +church that no pastor should be intruded on a congregation contrary to +the will of the people,[6] and by which it was provided that the simple +dissent of a majority of heads of families in a parish should be enough +to warrant a presbytery in rejecting a presentee. The question of the +legality of this measure soon came to be tried in the civil courts; and +it was ultimately answered in a sense unfavourable to the church by the +decision (1838) of the court of session in the Auchterarder case, to the +effect that a presbytery had no right to reject a presentee simply +because the parishioners protested against his settlement, but was bound +to disregard the veto (see CHALMERS, THOMAS). This decision elicited +from the Assembly of that year a new declaration of the doctrine of the +spiritual independence of the church. The "exclusive jurisdiction of the +civil courts in regard to the civil rights and emoluments secured by law +to the church and the ministers thereof" was acknowledged without +qualification; and continued implicit obedience to their decisions with +reference to these rights and emoluments was pledged. At the same time +it was insisted on "that, as is declared in the Confession of Faith of +this National Established Church, 'the Lord Jesus Christ, as King and +Head of the church, hath therein appointed a government in the hand of +church officers distinct from the civil magistrate'; and that in all +matters touching the doctrine, discipline and government of the church +her judicatories possess an exclusive jurisdiction, founded on the Word +of God, which power ecclesiastical" (in the words of the Second Book of +Discipline) "flows immediately from God and the Mediator the Lord Jesus +Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth, but only +Christ, the only spiritual King and Governor of His Kirk." And it was +resolved to assert, and at all hazards defend, this spiritual +jurisdiction, and firmly to enforce obedience to the same upon the +office-bearers and members of the church. The decision of the court of +session having been confirmed by the House of Lords early in 1839, it +was decided in the Assembly of that year that the church, while +acquiescing in the loss of the temporalities at Auchterarder, should +reaffirm the principle of non-intrusion as an integral part of the +constitution of the Reformed Church of Scotland, and that a committee +should be appointed to confer with the government with a view to the +prevention, if possible, of any further collision between the civil and +ecclesiastical authorities. While the conference with the government had +no better result than an unsuccessful attempt at compromise by means of +Lord Aberdeen's Bill, which embodied the principle of a dissent with +reasons, still graver complications were arising out of the Marnoch and +other cases.[7] In the circumstances it was resolved by the Assembly of +1842 to transmit to the queen, by the hands of the lord high +commissioner, a "claim, declaration, and protest," complaining of the +encroachments of the court of session,[8] and also an address praying +for the abolition of patronage. The home secretary's answer (received in +January 1843) gave no hope of redress. Meanwhile the position of the +evangelical party had been further hampered by the decision of the +court of session declaring the ministers of chapels of ease to be +unqualified to sit in any church court. A final appeal to parliament by +petition was made in March 1843, when, by a majority of 135 (211 against +76), the House of Commons declined to attempt any redress of the +grievances of the Scottish Church.[9] At the first session of the +following General Assembly (18th May 1843) the reply of the +non-intrusion party was made in a protest, signed by upwards of 200 +commissioners, to the effect that since, in their opinion, the recent +decisions of the civil courts, and the still more recent sanction of +these decisions by the legislature, had made it impossible at that time +to hold a free Assembly of the church as by law established, they +therefore "protest that it shall be lawful for us, and such other +commissioners as may concur with us, to withdraw to a separate place of +meeting, for the purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who +adhere to us--maintaining with us the Confession of Faith and standards +of the Church of Scotland as heretofore understood--for separating in an +orderly way from the Establishment, and thereupon adopting such measures +as may be competent to us, in humble dependence on God's grace and the +aid of His Holy Spirit, for the advancement of His glory, the extension +of the gospel of our Lord and Saviour, and the administration of the +affairs of Christ's house according to His holy word." The reading of +this document was followed by the withdrawal of the entire non-intrusion +party to another place of meeting, where the first Assembly of the Free +Church was constituted, with Dr Thomas Chalmers as moderator. This +Assembly sat from the 18th to the 30th of May, and transacted a large +amount of important business. On Tuesday the 23rd, 396[10] ministers and +professors publicly adhibited their names to the Act of Separation and +deed of demission by which they renounced all claim to the benefices +they had held in connexion with the Establishment, declaring them to be +vacant, and consenting to their being dealt with as such. By this +impressive proceeding the signatories voluntarily surrendered an annual +income amounting to fully L100,000. + +The first care of the voluntarily disestablished church was to provide +incomes for her clergy and places of worship for her people. As early as +1841 indeed the leading principle of a "sustentation fund" for the +support of the ministry had been announced by Dr Robert Smith Candlish; +and at "Convocation," a private unofficial meeting of the members of the +evangelical or non-intrusion party held in November 1842, Dr Chalmers +was prepared with a carefully matured scheme according to which "each +congregation should do its part in sustaining the whole, and the whole +should sustain each congregation." Between November 1842 and May 1843, +647 associations had been formed; and at the first Assembly it was +announced that upwards of L17,000 had already been contributed. At the +close of the first financial year (1843-1844) it was reported that the +fund had exceeded L61,000. It was participated in by 583 ministers; and +470 drew the full equal dividend of L105. Each successive year showed a +steady increase in the gross amount of the fund; but owing to an almost +equally rapid increase of the number of new ministerial charges +participating in its benefits, the stipend payable to each minister did +not for many years reach the sum of L150 which had been aimed at as a +minimum. Thus in 1844-1845 the fund had risen to L76,180, but the +ministers had also increased to 627, and the equal dividend therefore +was only L122. During the first ten years the annual income averaged +L84,057; during the next decade L108,643; and during the third L130,246. +The minimum of L150 was reached at last in 1868; and subsequently the +balance remaining after that minimum had been provided was treated as a +surplus fund, and distributed among those ministers whose congregations +have contributed at certain specified rates per member. In 1878 the +total amount received for this fund was upwards of L177,000; in this +1075 ministers participated. The full equal dividend of L157 was paid to +766 ministers; and additional grants of L36 and L18 were paid out of +the surplus fund to 632 and 129 ministers respectively. + +To provide for the erection of the buildings which, it was foreseen, +would be necessary, a general building fund, in which all should share +alike, was also organized, and local building funds were as far as +possible established in each parish, with the result that at the first +Assembly a sum of L104,776 was reported as already available. By May +1844 a further sum of L123,060 had been collected, and 470 churches were +reported as completed or nearly so. In the following year L131,737 was +raised and 60 additional churches were built. At the end of four years +considerably more than 700 churches had been provided. + +During the winter session 1843-1844 the divinity students who had joined +the Free Church continued their studies under Dr Chalmers and Dr David +Welsh (1793-1845); and at the Assembly of 1844 arrangements were made +for the erection of suitable collegiate buildings. The New College, +Edinburgh, was built in 1847 at a cost of L46,506; and divinity halls +were subsequently set up also in Glasgow and Aberdeen. In 1878 there +were 13 professors of theology, with an aggregate of 230 students,--the +numbers at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen respectively being 129, 69 +and 32. + +A somewhat unforeseen result of the Disruption was the necessity for a +duplicate system of elementary schools. At the 1843 Assembly it was for +the first time announced by Dr Welsh that "schools to a certain extent +must be opened to afford a suitable sphere of occupation for parochial +and still more for private teachers of schools, who are threatened with +deprivation of their present office on account of their opinions upon +the church question." The suggestion was taken up with very great +energy, with the result that in May 1845, 280 schools had been set up, +while in May 1847 this number had risen to 513, with an attendance of +upwards of 44,000 scholars. In 1869 it was stated in an authoritative +document laid before members of parliament that at that time there were +connected with and supported by the Free Church 598 schools (including +two normal schools), with 633 teachers and 64,115 scholars. The school +buildings had been erected at a cost of L220,000, of which the committee +of privy council had contributed L35,000, while the remainder had been +raised by voluntary effort. Annual payments made to teachers, &c., as at +1869, amounted to L16,000. In accordance with certain provisions of the +Education Act of 1872 most of the schools of the Free Church were +voluntarily transferred, without compensation, to the local school +boards. The normal schools are now transferred to the state. + +It has been seen already that during the period of the Ten Years' +Conflict the non-intrusion party strenuously denied that in any one +respect it was departing from acknowledged principles of the National +Church. It continued to do so after the Disruption. In 1846, however, it +was found to have become necessary, "in consequence of the late change +in the outward condition of the church," to amend the "questions and +formula" to be used at the licensing of probationers and the ordination +of office-bearers. These were amended accordingly; and at the same time +it was declared that, "while the church firmly maintains the same +scriptural principles as to the duties of nations and their rulers in +reference to true religion and the Church of Christ for which she has +hitherto contended, she disclaims intolerant or persecuting principles, +and does not regard her Confession of Faith, or any portion thereof when +fairly interpreted, as favouring intolerance or persecution, or consider +that her office-bearers by subscribing it profess any principles +inconsistent with liberty of conscience and the right of private +judgment." The main difference between the "formula" of the Free Church +and that of the Established Church (as at the year 1900) was that the +former referred to the Confession of Faith simply as "approven by +General Assemblies of this Church," while the latter described it as +"approven by the General Assemblies of this National Church, and +ratified by law in the year 1690, and frequently confirmed by divers +Acts of Parliament since that time." The former inserted an additional +clause,--"I also approve of the general principles respecting the +jurisdiction of the church, and her subjection to Christ as her only +Head, which are contained in the Claim of Right and in the Protest +referred to in the questions already put to me"; and also added the +words which are here distinguished by italics,--"And I promise that +through the grace of God I shall firmly and constantly adhere to the +same, and to the utmost of my power shall in my station assert, +maintain, and defend the said doctrine, worship, discipline and +government of this church by kirk-sessions, presbyteries, provincial +synods, and general assemblies, _together with the liberty and exclusive +jurisdiction thereof_; and that I shall, in my practice, conform myself +to the said worship and submit to the said discipline [and] government, +_and exclusive jurisdiction_, and not endeavour directly or indirectly +the prejudice or subversion of the same." In the year 1851 an act and +declaration anent the publication of the subordinate standards and other +authoritative documents of the Free Church of Scotland was passed, in +which the historical fact is recalled that the Church of Scotland had +formally consented to adopt the Confession of Faith, catechisms, +directory of public worship, and form of church government agreed upon +by the Westminster Assembly; and it is declared that "these several +formularies, as ratified, with certain explanations, by divers Acts of +Assembly in the years 1645, 1646, and particularly in 1647, this church +continues till this day to acknowledge as her subordinate standards of +doctrine, worship and government."[11] + +In 1858 circumstances arose which, in the opinion of many, seemed fitted +to demonstrate to the Free Church that her freedom was an illusion, and +that all her sacrifices had been made in vain. John Macmillan, minister +of Cardross, accused of immorality, had been tried and found guilty by +the Free Presbytery of Dumbarton. Appeal having been taken to the synod, +an attempt was there made to revive one particular charge, of which he +had been finally acquitted by the presbytery; and this attempt was +successful in the General Assembly. That ultimate court of review did +not confine itself to the points appealed, but went into the merits of +the whole case as it had originally come before the presbytery. The +result was a sentence of suspension. Macmillan, believing that the +Assembly had acted with some irregularity, applied to the court of +session for an interdict against the execution of that sentence; and for +this act he was summoned to the bar of the Assembly to say whether or +not it was the case that he had thus appealed. Having answered in the +affirmative, he was deposed on the spot. Forthwith he raised a new +action (his previous application for an interdict had been refused) +concluding for reduction of the spiritual sentence of deposition and for +substantial damages. The defences lodged by the Free Church were to the +effect that the civil courts had no right to review and reduce spiritual +sentences, or to decide whether the General Assembly of the Free Church +had acted irregularly or not. Judgments adverse to the defenders were +delivered on these points; and appeals were taken to the House of Lords. +But before the case could be heard there, the lord president took an +opportunity in the court of session to point out to the pursuer that, +inasmuch as the particular General Assembly against which the action was +brought had ceased to exist, it could not therefore be made in any +circumstances to pay damages, and that the action of reduction of the +spiritual sentence, being only auxiliary to the claim of damages, ought +therefore to be dismissed. He further pointed out that Macmillan might +obtain redress in another way, should he be able to prove malice against +individuals. Very soon after this deliverance of the lord president, the +case as it had stood against the Free Church was withdrawn, and +Macmillan gave notice of an action of a wholly different kind. But this +last was not persevered in. The appeals which had been taken to the +House of Lords were, in these circumstances, also departed from by the +Free Church. The case did not advance sufficiently to show how far the +courts of law would be prepared to go in the direction of recognizing +voluntary tribunals and a kind of secondary exclusive jurisdiction +founded on contract.[12] But, whether recognized or not, the church for +her part continued to believe that she had an inherent spiritual +jurisdiction, and remained unmoved in her determination to act in +accordance with that resolution "notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble +or persecution may arise."[13] + +In 1863 a motion was made and unanimously carried in the Free Church +Assembly for the appointment of a committee to confer with a +corresponding committee of the United Presbyterian Synod, and with the +representatives of such other disestablished churches as might be +willing to meet and deliberate with a view to an incorporating union. +Formal negotiations between the representatives of these two churches +were begun shortly afterwards, which resulted in a report laid before +the following Assembly. From this document it appeared that the +committees of the two churches were not at one on the question as to the +relation of the civil magistrate to the church. While on the part of the +Free Church it was maintained that he "may lawfully acknowledge, as +being in accordance with the Word of God, the creed and jurisdiction of +the church," and that "it is his duty, when necessary and expedient, to +employ the national resources in aid of the church, provided always that +in doing so, while reserving to himself full control over the +temporalities which are his own gift, he abstain from all authoritative +interference in the internal government of the church," it was declared +by the committee of the United Presbyterian Church that, "inasmuch as +the civil magistrate has no authority in spiritual things, and as the +employment of force in such matters is opposed to the spirit and +precepts of Christianity, it is not within his province to legislate as +to what is true in religion, to prescribe a creed or form of worship to +his subjects, or to endow the church from national resources." In other +words, while the Free Church maintained that in certain circumstances it +was lawful and even incumbent on the magistrate to endow the church and +on the church to accept his endowment, the United Presbyterians +maintained that in no case was this lawful either for the one party or +for the other. Thus in a very short time it had been made perfectly +evident that a union between the two bodies, if accomplished at all, +could only be brought about on the understanding that the question as to +the lawfulness of state endowments should be an open one. The Free +Church Assembly, by increasing majorities, manifested a readiness for +union, even although unanimity had not been attained on that theoretical +point. But there was a minority which did not sympathize in this +readiness, and after ten years of fruitless effort it was in 1873 found +to be expedient that the idea of union with the United Presbyterians +should for the time be abandoned. Other negotiations, however, which had +been entered upon with the Reformed Presbyterian Church at a somewhat +later date proved more successful; and a majority of the ministers of +that church with their congregations were united with the Free Church in +1876. (J. S. Bl.) + +In the last quarter of the 19th century the Free Church continued to be +the most active, theologically, of the Scottish Churches. The College +chairs were almost uniformly filled by advanced critics or theologians, +inspired more or less by Professor A. B. Davidson. Dr A. B. Bruce, +author of _The Training of the Twelve_, &c., was appointed to the chair +of apologetics and New Testament exegesis in the Glasgow College in +1875; Henry Drummond (author of _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_, +&c.) was made lecturer in natural science in the same college in 1877 +and became professor in 1884; and Dr George Adam Smith (author of _The +Twelve Prophets_, &c.) was called to the Hebrew chair in 1892. Attempts +were made between 1890 and 1895 to bring all these professors except +Davidson (similar attacks were also made on Dr Marcus Dods, afterwards +principal of the New College, Edinburgh) to the bar of the Assembly for +unsound teaching or writing; but in every case these were abortive, the +Assembly never taking any step beyond warning the accused that their +primary duty was to teach and defend the church's faith as embodied in +the confession. In 1892 the Free Church, following the example of the +United Presbyterian Church and the Church of Scotland (1889), passed a +Declaratory Act relaxing the stringency of subscription to the +confession, with the result that a small number of ministers and +congregations, mostly in the Highlands, severed their connexion with the +church and formed the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, on strictly +and straitly orthodox lines. In 1907 this body had twenty congregations +and twelve ministers. + +The Free Church always regarded herself as a National Church, and during +this period she sought actively to be true to that character by +providing church ordinances for the increasing population of Scotland +and applying herself to the new problems of non-church-going, and of the +changing habits of the people. Her Assembly's committee on religion and +morals worked toward the same ends as the similar organization of the +Established Church, and in her, as in the other churches, the standard +of parochial and congregational activity was raised and new methods of +operation devised. She passed legislation on the difficult problem of +ridding the church of inefficient ministers. The use of instrumental +music was sanctioned in Free Churches during this period. An association +was formed in 1891 to promote the ends of edification, order and +reverence in the public services of the church, and published in 1898 _A +New Directory for Public Worship_ which does not provide set forms of +prayer, but directions as to the matter of prayer in the various +services. The Free Church took a large share in the study of hymnology +and church music, which led to the production of _The Church Hymnary_. +From 1885 to 1895 much of the energy of all the Presbyterian churches +was absorbed by the disestablishment agitation. In the former year the +Free Church, having almost entirely shed the establishment principle on +which it was founded, began to rival the United Presbyterian Church in +its resolutions calling for the disestablishment of the Church of +Scotland. In spite of the offers of the Establishment Assembly to confer +with the dissenting churches about union, the assaults upon its status +waxed in vigour, till in 1893 the Free Church hailed the result of the +general election as a verdict of the constituencies in favour of +disestablishment, and insisted upon the government of the day taking up +Sir Charles Cameron's bill. + +During the last four or five years of the century the Free and United +Presbyterian churches, which after the failure of their union +negotiations in 1873 had been connected together by a Mutual Eligibility +Act enabling a congregation of one church to call a minister from the +other, devoted their energy to the arrangement of an incorporating +union. The Synod of the United Presbyterian Church resolved in 1896 to +"take steps towards union," and in the following year the Free Assembly +responded by appointing a committee to confer with a committee of the +other church. The joint committee discovered a "remarkable and happy +agreement" between the doctrinal standards, rules and methods of the two +bodies, and with very little concessions on either side a common +constitution and common "questions and formula" for the admission of +ministers and office-bearers were arranged. A minority, always growing +smaller, of the Free Church Assembly, protested against the proposed +union, and threatened if it were carried through to test its legality in +the courts. To meet this opposition, the suggestion is understood to +have been made that an act of parliament should be applied for to +legalize the union; but this was not done, and the union was carried +through on the understanding that the question of the lawfulness of +church establishments should be an open one. + +The supreme courts of the churches met for the last time in their +respective places of meeting on the 30th of October 1900, and on the +following day the joint meeting took place at which the union was +completed, and the United Free Church of Scotland (q.v.) entered on its +career. The protesting and dissenting minority at once claimed to be +the Free Church. They met outside the Free Assembly Hall on the 31st of +October, and, failing to gain admission to it, withdrew to another hall, +where they elected Mr Colin Bannatyne their moderator and held the +remaining sittings of the Assembly. It was reported that between 16,000 +and 17,000 names had been received of persons adhering to the +anti-unionist principle. At the Assembly of 1901 it was stated that the +Free Church had twenty-five ministers and at least sixty-three +congregations. The character of the church is indicated by the fact that +its office-bearers were the faithful survivors of the decreasing +minority of the Old Free Church, which had protested against the +disestablishment resolutions, against the relaxation of subscription, +against toleration of the teaching of the Glasgow professors, and +against the use in worship of organs or of human hymns. Her +congregations were mostly in the Gaelic-speaking districts of Scotland. +She was confronted with a very arduous undertaking; her congregations +grew in number, but were far from each other and there were not nearly +enough ministers. The Highlands were filled, by the Union, with +exasperation and dispeace which could not soon subside. The church met +with no sympathy or assistance at the hands of the United Free Church, +and her work was conducted at first under considerable hardships, nor +was her position one to appeal to the general popular sentiment of +Scotland. But the little church continued her course with indomitable +courage and without any compromise of principle. The Declaratory Act of +1892 was repealed after a consultation of presbyteries, and the old +principles as to worship were declared. A professor was obliged to +withdraw a book he had written, in which the results of criticism, with +regard to the Synoptic Gospels, had been accepted and applied. The +desire of the Church of Scotland to obtain relaxation of her formula was +declared to make union with her impossible. Along with this unbending +attitude, signs of material growth were not wanting. The revenue of the +church increased; the grant from the sustentation fund was in 1901 only +L75, but from 1903 onwards it was L167. + +The decision of the House of Lords in 1904 did not bring the trials of +the Free Church to an end. In the absence of any arrangement with the +United Free Church, she could only gain possession of the property +declared to belong to her by an application in each particular case to +the Court of Session, and a series of law-suits began which were trying +to all parties. In the year 1905 the Free Church Assembly met in the +historic Free Church Assembly Hall, but it did not meet there again. +Having been left by the awards of the commission without any station in +the foreign mission field, the Free Church resolved to start a foreign +mission of her own. The urgent task confronting the church was that of +supplying ordinances to her congregations. The latter numbered 200 in +1907, and the church had as yet only 74 ordained ministers, so that many +of the manses allocated to her by the commissioners were not yet +occupied, and catechists and elders were called to conduct services +where possible. The gallant stand this little church had made for +principles which were no longer represented by any Presbyterian church +outside the establishment attracted to her much interest and many hopes +that she might be successful in her endeavours to do something for the +religious life of Scotland. + + See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, for bibliography and statistics. (A. M.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "It is her being free, not her being established, that + constitutes the real historical and hereditary identity of the + Reformed National Church of Scotland." See _Act and Declaration, + &c._, of Free Assembly, 1851. + + [2] In the act _Anent the true and holy Kirk, and of those that are + declared not to be of the same_. This act was supplemented by that of + 1579, _Anent the Jurisdiction of the Kirk_. + + [3] The Second Book of Discipline was not formally recognized in that + act; but all former acts against "the jurisdiction and discipline of + the true Kirk as the same is used and exercised within the realm" + were abolished; and all "liberties, privileges, immunities and + freedoms whatsoever" previously granted were ratified and approved. + + [4] The most important of these had reference to the full right of a + constituted church to the enjoyment of an absolutely unrestricted + freedom in convening Assemblies. This very point on one occasion at + least threatened to be the cause of serious misunderstandings between + William and the people of Scotland. The difficulties were happily + smoothed, however, by the wisdom and tact of William Carstares. + + [5] See _Act and Declaration_ of Free Assembly, 1851. + + [6] This principle had been asserted even by an Assembly so late as + that of 1736, and had been invariably presupposed in the "call," + which had never ceased to be regarded as an indispensable + prerequisite for the settlement of a minister. + + [7] According to the Free Church "Protest" of 1843 it was in these + cases decided (1) that the courts of the church were liable to be + compelled to intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations; (2) that + the civil courts had power to interfere with and interdict the + preaching of the gospel and administration of ordinances as + authorized and enjoined by the church; (3) that the civil courts had + power to suspend spiritual censures pronounced by the courts of the + church, and to interdict their execution as to spiritual effects, + functions and privileges; (4) that deposed ministers, and + probationers deprived of their licence, could be restored by the + mandate of the civil courts to the spiritual office and status of + which the church courts had deprived them; (5) that the right of + membership in ecclesiastical courts could be determined by the civil + courts; (6) that the civil courts had power to supersede the majority + of a church court of the Establishment in regard to the exercise of + its spiritual functions as a church court, and to authorize the + minority to exercise the said functions in opposition to the court + itself and to the superior judicatories of the church; (7) that + processes of ecclesiastical discipline could be arrested by the civil + courts; and (8) that without the sanction of the civil courts no + increased provision could be made for the spiritual care of a parish, + although such provision left all civil rights and patrimonial + interests untouched. + + [8] The narrative and argument of this elaborate and able document + cannot be reproduced here. In substance it is a claim "as of right" + on behalf of the church and of the nation and people of Scotland that + the church shall freely possess and enjoy her liberties, government, + discipline, rights and privileges according to law, and that she + shall be protected therein from the foresaid unconstitutional and + illegal encroachments of the said court of session, and her people + secured in their Christian and constitutional rights and liberties. + This claim is followed by the "declaration" that the Assembly cannot + intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations, or carry on the + government of Christ's church subject to the coercion of the court of + session; and by the "protest" that all acts of the parliament of + Great Britain passed without the consent of the Scottish church and + nation, in alteration or derogation of the government, discipline, + rights and privileges of the church, as also all sentences of courts + in contravention of said government, discipline, rights and + privileges, "are and shall be in themselves void and null, and of no + legal force or effect." + + [9] The Scottish members voted with the minority in the proportion of + 25 to 12. + + [10] The number ultimately rose to 474. + + [11] By this formal recognition of the qualifications to the + Confession of Faith made in 1647 the scruples of the majority of the + Associate Synod of Original Seceders were removed, and 27 ministers, + along with a considerable number of their people, joined the Free + Church in the following year. + + [12] See Taylor Innes, _Law of Creeds in Scotland_, p. 258 seq. + + [13] The language of Dr Buchanan, for example, in 1860 was (_mutatis + mutandis_) the same as that which he had employed in 1838 in moving + the Independence resolution already referred to. + + + + +FREEDMEN'S BUREAU (officially the BUREAU OF FREEDMEN, REFUGEES AND +ABANDONED LANDS), a bureau created in the United States war department +by an act of Congress, 3rd of March 1865, to last one year, but +continued until 1872 by later acts passed over the president's veto. Its +establishment was due partly to the fear entertained by the North that +the Southerners if left to deal with the blacks would attempt to +re-establish some form of slavery, partly to the necessity for extending +relief to needy negroes and whites in the lately conquered South, and +partly to the need of creating some commission or bureau to take charge +of lands confiscated in the South. During the Civil War a million +negroes fell into the hands of the Federals and had to be cared for. +Able-bodied blacks were enlisted in the army, and the women, children +and old men were settled in large camps on confiscated Southern +property, where they were cared for alternately by the war department +and by the treasury department until the organization of the Freedmen's +Bureau. At the head of the bureau was a commissioner, General O. O. +Howard, and under him in each Southern state was an assistant +commissioner with a corps of local superintendents, agents and +inspectors. The officials had the broadest possible authority in all +matters that concerned the blacks. The work of the bureau may be +classified as follows: (1) distributing rations and medical supplies +among the blacks; (2) establishing schools for them and aiding +benevolent societies to establish schools and churches; (3) regulating +labour and contracts; (4) taking charge of confiscated lands; and (5) +administering justice in cases in which blacks were concerned. For +several years the ex-slaves were under the almost absolute control of +the bureau. Whether this control had a good or bad effect is still +disputed, the Southern whites and many Northerners holding that the +results of the bureau's work were distinctly bad, while others hold that +much good resulted from its work. There is now no doubt, however, that +while most of the higher officials of the bureau were good men, the +subordinate agents were generally without character or judgment and that +their interference between the races caused permanent discord. Much +necessary relief work was done, but demoralization was also caused by +it, and later the institution was used by its officials as a means of +securing negro votes. In educating the blacks the bureau made some +progress, but the instruction imparted by the missionary teachers +resulted in giving the ex-slaves notions of liberty and racial equality +that led to much trouble, finally resulting in the hostility of the +whites to negro education. The secession of the blacks from the white +churches was aided and encouraged by the bureau. The whole field of +labour and contracts was covered by minute regulations, which, good in +theory, were absurd in practice, and which failed altogether, but not +until labour had been disorganized for several years. The administration +of justice by the bureau agents amounted simply to a ceaseless +persecution of the whites who had dealings with the blacks, and bloody +conflicts sometimes resulted. The law creating the bureau provided for +the division of the confiscated property among the negroes, and though +carried out only in parts of South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, it +caused the negroes to believe that they were to be cared for at the +expense of their former masters. This belief made them subject to +swindling schemes perpetrated by certain bureau agents and others who +promised to secure lands for them. When negro suffrage was imposed by +Congress upon the Southern States, the bureau aided the Union League +(q.v.) in organizing the blacks into a political party opposed to the +whites. A large majority of the bureau officials secured office through +their control of the blacks. The failure of the bureau system and its +discontinuance in the midst of reconstruction without harm to the +blacks, and the intense hostility of the Southern whites to the +institution caused by the irritating conduct of bureau officials, are +indications that the institution was not well conceived nor wisely +administered. + + See P. S. Pierce, _The Freedmen's Bureau_ (Iowa City, 1904); _Report + of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction_ (Washington, 1866); W. L. + Fleming (ed.), _Documents relating to Reconstruction_ (Cleveland, O., + 1906); W. L. Fleming, _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_ (New + York, 1905); and James W. Garner, _Reconstruction in Mississippi_ (New + York, 1901). (W. L. F.) + + + + +FREEHOLD, a town and the county-seat of Monmouth county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., in the township of Freehold, about 25 m. E. by N. of Trenton. +Pop. (1890) 2932; (1900) 2934, of whom 215 were foreign-born and 126 +were negroes; (1905) 3064; (1910) 3233. Freehold is served by the +Pennsylvania and the Central of New Jersey railways. It is the trade +centre of one of the most productive agricultural districts of the state +and has various manufactures, including carriages, carpets and rugs, +files, shirts, underwear, and canned beans and peas. The town is the +seat of two boarding schools for boys: the Freehold Military School and +the New Jersey Military Academy (chartered, 1900; founded in 1844 as the +Freehold Institute). One of the residences in the town dates from 1755. +A settlement was made in the township about 1650, and the township was +incorporated in 1693. In 1715 the town was founded and was made the +county-seat; it was long commonly known (from the county) as Monmouth +Court-House, but afterwards took (from the township) the name Freehold, +and in 1869 it was incorporated as the Town of Freehold. An important +battle of the War of Independence, known as the battle of Monmouth, was +fought near the court-house on the 28th of June 1778. A short distance +N.W. of the court-house is a park in which there is a monument, unveiled +on the 13th of November 1884 in commemoration of the battle; the base is +of Quincy granite and the shaft is of Concord granite. Surmounting the +shaft is a statue representing "Liberty Triumphant" (the height to the +top of which is about 100 ft.). The monument is adorned with five bronze +reliefs, designed and modelled by James E. Kelly (b. 1855); one of these +reliefs represents "Molly Pitcher" (d. 1832), a national heroine, who, +when her husband (John C. Hays), an artillerist, was rendered insensible +during the battle, served the gun in his place and prevented its capture +by the British.[1] Joel Parker (1816-1888), governor of New Jersey in +1863-1866 and 1872-1875, was long a resident of Freehold, and the +erection of the monument was largely due to his efforts. A bronze tablet +on a boulder in front of the present court-house, commemorating the old +court-house, used as a hospital in the battle of Monmouth, was unveiled +in 1907. Freehold was the birthplace and home of Dr Thomas Henderson +(1743-1824), a Whig or Patriot leader in New Jersey, an officer in the +War of Independence, and a member of the Continental Congress in +1779-1780 and of the national House of Representatives in 1795-1797. + +The name Freehold was first used of a Presbyterian church established +about 1692 by Scottish exiles who came to East Jersey in 1682-1685 and +built what was called the "Old Scots' Church" near the present railway +station of Wickatunk in Marlboro' township, Monmouth county. In this +church, in December 1706, John Boyd (d. 1709) was ordained--the first +recorded Presbyterian ordination in America. The church was the first +regularly constituted Presbyterian church. No trace of the building now +remains in the burying-ground where Boyd was interred, and where the +Presbyterian Synod of New Jersey in 1900 raised a granite monument to +his memory; his tombstone is preserved by the Presbyterian Historical +Society in Philadelphia. John Tennent (1706-1732) became pastor of the +Freehold church in 1730, when a new church was built by the Old Scots +congregation on White Hill in the present township of Manalapan (then a +part of Freehold township), near the railway station and village called +Tennent; his brother William (1705-1777), whose trance, in which he +thought he saw the glories of heaven, was a matter of much discussion in +his time, was pastor in 1733-1777. In 1751-1753 the present "Old Tennent +Church," then called the Freehold Church, was erected on (or near) the +same site as the building of 1730; in it Whitefield preached and in the +older building David Brainerd and his Indian converts met. In 1859 this +church (whose corporate name is "The First Presbyterian Church of the +County of Monmouth") adopted the name of Tennent, partly to distinguish +it from the Presbyterian church organized at Monmouth Court-House (now +Freehold) in 1838. + + See Frank R. Symmes, _History of the Old Tennent Church_ (2nd ed., + Cranbury, New Jersey, 1904). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Her maiden name was Mary Ludwig. "Molly Pitcher" was a nickname + given to her by the soldiers in reference to her carrying water to + soldiers overcome by heat in the battle of Monmouth. She married Hays + in 1769; Hays died soon after the war, and later she married one + George McCauley. She lived for more than forty years at Carlisle, + Penn., where a monument was erected to her memory in 1876. + + + + +FREEHOLD, in the English law of real property, an estate in land, not +being less than an estate for life. An estate for a term of years, no +matter how long, was considered inferior in dignity to an estate for +life, and unworthy of a freeman (see ESTATE). "Some time before the +reign of Henry II., but apparently not so early as Domesday, the +expression _liberum tenementum_ was introduced to designate land held by +a freeman by a free tenure. Thus freehold tenure is the sum of the +rights and duties which constitute the relation of a free tenant to his +lord."[1] In this sense freehold is distinguished from copyhold, which +is a tenure having its origin in the relation of lord and villein (see +COPYHOLD). Freehold is also distinguished from leasehold, which is an +estate for a fixed number of years only. By analogy the interest of a +person who holds an office for life is sometimes said to be a freehold +interest. The term _customary freeholds_ is applied to a kind of +copyhold tenure in the north of England, viz. tenure by copy of +court-roll, but not, as in other cases, expressed to be at the will of +the lord. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Digby's _History of the Law of Real Property_. + + + + +FREELAND, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 20 m. +S. of Wilkes-Barre, in the E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 1730; +(1900) 5254 (1339 foreign-born, many being Slavs); (1910) 6197. Freeland +is served by the Lehigh Valley railway and by electric railway to Upper +Lehigh (1 m. distant, served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey) and +to other neighbouring places. The borough is built on Broad Mountain, +nearly 2000 ft. above sea-level, and the chief industry is the mining of +coal at the numerous surrounding collieries. Freeland is the seat of the +Mining and Mechanical Institute of the Anthracite Region, chartered in +1894, modelled after the German _Steigerschulen_, with elementary and +secondary departments and a night school for workmen. The borough has +foundries and machine shops of considerable importance, and manufactures +silk, overalls, beer and hames. Freeland was first settled about 1842, +was laid out in 1870, and was incorporated in 1876. + + + + +FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892), English historian, was born at +Harborne, Staffordshire, on the 2nd of August 1823. He lost both his +parents in infancy, was brought up by a grandmother, and was educated at +private schools and by a private tutor. He was a studious and precocious +boy, more interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics +than in boyish things. He obtained a scholarship at Trinity College, +Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was elected +fellow of his college (1845). While at Oxford he was much influenced by +the High Church movement, and thought seriously of taking orders, but +abandoned the idea. He married a daughter of his former tutor, the Rev. +R. Gutch, in 1847, and entered on a life of study. Ecclesiastical +architecture attracted him strongly. He visited many churches and began +a practice, which he pursued throughout his life, of making drawings of +buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink. His first +book, save for his share in a volume of English verse, was a _History of +Architecture_ (1849). Though he had not then seen any buildings outside +England, it contains a good sketch of the development of the art. It is +full of youthful enthusiasm and is written in florid language. After +some changes of residence he bought a house called Somerleaze, near +Wells, Somerset, and settled there in 1860. + +Freeman's life was one of strenuous literary work. He wrote many books, +and countless articles for reviews, newspapers and other publications, +and was a constant contributor to the _Saturday Review_ until 1878, when +he ceased to write for it for political reasons. His _Saturday Review_ +articles corrected many errors and raised the level of historical +knowledge among the educated classes, but as a reviewer he was apt to +forget that a book may have blemishes and yet be praiseworthy. For some +years he was an active county magistrate. He was deeply interested in +politics, was a follower of Mr Gladstone, and approved the Home Rule +Bill of 1886, but objected to the later proposal to retain the Irish +members at Westminster. To be returned to Parliament was one of his few +ambitions, and in 1868 he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign +rather than domestic politics had the first place with him. Historical +and religious sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was +tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy with the +smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe. He took a prominent +part in the agitation which followed "the Bulgarian atrocities"; his +speeches were intemperate, and he was accused of uttering the words +"Perish India!" at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, was a +misrepresentation of his words. He was made a knight commander of the +order of the Saviour by the king of Greece, and also received an order +from the prince of Montenegro. + +Freeman advanced the study of history in England in two special +directions, by insistence on the unity of history, and by teaching the +importance and right use of original authorities. History is not, he +urges, to be divided "by a middle wall of partition" into ancient and +modern, nor broken into fragments as though the history of each nation +stood apart. It is more than a collection of narratives; it is a +science, "the science of man in his political character." The historical +student, then, cannot afford to be indifferent to any part of the record +of man's political being; but as his abilities for study are limited, he +will, while reckoning all history to be within his range, have his own +special range within which he will master every detail (_Rede Lecture_). +Freeman's range included Greek, Roman and the earlier part of English +history, together with some portions of foreign medieval history, and he +had a scholarly though general knowledge of the rest of the history of +the European world. He regarded the abiding life of Rome as "the central +truth of European history," the bond of its unity, and he undertook his +_History of Sicily_ (1891-1894) partly because it illustrated this +unity. Further, he urges that all historical study is valueless which +does not take in a knowledge of original authorities, and he teaches +both by example and precept what authorities should be thus described, +and how they are to be weighed and used. He did not use manuscript +authorities, and for most of his work he had no need to do so. The +authorities which he needed were already in print, and his books would +not have been better if he had disinterred a few more facts from +unprinted sources. + +His reputation as a historian will chiefly rest on his _History of the +Norman Conquest_ (1867-1876), his longest completed book. In common with +his works generally, it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment +and research, critical ability, a remarkable degree of accuracy, and a +certain insight into the past which he gained from his practical +experience of men and institutions. He is almost exclusively a political +historian. His saying that "history is past politics and politics are +present history" is significant of this limitation of his work, which +left on one side subjects of the deepest interest in a nation's life. In +dealing with constitutional matters he sometimes attaches too much +weight to words and formal aspects. This gives certain of his arguments +an air of pedantry, and seems to lead him to find evidences of +continuity in institutions which in reality and spirit were different +from what they once had been. As a rule his estimates of character are +remarkably able. It is true that he is sometimes swayed by prejudice, +but this is the common lot of great historians; they cannot altogether +avoid sharing in the feelings of the past, for they live in it, and +Freeman did so to an extraordinary degree. Yet if he judges too +favourably the leaders of the national party in England on the eve of +the Norman Conquest, that is a small matter to set against the insight +which he exhibits in writing of Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William the +Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick the Second and many more. In +width of view, thoroughness of investigation and honesty of purpose he +is unsurpassed by any historian. He never conceals nor wilfully +misrepresents anything, and he reckoned no labour too great which might +help him to draw a truthful picture of the past. When a place had any +important connexion with his work he invariably visited it. He travelled +much, always to gain knowledge, and generally to complete his historical +equipment. His collected articles and essays on places of historical +interest are perhaps the most pleasing of his writings, but they deal +exclusively with historical associations and architectural features. The +quantity of work which he turned out is enormous, for the fifteen large +volumes which contain his _Norman Conquest_, his unfinished _History of +Sicily_, his _William Rufus_ (1882), and his _Essays_ (1872-1879), and +the crowd of his smaller books, are matched in amount by his uncollected +contributions to periodicals. In respect of matter his historical work +is uniformly excellent. In respect of form and style the case is +different. Though his sentences themselves are not wordy, he is +extremely diffuse in treatment, habitually repeating an idea in +successive sentences of much the same import. While this habit was +doubtless aggravated by the amount of his journalistic work, it seems +originally to have sprung from what may be called a professorial spirit, +which occasionally appears in the tone of his remarks. He was anxious to +make sure that his readers would understand his exact meaning, and to +guard them against all possible misconceptions. His lengthy explanations +are the more grievous because he insists on the same points in several +of his books. His prolixity was increased by his unwillingness, when +writing without prescribed limits, to leave out any detail, however +unimportant. His passion for details not only swelled his volumes to a +portentous size, but was fatal to artistic construction. The length of +his books has hindered their usefulness. They were written for the +public at large, but few save professed students, who can admire and +value his exhaustiveness, will read the many hundreds of pages which he +devotes to a short period of history. In some of his smaller books, +however, he shows great powers of condensation and arrangement, and +writes tersely enough. His style is correct, lucid and virile, but +generally nothing more, and his endeavour to use as far as possible only +words of Teutonic origin limited his vocabulary and makes his sentences +somewhat monotonous. While Froude often strayed away from his +authorities, Freeman kept his authorities always before his eyes, and +his narrative is here and there little more than a translation of their +words. Accordingly, while it has nothing of Froude's carelessness and +inaccuracy, it has nothing of his charm of style. Yet now and again he +rises to the level of some heroic event, and parts of his chapter on the +"Campaign of Hastings" and of his record of the wars of Syracuse and +Athens, his reflections on the visit of Basil the Second to the church +of the Virgin on the Acropolis, and some other passages in his books, +are fine pieces of eloquent writing. + +The high quality of Freeman's work was acknowledged by all competent +judges. He was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Cambridge _honoris +causa_, and when he visited the United States on a lecturing tour was +warmly received at various places of learning. He served on the royal +commission on ecclesiastical courts appointed in 1881. In 1884 he was +appointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford. His lectures +were thinly attended, for he did not care to adapt them to the +requirements of the university examinations, and he was not perhaps well +fitted to teach young men. But he exercised a wholesome influence over +the more earnest students of history among the resident graduates. From +1886 he was forced by ill-health to spend much of his time abroad, and +he died of smallpox at Alicante on the 16th of March 1892, while on a +tour in Spain. Freeman had a strongly marked personality. Though +impatient in temper and occasionally rude, he was tender-hearted and +generous. His rudeness to strangers was partly caused by shyness and +partly by a childlike inability to conceal his feelings. Eminently +truthful, he could not understand that some verbal insincerities are +necessary to social life. He had a peculiar faculty for friendship, and +his friends always found him sympathetic and affectionate. In their +society he would talk well and showed a keen sense of humour. He +considered it his duty to expose careless and ignorant writers, and +certainly enjoyed doing so. He worked hard and methodically, often had +several pieces of work in hand, and kept a daily record of the time +which he devoted to each of them. His tastes were curiously limited. No +art interested him except architecture, which he studied throughout his +life; and he cared little for literature which was not either historical +or political. In later life he ceased to hold the theological opinions +of his youth, but remained a devout churchman. + + See W. R. W. Stephens, _Life and Letters of E. A. Freeman_ (London, + 1895); Frederic Harrison, _Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill and other Literary + Estimates_ (London, 1899); James Bryce, "E. A. Freeman," _Eng. Hist. + Rev._, July 1892. (W. Hu.) + + + + +FREEMAN, primarily one who is free, as opposed to a slave or serf (see +FEUDALISM; SLAVERY). The term is more specifically applied to one who +possesses the freedom of a city, borough or company. Before the passing +of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, each English borough admitted +freemen according to its own peculiar custom and by-laws. The rights and +privileges of a freeman, though varying in different boroughs, generally +included the right to vote at a parliamentary election of the borough, +and exemption from all tolls and dues. The act of 1835 respected +existing usages, and every person who was then an admitted freeman +remained one, retaining at the same time all his former rights and +privileges. The admission of freemen is now regulated by the Municipal +Corporations Act 1882. By section 201 of that act the term "freeman" +includes any person of the class whose rights and interests were +reserved by the act of 1835 under the name either of freemen or of +burgesses. By section 202 no person can be admitted a freeman by gift or +by purchase; that is, only birth, servitude or marriage are +qualifications. The Honorary Freedom of Boroughs Act 1885, however, +makes an exception, as by that act the council of every borough may from +time to time admit persons of distinction to be honorary freemen of the +borough. The town clerk of every borough keeps a list, which is called +"the freeman's roll," and when any person claims to be admitted a +freeman in respect of birth, servitude or marriage, the mayor examines +the claim, and if it is established the claimant's name is enrolled by +the town clerk. + +A person may become a freeman or freewoman of one of the London livery +companies by (1) apprenticeship or servitude; (2) patrimony; (3) +redemption; (4) gift. This last is purely honorary. The most usual form +of acquiring freedom was by serving apprenticeship to a freeman, free +both of a company and of the city of London. By an act of common council +of 1836 apprenticeship was permitted to freemen of the city who had not +taken up the freedom of a company. By an act of common council of 1889 +the term of service was reduced from seven years to four years. Freedom +by patrimony is always granted to children of a person who has been duly +admitted to the freedom. Freedom by redemption or purchase requires the +payment of certain entrance fees, which vary with the standing of the +company. In the Grocers' Company freedom by redemption does not exist, +and in such companies as still have a trade, e.g. the Apothecaries and +Stationers, it is limited to members of the trade. + + See W. C. Hazlitt, _The Livery Companies of the City of London_ + (1892). + + + + +FREEMASONRY. According to an old "Charge" delivered to initiates, +Freemasonry is declared to be an "ancient and honourable institution: +ancient no doubt it is, as having subsisted from time immemorial; and +honourable it must be acknowledged to be, as by a natural tendency it +conduces to make those so who are obedient to its precepts ... to so +high an eminence has its credit been advanced that in every age Monarchs +themselves have been promoters of the art, have not thought it +derogatory from their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the trowel, +have patronised our mysteries and joined in our Assemblies." For many +years the craft has been conducted without respect to clime, colour, +caste or creed. + +_History._--The precise origin of the society has yet to be ascertained, +but is not likely to be, as the early records are lost; there is, +however, ample evidence remaining to justify the claim for its antiquity +and its honourable character. Much has been written as to its eventful +past, based upon actual records, but still more which has served only to +amuse or repel inquirers, and led not a few to believe that the +fraternity has no trustworthy history. An unfavourable opinion of the +historians of the craft generally may fairly have been held during the +18th and early in the 19th centuries, but happily since the middle of +the latter century quite a different principle has animated those +brethren who have sought to make the facts of masonic history known to +the brotherhood, as well as worth the study of students in general. The +idea that it would require an investigator to be a member of the "mystic +tie" in order to qualify as a reader of masonic history has been +exploded. The evidences collected concerning the institution during the +last five hundred years, or more, may now be examined and tested in the +most severe manner by literary and critical experts (whether opposed or +favourable to the body), who cannot fail to accept the claims made as +to its great antiquity and continuity, as the lineal descendant of those +craftsmen who raised the cathedrals and other great English buildings +during the middle ages. + + It is only needful to refer to the old works on freemasonry, and to + compare them with the accepted histories of the present time, to be + assured that such strictures as above are more than justified. The + premier work on the subject was published in London in 1723, the Rev. + James Anderson being the author of the historical portion, + introductory to the first "Book of Constitutions" of the original + Grand Lodge of England. Dr Anderson gravely states that "Grand Master + Moses often marshalled the Israelites into a regular and general + lodge, whilst in the wilderness.... King Solomon was Grand Master of + the lodge at Jerusalem.[1]... Nebuchadnezzar became the Grand Master + Mason," &c., devoting many more pages to similar absurdities, but + dismisses the important modern innovation (1716-1717) of a Grand Lodge + with a few lines noteworthy for their brief and indefinite character. + + In 1738 a second edition was issued, dedicated to the prince of Wales + ("a Master Mason and master of a lodge"), and was the work of the same + brother (as respects the historical part), the additions being mainly + on the same lines as the former volume, only, if possible, still more + ridiculous and extravagant; e.g. Cyrus constituted Jerubbabel + "provincial grand master in Judah"; Charles Martel was "the Right + Worshipful Grand Master of France, and Edward I. being deeply engaged + in wars left the craft to the care of several successive grand + masters" (duly enumerated). Such loose statements may now pass + unheeded, but unfortunately they do not exhaust the objections to Dr + Anderson's method of writing history. The excerpt concerning St Alban + (apparently made from Coles's _Ancient Constitutions_, 1728-1729) has + the unwarranted additional title of Grand Master conferred on that + saint, and the extract concerning King AEthelstan and Prince Edwin from + the "Old MS. Charges" (given in the first edition) contains still more + unauthorized modern terms, with the year added of 926; thus misleading + most seriously those who accept the volume as trustworthy, because + written by the accredited historian of the Grand Lodge, Junior Grand + Warden in 1723. These examples hardly increase our confidence in the + author's accuracy when Dr Anderson comes to treat of the origin of the + premier Grand Lodge; but he is our only informant as to that important + event, and if his version of the occurrence is declined, we are + absolutely without any information. + +In considering the early history of Freemasonry, from a purely +matter-of-fact standpoint, it will be well to settle as a necessary +preliminary what the term did and does now include or mean, and how far +back the inquiry should be conducted, as well as on what lines. If the +view of the subject herein taken be correct, it will be useless to load +the investigation by devoting considerable space to a consideration of +the laws and customs of still older societies which may have been +utilized and imitated by the fraternity, but which in no sense can be +accepted as the actual forbears of the present society of Free and +Accepted Masons. They were predecessors, or possibly prototypes, but not +near relatives or progenitors of the Freemasons.[2] + +The Mother Grand Lodge of the world is that of England, which was +inaugurated in the metropolis on St John Baptist's day 1717 by four or +more old lodges, three of which still flourish. There were other lodges +also in London and the country at the time, but whether they were +invited to the meeting is not now known. Probably not, as existing +records of the period preserve a sphinx-like silence thereon. Likewise +there were many scores of lodges at work in Scotland, and undoubtedly in +Ireland the craft was widely patronized. Whatever the ceremonies may +have been which were then known as Freemasonry in Great Britain and +Ireland, they were practically alike, and the venerable _Old Charges_ or +MS. constitutions, dating back several centuries, were rightly held by +them as the title-deeds of their masonic inheritance. + +It was a bold thing to do, thus to start a governing body for the +fraternity quite different in many respects to all preceding +organizations, and to brand as irregular all lodges which declined to +accept such authority; but the very originality and audacity of its +promoters appears to have led to its success, and it was not long before +most of the lodges of the pre-Grand-Lodge era joined and accepted +"constitution" by warrant of the Grand Master. Not only so, but Ireland +quickly followed the lead, so early as 1725 there being a Grand Lodge +for that country which must have been formed even still earlier, and +probably by lodges started before any were authorized in the English +counties. In Scotland the change was not made until 1736, many lodges +even then holding aloof from such an organization. Indeed, out of some +hundred lodges known to have been active then, only thirty-three +responded and agreed to fall into line, though several joined later; +some, however, kept separate down to the end of the 19th century, while +others never united. Many of these lodges have records of the 17th +century though not then newly formed; one in particular, the oldest (the +Lodge of Edinburgh, No. 1), possesses minutes so far back as the year +1599. + +It is important to bear in mind that all the regular lodges throughout +the world, and likewise all the Grand Lodges, directly or indirectly, +have sprung from one or other of the three governing bodies named; +Ireland and Scotland following the example set by their masonic mother +of England in having Grand Lodges of their own. It is not proved how the +latter two became acquainted with Freemasonry as a secret society, +guided more or less by the operative MS. _Constitutions_ or _Charges_ +common to the three bodies, not met with elsewhere; but the credit of a +Grand Lodge being established to control the lodges belongs to England. + +It may be a startling declaration, but it is well authenticated, that +there is no other Freemasonry, as the term is now understood, than what +which has been so derived. In other words, the lodges and Grand Lodges +in both hemispheres trace their origin and authority back to England for +working what are known as the Three Degrees, controlled by regular Grand +Lodges. That being so, a history of modern Freemasonry, the direct +offspring of the British parents aforesaid, should first of all +establish the descent of the three Grand Lodges from the Freemasonry of +earlier days; such continuity, of five centuries or more, being a _sine +qua non_ of antiquity and regularity. + +It will be found that from the early part of the 18th century back to +the 16th century existing records testify to the assemblies of lodges, +mainly operative, but partly speculative, in Great Britain, whose +guiding stars and common heritage were the _Old Charges_, and that when +their actual minutes and transactions cease to be traced by reason of +their loss, these same MS. _Constitutions_ furnish testimony of the +still older working of such combinations of freemasons or masons, +without the assistance, countenance or authority of any other masonic +body; consequently such documents still preserved, of the 14th and later +centuries (numbering about seventy, mostly in form of rolls), with the +existing lodge minutes referred to of the 16th century, down to the +establishment of the premier Grand Lodge in 1717, prove the continuity +of the society. Indeed so universally has this claim been admitted, that +in popular usage the term Freemason is only now applied to those who +belong to this particular fraternity, that of _mason_ being applicable +to one who follows that trade, or honourable calling, as a builder. + +There is no evidence that during this long period any other organization +of any kind, religious, philosophical, mystical or otherwise, materially +or even slightly influenced the customs of the fraternity, though they +may have done so; but so far as is known the lodges were of much the +same character throughout, and consisted really of operatives (who +enjoyed practically a monopoly for some time of the trade as masons or +freemasons), and, in part, of "speculatives," i.e. noblemen, gentlemen +and men of other trades, who were admitted as honorary members. + +Assuming then that the freemasons of the present day are the sole +inheritors of the system arranged at the so-called "Revival of 1717," +which was a development from an operative body to one partly +speculative, and that, so far back as the MS. Records extend and furnish +any light, they must have worked in Lodges in secret throughout the +period noted, a history of Freemasonry should be mainly devoted to +giving particulars, as far as possible, of the lodges, their traditions, +customs and laws, based upon actual documents which can be tested and +verified by members and non-members alike. + +It has been the rule to treat, more or less fully, of the influence +exerted on the fraternity by the Ancient Mysteries, the Essenes, Roman +Colleges, Culdees, Hermeticism, Fehm-Gerichte _et hoc genus omne_, +especially the _Steinmetzen_, the Craft Gilds and the Companionage of +France, &c.; but in view of the separate and independent character of +the freemasons, it appears to be quite unnecessary, and the time so +employed would be better devoted to a more thorough search after +additional evidences of the activity of the craft, especially during the +crucial period overlapping the second decade of the 18th century, so as +to discover information as to the transmitted secrets of the medieval +masons, which, after all, may simply have been what Gaspard Monge +felicitously entitles "Descriptive Geometry, or the Art and Science of +Masonic Symbolism." + +The rules and regulations of the masons were embodied in what are known +as the _Old Charges_; the senior known copy being the _Regius MS._ +(British Museum Bibl. Reg. 17 A, i.), which, however, is not so +exclusively devoted to masonry as the later copies. David Casley, in his +catalogue of the MSS. in the King's Library (1734), unfortunately styled +the little gem _A Poem of Moral Duties_; and owing to this +misdescription its true character was not recognized until the year +1839, and then by a non-mason (Mr Halliwell-Phillipps), who had it +reproduced in 1840 and brought out an improved edition in 1844. Its date +has been approximately fixed at 1390 by Casley and other authorities. + +The curious legend of the craft, therein made known, deals first of all +with the number of unemployed in early days and the necessity of finding +work, "that they myght gete here lyvynge therby." Euclid was consulted, +and recommended the "onest craft of good masonry," and the genesis of +the society is found "yn Egypte lande." By a rapid transition, but "mony +erys afterwarde," we are told that the "Craft com ynto England yn tyme +of good kynge Adelstonus (AEthelstan) day," who called an assembly of the +masons, when fifteen articles and as many more points were agreed to for +the government of the craft, each being duly described. Each brother was +instructed that-- + + "He must love wel God, and holy Churche algate + And hys mayster also, that he ys wythe." + + "The thrydde poynt must be severle. + With the prentes knowe hyt wele, + Hys mayster cownsel he kepe and close, + And hys felows by hys goode purpose; + The prevetyse of the chamber telle he no mon, + Ny yn the logge whatsever they done, + Whatsever thou heryst, or syste hem do, + Telle hyt no mon, whersever thou go." + +The rules generally, besides referring to trade regulations, are as a +whole suggestive of the Ten Commandments in an extended form, winding up +with the legend of the _Ars quatuor coronatorum_, as an incentive to a +faithful discharge of the numerous obligations. A second part introduces +a more lengthy account of the origin of masonry, in which Noah's flood +and the Tower of Babylon are mentioned as well as the great skill of +Euclid, who-- + + "Through hye grace of Crist yn heven, + He commensed yn the syens seven"; + +The "seven sciences" are duly named and explained. The compiler +apparently was a priest, line 629 reading "And, when ye gospel _me rede +schal_," thus also accounting for the many religious injunctions in the +MS.; the last hundred lines are evidently based upon _Urbanitatis_ +(Cott. MS. Caligula A 11, fol. 88) and _Instructions for a Parish +Priest_ (Cott. MS. Claudius A 11, fol. 27), instructions such as lads +and even men would need who were ignorant of the customs of polite +society, correct deportment at church and in the presence of their +social superiors. + +The recital of the legend of the _Quatuor Coronati_ has been held by +Herr Findel in his _History of Freemasonry_ (_Allgemeine Geschichte der +Freimaurerei_, 1862; English editions, 1866-1869) to prove that British +Freemasonry was derived from Germany, but without any justification, +the legend being met with in England centuries prior to the date of the +_Regius MS._, and long prior to its incorporation in masonic legends on +the Continent. + +The next MS., in order, is known as the "Cooke" (Ad. MS. 23,198, British +Museum), because Matthew Cooke published a fair reproduction of the +document in 1861; and it is deemed by competent paleographers to date +from the first part of the 15th century. There are two versions of the +_Old Charges_ in this little book, purchased for the British Museum in +1859. The compiler was probably a mason and familiar with several copies +of these MS. _Constitutions_, two of which he utilizes and comments +upon; he quotes from a MS. copy of the _Policronicon_ the manner in +which a written account of the sciences was preserved in the two +historic stones at the time of the Flood, and generally makes known the +traditions of the society as well as the laws which were to govern the +members. + +Its introduction into England through Egypt is noted (where the Children +of Israel "lernyd ye craft of Masonry"), also the "lande of behest" +(Jerusalem) and the Temple of Solomon (who "confirmed ye chargys yt +David his Fadir" had made). Then masonry in France is interestingly +described; and St Alban and "AEthelstane with his yongest sone" (the +Edwin of the later MSS.) became the chosen mediums subsequently, as with +the other _Charges_, portions of the Old Testament are often cited in +order to convey a correct idea to the neophyte, who is to hear the +document read, as to these sciences which are declared to be free in +themselves (_fre in hem selfe_). Of all crafts followed by man in this +world "Masonry hathe the moste notabilite," as confirmed by "Elders that +were bi for us of masons [who] had these chargys wryten," and "as is +write and taught in ye boke of our charges." + +Until quite recently no representative or survival of this particular +version had been traced, but in 1890 one was discovered of 1687 (since +known as the _William Watson MS._). Of some seventy copies of these old +scrolls which have been unearthed, by far the greater proportion have +been made public since 1860. They have all much in common, though often +curious differences are to be detected; are of English origin, no matter +where used; and when complete, as they mostly are, whether of the 16th +or subsequent centuries, are noteworthy for an invocation or prayer +which begins the recital:-- + + "The mighte of the ffather of heaven + And the wysedome of the glorious Sonne + through the grace and the goodnes of the holly + ghoste yt been three p'sons and one God + be with us at or beginning and give us grace + so to gou'ne us here in or lyving that wee maye + come to his blisse that nevr shall have ending.--Amen." + + (_Grand Lodge MS. No. 1_, A.D. 1583.) + +They are chiefly of the 17th century and nearly all located in England; +particulars may be found in Hughan's _Old Charges of the British +Freemasons_ (1872, 1895 and supplement 1906).[3] The chief scrolls, with +some others, have been reproduced in facsimile in six volumes of the +_Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha_; and the collection in Yorkshire has +been published separately, either in the _West Yorkshire Reprints_ or +the _Ancient York Masonic Rolls_. Several have been transcribed and +issued in other works. + +These scrolls give considerable information as to the traditions and +customs of the craft, together with the regulations for its government, +and were required to be read to apprentices long after the peculiar +rules ceased to be acted upon, each lodge apparently having one or more +copies kept for the purpose. The old Lodge of Aberdeen ordered in 1670 +that the Charge was to be "read at ye entering of everie entered +prenteise"; another at Alnwick in 1701 provided-- + + "Noe Mason shall take any apprentice [but he must] + Enter him and give him his Charge, within one whole year after"; + +and still another at Swallwell (now No. 48 Gateshead) demanded that +"the Apprentices shall have their Charge given at the time of +Registering, or within thirty days after"; the minutes inserting such +entries accordingly even so late as 1754, nearly twenty years after the +lodge had cast in its lot with the Grand Lodge of England. + +Their Christian character is further emphasized by the "First Charge +that you shall be true men to God and the holy Church"; the _York MS. +No. 6_ beseeches the brethren "at every meeting and assembly they pray +heartily for all Christians"; the _Melrose MS. No. 2_ (1674) mentions +"Merchants and all other Christian men," and the _Aberdeen MS._ (1670) +terms the invocation "A Prayer before the Meeting." Until the Grand +Lodge era, Freemasonry was thus wholly Christian. The _York MS. No. 4_ +of 1693 contains a singular error in the admonitory lines:-- + + "The [n] one of the elders takeing the Booke and that + hee or shee that is to be made mason, shall lay their + hands thereon and the charge shall be given." + +This particular reading was cited by Hughan in 1871, but was considered +doubtful; Findel,[4] however, confirmed it, on his visit to York under +the guidance of the celebrated masonic student the late Rev. A. F. A. +Woodford. The mistake was due possibly to the transcriber, who had an +older roll before him, confusing "they," sometimes written "the," with +"she," or reading that portion, which is often in Latin, as _ille vel +illa_, instead of _ille vel illi_. + +In some of the _Codices_, about the middle of the 17th century and +later, New Articles are inserted, such as would be suitable for an +organization similar to the Masons' Company of London, which had one, at +least, of the _Old Charges_ in its possession according to inventories +of 1665 and 1676; and likewise in 1722, termed _The Book of the +Constitutions of the Accepted Masons_. Save its mention ("Book wrote on +parchment") by Sir Francis Palgrave in the _Edinburgh Review_ (April +1839) as being in existence "not long since," this valuable document has +been lost sight of for many years. + +That there were signs and other secrets preserved and used by the +brethren throughout this mainly operative period may be gathered from +discreet references in these old MSS. The _Institutions in parchment_ +(22nd of November 1696) of the Dumfries Kilwinning Lodge (No. 53, +Scotland) contain a copy of the oath taken "when any man should be +made":-- + + "These Charges which we now reherse to you and all others ye secrets + and misterys belonging to free masons you shall faithfully and truly + keep, together with ye Counsell of ye assembly or lodge, or any other + lodge, or brother, or fellow." + +"Then after ye oath taken and the book kissed" (i.e. the Bible) the +"precepts" are read, the first being:-- + + "You shall be true men to God and his holy Church, and that you do not + countenance or maintaine any eror, faction, schism or herisey, in ye + church to ye best of your understanding." (_History of No. 53_, by + James Smith.) + +The _Grand Lodge MS. No. 2_ provides that "You shall keepe secret ye +obscure and intricate pts. of ye science, not disclosinge them to any +but such as study and use ye same." + +The _Harleian MS. No. 2054_ (Brit. Mus.) is still more explicit, termed +_The ffree Masons Orders and Constitutions_, and is in the handwriting +of Randle Holme (author of the _Academie of Armory_, 1688), who was a +member of a lodge in Cheshire. Following the MS. _Constitutions_, in the +same handwriting, about 1650, is a scrap of paper with the obligation:-- + + "There is sevrall words and signes of a free Mason to be revailed to + yu wch as yu will answr. before God at the Great and terrible day of + judgmt. yu keep secret and not to revaile the same to any in the + heares of any p'son, but to the Mrs and fellows of the Society of Free + Masons, so helpe me God, &c." (W. H. Rylands, _Mas. Mag._, 1882.) + +It is not yet settled who were the actual designers or architects of the +grand old English cathedrals. Credit has been claimed for church +dignitaries, to the exclusion more or less of the master masons, to whom +presumably of right the distinction belonged. In early days the title +"architect" is not met with, unless the term "Ingenator" had that +meaning, which is doubtful. As to this interesting question, and as to +the subject of building generally, an historical account of Master and +Free Masons (_Discourses upon Architecture in England_, by the Rev. +James Dallaway, 1833), and _Notes on the Superintendents of English +Buildings in the Middle Ages_ (by Wyatt Papworth, 1887), should be +consulted. Both writers were non-masons. The former observes: "The +honour due to the original founders of these edifices is almost +invariably transferred to the ecclesiastics under whose patronage they +rose, rather than to the skill and design of the master mason, or +professional architect, because the only historians were monks.... They +were probably not so well versed in geometrical science as the master +masons, for mathematics formed a part of monastic learning in a very +limited degree." In the _Journal of Proceedings R.I.B.A._ vol. iv. +(1887), a skilful critic (W. H. White) declares that Papworth, in that +valuable collection of facts, has contrived to annihilate all the +professional idols of the century, setting up in their place nothing +except the master mason. The brotherhood of Bridge-builders,[5] that +travelled far and wide to build bridges, and the travelling bodies of +Freemasons,[6] he believes never existed; nor was William of Wykeham the +designer of the colleges attributed to him. It seems well-nigh +impossible to disprove the statements made by Papworth, because they are +all so well grounded on attested facts; and the attempt to connect the +Abbey of Cluny, or men trained at Cluny, with the original or +preliminary designs of the great buildings erected during the middle +ages, at least during the 12th and 13th centuries, is also a failure. +The whole question is ably and fully treated in the _History of +Freemasonry_ by Robert Freke Gould (1886-1887), particularly in chapter +vi. on "Medieval Operative Masonry," and in his _Concise History_ +(1903). + +The lodge is often met with, either as the _tabulatum domicialem_ (1200, +at St Alban's Abbey) or actually so named in the _Fabric Rolls_ of York +Minster (1370), _ye loge_ being situated close to the fane in course of +erection; it was used as a place in which the stones were prepared in +private for the structure, as well as occupied at meal-time, &c. Each +mason was required to "swere upon ye boke yt he sall trewly ande bysyli +at his power hold and kepe holy all ye poyntes of yis forsayde +ordinance" (_Ordinacio Cementanorum_). + +As to the term _free_-mason, from the 14th century, it is held by some +authorities that it described simply those men who worked "freestone," +but there is abundant evidence to prove that, whatever may have been +intended at first, _free_-mason soon had a much wider signification, the +prefix _free_ being also employed by carpenters (1666), sewers (15th +century, tailors at Exeter) and others, presumably to indicate they were +free to follow their trades in certain localities. On this point Mr +Gould well observes: "The class of persons from whom the Freemasons of +Warrington (1646), Staffordshire (1686), Chester, York, London and their +congeners in the 17th century derived the descriptive title, which +became the inheritance of the Grand Lodge of England, were _free men_, +and masons of Gilds or Companies" (_History_, vol. ii. p. 160). Dr +Brentano may also be cited: "Wherever the Craft Guilds were legally +acknowledged, we find foremost, that the right to exercise their craft, +and sell their manufactures, depended upon the freedom of their city" +(_Development of Guilds_, &c., p. 65). In like manner, the privilege of +working as a mason was not conferred before candidates had been "made +free." The regular free-masons would not work with men, even if they had +a knowledge of their trade, "if _un_free," but styled them "Cowans," a +course justified by the king's "Maister of Work," William Schaw, whose +_Statutis and Ordinanceis_ (28th December 1598) required that "Na +maister or fellow of craft ressaue any _cowanis_ to wirk in his societie +or companye, nor send nane of his servants to wirk wt. cowanis, under +the pane of twentie pounds." Gradually, however, the rule was relaxed, +in time such monopoly practically ceased, and the word "cowan" is only +known in connexion with speculative Freemasonry. Sir Walter Scott, as a +member of Lodge St David (No. 36), was familiar with the word and used +it in _Rob Roy_. In 1707 a cowan was described in the minutes of Mother +Lodge Kilwinning, as a mason "without the word," thus one who was not a +_free_ mason (_History of the Lodge of Edinburgh No. 1_, by D. Murray +Lyon, 1900). + +In the _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford, vol. iv., 1897) under +"Freemason" it is noted that three views have been propounded:--(1) "The +suggestion that _free-mason_ stands for free-stone-mason would appear +unworthy of attention, but for the curious fact that the earliest known +instances of any similar appellation are _mestre mason de franche peer_ +(Act 25 Edw. III., 1350), and _sculptores lapidum liberorum_, alleged to +occur in a document of 1217; the coincidence, however, seems to be +merely accidental. (2) The view most generally held is that freemasons +were those who were free of the masons' guild. Against this explanation +many forcible objections have been brought by Mr G. W. Speth, who +suggests (3) that the itinerant masons were called free because they +claimed exemption from the control of the local guilds of the towns in +which they temporarily settled. (4) Perhaps the best hypothesis is that +the term refers to the medieval practice of emancipating skilled +artisans, in order that they might be able to travel and render their +services wherever any great building was in process of construction." +The late secretary of the Quatuor Coronati Lodge (No. 2076, London) has +thus had his view sanctioned by "the highest tribunal in the Republic of +Letters so far as Philology is concerned" (Dr W. J. Chetwode Crawley in +_Ars Quatuor Coronatorum_, 1898). Still it cannot be denied that members +of lodges in the 16th and following centuries exercised the privilege of +making _free_ masons and denied the freedom of working to cowans (also +called _un_-freemen) who had not been so made free; "the Masownys of the +luge" being the only ones recognized as _free_masons. As to the prefix +being derived from the word _frere_, a sufficient answer is the fact +that frequent reference is made to "Brother _free_masons," so that no +ground for that supposition exists (cf. articles by Mr Gould in the +_Freemason_ for September 1898 on "Free and Freemasonry"). + +There are numerous indications of masonic activity in the British lodges +of the 17th century, especially in Scotland; the existing records, +however, of the southern part of the United Kingdom, though few, are of +importance, some only having been made known in recent years. These +concern the Masons' Company of London, whose valuable minutes and other +documents are ably described and commented upon by Edward Conder, jr., +in his _Hole Crafte and Fellowship of Masons_ (1894), the author then +being the Master of that ancient company. It was incorporated in 1677 by +Charles II., who graciously met the wishes of the members, but as a +company the information "that is to be found in the Corporation Records +at Guildhall proves very clearly that in 1376 the Masons' Company +existed and was represented in the court of common council." The title +then favoured was "Masons," the entry of the term "Freemasons" being +crossed out. Herbert erroneously overlooked the correction, and stated +in his _History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies_ (vol. i.) that the +Freemasons returned two, and the Masons four members, but subsequently +amalgamated; whereas the revised entry was for the "Masons" only. The +Company obtained a grant of arms in 1472 (12th year Hen. VIII.), one of +the first of the kind, being thus described:--"A feld of Sablys A +Cheveron silver grailed thre Castellis of the same garnysshed wt. dores +and wyndows of the feld in the Cheveron or Cumpas of Black of Blak"; it +is the authority (if any) for all later armorial bearings having a +chevron and castles, assumed by other masonic organizations. This +precious document was only discovered in 1871, having been missing for a +long time, thus doubtless accounting for the erroneous representations +met with, not having the correct blazon to follow. The oldest masonic +motto known is "God is our Guide" on Kerwin's tomb in St Helen's church, +Bishopgate, of 1594; that of "In the Lord is all our trust" not being +traced until the next century. Supporters consisting of two doric +columns are mentioned in 1688 by Randle Holme, but the Grand Lodge of +England in the following century used Beavers as operative builders. Its +first motto was "In the beginning was the Word" (in Greek), exchanged a +few years onward for "Relief and Truth," the rival Grand Lodge (Atholl +Masons) selecting "Holiness to the Lord" (in Hebrew), and the final +selection at the "Union of December 1813" being _Audi Vide Tace_. + +Mr Conder's discovery of a lodge of "Accepted Masons" being held under +the wing of the Company was a great surprise, dating as the records do +from 1620 to 1621 (the earliest of the kind yet traced in England), when +seven were made masons, all of whom were free of the Company _before_, +three being of the Livery; the entry commencing "Att the making masons." +The meetings were entitled the "Acception," and the members of the lodge +were called _Accepted_ Masons, being those so _accepted_ and initiated, +the term never otherwise being met with in the Records. An additional +fee had to be paid by a member of the Company to join the "Acception," +and any not belonging thereto were mulct in twice the sum; though even +then such "acceptance" did not qualify for membership of the superior +body; the fees for the "Acception" being L1 and L2 respectively. In +1638-1639, when Nicholas Stone entered the lodge (he was Master of the +Company 1632-1633) the banquet cost a considerable sum, showing that the +number of brethren present must have been large. + +Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was "made a Free Mason of +Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," seven brethern being named as +in attendance at the lodge, 16th of October 1646) states that he +"received a summons to appear at a Lodge to be held next day at Masons' +Hall, London." Accordingly on the 11th of March 1682 he attended and saw +six gentlemen "admitted into the Fellowship of Free Masons," of whom +three only belonged to the Company; the Master, however, Mr Thomas Wise, +the two wardens and six others being present on the occasion as members +in their _dual_ capacity. Ashmole adds: "We all dyned at the Halfe Moone +Tavern in Cheapside at a noble dinner prepaired at the charge of the +new-accepted Masons." + +It is almost certain that there was not an operative mason present at +the Lodge held in 1646, and at the one which met in 1682 there was a +strong representation of the speculative branch. Before the year 1654 +the Company was known as that of the Freemasons for some time, but after +then the old title of Masons was reverted to, the terms "Acception" and +"Accepted" belonging to the speculative Lodge, which, however, in all +probability either became independent or ceased to work soon after 1682. +It is very interesting to note that subsequently (but never before) the +longer designation is met with of "Free and Accepted Masons," and is +thus a combination of operative and speculative usage. + +Mr Conder is of opinion that in the Records "there is no evidence of any +particular ceremony attending the position of Master Mason, possibly it +consisted of administering a different oath from the one taken by the +apprentices on being entered." There is much to favour this supposition, +and it may provide the key to the _vexata quaestio_ as to the plurality +of degrees prior to the Grand Lodge era. The fellow-crafts were +recruited from those apprentices who had served their time and had their +essay (or sufficient trial of their skill) duly passed; they and the +Masters, by the _Schaw Statutes_ of 1598, being only admitted in the +presence of "sex Maisteris and _twa enterit prenteissis_." As a rule a +master mason meant one who was master of his trade, i.e. duly qualified; +but it sometimes described employers as distinct from journeymen +Freemasons; being also a compliment conferred on honorary members +during the 17th century in particular. + +In Dr Plot's _History of Staffordshire_ (1686) is a remarkable account +of the "Society of Freemasons," which, being by an unfriendly critic, is +all the more valuable. He states that the custom had spread "more or +less all over the nation"; persons of the most eminent quality did not +disdain to enter the Fellowship; they had "a large _parchment volum_ +containing the History and Rules of the Craft of Masonry"; St Amphibal, +St Alban, King Athelstan and Edwin are mentioned, and these "charges and +manners" were "after perusal approved by King Hen. 6 and his council, +both as to Masters and Fellows of this right Worshipfull craft." It is +but fair to add that notwithstanding the service he rendered the Society +by his lengthy description, that credulous historian remarks of its +history that there is nothing he ever "met with more false or +incoherent." + +The author of the _Academie of Armory_, previously noted, knew better +what he was writing about in that work of 1688 in which he declares: "I +cannot but Honor the Fellowship of the Masons because of its Antiquity; +and the more, _as being a member of that Society, called Free Masons_" +Mr Rylands states that in _Harl. MS. 5955_ is a collection of the +engraved plates for a second volume of this important work, one being +devoted to the Arms of the Society, the columns, as supporters, having +globes thereon, from which possibly are derived the two pillars, with +such ornaments or additions seen in lodge rooms at a later period. + +In the same year "A Tripos or Speech delivered at a commencement in the +University of Dublin held there July 11, 1688, by John Jones, then A.B., +afterwards D.D.," contained "notable evidence concerning Freemasonry in +Dublin." The Tripos was included in Sir Walter Scott's edition of Dean +Swift's works (1814), but as Dr Chetwode Crawley points out, though +noticed by the Rev. Dr George Oliver (the voluminous Masonic author), he +failed to realize its historical importance. The satirical and withal +amusing speech was partly translated from the Latin by Dr Crawley for +his scholarly introduction to the _Masonic Reprints_, &c., by Henry +Sadler. "The point seems to be that Ridley (reputed to have been an +informer against priests under the barbarous penal laws) was, or ought +to have been, hanged; that his carcase, anatomized and stuffed, stood in +the library; and that _frath scoundrellus_ discovered on his remains the +Freemasons' Mark." The importance of the references to the craft in +Ireland is simply owing to the year in which they were made, as +illustrative of the influence of the Society at that time, of which +records are lacking. + +It is primarily to Scotland, however, that we have to look for such +numerous particulars of the activity of the fraternity from 1599 to the +establishment of its Grand Lodge in 1736, for an excellent account of +which we are indebted to Lyon, the Scottish masonic historian. As early +as 1600 (8th of June) the attendance of John Boswell, Esq., the laird of +Auchinleck, is entered in the minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh; he +attested the record and added his mark, as did the other members; so it +was not his first appearance. Many noblemen and other gentlemen joined +this ancient _atelier_, notably Lord Alexander, Sir Anthony Alexander +and Sir Alexander Strachan in 1634, the king's Master of Work (Herrie +Alexander) in 1638, General Alexander Hamilton in 1640, Dr Hamilton in +1647, and many other prominent and distinguished men later; "James +Neilsone, Master Sklaitter to His Majestie," who was "entered and past +in the Lodge of Linlithgow, being elected a joining member," 2nd March +1654. Quarter-Master General Robert Moray (or Murray) was initiated by +members of the Lodge of Edinburgh, at Newcastle on the 20th of May 1641, +while the Scottish army was in occupation. On due report to their Alma +Mater such reception was allowed, the occurrence having been considered +the first of its kind in England until the ancient Records of the +Masons' Company were published. + +The minute-books of a number of Scottish Lodges, which are still on the +register, go back to the 17th century, and abundantly confirm the +frequent admission of speculatives as members and officers, especially +those of the venerable "Mother Lodge Kilwinning," of which the earl of +Cassillis was the deacon in 1672, who was succeeded by Sir Alexander +Cunningham, and the earl of Eglinton, who like the first of the trio was +but an apprentice. There were three Head Lodges according to the +Scottish Code of 1599, Edinburgh being "the first and principall," +Kilwinning "the secund," and Stirling "the third ludge." + +The Aberdeen Lodge (No. 1 _tris_) has records preserved from 1670, in +which year what is known as the _Mark Book_ begins, containing the +oldest existing roll of members, numbering 49, all of whom have their +marks registered, save two, though only ten were operatives. The names +of the earls of Finlater, Erroll and Dunfermline, Lord Forbes, several +ministers and professional men are on the list, which was written by a +glazier, all of whom had been enlightened as to the "benefit of the +measson word," and inserted in order as they "were made fellow craft." +The Charter (_Old Charges_) had to be read at the "entering of everie +prenteise," and the officers included a master and two wardens. + +The lodge at Melrose (No. 1 _bis_) with records back to 1674 did not +join the Grand Lodge until 1891, and was the last of those working +(possibly centuries before that body was formed) to accept the modern +system of government. Of the many noteworthy lodges mention should be +made of that of "Canongate Kilwinning No. 2," Edinburgh, the first of +the numerous pendicles of "Mother Lodge Kilwinning, No. 0," Ayrshire, +started in 1677; and of the Journeymen No 8, formed in 1707, which was a +secession from the Lodge of Edinburgh; the Fellow Crafts or Journeymen +not being satisfied with their treatment by the Freemen Masters of the +Incorporation of Masons, &c. This action led to a trial before the Lords +of Council and Session, when finally a "Decreet Arbitral" was subscribed +to by both parties, and the junior organization was permitted "to give +the mason word as it is called" in a separate lodge. The presbytery of +Kelso[7] in 1652 sustained the action of the Rev. James Ainslie in +becoming a Freemason, declaring that "there is neither sinne nor +scandale in that word" (i.e. the "Mason Word"), which is often alluded +to but never revealed in the old records already referred to.[8] One +Scottish family may be cited in illustration of the continuous working +of Freemasonry, whose membership is enshrined in the records of the +ancient Lodge of "Scoon and Perth No. 3" and others. A venerable +document, lovingly cared for by No. 3, bears date 1658, and recites how +John Mylne came to Perth from the "North Countrie," and was the king's +Master Mason and W.M. of the Lodge, his successor being his son, who +entered "King James the sixt as ffreman measone and fellow craft"; his +third son John was a member of Lodge No. 1 and Master Mason to Charles +I., 1631-1636, and his eldest son was a deacon of No. 1 eleven times +during thirty years. To him was apprenticed his nephew, who was warden +in 1663-1664 and deacon several times. William Mylne was a warden in +1695, Thomas (eldest son) was Master in 1735, and took part in the +formation of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. Others of the family continued +to join the Lodge No. 1, until Robert, the last of the Mylnes as +Freemasons, was initiated in 1754, died in 1811, and "was buried in St +Paul's cathedral, having been Surveyor to that Edifice for fifty years," +and the last of the masonic Mylnes for five generations. The "St John's +Lodge," Glasgow (No. 3 _bis_), has some valuable old records and a +"Charter Chest" with the words carved thereon "God save the King and +Masons Craft, 1684." _Loyalty and Charity_ are the watchwords of the +Society. + +The Craft Gilds (_Corps d'Etat_) of France, and their progeny the +_Companionage_, have been fully described by Mr Gould, and the +_Steinmetzen_ of Germany would require too detailed notice if we were to +particularize its rules, customs and general character, from about the +12th century onward. Much as there was in common between the Stonemasons +of Germany and the Freemasons of Great Britain and Ireland, it must be +conceded that the two societies never united and were all through this +long period wholly separate and independent; a knowledge of Freemasonry +and authority to hold lodges in Germany being derived from the Grand +Lodge of England during the first half of the 18th century. The theory +of the derivation of the Freemasons from the _Steinmetzen_ was first +propounded in 1779 by the abbe Grandidier, and has been maintained by +more modern writers, such as Fallou, Heideloff and Schneider, but a +thorough examination of their statements has resulted in such an origin +being generally discredited. Whether the _Steinmetzen_ had secret signs +of recognition or not, is not quite clear, but that the Freemasons had, +for centuries, cannot be doubted, though precisely what they were may be +open to question, and also what portions of the existing ceremonies are +reminiscent of the craft anterior to the Revival of 1717. Messrs Speth +and Gould favour the notion that there were two distinct and separate +degrees prior to the third decade of the 18th century (_Ars_ Q.C., 1898 +and 1903), while other authorities have either supported the _One +degree_ theory, or consider there is not sufficient evidence to warrant +a decision. Recent discoveries, however, tend in favour of the first +view noted, such as the _Trinity College MS._, Dublin ("Free Masonry, +Feb. 1711"), and the invaluable[9] _Chetwode Crawley MS._ (Grand Lodge +Library, Dublin); the second being read in connexion with the Haughfoot +Lodge Records, beginning 1702 (_Hist, of Freemasonry_, by W. F. Vernon, +1893). + +Two of the most remarkable lodges at work during the period of +transition (1717-1723), out of the many then existing in England, +assembled at Alnwick and at York. The origin of the first noted is not +known, but there are minutes of the meetings from 1703, the Rules are of +1701, signed by quite a number of members, and a transcript of the _Old +Charges_ begins the volume. In 1708-1709 a minute provided for a masonic +procession, at which the brethren were to walk "with their aprons on and +Comon Square." The Lodge consisted mainly of operative "free Brothers," +and continued for many years, a code of by-laws being published in 1763, +but it never united with the Grand Lodge, giving up the struggle for +existence a few years further on. + +The other lodge, the most noteworthy of all the English predecessors of +the Grand Lodge of England, was long held at York, the Mecca of English +Freemasons.[10] Its origin is unknown, but there are traces of its +existence at an early date, and possibly it was a survival of the +Minster Lodge of the 14th century. Assuming that the _York MS. No. 4_ of +1693 was the property of the lodge in that year (which Roll was +presented by George Walker of Wetherby in 1777), the entry which +concludes that Scroll is most suggestive, as it gives "The names of the +Lodge" (members) and the "Lodge Ward(en)." Its influence most probably +may be also noted at Scarborough, where "A private Lodge" was held on +the 10th of July 1705, at which the president "William Thompson, Esq., +and severall others brethren ffree Masons" were present, and six +gentlemen (named) "were then admitted into the said ffraternity." These +particulars are endorsed on the _Scarborough MS._ of the Old Charges, +now owned by the Grand Lodge of Canada at Toronto. "A narrow folio +manuscript Book beginning 7th March 1705-1706," which was quoted from in +1778, has long been missing, which is much to be regretted, as possibly +it gave particulars of the lodge which assembled at Bradford, Yorkshire, +"when 18 Gentlemen of the first families in that neighbourhood were made +Masons." There is, however, another roll of records from 1712 to 1730 +happily preserved of this "Ancient Honble. Society and Fraternity of +Free Masons," sometimes styled "Company" or "Society of Free and +Accepted Masons." + +Not to be behind the London fratres, the York brethren formed a Grand +Lodge on the 27th of December 1725 (the "Grand Lodge of _all_ England" +was its modest title), and was flourishing for years, receiving into +their company many county men of great influence. Some twenty years +later there was a brief period of somnolence, but in 1761 a revival took +place, with Francis Drake, the historian, as Grand Master, ten lodges +being chartered in Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire, 1762-1790, and a +Grand Lodge of England, south of the Trent, in 1779, at London, which +warranted two lodges. Before the century ended all these collapsed or +joined the Grand Lodge of England, so there was not a single +representative of "York Masonry" left on the advent of the next century. + +The premier Grand Lodge of England soon began to constitute new Lodges +in the metropolis, and to reconstitute old ones that applied for +recognition, one of the earliest of 1720-1721 being still on the Roll as +No. 6, thus having kept company ever since with the three "time +immemorial Lodges," Nos. 2, 4 and 12. Applications for constitution kept +coming in, the provinces being represented from 1723 to 1724, before +which time it is likely the Grand Lodge of Ireland[11] had been started, +about which the most valuable _Caementaria Hibernica_ by Dr Chetwode +Crawley may be consulted with absolute confidence. Provincial Grand +Lodges were formed to ease the authorities at headquarters, and, as the +society spread, also for the Continent, and gradually throughout the +civilized globe. Owing to the custom prevailing before the 18th century, +a few brethren were competent to form lodges on their own initiative +anywhere, and hence the registers of the British Grand Lodges are not +always indicative of the first appearance of the craft abroad. In North +America[12] lodges were held before what is known as the first "regular" +lodge was formed at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and probably in Canada[13] +likewise. The same remark applies to Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, +Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden and other countries. Of the many +scores of military lodges, the first warrant was granted by Ireland in +1732. To no other body of Freemasons has the craft been so indebted for +its prosperity in early days as to their military brethren. There were +rivals to the Grand Lodge of England during the 18th century, one of +considerable magnitude being known as the Ancients or Atholl Masons, +formed in 1751, but in December 1813 a junction was effected, and from +that time the prosperity of the United Grand Lodge of England, with few +exceptions, has been extraordinary. + +Nothing but a volume to itself could possibly describe the main features +of the English Craft from 1717, when Anthony Sayer was elected the first +Grand Master of a brilliant galaxy of rulers. The first nobleman to +undertake that office was the duke of Montagu in 1721, the natural +philosopher J. T. Desaguliers being his immediate predecessor, who has +been credited (and also the Rev. James Anderson) with the honour of +starting the premier Grand Lodge; but like the fable of Sir Christopher +Wren having been Grand Master, evidence is entirely lacking. Irish and +Scottish peers share with those of England the distinction of presiding +over the Grand Lodge, and from 1782 to 1813 their Royal Highnesses the +duke of Cumberland, the prince of Wales, or the duke of Sussex occupied +the masonic throne. From 1753 to 1813 the rival Grand Lodge had been +busy, but ultimately a desire for a _united_ body prevailed, and under +the "ancient" Grand Master, H.R.H. the duke of Kent, it was decided to +amalgamate with the original ruling organization, H.R.H. the duke of +Sussex becoming the Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge. On the +decease of the prince in 1843 the earl of Zetland succeeded, followed by +the marquess of Ripon in 1874, on whose resignation H.R.H. the prince of +Wales became the Grand Master. Soon after succeeding to the throne, +King Edward VII. ceased to govern the English craft, and was succeeded +by H.R.H. the duke of Connaught. From 1737 to 1907 some sixteen English +princes of the royal blood joined the brotherhood. + +From 1723 to 1813 the number of lodges enrolled in England amounted to +1626, and from 1814 to the end of December 1909 as many as 3352 were +warranted, making a grand total of 4978, of which the last then granted +was numbered 3185. There were in 1909 still 2876 on the register, +notwithstanding the many vacancies created by the foundation of new +Grand Lodges in the colonies and elsewhere.[14] + +_Distribution and Organization._--The advantage of the cosmopolitan +basis of the fraternity generally (though some Grand Lodges still +preserve the original Christian foundation) has been conspicuously +manifested and appreciated in India and other countries where the +votaries of numerous religious systems congregate; but the unalterable +basis of a belief in the Great Architect of the Universe remains, for +without such a recognition there can be no Freemasonry, and it is now, +as it always has been, entirely free from party politics. The charities +of the Society in England, Ireland and Scotland are extensive and well +organized, their united cost per day not being less than L500, and with +those of other Grand Lodges throughout the world must amount to a very +large sum, there being over two millions of Freemasons. The vast +increase of late years, both of lodges and members, however, calls for +renewed vigilance and extra care in selecting candidates, that numbers +may not be a source of weakness instead of strength. + +In its internal organization, the working of Freemasonry involves an +elaborate system of symbolic ritual,[15] as carried out at meetings of +the various lodges, uniformity as to essentials being the rule. The +members are classified in numerous degrees, of which the first three are +"Entered Apprentice," "Fellow Craft" and "Master Mason," each class of +which, after initiation, can only be attained after passing a prescribed +ordeal or examination, as a test of proficiency, corresponding to the +"essays" of the operative period. + +The lodges have their own by-laws for guidance, subject to the _Book of +Constitutions_ of their Grand Lodge, and the regulations of the +provincial or district Grand Lodge if located in counties or held +abroad. + +It is to be regretted that on the continent of Europe Freemasonry has +sometimes developed on different lines from that of the "Mother Grand +Lodge" and Anglo-Saxon Grand Lodges generally, and through its political +and anti-religious tendencies has come into contact or conflict with the +state authorities[16] or the Roman Catholic church. The "Grand Orient of +France" (but not the Supreme Council 33^o, and its Grand Lodge) is an +example of this retrograde movement, by its elimination of the paragraph +referring to a belief in the "Great Architect of the Universe" from its +_Statuts et reglements generaux_. This deplorable action has led to the +withdrawal of all regular Grand Lodges from association with that body, +and such separation must continue until a return is made to the ancient +and inviolable landmark of the society, which makes it impossible for an +atheist either to join or continue a member of the fraternity. + +The Grand Lodge of England constituted its first lodge in Paris in the +year 1732, but one was formed still earlier on the continent at +Gibraltar 1728-1729. Others were also opened in Germany 1733, Portugal +1735, Holland 1735, Switzerland 1740, Denmark 1745, Italy 1763, Belgium +1765, Russia 1771, and Sweden 1773. In most of these countries Grand +Lodges were subsequently created and continue to this date, save that in +Austria (not Hungary) and Russia no masonic lodges have for some time +been permitted to assemble. There is a union of Grand Lodges of Germany, +and an annual Diet is held for the transaction of business affecting the +several masonic organizations in that country, which works well. H.R.H. +Prince Frederick Leopold was in 1909 Protector, or the "Wisest Master" +(Vicarius Salomonis). King Gustav V. was the Grand Master [cross] of the +freemasons in Sweden, and the sovereign of the "Order of Charles XIII.," +the only one of the kind confined to members of the fraternity. + +Lodges were constituted in India from 1730 (Calcutta), 1752 (Madras), +and 1758 (Bombay); in Jamaica 1742, Antigua 1738, and St Christopher +1739; soon after which period the Grand Lodges of England, Ireland and +Scotland had representatives at work throughout the civilized world. + +In no part, however, outside Great Britain has the craft flourished so +much as in the United States of America, where the first "regular" lodge +(i.e. according to the _new_ regime) was opened in 1733 at Boston, Mass. +Undoubtedly lodges had been meeting still earlier, one of which was held +at Philadelphia, Penna., with records from 1731, which blossomed into a +Grand Lodge, but no authority has yet been traced for its proceedings, +save that which may be termed "time immemorial right," which was enjoyed +by all lodges and brethren who were at work prior to the Grand Lodge era +(1716-1717) or who declined to recognize the autocratic proceedings of +the premier Grand Lodge of England, just as the brethren did in the city +of York. A "deputation" was granted to Daniel Coxe, Esq. of New Jersey, +by the duke of Norfolk, Grand Master, 5th of June 1730, as Prov. Grand +Master of the "Provinces of New York, New Jersey and Pensilvania," but +there is no evidence that he ever constituted any lodges or exercised +any masonic authority in virtue thereof. Henry Price as Prov. Grand +Master of New England, and his lodge, which was opened on the 31st of +August 1733, in the city of Boston, so far as is known, began "regular" +Freemasonry in the United States, and the older and independent +organization was soon afterwards "regularized." Benjamin Franklin (an +Initiate of the lodge of Philadelphia) printed and published the _Book +of Constitutions_, 1723 (of London, England), in the "City of Brotherly +Love" in 1734, being the oldest masonic work in America. English and +Scottish Grand Lodges were soon after petitioned to grant warrants to +hold lodges, and by the end of the 18th century several Grand Lodges +were formed, the Craft becoming very popular, partly no doubt by reason +of so many prominent men joining the fraternity, of whom the chief was +George Washington, initiated in a Scottish lodge at Fredericksburg, +Virginia, in 1752-1753. In 1907 there were fifty Grand Lodges assembling +in the United States, with considerably over a million members. + +In Canada in 1909 there were eight Grand Lodges, having about 64,000 +members. Freemasonry in the Dominion is believed to date from 1740. The +Grand Lodges are all of comparatively recent organization, the oldest +and largest, with 40,000 members, being for Ontario; those of Manitoba, +Nova Scotia and Quebec numbering about 5000 each. There are some seven +Grand Lodges in Australia; South Australia coming first as a "sovereign +body," followed closely by New South Wales and Victoria (of 1884-1889 +constitution), the whole of the lodges in the Commonwealth probably +having fully 50,000 members on the registers. + +There are many additional degrees which may be taken or not (being quite +optional), and dependent on a favourable ballot; the difficulty, +however, of obtaining admission increases as progress is made, the +numbers accepted decreasing rapidly with each advancement. The chief of +these are arranged in separate classes and are governed either by the +"Grand Chapter of the Royal Arch," the "Mark Grand Lodge," the "Great +Priory of Knights Templars" or the "Ancient and Accepted Rite," these +being mutually complementary and intimately connected as respects +England, and more or less so in Ireland, Scotland, North America and +wherever worked on a similar basis; the countries of the continent of +Europe have also their own _Hautes Grades_. (W. J. H.*). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] + + If history be no ancient Fable + Free Masons came from Tower of Babel. + + ("The Freemasons; an Hudibrastic poem," London, 1723.) + + [2] _The Early History and Antiquities of Freemasonry and Medieval + Builders_, by Mr G. F. Fort (U.S.A.), and the _Cathedral Builders: + The Magestri Comacini_, by "Leader Scott" (the late Mrs Baxter), take + rather a different view on this point and ably present their + arguments. The Rev. C. Kingsley in _Roman and Teuton_ writes of the + _Comacini_, "Perhaps the original germ of the great society of + Freemasons." + + [3] The service rendered by Dr W. Begemann (Germany) in his "Attempt + to Classify the Old Charges of the British Masons" (vol. 1 Trans. of + the _Quatuor Coronati_ Lodge, London) has been very great, and the + researches of the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford and G. W. Speth have also + been of the utmost consequence. + + [4] Findel claims that his _Treatise_ on the society was the cause + which "first impelled England to the study of masonic history and + ushered in the intellectual movement which resulted in the writings + of Bros. Hughan, Lyon, Gould and others." Great credit was due to the + late German author for his important work, but before its advent the + Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, D. Murray Lyon and others in Great Britain + were diligent masonic students on similar lines. + + [5] It is not considered necessary to refer at length to the _Fratres + Pontis_, or other imaginary bodies of freemasons, as such questions + may well be left to the curious and interested student. + + [6] "No distinct trace of the general employment of large migratory + bands of masons, going from place to place as a guild, or company, or + brotherhood" (Prof. T. Hayter-Lewis, Brit. Arch. Assoc., 1889). + + [7] The Associate Synod which met at Edinburgh, March 1755, just a + century later, took quite an opposite view, deciding to depose from + office any of their brethren who would not give up their masonic + membership (_Scots Mag._, 1755, p. 158). Papal Bulls have also been + issued against the craft, the first being in 1738; but neither + interdicts nor anathemata have any influence with the fraternity, and + fall quite harmless. + + [8] + + "We have the _Mason Word_ and second sight, + Things for to come we can fortell aright." + + (_The Muses Threnodie_, by H. Adamson, Edin., 1638.) + + [9] The _Chetwode Crawley MS._, by W. J. Hughan (_Ars._ Q.C., 1904). + + [10] The _York Grand Lodge_, by Messrs. Hughan and Whytehead (Ars + Q.C., 1900), and _Masonic Sketches and Reprints_ (1871), by the + former. + + [11] The celebrated "Lady Freemason," the Hon. Mrs Aldworth (_nee_ + Miss St Leger, daughter of Lord Doneraile), was initiated in Ireland, + but at a much earlier date than popularly supposed; certainly not + later than 1713, when the venturesome lady was twenty. All early + accounts of the occurrence must be received with caution, as there + are no contemporary records of the event. + + [12] _History of Freemasonry_, by Dr A. G. Mackey (New York, 1898), + and the _History_ of the Fraternity Publishing Company, Boston, + Mass., give very full particulars as to the United States. + + [13] See _History of Freemasonry in Canada_ (Toronto, 1899), by J. + Ross Robertson. + + [14] _The Masonic Records 1717-1894_, by John Lane, and the excellent + _Masonic Yearbook_, published annually by the Grand Lodge of England, + are the two standard works on Lodge enumeration, localization and + nomenclature. For particulars of the Grand Lodges, and especially + that of England, Gould's History is most useful and trustworthy; and + for an original contribution to the history of the rival Grand Lodge + or Atholl Masons, Sadler's _Masonic Facts and Fictions_. + + [15] "A peculiar system of Morality, veiled in Allegory and + illustrated by Symbols" (old definition of Freemasonry). + + [16] The British House of Commons in 1799 and 1817, in acts of + parliament, specifically recognized the laudable character of the + society and provided for its continuance on definite lines. + + + + +FREEPORT, a city and the county-seat of Stephenson county, Illinois, in +the N.W. part of the state, on the Pecatonica river, 30 m. from its +mouth and about 100 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,189; (1900) +13,258, of whom 2264 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,567. The city +is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St +Paul, and the Illinois Central railways, and by the Rockford & +Interurban electric railway. The Illinois Central connects at South +Freeport, about 3 m. S. of Freeport, with the Chicago Great Western +railway. Among Freeport's manufactures are foundry and machine shop +products, carriages, hardware specialties, patent medicines, windmills, +engines, incubators, organs, beer and shoes. The Illinois Central has +large railway repair shops here. The total value of the city's factory +product in 1905 was $3,109,302, an increase of 14.8% since 1900. In the +surrounding country cereals are grown, and swine and poultry are raised. +Dairying is an important industry also. The city has a Carnegie library +(1901). In the Court House Square is a monument, 80 ft. high, in memory +of the soldiers who died in the Civil War. At the corner of Douglas +Avenue and Mechanic Street a granite boulder commemorates the famous +debate between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, held in Freeport +on the 27th of August 1858. In that debate Lincoln emphasized the +differences between himself and the radical anti-slavery men, and in +answer to one of Lincoln's questions Douglas declared that the people of +a territory, through "unfriendly" laws or denial of legislative +protection, could exclude slavery, and that "it matters not what way the +Supreme Court may hereafter decide on the abstract question whether +slavery may or may not go into a territory under the Constitution." +This, the so-called "Freeport doctrine," greatly weakened Douglas in the +presidential election of 1860. Freeport was settled in 1835, was laid +out and named Winneshiek in 1836, and in 1837 under its present name was +made the county-seat of Stephenson county. It was incorporated as a town +in 1850 and chartered as a city in 1855. + + + + +FREE PORTS, a term, strictly speaking, given to localities where no +customs duties are levied, and where no customs supervision exists. In +these ports (subject to payment for specific services rendered, +wharfage, storage, &c., and to the observance of local police and +sanitary regulations) ships load and unload, cargoes are deposited and +handled, industries are exercised, manufactures are carried on, goods +are bought and sold, without any action on the part of fiscal +authorities. Ports are likewise designated "free" where a space or zone +exists within which commercial operations are conducted without payment +of import or export duty, and without active interference on the part of +customs authorities. The French and German designations for these two +descriptions of ports are--for the former _La Ville franche, Freihafen_; +for the latter _Le Port franc, Freibezirk_ or _Freilager_. The English +phrase free port applies to both.[1] The leading conditions under which +free ports in Europe derived their origin were as follows:--(1) When +public order became re-established during the middle ages, trading +centres were gradually formed. Marts for the exchange and purchase of +goods arose in different localities. Many Italian settlements, +constituting free zones, were established in the Levant. The Hanseatic +towns arose in the 12th century. Great fairs became recognized--the +Leipzig charter was granted in 1268. These localities were free as +regards customs duties, although dues of the nature of octroi charges +were often levied. (2) Until the 19th century European states were +numerous, and often of small size. Accordingly uniform customs tariffs +of wide application did not exist. Uniform rates of duty were fixed In +England by the Subsidy Act of 1660. In France, before the Revolution +(besides the free ports), Alsace and the Lorraine Bishoprics were in +trade matters treated as foreign countries. The unification of the +German customs tariff began in 1834 with the Steuerverein and the +Zollverein. The Spanish fiscal system did not include the Basque +provinces until about 1850. The uniform Italian tariff dates from 1861. +Thus until very recent times on the Continent free ports were compatible +with the fiscal policy and practice of different countries. (3) Along +the Mediterranean coast, up to the 19th century, convenient shelter was +needed from corsairs. In other continental countries the prevalent +colonial and mercantile policy sought to create trans-oceanic trade. +Free ports were advantageous from all these points of view. + + In following the history of these harbours in Europe, it is to be + observed that in Great Britain free ports have never existed. In 1552 + it was contemplated to place Hull and Southampton on this footing, but + the design was abandoned. Subsequently the bonding and not the free + port system was adopted in the United Kingdom. + + _Austria-Hungary._--Fiume and Trieste were respectively free ports + during the periods 1722-1893 and 1719-1893. + + _Belgium._--The emperor Joseph II. during his visit to the Austrian + Netherlands in June 1781 endeavoured to create a direct trade between + that country and India. Ostend was made a free port, and large bonding + facilities were afforded at Bruges, Brussels, Ghent and Louvain. In + 1796, however, the revolutionary government abolished the Ostend + privileges. + + _Denmark._--In November 1894 an area of about 150 acres at Copenhagen + was opened as a free port, and great facilities are afforded for + shipping and commercial operations in order that the Baltic trade may + centre there. + + _France._--Marseilles was a free port in the middle ages, and so was + Dunkirk when it formed part of Flanders. In 1669 these privileges were + confirmed, and extended to Bayonne. In 1784 there was a fresh + confirmation, and Lorient and St Jean de Luz were included in the + _ordonnance_. The National Assembly in 1790 maintained this policy, + and created free ports in the French West Indies. In 1795, however, + all such privileges were abolished, but large bonding facilities were + allowed at Marseilles to favour the Levant trade. The government of + Louis XVIII. in 1814 restored, and in 1871 again revoked, the free + port privileges of Marseilles. There are now no free ports in France + or in French possessions; the bonding system is in force. + + _Germany._--Bremen, Hamburg and Luebeck were reconstituted free towns + and ports under the treaties of 1814-1815. Certain minor ports, and + several landing-stages on the Rhine and the Neckar, were also + designated free. As the Zollverein policy became accepted throughout + Germany, previous privileges were gradually lessened, and since 1888 + only Hamburg remains a free port. There an area of about 2500 acres is + exempt from customs duties and control, and is largely used for + shipping and commercial purposes. Bremerhaven has a similar area of + nearly 700 acres. Brake, Bremen, Cuxhaven, Emden, Geestemuende, + Neufahrwasser and Stettin possess Freibezirke areas, portions of the + larger port. Heligoland is outside the Zollverein--practically a + foreign country. + + In _Italy_ free ports were numerous and important, and possessed + privileges which varied at different dates. They were--Ancona, during + the period 1696-1868; Brindisi, 1845-1862; Leghorn (in the 17th and + 18th centuries a very important Mediterranean harbour), 1675-1867; + Messina, 1695-1879; Senigallia, 1821-1868, during the month of the + local fair. Venice possessed warehouses, equivalent to bonded stores, + for German and Turkish trade during the Republic, and was a free port + 1851-1873. Genoa was a free port in the time of the Republic and under + the French Empire, and was continued as such by the treaties of + 1814-1815. The free port was, however, changed into a "deposito + franco" by a law passed in 1865, and only storing privileges now + remain. + + _Rumania._--Braila, Galatz and Kustenji were free ports (for a period + of about forty years) up to 1883, when bonded warehouses were + established by the Rumanian government. Sulina remains free. + + _Russia._--Archangel was a free port, at least for English goods, from + 1553 to 1648. During this period English products were admitted into + Russia via Archangel without any customs payment for internal + consumption, and also in transit to Persia. The tsar Alexis revoked + this grant on the execution of Charles I. Free ports were opened in + 1895 at Kola, in Russian Lapland. Dalny, adjoining Port Arthur, was a + free port during the Russian occupation; and Japan after the war + decided to renew this privilege as soon as practicable. + + The number of free ports outside Europe has also lessened. The + administrative policy of European countries has been gradually adopted + in other parts of the world, and customs duties have become almost + universal, conjoined with bonding and transhipment facilities. In + British colonies and possessions, under an act of parliament passed in + 1766, and repealed in 1867, two ports in Dominica and four in Jamaica + were free, Malacca, Penang and Singapore have been free ports since + 1824, Hong-Kong since 1842, and Weihaiwei since it was leased to Great + Britain in 1898. Zanzibar was a free port during 1892-1899. Aden, + Gibraltar, St Helena and St Thomas (West Indies) are sometimes + designated free ports. A few duties are, however, levied, which are + really octroi rather than customs charges. These places are mainly + stations for coaling and awaiting orders. + + Some harbours in the Netherlands East Indies were free ports between + 1829 and 1899; but these privileges were withdrawn by laws passed in + 1898-1899, in order to establish uniformity of customs administration. + Harbours where custom houses are not maintained will be practically + closed to foreign trade, though the governor-general may in special + circumstances vary the application of the new regulations. + + Macao has been a free port since 1845. Portugal has no other harbour + of this character. + + The American Republics have adopted the bonding system. In 1896 a free + wharf was opened at New Orleans in imitation of the recent European + plan. Livingstone (Guatemala) was a free port during the period + 1882-1888. + +The privileges enjoyed under the old free port system benefited the +towns and districts where they existed; and their abolition has been, +locally, injurious. These places were, however, "foreign" to their own +country, and their inland intercourse was restricted by the duties +levied on their products, and by the precautions adopted to prevent +evasion of these charges. With fiscal usages involving preferential and +deferential treatment of goods and places, the drawbacks thus arising +did not attract serious attention. Under the limited means of +communication within and beyond the country, in former times, these +conveniences were not much felt. But when finance departments became +more completely organized, the free port system fell out of favour with +fiscal authorities: it afforded opportunities for smuggling, and impeded +uniformity of action and practice. It became, in fact, out of harmony +with the administrative and financial policy of later times. Bonding and +entrepot facilities, on a scale commensurate with local needs, now +satisfy trade requirements. In countries where high customs duties are +levied, and where fiscal regulations are minute and rigid, if an +extension of foreign trade is desired, and the competition which it +involves is a national aim, special facilities must be granted for this +purpose. In these circumstances a free zone sufficiently large to admit +of commercial operations and transhipments on a scale which will fulfil +these conditions (watched but not interfered with by the customs) +becomes indispensable. The German government have, as we have seen, +maintained a free zone of this nature at Hamburg. And when the free port +at Copenhagen was opened, counter measures were adopted at Danzig and +Stettin. An agitation has arisen in France to provide at certain ports +free zones similar to those at Copenhagen and Hamburg, and to open free +ports in French possessions. A bill to this effect was submitted to the +chamber of deputies on the 12th of April 1905. Colonial free ports, such +as Hong-Kong and Singapore, do not interfere with the uniformity of the +home customs and excise policy. These two harbours in particular have +become great shipping resorts and distributing centres. The policy which +led to their establishment as free ports has certainly promoted British +commercial interests. + + See the Parliamentary Paper on "Continental Free Ports," 1904. + (C. M. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In China at the present time (1902) certain ports are designated + "free and open." This phrase means that the ports in question are (1) + open to foreign trade, and (2) that vessels engaged in oversea + voyages may freely resort there. Exemption from payment of customs + duties is not implied, which is a matter distinct from the permission + granted under treaty engagements to foreign vessels to carry cargoes + to and from the "treaty ports." + + + + +FREE REED VIBRATOR (Fr. _anche libre_, Ger. _durchschlagende Zunge_, +Ital. _ancia_ or _lingua libera_), in musical instruments, a thin metal +tongue fixed at one end and vibrating freely either in surrounding +space, as in the accordion and concertina, or enclosed in a pipe or +channel, as in certain reed stops of the organ or in the harmonium. The +enclosed reed, in its typical and theoretical form, is fixed over an +aperture of the same shape but just large enough to allow it to swing +freely backwards and forwards, alternately opening and closing the +aperture, when driven by a current of compressed air. We have to deal +with air under three different conditions in considering the phenomenon +of the sound produced by free reeds. (1) The stationary column or +stratum in pipe or channel containing the reed, which is normally at +rest. (2) The wind or current of air fed from the bellows with a +variable velocity and pressure, which is broken up into periodic air +puffs as its entrance into pipe or channel is alternately checked or +allowed by the vibrator. (3) The disturbed condition of No. 1 when acted +upon by the metal vibrator and by No 2, whereby the air within the pipe +is forced into alternate pulses of condensation and rarefaction. The +free reed is therefore not the tone-producer but only the exciting +agent, that is to say, the sound is not produced by the communication of +the free reed's vibrations to the surrounding air,[1] as in the case of +a vibrating string, but by the series of air puffs punctuated by +infinitesimal pauses, which it produces by alternately opening and +almost closing the aperture.[2] A musical sound is thus produced the +pitch of which depends on the length and thickness of the metal tongue; +the greater the length, the slower the vibrations and the lower the +pitch, while on the contrary, the thicker the reed near the shoulder at +the fixed end, the higher the pitch. It must be borne in mind that the +periodic vibrations of the reed determine the pitch of the sound solely +by the frequency per second they impose upon the pulses of rarefaction +and condensation within the pipe. + +[Illustration: From J. B. Biot, _Traite de physique experimentale_. + +FIG. 1.--Grenie's organ pipe fitted with free-reed vibrator. + + A, Tuning wire. + D, Free reed. + R, Reed-box. + B, C, Feed pipe with conical foot. + T, Part of resonating pipe, the upper end with cap and vent hole being shown + separately at the side.] + +The most valuable characteristic of the free reed is its power of +producing all the delicate gradations of tone between forte and piano by +virtue of a law of acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds, +whereby increased pressure of wind produces a proportional increase in +the volume of tone. The pitch of any sound depends upon the frequency of +the sound-waves, that is, the number per second which reach the ear; the +fullness of sound depends upon the amplitude of the waves, or, more +strictly speaking, of the swing of the transmitting particles of the +medium--greater pressure in the air current (No. 2 above) which sets the +vibrator in motion producing amplitude of vibration in the air within +the receptacle (No. 3 above) serving as resonating medium. The sound +produced by the free reed itself is weak and requires to be reinforced +by means of an additional stationary column or stratum of air. Free reed +instruments are therefore classified according to the nature of the +resonant medium provided:--(1) Free reeds vibrating in pipes, such as +the reed stops of church organs on the continent of Europe (in England +the reed pipes are generally provided with beating reeds, see REED +INSTRUMENTS and CLARINET). (2) Free reeds vibrating in reed compartments +and reinforced by air chambers of various shapes and sizes as in the +harmonium (q.v.). (3) Instruments like the accordion and concertina +having the free reed set in vibration through a valve, but having no +reinforcing medium. + +The arrangement of the free reed in an organ pipe is simple, and does +not differ greatly from that of the beating reed shown in fig. 2 for the +purpose of comparison. The reed-box, a rectangular wooden pipe, is +closed at the bottom and covered on one face with a thin plate of copper +having a rectangular slit over which is fixed the thin metal vibrating +tongue or reed as described above. The reed-box, itself open at the top, +is enclosed in a feed pipe having a conical foot pierced with a small +hole through which the air current is forced by the action of the +bellows. The impact of the incoming compressed air against the reed +tongue sets it swinging through the slit, thus causing a disturbance or +series of pulsations within the reed-box. The air then finds an escape +through the resonating medium of a pipe fitting over the reed-box and +terminating in an inverted cone covered with a cap in the top of which +is pierced a small hole or vent. The quality of tone of free reeds is +due to the tendency of air set in periodic pulsations to divide into +aliquot vibrations or loops, producing the phenomenon known as harmonic +overtones or upper partials, which may, in the highly composite clang of +free reeds, be discerned as far as the 16th or 20th of the series. The +more intermittent and interrupted the air current becomes, the greater +the number of the upper partials produced.[3] The power of the overtones +and their relation to the fundamental note depend greatly upon the form +of the tongue, its position and the amount of the clearance left as it +swings through the aperture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Organ pipe fitted with beating reed. + + AL, Beating reed. + R, Reed box. + Ff, Tuning wire. + TV, Feed pipe. + VV, Conical foot. + S, Hole through which compressed air is fed.] + +Free reeds not associated with resonating media as in the concertina are +peculiarly rich in harmonics, but as the higher harmonics lie very close +together, disagreeable dissonances and a harsh tone result. The +resonating pipe or chamber when suitably accommodated to the reed +greatly modifies the tone by reinforcing the harmonics proper to itself, +the others sinking into comparative insignificance. In order to produce +a full rich tone, a resonator should be chosen whose deepest note +coincides with the fundamental tone of the reed. The other upper +partials will also be reinforced thereby, but to a less degree the +higher the harmonics.[4] + + For the history of the application of the free reed to keyboard + instruments see HARMONIUM. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See H. Helmholtz, _Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen_ (Brunswick, + 1877), p. 166. + + [2] See also Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, _Wellenlehre_ + (Leipzig, 1825), where a particularly lucid explanation of the + phenomenon is given, pp. 526-530. + + [3] See Helmholtz, _op. cit._ p. 167. + + [4] These phenomena are clearly explained at greater length by Sedley + Taylor in _Sound and Music_ (London, 1896), pp. 134-153 and pp. + 74-86. See also Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und die musikalischen + Instrumente_, &c. (Giessen, 1855), p. 261. + + + + +FREESIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Iris family +(Iridaceae), and containing a single species, _F. refracta_, native at +the Cape of Good Hope. The plants grow from a corm (a solid bulb, as in +_Gladiolus_) which sends up a tuft of long narrow leaves and a slightly +branched stem bearing a few leaves and loose one-sided spikes of +fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped flowers. Several varieties are known in +cultivation, differing in the colour of the flower, which is white, +cream or yellow. They form pretty greenhouse plants which are readily +increased from seed. They are extensively grown for the market in +Guernsey, England and America. By potting successively throughout the +autumn a supply of flowers is obtained through winter and spring. Some +very fine large-flowered varieties, including rose-coloured ones, are +now being raised by various growers in England, and are a great +improvement on the older forms. + + + + +FREE SOIL PARTY, a political party in the United States, which was +organized in 1847-1848 to oppose the extension of slavery into the +Territories. It was a combination of the political abolitionists--many +of whom had formerly been identified with the more radical Liberty +party--the anti-slavery Whigs, and the faction of the Democratic party +in the state of New York, called "Barnburners," who favoured the +prohibition of slavery, in accordance with the "Wilmot Proviso" (see +WILMOT, DAVID), in the territory acquired from Mexico. The party was +prominent in the presidential campaigns of 1848 and 1852. At the +national convention held in Buffalo, N.Y., on the 9th and 10th of August +1848, they secured the nomination to the presidency of ex-President +Martin Van Buren, who had failed to secure nomination by the Democrats +in 1844 because of his opposition to the annexation of Texas, and of +Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts, for the vice-presidency, taking +as their "platform" a Declaration that Congress, having "no more power +to make a slave than to make a king," was bound to restrict slavery to +the slave states, and concluding, "we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, +Free Speech, Free Labor and Free Man,' and under it we will fight on and +fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions." The +Liberty party had previously, in November 1847, nominated John P. Hale +and Leicester King as president and vice-president respectively, but in +the spring of 1848 it withdrew its candidates and joined the "free soil" +movement. Representatives of eighteen states, including Delaware, +Maryland and Virginia, attended the Buffalo convention. In the ensuing +presidential election Van Buren and Adams received a popular vote of +291,263, of which 120,510 were cast in New York. They received no +electoral votes, all these being divided between the Whig candidate, +Zachary Taylor, who was elected, and the Democratic candidate, Lewis +Cass. The "free soilers," however, succeeded in sending to the +thirty-first Congress two senators and fourteen representatives, who by +their ability exercised an influence out of proportion to their number. + +Between 1848 and 1852 the "Barnburners" and the "Hunkers," their +opponents, became partially reunited, the former returning to the +Democratic ranks, and thus greatly weakening the Free Soilers. The party +held its national convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 11th of +August 1852, delegates being present from all the free states, and from +Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and Kentucky; and John P. Hale, of New +Hampshire, and George W. Julian of Indiana, were nominated for the +presidency and the vice-presidency respectively, on a platform which +declared slavery "a sin against God and a crime against man," denounced +the Compromise Measures of 1850, the fugitive slave law in particular, +and again opposed the extension of slavery in the Territories. These +candidates, however, received no electoral votes and a popular vote of +only 156,149, of which but 25,329 were polled in New York. By 1856 they +abandoned their separate organization and joined the movement which +resulted in the formation of the powerful Republican party (q.v.), of +which the Free Soil party was the legitimate precursor. + + + + +FREE-STONE (a translation of the O. Fr. _franche pere_ or _pierre_, i.e. +stone of good quality; the modern French equivalent is _pierre de +taille_, and Ital. _pietra molle_), stone used in architecture for +mouldings, tracery and other work required to be worked with the chisel. +The oolitic stones are generally so called, although in some countries +soft sandstones are used; in some churches an indurated chalk called +"clunch" is employed for internal lining and for carving. + + + + +FREETOWN, capital of the British colony of Sierra Leone, West Africa, on +the south side of the Sierra Leone estuary, about 5 m. from the cape of +that name, in 8 deg. 29' N., 13 deg. 10' W. Pop. (1901) 34,463. About 500 of the +inhabitants are Europeans. Freetown is picturesquely situated on a +plain, closed in behind by a succession of wooded hills, the Sierra +Leone, rising to a height of 1700 ft. As nearly every house is +surrounded by a courtyard or garden, the town covers an unusually large +area for the number of its inhabitants. It possesses few buildings of +architectural merit. The principal are the governor's residence and +government offices, the barracks, the cathedral, the missionary +institutions, the fruit market, Wilberforce Hall, courts of justice, the +railway station and the grammar school. Several of these institutions +are built on the slopes of the hills, and on the highest point, Sugar +Loaf Mountain, is a sanatorium. The botanic gardens form a pleasant and +favourite place of resort. The roads are wide but badly kept. Horses do +not live, and all wheeled traffic is done by manual labour--hammocks and +sedan-chairs are the customary means of locomotion. Notwithstanding that +Freetown possesses an abundant and pure water-supply, drawn from the +adjacent hills, it is enervating and unhealthy, and it was particularly +to the capital, often spoken of as Sierra Leone, that the designation +"White Man's Grave" applied. Since the beginning of the 20th century +strenuous efforts have been made to improve the sanitary condition by a +new system of drainage, a better water service, the filling up of +marshes wherein the malarial mosquito breeds, and in other directions. A +light railway 6 m. long, opened in 1904, has been built to Hill Station +(900 ft. high), where, on a healthy site, are the residences of the +government officials and of other Europeans. As a consequence the public +health has improved, the highest death-rate in the years 1901-1907 being +29.6 per 1000. The town is governed by a municipality (created in 1893) +with a mayor and councillors, the large majority being elective. +Freetown was the first place in British West Africa granted local +self-government. + +Both commercially and strategically Freetown is a place of importance. +Its harbour affords ample accommodation for the largest fleets, it is a +coaling station for the British navy, the headquarters of the British +military forces in West Africa, the sea terminus of the railway to the +rich oil-palm regions of Mendiland, and a port of call for all steamers +serving West Africa. Its inhabitants are noted for their skill as +traders; the town itself produces nothing in the way of exports. + +In consequence of the character of the original settlement (see SIERRA +LEONE), 75% of the inhabitants are descended from non-indigenous Negro +races. As many as 150 different tribes are represented in the Sierra +Leonis of to-day. Their semi-Europeanization is largely the result of +missionary endeavour. The only language of the lower class is +pidgin-English--quite incomprehensible to the newcomer from Great +Britain,--but a large proportion of the inhabitants are highly educated +men who excel as lawyers, clergymen, clerks and traders. Many members of +the upper, that is, the best-educated, class have filled official +positions of great responsibility. The most noted citizens are Bishop +Crowther and Sir Samuel Lewis, chief justice of Sierra Leone 1882-1894. +Both were full-blooded Africans. The Kru-men form a distinct section of +the community, living in a separate quarter and preserving their tribal +customs. + +Since 1861-1862 there has been an independent Episcopal Native Church; +but the Church Missionary Society, which in 1804 sent out the first +missionaries to Sierra Leone, still maintains various agencies. Furah +Bay College, built by the society on the site of General Charles +Turner's estate (11/2 m. E. of Freetown), and opened in 1828 with six +pupils, one of whom was Bishop Crowther, was affiliated in 1876 to +Durham University and has a high-class curriculum. The Wesleyans have a +high school, a theological college, and other educative agencies. The +Moslems, who are among the most law-abiding and intelligent citizens of +Freetown, have several state-aided primary schools. + + + + +FREE TRADE, an expression which has now come to be appropriated to the +economic policy of encouraging the greatest possible commercial +intercourse, unrestricted by "protective" duties (see PROTECTION), +between any one country and its neighbours. This policy was originally +advocated in France, and it has had its adherents in many countries, but +Great Britain stands alone among the great commercial nations of the +world in having adopted it systematically from 1846 onwards as the +fundamental principle of her economic policy. + +In the economic literature of earlier periods, it may be noted that the +term "free trade" is employed in senses which have no relation to modern +usage. The term conveyed no suggestion of unrestricted trade or national +liberty when it first appeared in controversial pamphlets;[1] it stood +for a freedom conferred and maintained by authority--like that of a free +town. The merchants desired to have good regulations for trade so that +they might be free from the disabilities imposed upon them by foreign +princes or unscrupulous fellow-subjects. After 1640 the term seems to +have been commonly current in a different sense. When the practice which +had been handed down from the middle ages--of organizing the trade with +particular countries by means of privileged companies, which professed +to regulate the trade according to the state of the market so as to +secure its steady development in the interest of producers and +traders--was seriously called in question under the Stuarts and at the +Revolution, the interlopers and opponents of the companies insisted on +the advantages of a "Free Trade"; they meant by this that the various +branches of commerce should not be confined to particular persons or +limited in amount, but should be thrown open to be pursued by any +Englishman in the way he thought most profitable himself.[2] Again, in +the latter half of the 18th century, till Pitt's financial reforms[3] +were brought into operation, the English customs duties on wine and +brandy were excessive; and those who carried on a remunerative business +by evading these duties were known as Fair Traders or Free Traders.[4] +Since 1846 the term free trade has been popularly used, in England, to +designate the policy of Cobden (q.v.) and others who advocated the +abolition of the tax on imported corn (see CORN LAWS); this is the only +one of the specialized senses of the term which is at all likely to be +confused with the economic doctrine. The Anti-Corn Law movement was, as +a matter of fact, a special application of the economic principle; but +serious mistakes have arisen from the blunder of confusing the part with +the whole, and treating the remission of one particular duty as if it +were the essential element of a policy in which it was only an incident. +W. E. Gladstone, in discussing the effect of improvements in locomotion +on British trade, showed what a large proportion of the stimulus to +commerce during the 19th century was to be credited to what he called +the "liberalizing legislation" of the free-trade movement in the wide +sense in which he used the term. "I rank the introduction of cheap +postage for letters, documents, patterns and printed matter, and the +abolition of all taxes on printed matter, in the category of Free Trade +Legislation. Not only thought in general, but every communication, and +every publication, relating to matters of business, was thus set free. +These great measures, then, may well take their place beside the +abolition of prohibitions and protective duties, the simplifying of +revenue laws, and the repeal of the Navigation Act, as forming together +the great code of industrial emancipation. Under this code, our race, +restored to freedom in mind and hand, and braced by the powerful +stimulus of open competition with the world, has upon the whole +surpassed itself and every other, and has won for itself a commercial +primacy more evident, more comprehensive, and more solid than it had at +any previous time possessed."[5] In this large sense free trade may be +almost interpreted as the combination of the doctrines of the division +of labour and of _laissez-faire_ in regard to the world as a whole. The +division of labour between different countries of the world--so that +each concentrates its energies in supplying that for the production of +which it is best fitted--appears to offer the greatest possibility of +production; but this result cannot be secured unless trade and industry +are treated as the primary elements in the welfare of each community, +and political considerations are not allowed to hamper them. + +Stated in its simplest form, the principle which underlies the doctrine +of free trade is almost a truism; it is directly deducible from the very +notion of exchange (q.v.). Adam Smith and his successors have +demonstrated that in every case of voluntary exchange each party gains +something that is of greater value-in-use to him than that with which he +parts, and that consequently in every exchange, either between +individuals or between nations, both parties are the gainers. Hence it +necessarily follows that, since both parties gain through exchanging, +the more facilities there are for exchange the greater will be the +advantage to every individual all round.[6] There is no difficulty in +translating this principle into the terms of actual life, and stating +the conditions in which it holds good absolutely. If, at any given +moment, the mass of goods in the world were distributed among the +consumers with the minimum of restriction on interchange, each +competitor would obtain the largest possible share of the things he +procures in the world's market. But the argument is less conclusive when +the element of time is taken into account; what is true of each moment +separately is not necessarily true of any period in which the conditions +of production, or the requirements of communities, may possibly change. +Each individual is likely to act with reference to his own future, but +it may often be wise for the statesman to look far ahead, beyond the +existing generation.[7] Owing to the neglect of this element of time, +and the allowance which must be made for it, the reasoning as to the +advantages of free trade, which is perfectly sound in regard to the +distribution of goods already in existence, may become sophistical,[8] +if it is put forward as affording a complete demonstration of the +benefits of free trade as a regular policy. After all, human society is +very complex, and any attempt to deal with its problems off-hand by +appealing to a simple principle raises the suspicion that some important +factor may have been left out of account. When there is such mistaken +simplification, the reasoning may seem to have complete certainty, and +yet it fails to produce conviction, because it does not profess to deal +with the problem in all its aspects. When we concentrate attention on +the phenomena of exchange, we are viewing society as a mechanism in +which each acts under known laws and is impelled by one particular +force--that of self-interest; now, society is, no doubt, in this sense a +mechanism, but it is also an organism,[9] and it is only for very short +periods, and in a very limited way, that we can venture to neglect its +organic character without running the risk of falling into serious +mistakes. + +The doctrine of free trade maintains that in order to secure the +greatest possible mass of goods in the world as a whole, and the +greatest possibility of immediate comfort for the consumer, it is +expedient that there should be no restriction on the exchange of goods +and services either between individuals or communities. The +controversies in regard to this doctrine have not turned on its +certainty as a hypothetical principle, but on the legitimacy of the +arguments based upon it. It certainly supplies a principle in the light +of which all proposed trade regulations should be criticized. It gives +us a basis for examining and estimating the expense at which any +particular piece of trade restriction is carried out; but thus used, the +principle does not necessarily condemn the expenditure; the game may be +worth the candle or it may not, but at least it is well that we should +know how fast the candle is being burnt. It was in this critical spirit +that Adam Smith examined the various restrictions and encouragements to +trade which were in vogue in his day; he proved of each in turn that it +was expensive, but he showed that he was conscious that the final +decision could not be taken from this standpoint, since he recognized in +regard to the Navigation Acts that "defence is more than opulence."[10] +In more recent times, the same sort of attitude was taken by Henry +Sidgwick,[11] who criticizes various protective expedients in turn, in +the light of free trade, but does not treat it as conveying an +authoritative decision on their merits. + +But other exponents of the doctrine have not been content to employ it +in this fashion. They urge it in a more positive manner, and insist that +free trade pure and simple is _the_ foundation on which the economic +life of the community ought to be based. By men who advocate it in this +way, free trade is set forward as an ideal which it is a duty to +realize, and those who hold aloof from it or oppose it have been held up +to scorn as if they were almost guilty of a crime.[12] The development +of the material resources of the world is undoubtedly an important +element in the welfare of mankind; it is an aim which is common to the +whole race, and may be looked upon as contributing to the greatest +happiness of the greatest number. Competition in the open market seems +to secure that each consumer shall obtain the best possible terms; and +again, since all men are consumers whether they produce or not, or +whatever they produce, the greatest measure of comforts for each seems +likely to be attainable on these lines. For those who are frankly +cosmopolitan, and who regard material prosperity as at all events the +prime object at which public policy should aim, the free-trade doctrine +is readily transformed, from a mere principle of criticism, till it +comes to be regarded as the harbinger of a possible Utopia. It was in +this fashion that it was put forward by French economists and proved +attractive to some leading American statesmen in the 18th century. +Turgot regarded the colonial systems of the European countries as at +once unfair to their dependencies and dangerous to the peace of the +world. "It will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which shall be +the first to modify its policy according to the new conditions, and be +content to regard its colonies as if they were allied provinces and not +subjects of the mother country." It will be a wise and happy thing for +the nation which is the first to be convinced that the secret of +"success, so far as commercial policy is concerned, consists in +employing all its land in the manner most profitable for the +proprietary, all the hands in the manner most advantageous to the +workman personally, that is to say, in the manner in which each would +employ them, if we could let him be simply directed by his own interest, +and that all the rest of the mercantile policy is vanity and vexation of +spirit. When the entire separation of America shall have forced the +whole world to recognize this truth and purged the European nations of +commercial jealousy there will be one great cause of war less in the +world."[13] Pitt, under the influence of Adam Smith, was prepared to +admit the United States to the benefit of trade with the West Indian +Colonies; and Jefferson, accepting the principles of his French +teachers, would (in contradistinction to Alexander Hamilton) have been +willing to see his country renounce the attempt to develop manufactures +of her own.[14] It seemed as if a long step might be taken towards +realizing the free-trade ideal for the Anglo-Saxon race; but British +shipowners insisted on the retention of their privileges, and the +propitious moment passed away with the failure of the negotiations of +1783.[15] Free trade ceased to be regarded as a gospel, even in France, +till the ideal was revived in the writings of Bastiat, and helped to +mould the enthusiasm of Richard Cobden.[16] Through his zealous +advocacy, the doctrine secured converts in almost every part of the +world; though it was only in Great Britain that a great majority of the +citizens became so far satisfied with it that they adopted it as the +foundation of the economic policy of the country. + +It is not difficult to account for the conversion of Great Britain to +this doctrine; in the special circumstances of the first half of the +19th century it was to the interest of the most vigorous factors in the +economic life of the country to secure the greatest possible freedom for +commercial intercourse. Great Britain had, through her shipping, access +to all the markets of the world; she had obtained such a lead in the +application of machinery to manufactures that she had a practical +monopoly in textile manufactures and in the hardware trades; by removing +every restriction, she could push her advantage to its farthest extent, +and not only undersell native manufactures in other lands, but secure +food, and the raw materials for her manufactures, on the cheapest +possible terms. Free trade thus seemed to offer the means of placing an +increasing distance between Britain and her rivals, and of rendering the +industrial monopoly which she had attained impregnable. The capitalist +employer had superseded the landowner as the mainstay of the resources +and revenue of the realm, and insisted that the prosperity of +manufactures was the primary interest of the community as a whole. The +expectation, that a thoroughgoing policy of free trade would not only +favour an increase of employment, but also the cheapening of food, could +only have been roused in a country which was obliged to import a +considerable amount of corn. The exceptional weakness, as well as the +exceptional strength, of Great Britain, among European countries, made +it seem desirable to adopt the principle of unrestricted commercial +intercourse, not merely in the tentative fashion in which it had been +put in operation by Huskisson, but in the thoroughgoing fashion in which +it at last commended itself to the minds of Peel and Gladstone. The +"Manchester men" saw clearly where their interest lay; and the +fashionable political economy was ready to demonstrate that in pursuing +their own interest they were conferring the benefit of cheap clothing on +all the most poverty-stricken races of mankind. It seemed probable, in +the 'forties and early 'fifties, that other countries would take a +similar view of their own interests and would follow the example which +Great Britain had set.[17] That they have not done so, is partly due to +the fact that none of them had such a direct, or such a widely diffused, +interest in increased commercial intercourse as existed in Great +Britain; but their reluctance has been partly the result of the +criticism to which the free-trade doctrine has been subjected. The +principles expressed in the writings of Friedrich List have taken such +firm hold, both in America and in Germany, that these countries have +preferred to follow on the lines by which Great Britain successfully +built up her industrial prosperity in the 17th and 18th century, rather +than on those by which they have seen her striving to maintain it since +1846. + +Free trade was attractive as an ideal, because it appeared to offer the +greatest production of goods to the world as a whole, and the largest +share of material goods to each consumer; it is cosmopolitan, and it +treats consumption, and the interest of the consumer, as such, as the +end to be considered. Hence it lies open to objections which are partly +political and partly economic. + +As cosmopolitan, free-trade doctrine is apt to be indifferent to +national tradition and aspiration. In so far indeed as patriotism is a +mere aesthetic sentiment, it may be tolerated, but in so far as it +implies a genuine wish and intention to preserve and defend the national +habits and character to the exclusion of alien elements, the +cosmopolitan mind will condemn it as narrow and mischievous. In the +first half of the 19th century there were many men who believed that +national ambitions and jealousies of every kind were essentially +dynastic, and that if monarchies were abolished there would be fewer +occasions of war, so that the expenses of the business of government +would be enormously curtailed. For Cobden and his contemporaries it was +natural to regard the national administrative institutions as maintained +for the benefit of the "classes" and without much advantage to the +"masses." But in point of fact, modern times have shown the existence in +democracies of a patriotic sentiment which is both exclusive and +aggressive; and the burden of armaments has steadily increased. It was +by means of a civil war that the United States attained to a +consciousness of national life; while such later symptoms as the recent +interpretations of the Monroe doctrine, or the war with Spain, have +proved that the citizens of that democratic country cannot be regarded +as destitute of self-aggrandizing national ambition. + +In Germany the growth of militarism and nationalism have gone on side by +side under constitutional government, and certainly in harmony with +predominant public opinion. Neither of these communities is willing to +sink its individual conception of progress in those of the world at +large; each is jealous of the intrusion of alien elements which cannot +be reconciled with its own political and social system. And a similar +recrudescence of patriotic feeling has been observable in other +countries, such as Norway and Hungary: the growth of national sentiment +is shown, not only in the attempts to revive and popularize the use of a +national language, but still more decidedly in the determination to have +a real control over the economic life of the country. It is here that +the new patriotism comes into direct conflict with the political +principles of free trade as advocated by Bastiat and Cobden; for them +the important point was that countries, by becoming dependent on one +another, would be prevented from engaging in hostilities. The new +nations are determined that they will not allow other countries to have +such control over their economic condition, as to be able to exercise a +powerful influence on their political life. Each is determined to be the +master in his own house, and each has rejected free trade because of the +cosmopolitanism which it involves. + +Economically, free trade lays stress on consumption as the chief +criterion of prosperity. It is, of course, true that goods are produced +with the object of being consumed, and it is plausible to insist on +taking this test; but it is also true that consumption and production +are mutually interdependent, and that in some ways production is the +more important of the two. Consumption looks to the present, and the +disposal of actual goods; production looks to the future, and the +conditions under which goods can continue to be regularly provided and +thus become available for consumption in the long run. As regards the +prosperity of the community in the future it is important that goods +should be consumed in such a fashion as to secure that they shall be +replaced or increased before they are used up; it is the amount of +production rather than the amount of consumption that demands +consideration, and gives indication of growth or of decadence. In these +circumstances there is much to be said for looking at the economic life +of a country from the point of view which free-traders have abandoned or +ignore. It is not on the possibilities of consumption in the present, +but on the prospects of production _in the future_, that the continued +wealth of the community depends; and this principle is the only one +which conforms to the modern conception of the essential requirements of +sociological science in its wider aspect (see SOCIOLOGY). This is most +obviously true in regard to countries of which the resources are very +imperfectly developed. If their policy is directed to securing the +greatest possible comfort for each consumer in the present, it is +certain that progress will be slow; the planting of industries for which +the country has an advantage may be a tedious process; and in order to +stimulate national efficiency temporary protection--involving what is +otherwise unnecessary immediate cost to the consumer--may seem to be +abundantly justified. Such a free trader as John Stuart Mill himself +admits that a case may be made out for treating "infant industries" as +exceptions;[18] and if this exception be admitted it is likely to +establish a precedent. After all, the various countries of the world are +all in different stages of development; some are old and some are new; +and even the old countries differ greatly in the progress they have made +in distinct arts. The introduction of machinery has everywhere changed +the conditions of production, so that some countries have lost and +others have gained a special advantage. Most of the countries of the +world are convinced that the wisest economy is to attend to the +husbanding of their resources of every kind, and to direct their policy +not merely with a view to consumption in the present, but rather with +regard to the possibilities of increased production in the future. + +This deliberate rejection of the doctrine of free trade between nations, +both in its political and economic aspects, has not interfered, however, +with the steady progress of free commercial intercourse within the +boundaries of a single though composite political community. "Internal +free trade," though the name was not then current in this sense, was one +of the burning questions in England in the 17th century; it was perhaps +as important a factor as puritanism in the fall of Charles I. Internal +free trade was secured in France in the 18th century; thanks to +Hamilton,[19] it was embodied in the constitution of the United States; +it was introduced into Germany by Bismarck; and was firmly established +in the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia. It became +in consequence, where practicable, a part of the modern federal idea as +usually interpreted. There are thus great areas, externally +self-protecting, where free trade, as between internal divisions, has +been introduced with little, if any, political difficulty, and with +considerable economic advantage. These cases are sometimes quoted as +justifying the expectation that the same principle is likely to be +adopted sooner or later in regard to external trading relations. There +is some reason, however, for raising the question whether free trade has +been equally successful, not only in its economic, but in its social +results, in all the large political communities where it has been +introduced. In a region like the United States of America, it is +probably seen at its best; there is an immense variety of different +products throughout that great zone of the continent, so that the mutual +co-operation of the various parts is most beneficial, while the standard +of habit and comfort is so far uniform[20] throughout the whole region, +and the facilities for the change of employment are so many, that there +is little injurious competition between different districts. In the +British empire the conditions are reversed; but though the great +self-governing colonies have withdrawn from the circle, in the hope of +building up their own economic life in their own way, free trade is +still maintained over a very large part of the British empire. +Throughout this area, there are very varied physical conditions; there +is also an extraordinary variety of races, each with its own habits, and +own standard of comfort; and in these circumstances it may be doubted +whether the free competition, involved in free trade, is really +altogether wholesome. Within this sphere the ideal of Bastiat and his +followers is being realized. England, as a great manufacturing country, +has more than held her own; India and Ireland are supplied with +manufactured goods by England, and in each case the population is forced +to look to the soil for its means of support, and for purchasing power. +In each case the preference for tillage, as an occupation, has rendered +it comparatively easy to keep the people on the land; but there is some +reason to believe that the law of diminishing returns is already making +itself felt, at all events in India, and is forcing the people into +deeper poverty.[21] It may be doubtful in the case of Ireland how far +the superiority of England in industrial pursuits has prevented the +development of manufactures; the progress in the last decades of the +18th century was too short-lived to be conclusive; but there is at least +a strong impression in many quarters that the industries of Ireland +might have flourished if they had had better opportunities allowed +them.[22] In the case of India we know that the hereditary artistic +skill, which had been built up in bygone generations, has been stamped +out. It seems possible that the modern unrest in India, and the +discontent in Ireland, may be connected with the economic conditions in +these countries, on which free trade has been imposed without their +consent. So far the population which subsists on the cheaper food, and +has the lower standard of life, has been the sufferer; but the mischief +might operate in another fashion. The self-governing colonies at all +events feel that competition in the same market between races with +different standards of comfort has infinite possibilities of mischief. +It is easy to conjure up conditions under which the standard of comfort +of wage-earners in England would be seriously threatened. + +Since the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ was published it +has become clear that the free-trade doctrines of Bastiat and Cobden +have not been gaining ground in the world at large, and at the opening +of the 20th century it could hardly be said with confidence that the +question was "finally settled" so far as England was concerned. As to +whether the interests of Great Britain still demanded that she should +continue on the line she adopted in the exceptional conditions of the +middle of the 19th century, expert opinion was conspicuously +divided;[23] but there remained no longer the old enthusiasm for free +trade as the harbinger of an Utopia. The old principles of the bourgeois +manufacturers had been taken up by the proletariat and shaped to suit +themselves. Socialism, like free trade, is cosmopolitan in its aims, and +is indifferent to patriotism and hostile to militarism. Socialism, like +free trade, insists on material welfare as the primary object to be +aimed at in any policy, and, like free trade, socialism tests welfare by +reference to possibilities of consumption. In one respect there is a +difference; throughout Cobden's attack on the governing classes there +are signs of his jealousy of the superior status of the landed gentry, +but socialism has a somewhat wider range of view and demands "equality +of opportunity" with the capitalist as well. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Reference has already been made to the principal works + which deal critically with the free-trade policy. Professor Fawcett's + _Free Trade_ is a good exposition of free-trade principles; so also is + Professor Bastable's _Commerce of Nations_. Among authors who have + restated the principles with special reference to the revived + controversy on the subject may be mentioned Professor W. Smart, _The + Return to Protection, being a Restatement of the Case for Free Trade_ + (2nd ed., 1906), and A. C. Pigou, _Protective and Preferential Import + Duties_ (1906). (W. Cu.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] E. Misselden, _Free Trade or the Meanes to make Trade Flourish_ + (1622), p. 68; G. Malynes, _The Maintenance of Free Trade_ (1622), p. + 105. + + [2] H. Parker, _Of a Free Trade_ (1648), p. 8. + + [3] (1787), 27 Geo. III. c. 13. + + [4] Sir Walter Scott, _Guy Mannering_, chapter v. + + [5] Gladstone, "Free Trade, Railways and Commerce," in _Nineteenth + Century_ (Feb. 1880), vol. vii. p. 370. + + [6] Parker states a similar argument in the form in which it suited + the special problem of his day. "If merchandise be good for the + commonweal, then the more common it is made, the more open it is + laid, the more good it will convey to us." _Op. cit._ 20. + + [7] Schmoller, _Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre_ + (1904), ii. 607. + + [8] Byles, _Sophisms of Free Trade_; L. S. Amery, _Fundamental + Fallacies of Free Trade_, 13. + + [9] W. Cunningham, _Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement_, PP. + 5-11. + + [10] _Wealth of Nations_, book iv. chap. ii. + + [11] _Principles of Political Economy_, 485. + + [12] J. Morley, _Life of Cobden_, i. 230. + + [13] "Memoire," 6 April 1776, in _Oeuvres_, viii. 460. + + [14] Jefferson, _Notes on Virginia_, 275. See also the articles on + JEFFERSON and HAMILTON, ALEXANDER. + + [15] One incidental effect of the failure to secure free trade was + that the African slave trade, with West Indies as a depot for + supplying the American market, ceased to be remunerative, and the + opposition to the abolition of the trade was very much weaker than it + would otherwise have been; see Hochstetter, "Die wirtschaftlichen und + politischen Motive fuer die Abschaffung des britischen + Sklavenhandels," in Schmoller, _Staats und Sozialwissenschaftliche + Forschungen_, xxv. i. 37. + + [16] J. Welsford, "Cobden's Foreign Teacher," in _National Review_ + (December 1905). + + [17] _Compatriot Club Lectures_ (1905), p. 306. + + [18] J. S. Mill, _Principles of Political Economy_, book v. chapter + x. Sec. 1. + + [19] F. S. Oliver, _Alexander Hamilton_, 142. + + [20] The standard is, of course, lower among the negroes and mean + whites in the South than in the North and West. + + [21] F. Beauclerk, "Free Trade in India," in _Economic Review_ (July + 1907), xvii. 284. + + [22] A. E. Murray, _History of the Commercial and Financial Relations + between England and Ireland_, 294. + + [23] For the tariff reform movement in English politics see the + article on CHAMBERLAIN, J. Among continental writers G. Schmoller + (_Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre_, ii. 641) and A. + Wagner (Preface to M. Schwab's _Chamberlains Handelspolitik_) + pronounce in favour of a change, as Fuchs did by anticipation. + Schulze-Gaevernitz (_Britischer Imperialismus und englischer + Freihandel_), Aubry (_Etude critique de la politique commerciale de + l'Angleterre a l'egard de ses colonies_), and Blondel (_La politique + Protectionniste en Angleterre un nouveau danger pour la France_) are + against it. + + + + +FREGELLAE, an ancient town of Latium adiectum, situated on the Via +Latina, 11 m. W.N.W. of Aquinum, near the left branch of the Liris. It +is said to have belonged in early times to the Opici or Oscans, and +later to the Volscians. It was apparently destroyed by the Samnites a +little before 330 B.C., in which year the people of Fabrateria Vetus +(mod. Ceccano) besought the help of Rome against them, and in 328 B.C. a +Latin colony was established there. The place was taken in 320 B.C. by +the Samnites, but re-established by the Romans in 313 B.C. It continued +henceforward to be faithful to Rome; by breaking the bridges over the +Liris it interposed an obstacle to the advance of Hannibal on Rome in +212 B.C., and it was a native of Fregellae who headed the deputation of +the non-revolting colonies in 209 B.C. It appears to have been a very +important and flourishing place owing to its command of the crossing of +the Liris, and to its position in a fertile territory, and it was here +that, after the rejection of the proposals of M. Fulvius Flaccus for the +extension of Roman burgess-rights in 125 B.C., a revolt against Rome +broke out. It was captured by treachery in the same year and destroyed; +but its place was taken in the following year by the colony of +Fabrateria Nova, 3 m. to the S.E. on the opposite bank of the Liris, +while a post station Fregellanum (mod. Ceprano) is mentioned in the +itineraries; Fregellae itself, however, continued to exist as a village +even under the empire. The site is clearly traceable about 1/2 m. E. of +Ceprano, but the remains of the city are scanty. + + See G. Colasanti, _Fregellae, storia e topografia_ (1906). (T. As.) + + + + +FREIBERG, or FREYBERG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on +the Muenzbach, near its confluence with the Mulde, 19 m. S.W. of Dresden +on the railway to Chemnitz, with a branch to Nossen. Pop. (1905) 30,896. +Its situation, on the rugged northern slope of the Erzgebirge, is +somewhat bleak and uninviting, but the town is generally well built and +makes a prosperous impression. A part of its ancient walls still +remains; the other portions have been converted into public walks and +gardens. Freiberg is the seat of the general administration of the mines +throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated mining academy +(_Bergakademie_), founded in 1765, is frequented by students from all +parts of the world. Connected with it are extensive collections of +minerals and models, a library of 50,000 volumes, and laboratories for +chemistry, metallurgy and assaying. Among its distinguished scholars it +reckons Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817), who was also a professor +there, and Alexander von Humboldt. Freiberg has extensive manufactures +of gold and silver lace, woollen cloths, linen and cotton goods, iron, +copper and brass wares, gunpowder and white-lead. It has also several +large breweries. In the immediate vicinity are its famous silver and +lead mines, thirty in number, and of which the principal ones passed +into the property of the state in 1886. The castle of Freudenstein or +Freistein, as rebuilt by the elector Augustus in 1572, is situated in +one of the suburbs and is now used as a military magazine. In its +grounds a monument was erected to Werner in 1851. The cathedral, rebuilt +in late Gothic style after its destruction by fire in 1484 and restored +in 1893, was founded in the 12th century. Of the original church a +magnificent German Romanesque doorway, known as the Golden Gate +(_Goldene Pforte_), survives. The church contains numerous monuments, +among others one to Prince Maurice of Saxony. Adjoining the cathedral is +the mausoleum (_Begraebniskapelle_), built in 1594 in the Italian +Renaissance style, in which are buried the remains of Henry the Pious +and his successors down to John George IV., who died in 1694. Of the +other four Protestant churches the most noteworthy is the Peterskirche +which, with its three towers, is a conspicuous object on the highest +point of the town. Among the other public buildings are the old +town-hall, dating from the 15th century, the antiquarian museum, and the +natural history museum. There are a classical and modern, a commercial +and an agricultural school, and numerous charitable institutions. + +Freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines (c. 1163). +The town, with the castle of Freudenstein, was built by Otto the Rich, +margrave of Meissen, in 1175, and its name, which first appears in 1221, +is derived from the extensive mining franchises granted to it about that +time. In all the partitions of the territories of the Saxon house of +Wettin, from the latter part of the 13th century onward, Freiberg always +remained common property, and it was not till 1485 (the mines not till +1537) that it was definitively assigned to the Albertine line. The +Reformation was introduced into Freiberg in 1536 by Henry the Pious, who +resided here. The town suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War, +and again during the French occupation from 1806 to 1814, during which +time it had to support an army of 700,000 men and find forage for +200,000 horses. + + See H. Gerlach, _Kleine Chronik von Freiberg_ (2nd ed., Freiberg, + 1898); H. Ermisch, _Das Freiberger Stadtrecht_ (Leipzig, 1889); + Ermisch and O. Posse, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Freiberg_, in _Codex + diplom. Sax. reg._ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1883-1891); _Freibergs Berg- und + Huettenwesen_, published by the Bergmaennischer Verein (Freiberg, 1883); + Ledebur, _Ueber die Bedeutung der Freiberger Bergakademie_ (_ib._ + 1903); Steche, _Bau- und Kunstdenkmaeler der Amtshauptmannschaft + Freiberg_ (Dresden, 1884). + + + + +FREIBURG, a town of Germany in Prussian Silesia, on the Polsnitz, 35 m. +S.W. of Breslau, on the railway to Halbstadt. Pop. (1905) 9917. It has +an Evangelical and Roman Catholic church, and its industries include +watch-making, linen-weaving and distilling. In the neighbourhood are the +old and modern castles of the Fuerstenstein family, whence the town is +sometimes distinguished as Freiburg unter dem Fuerstenstein. At Freiburg, +on the 22nd of July 1762, the Prussians defended themselves successfully +against the superior forces of the Austrians. + + + + +FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, an archiepiscopal see and city of Germany in the +grand duchy of Baden, 12 m. E. of the Rhine, beautifully situated on the +Dreisam at the foot of the Schlossberg, one of the heights of the Black +Forest range, on the railway between Basel and Mannheim, 40 m. N. of the +former city. Pop. (1905) 76,285. The town is for the most part well +built, having several wide and handsome streets and a number of spacious +squares. It is kept clean and cool by the waters of the river, which +flow through the streets in open channels; and its old fortifications +have been replaced by public walks, and, what is more unusual, by +vineyards. It possesses a famous university, the Ludovica Albertina, +founded by Albert VI., archduke of Austria, in 1457, and attended by +about 2000 students. The library contains upwards of 250,000 volumes and +600 MSS., and among the other auxiliary establishments are an anatomical +hall and museum and botanical gardens. The Freiburg minster is +considered one of the finest of all the Gothic churches of Germany, +being remarkable alike for the symmetry of its proportions, for the +taste of its decorations, and for the fact that it may more correctly be +said to be finished than almost any other building of the kind. The +period of its erection probably lies for the most part between 1122 and +1252; but the choir was not built till 1513. The tower, which rises +above the western entrance, is 386 ft. in height, and it presents a +skilful transition from a square base into an octagonal superstructure, +which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most +exquisite open work in stone. In the interior of the church are some +beautiful stained glass windows, both ancient and modern, the tombstones +of several of the dukes of Zaehringen, statues of archbishops of +Freiburg, and paintings by Holbein and by Hans Baldung (c. 1470-1545), +commonly called Gruen. Among the other noteworthy buildings of Freiburg +are the palaces of the grand duke and the archbishop, the old town-hall, +the theatre, the _Kaufhaus_ or merchants' hall, a 16th-century building +with a handsome facade, the church of St Martin, with a graceful spire +restored 1880-1881, the new town-hall, completed 1901, in Renaissance +style, and the Protestant church, formerly the church of the abbey of +Thennenbach, removed hither in 1839. In the centre of the fish-market +square is a fountain surmounted by a statue of Duke Berthold III. of +Zaehringen; in the Franziskaner Platz there is a monument to Berthold +Schwarz, the traditional discoverer here, in 1259, of gunpowder; the +Rotteck Platz takes its name from the monument of Karl Wenzeslaus von +Rotteck (1775-1840), the historian, which formerly stood on the site of +the Schwarz statue; and in Kaiser Wilhelm Strasse a bronze statue was +erected in 1876 to the memory of Herder, who in the early part of the +19th century founded in Freiburg an institute for draughtsmen, engravers +and lithographers, and carried on a famous bookselling business. On the +Schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two castles +destroyed by the French in 1744; and about 2 m. to the N.E. stands the +castle of Zaehringen, the original seat of the famous family of the +counts of that name. Situated on the ancient road which runs by the +Hoellenpass between the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine, Freiburg +early acquired commercial importance, and it is still the principal +centre of the trade of the Black Forest. It manufactures buttons, +chemicals, starch, leather, tobacco, silk thread, paper, and hempen +goods, as well as beer and wine. + +Freiburg is of uncertain foundation. In 1120 it became a free town, with +privileges similar to those of Cologne; but in 1219 it fell into the +hands of a branch of the family of Urach. After it had vainly attempted +to throw off the yoke by force of arms, it purchased its freedom in +1366; but, unable to reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money, +it was, in 1368, obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of +Hapsburg. In the 17th and 18th centuries it played a considerable part +as a fortified town. It was captured by the Swedes in 1632, 1634 and +1638; and in 1644 it was seized by the Bavarians, who shortly after, +under General Mercy, defeated in the neighbourhood the French forces +under Enghien and Turenne. The French were in possession from 1677 to +1697, and again in 1713-1714 and 1744; and when they left the place in +1748, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, they dismantled the +fortifications. The Baden insurgents gained a victory at Freiburg in +1848, and the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in June +1849, but in the following July the Prussian forces took possession and +occupied it until 1851. Since 1821 Freiburg has been the seat of an +archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of Mainz, Rottenberg and +Limburg. + + See Schreiber, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Muensters zu Freiburg_ + (1820 and 1825); _Geschichte der Stadt und Universitaet Freiburgs_ + (1857-1859); _Der Schlossberg bei Freiburg_ (1860); and Albert, _Die + Geschichtsschreibung der Stadt Freiburg_ (1902). + +_Battles of Freiburg, 3rd, 5th and 10th of August 1644._--During the +Thirty Years' War the neighbourhood of Freiburg was the scene of a +series of engagements between the French under Louis de Bourbon, due +d'Enghien (afterwards called the great Conde), and Henri de la Tour +d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne, and the Bavarians and Austrians +commanded by Franz, Freiherr von Mercy. + +At the close of the campaign of 1643 the French "Army of Weimar," having +been defeated and driven into Alsace by the Bavarians, had there been +reorganized under the command of Turenne, then a young general of +thirty-two and newly promoted to the marshalate. In May 1644 he opened +the campaign by recrossing the Rhine and raiding the enemy's posts as +far as Ueberlingen on the lake of Constance and Donaueschingen on the +Danube. The French then fell back with their booty and prisoners to +Breisach, a strong garrison being left in Freiburg. The Bavarian +commander, however, revenged himself by besieging Freiburg (June 27th), +and Turenne's first attempt to relieve the place failed. During July, as +the siege progressed, the French government sent the duc d'Enghien, who +was ten years younger still than Turenne, but had just gained his great +victory of Rocroy, to take over the command. Enghien brought with him a +veteran army, called the "Army of France," Turenne remaining in command +of the Army of Weimar. The armies met at Breisach on the 2nd of August, +by which date Freiburg had surrendered. At this point most commanders of +the time would have decided not to fight, but to manoeuvre Mercy away +from Freiburg; Enghien, however, was a fighting general, and Mercy's +entrenched lines at Freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an +obstacle. A few hours after his arrival, therefore, without waiting for +the rearmost troops of his columns, he set the combining armies in +motion for Krozingen, a village on what was then the main road between +Breisach and Freiburg. The total force immediately available numbered +only 16,000 combatants. Enghien and Turenne had arranged that the Army +of France was to move direct upon Freiburg by Wolfenweiter, while the +Army of Weimar was to make its way by hillside tracks to Wittnau and +thence to attack the rear of Mercy's lines while Enghien assaulted them +in front. Turenne's march (August 3rd, 1644) was slow and painful, as +had been anticipated, and late in the afternoon, on passing Wittnau, he +encountered the enemy. The Weimarians carried the outer lines of defence +without much difficulty, but as they pressed on towards Merzhausen the +resistance became more and more serious. Turenne's force was little more +than 6000, and these were wearied with a long day of marching and +fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the Black Forest. Thus the +turning movement came to a standstill far short of Uffingen, the village +on Mercy's line of retreat that Turenne was to have seized, nor was a +flank attack possible against Mercy's main line, from which he was +separated by the crest of the Schoenberg. Meanwhile, Enghien's army had +at the prearranged hour (4 P.M.) attacked Mercy's position on the +Ebringen spur. A steep slope, vineyards, low stone walls and abatis had +all to be surmounted, under a galling fire from the Bavarian musketeers, +before the Army of France found itself, breathless and in disorder, in +front of the actual entrenchments of the crest. A first attack failed, +as did an attempt to find an unguarded path round the shoulder of the +Schoenberg. The situation was grave in the extreme, but Enghien resolved +on Turenne's account to renew the attack, although only a quarter of his +original force was still capable of making an effort. He himself and all +the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led the infantry forward +again, the prince threw his baton into the enemy's lines for the +soldiers to retrieve, and in the end, after a bitter struggle, the +Bavarians, whose reserves had been taken away to oppose Turenne in the +Merzhausen defile, abandoned the entrenchments and disappeared into the +woods of the adjoining spur. Enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops, +fearing at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counter-stroke; +but none came. The French bivouacked in the rain, Turenne making his way +across the mountain to confer with the prince, and meanwhile Mercy +quietly drew off his army in the dark to a new set of entrenchments on +the ridge on which stood the Loretto Chapel. On the 4th of August the +Army of France and the Army of Weimar met at Merzhausen, the rearmost +troops of the Army of France came in, and the whole was arranged by the +major-generals in the plain facing the Loretto ridge. This position was +attacked on the 5th. Enghien had designed his battle even more carefully +than before, but as the result of a series of accidents the two French +armies attacked prematurely and straight to their front, one brigade +after another, and though at one moment Enghien, sword in hand, broke +the line of defence with his last intact reserve, a brilliant +counterstroke, led by Mercy's brother Kaspar (who was killed), drove out +the assailants. It is said that Enghien lost half his men on this day +and Mercy one-third of his, so severe was the battle. But the result +could not be gainsaid; it was for the French a complete and costly +failure. + +For three days after this the armies lay in position without fighting, +the French well supplied with provisions and comforts from Breisach, the +Bavarians suffering somewhat severely from want of food, and especially +forage, as all their supplies had to be hauled from Villingen over the +rough roads of the Black Forest. Enghien then decided to make use of the +Glotter Tal to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of +supply, and thus to force the Bavarians either to attack him at a +serious disadvantage, or to retreat across the hills with the loss of +their artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by +famine and desertion. With this object, the Army of Weimar was drawn off +on the morning of the 9th of August and marched round by Betzenhausen +and Lehen to Langen Denzling. The infantry of the Army of France, then +the trains, followed, while Enghien with his own cavalry faced Freiburg +and the Loretto position. + +[Illustration: Map-Battle of Freiburg.] + +Before dawn on the 10th the advance guard of Turenne's army was +ascending the Glotter Tal. But Mercy had divined his adversary's plan, +and leaving a garrison to hold Freiburg, the Bavarian army had made a +night march on the 9/10th to the Abbey of St Peter, whence on the +morning of the 10th Mercy fell back to Graben, his nearest magazine in +the mountains. Turenne's advanced guard appeared from the Glotter Tal +only to find a stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey. A +sharp action began, but Mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the French +infantry in the Glotter Tal broke it off and continued his retreat in +good order. Enghien thus obtained little material result from his +manoeuvre. Only two guns and such of Mercy's wagons that were unable to +keep up fell into the hands of the French. Enghien and Turenne did not +continue the chase farther than Graben, and Mercy fell back unmolested +to Rothenburg on the Tauber. + +The moral results of this sanguinary fighting were, however, important +and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable soldiers. +Enghien's pertinacity had not achieved a decision with the sword, but +Mercy had been so severely punished that he was unable to interfere with +his opponent's new plan of campaign. This, which was carried out by the +united armies and by reinforcements from France, while Turenne's cavalry +screened them by bold demonstrations on the Tauber, led to nothing less +than the conquest of the Rhine Valley from Basel to Coblenz, a task +which was achieved so rapidly that the Army of France and its victorious +young leader were free to return to France in two months from the time +of their appearance in Turenne's quarters at Breisach. + + + + +FREIDANK (VRIDANC), the name by which a Middle High German didactic poet +of the early 13th century is known. It has been disputed whether the +word, which is equivalent to "free-thought," is to be regarded as the +poet's real name or only as a pseudonym; the latter is probably the +case. Little is known of Freidank's life. He accompanied Frederick II. +on his crusade to the Holy Land, where, in the years 1228-1229, a +portion at least of his work was composed; and it is said that on his +tomb (if indeed it was not the tomb of another Freidank) at Treviso +there was inscribed, with allusion to the character of his style, "he +always spoke and never sang." Wilhelm Grimm originated the hypothesis +that Freidank was to be identified with Walther von der Vogelweide; but +this is no longer tenable. Freidank's work bears the name of +_Bescheidenheit_, i.e. "practical wisdom," "correct judgment," and +consists of a collection of proverbs, pithy sayings, and moral and +satirical reflections, arranged under general heads. Its popularity till +the end of the 16th century is shown by the great number of MSS. extant. + + Sebastian Brant published the _Bescheidenheit_ in a modified form in + 1508. Wilhelm Grimm's edition appeared in 1834 (2nd ed. 1860), H. F. + Bezzenberger's in 1872. A later edition is by F. Sandvoss (1877). The + old Latin translation, _Fridangi Discretio_, was printed by C. Lemcke + in 1868; and there are two translations into modern German, A. + Bacmeister's (1861) and K. Simrock's (1867). See also F. Pfeiffer, + _Ueber Freidank_ (_Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_, 1855), and H. + Paul, _Ueber die urspruengliche Anordnung von Freidanks Bescheidenheit_ + (1870). + + + + +FREIENWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Oder, +28 m. N.E. of Berlin, on the Frankfort-Angermuende railway. Pop. (1905) +7995. It has a small palace, built by the Great Elector, an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, and manufactures of furniture, machinery, +&c. The neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a +favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of Berlin. A new tower +commands a fine view of the Oderbruch (see ODER). Freienwalde, which +must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same name in +Pomerania, first appears as a town in 1364. + + + + +FREIESLEBENITE, a rare mineral consisting of sulphantimonite of silver +and lead, (Pb, Ag2)5Sb4S11. The monoclinic crystals are prismatic in +habit, with deeply striated prism and dome faces. The colour is +steel-grey, and the lustre metallic; hardness 21/2, specific gravity 6.2. +It occurs with argentite, chalybite and galena in the silver veins of +the Himmelsfuerst mine at Freiberg, Saxony, where it has been known since +1720. The species was named after J. K. Freiesleben, who had earlier +called it _Schilf-Glaserz_. Other localities are Hiendelaencina near +Guadalajara in Spain, Kapnik-Banya in Hungary, and Guanajuato in Mexico. +A species separated from freieslebenite by V. von Zepharovich in 1871, +because of differences in crystalline form, is known as diaphorite (from +[Greek: diaphora], "difference"); it is very similar to freieslebenite +in appearance and has perhaps the same chemical composition (or possibly +Ag2PbSb2S5), but is orthorhombic in crystallization. A third mineral +also very similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic +andorite, AgPbSb3S6, which is mined as a silver ore at Oruro in Bolivia. + + + + +FREIGHT, (pronounced like "weight"; derived from the Dutch _vracht_ or +_vrecht_, in Fr. _fret_, the Eng. "fraught" being the same word, and +formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective = +"laden"), the lading or cargo of a ship, and the hire paid for their +transport (see AFFREIGHTMENT); from the original sense of +water-transport of goods the word has also come to be used for +land-transit (particularly in America, by railroad), and by analogy for +any load or burden. + + + + +FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND (1810-1876), German poet, was born at Detmold on +the 17th of June 1810. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native +town, and in his sixteenth year was sent to Soest, with a view to +preparing him for a commercial career. Here he had also time and +opportunity to acquire a taste for French and English literature. The +years from 1831 to 1836 he spent in a bank at Amsterdam, and 1837 to +1839 in a business house at Barmen. In 1838 his _Gedichte_ appeared and +met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the idea of a +commercial life and resolved to devote himself entirely to literature. +His repudiation of the political poetry of 1841 and its revolutionary +ideals attracted the attention of the king of Prussia, Frederick William +IV., who, in 1842, granted him a pension of 300 talers a year. He +married, and, to be near his friend Emanuel Geibel, settled at St Goar. +Before long, however, Freiligrath was himself carried away by the rising +tide of liberalism. In the poem _Ein Glaubensbekenntnis_ (1844) he +openly avowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old +adversary, Georg Herwegh; the day, he declared, of his own poetic +trifling with Romantic themes was over; Romanticism itself was dead. He +laid down his pension, and, to avoid the inevitable political +persecution, took refuge in Switzerland. As a sequel to the +_Glaubensbekenntnis_ he published _Ca ira!_ (1846), which strained still +further his relations with the German authorities. He fled to London, +where he resumed the commercial life he had broken off seven years +before. When the Revolution of 1848 broke out, it seemed to Freiligrath, +as to all the liberal thinkers of the time, the dawn of an era of +political freedom; and, as may be seen from the poems in his collection +of _Politische und soziale Gedichte_ (1849-1851), he welcomed it with +unbounded enthusiasm. He returned to Germany and settled in Duesseldorf; +but it was not long before he had again called down upon himself the +ill-will of the ruling powers by a poem, _Die Toten an die Lebenden_ +(1848). He was arrested on a charge of _lese-majeste_, but the +prosecution ended in his acquittal. New difficulties arose; his +association with the democratic movement rendered him an object of +constant suspicion, and in 1851 he judged it more prudent to go back to +London, where he remained until 1868. In that year he returned to +Germany, settling first in Stuttgart and in 1875 in the neighbouring +town of Cannstatt, where he died on the 18th of March 1876. + +As a poet, Freiligrath was the most gifted member of the German +revolutionary group. Coming at the very close of the Romantic age, his +own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most part the familiar +thoughts and imagery of his Romantic predecessors; but at an early age +he had been attracted by the work of French contemporary poets, and he +reinvigorated the German lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of +Victor Hugo. In this reconciliation of French and German romanticism lay +Freiligrath's significance for the development of the lyric in Germany. +His remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to be +seen in his translations of English and Scottish ballads, of the poetry +of Burns, Mrs Hemans, Longfellow and Tennyson (_Englische Gedichte aus +neuerer Zeit_, 1846; _The Rose, Thistle and Shamrock_, 1853, 6th ed. +1887); he also translated Shakespeare's _Cymbeline_, _Winter's Tale_ and +_Venus and Adonis_, as well as Longfellow's _Hiawatha_ (1857). +Freiligrath is most original in his revolutionary poetry. His poems of +this class suffer, it is true, under the disadvantage of all political +poetry--purely temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much +that has no claim to be called poetry at all--but the agitator +Freiligrath, when he is at his best, displays a vigour and strength, a +power of direct and cogent poetic expression, not to be found in any +other political singer of the age. + + Freiligrath's _Gedichte_ have passed through some fifty editions, and + his _Gesammelte Dichtungen_, first published in 1870, have reached a + sixth edition (1898). _Nachgelassenes_ (including a translation of + Byron's _Mazeppa_) was published in 1883. A selection of Freiligrath's + best-known poems in English translation was edited by his daughter, + Mrs Freiligrath-Kroeker, in 1869; also _Songs of a Revolutionary + Epoch_ were translated by J. L. Joynes in 1888. Cp. E. + Schmidt-Weissenfels, _F. Freiligrath, eine Biographie_ (1876); W. + Buchner, _F. Freiligrath, ein Dichterleben in Briefen_ (2 vols., + 1881); G. Freiligrath, _Erinnerungen an F. Freiligrath_ (1889); P. + Besson, _Freiligrath_ (Paris, 1899); K. Richter, _Freiligrath als + Uebersetzer_ (1899). (J. G. R.) + + + + +FREIND, JOHN (1675-1728), English physician, younger brother of Robert +Freind (1667-1751), headmaster of Westminster school, was born in 1675 +at Croton in Northamptonshire. He made great progress in classical +knowledge under Richard Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church, +Oxford, under Dean Aldrich, and while still very young, produced, along +with Peter Foulkes, an excellent edition of the speeches of Aeschines +and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon. After this he began the +study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attainments by +various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry at Oxford in +1704. In the following year he accompanied the English army, under the +earl of Peterborough, into Spain, and on returning home in 1707, wrote +an account of the expedition, which attained great popularity. Two years +later he published his _Prelectiones chimicae_, which he dedicated to +Sir Isaac Newton. Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders, +whither he had accompanied the British troops, he took up his residence +in London, where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician. In +1716 he became fellow of the college of physicians, of which he was +chosen one of the censors in 1718, and Harveian orator in 1720. In 1722 +he entered parliament as member for Launceston in Cornwall, but, being +suspected of favouring the cause of the exiled Stuarts, he spent half of +that year in the Tower. During his imprisonment he conceived the plan of +his most important work, _The History of Physic_, of which the first +part appeared in 1725, and the second in the following year. In the +latter year he was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office +which he held till his death on the 26th of July 1728. + + A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of the + _History of Physic_, edited by Dr John Wigan, was published in London + in 1732. + + + + +FREINSHEIM [FREINSHEMIUS], JOHANN (1608-1660), German classical scholar +and critic, was born at Ulm on the 16th of November 1608. After studying +at the universities of Marburg, Giessen and Strassburg, he visited +France, where he remained for three years. He returned to Strassburg in +1637, and in 1642 was appointed professor of eloquence at Upsala. In +1647 he was summoned by Queen Christina to Stockholm as court librarian +and historiographer. In 1650 he resumed his professorship at Upsala, but +early in the following year he was obliged to resign on account of +ill-health. In 1656 he became honorary professor at Heidelberg, and died +on the 31st of August 1660. Freinsheim's literary activity was chiefly +devoted to the Roman historians. He first introduced the division into +chapters and paragraphs, and by means of carefully compiled indexes +illustrated the lexical peculiarities of each author. He is best known +for his famous supplements to Quintus Curtius and Livy, containing the +missing books written by himself. He also published critical editions of +Curtius and Florus. + + + + +FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSE (1719-1773), Portuguese historian and +philologist, was born at Lisbon on the 3rd of January 1719. He belonged +to the monastic society of St Philip Neri, and was a zealous member of +the literary association known as the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion +with which he adopted the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed +much to the improvement of the style of Portuguese prose literature, but +his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry by a +translation of Horace's _Ars poetica_ was less successful. The work in +which he set forth his opinions regarding the vicious taste pervading +the current Portuguese prose literature is entitled _Maximas sobre a +Arte Oratoria_ (1745) and is preceded by a chronological table forming +almost a social and physical history of Portugal. His best known work, +however, is his _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (1758), which has given +him a place in the first rank of Portuguese historians, and has been +translated into French (Paris, 1781). He also wrote a poetical +dictionary (_Diccionario poetico_) and a translation of Racine's +_Athalie_ (1762), and his _Reflexions sur la langue portugaise_ was +published in 1842 by the Lisbon society for the promotion of useful +knowledge. He died at Mafra on the 5th of July 1773. + + + + +FREISCHUeTZ, in German folklore, a marksman who by a compact with the +devil has obtained a certain number of bullets destined to hit without +fail whatever object he wishes. As the legend is usually told, six of +the _Freikugeln_ or "free bullets" are thus subservient to the +marksman's will, but the seventh is at the absolute disposal of the +devil himself. Various methods were adopted in order to procure +possession of the marvellous missiles. According to one the marksman, +instead of swallowing the sacramental host, kept it and fixed it on a +tree, shot at it and caused it to bleed great drops of blood, gathered +the drops on a piece of cloth and reduced the whole to ashes, and then +with these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his +bullets were made. Various vegetable or animal substances had the +reputation of serving the same purpose. Stories about the Freischuetz +were especially common in Germany during the 14th, 15th and 16th +centuries; but the first time that the legend was turned to literary +profit is said to have been by Apel in the _Gespensterbuch_ or "Book of +Ghosts." It formed the subject of Weber's opera _Der Freischuetz_ (1821), +the libretto of which was written by Friedrich Kind, who had suggested +Apel's story as an excellent theme for the composer. The name by which +the Freischuetz is known in French is Robin des Bois. + + See Kind, _Freyschuetzbuch_ (Leipzig, 1843); _Revue des deux mondes_ + (February 1855); Graesse, _Die Quelle des Freischuetz_ (Dresden, 1875). + + + + +FREISING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Isar, 16 +m. by rail N.N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 13,538. Among its eight Roman +Catholic churches the most remarkable is the cathedral, which dates from +about 1160 and is famous for its curious crypt. Noteworthy also are the +old palace of the bishops, now a clerical seminary, the theological +lyceum and the town-hall. There are several schools in the town, and +there is a statue to the chronicler, Otto of Freising, who was bishop +here from 1138 to 1158. Freising has manufactures of agricultural +machinery and of porcelain, while printing and brewing are carried on. +Near the town is the site of the Benedictine abbey of Weihenstephan, +which existed from 725 to 1803. This is now a model farm and brewery. +Freising is a very ancient town and is said to have been founded by the +Romans. After being destroyed by the Hungarians in 955 it was fortified +by the emperor Otto II. in 976 and by Duke Welf of Bavaria in 1082. A +bishopric was established here in 724 by St Corbinianus, whose brother +Erimbert was consecrated second bishop by St Boniface in 739. Later on +the bishops acquired considerable territorial power and in the 17th +century became princes of the Empire. In 1802 the see was secularized, +the bulk of its territories being assigned to Bavaria and the rest to +Salzburg, of which Freising had been a suffragan bishopric. In 1817 an +archbishopric was established at Freising, but in the following year it +was transferred to Munich. The occupant of the see is now called +archbishop of Munich and Freising. + + See C. Meichelbeck, _Historiae Frisingensis_ (Augsburg, 1724-1729, new + and enlarged edition 1854). + + + + +FREJUS, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France. Pop. (1906) +3430. It is 281/2 m. S.E. of Draguignan (the chief town of the +department), and 221/2 m. S.W. of Cannes by rail. It is only important on +account of the fine Roman remains that it contains, for it is now a mile +from the sea, its harbour having been silted up by the deposits of the +Argens river. Since the 4th century it has been a bishop's see, which is +in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence. In modern times the +neighbouring fishing village at St Raphael (21/2 m. by rail S.E., and on +the seashore) has become a town of 4865 inhabitants (in 1901); in 1799 +Napoleon disembarked there, on his return from Egypt, and reembarked for +Elba in 1814, while nowadays it is much frequented as a health resort, +as is also Valescure (2 m. N.W. on the heights above). The cathedral +church in part dates from the 12th century, but only small portions of +the old medieval episcopal palace are now visible, as it was rebuilt +about 1823. The ramparts of the old town can still be traced for a long +distance, and there are fragments of two moles, of the theatre and of a +gate. The amphitheatre, which seated 12,000 spectators, is in a better +state of preservation. The ruins of the great aqueduct which brought the +waters of the Siagnole, an affluent of the Siagne, to the town, can +still be traced for a distance of nearly 19 m. The original hamlet was +the capital of the tribe of the Oxybii, while the town of Forum Julii +was founded on its site by Julius Caesar in order to secure to the +Romans a harbour independent of that of Marseilles. The buildings of +which ruins exist were mostly built by Caesar or by Augustus, and show +that it was an important naval station and arsenal. But the town +suffered much at the hands of the Arabs, of Barbary pirates, and of its +inhabitants, who constructed many of their dwellings out of the ruined +Roman buildings. The ancient harbour (really but a portion of the +lagoons, which had been deepened) is now completely silted up. Even in +early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual digging, while +about 1700 this was closed, and now a sandy and partly cultivated waste +extends between the town and the seashore. + + See J. A. Aubenas, _Histoire de Frejus_ (Frejus, 1881); Ch. Lentheric, + _La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1880), chap. vii. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE (1817-1885), American lawyer and +statesman, of Dutch descent, was born at Millstone, New Jersey, on the +4th of August 1817. His grandfather, Frederick Frelinghuysen +(1753-1804), was an eminent lawyer, one of the framers of the first New +Jersey constitution, a soldier in the War of Independence, and a member +(1778-1779 and 1782-1783) of the Continental Congress from New Jersey, +and in 1793-1796 of the United States senate; and his uncle, Theodore +(1787-1862), was attorney-general of New Jersey from 1817 to 1829, was a +United States senator from New Jersey in 1829-1835, was the Whig +candidate for vice-president on the Clay ticket in 1844, and was +chancellor of the university of New York in 1839-1850 and president of +Rutgers College in 1850-1862. Frederick Theodore, left an orphan at the +age of three, was adopted by his uncle, graduated at Rutgers in 1836, +and studied law in Newark with his uncle, to whose practice he succeeded +in 1839, soon after his admission to the bar. He became attorney for the +Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Morris Canal and Banking Company, +and other corporations, and from 1861 to 1867 was attorney-general of +New Jersey. In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace congress at +Washington, and in 1866 was appointed by the governor of New Jersey, as +a Republican, to fill a vacancy in the United States senate. In the +winter of 1867 he was elected to fill the unexpired term, but a +Democratic majority in the legislature prevented his re-election in +1869. In 1870 he was nominated by President Grant, and confirmed by the +senate, as United States minister to England to succeed John Lothrop +Motley, but declined the mission. From 1871 to 1877 he was again a +member of the United States senate, in which he was prominent in debate +and in committee work, and was chairman of the committee on foreign +affairs during the Alabama Claims negotiations. He was a strong opponent +of the reconstruction measures of President Johnson, for whose +conviction he voted (on most of the specific charges) in the impeachment +trial. He was a member of the joint committee which drew up and reported +(1877) the Electoral Commission Bill, and subsequently served as a +member of the commission. On the 12th of December 1881 he was appointed +secretary of state by President Arthur to succeed James G. Blaine, and +served until the inauguration of President Cleveland in 1885. Retiring, +with his health impaired by overwork, to his home in Newark, he died +there on the 20th of May, less than three months after relinquishing the +cares of office. + + + + +FREMANTLE, a seaport of Swan county, Western Australia, at the mouth of +the Swan river, 12 m. by rail S.W. of Perth. It is the terminus of the +Eastern railway, and is a town of some industrial activity, +shipbuilding, soap-boiling, saw-milling, smelting, iron-founding, +furniture-making, flour-milling, brewing and tanning being its chief +industries. The harbour, by the construction of two long moles and the +blasting away of the rocks at the bar, has been rendered secure. The +English, French and German mail steamers call at the port. Fremantle +became a municipality in 1871; but there are now three separate +municipalities--Fremantle, with a population in 1901 of 14,704; +Fremantle East (2494); and Fremantle North (3246). At Rottnest Island, +off the harbour, there are government salt-works and a residence of the +governor, also penal and reformatory establishments. + + + + +FREMIET, EMMANUEL (1824- ), French sculptor, born in Paris, was a +nephew and pupil of Rude; he chiefly devoted himself to animal sculpture +and to equestrian statues in armour. His earliest work was in scientific +lithography (osteology), and for a while he served in times of adversity +in the gruesome office of "painter to the Morgue." In 1843 he sent to +the Salon a study of a "Gazelle," and after that date was very prolific +in his works. His "Wounded Bear" and "Wounded Dog" were produced in +1850, and the Luxembourg Museum at once secured this striking example of +his work. From 1855 to 1859 Fremiet was engaged on a series of military +statuettes for Napoleon III. He produced his equestrian statue of +"Napoleon I." in 1868, and of "Louis d'Orleans" in 1869 (at the Chateau +de Pierrefonds) and in 1874 the first equestrian statue of "Joan of +Arc," erected in the Place des Pyramides, Paris; this he afterwards +(1889) replaced with another and still finer version. In the meanwhile +he had exhibited his masterly "Gorilla and Woman" which won him a medal +of honour at the Salon of 1887. Of the same character, and even more +remarkable, is his "Ourang-Outangs and Borneo Savage" of 1895, a +commission from the Paris Museum of Natural History. Fremiet also +executed the statue of "St Michael" for the summit of the spire of the +Eglise St Michel, and the equestrian statue of Velasquez for the Jardin +de l'Infante at the Louvre. He became a member of the Academie des +Beaux-Arts in 1892, and succeeded Barye as professor of animal drawing +at the Natural History Museum of Paris. + + + + +FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES (1813-1890), American explorer, soldier and +political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the 21st of January +1813. His father, a native of France, died when the boy was in his sixth +year, and his mother, a member of an aristocratic Virginia family, then +removed to Charleston, South Carolina. In 1828, after a year's special +preparation, young Fremont entered the junior class of the college of +Charleston, and here displayed marked ability, especially in +mathematics; but his irregular attendance and disregard of college +discipline led to his expulsion from the institution, which, however, +conferred upon him a degree in 1836. In 1833 he was appointed teacher of +mathematics on board the sloop of war "Natchez," and was so engaged +during a cruise along the South American coast which was continued for +about two and a half years. Soon after returning to Charleston he was +appointed professor of mathematics in the United States navy, but he +chose instead to serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken +chiefly for the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a +proposed railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. In July 1838 he was +appointed second lieutenant of Topographical Engineers in the United +States army, and for the next three years he was assistant to the French +explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollet (1786-1843), employed by the war +department to survey and map a large part of the country lying between +the upper waters of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In 1841 Fremont +surveyed, for the government, the lower course of the Des Moines river. +In the same year he married Jessie, the daughter of Senator Thomas H. +Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure through Benton's +influence with the government that Fremont was enabled to accomplish +within the next few years the exploration of much of the territory +between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Ocean. + +When the claim of the United States to the Oregon territory was being +strengthened by occupation, Fremont was sent, at his urgent request, to +explore the frontier beyond the Missouri river, and especially the Rocky +Mountains in the vicinity of the South Pass, through which the American +immigrants travelled. Within four months (1842) he surveyed the Pass and +ascended to the summit of the highest of the Wind River Mountains, since +known as Fremont's Peak, and the interest aroused by his descriptions +was such that in the next year he was sent on a second expedition to +complete the survey across the continent along the line of travel from +Missouri to the mouth of the Columbia river. This time he not only +carried out his instructions but, by further explorations together with +interesting descriptions, dispelled general ignorance with respect to +the main features of the country W. of the Rocky Mountains: the Great +Salt Lake, the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the fertile +river basins of the Mexican province of California. + +His report of this expedition upon his return to Washington, D.C., in +1844, aroused much solicitude for California, which, it was feared, +might, in the event of war then threatening between the United States +and Mexico, be seized by Great Britain. In the spring of 1845 Fremont +was despatched on a third expedition for the professed purposes of +further exploring the Great Basin and the Pacific Coast, and of +discovering the easiest lines of communication between them, as well as +for the secret purpose of assisting the United States, in case of war +with Mexico, to gain possession of California. He and his party of +sixty-two arrived there in January 1846. Owing to the number of American +immigrants who had settled in California, the Mexican authorities there +became suspicious and hostile, and ordered Fremont out of the province. +Instead of obeying he pitched his camp near the summit of a mountain +overlooking Monterey, fortified his position, and raised the United +States flag. A few days later he was proceeding toward the Oregon border +when new instructions from Washington caused him to retrace his steps +and, perhaps, to consider plans for provoking war. The extent of his +responsibility for the events that ensued is not wholly clear, and has +been the subject of much controversy; his defenders have asserted that +he was not responsible for the seizure of Sonoma or for the so-called +"Bear-Flag War"; and that he played a creditable part throughout. (For +an opposite view see CALIFORNIA.) Commodore John D. Sloat, after seizing +Monterey, transferred his command to Commodore Robert Field Stockton +(1795-1866), who made Fremont major of a battalion; and by January 1847 +Stockton and Fremont completed the conquest of California. In the +meantime General Stephen Watts Kearny (1794-1848) had been sent by the +Government to conquer it and to establish a government. This created a +conflict of authority between Stockton and Kearny, both of whom were +Fremont's superior officers. Stockton, ignoring Kearny, commissioned +Fremont military commandant and governor. But Kearny's authority being +confirmed about the 1st of April, Fremont, for repeated acts of +disobedience, was sent under arrest to Washington, where he was tried by +court-martial, found guilty (January 1847) of mutiny, disobedience and +conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced to dismissal +from the service. President Polk approved of the verdict except as to +mutiny, but remitted the penalty, whereupon Fremont resigned. + +With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring acquired by the +United States, Fremont was eager for a railway from the Atlantic to the +Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out at his own and Senator Benton's +expense to find passes for such a railway along a line westward from the +headwaters of the Rio Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led +astray by a guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several +of his men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger, +he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and then +westward through the valley of the Gila into southern California. Late +in the year 1853, however, he returned to the place where the guide had +led him astray, found passes through the mountains to the westward +between latitudes 37 deg. and 38 deg. N., and arrived in San Francisco early in +May 1854. From the conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855, +when he removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in +December 1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators +from the new state. But as he drew the short term, he served only from +the 10th of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851. Although a +candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the pro-slavery party. His +opposition to slavery, however, together with his popularity--won by the +successes, hardships and dangers of his exploring expeditions, and by +his part in the conquest of California--led to his nomination, largely +on the ground of "availability," for the presidency in 1856 by the +Republicans (this being their first presidential campaign), and by the +National Americans or "Know-Nothings." In the ensuing election he was +defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes. + +Soon after the Civil War began, Fremont was appointed major-general and +placed in command of the western department with headquarters at St +Louis, but his lack of judgment and of administrative ability soon became +apparent, the affairs of his department fell into disorder, and Fremont +seems to have been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted. +On the 30th of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which he declared +the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated and their slaves +emancipated. For this he was applauded by the radical Republicans, but +his action was contrary to an act of congress of the 6th of August and to +the policy of the Administration. On the 11th of September President +Lincoln, who regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might +alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he was trying +to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by serious charges +against Fremont, the president sent Montgomery Blair, the +postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs, the quartermaster-general, +to investigate the department; they reported that Fremont's management +was extravagant and inefficient; and in November he was removed. Out of +consideration for the "Radicals," however, Fremont was placed in command +of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. In the +spring and summer of 1862 he co-operated with General N. P. Banks against +"Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability +as a commander, was defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his +troops were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form the +Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed in command, +Fremont declined to serve under Pope, whom he outranked, and retired from +active service. On the 31st of May 1864 he was nominated for the +presidency by a radical faction of the Republican party, opposed to +President Lincoln, but his following was so small that on the 21st of +September he withdrew from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor +of the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was +appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the retired +list. He died in New York on the 13th of July 1890. + + See J. C. Fremont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky + Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844_ + (Washington, 1845); Fremont's _Memoirs of my Life_ (New York, 1887); + and J. Bigelow, _Memoirs of the Life and Public Services of John C. + Fremont_ (New York, 1856). + + + + +FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Dodge county, Nebraska, U.S.A., +about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank of the Platte river, which +here abounds in picturesque bluffs and wooded islands. Pop. (1890) 6747; +(1900) 7241 (1303 foreign-born); (1910) 8718. It is on the main line of +the Union Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago & +North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the formerly +independent Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley and the Sioux City & +Pacific) converge here. The city has an attractive situation and is +beautifully shaded. It has a public library and is the seat of the +Fremont College, Commercial Institute and School of Pharmacy (1875), a +private institution. There is considerable local trade with the rich +farming country of the Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale +grain interests are especially important. Among the manufactures are +flour, carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators and +beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and +water-works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became the county-seat in +1860. It was chartered as a city (second-class) in 1871, and became a +city of the first class in 1901. + + + + +FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Sandusky county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7141; (1900) 8439, +of whom 1074 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9939. Fremont is served by +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake +Erie & Western, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The river is +navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of +Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public library +(1873) and parks, in large measure the gifts of his uncle, Sardis +Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural region; oil and +natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the city has various +manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons, cutlery, bricks, +agricultural implements, stoves and ranges, safety razors, carriage +irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet sugar, canned vegetables, +malt extract, garters and suspenders. The total factory product was +valued at $2,833,385 in 1905, an increase of 23.4% over that of 1900. +Fremont is on the site of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a +trading post was at times maintained here; but the place is best known +in history as the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of +1812, and on the 2nd of August 1813 gallantly and successfully defended +by Major George Croghan (1791-1849), with 160 men, against about 1000 +British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry A. Proctor. In 1906 +Croghan's remains were re-interred on the site of the old fort. Until +1849, when the present name was adopted in honour of J. C. Fremont, the +place was known as Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in +1829 and was first chartered as a city in 1867. + + + + +FREMY, EDMOND (1814-1894), French chemist, was born at Versailles on the +29th of February 1814. Entering Gay-Lussac's laboratory in 1831, he +became _preparateur_ at the Ecole Polytechnique in 1834 and at the +College de France in 1837. His next post was that of _repetiteur_ at the +Ecole Polytechnique, where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in +1850 he succeeded Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Museum +d'Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession to M. E. +Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd of February +1894. His work included investigations of osmic acid, of the ferrates, +stannates, plumbates, &c., and of ozone, attempts to obtain free +fluorine by the electrolysis of fused fluorides, and the discovery of +anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and of a series of _acides sulphazotes_, the +precise nature of which long remained a matter of discussion. He also +studied the colouring matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of +bone, cerebral matter and other animal substances, and the processes of +fermentation, in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of +Pasteur's views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical +applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a teacher to +the training of industrial chemists. In this field he contributed to our +knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel, sulphuric acid, glass +and paper, and in particular worked at the saponification of fats with +sulphuric acid and the utilization of palmitic acid for candle-making. +In the later years of his life he applied himself to the problem of +obtaining alumina in the crystalline form, and succeeded in making +rubies identical with the natural gem not merely in chemical composition +but also in physical properties. + + + + +FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- ), American sculptor, was born at +Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 20th of April 1850, the son of Henry Flagg +French, a lawyer, who for a time was assistant-secretary of the United +States treasury. After a year at the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology, French spent a month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then +began to work on commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received +from the town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known +statue "The Minute Man," which was unveiled (April 19, 1875) on the +centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French had gone to +Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas Ball. French's +best-known work is "Death Staying the Hand of the Sculptor," a memorial +for the tomb of the sculptor Martin Milmore, in the Forest Hills +cemetery, Boston; this received a medal of honour at Paris, in 1900. +Among his other works are: a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly, Boston; +"Gen. Cass," National Hall of Statuary, Washington; "Dr Gallaudet and +his First Deaf-Mute Pupil," Washington; the colossal "Statue of the +Republic," for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago; statues of Rufus +Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge, Mass.), and Thomas Starr King +(San Francisco, California), a memorial to the architect Richard M. +Hunt, in Fifth Avenue, opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large +"Alma Mater," near the approach to Columbia University, New York. In +collaboration with Edward C. Potter he modelled the "Washington," +presented to France by the Daughters of the American Revolution; the +"General Grant" in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and the "General Joseph +Hooker" in Boston. French became a member of the National Academy of +Design (1901), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League, +and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome. + + + + +FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an Irish political +pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He was educated at Louvain, and +returning to Ireland became a priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was +appointed bishop of Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the +political disturbances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave +Ireland in 1651, and the remainder of his life was passed on the +continent of Europe. He acted as coadjutor to the archbishops of +Santiago de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop of Ghent, and died +at Ghent on the 23rd of August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack on +James Butler, marquess of Ormonde, entitled "The Unkinde Desertor of +Loyall Men and True Frinds," and shortly afterwards "The Bleeding +Iphigenia." The most important of his other pamphlets is the "Narrative +of the Earl of Clarendon's Settlement and Sale of Ireland" (Louvain, +1668). + + The _Historical Works_ of Bishop French, comprising the three + pamphlets already mentioned and some letters, were published by S. H. + Bindon at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, _Irish Writers of the 17th + Century_ (Dublin, 1846); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _Contemporary History of + Affairs in Ireland_, 1641-1652 (Dublin, 1879-1880); and T. Carte, + _Life of James, Duke of Ormond_ (new ed., Oxford, 1851). + + + + +FRENCH CONGO, the general name of the French possessions in equatorial +Africa. They have an area estimated at 700,000 sq. m., with a +population, also estimated, of 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. The whites +numbered (1906) 1278, of whom 502 were officials. French Congo, +officially renamed FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910, comprises--(1) the +Gabun Colony, (2) the Middle Congo Colony, (3) the Ubangi-Shari +Circumscription, (4) the Chad Circumscription. The two last-named +divisions form the Ubangi-Shari-Chad Colony. + +The present article treats of French Congo as a unit. It is of highly +irregular shape. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish) +Muni River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the Sahara, E. +by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian Congo and the Portuguese +territory of Kabinda. In the greater part of its length the southern +frontier is the middle course of the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the +chief northern affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the +frontier keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course is +partitioned between Belgium and Portugal. The coast line, some 600 m. +long, extends from 5 deg. S. to 1 deg. N. The northern frontier, starting inland +from the Muni estuary, after skirting the Spanish settlements follows a +line drawn a little north of 2 deg. N. and extending east to 16 deg. E. North of +this line the country is part of Cameroon, German territory extending so +far inland from the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the +Ubangi. From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French +Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east until +the Shari is reached in 10 deg. 40' N. The Shari then forms the frontier up +to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan regions of French +West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating the colony from the +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting between the Nile and the +Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the +northern part of French Congo (see WADAI and BAGIRMI). + + _Physical Features._--The coast line, beginning in the north at + Corisco Bay, is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by the + estuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly + straight line until the delta of the Ogowe is reached, where Cape + Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends uniformly S.E. + without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of Mayumba, + the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be mentioned. A + large proportion of the coast region is occupied by primeval forest, + with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft., but there is a + considerable variety of scenery--open lagoons, mangrove swamps, + scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of tangled + underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches of + cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from 3000 + to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with an + elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep + river-valleys, the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in + some places 760 ft. high. + + [Illustration: Map of French Congo.] + + The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces. On the + higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand; on the + second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide grassy + tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin forest, + and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m. broad. + The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally + unnavigable. The most important, the Ogowe (q.v.), is, however, + navigable from its mouth to N'Jole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to the + south of the Ogowe are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu. The + latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi and the Luete; it has + a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south, from east + to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-west. It is + encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only over 38 m., + and for five months in the year. The mouth is 1100 ft. wide. The Muni + river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed by cataracts in + its passage through the escarpment to the coast. + + Nearly all the upper basin of the Shari (q.v.) as well as the right + bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part of + the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo river. + In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi, 330 m. of + the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French protectorate as + well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some 100 m. however, the + right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these subsidiary + streams, is in German territory (see CONGO). + + _Geology._--Three main divisions are recognized in the French + Congo:--(1) the littoral zone, covered with alluvium and superficial + deposits and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the + mountain zone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite, + metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern + portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The core of + the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists. Infolded with + them, and on the flanks, are three rock systems ascribed to the + Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossiliferous, but + fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see CONGO FREE STATE). + Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal Mountains. The + plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist of a lower red + sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group. They have not + yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age, with + _Schloenbachia inflata_, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowe + basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene facies overlie + the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented sand, + erroneously termed laterite, covers large areas in the littoral zone, + on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau. + + _Climate._--The whole of the country being in the equatorial region, + the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans. On the + coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (15th of May to + 15th of September), the rainy season (15th of September to 15th of + January), then a second dry season (15th of January to 1st of March), + and a second rainy season (1st of March to 15th of May). The rainfall + at Libreville is about 96 in. a year. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile and + several kinds of apes--including the chimpanzee and the rare + gorilla--are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are various + and beautiful--grey parrots, shrikes, fly-catchers, rhinoceros birds, + weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-birds, + from the _Cecyle Sharpii_ to the dwarfish _Alcedo cristata_, butterfly + finches, and helmet-birds (_Turacus giganteus_), as well as more + familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious + climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the _Protopterus_ or + lung-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry + season, the strange and poisonous _Tetrodon guttifer_, and the + herring-like _Pellona africana_, often caught in great shoals--are the + more remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the + lagoons, and the huge _Cardisoma armatum_ or heart-crab is fattened + for table. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most + familiar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking + bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one + above the other. + + Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs, + silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms--especially _Hyphaene + guineensis_ (a fan-palm), _Raphia_ (the wine-palm), and _Elaeis + guineensis_ (the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably _Anona + senegalensis_), and the _pallabanda_, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are + common in the prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft. + along the rivers; the banks are fringed by the cottony _Hibiscus + tiliaceus_, ipomaeas and fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bound + together in one inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the + upper Shari region, and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, are + species of the coffee tree, one species attaining a height of over 60 + ft. Its bean resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality. + Among the fruit trees are the mango and the papaw, the orange and the + lemon. Negro-pepper (a variety of capsicum) and ginger grow wild. + + _Inhabitants and Chief Towns._--A census, necessarily imperfect, taken + in 1906 showed a total population, exclusive of Wadai, of 3,652,000, + divided in districts as follows:--Gabun, 376,000; Middle Congo, + 259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 885,000. The country is + peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions bordering Lake + Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-Arab tribes. Among + the best-known tribes living in French Congo are the Fang (Fans), the + Bakalai, the Batekes and the Zandeh or Niam-Niam. Several of the + tribes are cannibals and among many of them the fetish worship + characteristic of the West African negroes prevails. Their + civilization is of a low order. In the northern regions the majority + of the inhabitants are Mahommedans, and it is only in those districts + that organized and powerful states exist. Elsewhere the authority of a + chief or "king" extends, ordinarily, little beyond the village in + which he lives. (An account of the chief tribes is given under their + names.) The European inhabitants are chiefly of French nationality, + and are for the most part traders, officials and missionaries. + + The chief towns are Libreville (capital of the Gabun colony) with 3000 + inhabitants; Brazzaville, on the Congo on the north side of Stanley + Pool (opposite the Belgian capital of Leopoldville), the seat of the + governor-general; Franceville, on the upper Ogowe; Loango, an + important seaport in 4 deg. 39' S.; N'Jole, a busy trading centre on the + lower Ogowe; Chekna, capital of Bagirmi, which forms part of the Chad + territory; Abeshr, the capital of Wadai, Bangi on the Ubangi river, + the administrative capital of the Ubangi-Shari-Chad colony. Kunde, + Lame and Binder are native trading centres near the Cameroon frontier. + + _Communications._--The rivers are the chief means of internal + communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is obtained by + ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence round the + falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazzaville on + Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navigation N.E. + into the heart of Africa, 330 m. being on the Congo and 350 m. on the + Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo, where rapids block the + river, but beyond that port there are several navigable stretches of + the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to the Nile is possible by + means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries. The Sanga, which joins the + Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be navigated by steamers for 350 + m., i.e. up to and beyond the S.E. frontier of the German colony of + Cameroon. The Shari is also navigable for a considerable distance and + by means of its affluent, the Logone, connects with the Benue and + Niger, affording a waterway between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad. + Stores for government posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by + this route. There is, however, no connecting link between the coast + rivers--Gabun, Ogowe and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about + 500 m. long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys + for the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that + from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line, 75 m. long, from + Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November + 1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district + served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai a + caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengazi on the shores of the + Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Brazzaville and + Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe by + submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango and + Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg. + + _Trade and Agriculture._--The chief wealth of the colony consists in + the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to + manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and + tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and vanilla + are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold, iron and + copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from Mindule since + 1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next in importance + coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other woods, coffee, cocoa + and copal. The imports are mainly cotton and metal goods, spirits and + foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin of the Ogowe the French + customs tariff, with some modifications, prevails, but in the Congo + basin, that is, in the greater part of the country, by virtue of + international agreements, no discrimination can be made between French + and other merchandise, whilst customs duties must not exceed 10% _ad + valorem_.[1] In the Shari basin and in Wadai the Anglo-French + declaration of March 1899 accorded for thirty years equal treatment to + British and French goods. The value of the trade rose in the ten years + 1896-1905 from L360,000 to L850,000, imports and exports being nearly + equal. The bulk of the export trade is with Great Britain, which takes + most of the rubber, France coming second and Germany third. The + imports are in about equal proportions from France and foreign + countries. + + _Land Tenure. The Concessions Regime._--Land held by the natives is + governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native ownership + in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater part of the + country is considered a state domain. Land held by Europeans is + subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates as have been + registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of March 1899, + when, registration having been effected, the title to the land is + guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has been + divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability + companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the + land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered in + 1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over L2,000,000, whilst + the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. m. One + effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the + business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most important + were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent of + the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the European + powers were signatories, equality of treatment in commercial affairs + was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin, protests were raised + against the terms of the concessions. The reply was that the critics + confused the exercise of the right of proprietorship with the act of + commerce, and that in no country was the landowner who farmed his land + and sold the produce regarded as a merchant. Various decisions by the + judges of the colony during 1902 and 1903 and by the French _cour de + cassation_ in 1905 confirmed that contention. The action of the + companies was, however, in most cases, neither beneficial to the + country nor financially successful, whilst the native cultivators + resented the prohibition of their trading direct with their former + customers. The case of the Liverpool traders was taken up by the + British government and it was agreed that the dispute should be + settled by arbitration. In September 1908 the French government issued + a decree reorganizing and rendering more stringent the control + exercised by the local authorities over the concession companies, + especially in matters concerning the rights of natives and the liberty + of commerce. + + + De Brazza's treaties. + +_History._--The Gabun was visited in the 15th century by the Portuguese +explorers, and it became one of the chief seats of the slave trade. It +was not, however, till well on in the 19th century that Europeans made +any more permanent settlement than was absolutely necessary for the +maintenance of their commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral) +Bouet-Willaumez obtained for France the right of residence on the left +bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank. The +primary object of the French settlement was to secure a port wherein +men-of-war could revictual. The chief establishment, Libreville, was +founded in 1849, with negroes taken from a slave ship. The settlement in +time acquired importance as a trading port. In 1867 the troops numbered +about 1000, and the civil population about 5000, while the official +reports about the same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000 +sq. m. and a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to France +in 1862, and the colony's coast-line extended, nominally, to a length of +200 m. In consequence of the war with Germany the colony was practically +abandoned in 1871, the establishment at Libreville being maintained as a +coaling depot merely. In 1875, however, France again turned her +attention to the Gabun estuary, the hinterland of which had already been +partly explored. Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1855-1859 and 1863-1865) to +the south of the Ogowe; Walker, an English merchant, explored the +Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogowe, in 1866. In 1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a +French naturalist, and the marquis de Compiegne[2] explored a portion of +the Ogowe basin, but it was not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that +the country east of the Ogowe was reached. This expedition was led by +Savorgnan de Brazza (q.v.), who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugene +Ballay, and, for part of the time, by Marche. De Brazza's expedition, +which was compelled to remain for many months at several places, +ascended the Ogowe over 400 m., and beyond the basin of that stream +discovered the Alima, which was, though the explorers were ignorant of +the fact, a tributary of the Congo. From the Alima, de Brazza and Ballay +turned north and finally reached the Gabun in November 1878, the journey +being less fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate. +Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had revealed +the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey, begun December 1879, +the French traveller undertook to find a way to the Congo above the +rapids via the Ogowe. In this he was successful, and in September 1880 +reached Stanley Pool, on the north side of which Brazzaville was +subsequently founded. Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de +Brazza met Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the +International African Association (see CONGO FREE STATE), but de Brazza +in reality acted solely in the interests of France and concluded +treaties with Makoko, "king of the Batekes," and other chieftains, +placing very large areas under the protection of that country. The +conflicting claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free +State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in February +1885.[3] In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had more fully explored +the country behind the coast regions of Gabun and Loango, the last-named +seaport being occupied by France in 1883. The conclusion of agreements +with Germany (December 1885 and February-March 1894) and with Portugal +(May 1886) secured France in the possession of the western portion of +the colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo Free +State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the Ubangi +district. + + + The advance towards the Nile: Fashoda. + +The extension of French influence northward towards Lake Chad and +eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed, though not +without involving the country in serious disputes with the other +European powers possessing rights in those regions. By creating the +posts of Bangi (1890), Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her +hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same time the Congo Free +State passed the parallel of 4 deg. N.--which, after the compromise of 1887, +France had regarded as the southern boundary of her possessions--and, +occupying the sultanate of Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed +on as far as 9 deg. N. The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and +after the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the +Congo State of the 12th of May of that year, against which both the +German and the French governments protested, the last named because it +erected a barrier against the extension of French territory to the Nile +valley. By a compromise of the 14th of August the boundary was +definitely drawn and, in accordance with this pact, which put the +frontier back to about 4 deg. N., France from 1895 to 1897 took possession +of the upper Ubangi, with Bangasso, Rafai and Zemio. Then began the +French encroachment on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition, +despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-governor of +the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897 and Fashoda in July 1898. +A dispute with Great Britain arose, and it was decided that the +expedition should evacuate Fashoda. The declaration of the 21st of March +1899 finally terminated the dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the +French colony as already stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty +of June 1900 settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast, +the boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were determined +in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was precisely defined by +another Franco-German agreement in April 1908, following a detailed +survey made by joint commissioners in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive +description of these international rivalries see AFRICA, Sec. 5, and for +the conquest of the Chad regions see BAGIRMI and RABAH ZOBEIR. In the +other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the natives, +for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France with Wadai see +that article. + +Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient Gabun +colony was joined to the Congo territories. From 1886 to 1889 Gabun was, +however, separately administered. By decree of the 11th of December 1888 +the whole of the French possessions were created one "colony" under the +style of Congo francais, with various subdivisions; they were placed +under a commissioner-general (de Brazza) having his residence at +Brazzaville. This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic +development of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits of +the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see AFRICA, Sec. 5) enjoyed +a separate tariff. By decree of the 29th of December 1903 (which became +operative in July 1904) Congo francais was divided into four parts as +named in the opening paragraph. The first commissioner-general under the +new scheme was Emile Gentil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In 1905 +de Brazza was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and +maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several of +which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when on his way home. +The French government, after considering the report he had drawn up, +decided to retain Gentil as commissioner-general, making however (decree +of 15th of February 1906) various changes in administration with a view +to protect the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil, who +devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the finances of the +country and the development of its commerce, resigned his post in +February 1908. He was succeeded by M. Merlin, whose title was changed +(June 1908) to that of governor-general. + + _Administration and Revenue._--The governor-general has control over + the whole of French Congo, but does not directly administer any part + of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors. The + Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the + coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowe + river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the + hinterland not within the Congo free-trade zone (the Chad district + excepted). The Middle Congo has for its western frontier the Gabun + colony and Cameroon, and extends inland to the easterly bend of the + Ubangi river; the two circumscriptions extend east and north of the + Middle Congo. There is a general budget for the whole of French Congo; + each colony has also a separate budget and administrative autonomy. As + in other French colonies the legislative power is in the French + chambers only, but in the absence of specific legislation presidential + decrees have the force of law. A judicial service independent of the + executive exists, but the district administrators also exercise + judicial functions. Education is in the hands of the missionaries, + upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909. The military force + maintained consists of natives officered by Europeans. + + Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid by concession + companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and customs receipts, + supplemented by a subvention from France. In addition to defraying the + military expenses, about L100,000 a year, a grant of L28,000 yearly + was made up to 1906 by the French chambers towards the civil expenses. + In 1907 the budget of the Congo balanced at about L250,000 without the + aid of this subvention. In 1909 the chambers sanctioned a loan for the + colony of L840,000, guaranteed by France and to be applied to the + establishment of administrative stations and public works. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fernand Rouget, _L'Expansion coloniale au Congo + francais_ (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, with bibliography and + maps; A. Chevalier, _L'Afrique centrale francaise_ (Paris, 1907). For + special studies see Lacroix, _Resultats mineralogiques et zoologiques + des recentes explorations de l'Afrique occidentale francaise et de la + region du Tchad_ (Paris, 1905); M. Barrat, _Sur la geologie du Congo + francais_ (Paris, 1895), and _Ann. des mines_, ser. q. t. vii. (1895); + J. Cornet, "Les Formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo," _Ann. + soc, geol. belg._ vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris _Bulletin du Museum_ for + 1903 and 1904 contains papers on the zoology of the country. For flora + see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in _Comptes rendus de l'academie + des sciences_ (1902-1904), and the _Journal d'agriculture pratique des + pays chauds_ (1901, &c.). For history, besides Rouget's book, see J. + Ancel, "Etude historique. La formation de la colonie du Congo + francais, 1843-1882," containing an annotated bibliography, in _Bull. + Com. l'Afrique francaise_, vol. xii. (1902); the works cited under + BRAZZA; and E. Gentil, _La Chute de l'empire de Rabah_ (Paris, 1902). + Of earlier books of travels the most valuable are:--Paul du Chaillu, + _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1861); _A + Journey to Ashonga Land_ (London, 1867); and Sir R. Burton, _Two Trips + to Gorilla Land_ (London, 1876). Of later works see Mary H. Kingsley, + _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); A. B. de Mezieres, _Rapport + de mission sur le Haut Oubangui, le M'Bomou et le Bahr-el-Ghazal_ + (Paris, 1903); and C. Maistre, _A travers l'Afrique centrale du Congo + au Niger_, 1892-1893 (Paris, 1895). For the story of the concession + companies see E. D. Morel, _The British Case in French Congo_ (London, + 1903). (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Berlin Act of 1885; Brussels conference of 1890 (see AFRICA: + _History_). + + [2] Louis Eugene Henri Dupont, marquis de Compiegne (1846-1877), on + his return from the West coast replaced Georg Schweinfurth at Cairo + as president of the geographical commission. Arising out of this + circumstance de Compiegne was killed in a duel by a German named + Mayer. + + [3] A Franco-Belgian agreement of the 23rd of Dec. 1908 defined + precisely the frontier in the lower Congo. Bamu Island in Stanley + Pool was recognized as French. + + + + +FRENCH GUINEA, a French colony in West Africa, formerly known as +Rivieres du Sud. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by Portuguese +Guinea and Senegal, E. by Upper Senegal and the Ivory Coast, and S. by +Liberia and Sierra Leone. With a sea-board running N.N.W. and S.S.E. +from 10 deg. 50' N. to 9 deg. 2' N., a distance, without reckoning the +indentations, of 170 m., the colony extends eastward 450 m. in a +straight line and attains a maximum width N. to S. of nearly 300 m., +covering fully 100,000 sq. m., and containing a population estimated at +2,000,000 to 2,500,000. + + _Physical Features._--Though in one or two places rocky headlands jut + into the sea, the coast is in general sandy, low, and much broken by + rivers and deep estuaries, dotted with swampy islands, giving it the + appearance of a vast delta. In about 9 deg. 30' N., off the promontory of + Konakry, lie the Los Islands (q.v.), forming part of the colony. The + coast plain, formed of alluvial deposits, is succeeded about 30 m. + inland by a line of cliffs, the Susu Hills, which form the first step + in the terrace-like formation of the interior, culminating in the + massif of Futa Jallon, composed chiefly of Archean and granite rocks. + While the coast lands are either densely forested or covered with + savannas or park-like country, the Futa Jallon tableland is mainly + covered with short herbage. This tableland, the hydrographic centre of + West Africa, is most elevated in its southern parts, where heights of + 5000 ft. are found. Near the Sierra Leone frontier this high land is + continued westward to within 20 m. of the sea, where Mount Kakulima + rises over 3300 ft. East and south of Futa Jallon the country slopes + to the basin of the upper Niger, the greater part of which is included + in French Guinea. The southern frontier is formed by the escarpments + which separate the Niger basin from those of the coast rivers of + Liberia. Besides the Niger, Gambia and Senegal, all separately + noticed, a large number of streams running direct to the Atlantic rise + in Futa Jallon. Among them are the Great and Little Scarcies, whose + lower courses are in Sierra Leone, and the Rio Grande which enters the + sea in Portuguese Guinea. Those whose courses are entirely in French + Guinea include the Cogon (or Componi), the Rio Nunez, the Fatalla + (which reaches the sea through an estuary named Rio Pongo), the + Konkure, whose estuary is named Rio Bramaya, the Forekaria and the + Melakori. The Cogon, Fatallah and Konkure are all large rivers which + descend from the plateaus through deep, narrow valleys in rapids and + cataracts, and are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth. + + _Climate._--The climate of the coast district is hot, moist and + unhealthy, with a season of heavy rain lasting from May to November, + during which time variable winds, calms and tornadoes succeed one + another. The mean temperature in the dry season, when the "harmattan" + is frequent, is 62 deg. Fahr., in the wet season 86 deg.. Throughout the year + the humidity of the air is very great. There is much rain in the Futa + Jallon highlands, but the Niger basin is somewhat drier. In that + region and in the highlands the climate is fairly healthy for + Europeans and the heat somewhat less than on the coast. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The seashore and the river banks are lined with + mangroves, but the most important tree of the coast belt is the + oil-palm. The dense forests also contain many varieties of lianas or + rubber vines, huge bombax and bamboos. Gum-producing and kola trees + are abundant, and there are many fruit trees, the orange and citron + growing well in the Susu and Futa Jallon districts. The cotton and + coffee plants are indigenous; banana plantations surround the + villages. The baobab and the karite (shea butter tree) are found only + in the Niger districts. The fauna is not so varied as was formerly the + case, large game having been to a great extent driven out of the coast + regions. The elephant is rare save in the Niger regions. The lion is + now only found in the northern parts of Futa Jallon; panthers, + leopards, hyenas and wild cats are more common and the civet is found. + Hippopotamus, otter and the wild boar are numerous; a species of wild + ox of small size with black horns and very agile is also found. The + forests contain many kinds of monkeys, including huge chimpanzees; + antelope are widespread but rather rare. Serpents are very common, + both venomous and non-venomous; the pythons attain a great size. + Fights between these huge serpents and the crocodiles which infest all + the rivers are said to be not uncommon. Turtles are abundant along the + coasts and in the Los Islands. Oysters are found in large numbers in + the estuaries and fixed to the submerged parts of the mangroves. + Freshwater oysters, which attain a large size, are also found in the + rivers, particularly in the Niger. Fish are abundant, one large-headed + species, in the Susu tongue called _khokon_, is so numerous as to have + given its name to a province, Kokunia. Birds are very numerous; they + include various eagles, several kinds of heron, the egret, the + marabout, the crane and the pelican; turacos or plantain-eaters, are + common, as are other brilliantly plumaged birds. Green and grey + parrots, ravens, swallows and magpies are also common. + + _Inhabitants._--On the banks of the Cogon dwell the Tendas and Iolas, + primitive Negro tribes allied to those of Portuguese Guinea (q.v.). + All other inhabitants of French Guinea are regarded as comparatively + late arrivals from the interior who have displaced the aborigines.[1] + Among the earliest of the new comers are the Baga, the Nalu, the + Landuman and the Timni, regarded as typical Negroes (q.v.). This + migration southward appears to have taken place before the 17th + century. To-day the Baga occupy the coast land between the Cogon and + the Rio Pongo, and the Landuman the country immediately behind that of + the Baga. The other tribes named are but sparsely represented in + French Guinea, the coast region south of the Nunez and all the + interior up to Futa Jallon being occupied by the Susu, a tribe + belonging to the great Mandingan race, which forced its way seaward + about the beginning of the 18th century and pressed back the Timni + into Sierra Leone. Futa Jallon is peopled principally by Fula (q.v.), + and the rest of the country by Malinke and other tribes of Mandingo + (q.v.). The Mandingo, the Fula and the Susu are Mahommedans, though + the Susu retain many of their ancient rites and beliefs--those + associated with spirit worship and fetish, still the religion of the + Baga and other tribes. In the north-west part of Futa Jallon are found + remnants of the aborigines, such as the Tiapi, Koniagui and the + Bassari, all typical Negro tribes. The white inhabitants number a few + hundreds only and are mainly French. Many of the coast peoples show, + however, distinct traces of white blood, the result chiefly of the + former presence of European slave traders. Thus at the Rio Pongo there + are numerous mulattos. South of that river the coast tribes speak + largely pidgin English. + + _Towns._--The principal towns are Konakry the capital, Boke, on the + Rio Nunez, Dubreka, on the coast, a little north of Konakry, Benty, on + the Melakori, Timbo and Labe, the chief towns of Futa Jallon, + Heremakono and Kindia, on the main road to the Niger, Kurussa and + Siguiri, on a navigable stretch of that river, and Bissandugu, + formerly Samory's capital, an important military station east of the + Niger. Konakry, in 9 deg. 30' N., 13 deg. 46' W., population about 20,000, is + the one port of entry on the coast. It is built on the little island + of Tombo which lies off the promontory of Konakry, the town being + joined to the mainland by an iron bridge. During the administration of + Noel Ballay (1848-1902), governor of the colony 1890-1900, Konakry was + transformed from a place of small importance to one of the chief ports + on the west coast of Africa and a serious rival to Freetown, Sierra + Leone. It has since grown considerably, and is provided with wharves + and docks and a jetty 1066 ft. long. There is an ample supply of good + water, and a large public garden in the centre of the town. In front + of Government House is a statue of M. Ballay. Konakry is a port of + call for French, British and German steamship companies, and is in + telegraphic communication with Europe. It is the starting-point of a + railway to the Niger (see below). The retail trade is in the hands of + Syrians. The town is governed by a municipality. + + _Products and Industry._--French Guinea possesses a fertile soil, and + is rich in tropical produce. The chief products are rubber, brought + from the interior, and palm oil and palm kernels, obtained in the + coast regions. Cotton is cultivated in the Niger basin. Gum copal, + ground-nuts and sesame are largely cultivated, partly for export. + Among minor products are coffee, wax and ivory. Large herds of cattle + and flocks of sheep are raised in Futa Jallon; these are sent in + considerable numbers to Sierra Leone, Liberia and French Congo. The + trade in hides is also of considerable value. The chief grain raised + is millet, the staple food of the people. The rubber is mainly + exported to England, the palm products to Germany, and the ground-nuts + to France. + + The principal imports are cotton goods, of which 80% come from Great + Britain, rice, kola nuts, chiefly from Liberia, spirits, tobacco, + building material, and arms and ammunition, chiefly "trade guns." The + average annual value of the trade for the period 1900-1907 was about + L1,250,000, the annual export of rubber alone being worth L400,000 or + more. The great bulk of the trade of the colony is with France and + Great Britain, the last-named country taking about 45% of the total; + Germany comes third. Since April 1905 a surtax of 7% has been imposed + on all goods of other than French origin. + + _Communications._--The railway from Konakry to the Niger at Kurussa, + by the route chosen a distance of 342 m., was begun in 1900, and from + 1902 has been built directly by the colony. The first section to + Kindia, 93 m., was opened in 1904. The second section, to near Timbo + in Futa Jallon, was completed in 1907, and the rails reached Kurussa + in 1910. From Kurussa the Niger is navigable at high water all the way + to Bamako in Upper Senegal, whence there is communication by rail and + river with St Louis and Timbuktu. Besides the railway there is an + excellent road, about 390 m. long, from Konakry to Kurussa, the road + in its lower part being close to the Sierra Leone frontier, with the + object of diverting trade from that British colony. Several other main + roads have been built by the French, and there is a very complete + telegraphic system, the lines having been connected with those of + Senegal in 1899. + +_History._--This part of the Guinea coast was made known by the +Portuguese voyagers of the 15th century. In consequence, largely, of the +dangers attending its navigation, it was not visited by the European +traders of the 16th-18th centuries so frequently as other regions north +and east, but in the Rio Pongo, at Matakong (a diminutive island near +the mouth of the Forekaria), and elsewhere, slave traders established +themselves, and ruins of the strongholds they built, and defended with +cannon, still exist. When driven from other parts of Guinea the slavers +made this difficult and little known coast one of their last resorts, +and many barracoons were built in the late years of the 18th century. It +was not until after the restoration of Goree to her at the close of the +Napoleonic wars that France evinced any marked interest in this region. +At that time the British, from their bases at the Gambia and Sierra +Leone, were devoting considerable attention to these Rivieres du Sud +(i.e. south of Senegal) and also to Futa Jallon. Rene Caillie, who +started his journey to Timbuktu from Boke in 1827, did much to quicken +French interest in the district, and from 1838 onward French naval +officers, Bouet-Willaumez and his successors, made detailed studies of +the coast. About the time that the British government became wearied of +its efforts to open up the interior of West Africa, General Faidherbe +was appointed governor of Senegal (1854), and under his direction +vigorous efforts were made to consolidate French influence. Already in +1848 treaty relations had been entered into with the Nalu, and between +that date and 1865 treaties of protectorate were signed with several of +the coast tribes. During 1876-1880 new treaties were concluded with the +chief tribes, and in 1881 the almany (or emir) of Futa Jallon placed his +country under French protection, the French thus effectually preventing +the junction, behind the coast lands, of the British colonies of the +Gambia and Sierra Leone. The right of France to the littoral as far +south as the basin of the Melakori was recognized by Great Britain in +1882; Germany (which had made some attempt to acquire a protectorate at +Konakry) abandoned its claims in 1885, while in 1886 the northern +frontier was settled in agreement with Portugal, which had ancient +settlements in the same region (see PORTUGUESE GUINEA). In 1899 the +limits of the colony were extended, on the dismemberment of the French +Sudan, to include the upper Niger districts. In 1904 the Los Islands +were ceded by Great Britain to France, in part return for the +abandonment of French fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. (See also +SENEGAL: _History_.) + +French Guinea was made a colony independent of Senegal in 1891, but in +1895 came under the supreme authority of the newly constituted +governor-generalship of French West Africa. Guinea has a considerable +measure of autonomy and a separate budget. It is administered by a +lieutenant-governor, assisted by a nominated council. Revenue is raised +principally from customs and a capitation tax, which has replaced a hut +tax. The local budget for 1907 balanced at L205,000. Over the greater +part of the country the native princes retain their sovereignty under +the superintendence of French officials. The development of agriculture +and education are objects of special solicitude to the French +authorities. In general the natives are friendly towards their white +masters. + + See M. Famechon, _Notice sur la Guinee francaise_ (Paris, 1900); J. + Chautard, _Etude geophysique et geologique sur le Fouta-Djallon_ + (Paris, 1905); Andre Arcin, _La Guinee francaise_ (Paris, 1906), a + valuable monograph; J. Machat, _Les Rivieres du Sud et la + Fouta-Diallon_ (Paris, 1906), another valuable work, containing + exhaustive bibliographies. Consult also F. Rouget, _La Guinee_ (Paris, + 1908), an official publication, the annual _Reports_ on French West + Africa, published by the British Foreign Office, and the Carte de la + Guinee francaise by A. Meunier in 4 sheets on the scale 1:500,000 + (Paris, 1902). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Numerous remains of a stone age have been discovered, both on the + coast and in the hinterland. See L. Desplagnes, "L'Archeologie + prehistorique en Guinee francaise," in _Bull. Soc. Geog. Comm. de + Bordeaux_, March 1907, and the authorities there cited. + + + + +FRENCH LANGUAGE. I. _Geography._--French is the general name of the +north-north-western group of Romanic dialects, the modern Latin of +northern Gaul (carried by emigration to some places--as lower +Canada--out of France). In a restricted sense it is that variety of the +Parisian dialect which is spoken by the educated, and is the general +literary language of France. The region in which the native language is +termed French consists of the northern half of France (including +Lorraine) and parts of Belgium and Switzerland; its boundaries on the +west are the Atlantic Ocean and the Celtic dialects of Brittany; on the +north-west and north, the English Channel; on the north-east and east +the Teutonic dialects of Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. In the +south-east and south the boundary is to a great extent conventional and +ill-defined, there being originally no linguistic break between the +southern French dialects and the northern Provencal dialects of southern +France, north-western Italy and south-western Switzerland. It is formed +partly by spaces of intermediate dialects (some of whose features are +French, others Provencal), partly by spaces of mixed dialects resulting +from the invasion of the space by more northern and more southern +settlers, partly by lines where the intermediate dialects have been +suppressed by more northern (French) and more southern (Provencal) +dialects without these having mixed. Starting in the west at the mouth +of the Gironde, the boundary runs nearly north soon after passing +Bordeaux; a little north of Angouleme it turns to the east, and runs in +this direction into Switzerland to the north of Geneva. + +II. _External History._--(a) _Political._--By the Roman conquests the +language of Rome was spread over the greater part of southern and +western Europe, and gradually supplanted the native tongues. The +language introduced was at first nearly uniform over the whole empire, +Latin provincialisms and many more or less general features of the older +vulgar language being suppressed by the preponderating influence of the +educated speech of the capital. As legions became stationary, as +colonies were formed, and as the natives adopted the language of their +conquerors, this language split up into local dialects, the +distinguishing features of which are due, as far as can be ascertained +(except, to some extent, as to the vocabulary), not to speakers of +different nationalities misspeaking Latin, each with the peculiarities +of his native language, but to the fact that linguistic changes, which +are ever occurring, are not perfectly uniform over a large area, however +homogeneous the speakers. As Gaul was not conquered by Caesar till the +middle of the first century before our era, its Latin cannot have begun +to differ from that of Rome till after that date; but the artificial +retention of classical Latin as the literary and official language after +the popular spoken language had diverged from it, often renders the +chronology of the earlier periods of the Romanic languages obscure. It +is, however, certain that the popular Latin of Gaul had become +differentiated from that of central Italy before the Teutonic conquest +of Gaul, which was not completed till the latter half of the 5th +century; the invaders gradually adopted the language of their more +civilized subjects, which remained unaffected, except in its vocabulary. +Probably by this time it had diverged so widely from the artificially +preserved literary language that it could no longer be regarded merely +as mispronounced Latin; the Latin documents of the next following +centuries contain many clearly popular words and forms, and the literary +and popular languages are distinguished as _latina_ and _romana_. The +term _gallica_, at first denoting the native Celtic language of Gaul, is +found applied to its supplanter before the end of the 9th century, and +survives in the Breton _gallek_, the regular term for "French." After +the Franks in Gaul had abandoned their native Teutonic language, the +term _francisca_, by which this was denoted, came to be applied to the +Romanic one they adopted, and, under the form _francaise_, remains its +native name to this day; but this name was confined to the Romanic of +northern Gaul, which makes it probable that this, at the time of the +adoption of the name _francisca_, had become distinct from the Romanic +of southern Gaul. _Francisca_ is the Teutonic adjective _frankisk_, +which occurs in Old English in the form _frencise_; this word, with its +umlauted _e_ from _a_ with following _i_, survives under the form +_French_, which, though purely Teutonic in origin and form, has long +been exclusively applied to the Romanic language and inhabitants of +Gaul. The German name _franzose_, with its accent on, and _o_ in, the +second syllable, comes from _francois_, a native French form older than +_francais_, but later than the Early Old French _franceis_. The +Scandinavian settlers on the north-west coast of France early in the +10th century quickly lost their native speech, which left no trace +except in some contributions to the vocabulary of the language they +adopted. The main feature since is the growth of the political supremacy +of Paris, carrying with it that of its dialect; in 1539 Francis I. +ordered that all public documents should be in French (of Paris), which +then became the official language of the whole kingdom, though it is +still foreign to nearly half its population. + +The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of Normandy, introduced +into England, as the language of the rulers and (for a time) most of the +writers, the dialects spoken in Normandy (see also ANGLO-NORMAN +LITERATURE). Confined in their native country to definite areas, these +dialects, following their speakers, became mixed in England, so that +their forms were used to some extent indifferently; and the constant +communication with Normandy maintained during several reigns introduced +also later forms of continental Norman. As the conquerors learned the +language of the conquered, and as the more cultured of the latter +learned that of the former, the Norman of England (including that of the +English-speaking Lowlands of Scotland) became anglicized; instead of +following the changes of the Norman of France, it followed those of +English. The accession in 1154 of Henry II. of Anjou disturbed the +Norman character of Anglo-French, and the loss of Normandy under John in +1204 gave full play to the literary importance of the French of Paris, +many of whose forms afterwards penetrated to England. At the same time +English, with a large French addition to its vocabulary, was steadily +recovering its supremacy, and is officially employed (for the first time +since the Conquest) in the Proclamation of Henry III., 1258. The +semi-artificial result of this mixture of French of different dialects +and of different periods, more or less anglicized according to the date +or education of the speaker or writer, is generally termed "the +Anglo-Norman dialect"; but the term is misleading for a great part of +its existence, because while the French of Normandy was not a single +dialect, the later French of England came from other French provinces +besides Normandy, and being to a considerable extent in artificial +conditions, was checked in the natural development implied by the term +"dialect." The disuse of Anglo-French as a natural language is evidenced +by English being substituted for it in legal proceedings in 1362, and in +schools in 1387; but law reports were written in it up to about 1600, +and, converted into modern literary French, it remains in official use +for giving the royal assent to bills of parliament. + +(b) _Literary._--Doubtless because the popular Latin of northern Gaul +changed more rapidly than that of any other part of the empire, French +was, of all the Romanic dialects, the first to be recognized as a +distinct language, and the first to be used in literature; and though +the oldest specimen now extant is probably not the first, it is +considerably earlier than any existing documents of the allied +languages. In 813 the council of Tours ordered certain homilies to be +translated into Rustic Roman or into German; and in 842 Louis the +German, Charles the Bald, and their armies confirmed their engagements +by taking oaths in both languages at Strassburg. These have been +preserved to us by the historian Nithard (who died in 853); and though, +in consequence of the only existing manuscript (at Paris) being more +than a century later than the time of the author, certain alterations +have occurred in the text of the French oaths, they present more archaic +forms (probably of North-Eastern French) than any other document. The +next memorials are a short poem, probably North-Eastern, on St Eulalia, +preserved in a manuscript of the 10th century at Valenciennes, and some +autograph fragments (also at Valenciennes) of a homily on the prophet +Jonah, in mixed Latin and Eastern French, of the same period. To the +same century belong a poem on Christ's Passion, apparently in a mixed +(not intermediate) language of French and Provencal, and one, probably +in South-Eastern French, on St Leger; both are preserved, in different +handwritings, in a MS. at Clermont-Ferrand, whose scribes have +introduced many Provencal forms. After the middle of the 11th century +literary remains are comparatively numerous; the chief early +representative of the main dialects are the following, some of them +preserved in several MSS., the earliest of which, however (the only ones +here mentioned), are in several cases a generation or two later than the +works themselves. In Western French are a verse life of St Alexius +(Alexis), probably Norman, in an Anglo-Norman MS. at Hildesheim; the +epic poem of Roland, possibly also Norman, in an A.-N. MS. at Oxford; a +Norman verbal translation of the Psalms, in an A.-N. MS. also at Oxford; +another later one, from a different Latin version, in an A.-N. MS. at +Cambridge; a Norman translation of the Four Books of Kings, in a +probably A.-N. MS. at Paris. The earliest work in the Parisian dialect +is probably the Travels of Charlemagne, preserved in a late Anglo-Norman +MS. with much altered forms. In Eastern French, of rather later date, +there are translations of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory, in a MS. at +Paris, containing also fragments of Gregory's Moralities, and (still +later) of some Sermons of St Bernard, in a MS. also in Paris. From the +end of the 12th century literary and official documents, often including +local charters, abound in almost every dialect, until the growing +influence of Paris caused its language to supersede in writing the other +local ones. This influence, occasionally apparent about the end of the +12th century, was overpowering in the 15th, when authors, though often +displaying provincialisms, almost all wrote in the dialect of the +capital; the last dialect to lose its literary independence was the +North-Eastern, which, being the Romanic language of Flanders, had a +political life of its own, and (modified by Parisian) was used in +literature after 1400. + +III. _Internal History._--Though much has been done in recent years, in +the scientific investigation of the sounds, inflexions, and syntax of +the older stages and dialects of French, much still remains to be done, +and it must suffice here to give a sketch, mainly of the dialects which +were imported into England by the Normans--in which English readers will +probably take most interest, and especially of the features which +explain the forms of English words of French origin. Dates and places +are only approximations, and many statements are liable to be modified +by further researches. The primitive Latin forms given are often not +classical Latin words, but derivatives from these; and reference is +generally made to the Middle English (Chaucerian) pronunciation of +English words, not the modern. + +(a) _Vocabulary._--The fundamental part of the vocabulary of French is +the Latin imported into Gaul, the French words being simply the Latin +words themselves, with the natural changes undergone by all living +speech, or derivatives formed at various dates. Comparatively few words +were introduced from the Celtic language of the native inhabitants +(_bec_, _lieue_ from the Celtic words given by Latin writers as +_beccus_, _leuca_), but the number adopted from the language of the +Teutonic conquerors of Gaul is large (_guerre_ = _werra_; _laid_ = +_laidh_; _choisir_ = _kausjan_). The words were imported at different +periods of the Teutonic supremacy, and consequently show chronological +differences in their sounds (_hair_ = _hatan_; _francais_ = _frankisk_; +_ecrevisse_ = _krebiz_; _echine_ = _skina_). Small separate importations +of Teutonic words resulted from the Scandinavian settlement in France, +and the commercial intercourse with the Low German nations on the North +Sea (_friper_ = Norse _hripa_; _chaloupe_ = Dutch _sloop_; _est_ = Old +English _east_). In the meantime, as Latin (with considerable +alterations in pronunciation, vocabulary, &c.) continued in literary, +official and ecclesiastical use, the popular language borrowed from time +to time various more or less altered classical Latin words; and when the +popular language came to be used in literature, especially in that of +the church, these importations largely increased (_virginitet_ Eulalia = +_virginitatem_; _imagena_ Alexis = _imaginem_--the popular forms would +probably have been _vergedet_, _emain_). At the Renaissance they became +very abundant, and have continued since, stifling to some extent the +developmental power of the language. Imported words, whether Teutonic, +classical Latin or other, often receive some modification at their +importation, and always take part in all subsequent natural phonetic +changes in the language (Early Old French _adversarie_, Modern French +_adversaire_). Those French words which appear to contradict the +phonetic laws were mostly introduced into the language after the taking +place (in words already existing in the language) of the changes +formulated by the laws in question; compare the late imported _laique_ +with the inherited _lai_, both from Latin _laicum_. In this and many +other cases the language possesses two forms of the same Latin word, one +descended from it, the other borrowed (_meuble_ and _mobile_ from +_mobilem_). Some Oriental and other foreign words were brought in by the +crusaders (_amiral_ from _amir_); in the 16th century, wars, royal +marriages and literature caused a large number of Italian words +(_soldat_ = _soldato_; _brave_ = _bravo_; _caresser_ = _carezzare_) to +be introduced, and many Spanish ones (_alcove_ = _alcoba_; _habler_ = +_hablar_). A few words have been furnished by Provencal (_abeille_, +_cadenas_), and several have been adopted from other dialects into the +French of Paris (_esquiver_ Norman or Picard for the Paris-French +_eschiver_). German has contributed a few (_blocus_ = _blochus_; +_choucroute_ = _surkrut_); and recently a considerable number have been +imported from England (_drain_, _confortable_, _flirter_). In Old +French, new words are freely formed by derivation, and to a less extent +by composition; in Modern French, borrowing from Latin or other foreign +languages is the more usual course. Of the French words now obsolete +some have disappeared because the things they express are obsolete; +others have been replaced by words of native formation, and many have +been superseded by foreign words generally of literary origin; of those +which survive, many have undergone considerable alterations in meaning. +A large number of Old French words and meanings, now extinct in the +language of Paris, were introduced into English after the Norman +Conquest; and though some have perished, many have survived--_strife_ +from Old French _estrif_ (Teutonic _strit_); _quaint_ from _cointe_ +(_cognitum_); _remember_ from _remembrer_ (_rememorare_); _chaplet_ +(garland) from _chapelet_ (Modern French "chaplet of beads"); +_appointment_ (rendezvous) from _appointement_ (now "salary"). Many also +survive in other French dialects. + +(b) _Dialects._--The history of the French language from the period of +its earliest extant literary memorials is that of the dialects composing +it. But as the popular notion of a dialect as the speech of a definite +area, possessing certain peculiarities confined to and extending +throughout that area, is far from correct, it will be advisable to drop +the misleading divisions into "Norman dialect," "Picard dialect" and the +like, and take instead each important feature in the chronological order +(as far as can be ascertained) of its development, pointing out roughly +the area in which it exists, and its present state. The local terms used +are intentionally vague, and it does not, for instance, at all follow +that because "Eastern" and "Western" are used to denote the localities +of more than one dialectal feature, the boundary line between the two +divisions is the same in each case. It is, indeed, because dialectal +differences as they arise do not follow the same boundary lines (much +less the political divisions of provinces), but cross one another to any +extent, that to speak of the dialect of a large area as an individual +whole, unless that area is cut off by physical or alien linguistic +boundaries, creates only confusion. Thus the Central French of Paris, +the ancestor of classical Modern French, agrees with a more southern +form of Romanic (Limousin, Auvergne, Forez, Lyonnais, Dauphine) in +having _ts_, not _tsh_, for Latin _k_ (_c_) before _i_ and _e_; _tsh_, +not _k_, for _k_ (_c_) before _a_; and with the whole South in having +_gu_, not _w_, for Teutonic _w_; while it belongs to the East in having +_oi_ for earlier _ei_; and to the West in having _e_, not _ei_, for +Latin _a_; and _i_, not _ei_, from Latin _e_ + _i_. It may be well to +denote that Southern _French_ does not correspond to southern _France_, +whose native language is Provencal. "Modern French" means ordinary +educated Parisian French. + +(e) _Phonology._--The history of the sounds of a language is, to a +considerable extent, that of its inflections, which, no less than the +body of a word, are composed of sounds. This fact, and the fact that +unconscious changes are much more reducible to law than conscious ones, +render the phonology of a language by far the surest and widest +foundation for its dialectology, the importance of the sound-changes in +this respect depending, not on their prominence, but on the earliness of +their date. For several centuries after the divergence between spoken +and written Latin, the history of these changes has to be determined +mainly by reasoning, aided by a little direct evidence in the +misspellings of inscriptions the semi-popular forms in glossaries, and +the warnings of Latin grammarians against vulgarities. With the rise of +Romanic literature the materials for tracing the changes become +abundant, though as they do not give us the sounds themselves, but only +their written representations, much difficulty, and some uncertainty, +often attach to deciphering the evidence. Fortunately, early Romanic +orthography, that of Old French included (for which see next section), +was phonetic, as Italian orthography still is; the alphabet was +imperfect, as many new sounds had to be represented which were not +provided for in the Roman alphabet from which it arose, but writers +aimed at representing the sounds they uttered, not at using a fixed +combination of letters for each word, however they pronounced it. + +The characteristics of French as distinguished from the allied languages +and from Latin, and the relations of its sounds, inflections and syntax +to those of the last-named language, belong to the general subject of +the Romanic languages. It will be well, however, to mention here some of +the features in which it agrees with the closely related Provencal, and +some in which it differs. As to the latter, it has already been pointed +out that the two languages glide insensibly into one another, there +being a belt of dialects which possess some of the features of each. +French and Provencal of the 10th century--the earliest date at which +documents exist in both--agree to a great extent in the treatment of +Latin final consonants and the vowels preceding them, a matter of great +importance for inflections (numerous French examples occur in this +section), (1) They reject all vowels, except _a_, of Latin final +(unaccented) syllables, unless preceded by certain consonant +combinations or followed by _nt_ (here, as elsewhere, certain exceptions +cannot be noticed); (2) they do not reject _a_ similarly situated; (3) +they reject final (unaccented) _m_; (4) they retain final s. French and +Northern Provencal also agree in changing Latin _ue_ from a +labio-guttural to a labio-palatal vowel; the modern sound (German _ue_) +of the accented vowel of French _lune_, Provencal _luna_, contrasting +with that in Italian and Spanish _luna_, appears to have existed before +the earliest extant documents. The final vowel laws generally apply to +the unaccented vowel preceding the accented syllable, if it is preceded +by another syllable, and followed by a single consonant--_matin_ +(_matutinum_), _dortoir_ (_dormitorium_), with vowel dropped; _canevas_ +(_cannabaceum_), _armedure_, later _armeure_, now _armure_ +(_armaturam_), with _e_ = _[schwa]_, as explained below. + +On the other hand, French differs from Provencal: (1) in uniformly +preserving (in Early Old French) Latin final _t_, which is generally +rejected in Provencal--French _aimet_ (Latin _amat_), Provencal _ama_; +_aiment_ (_amant_), Prov. _aman_; (2) in always rejecting, absorbing or +consonantizing the vowel of the last syllable but one, if unaccented; in +such words as _angele_ (often spelt _angle_), the _e_ after the _g_ only +serves to show its soft sound--French _veintre_ (now _vaincre_, Latin +_vincere_), Prov. _vencer_, with accent on first syllable; French +_esclandre_ (_scandalum_), Prov. _escandol_; French _olie_ (dissyllabic, +_i_ = _y_ consonant, now _huile_), Prov. _oli_ (_oleum_); (3) in +changing accented _a_ not in position into _ai_ before nasals and +gutturals and not after a palatal, and elsewhere into _e_ (West French) +or _ei_ (East French), which develops an _i_ before it when preceded by +a palatal--French _main_ (Latin _manum_), Prov. _man_; _aigre_ +(_acrem_), _agre_; _ele_ (_alam_), East French _eile_, Prov. _ala_; +_meitie_ (_medietatem_), East French _moitieit_, Prov. _meitat_; (4) in +changing _a_ in unaccented final syllables into the vowel _[schwa]_, +intermediate to _a_ and _e_; this vowel is written _a_ in one or two of +the older documents, elsewhere _e_--French _aime_ (Latin _ama_), Prov. +_ama_; _aimes_ (_amas_), Prov. _amas_; _aimet_ (_amat_), Prov. _ama_; +(5) in changing original _au_ into _o_--French _or_ (_aurum_), Prov. +_aur_; _rober_ (Teutonic _raubon_), Prov. _raubar_; (6) in changing +general Romanic _e_, from accented _e_ and _i_ not in position, into +_ei_--French _veine_ (_venam_), Prov. _vena_; _peil_ (_pilum_), Prov. +_pel_. + +As some of the dialectal differences were in existence at the date of +the earliest extant documents, and as the existing materials, till the +latter half of the 11th century, are scanty and of uncertain locality, +the chronological order (here adopted) of the earlier sound-changes is +only tentative. + + (1) Northern French has _tsh_ (written _c_ or _ch_) for Latin _k_ + (_c_) and _t_ before palatal vowels, where Central and Southern French + have _ts_ (written _c_ or _z_)--North Norman and Picard _chire_ + (_ceram_), _brach_ (_brachium_), _plache_ (_plateam_); Parisian, South + Norman, &c., _cire_, _braz_, _place_. Before the close of the Early + Old French period (12th century) _ts_ loses its initial consonant, and + the same happened to _tsh_ a century or two later; with this change + the old distinction is maintained--Modern Guernsey and Picard _chire_, + Modern Picard _plache_ (in ordinary Modern French spelling); usual + French _cire_, _place_. English, having borrowed from North and South + Norman (and later Parisian), has instances of both _tsh_ and _s_, the + former in comparatively small number--_chisel_ (Modern French _ciseau_ + = (?) _caesellum_), _escutcheon_ (_ecusson_, _scutionem_); _city_ + (_cite_, _civitatem_), _place_. (2) Initial Teutonic _w_ is retained + in the north-east and along the north coast; elsewhere, as in the + other Romance languages, _g_ was prefixed--Picard, &c., _warde_ + (Teutonic _warda_), _werre_ (_werra_); Parisian, &c., _guarde_, + _guerre_. In the 12th century the _u_ or _w_ of _gu_ dropped, giving + the Modern French _garde_, _guerre_ (with _gu_ = _g_); _w_ remains in + Picard and Walloon, but in North Normandy it becomes _v_--Modern + Guernsey _vason_, Walloon _wazon_, Modern French _gazon_ (Teutonic + _wason_). English has both forms, sometimes in words originally the + same--_wage_ and _gage_ (Modern French _gage_, Teutonic _wadi_); + _warden_ and _guardian_ (_gardien_, _warding_). (3) Latin _b_ after + accented _a_ in the imperfect of the first conjugation, which becomes + _v_ in Eastern French, in Western French further changes to _w_, and + forms the diphthong _ou_ with the preceding vowel--Norman _amowe_ + (_amabam_), _portout_ (_portabat_); Burgundian _ameve_, _portevet_. + _-eve_ is still retained in some places, but generally the imperfect + of the first conjugation is assimilated to that of the others--amoit, + like _avoit_ (_habebat_). (4) The palatalization of every then + existing _k_ and _g_ (hard) when followed by _a_, _i_ or _e_, after + having caused the development of _i_ before the _e_ (East French _ei_) + derived from _a_ not in position, is abandoned in the north, the + consonants returning to ordinary _k_ or _g_, while in the centre and + south they are assibilated to _tsh_ or _dzh_--North Norman and Picard + _cachier_ (_captiare_), _kier_ (_carum_), _cose_ (_causam_), _eskiver_ + (Teutonic _skiuhan_), _wiket_ (Teutonic _wik_+_ittum_), _gal_ + (_gallum_), _gardin_ (from Teutonic _gard_); South Norman and Parisian + _chacier_, _chier_, _chose_, _eschiver_, _guichet_, _jal_, _jardin_. + Probably in the 14th century the initial consonant of _tsh_, _dzh_ + disappeared, giving the modern French _chasser_, _jardin_ with _ch_ = + _sh_ and _j_ = _zh_; but _tsh_ is retained in Walloon, and _dzh_ in + Lorraine. The Northern forms survive--Modern Guernsey _cachier_, + _gardin_; Picard _cacher_, _gardin_. English possesses numerous + examples of both forms, sometimes in related words--_catch_ and + _chase_; _wicket_, _eschew_; _garden_, _jaundice_ (_jaunisse_, from + _galbanum_). (5) For Latin accented _a_ not in position Western French + usually has _e_, Eastern French _ei_, both of which take an _i_ before + them when a palatal precedes--Norman and Parisian _per_ (_parem_), + _oiez_ (_audiatis_); Lorraine _peir_, _oieis_. In the 17th and 18th + centuries close _e_ changed to open _e_, except when final or before a + silent consonant--_amer_ (_amarum_) now having _e_, _aimer_ (_amare_) + retaining _e_. English shows the Western close _e_--_peer_ (Modern + French _pair_, Old French _per_), _chief_ (_chef_, _caput_); Middle + High German the Eastern _ei_--_lameir_ (Modern French _l'amer_, + _l'aimer_, _la mer_ = Latin _mare_). (6) Latin accented _e_ not in + position, when it came to be followed in Old French by _i_ unites with + this to form _i_ in the Western dialects, while the Eastern have the + diphthongs _ei_--Picard, Norman and Parisian _pire_ (_pejor_), _piz_ + (_pectus_); Burgundian _peire_, _peiz_. The distinction is still + preserved--Modern French _pire_, _pis_; Modern Burgundian _peire_, + _pei_. English words show always _i_--_price_ (_prix_, _pretium_) + _spite_ (_depit_, _despectum_). (7) The nasalization of vowels + followed by a nasal consonant did not take place simultaneously with + all the vowels. _A_ and _e_ before _n_ (guttural _n_, as in _sing_), + _n_ (palatal _n_), _n_ and _m_ were nasal in the 11th century, such + words as _tant_ (_tantum_) and _gent_ (_gentem_) forming in the Alexis + assonances to themselves, distinct from the assonances with _a_ and + _e_ before non-nasal consonants. In the Roland _umbre_ (_ombre_, + _umbram_) and _culchet_ (_couche_, _collocat_), _fier_ (_ferum_) and + _chiens_ (_canes_), _dit_ (_dictum_) and _vint_ (_venit_), _ceinte_ + (_cinctam_) and _veie_ (_voie_, _viam_), _brun_ (Teutonic _brun_) and + _fut_ (_fuit_) assonate freely, though _o_ (_u_) before nasals shows a + tendency to separation. The nasalization of _i_ and _u_ (= Modern + French _u_) did not take place till the 16th century; and in all cases + the loss of the following nasal consonant is quite modern, the older + pronunciation of _tant_, _ombre_ being _tant_, _ombr[schwa]_, not as + now _ta_, _obrh_. The nasalization took place whether the nasal + consonant was or was not followed by a vowel, _femme_ (_feminam_), + _honneur_ (_honorem_) being pronounced with nasal vowels m the first + syllable till after the 16th century, as indicated by the doubling of + the nasal consonant in the spelling and by the phonetic change (in + _femme_ and other words) next to be mentioned. English generally has + _au_ (now often reduced to _a_) for Old French _a_--_vaunt_ (_vanter_, + _vanitare_), _tawny_ (_tanne_ (?) Celtic). (8) The assimilation of + _[~e]_ (nasal _e_) to _a_ (nasal _a_) did not begin till the middle of + the 11th century, and is not yet universal, in France, though + generally a century later. In the Alexis nasal _a_ (as in _tant_) is + never confounded with nasal _e_ (as in _gent_) in the assonances, + though the copyist (a century later) often writes _a_ for nasal _e_ in + unaccented syllables, as in _amfant_ (_enfant_, _infantem_); in the + Roland there are several cases of mixture in the assonances, _gent_, + for instance, occurring in _ant_ stanzas, _tant_ in _ent_ ones. + English has several words with _a_ for _e_ before nasals--_rank_ + (_rang_, Old French _renc_, Teutonic _hringa_), _pansy_ (_pensee_, + _pensatam_); but the majority show _e_--_enter_ (_entrer_, _intrare_), + _fleam_ (_flamme_, Old French _fleme_, _phlebotomum_). The distinction + is still preserved in the Norman of Guernsey, where _an_ and _en_, + though both nasal, have different sounds--_lanchier_ (_lancer_, + _lanceare_), but _mentrie_ (Old French _menterie_, from _mentiri_). + (9) The loss of _s_, or rather _z_, before voiced consonants began + early, _s_ being often omitted or wrongly inserted in 12th century + MSS.--Earliest Old French _masle_ (_masculum_), _sisdre_ (_siceram_); + Modern French _male_, _cidre_. In English it has everywhere + disappeared--_male_, _cider_; except in two words, where it appears, + as occasionally in Old French, as _d_--_meddle_ (_meler_, + _misculare_), _medlar_ (_neflier_, Old French also _meslier_, + _mespilarium_). The loss of _s_ before voiceless consonants (except + _f_) is about two centuries later, and it is not universal even in + Parisian--Early Old French _feste_ (_festam_), _escuier_ + (_scutarium_); Modern French _fete_, _ecuyer_, but _esperer_ + (_sperare_). In the north-east _s_ before _t_ is still + retained--Walloon _chestai_ (_chateau_, _castellum_), _fiess_ + (_fete_). English shows _s_ regularly--_feast_, _esquire_. (10) Medial + _dh_ (soft _th_, as in _then_), and final _th_ from Latin _t_ or _d_ + between vowels, do not begin to disappear till the latter half of the + 11th century. In native French MSS. _dh_ is generally written _d_, and + _th_ written _t_; but the German scribe of the Oaths writes _adjudha_ + (_adjutam_), _cadhuna_ (Greek _kata_ and _unam_); and the English one + of the Alexis _cuntretha_ (_contratam_), _lothet_ (_laudatum_), and + that of the Cambridge Psalter _heriteth_ (_hereditatem_). Medial _dh_ + often drops even in the last-named MSS., and soon disappears; the same + is true for final _th_ in Western French--Modern French _contree_, + _loue_. But in Eastern French final _th_, to which Latin _t_ between + vowels had probably been reduced through _d_ and _dh_, appears in the + 12th century and later as _t_, rhyming on ordinary French final + _t_--Picard and Burgundian _pechiet_ (_peccatum_) _apeleit_ + (_appellatum_). In Western French some final _ths_ were saved by being + changed to _f_--Modern French _soif_ (_sitim_), _moeuf_ (obsolete, + _modum_). English has one or two instances of final _th_, none of + medial _dh_--_faith_ (_foi_, _fidem_); Middle English _cariteþ_ + (_charite_, _caritatem_), _druteth_ (Old French _dru_, Teutonic _drud_); + generally the consonant is lost--_country_, _charity_. Middle High + German shows the Eastern French final consonant--_moraliteit_ + (_moralite_, _moralitatem_). (11) _T_ from Latin final _t_, if in an + Old French unaccented syllable, begins to disappear in the Roland, + where sometimes _aimet_ (_amat_), sometimes _aime_, is required by the + metre, and soon drops in all dialects. The Modern French _t_ of + _aime-t-il_ and similar forms is an analogical insertion from such + forms as _dort-il_ (_dormit_), where the _t_ has always existed. (12) + The change of the diphthong _ai_ to _ei_ and afterwards to _ee_ (the + doubling indicates length) had not taken place in the earliest French + documents, words with _ai_ assonating only on words with _a_; in the + Roland such assonances occur, but those of _ai_ on _e_ are more + frequent--_faire_ (_facere_) assonating on _parastre_ (_patraster_) + and on _estes_ (_estis_); and the MS. (half a century later than the + poem) occasionally has _ei_ and _e_ for _ai_--_recleimet_ + (_reclamat_), _desfere_ (_disfacere_), the latter agreeing with the + Modern French sound. Before nasals (as in _laine_ = _lanam_) and _ie_ + (as in _paye_ = _pacatum_), _ai_ remained a diphthong up to the 16th + century, being apparently _ei_, whose fate in this situation it has + followed. English shows _ai_ regularly before nasals and when final, + and in a few other words--_vain_ (_vain_, _vanum_), _pay_ (_payer_, + _pacare_), _wait_ (_guetter_, Teutonic _wahten_); but before most + consonants it has usually _ee_--_peace_ (_pais_, _pacum_), _feat_ + (_fait_, _factum_). (13) The loss or transposition of _i_ + (= y-consonant) following the consonant ending an accented syllable + begins in the 12th century--Early Old French _glorie_ (_gloriam_), + _estudie_ (_studium_), _olie_ (_oleum_); Modern French _gloire_, + _etude_, _huile_. English sometimes shows the earlier form--_glory_, + _study_; sometimes the later--_dower_ (_douaire_, Early Old French + _doarie_, _dotarium_), _oil_ (_huile_). (14) The vocalization of _l_ + preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant becomes frequent at + the end of the 12th century; when preceded by open _e_, an _a_ + developed before the _l_ while this was a consonant--11th century + _salse_ (_salsa_), _beltet_ (_bellitatem_), _solder_ (_solidare_); + Modern French _sauce_, _beaute_, _souder_. In Parisian, final _el_ + followed the fate of _el_ before a consonant, becoming the triphthong + _eau_, but in Norman the vocalization did not take place, and the _l_ + was afterwards rejected--Modern French _ruisseau_, Modern Guernsey + _russe_ (_rivicellum_). English words of French origin sometimes show + _l_ before a consonant, but the general form is _u_--_scald_ + (_echauder_, _excalidare_), _Walter_ (_Gautier_, Teutonic _Waldhari_); + _sauce_, _beauty_, _soder_. Final _el_ is kept--_veal_ (_veau_, + _vitellum_), _seal_ (_sceau_, _sigillum_). (15) In the east and centre + _ei_ changes to _oi_, while the older sound is retained in the + north-west and west--Norman _estreit_ (_etroit_, _strictum_), _preie_ + (_proie_, _praedam_), 12th century Picard, Parisian, &c., _estroit_, + _proie_. But the earliest (10th century) specimens of the latter group + of dialects have _ei_--_pleier_ (_ployer_, _plicare_) Eulalia, + _mettreiet_ (_mettrait_, _mittere habebat_) Jonah. Parisian _oi_, + whether from _ei_ or from Old French _oi_, _oi_, became in the 15th + century _ue_ (spellings with _oue_ or _oe_ are not uncommon--_mirouer_ + for _miroir_, _miratorium_), and in the following, in certain words, + _e_, now written _ai_--_francais_, _connaitre_, from _francois_ + (_franceis_, _franciscum_), _conoistre_ (_conuistre_, _cognoscere_); + where it did not undergo the latter change it is now _ua_ or + _wa_--_roi_ (_rei_, _regem_), _croix_ (_cruis_, _crucem_). Before + nasals and palatal _l_, _ei_ (now = _e_) was kept--_veine_ (_vena_), + _veille_ (_vigila_), and it everywhere survives unlabialized in Modern + Norman--Guernsey _etelle_ (_etoile_, _stella_) with _e_, _ser_ + (_soir_, _serum_) with _e_. English shows generally _ei_ (or _ai_) for + original _ei_--_strait_ (_estreit_), _prey_ (_preie_); but in several + words the later Parisian _oi_--_coy_ (_coi_, _qvietum_), _loyal_ + (_loyal_, _legalem_). (16) The splitting of the vowel-sound from + accented Latin _o_ or _u_ not in position, represented in Old French + by _o_ and _u_ indifferently, into _u_, _o_ (before nasals), and _eu_ + (the latter at first a diphthong, now = German _oe_), is unknown to + Western French till the 12th century, and is not general in the east. + The sound in 11th century Norman was much nearer to _u_ (Modern French + _ou_) than to _o_ (Modern French _o_), as the words borrowed by + English show _uu_ (at first written _u_, afterwards _ou_ or _ow_), + never _oo_; but was probably not quite _u_, as Modern Norman shows the + same splitting of the sound as Parisian. Examples are--Early Old + French _espose_ or _espuse_ (_sponsam_), _nom_ or _num_ (_nomen_), + _flor_ or _flur_ (_florem_); Modern French _epouse_, _nom_, _fleur_; + Modern Guernsey _goule_ (_gueule_, _gulam_), _nom_, _flleur_. Modern + Picard also shows _u_, which is the regular sound before _r_--_flour_; + but Modern Burgundian often keeps the original Old French _o_--_vo_ + (_vous_, _vos_). English shows almost always _uu_--_spouse_, _noun_, + _flower_ (Early Middle English _spuse_, _nun_, _flur_); but _nephew_ + with _eu_ (_neveu_, _nepotem_). (17) The loss of the _u_ (or _w_) of + _qu_ dates from the end of the 12th century--Old French _quart_ + (_qvartum_), _quitier_ (_qvietare_) with _qu_ = _kw_, Modern French + _quart_, _quitter_ with _qu_ = _k_. In Walloon the _w_ is + preserved--_couar_ (_quart_), _cuitter_; as is the case in + English--_quart_, _quit_. The _w_ of _gw_ seems to have been lost + rather earlier, English having simple _g_--_gage_ (_gage_, older + _guage_, Teutonic _wadi_), _guise_ (_guise_, Teutonic _wisa_). (18) + The change of the diphthong _ou_ to _uu_ did not take place till after + the 12th century, such words as _Anjou_ (_Andegavum_) assonating in + the Roland on _fort_ (_fortem_); and did not occur in Picardy, where + _ou_ became _au caus_ from older _cous_, _cols_ (_cous_, _collos_) + coinciding with _caus_ from _calz_ (_chauds_, _calidos_). English + keeps _ou_ distinct from _uu_--_vault_ for _vaut_ (Modern French + _voute_, _volvitam_), _soder_ (_souder_, _solidare_). (19) The change + of the diphthong _ie_ to simple _e_ is specially Anglo-Norman, in Old + French of the Continent these sounds never rhyme, in that of England + they constantly do, and English words show, with rare exceptions, the + simple vowel--_fierce_ (Old French _fiers_, _ferus_), chief (_chief_, + _caput_), with _ie_ = _ee_; but _pannier_ (_panier_, _panarium_). At + the beginning of the modern period, Parisian dropped the _i_ of _ie_ + when preceded by _ch_ or _j_--_chef_, _abreger_ (Old French + _abregier_, _abbreviare_); elsewhere (except in verbs) _ie_ is + retained--_fier_ (_ferum_), _pitie_ (_pietatem_). Modern Guernsey + retains _ie_ after _ch_--_ap'rchier_ (_approcher_, _adpropeare_).(20) + Some of the Modern French changes have found their places under older + ones; those remaining to be noticed are so recent that English + examples of the older forms are superfluous. In the 16th century the + diphthong _au_ changed to _ao_ and then to _o_, its present sound, + rendering, for instance, _maux_ (Old French _mals_, _malos_) identical + with _mots_ (_muttos_). The _au_ of _eau_ underwent the same change, + but its _e_ was still sounded as _[schwa]_ (the _e_ of _que_); in the + next century this was dropped, making _veaux_ (Old French _veels_, + _vitellos_) identical with _vaux_ (_vals_, _valles_). (21) A more + general and very important change began much earlier than the last; + this is the loss of many final consonants. In Early Old French every + consonant was pronounced as written; by degrees many of them + disappeared when followed by another consonant, whether in the same + word (in which case they were generally omitted in writing) or in a + following one. This was the state of things in the 16th century; those + final consonants which are usually silent in Modern French were still + sounded, if before a vowel or at the end of a sentence or a line of + poetry, but generally not elsewhere. Thus a large number of French + words had two forms; the Old French _fort_ appeared as _for_ (though + still written _fort_) before a consonant, fort elsewhere. At a later + period final consonants were lost (with certain exceptions) when the + word stood at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry; but they + are generally kept when followed by a word beginning with a vowel. + (22) A still later change is the general loss of the vowel (written e) + of unaccented final syllables; this vowel preserved in the 16th + century the sound _[schwa]_, which it had in Early Old French. In + later Anglo-Norman final _[schwa]_ (like every other sound) was + treated exactly as the same sound in Middle English; that is, it came + to be omitted or retained at pleasure, and in the 15th century + disappeared. In Old French the loss of final _[schwa]_ is confined to + a few words and forms; the 10th century _saveiet_ (_sapebat_ for + _sapiebat_) became in the 11th _saveit_, and _ore_ (_ad horam_), _ele_ + (_illam_) develop the abbreviated _or, el_. In the 15th century + _[schwa]_ before a vowel generally disappears--_mur_, Old French + _meur_ (_maturum_); and in the 16th, though still written, _[schwa]_ + after an unaccented vowel, and in the syllable _ent_ after a vowel, + does the same--_vraiment_, Old French _vraiement_ (_veraca mente_); + _avoient_ two syllables, as now (_avaient_), in Old French three + syllables (as _habebant_). These phenomena occur much earlier in the + anglicized French of England--13th century _aveynt_ (Old French + _aveient_). But the universal loss of final _e_, which has clipped a + syllable from half the French vocabulary, did not take place till the + 18th century, after the general loss of final consonants; _fort_ and + _forte_, distinguished at the end of a sentence or line in the 16th + century as _fort_ and _fort[schwa]_, remain distinguished, but as + _for_ and _fort_. The metre of poetry is still constructed on the + obsolete pronunciation, which is even revived in singing; "dites, la + jeune belle," actually four syllables (_dit, la zhoen bel_), is + considered as seven, fitted with music accordingly, and sung to fit + the music (_dit[schwa], la zhoena bel[schwa]_). (23) In Old French, as + in the other Romanic languages, the stress (force, accent) is on the + syllable which was accented in Latin; compare the treatment of the + accented and unaccented vowels in _latro amas_, giving _lere, aime_, + and in _latronem, amatis_, giving _laron, amez_, the accented vowels + being those which rhyme or assonate. At present, stress in French is + much less marked than in English, German or Italian, and is to a + certain extent variable; which is partly the reason why most native + French scholars find no difficulty in maintaining that the stress in + living Modern French is on the same syllable as in Old French. The + fact that stress in the French of to-day is independent of length + (quantity) and pitch (tone) largely aids the confusion; for though the + final and originally accented syllable (not counting the silent e as a + syllable) is now generally pronounced with less force, it very often + has a long vowel with raised pitch. In actual pronunciation the chief + stress is usually on the first syllable (counting according to the + sounds, not the spelling), but in many polysyllables it is on the last + but one; thus in _caution_ the accented (strong) syllable cau, in + _occasion_ it is _ca_. Poetry is still written according to the + original place of the stress; the rhyme-syllables of _larron, aimez_ + are still _ron_ and _mez_, which when set to music receive an accented + (strong) note, and are sung accordingly, though in speech the la and + ai generally have the principal stress. In reading poetry, as + distinguished from singing, the modern pronunciation is used, both as + to the loss of the final _[schwa]_ and the displacement of the stress, + the result being that the theoretical metre in which the poetry is + written disappears. (24) In certain cases accented vowels were + lengthened in Old French, as before a lost s; this was indicated in + the 16th century by a circumflex--_bete_, Old French _beste_ + (_bestiam_), _ame_, Old French _anme_ (_anima_). The same occurred in + the plural of many nouns, where a consonant was lost before the _s_ of + the flection; thus singular _coc_ with short vowel, plural _cos_ with + long. The plural _cos_, though spelt _cogs_ instead of _co_ (= _koo_), + is still sometimes to be heard, but, like other similar ones, is + generally refashioned after the singular, becoming _kok_. In present + French, except where a difference of quality has resulted, as in + _cote_ (Old French _coste, costam_) with _o_ and _cotte_ (Old French + _cote_), with _o_, short and long vowels generally run together, + quantity being now variable and uncertain; but at the beginning of + this century the Early Modern distinctions appear to have been + generally preserved. + +(d) _Orthography._--The history of French spelling is based on that of +French sounds; as already stated, the former (apart from a few Latinisms +in the earliest documents) for several centuries faithfully followed the +latter. When the popular Latin of Gaul was first written, its sounds +were represented by the letters of the Roman alphabet; but these were +employed, not in the values they had in the time of Caesar, but in those +they had acquired in consequence of the phonetic changes that had +meantime taken place. Thus, as the Latin sound _u_ had become _o_ (close +_o_) and _u_ had become _y_ (French _u_, German _ue_), the letter _u_ was +used sometimes to denote the sound _o_, sometimes the sound _y_; as +Latin _k_ (written _c_) had become _tsh_ or _ts_, according to dialect, +before _e_ and _i_, _c_ was used to represent those sounds as well as +that of _k_. The chief features of early French orthography (apart from +the specialities of individual MSS., especially the earliest) are +therefore these:--_c_ stood for _k_ and _tsh_ or _ts_; _d_ for _d_ and +_dh_ (soft _th_); _e_ for _e_, _e_, and _[schwa]_; _g_ for _g_ and _dzh_; +_h_ was often written in words of Latin origin where not sounded; _i_ +(_j_) stood for _i_, _y_ consonant, and _dzh_; _o_ for _o_ (Anglo-Norman +_u_) and _o_; _s_ for _s_ and _z_; _t_ for _t_ and _th_; _u_ (_v_) for +_o_ (Anglo-Norman _u_), _y_ and _v_; _y_ (rare) for _i_; _z_ for _dz_ +and _ts_. Some new sounds had also to be provided for: where _tsh_ had +to be distinguished from non-final _ts_, _ch_--at first, as in Italian, +denoting _k_ before _i_ and _e_ (_chi_ = _ki_ from _qvi_)--was used for +it; palatal _l_ was represented by _ill_, which when final usually lost +one _l_, and after _i_ dropped its _i_; palatal _n_ by _gn_, _ng_ or +_ngn_, to which _i_ was often prefixed; and the new letter _w_, +originally _uu_ (_vv_), and sometimes representing merely _uv_ or _vu_, +was employed for the consonant-sound still denoted by it in English. All +combinations of vowel-letters represented diphthongs; thus _ai_ denoted +_a_ followed by _i_, _ou_ either _ou_ or _ou_, _ui_ either _oi_ +(Anglo-Norman _ui_) or _yi_, and similarly with the others--_ei_, _eu_, +_oi_, _iu_, _ie_, _ue_ (and _oe_), and the triphthong _ieu_. Silent +letters, except initial _h_ in Latin words, are very rare; though MSS. +copied from older ones often retain letters whose sounds, though +existing in the language of the author, had disappeared from that of the +more modern scribe. The subsequent changes in orthography are due mainly +to changes of sound, and find their explanation in the phonology. Thus, +as Old French progresses, _s_, having become silent before voiced +consonants, indicates only the length of the preceding vowel; _e_ before +nasals, from the change of _[~e]_ (nasal _e_) to _a_ (nasal _a_), +represents _a_; _c_, from the change of _ts_ to _s_, represents _s_; +_qu_ and _gu_, from the loss of the _w_ of _kw_ and _gw_, represent _k_ +and _g_ (hard); _ai_, from the change of _ai_ to _e_, represents _e_; +_ou_, from the change of _ou_ and _ou_ to _u_, represents _u_; _ch_ and +_g_, from the change of _tsh_ and _dzh_ to _sh_ and _zh_, represent _sh_ +and _zh_; _eu_ and ue, originally representing diphthongs, represent oe +(German _oe_); _z_, from the change of _ts_ and _dz_ to _s_ and _z_, +represents _s_ and _z_. The new values of some of these letters were +applied to words not originally spelt with them: Old French _k_ before +_i_ and _e_ was replaced by _qu_ (_evesque_, _eveske_, Latin +_episcopum_); Old French _u_ and _o_ for _o_, after this sound had split +into _eu_ and _u_, were replaced in the latter case by _ou_ (_rous_, for +_ros_ or _rus_, Latin _russum_); _s_ was accidentally inserted to mark a +long vowel (_pasle_, _pale_, Latin _pallidum_); _eu_ replaced _ue_ and +_oe_ (_neuf_, _nuef_, Latin _novum_ and _novem_); _z_ replaced _s_ after +_e_ (_nez_, _nes_, _nasum_). The use of _x_ for final _s_ is due to an +orthographical mistake; the MS. contraction of _us_ being something like +_x_ was at last confused with it (_iex_ for _ieus_, _oculos_), and, its +meaning being forgotten, _u_ was inserted before the _x_ (_yeux_) which +thus meant no more than _s_, and was used for it after other vowels +(_voix_ for _vois_, _vocem_). As literature came to be extensively +cultivated, traditional as distinct from phonetic spelling began to be +influential; and in the 14th century, the close of the Old French +period, this influence, though not overpowering, was strong--stronger +than in England at that time. About the same period there arose +etymological as distinct from traditional spelling. This practice, the +alteration of traditional spelling by the insertion or substitution of +letters which occurred (or were supposed to occur) in the Latin (or +supposed Latin) originals of the French words, became very prevalent in +the three following centuries, when such forms as _debvoir_ (_debere_) +for _devoir_, _faulx_ (_falsum_) for _faus_, _autheur_ (_auctorem_, +supposed to be _authorem_) for _auteur_, _poids_ (supposed to be from +_pondus_, really from _pensum_) for _pois_, were the rule. But besides +the etymological, there was a phonetic school of spelling (Ramus, in +1562, for instance, writes _eime_, _eimates_--with _e_ = _e_, _e_ = _e_, +and _e_ = _[schwa]_--for _aimai_, _aimastes_), which, though +unsuccessful on the whole, had some effect in correcting the excesses of +the other, so that in the 17th century most of these inserted letters +began to drop; of those which remain, some (_flegme_ for _flemme_ or +_fleume_, Latin _phlegma_) have corrupted the pronunciation. Some +important reforms--as the dropping of silent _s_, and its replacement by +a circumflex over the vowel when this was long; the frequent distinction +of close and open _e_ by acute and grave accents; the restriction of _i_ +and _u_ to the vowel sound, of _j_ and _v_ to the consonant; and the +introduction from Spain of the cedilla to distinguish _c_ = _s_ from _c_ += _k_ before _a_, _u_ and _o_--are due to the 16th century. The +replacement of _oi_, where it had assumed the value _e_, by _ai_, did +not begin till the last century, and was not the rule till the present +one. Indeed, since the 16th century the changes in French spelling have +been small, compared with the changes of the sounds; final consonants +and final _e_ (unaccented) are still written, though the sounds they +represent have disappeared. + +Still, a marked effort towards the simplification of French orthography +was made in the third edition of the _Dictionary_ of the French Academy +(1740), practically the work of the Abbe d'Olivet. While in the first +(1694) and second (1718) editions of this dictionary words were +overburdened with silent letters, supposed to represent better the +etymology, in the third edition the spelling of about 5000 words (out of +about 18,000) was altered and made more in conformity with the +pronunciation. So, for instance, _c_ was dropped in _beinfaicteur_ and +_object_, _c_ in _scavoir_, _d_ in _advocat_, _s_ in _accroistre_, +_albastre_, _aspre_ and _bastard_, _e_ in the past part. _creu_, _deu_, +_veu_, and in such words as _alleure_, _souilleure_; _y_ was replaced by +_i_ in _cecy, celuy, gay, joye_, &c. But those changes were not made +systematically, and many pedantic spellings were left untouched, while +many inconsistencies still remain in the present orthography (_siffler_ +and _persifler_, _souffler_ and _boursoufler_, &c). The consequence of +those efforts in contrary directions is that French orthography is now +quite as traditional and unphonetic as English, and gives an even falser +notion than this of the actual state of the language it is supposed to +represent. Many of the features of Old French orthography, early and +late, are preserved in English orthography; to it we owe the use of _c_ +for _s_ (Old English _c_ = _k_ only), of _j_ (_i_) for _dzh_, of _v_ +(_u_) for _v_ (in Old English written _f_), and probably of _ch_ for +_tsh_. The English _w_ is purely French, the Old English letter being +the runic _Þ_. When French was introduced into England, _kw_ had not +lost its _w_, and the French _qu_, with that value, replaced the Old +English _cÞ_ (_queen_ for _cÞ_en). In Norman, Old French _o_ had become +very like _u_, and in England went entirely into it; _o_, which was one +of its French signs, thus came to be often used for _u_ in English +(_come_ for _cume_). _U_, having often in Old French its Modern French +value, was so used in England, and replaced the Old English _y_ (_busy_ +for _bysi_, Middle English _brud_ for _bryd_), and _y_ was often used +for _i_ (_day_ for _dai_). In the 13th century, when _ou_ had come to +represent _u_ in France, it was borrowed by English, and used for the +long sound of that vowel (_sour_ for _sur_); and _gu_, which had come to +mean simply _g_ (hard), was occasionally used to represent the sound _g_ +before _i_ and _e_ (_guess_ for _gesse_). Some of the Early Modern +etymological spellings were imitated in England; _fleam_ and _autour_ +were replaced by _phlegm_ and _authour_, the latter spelling having +corrupted the pronunciation. + +(e) _Inflections._--In the earliest Old French extant, the influence +of analogy, especially in verbal forms, is very marked when these are +compared with Latin (thus the present participles of all conjugations +take _ant_, the ending of the first, Latin _antem_), and becomes +stronger as the language progresses. Such isolated inflectional changes +as _saveit_ into _savoit_, which are cases of regular phonetic changes, +are not noticed here. + + (i.) _Verbs._--(1) In the oldest French texts the Latin pluperfect + (with the sense of the perfect) occasionally occurs--_avret_ + (_habuerat_), _roveret_ (_rogaverat_); it disappears before the 12th + century. (2) The _u_ of the ending of the 1st pers. plur. _mus_ drops + in Old French, except in the perfect, where its presence (as + _[schwa]_) is not yet satisfactorily explained--_amoms_ (_amamus_, + influenced by _sumus_), but _amames_ (_amavimus_). In Picard the + atonic ending _mes_ is extended to all tenses, giving _amomes_, &c. + (3) In the present indicative, 2nd person plur., the ending _ez_ of + the first conjugation (Latin _atis_) extends, even in the earliest + documents, to all verbs--_avez, recevez, oez_ (_habetis_, _recipitis, + auditis_) like _amez_ (_amatis_); such forms as _dites_, _faites_ + (_dicitis_, _facitis_) being exceptional archaisms. This levelling of + the conjugation does not appear at such an early time in the future + (formed from the infinitive and from _habetis_ reduced to _etis_); in + the Roland both forms occur, _portereiz_ (_portare habetis_) + assonating on _rei_ (_roi, regem_), and the younger _porterez_ on + _citet_ (_cite_, _civitatem_), but about the end of the 13th century + the older form _-eiz_, _-oiz_, is dropped, and _-ez_ becomes gradually + the uniform ending for this 2nd person of the plural in the future + tense. (4) In Eastern French the 1st plur., when preceded by _i_, has + _e_, not _o_, before the nasal, while Western French has _u_ (or _o_), + as in the present; _posciomes_ (_posseamus_) in the Jonah homily makes + it probable that the latter is the older form--Picard _aviemes_, + Burgundian _aviens_, Norman _aviums_ (_habebamus_). (5) The + subjunctive of the first conjugation has at first in the singular no + final _e_, in accordance with the final vowel laws--_plur_, _plurs_, + _plurt_ (_plorem_, _plores_, _ploret_). The forms are gradually + assimilated to those of the other conjugations, which, deriving from + Latin _am_, _as_, _at_, have _e_, _es_, _e_(_t_); Modern French + _pleure_, _pleures_, _pleure_, like _perde_, _perdes_, _perde_ + (_perdam_, _perdas_, _perdat_). (6) In Old French the present + subjunctive and the 1st sing. pres. ind. generally show the influence + of the _i_ or _e_ of the Latin _iam_, _eam_, _io_, _eo_--Old French + _muire_ or _moerge_ (_moriat_ for _moriatur_), _tiegne_ or _tienge_ + (_teneat_), _muir_ or _moerc_ (_morio_ for _morior_), _tieng_ or + _tienc_ (_teneo_). By degrees these forms are levelled under the other + present forms--Modern French _meure_ and _meurs_ following _meurt_ + (_morit_ for _moritur_), _tienne_ and _tiens_ following _tient_ + (_tenet_). A few of the older forms remain--the vowel of _aie_ + (_habeam_) and _ai_ (_habeo_) contrasting with that of _a_ (_habet_). + (7) A levelling of which instances occur in the 11th century, but + which is not yet complete, is that of the accented and unaccented + stem-syllables of verbs. In Old French many verb-stems with shifting + accent vary in accordance with phonetic laws--_parler_ (_parabolare_), + _amer_ (_amare_) have in the present indicative _parol_ (_parabolo_), + _paroles_ (_parabolas_), _parolet_ (_parabolat_), _parlums_ + (_parabolamus_), _parlez_ (_parabolatis_), _parolent_ (_parabolant_); + _aim_ (_amo_), _aimes_ (_amas_), _aimet_ (_amat_), _amums_ (_amamus_), + _amez_ (_amatis_), _aiment_ (_amant_). In the first case the + unaccented, in the second the accented form has prevailed--Modern + French _parle_, _parler_; _aime_, _aimer_. In several verbs, as + _tenir_ (_tenere_), the distinction is retained--_tiens_, _tiens_, + _tient_, _tenons_, _tenez_, _tiennent_. (8) In Old French, as stated + above, _ie_ instead of _e_ from _a_ occurs after a palatal (which, if + a consonant, often split into _i_ with a dental); the diphthong thus + appears in several forms of many verbs of the 1st + conjugation--_preier_ (= _prei-ier_, _precare_), _vengier_ + (_vindicare_), _laissier_ (_laxare_), _aidier_ (_adjutare_). At the + close of the Old French period, those verbs in which the stem ends in + a dental replace _ie_ by the _e_ of other verbs--Old French + _laissier_, _aidier_, _laissiez_ (_laxatis_), _aidiez_ (adjutatis); + Modern French _laisser_, _aider_, _laissez_, _aidez_, by analogy of + _aimer_, _aimez_. The older forms generally remain in + Picard--_laissier_, _aidier_. (9) The addition of _e_ to the 1st sing. + pres. ind. of all verbs of the first conjugation is rare before the + 13th century, but is usual in the 15th; it is probably due to the + analogy of the third person--Old French _chant_ (_canto_), _aim_ + (_amo_); Modern French _chante_, _aime_. (10) In the 13th century _s_ + is occasionally added to the 1st pers. sing., except those ending in + _e_ (= _[schwa]_) and _ai_, and to the 2nd sing. of imperatives; at the + close of the 16th century this becomes the rule, and extends to + imperfects and conditionals in _oie_ after the loss of their _e_. It + appears to be due to the influence of the 2nd pers. sing.--Old French + _vend_ (_vendo_ and _vende_), _vendoie_ (_vendebam_), _parti_ + (_partivi_), _ting_ (_tenui_); Modern French _vends_, _vendais_, + _partis_, _tins_; and _donne_ (_dona_) in certain cases becomes + _donnes_. (11) The 1st and 2nd plur. of the pres. subj., which in Old + French were generally similar to those of the indicative, gradually + take an _i_ before them, which is the rule after the 16th century--Old + French _perdons_ (_perdamus_), _perdez_ (_perdatis_); Modern French + _perdions_, _perdiez_, apparently by analogy of the imp. ind. (12) The + loss in Late Old French of final _s_, _t_, &c., when preceding another + consonant, caused many words to have in reality (though often + concealed by orthography) double forms of inflection--one without + termination, the other with. Thus in the 16th century the 2nd sing. + pres. ind. _dors_ (_dormis_) and the 3rd _dort_ (_dormit_) were + distinguished as _dorz_ and _dort_ when before a vowel, as _dors_ and + _dort_ at the end of a sentence or line of poetry, but ran together as + _dor_ when followed by a consonant. Still later, the loss of the final + consonant when not followed by a vowel further reduced the cases in + which the forms were distinguished, so that the actual French + conjugation is considerably simpler than is shown by the customary + spellings, except when, in consequence of an immediately following + vowel, the old terminations occasionally appear. Even here the + antiquity is to a considerable extent artificial or delusive, some of + the insertions being due to analogy, and the popular language often + omitting the traditional consonant or inserting a different one. (13) + The subsequent general loss of _e_ = _[schwa]_ in unaccented final + syllables has still further reduced the inflections, but not the + distinctive forms--_perd_ (_perdit_) and _perde_ (_perdat_) being + generally distinguished as _per_ and _perd_, and before a vowel as + _pert_ and _perd_. + + (ii.) _Substantives._--(1) In Early Old French (as in Provencal) there + are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; with a few + exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and accusative in both + numbers, the latter in neither. The nom. and acc. sing, and acc. plur. + mas. correspond to those of the Latin 2nd or 3rd declension, the nom. + plur. to that of the 2nd declension. The sing, fem. corresponds to the + nom. and acc. of the Latin 1st declension, or to the acc. of the 3rd; + the plur. fem. to the acc. of the 1st declension, or to the nom. and + acc. of the 3rd. Thus masc. _tors_ (_taurus_), _lere_ (_latro_); _tor_ + (_taurum_), _laron_ (_latronem_); _tor_ (_tauri_), _laron_ (_latroni_ + for _-nes_); _tors_ (_tauros_), _larons_ (_latrones_); but fem. only + _ele_ (_ala_ and _alam_), _flor_ (_florem_); _eles_ (_alas_), _flors_ + (_flores_ nom. and acc.). About the end of the 11th century feminines + not ending in _e_ = _[schwa]_ take, by analogy of the masculines, _s_ + in the nom. sing., thus distinguishing nom. _flors_ from acc. _flor_. + A century later, masculines without _s_ in the nom. sing. take this + consonant by analogy of the other masculines, giving _leres_ as nom. + similar to _tors_. In Anglo-Norman the accusative forms very early + begin to replace the nominative, and soon supersede them, the language + following the tendency of contemporaneous English. In continental + French the declension-system was preserved much longer, and did not + break up till the 14th century, though acc. forms are occasionally + substituted for nom. (rarely nom. for acc.) before that date. It must + be noticed, however, that in the current language the reduction of the + declension to one case (generally the accusative) per number appears + much earlier than in the language of literature proper and poetry; + Froissart, for instance, _c._ 1400, in his poetical works is much more + careful of the declension than in his Chronicles. In the 15th century + the modern system of one case is fully established; the form kept is + almost always the accusative (sing. without _s_, plural with _s_), but + in a few words, such as _fils_ (_filius_), _soeur_ (_soror_), _pastre_ + (_pastor_), and in proper names such as _Georges_, _Gilles_, &c., + often used as vocative (therefore with the form of nom.); the nom. + survives in the sing. Occasionally both forms exist, in different + senses--_sire_ (_senior_) and _seigneur_ (_seniorem_), _on_ (_homo_) + and _homme_ (_hominem_). (2) Latin neuters are generally masculine in + Old French, and inflected according to their analogy, as _ciels_ + (_caelus_ for _caelum_ nom.), _ciel_ (_caelum_ acc.), _ciel_ (_caeli_ + for _caela_ nom.), _ciels_ (_caelos_ for _caela_ acc.); but in some + cases the form of the Latin neuter is preserved, as in _cors_, now + _corps_, Lat. _corpus_; _tens_, now _temps_, Lat. _tempus_. Many + neuters lose their singular form and treat the plural as a feminine + singular, as in the related languages--_merveille_ (_mirabilia_), + _feuille_ (_folia_). But in a few words the neuter plural termination + is used, as in Italian, in its primitive sense--_carre_ (_carra_, + which exists as well as _carri_), _paire_ (_Lat. paria_); Modern + French _chars_, _paires_. (3) In Old French the inflectional _s_ often + causes phonetic changes in the stem; thus palatal _l_ before _s_ takes + _t_ after it, and becomes dental _l_, which afterwards changes to _u_ + or drops--_fil_ (_filium_ and _filii_) with palatal _l_, _filz_ + (_filius_ and _filios_), afterwards _fiz_, with _z_ = _ts_ (preserved + in English _Fitz_), and then _fis_, as now (spelt _fils_). Many + consonants before _s_, as the _t_ of _fiz_, disappear, and _l_ is + vocalized--_vif_ (_vivum_), _mal_ (_malum_), nominative sing. and acc. + plur. _vis_, _maus_ (earlier _mals_). These forms of the plural are + retained in the 16th century, though often etymologically spelt with + the consonant of the singular, as in _vifs_, pronounced _vis_; but in + Late Modern French many of them disappear, _vifs_, with _f_ sounded as + in the singular, being the plural of _vif_, _bals_ (formerly _baux_) + that of _bal_. In many words, as _chant_ (_cantus_) and _champs_ + (_campos_) with silent _t_ and _p_ (Old French _chans_ in both cases), + _maux_ (Old French _mals_, sing. _mal_), _yeux_ (_oculos_, Old French + _oelz_, sing. _oeil_) the old change in the stem is kept. Sometimes, + as in _cieux_ (_caelos_) and _ciels_, the old traditional and the + modern analogical forms coexist, with different meanings. (4) The + modern loss of final _s_ (except when kept as _z_ before a vowel) has + seriously modified the French declension, the singulars _fort_ (_for_) + and _forte_ (_fort_) being generally undistinguishable from their + plurals _forts_ and _fortes_. The subsequent loss of _[schwa]_ in + finals has not affected the relation between sing. and plur. forms; + but with the frequent recoining of the plural forms on the singular + present Modern French has very often no distinction between sing. and + plur., except before a vowel. Such plurals as _maux_ have always been + distinct from their singular _mal_; in those whose singular ends in + _s_ there never was any distinction, Old French _laz_ (now spelt + _lacs_) corresponding to _laqveus_, _laqveum_, _laqvei_ and _laqveos_. + + (iii.) _Adjectives._--(1) The terminations of the cases and numbers of + adjectives are the same as those of substantives, and are treated in + the preceding paragraph. The feminine generally takes no _e_ if the + masc. has none, and if there is no distinction in Latin--fem. sing. + _fort_ (_fortem_), _grant_ (_grandem_), fem. plur. _forz_ (_fortes_), + _granz_ (_grandes_), like the acc. masc. Certain adjectives of this + class, and among them all the adjectives formed with the Latin suffix + _-ensis_, take regularly, even in the oldest French, the feminine + ending _e_, in _Provencal_ a (_courtois_, fem. _courtoise_; _commun_, + fem. _commune_). To these must not be added _dous_ (Mod. Fr. _dolz_, + _dous_), fem. _douce_, which probably comes from a Low Latin + _dulcius_, _dulcia_. In the 11th century some other feminines, + originally without _e_, begin in Norman to take this + termination--_grande_ (in a feminine assonance in the Alexis), plur. + _grandes_; but other dialects generally preserve the original form + till the 14th century. In the 16th century the _e_ is general in the + feminine, and is now universal, except in a few + expressions--_grand'mere_ (with erroneous apostrophe, _grandem_, + _matrem_), _lettres royaux_ (_literas regales_), and most adverbs from + adjectives in _-ant_, _-ent_--_couramment_ (_currante_ for _-ente + mente_), _sciemment_ (_sciente mente_). (2) Several adjectives have in + Modern French replaced the masc. by the feminine--Old French masc. + _roit_ (_rigidum_), fem. _roide_ (_rigidam_); Modern French _roide_ + for both genders. (3) In Old French several Latin simple comparatives + are preserved--_maiur_ (_majorem_), nom. _maire_ (_major_); _graignur_ + (_grandiorem_), nom. _graindre_ (_grandior_); only a few of these now + survive--_pire_ (_pejor_), _meilleur_ (_meliorem_), with their + adverbial neuters _pis_ (_pejus_), _mieux_ (_melius_). The few simple + superlatives found in Old French, as _merme_ (_minimum_), _pesme_ + (_pessimus_), _proisme_ (_proximum_), _haltisme_ (_altissimum_), this + last one being clearly a literary word, are now extinct, and, when + they existed, had hardly the meaning of a superlative. (4) The modern + loss of many final consonants when not before vowels, and the + subsequent loss of final _[schwa]_, have greatly affected the + distinction between the masc. and fem. of adjectives--_fort_ and + _forte_ are still distinguished as _for_ and _fort_, but _amer_ + (_amarum_) and _amere_ (_amaram_), with their plurals _amers_ and + _ameres_, have run together. + +(f) _Derivation._--Most of the Old French prefixes and suffixes are +descendants of Latin ones, but a few are Teutonic (_ard = hard_), and +some are later borrowings from Latin (_arie_, afterwards _aire_, from +_arium_). In Modern French many old affixes are hardly used for forming +new words; the inherited _ier_ (_arium_) is yielding to the borrowed +_aire_, the popular _contre_ (_contra_) to the learned anti (Greek), and +the native _ee_ (_atam_) to the Italian _ade_. The suffixes of many +words have been assimilated to more common ones; thus _sengler_ +(_singularem_) is now _sanglier_. + +(g) _Syntax._--Old French syntax, gradually changing from the 10th to +the 14th century, has a character of its own, distinct from that of +Modern French; though when compared with Latin syntax it appears +decidedly modern. + + (1) The general formal distinction between nominative and accusative + is the chief feature which causes French syntax to resemble that of + Latin and differ from that of the modern language; and as the + distinction had to be replaced by a comparatively fixed word-order, a + serious loss of freedom ensued. If the forms are modernized while the + word-order is kept, the Old French _l'archevesque ne puet flechir li + reis Henris_ (Latin _archiepiscopum non potest flectere rex Henricus_) + assumes a totally different meaning--_l'archeveque ne peut flechir le + roi Henri_. (2) The replacement of the nominative form of nouns by the + accusative is itself a syntactical feature, though treated above under + inflection. A more modern instance is exhibited by the personal + pronouns, which, when not immediately the subject of a verb, + occasionally take even in Old French, and regularly in the 16th + century, the accusative form; the Old French _je qui sui_ (_ego qvi + sum_) becomes _moi qui suis_, though the older usage survives in the + legal phrase _je soussigne_.... (3) The definite article is now + required in many cases where Old French dispenses with it--_jo cunquis + Engleterre, suffrir mort_ (as Modern French _avoir faim_); Modern + French _l'Angleterre, la mort_. (4) Old French had distinct pronouns + for "this" and "that"--_cest_ (_ecce istum_) and _cel_ (_ecce + illium_), with their cases. Both exist in the 16th century, but the + present language employs _cet_ as adjective, _cel_ as substantive, in + both meanings, marking the old distinction by affixing the adverbs + _ci_ and _la_--_cet homme-ci, cet homme-la_; _celui-ci, celui-la_. (5) + In Old French, the verbal terminations being clear, the subject + pronoun is usually not expressed--_si ferai_ (_sic facere habeo_), + _est durs_ (_durus est_), _que feras_ (_quid facere habes_)? In the + 16th century the use of the pronoun is general, and is now universal, + except in one or two impersonal phrases, as _n'importe, peu s'en + faut_. (6) The present participle in Old French in its uninflected + form coincided with the gerund (_amant = amantem_ and _amando_), and + in the modern language has been replaced by the latter, except where + it has become adjectival; the Old French _complaingnans leur dolours_ + (Latin _plangentes_) is now _plaignant leurs douleurs_ (Latin + _plangendo_). The now extinct use of _estre_ with the participle + present for the simple verb is not uncommon in Old French down to the + 16th century--_sont disanz_ (_sunt dicentes_) = Modern French _ils + disent_ (as English _they are saying_). (7) In present Modern French + the preterite participle when used with _avoir_ to form verb-tenses is + invariable, except when the object precedes (an exception now + vanishing in the conversational language)--_j'ai ecrit les lettres, + les lettres que j'ai ecrites_. In Old French down to the 16th century, + formal concord was more common (though by no means necessary), partly + because the object preceded the participle much oftener than now--_ad + la culur muee_ (_habet colorem mutatam_), _ad faite sa venjance, les + turs ad rendues_. (8) The sentences just quoted will serve as + specimens of the freedom of Old French word-order--the object standing + either before verb and participle, between them, or after both. The + predicative adjective can stand before or after the verb--_halt sunt + li pui_ (Latin _podia_), _e tenebrus e grant_. (9) In Old French _ne_ + (Early Old French _nen_, Latin _non_) suffices for the negation + without _pas_ (_passum_), _point_ (_punctum_) or _mie_ (_micam_, now + obsolete), though these are frequently used--_jo ne sui lis sire_ (_je + ne suis pas ton seigneur_), _autre feme nen ara_ (_il n'aura pas autre + femme_). In principal sentences Modern French uses _ne_ by itself only + in certain cases--_je ne puis marcher, je n'ai rien_. The slight + weight as a negation usually attached to ne has caused several + originally positive words to take a negative meaning--_rien_ (Latin + _rem_) now meaning "nothing" as well as "something." (10) In Old + French interrogation was expressed with substantives as with pronouns + by putting them after the verb--_est Saul entre les prophetes?_ In + Modern French the pronominal inversion (the substantive being + prefixed) or a verbal periphrasis must be used--_Saul est-il?_ or + _est-ce que Saul est?_ + + (h) _Summary._--Looking at the internal history of the French language + as a whole, there is no such strongly marked division as exists + between Old and Middle English, or even between Middle and Modern + English. Some of the most important changes are quite modern, and are + concealed by the traditional orthography; but, even making allowance + for this, the difference between French of the 11th century and that + of the 20th is less than that between English of the same dates. The + most important change in itself and for its effects is probably that + which is usually made the division between Old and Modern French, the + loss of the formal distinction between nominative and accusative; next + to this are perhaps the gradual loss of many final consonants, the + still recent loss of the vowel of unaccented final syllables, and the + extension of analogy in conjugation and declension. In its + construction Old French is distinguished by a freedom strongly + contrasting with the strictness of the modern language, and bears, as + might be expected, a much stronger resemblance than the latter to the + other Romanic dialects. In many features, indeed, both positive and + negative, Modern French forms a class by itself, distinct in character + from the other modern representatives of Latin. + + IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The few works which treat of French philology as a + whole are now in many respects antiquated, and the important + discoveries of recent years, which have revolutionized our ideas of + Old French phonology and dialectology, are scattered in various + editions, periodicals, and separate treatises. For many things Diez's + _Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen_ (4th edition--a reprint of the + 3rd--Bonn, 1876-1877; French translation, Paris, 1872-1875) is still + very valuable; Burguy's _Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil_ (2nd edition--a + reprint of the 1st--Berlin, 1869-1870) is useful only as a collection + of examples. Schwan's _Grammatik des Altfranzoesischen_, as revised by + Behrens in the 3rd edition (Leipzig, 1898; French translation, Leipzig + and Paris, 1900), is by far the best old French grammar we possess. + For the history of French language in general see F. Brunot, _Histoire + de la langue francaise des origines a 1900_ (Paris, 1905, 1906, &c.). + For the history of spelling, A. F. Didot, _Observations sur + l'orthographe ou ortografie francaise suivies d'une histoire de la + reforme orthographique depuis le XV^e siecle jusqu'a nos jours_ (2nd + ed., Paris, 1868). For the history of French sounds: Ch. Thurot, _De + la prononciation francaise depuis le commencement du XVI^e siecle, + d'apres les temoignages des grammairiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1883). + For the history of syntax, apart from various grammatical works of a + general character, much is to be gathered from Ad. Tobler's + _Vermischte Beitraege zur franzoesischen Grammatik_ (3 parts, 1886, + 1894, 1899, parts i. and ii. in second editions, 1902, 1906). G. + Paris's edition of _La Vie de S. Alexis_ (Paris, 1872) was the pioneer + of, and retains an important place among, the recent original works on + Old French. Darmesteter and Hatzfeld's _Le Seizieme Siecle_ (Paris, + 1878) contains the first good account of Early Modern French. Littre's + _Dictionnaire de la langue francaise_ (4 vols., Paris, 1863-1869, and + a Supplement, 1877); and Hatzfeld, Darmesteter and Thomas, _Dict. + general de la langue francaise_, more condensed (2 vols., Paris, + 1888-1900), contain much useful and often original information about + the etymology and history of French words. For the etymology of many + French (and also Provencal) words, reference must be made to Ant. + Thomas's _Essais de philologie francaise_ (Paris, 1897) and _Nouveaux + essais de philologie francaise_ (Paris, 1904). But there is no French + dictionary properly historical. A _Dictionnaire historique de la + langue francaise_ was begun by the Academie francaise (4 vols., + 1859-1894), but it was, from the first, antiquated. It contains only + one letter (A) and has not been continued. The leading periodicals now + in existence are the _Romania_ (Paris), founded (in 1872) and edited + by P. Meyer and G. Paris (with Ant. Thomas since the death of G. Paris + in 1903), and the _Zeitschrift fuer romanische Philologie_ (Halle), + founded (in 1877) and edited by G. Groeber. To these reference should + be made for information as to the very numerous articles, treatises + and editions by the many and often distinguished scholars who, + especially in France and Germany, now prosecute the scientific study + of the language. It may be well to mention that, Old French phonology + especially being complicated, and as yet incompletely investigated, + these publications, the views in which are of various degrees of + value, require not mere acquiescent reading, but critical study. The + dialects of France in their present state (_patois_) are now being + scientifically investigated. The special works on the subject + (dictionaries, grammars, &c.) cannot be fully indicated here; we must + limit ourselves to the mention of Behren's _Bibliographie des patois + gallo-romans_ (2nd ed., revised Berlin, 1893), and of Gillieron and + Edmont's _Atlas linguistique de la France_ (1902 et seq.), a huge + publication planned to contain about 1800 maps. (H. N.; P. M.) + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 1 "Franciscans" to "French Language", by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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